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SCHDLAE BEG. EUIX. ALLtUTO 

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DILIGHNXUE ATQUE UOrTKiyAE 

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TRIBriT 

SfiNATUS BIUMBTTKGENSIS, 

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CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS 



OP 



PALESTINE 



ILLUSTRATING THE MANNERS OF THE ANCIENT 

HEBREWS. 



FRINl'BD BY C. J. CLAT. MA. 
AT THE UNIVEESITY PRESS. 



CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS 



OF 



PALESTINE 



ILLUSTRATING THE MANNERS OF THE ANCIENT 

HEBREWS. 



BY 



ERMETE PIEEOTTI, 



DOCTOB OF MATHEMATICS, AND FORMEBLT ABGHITECT-ENGIKBEB, CIVIL AND HILITABY, 
TO HIS EXCELLENCT 8UBBATA PASHA OF JBBU8ALEM. 



TRAirSLATED BY 

T. G. BONNEY, M.A. F.G.S, 

FELLOW OF ST JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBEIDOE, 



• . • * * • 
*,• • • • 



C AMBEIDGE : 
DEIGHTON, BELL, AND CO. 

LONDON: BELL AND DALDY. 

1864 



w • 






PREFACE. 



The information contained in the following pages, 
relative to the manners and customs of the pre- 
sent inhabitants of Palestine, has been collected by 
the Author during a residence of eight years in 
that country. In preparing those parts of the 
N work which treat of the former inhabitants of the 
^ land, he has been greatly aided by M. Munk's 
^ ^Palestine' (^Description Geographique Historique 
et Archeologique*), and is also occasionally indebted 
to ^ Le Pelerinage k Jerusalem par le P^re Laorty- 
Hadji/ Some of the Arab legends in Chapter in. 
have already appeared in a little book entitled 
^Trois Ans en Judee;' as, however, they were 
supplied to M. Gerardy Saintine by the Author, 
he conceives that he has a right to use them. 

His chief aim throughout the work has been 
to give as faithful a picture as possible of Arab 



IV PREFACE, 

life in Palestine among both the Fellahin, or in- 
habitants of the settled districts, and the Bedawin, 
or nomad races, and to point out more especially 
the numerous coincidences in manners, customs, 
traditions, and laws, between them and the Hebrews. 
No one can reside for any lengthened time or travel 
much in the country without being struck by the 
numerous traces still remaining of its former pos- 
sessors, and the remarkable tenacity with which these 
memorials of the past are rooted in its present 
occupiers. 

He cannot allow this volume to go forth to 
the world without expressing his gratitude to his 
kind friends, the Rev. J. E. B. Mayor, University 
Librarian and Fellow of S. John's College, and the 
Rev. G. Williams, Fellow of King's College, for 
the assistance which they have rendered in pre- 
paring this work for the press. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEE I. 
OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

The Ass, and its uses, 2. Clipped ears, 4. The Ass with the Hebrews, 6. 
Legends,?. The Pig, its flesh useful, 9. The Pig in modem and 
ancient times, 10. The Dog, 12. Canine republics, 12. The Mule, 
15. Legends, 16. The Camel, and its habits, 17. Sometimes re- 
vengeful and vicious, anecdotes, 19. Used by the Hebrews and by 
the Arabs, 20. The Horse, the Arab's friend, 23. Blood-horses, 
24. Their treatment, docility, and sagacity, 25. Mode of sales, 28. 
The Horse used by the Hebrews, 31. 



CHAPTER II 
ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 

The Crocodile, traditions of its occurrence in Palestine, 33. Search for 
Crocodiles in the Zerka, 36. The Hysena, 39. Superstitions about 
it, 39. The chase, 41. Use of the carcass, 42. The Wild Boar, 42. 
The Jackal, its habits, 43. Anecdote, 44. Serpents, 46. Manner 
of cooking them, 46. Anecdotes of serpents in Jerusalem, 47. 
Venomous serpents, 48. Modes of curing their bite, 49. Serpent- 
worshippers and charmers, 49. Bees, honey, and milk, 50. Abund- 
ant in former times, 51. Honey still abundant in places, 53. Grass- 
hoppers and locusts, eaten for food, 54. Anecdote of Latin priest^ 

55. Locust-bread, 55. Ravages of locusts, 55. The locusts' enemy, 

56. Flies, &C., 57. Palestine infested in old times, and at the pre- 
sent day, 57. Koger's account of the Bargash, 58. Other pests of 
Palestine, 59. 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



CHAPTEK III 

CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, AND INCIDENTS 
CONNECTED WITH THE BIBLE. 

Arab Legends, 61. The wolves of Kebab and the foxes of Samson, 62. 
The threshing-floor of Joshua the Bethshemite, 63. Imam Aaly, 
64. The Tomb of Moses, 67. Author's device for obtaining admis- 
sion, 69. The Ramadhan kept by our Saviour, 70. The Green Pro- 
phet, or the Prophet Elias, 72, The Monument of Absalom, 74. 
Right of the Jews to the keys of Jerusalem, 75. The Ark of Noah, 
77. The Melon field of Elias, 79. The field of Chick-peas, 79. The 
Olives of Sodom, 79. The Salt of Abraham's pool, 80. The Crea- 
tion of man (Campus Damascenus), 80. Legend of Adam and Eve, 

81. The Dead Sea and the Statue of Salt, 81. The East Wind, 

82. Showers of Salt, 83. Experiment made by the Author, 84. 
De Saulcy's Explanation of the death of Lot's wife, 85. Patristic 
testimony to the Column of Salt, 85. Legend of the Temple of the 
Jews, 86. 

CHAPTER IV. 

CUSTOMS AND HABITS COMMON TO THE ARAJBS ) 

WITH THE ANCIENT JEWS, ILLUSTRATED 

BY ANECDOTES. 

Customs common to Hebrews and Arabs, Bakhshish, 88. The Missionary 
and his congregation, 88. Disputants, 89. The Wounded Arab and 
his Brother, 90. The Labourer's tools, 91. Excuses for asking 
Bakhshish, 90. Bakhshtsh among the Hebrews, 91. The Inns in 
the Villages, 92. Names, how given, 95. Heaps of stones, 95. The 
Poor, 96. Among the Hebrews and in Palestine, 97. Mohamme- 
dan charities, 99. Anecdoteof Abu-GhAsh, 99. WakuflF, 101. Pecula- 
tions of the managers, 101. Hebrew Wakuflf, 102. Buried money, 
103. The Mohammedan Eflfendis and the Hebrew Elders, 104. Tlie 
rapacity of the Eflfendis, 107. Their devices for extorting gifts, 108. 
A Khadi and an EflFendi cheated by a Greek Catholic, 110. The 
Santons in Palestine, their characters and pretensions, 112. Pro- 
phetic powers of the Santon of the Mosque of the Ascension, 113, 
and of a Santon of Ascalon, 114. Resemblance to the Prophets, 
115. Santon Daud, 116. His funeral, 116. Journey to the Jordan 
and Dead Sea, 119. Anecdote of an American expedition, 120. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii 



CHAPTER V. 

THE HOUSES AND THEIR APPURTENANCES 

« 

Hebrew and Arab Houses, 122. Building materials, 123. Fittings and 
furniture of Hebrew and Arab houses, 124. Terrace-roofs, 127. 
Garments worn by the men in times past and present, 130. Dresses 
of the women, 134. The girdle, 138. The hair, 139. Oath on the 
beard, 140. Shaving off the beard, anecdote, 141. Ornaments of 
various kinds, 142. Painting the eyes, 147. Staining the hands, 
148. Mirrors, 149. Perfumes and unguents, 149. Tattooing, 160. 
The Baths, 161. The Food and Cookery of the Hebrews, 163. 
Mode of making Bread among the Arabs, 164. " The Meat of the 
Hebrews and of the Arabs, 166. Vegetables, 158. Drinks, 169. 
Leather-bottles, how made, 159. Earthenware jars, 160. Drinks 
of the Arabs, 161. Meals, 162. Customs of the Jews at table, 162. 
Description of an Arab dinner, 164. 



CHAPTER VI. 

4 

CONTRAST BETWEEN THE SOCIAL POSITION OF 

THE WOMEN AMONG THE ANCIENT JEWS 

AND MODERN ARABS. 

Social position of the Women among the Hebrews, 168. Their present 
position in Palestine^ 170. In the harems in the towns, 171. In 
the country, 172. Price of a daughter and betrothal among the 
Hebrews, 174. Marriageable age, 176. Marriage ceremonies, 176. 
Birth of children, 177. Price of a daughter among the Arabs, 179. 
Betrothal, 180. Ceremonies in the country with the Greek Christians, 
181. Presents after betrothal, 183. Marriage-presents, 184. Pre- 
parations for the wedding and games, 186. The marriage cere- 
monies, 186. The processions, 187. The wedding-feast, 188. Pre- 
sents after the wedding, 1 89. Birth of Children, 190. Their rearing, 
191. Translations of Songs si^^g at weddings and births, 192. A 
Latin wedding, 196. 



Viu TABLE OF CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE CHIEFS OF THE NOMAD TRIBES AND OF 
THE VILLAGES, WITH THEIR SCRIBES. 

The FellShtn and the Bedawin, 200. The Sheikhs, 201. The Hebrew 
' Elders/ 202. Political organization of the Bedawin, their Sheiks, 
203. . . The Chiefs of the Fellihtn, 205. The Scribes, 206. Adminis- 
tration of Justice with the Hebrews, 207. With the Arabs, 208. 
Scenes at an Arab Court of Justice, 209. Different kinds of Oaths, 
210. Cities of Refuge, 211. Bights of Sanctuary among the Arabs, 
212. Penalties among the Hebrews and Arabs, 215. Corpora' 
Punishment, 217. Lex talionis, 217. Anecdotes, 218. Fines, 2 
Imprisonmeni;, 219. The Price of Blood, 220. Laws and Custo' 
relating to it, 222. Laws concerning Adultery and similar crim 
223. The punishment of an Adulteress, 229. Laws concerning Ac 
dents, 230. Injuries, 231. Anecdote shewing the cost of a k 
at Hebron, 232. Laws concerning Robbery, 234. 

CHAPTER VIIL 
THE ARAB MODE OF PAYING A DEBT 

The Laws concerning Debtors, 235. The Jews wrongfully suspected 
Child-murder, 237. Anecdotes, 23S. Customs of the Arabs duri: 
a time of Mourning, 240. Specimens of Funeral Dirges, 244. Ti 
Tellers attacked by Robbers, 246. Contracts of Sale among i. 
Hebrews and the Arabs, 249. Arab Doctors, their knowledge 
Surgery and Medicine, 251. Furniture of an Arab tent, 254. Can ^. 
of Bedawin, 254. Food of the Bedawtn, 255. The Pasha's Bashi- 
Bazook, or irregular cavalry, 257. Their numbers, discipline, &c., 
258. The Infantry, 262. The Artillery, 263. 

CHAPTER IX. 

OF THE DISSENSIONS AND STRIFE IN PALESTINE. 

dissensions in Palestine; the Yementyeh and Eeistyeh, 264. Legend 
of their origin, according to the Arab scribes, 264. Anecdotes of 
the effects produced by the existence of these parties, 268. Mode 
of summoning Allies in time of War, 270. An Arab Battle, 271. 
Abu-Ghdsh, 271. The Ravages of War in Palestine, 273. Quarrels 
of the Christian Sects, 275. The Schools, 275. Proselytism and 
Dissensions of Rival Sects, with instances, 276. Conclusion, 280. 



)NS 



ERRATA. 
Page i;, line 13, for eaj)e«> rioA almoat urlen 
„ 86, Dote, /«■ AlUUus read AlUtiuB 
I, 99, line 15, /or Aboogooit t-tod Abu-GhCuh 
„ 159, note 1, for Nv|ioliaDUDi rttuJ ttepatiamui 



occupy a higher place in nis eHiicc^m uuu,.i ^ 

wont to do in that of other nations. From the 
moment of birth until they are sold, killed, buried, 
or eaten, they are constant members of the family 
circle, sharing with the bipeds the tent and the 
desert, the cottage and the field; companions alike in 
rest and in labour, in plenty and in poverty. In youth 
they play with the children and women; and equally 
with them are guarded, nourished, and beaten by 
the master of the house, who however shews much 
partiality in venting his brutal anger, and spares the 
beasts, not because they are irrational creatures, but 
through fear that ill-treatment of them may conduce 



im OF 

JBBS. 

The Hebrew 
iii, their Sheite. 
206. AdminiB- 

the AmH 2««- 
ikindeetOathB, 



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„bt.rt,i!M. C.mp 

,ber=, ai«ipli»e,«=-. 



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'y/ei i»eo*"»f 
*^e.,»- »t 

pje.tine,a13. Q"""' 
[sT° i're«lJ«»'»» 
Vj. Ce.d»e»,» 



/ 



CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS 



OF 



PALESTINE. 



CHAPTER I. 



OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Amongst the domestic animals of Palestine are the 
ass, the pig, the dog, the mule, the camel, and the 
. ^ ' horse. These are of such value to the Arab that they 
occupy a higher place in his esteem than they are 
wont to do in that of other nations. From the 
moment of birth until they are sold, killed, buried, 
or eaten, they are constant members of the family 
circle, sharing with the bipeds the tent and the 
desert, the cottage and the field; companions alike in 
rest and in labour, in plenty and in poverty. In youth 
they play with the children and women ; and equally 
with them are guarded, nourished, and beaten by 
the master of the house, who however shews much 
partiality in venting his brutal anger, and spares the 
beasts, not because they are irrational creatures, but 
through fear that ill-treatment of them may conduce 



2 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

to his own loss. Hence it follows that in Palestine 
these animals are very docile, gentle, and intelligent, 
and seem to have established a kind of sympathy 
and league of mutual support with the human race. 
If any one, disposed to attribute to animals the 
possession of reason rather than of instinct, were 
to travel through the length and breadth of Pales- 
tine, he would certainly find many arguments in 
favour of his theory, and perhaps would even come 
to the conclusion (not far from the truth) that the 
brutes were more intelligent than the men. I at least 
could not contradict him, as I have formed nearly 
the same opinion, after an intimate acquaintance 
with both the one and the other, during several 
years. To speak the truth, I have ever found the 
beasts obedient and ready to do what I wanted; 
they have refi;eshed, aided, and carried me; while 
the Arabs have robbed me by their demands for 
baJchshish, and plagued my very life out. If then 
they were such pests when endeavouring to be 
courteous, what would they have been if insolent ? 
It is therefore to the animals which have so often 
been useful and faithful companions on my numerous 
excursions that I feel bound to render this tribute of 
gratitude. 

THE ASS. 

Some surprise may be felt at my giving the first 
place to this quadruped, but I have no hesitation in 
doing so. It was the first creature that did me 
a service in Palestine; for it carried me to Jeru- 
salem, a journey of twenty-eight and a half miles. 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIG ANIMALS. 3 

and proved that it was no degenerate descendant 
o£ its ancestors, which had borne the patriarchs on 
their long wanderings^ On disembarking at Jaffa, 
a few days before the Easter of 1854, I ^^^ unable 
to find any other means of transport, owing to the 
great concourse of travellers and pilgrims, all, like 
me, journeying to the Holy City. Under these cir- 
cumstances, I preferred accepting the services of an 
ass to waiting a day in a filthy town. I had indeed 
already in Egypt formed a high opinion of this ani- 
mal, not only from its spirited aspect and its speed, 
but also because it was not disdained by the viceroy 
and the dignitaries of his court, who may truly be 
said to use asses of more or less intelligence for 
every purpose. It is hardly too much to say that if 
all the asses were taken away from the country of 
Pharaoh, not a man would be left ! Thus the reader 
may see that I had no scruples in being seen thus 
mounted on an ass, as I felt sure that there were 
plenty of them in Palestine, and that if I avoided 
their society I should have to lead a very solitary 
life. 

When the animal which I had hired made its 
appearance, I observed that it was without a saddle, 
and had only a miserable pad of carpet strapped on 
its back. Undeterred by this I mounted, consoling 
myself with the reflexion, that very likely Abraham 
had no better^ After I had taken my seat, the 
driver handed me an iron-shod goad, informing me 

* Gen. xlii. 26. xliv. 3. 13. xlv. 23. 

* Gen. xxii. 3. 

I — 2 



4 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. T. 

that it was to remind the ass to go quickly ; he too* 
was furnished with a stick, which he wielded with 
such address as to shew by the first blow what 
practice he had had in arousing the animal from its 
meditations to a sense of its duty. I did not admire 
these '^stimulants," and made no use of the one en- 
trusted to me, beyond giving the Arab a sly poke 
whenever he causelessly ill-treated the patient ani- 
mal. So I arrived pleasantly at Mount Sion, not stiff 
from want of exercise, as I had walked a good part 
of the way, and being without stirrups had used my 
heels to quicken the pace of my steed, and save it 
a shower of blows from its master. I must not 
forget to mention that I also learned the language of 
the pair, which afterwards stood me in service. But 
every rose has its thorn; and I had good reasons 
to lament that the ass had not taken a bath, and 
the carpet had not been beaten before I mounted, 
for I was obliged to become an involuntary collector 
of a number of ravenous insects. Notwithstanding, 
I frequently availed myself of this mode of travel- 
ling, finding it useful and economical, especially 
when speed was of no importance, and I was anxious 
to examine the country, and not afraid of disagree- 
able company, of an ambush, or of insult. The ass 
that carried me from Jaffa had his ears clipped, 
and on asking the reason I received the following 
answer : '^ It is our custom, when an animal is found 
trespassing, to clip a piece out of the ear, beginning 
at the tip, and going down one edge." So the 
amount of mutilation that the ear has suffered marks 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 5 

the obstinacy of the transgressor, who, less shrewd 
than his owner, stupidly suffers himself to be cap- 
tured and tormented. Those which are marked in 
this way are always to be rejected, as it shews that 
they are without the sagacity and speed which 
would enable them to escape this barbarity. Were 
their Arab lords treated in the same manner, I have 
no doubt that the greater number would be marked 
once at least, as soon as they began to walk, and 
not a few of the adults would have no ears left. 

What then are the characteristics of the ass? 
Much the same as those which adorn it in other 
parts of the East — namely, it is useful for riding 
and for carrying burdens ; it is sensible of kindness 
and shews gratitude; it is very steady, and is larger, 
stronger, and more tractable, than its European con- 
geners; its pace is easy and pleasant; and it will 
shrink from no labour, if only its poor daily feed of 
straw and barley be fairly given. If well and libe- 
rally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise, and 
wears an altered and dignified mien; apparently 
forgetful of its extraction, except when undeservedly 
beaten by its masters; who, however, are not so 
much to be blamed, because, having learnt to live 
among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the same 
system of education with their miserable dependents. 
The orientals in some respects recompense the ass 
for the contempt in which he is held in Europe. 
The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine 
harness and silver trappings, and cover him, when 
his work is done, with rich Persian carpets. The 



6 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, • [CH. T. 

poor do the best they can for him, steal for his 
benefit, give him a corner at their fire-side, and in 
cold weather sleep with him for more warmth. In 
Palestine all the rich men, whether nomads or chiefs 
of villages, possess a number of asses, keeping them 
with their flocks, like the patriarchs of old^ No 
one can travel in that country, and observe how the 
ass is employed for aU purposes, without being 
struck with the exactness with which the Arabs 
retain the Hebrew customs. 

In the Old Testament we find that the ass, 
although included in the list of unclean*, was highly 
esteemed among the domestic animals; as would 
naturally happen with an agricultural people in a 
mountainous country, where, before the reign of So- 
lomon, horses were but little used. Abraham' and 
Jacob* possessed many of them ; SauP was anointed 
king of Israel while in quest of his father's asses; 
David ^ when king had an officer appointed expressly 
as their inspector ; Job^ before his calamities had five 
hundred asses, and afterwards a thousand. They 
were also used at that time for riding. Mounted on 
one, Abraham® journeyed into the land of Moriah to 
sacrifice his son; Balaam" was riding one, when, on 
his way to Moab, he met the angel, and heard arti- 
culate words apparently proceeding from the ass's 

^ Gen. xxiv. 35. xxxii. 15. Job i. 3. xlii. 12, &c. 

* Exod. xiii. 13. xxxiv. 20. Levit. xL 3. 

* Gen. xii. 16. xxiv. 35. * Gen. xxx. 43. xxxii. 5, 15. 

* I Sam. ix. 3, 20. x. i. " i Chron. xxvii. 30. 

' Job i. 3. xlii. 12. ® Gen. xxii. 3. * Numb. xxii. 28* 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 7 

mouth; Abigail' travelled in the same way when 
she went to soothe the anger of David. Th€ Hebrew 
rulers* chose "white asses" to carry them, and the 
great men among the Arabs still prefer animals of 
that colour. References to their employments in 
agriculture, transport, and other purposes, are fre- 
quent in the Bible^ The Hebrews were forbidden 
to yoke together an ox and an ass in ploughing* ; 
probably for a merciful reason, because the nature, 
habits, and strength, of these animals are so different 
that the sluggish ox tires down the ass, and goads it 
with its horn to work. This prohibition however is 
now disregarded by the Arabs. So much was the 
ass used in Palestine that the laws of Moses* order 
that it should enjoy the seventh day's rest, and even 
the decalogue^ mentions it. The ass was also used 
in war^, and its flesh eaten in time of famine®; 
nor is it now rejected by the Arabs in cases of 
necessity. From the New Testament we learn that 
it turned the mill-stone*, and all will remember the 
time when Zion, according to the prophecy of Zecha- 
riah, welcomed her King, " lowly, and riding upon an 
ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass*°." 

Those who explain to the faithful everything which 
is found in Palestine, tell us that the ass possesses all 

* I Sam. XXV. 18, 20, 23. ' Judg. v. 10. 
^ Josh. ix. 4. I Sam. xvi. 20, &c. 

* Deut. xxiL 10. * Exod xxiii. 12. 
® Exod. XX. 17. Deut. v. 21. 

' 2 Kings vii. 7. Isai. xxi. 7. ® 2 Kings vi. 25. 

* S. Matt, xviii. 6. (Greek). 

*® Zech. ix. 9. S. Matt. xxi. 5. S. Mark xi. i, &c. 



8 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [oH. I. 

its good qualities as a kind of miraculous gift, be- 
cause it aided in warming the Infant Jesus in the 
manger at Bethlehem, carried the Holy Family on 
their flight into Egypt and return to their own country, 
and was always used by Jesus and His apostles. 
Any one who asserted that the ass in Palestine and 
Egypt is stronger than the same animal in Europe, 
because it does not suffer from the cold and the rain, 
would be in danger of being considered a heretic. 
On one occasion, as I have heard, the ass furnished 
a relic. About ten years ago, or rather more, a 
Russian monk (certainly not a learned man), when 
on a pilgrimage in the Holy Land, found the leg- bone 
of an ass, which he took back with him to Russia, 
and exhibited as a part of the animal that had carried 
the Holy Family on their flight into Egypt. For 
some time this deception gained him many alms 
from the poor and ignorant, but at length he paid 
the penalty of his hypocrisy. I cannot vouch for 
the truth of this story, but it was told to me by 
some Greek monks, who, though not more scrupulous 
about relics, are far shrewder and cleverer in their 
impostures. I could not have believed it, had I 
not seen with my own eyes numerous absurdities and 
follies committed by the oriental pilgrims, many of 
which are quite as bad as this. Here I conclude my 
remarks upon the ass, by recommending it (with 
undipped ears) to all who wish to visit and examine 
the country at their ease. 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



THE PIG. 

How often has the flesh of this animal supported 
me, especially during the earlier part of my stay in 
Palestine, before I had learnt to like the mutton and 
the goat^s flesh 1 I give the preference to this meat 
because it has often saved me time, by rendering 
a fire unnecessary, and freed me from importunate, 
dirty, and unsavoury guests, who used their hands 
for spoons, knives, and forks. A little piece of 
bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth that served 
me for a table, was always my best friend ; without 
this talisman I should never have freed myself from 
unwelcome company, at least without breaking all 
the laws of hospitahty % not inviting the chiefs of 
my escort or the guides to share my meal ; a thing 
neither prudent nor safe in the open country. There- 
fore, on the contrary, when thus provided, I pressed 
them with the utmost earnestness, to eat with me, 
but of course never succeeded in persuading them ; 
and so dined in peace, keeping on good terms with 
them, although they did call me behind my back 
^'a dog of a Frank" for eating pork. Besides, I had 
then no fear of my stores failing, as 1 always took 
care to carry a stock large enough to supply the 
real wants of my party. So a piece of bacon was 
of more service to me than a revolver, a rifle, or a 
sword, and I recommend all travellers in Palestine 
to carry bacon rather than arms; for the latter are 
often stolen, the former is never. 



10 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

Pigs are seldom found in the possession of the 
Mohammedan Arabs, who only keep them for com- 
merce, but they are common with the numerous 
convents of the different Christian communities and 
the Arabs attached to them, the former keeping 
them for their own consumption, the latter for trade ; 
so. that the pigs are a part of the family, who live 
and grow fat together with them. Though they are 
not so intelligent as those that listened to S. Antony 
preaching in the Thebaid, still they play with the 
children, and. understand the language of their mas- 
ters; besides they do not disdain to gambol, with a 
certain grace, with the fowls, dogs, cats, asses, and 
horses, and are decidedly more sociable in their habits 
than their European brethren, which are superior to 
them in size and spirit. There are now no herds of 
swine in the country, as it is without wood, and 
unfitted to support them, and the Arabs prefer to 
use the scanty supplies of acorns for themselves ; so 
that they do not attend to the increase of the swine ; 
for the meat is ill suited to the climate, and the 
population chiefly consists of Mohammedans and 
Jews, who do not eat it, and Christian Arabs, who 
are not fond of it, 

The pig was not generally eaten by the ancient 
Jews any more than by the present, as it belonged 
to the class of unclean animals*. It is not mentioned 
among the flocks and herds of the patriarchs, but 
we know that swine were in the country, and that 
at times the laws were not scrupulously observed. 

* Levit. xi. 7. Deut. xiv. 8. 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. II 

We find the following words in Isaiah*: "I have 
spread out my hands unto a rebellious people... that 
provoketh me to anger continually to my face... 
which eat swine's flesh;" and again*, ''They that 
sanctify themselves... eating swine's flesh and the 
abomination and the mouse, shall be consumed to- 
gether, saith the Lord." A large herd of swine, 
consisting, according to S. Mark, of two thousand, 
is mentioned in the Gospels' as feeding near Gadara, 
not far from the Lake of Tiberias. Josephus* also 
informs us that in this part of Decapplis were 
Gadara and Hippos, Greek cities which Augustus 
separated from the kingdom of Herod, after his 
death, and added to the province of Syria : there 
were indeed Jews in them, but in no great number. 
This part of the country is still suited for nourishing 
herds of swine, but owing to the want of spirit of the 
inhabitants in all matters of commerce, no attempts 
are made to introduce them, and the unsettled state 
of the country would make it difficult for the mer- 
chants to escape being robbed. The Koran* forbids 
all Mohammedans to eat pork, and the Arabs of 
Palestine, especially the nomads, are most faithful 
followers of the behests of the Prophet on this 
point. 



' Isai. Ixv. 4. ' Isai. Ixvi. 17. 

^ S. Matt. viii. 30. S. Mark v. 11, 13. S. Luke viii. 32. 

* Ant. xvn. 11. § 4. 

* u. 17s; V. 4. 






12 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [cH. I. 



THE DOG. 

The dogs of Palestine differ much in their nature 
from those of every other country, and especially 
from those of Europe. Their coats are of a ruddy 
brown, with the hair short; in appearance they 
closely resemble the jackal, the fox, and sometimes 
the wolf Scars, which are by no means ornamental, 
shew that they do not live a peaceful life, and there 
are but few unmaimed in ear, or eye, or tail. Not 
many are free from leprosy or mange, and nearly 
all are insufferable from their ill odour, and are in- 
fested with all kinds of vermin. We can therefore 
understand that the Mohammedans, like the He- 
brews of old, scrupulously avoid contact with them, 
and consider them as unclean. Still, however, we 
must observe that their contempt for these unfortu- 
nate brutes is rather apparent than real ; for, although 
they will neither touch them, nor admit them into 
their houses, yet they are always surrounded by them 
in the towns and villages, since dogs frequent the 
piazzas and cemeteries, and every place of resort 
in the open air ; so that in the East we soon under- 
stand the simile of the Psalmist^, "For dogs have 
compassed me." The dogs in Palestine at the pre- 
sent day have, generally speaking, no masters, but 
form a kind of perfectly independent republic (except 
a few who are in bondage); they live on the alms 
of the public, feeding on the refuse thrown out into 
the open streets and the dirtiest offal of the sewers. 

* Psalm xxii. i6. 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 13 

In former times, as now, there were vagrant dogs 
in the streets of oriental cities. Elijah^ said unto 
Ahab, "Him that dieth of Ahab in the city the 
dogs shall eat ;" more merciful than the rich man of 
the parable, they licked the beggar's sores*. Dogs, 
«ven in Palestine, when well treated, are intelli- 
gent, faithful, and far more trustworthy than Arab 
servants, who sell themselves to the highest bidder, 
and so will betray their master for a reward. They 
do not desert their duties for a piece of bread, 
nor become deaf, dumb, and blind, at the sight of 
money, but soon compel the incautious seducer to 
retire with the marks of their teeth. Hence now, 
as in former times^, they are employed by the nomad 
tribes, by shepherds, and by husbandmen, to guard 
the camp, the flocks, and the crops ; and woe betide 
the nightly visitor who comes to examine the house 
which they are watching. The members of the 
canine republic, however, have the streets and fields 
for their dwellings, and pass the night in wandering 
about in search of food, being so carnivorous as to 
devour every kind of carrion and every dead body, 
even though it be of their own race : thus shewing 
themselves worthy descendants of those who lived 
with the ancient Jews. Then they ate "the flesh 
torn of beasts in the field*", they licked the blood of 
Naboth*, and devoured the corpse of JezebeP. Many 

* I Kings xxi. 24; see also ver. 19 and xxii. 38. 

* Luke xvi. 21. * Job xxx. i. Isai Ivi. 10. 

* Exod. xxii. 31. * I Kings xxi. 19, 24. 
' 2 Kings ix. 35, 36. 



14 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. I, 

other passages in the Bible shew us that the man- 
ners and customs of this race have undergone no 

change. 

In Jerusalem, and in the other towns, the dogs 
have an organization of their own ; they are divided 
into families and districts, especially in the night 
time, and no one of them ventures to quit his proper 
quarter ; for if he does, he is immediately attacked 
by all the denizens of that into which he intrudes, 
and is driven back with several bites as a reminder. 
Therefore, when a European is walking through 
Jerusalem by night, he is always followed by a 
number of canine attendants, and greeted at every 
step with growls and howls. These tokens of dislike, 
however, are not intended for him, but for his fol- 
lowers, who are availing themselves of his escort to 
pass unmolested from one quarter to another. During 
the hard winter of 1859, I fed many of the dogs 
who frequented the road which I traversed almost 
every evening ; and afterwards, each time that I 
passed, I received the homage not only of the indi- 
viduals, but of the whole band to which they be- 
longed ; for they accompanied me to the limits of their 
respective jurisdictions, and were ready to follow 
me to my own house, if I did but give them a sign 
of encouragement, coming at my beck from any 
distance. They even recollected the signal in 1861, 
although it was but little that I had given them. 
I could bring forward many other instances to shew 
the fidelity and gratitude of these creatures ; but I 
must now pass on to speak of another quadruped 



L^ 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 15 

which is of the utmost value in a mountainous 
country. 

THE MULE. 

This animal is not enumerated among the pro- 
perty of the patriarchs, but it is frequently mention- 
ed in the Bible after the time of David. Absalom^ 
rode on a mule, when he fled through the wood of 
Ephraim before the troops of his father ; Solomon*, 
mounted on David's mule, was led in procession to 
be anointed king at Gihon ; mules are mentioned 
among the gifts brought annually to him%- Naaman* 
requested Elisha to give him two mules' burdens of 
earth. We might also cite many other passages, 
from which, however, it does not follow that the 
Hebrews broke the laws of Moses*, which forbade 
the union of beasts of different species; for they 
might have purchased them from neighbouring na- 
tions. The Arabs of Palestine, faithful observers of 
the ancient Jewish customs, though they use mules 
a little in agriculture, and very much for riding and 
carrying burdens, still imitate the Hebrews, and 
very rarely breed them, but buy them in the adjacent 
countries, especially in the Lebanon. Those of Cy- 
prus are also in request, being very strong, per- 
severing, and good steppers, their pace being not 
much inferior to the horse's ; they are generally the 
offspring of an ass and a mare. The climate of 

* 2 Sam. xyiii 9. ^ i Kings i. 33, 38, 44. 

* I Kings X. 25. * 2 Kings v. 17. 

* Lev. xix. 9. 



1 6 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH, I. 

Palestine has not made the mules more amiable in 
their temper than their European brethren ; for they 
salute with their hind legs every one who approaches 
them, and often oblige an inexperienced rider to 
descend by the neck rather than by the flank : they 
shy readily at everything in front, and frighten man 
and beast behind by their furious kicking. On one 
of my journeys through Hebron, an Arab of rank 
was riding a Lebanon mule, which evidenced its dis- 
gust at the sight of a camel by kicking incessantly. 
I had the ill luck to be close at hand, and the horse 
on which I was mounted began to be restive. I 
changed my position ; but the Arab again got in my 
way, and if I had not quickly turned aside, I should 
have again been in a difficulty. Thereupon I used my 
long whip of hippopotamus leather upon the brute, 
and, while plying it, unfortunately hit the rider with 
such effect, that, after some words of excuse, I saw 
that both had in reality been in want of correction. 
This circumstance may shew travellers not only the 
faults of the mule, but also whom to chastise when 
prompt action is needful to avoid an accident* 
There is of course a legend to account for the 
obstinacy and sterility of the animal, which is fully 
credited by all the pilgrims, who visit the tree on 
which Judas hanged himself, and believe in the 
annual descent of the Holy Fire on Easter-Eve. It 
is this, *' S. Joseph chose a mule to carry the Holy 
Family into Egypt; but while he was saddling it, 
the brute gave him a kick, and was in consequence 
condemned to have neither parents nor descendants 



CH. I,] TEE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. I7 

of its own race, and to be so uniyersally disliked, as 
not to share its master's fireside with the other more 
sociable animals/' 



THE CAMEL. 

Without it the desert would be, as I believe, 
uninhabitable. For that region it appears to have 
been expressly created, as no animal could be more 
perfectly fitted for its habitat. The strictest economy 
seems to pervade its body, adapting it to a land 
where food is scanty and water scarce. In its form 
there is something that reminds us at once of the 
bull, the horse, and the elephant. The head is small 
and earless, fixed at the end of a long wiry neck ; 
the legs and thighs are furnished with those muscles 
only that are necessary for traversing a dry soil, 
sometimes caked, sometimes sandy ; the eye is keen 
and fitr seeing ; the sense of smell so acute as to 
detect water at a distance of two or three miles ; 
and the whole frame spare and muscular, without an 
ounce of useless flesh. Nature has not indeed so 
liberally endowed it with weapons of defence as the 
animals it resembles, but its jaws are strong and its 
kicks very formidable. 

It is ordinarily frugal in food and moderate in 
drink, patient under toils, gentle, docile, and skilful in 
applying its powers. Its jaws enable it to macerate 
the hardest vegetable substances, such as thistles, 
thorns, and roots of all kinds ; it chews the cud, and 
therefore eats only once in twenty-four hours, con- 

2 



1 8 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

tented then with poor nourishment ; and it drinks 
once in every two, three, or four days ; being able 
to endure thirst for a longer period if necessary. It 
will let a boy lead it, and long strings of fifteen or 
even twenty camels, tied one to the other, allow 
themselves to be guided by an ass at their head ; 
halting, or turning off the path, according to the 
caprice of their leader; while their drivers are sleep- 
ing, or remaining far behind to smoke and chat with 
their friends of the same occupation. A camel seems 
to understand the nature of the burden it bears. If 
carrying presents or a bride in a richly adorned 
palanquin, it marches with vivacity and dignity to 
the cadence of the music that accompanies it : if, 
however, there are children, invalids, or infirm old 
persons, in the panniers which are sometimes fitted 
on its sides, it moderates its steps to a more even 
and secure pace. "When mounted by a skilled rider, 
it prances and ambles, seconding every caprice ; if 
carrying merchandise, it is submissive to its feeder ; 
if overloaded, it refuses to move, and remonstrates 
with a hoarse plaintive cry ; if wearied with a long 
journey, it lies down without waiting for permission, 
and no power can get it on its legs again ; if it has 
to pass over a muddy place, where its fleshy foot 
is likely to slip, it will not proceed ; if driven over 
steep or rugged ground, it goes with the utmost 
caution, and if it stops, nothing will make it move 
on, this being its mode of shewing that advance is 
impossible: finally, though it always shews itself 
sensible of kind treatment, it rarely loses an oppor* 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 1 9 

tunity of revenging bad, as the following instance 
will shew. As I was going to the Jordan in March, 
1857, under the escort of two Bedawin, I found 
a dead camel by the road-side, with the head and 
part of the neck separated from the body. On ask- 
ing for an explanation, I was informed that its 
owner had frequently cruelly beaten it, and therefore 
the camel had more than once unsuccessfully at- 
tempted to bite him ; and in consequence had been 
treated with greater barbarity. At last, on the 
previous evening, the master made a halt in order to 
feed the camels, and then lay down to sleep, uncon- 
scious of his danger. The vindictive animal came near 
and stamped with its foot upon his stomach ; the man 
uttered one shriek, and the other drivers ran to his 
assistance, but his head was already between the 
jaws of the camel, which shook him to death, not 
relaxing its hold until it had received several sword 
cuts on the neck. A newly raised mound, beneath 
which the Arab was buried, attested the truth of 
the story. Sometimes also the camel, without any 
cause for anger, at a particular season of the year, 
abandons its ordinary peaceful habits, and attempts to 
bite everything that it can approach. Consequently, 
in obedience to the law, they are sometimes secured 
with a noseband. At Gaza, in 1859, a furious camel 
seized a man by his left arm, and, lifting him from 
the ground, shook him unmercifully, until its master 
by repeated blows obliged it to loose its victim, 
who however lost the use of his arm. Occurrences 
of this kind are frequent in Palestine, so that it 

2 — 2 



20 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

is evidently not quite defenceless or incapable of 
avenging itself on an enemy, provided he be in a 
position exposing him to an attack ; for the form of 
the animal is not adapted for overcoming any one 
who is on his guard. 

Camels are frequently mentioned in the Bible, 
especially in the Old Testament, shewing that they 
were kept by the Jews just as much as by the 
Arabs at the present day. Abraham \ Jacob ^, and 
Job^ had many of them. David* had a special 
officer in charge of his. Rebecca* came on a camel 
from Padan Aram to be married to Isaac ; and the 
children and wives of Jacob^ were thus mounted. 
Many passages^ shew us that camels were also used 
to carry merchandise. It is also mentioned as an 
example of a large animal in the New Testament®. 

The Arabs of the present day, especially in the 
south of Judaea and on the east of the Jordan, still 
possess large herds of camels ; reminding us of those 
which belonged to the patriarchs of old. A thou- 
sand, or even more, is no uncommon number. Be- 
sides the profit from selling the young, the owners 
reap many other advantages, which do not wholly 
cease with the animal's life. Its sweet milk supplies 
an excellent nourishment, saving sugar, and correct- 
ing the acidity of the bread, used especially by the 

* Gen. xxiv. lo, " Gen. xxx. 43, 

' Job i. 3. xlii. 12. * I Cliron. xxyii 30. 

* Gen. xxiv. 64. ^ Gen. xxxi. 17. 
' Gen. xxiv. 10. xxxvii. 25. Judg. vi. 5, &a 

® S. Matt, xxiii. 24. S. Mark x. 25. 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 21 

nomad tribes; when new it is as refreshing as it is 
unwholesome when sour. Its hair is carefully collect- 
ed, and worked by the women into strong thread, 
from which cordage, tent-cloths, rugs, carpets, and 
cloaks for rainy or cold weather, are manufactured. 
The fresh warm dung of the camel is used as a 
poultice for bruises or rheumatic pains, and is even 
applied with success to fractures, as I have seen 
during my travels. The remedy need not surprise 
us, if we remember that the animal feeds on aro- 
matic herbs, which are in many cases medicinal, to 
which maceration and digestion in the stomach may 
supply the place of distillation. The dung is also 
carefully collected from the places frequented by 
camels, and, after being mixed with straw broken 
small, is made into little cakes like rolls, which, after 
being dried in the sun, are used for warmth and for 
cooking purposes instead of wood. When tempered 
with clay and straw, it is employed by the inhabit- 
ants as cement for their miserable huts ; and a thin 
layer is spread over their small terrace-roofs to pre- 
vent the rain from penetrating into the rooms. 
Jars are also made of it, which will stand the fire 
without splitting, and are used as braziers to warm 
the houses in winter. I beheve that the Arabs have 
followed the Hebrews in some of these applications of 
camel's dung, for there seems to be an allusion to a 
similar practice in the prophet EzekieP : " Lo, I have 
given thee cow's dung for man's dung, and thou shalt 
prepare thy bread therewith." It is true that camel's 

' Ezek. iv. 15. 



22 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [OH. X. 

dung is not mentioned in this passage ; but at the 
present day the Arabs use that of the cow in the 
same way, mixing it with the camel's, and baking 
bread with it. When a camel is dead, if it be not 
from disease, its flesh is eaten. Sometimes it hap- 
pens that a party on a journey through the arid 
desert is in danger of perishing by thirst; in this 
extremity a camel is killed, and the store of water, 
laid up as a provision for the journey in the honey- 
comb-like cells of the lining of the stomach, serves 
to preserve the lives of the. sufierers. Its hide is 
tanned in a very simple manner, by being stretched 
out in some frequented place, and occasionally sprin- 
kled with salt; from the leather thus made sandals 
and leggings are fashioned. The skeleton is sought 
after by all who are workers in bone, and the feet 
are boiled down and made into reliquaries, images 
of saints, &c. So we see that, alive or dead, the 
camel is a most useful animal to the Arabs. 

I conclude by giving a description of the manner 
in which the creature lies down to be loaded, and 
how it rises up, so that an inexperienced rider may 
not, as is often the case, be sent flying through the 
air. Owing to its height, it is necessary to make it 
lie down to receive a burden, which it is trained to 
do at the sound of a special cry, or when the cord 
which serves for a halter is pulled : the animal begins 
by falling on its fore knees, then it slips down upon 
its hind legs, so as to rest upon its belly, which 
is covered with a callosity an inch thick. When it 
gets up, it rises first upon its hind legs, and then 



CH. I. j THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 23 

upon its fore ; a motion which frequently unseats the 
rider. It is not very easy to withstand these two 
jerks, so it is a good plan to hold on to a projection 
of the pack-saddle. Whoever rides a camel for the 
first time must expect to suffer from a kind of sea- 
sickness, which does not indeed produce all the un- 
pleasant effects of that malady, but makes the firm 
earth an agreeable change. 

THE HORSE. 

This animal occupies the highest place in the 
Arab's esteem and care; as he rightly considers it 
a faithful firiend in prosperity and adversity. He 
pays great attention to breeding horses, but it must 
be confessed that he does not obtain any very im- 
portant results, owing to his personal indolence, and 
the extreme jealousy with which each tribe secludes 
its own mares and stallions. Their horses, and 
especially the mares, are regarded by the nomad 
Arabs with an extraordinary affection. They are 
welcome both in the tent and in the cottage; they 
live with the family, and are never beaten; their 
master talks and reasons with them, as they eat firom 
his hand or the fold of his mantle ; accustoms them 
to stand without being tethered, teaches them to 
come at a beck or a call, and to unhorse at a signal 
any one who is incautious enough to mount them 
without his leave. When a mare or a stallion is ill, 
sorrow pervades every member of the family; the 
natural fierceness of the Bedawy is tamed, and he 
seems to sympathize with every pang of the sufferer. 



24 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. I. 

I was once present when a mare was bringing forth, 
and as the labour was more protracted than usual, 
I saw that the chief of the tribe was most painfully 
affected ; he shed tears, and invoked the aid of Hea- 
ven, more than he would have done for his mother ; 
the mare moaned with pain, partly, as I really be- 
lieve, on account of her companion's sorrow. Pre- 
sently a foal was bom, and the mare began to " do 
as well as could be expected." This happy result 
caused songs of joy, and all the signs of deUght 
which a true child of the desert evidences. The 
Arab rarely swears by his mare, but if ever he does 
SO, he is sure to keep his promise, even at the utmost 
risk of his life. Whenever I had to avail myself of 
an escort of Bedawln, I never asked for a contract, 
but only for an oath by the mare ; and I am bound 
to say that I not only never had cause of complaint, 
but also cannot rightly express my gratitude for the 
frank hospitality which was always accorded me. 

The blood-horses are divided into two distinct 
classes, the common, and the noble; the latter are 
becoming very rare. A horse is not considered 
noble unless both the sire and the dam are so ; and 
as this quality adds greatly to its value, care is 
taken that the purity of the descent is attested by 
persons who are either chiefs of tribes or of con- 
siderable distinction. This certificate is always sold 
with the horse, and is kept in a bag suspended from 
its neck, which also contains its pedigree, together 
with a written charm, protecting the animal and its 
rider from every misfortune. 



^ 



OH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 25 

The horses of the Arabs are always entire, and 
their ears and tails are never docked. "When not 
on a journey their forelegs are hoppled with a cord, 
while they are young, to prevent them from stray* 
ing; but this is often taken away and they are left 
at liberty to range at will and acquire the habit of 
coming at the call of their owner. At the age of 
eighteen months the Arabs begin to accustom the 
colts to the saddle, and at two years they are ridden 
by the boys. In breaking them they teach them 
two paces, the walk and the gallop ; an Arab horse 
rarely trots. "When they are feeding in the open 
pasture, the corresponding fore and hind legs are 
fastened with a band, which is attached by a cord to 
an iron pin fastened into the ground, and they are thus 
prevented from chafing and hurting one another. 
The horses are fed during the day with fine straw, 
and with five or six pounds of barley in the evening. 
They only drink once, about mid-day, much less 
frequently than European horses ; and they become 
weak in the forelegs at a far earlier period, owing 
to various causes; the chief of which is that the 
shoulders are pressed by the forward position of 
the saddle ; another is the habit which the Arabs 
have of checking their steeds, when at full speed, by 
violently pulling the bridle ; when the animal stiffens 
its forelegs and slides upon its hind, and stopping 
abruptly awaits like a statue the signal of its rider. 
This custom necessitates the use of so hard a bit 
that, when the horse gallops, the rein must be held 
quite loose. A third cause is that the country over 



26 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. i; 

which they travel is either mountainous or very 
sandy, so that in the one case they are worn out 
by the labour of picking their way among rocks and 
stones, and in the other by the effort it requires to 
raise the hoof out of the soft sand into which it sinks. 
Some of the Arabs ride their horses bare-backed, 
others upon a mere cloth, but the greater number 
sit upon a saddle, with a raised ridge behind and a 
pommel four or five inches high in front. The stir-' 
nips, when used, are formed of an iron or brass plate, 
bent up on each side so as to offer an oblong surface 
to the foot. They are slightly convex, and pointed 
at the corners to serve instead of spurs. These con- 
venient saddles, and stirrups worn very short, give 
a great advantage to an Arab when fighting: but 
a European, being unaccustomed to them, gets a 
pain in the back and cramp in the legs when he 
attempts to use them. This however is avoided by 
lengthening the leathers, and employing a cushion. 
Large and small horses are equally uncommon with 
the Arabs. The ordinary height is from four feet 
and a half to five feet. Even when dying they re- 
tain their fire and vivacity up to the last moment. 
They are rarely vicious, even when entire. An 
Arab can keep a stallion perfectly quiet on all occa- 
sions, with a slight touch of the bridle. He however 
prefers a mare to a horse, not so much for the profits 
of the foals as from its never neighing ; an import- 
ant quality on a night expedition or a foray, that is, 
when a victim is to be plundered or an enemy sur^ 
prised. 



en. I.] TEE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 27 

The most admirable properly in an Arab horse, 
is the flexibility of its movements. There are other 
breeds which are handsomer and swifter, but none 
so graceful, so light, and so picturesque. It will 
leap over a wall, if started at the gallop ten or twelve 
paces distant. It can wheel about in every direction, 
seeming to comprehend and obey with pleasure 
the wishes of its rider, and acts as though it were 
anxious for the praise of the spectators. Nothing 
can be more animated or intelligent than the Arab 
horse when it curvets in a species of joust, in which 
the Arabs take great delight. One would think 
that it entered into the spirit of the sham fight, 
and among the cries that are raised and the sticks 
that are hurled, among the halts and wheels that 
it makes, knew exactly what it ought to do. This 
extraordinary nimbleness and agility renders it most 
valuable in war, especially in a hand-to-hand fight, 
where the movements of the horse avoid more blows 
than the skiU of the rider parries. I have myself 
seen the horses of Bedawln, when under fire, lightly 
rising with the forelegs, or sinking on their hind 
and' raising their necks and heads to each motion, 
as though they wished to shield their riders from the 
shots of the enemy. Not unfrequently, I have seen 
a man fall from his horse with his foot entangled in 
the stirrup, but the noble animal remained still, as 
though it understood that any movement would be 
fatal It has happened that the rider has fallen from 
the effect of a sun-stroke, yet the horse has not left 
him, but stood sadly near his prostrate body. I have 



28 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

myself found the value of a good steed in finding the 
way in the darkest nights, and escaping from danger- 
ous places ; and I have no hesitation in saying, that 
fiery though it be, it is as suited to carry children, 
women, and peaceful citizens, as warriors. My words 
may seem exaggerated, but any one who lives for 
some time with the Bedawln, will find that I have 
spoken nothing but the truth. The book of Job* 
contains a just encomium of this friend of the Arabs. 

It is not without pain that the Arab parts from 
his constant companion, and more than once he has 
preferred his mare to the tempting gold ; for she 
divines a danger better than he, and by signs, im- 
perceptible to others, finds the way over the shifting 
sands to the friendly tents, listens to the confused 
sounds of the plain if an enemy appears on the 
horizon, and gallops for a whole day without rest or 
food or drink, to save her master from danger, or 
bring him to his journey's end. 

After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, 
I will describe the manner in which a sale is con- 
ducted, choosing the case of the mare, as that is the 
more valuable animal. The price varies with 'the 
purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of its 
owner. When he is requested to fix a value, his 
first reply is, ''It is yours, and belongs to you, 
I am your servant ;" because perhaps he does not 
think that the question is asked with any real design 
of purchasing; when the demand is repeated, he 
either makes no answer or puts the question by ; at 

* Job ;£xxix. 19 — 25. 



CH. I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 2g 

the third demand, he generally responds rudely with 
a sardonic smile, which is not a pleasant thing to see, 
as it is a sign of anger ; and then says that he will 
sooner sell his &mily than his mare. This remark is 
not meant as a mere jest ; for it is no uncommon thing 
for a Bedawy to give his parents as hostages, rather 
than separate himself from this friend. If, however, 
owing to some misfortune, he determines on selling 
his mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his 
parents will allow her to leave their country without 
taking the precaution to render her unfit for breed- 
ing. There are many methods of arranging the sale, 
all of which I should like to describe particularly ; 
however, I will confine myself to a general state- 
ment. Before the purchaser enters upon the ques- 
tion of the price to be paid, Ke must ascertain that 
the parents, friends, and allies of the owners give 
their consent to the sale, without which some difii- 
culty or other may arise, or perhaps the mare may 
be stolen from her new master. He must also ob- 
tain an unquestionable warranty that she is fit for 
breeding purposes, and that no one has a prior claim 
to any part of her body. This last precaution may 
seem rather strange, but it arises from the following 
custom. It sometimes happens that when a Bedawy 
is greatly in want of money, he raises it most easily 
by selling a member of his horse; so that very 
frequently a horse belongs to a number of owners ; 
one of whom has purchased the right foreleg, another 
the left, another a hindleg, or the tail, or an ear, 
or the like; and the proprietors have each a pro- 



30 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

portionate interest in the profits of its labour or 
sale. So also the offspring are sold in a similar 
manner; sometimes only the firstborn, sometimes 
the first three : and then it occasionally happens that 
two or three members of the foal are, as it were, 
mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant 
of this custom, may find that after he has paid the 
price of the mare to her supposed owner, a third 
person arises, who dismands to be paid the value of 
his part ; and if the purchaser refuse to comply, he 
may find himself in a very unpleasant situation, with- 
out any possibility of obtaining help from the local 
government. Whoever sells his mare entirely, with- 
out reserving to himself one or tw^o parts, must be 
on good terms with the confederate chiefs in the 
neighbourhood and must have obtained their formal 
sanction ; otherwise they would universally despise 
him, and perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that 
his only hope of escape would be a disgraceful 
flight, just as if he had committed some great 
crime. It is an easier matter to purchase a stallion, 
but even in this case the above formalities must be 
observed. These remarks only apply to buying 
horses of the purest blood ; those of inferior race are 
obtained without difiiculty, and at fair prices\ 
Let us now refer to the account of the horse given 

^ I may mention, while on this topic, that Signor Carlo 
Guarmani is about to publish a most interesting work on the 
Arab horses. He has thoroughly studied the subject, having 
lived fourteen years in Jerusalem and passed much time in the 
deserts in order to obtain information. 



CH, I.] THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 3^ 

ia the Bible. We find that the ancient kings of 
Canaan possessed horses ; for they came and "pitched 
together at the waters of Merom, with horses and 
chariots very many*." They were defeated by Joshua, 
who, in obedience to the Lord's command, "houghed 
their horses and burnt their chariots with fire." Be- 
sides the fact that horses would have been little use 
to the Israelites in a mountainous country, we find 
that they were distinctly forbidden by the laws of 
Moses, "(The king) shall not multiply horses to him- 
self, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the 
end that he should multiply horses*.*' David^, how- 
ever, after he had taken a thousand chariots from 
the king of Zobah, reserved enough for a hun- 
dred chariots. These may have formed the nucleus 
of a chariot army, which may have been augmented 
after the crushing defeats suffered by the Syrians 
and the children of Ammon, when it is said that 
David* "slew seven thousand men of the Syrians, 
which fought in chariots," but it is not mentioned 
that he houghed their horses. In the reign of Solo- 
mon, the horse became very much more common 
among the Hebrews. We find that he had " forty 
thousand stalls of horses for his chariots, and twelve 
thousand horsemen* ;" also, in another place, we learn 
that horses were brought to him as presents, and that 
he procured others from Egypt, and had "a thousand 
and four hundred chariots, and twelve thousand horse- 

^ Joshua xi. 4, 6, 9. ' Deut. xvii. ^6, 

® 2 Sam. viii. 4. * i Chron. xix. 18. 

* I Kings iv. 26. 



32 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. I. 

nien^'* This addition to his army appears to have 
altered its character, to have added to the wealth of 
the country and defended it from the attacks of its 
enemies. This splendid display of cavalry was main- 
tained and augmented by his successors ; so that we 
find it rebuked by some of the prophets*. The above 
passages shew us how the horse was introduced into 
Palestine, and at the present day any one who con- 
verses with the owner of a thorough-bred horse will 
be informed that it is descended from those belong- 
ing to Sultan Solomon. The glowing imagination 
of the Bedawy scribes, who make out the pedigree 
of a noble horse, is more remarkable than their 
learning, and I cannot help thinking that their 
services would be valuable to those persons in Eu- 
rope, who would fain draw out for themselves a 
genealogical tree, such that its roots should spring 
from no common earth. 

The Hebrews used the horse in agriculture^ as 
the Arabs now do, and, like them, fed it on straw 
and barley \ They also attached bells to their horses^, 
and many of the Arabs now follow their example. 
I could cite several other examples of the manner in 
which ancient customs are still retained in Palestine, 
but for the present I forbear, and conclude by ob- 
serving that, although the horse is mentioned in the 
New Testament, it is not stated to have been used 
by our Saviour or His disciples. 

* I Kings X. 25, 26, 28. ' Isaiah ii. 7. Hosea i. 7. 

• Isaiah xxviii. 28. * i Kings iv. 28. 

® Zech. xiv. 20. 



CHAPTER 11. 

OF CERTAIN OTHER ANIMALS, NOT 

DOMESTICATED. 



THE CROCODILE. 

This reptile is frequently mentioned in the Bible. 
There can be little doubt that it is to it that we 
must refer the description of leviathan in the book 
of Job^ ; as many of its characteristic peculiarities 
are there enumerated. The prophet EzekieP states 
that it haunted the rivers of Egypt, where it is still 
abundant. This however does not entitle us to as- 
sume that it is indigenous in Palestine, but at any 
rate it is not improbable that it may have been in- 
troduced there. I will, however, state the facts which 
I have been able to ascertain with reference to the 
occurrence of the crocodile in Palestine at the pre- 
sent day. All the Arabs of the country assert most 
positively that it is found in the river el-Zerka (also 
called by them the Crocodile river, which rises in 
the mountains of Samaria and flows into the Medi- 
terranean, about an hour's journey from Caesarea 
Palsestinse), but that it does not reach so large a size 

* Job xli. I, 6, 7, 17 — 20. * Ezek. xxiz. 3, 4. 

3 



34 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. II. 

there, as it does in Egypt. Though I frequently 
heard this story, I was not at first disposed to 
examine into the truth of it upon the spot, because I 
felt certain that even if crocodiles had formerly ex- 
isted there, they would by this time have disappeared, 
I did not, however, accuse the Arabs of inventing 
the tale : knowing that it had been handed down to 
them from their ancestors; for it is mentioned by 
Pliny and Strabo^, who also speak of a city at the 
mouth of the river by name Crocodeilonpolis. Indeed 
on the left bank of the stream there is a mound on 
which some traces of buildings and the ruins of a 
tower may still be seen. The mediseval authors'* 
also notice the river. Pococke^ supposes that this 
district was occupied by an Egyptian colony, and 
that the inhabitants, being desirous of having their 
deities near them, established them in the marshes 
in the neighbourhood of the torrent, where they in- 
creased and spread. He also asserts that crocodiles, 
five or six feet in length, were brought from this 
river (which perhaps terminated in a kind of lake) 
to S. Jean d'Acre. It appears therefore that the 
Arabs only repeat what they have learnt from a 

* Plin. Hist Nat, Lib. v. c. 19. s. 17. § 75. Strab. Lib. xvi, 
p. 719 (Ed. 1549). 

* James de Vitry, Hint Hierosol, c. 86. Adricbomius, 
Tbeatrum TerwB Sanctse In Manass. i. 22 (sub voce Caesarea). 
He mentions that crocodiles are found there. Vinisauf (Ricardi 
E«gis Iter Hierosol. Lib. rv. c. 14. Gale, Hist. Anglic. Script. 
VoL Ti. p. 352) states that the river was so called because the 
crocodiles devoured two soldiers while they were bathing. 

' Pococke, Yol. 11. p. 58. 



CH. ir.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED, 35 

continuous tradition founded on truth. On further 
consideration, however, I resolved that when a favor* 
able opportunity occurred I would not neglect to ex- 
amine the point. In the month of February, 1858, 
in my capacity of Architect-Inspector of the Kussian 
Civil Mission at Jerusalem, I was charged with con- 
structing a small pier in the sea at Haifa, to enable 
the vessels of the Russian Navigation Company to 
receive passengers and ship goods more easily. Dur- 
ing my stay at Haifa I heard many stories about 
the existence of the crocodile from M. Avierin<5, 
vice-consul of Russia, and from the Arabs who lived 
near the Zerka. These bore such an air of truth that 
I resolved to make further investigations : the more 
because I had determined to study everything that 
had any reference to the natural history of Pales- 
tine as connected with the Bible. On enquiring 
more particularly from the natives, I gathered the 
following information, which more than ever induced 
me to think it possible that the crocodile still ex- 
isted in the Zerka. They told me that the prints 
of the feet of amphibious reptiles were frequently 
seen in the sandy and muddy banks of the river ; 
that skeletons three or four feet in length had been 
found; that the shepherds not unfrequently missed 
some of their flocks, which had been feeding near 
the Zerka and had frequented it to drink; that 
horsemen who had imprudently forded the stream 
had been devoured together with their steeds by the 
crocodiles, and that some time before 1 arrived at 
Haifa the natives had regularly hunted them, and 

3—2 



36 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. II. 

had so far succeeded that they had become much 
rarer. This account appeared to me to be so very- 
natural and probable, that I only waited for ocular de- 
monstration to give full belief to it. This I had hoped 
to obtain, but M. Avierin<5 dissuaded me from carry- 
ing my purpose into eflfect on that occasion, on ac- 
count of the Bedawy hordes who infested the country, 
especially in the neighbourhood of Csesarea. As he 
promised to obtain a skeleton for me, I yielded to 
his advice; but when I quitted Haifa, on the con- 
clusion of my work, to return to Jerusalem, I felt 
greatly disappointed at having lost a pleasant ex- 
cursion in the country of ancient Phoenicia, and at 
not having received the promised skeleton. 

In September, 1859, I obtained permission from 
Surraya pasha to make my excursion along the sea- 
coast of ancient Phoenicia, in company with a strong 
escort of horsemen, sent by the Government to assist 
me in repairing the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem ; 
and in due course I arrived, between seven and eight 
o'clock at night, in sight of the ruins of Caesarea. 
What a journey, and what a night that was! The 
full moon in all her splendour illuminated the deso- 
late and ruined city; the foaming waves of the sea 
dashed against the rocks and solid fragments of 
Herodian masonry; the jackals filled the air with 
shrill howls as they retired before the unwonted 
visitors ; here and there the eyes of a prowling hyaena 
gleamed in the distance, and the wild boars fled at 
the sound of our voices. It was sad to think that 
this once proud city was now but a den of thieves 



<?H. II. J ANIMALS XOT DOMESTICATED, 37 

and wild beasts, and that the vandalism of man rather 
than the effects of time had thus defaced the monu- 
ments of human greatness. After a halt of two hours 
(devoted rather to melancholy reflexions than to re- 
pose) we resumed our journey, and passing by the 
remains of a magnificent aqueduct, arrived in the 
course of an hour on the bank of the Zerka, which I 
intended to cross. 

My escort, to my surprise, seemed afraid, and held 
back; and on enquiring of my dragoman, Antonio 
Alonzo, I was informed that not one of them was 
willing to ford the stream, the excuse being that 
they were ignorant of the nature of its bed, but that 
the real reason was that they feared the crocodiles. 
On learning this I encouraged the commander of the 
escort to lead the way, but he replied by descending 
from his horse, an example which was followed by 
his subalterns. Irritated at this mutiny, I rode into 
the river, trusting to the sagacity of my horse to find 
a ford, and soon arrived on the other side without 
any harm, beyond getting wet to the middle of the 
leg. My dragoman followed me faithfully ; then the 
escort, who at first seemed astonished at my decision, 
gave a loud hurrah and dashed after us. To avoid 
the scolding that they had merited, they busied 
themselves in arranging our bivouac, preparing my 
tent with the greatest attention. 

After a night of well-earned repose, my first care 
was to send out my dragoman, accompanied by two 
horse-soldiers, to see whether there were any shep- 
herds in the neighbourhood. On his return with in- 



38 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. II. 

formation in the aflSrmative, I went out and visited 
them, questioning all, men and boys, one by one, 
about the occurrence of the reptile. They assured me 
that although they had never seen it, they inferred 
that it still existed from the disappearance of some of 
their flocks. I induced two of them to lead me to the 
favorite haunt of the crocodiles, and was conducted 
to a spot where some bones of sheep were strewn 
about. This, it should be observed, was near the sea. 
I tried to persuade the shepherds to ford the stream, 
but in vain ; and, although on each refusal I offered a 
higher reward, they steadily refused to put a foot into 
the water. I then endeavoured to purchase a lamb, 
intending to use it as a bait, but they refused to sell 
me one, saying that the reptiles would be drawn 
to the spot by food, so that their flocks would suffer 
from them afterwards. "The only things then left for 
me to do were to look for footprints in the sand, 
or to find some bones of the crocodile. I was un- 
successful in my quest for the first, although I went 
some distance up the stream, but I obtained from 
the people portions of skeletons consisting chiefly of 
bones of the head. As then I cannot suppose that 
any one would have been at the trouble to bring 
these from Egypt, I conclude that even if the reptile 
does not now exist in the Zerka, it was found there 
no long time since. I was also told that, some months 
before my arrival in the country, a European had 
sought with success for remains of the reptile, which 
was the reason of their scarcity. This was M. Rotte, 
a Bavarian Professor who, unhappily for science, died 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED, 39 

in Syria from a sunstroke. As the losses now suf- 
fered by the shepherds all happen in the neigh- 
bourhood of the sea and not higher up the stream, 
I am rather inclined to attribute them to dog-fish, 
which find their way into the mouth of the river. 
The above information is the result of a series of 
investigations carried on during a period of four 
days. 

THE HY^NA. 

The hysBna infested Palestine in times of old, 
as it still does. It is, however, perhaps only once 
mentioned in the Bible ^ This repulsive animal 
makes itself heard by its mournful howls during 
the night, and rapidly arrives at the spot where 
corpses or carrion are polluting the air. Conse- 
quently the graves of the poor are covered with a 
heap of stones, in order to preserve the bodies from 
its voracity. If this were not done, they would be 
drawn out and eaten, as I myself have seen. Many 
stories are current in Palestine about the hyaena, 
but I restrict myself to relating one of the com- 
monest, which is firmly believed by the natives. 
They say that the animal is too cowardly to attack 
any one openly, but is strongly attracted by the 
scent of blood, and uses all the cunning of which 

* Jer. xiL 9. In the A. V. the word tz4bu'a is rendered 
'speckled bird.' The LXX. translate it 'hysena.' It occurs as 
a proper name, Zeboim, i Sam. xiii 18 (Ge hat-tsebo'im, 'valley 
of the hysenas'). See Smith's Dictiona/ry of the Bible, Arts. 
* Hysena,' * Zeboim.' 



40 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. II. 

it is master to compass the death of its victim. It 
posts itself near a road, and, by an irresistible power 
of fascination which it can exercise on human beings, 
obliges a traveller to follow it, leading him through 
rough and thorny places, in hopes that he may fall 
and bleed to death, or be worn out by fatigue, and so 
become a defenceless prey. The person therefore 
who feels himself overcome by this fascination ought 
to call aloud from the very first, " Help, my father !" 
so that any one who hears the cry may run to his 
aid, when the beast immediately flies, uttering hor- 
rible howls, for its magnetic force has no effect upon 
two persons. In consequence of this belief, travel- 
lers, either on horse or on foot, always endeavour to 
find a companion on the approach of night, or else 
remain in a village till the first gleam of dawn, which 
obliges the hyaena to retreat to its den. I cannot 
say that I have ever experienced the malice of the 
animal, although I have often fallen in with it by 
night, when alone on horseback or assback, on the 
road between Jaffa and Jerusalem. However, the 
animal I rode used to tremble and hesitate to ad- 
vance, so that in order not to waste time in a con- 
test, I always dismounted and went in front, leading 
it by the bridle, whereupon the symptoms of fear 
vanished. The Arabs, both Bedawin and Fellahin, 
hunt the hyaena with great activity, considering that 
they are thus ridding themselves of a dangerous foe. 
After killing one, they carry the skin about and 
ask for a present, which is never refused, as each per- 
son thinks that he has then an enemy the less. The 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 41 

chase of the hyaena is managed in two ways ; either 
by lying in ambush for it in places where carrion is 
found, or by setting a trap in the following manner. 
A pit is dug eight or ten feet deep, varying in size 
with the number to be taken. In the middle a post 
is planted to which a dead animal is fastened, and 
the opening of the pit is masked by shrubs laid 
loosely over it. This mode of capturing wild beasts 
appears to have been practised by the Hebrews, as 
we find allusions to it in the Bible\ The first way 
is generally followed when a single animal, the 
second, when several are to be slaughtered; it also 
has the advantage that the hunter is not obliged 
to pass the night on the watch, but can stay 
comfortably at home. Some, however, among the 
Bedawin are bold enough to attack the beast single- 
handed in its den, where it lies hid during the 
day. If the den be narrow the hunter does not 
carry fire-arms, but wraps his cloak round his left 
arm, and carries in his right hand a long trusty 
yataghan (dagger) : if however it be tolerably wide, 
two generally go together, armed with pistols. I 
have never heard of one of these combats termi- 
nating otherwise than with complete success on the 
part of the assailants. These hunters are highly 
esteemed, and are rewarded by the chief of the tribe. 
The animal is skinned at a good distance to lee- 
ward of the tents or houses, because its body emits 
a fetid odour, which not only is nauseous, but also 
taints the atmosphere (at least in the opinion of the 

* Ezek. xix. 4, 8. Ps. xxxv. 7, 



42 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

natives). The carcass is then burnt, principally for 
the same reason, but also because all traces of it are 
thus destroyed^ and so the other hyaenas are not 
incited to avenge their comrade, or warned to avoid 
its fate. 

The Arabs in the interior of the country prepare 
the skin by dressing it with lime and salt, and 
steeping it in the water of the Dead Sea; from it 
they manufacture sandals and leggings, which are 
supposed to act as talismans against wild beasts. 
Small pieces are sometimes cut from the haunch, 
and, after being dried in the sun for many days, are 
eaten as a protective against the attacks of the ani- 
mal. I was curious to taste the medicine, but could 
not succeed in overcoming my disgust. The hyaena 
is daily becoming rarer in Palestine, and after some 
centuries men may dispute whether or not it has 
existed as they have done in the case of the lion and 
the bear. I, however, have no doubt that these were 
once not uncommon^, and that the destruction of 
the forests, rather than the assaults of man, has 
driven them away. 



THE WILD BOAR. 

Small herds of this animal are frequently found 
in the mountains and marshes of Palestine: they 
make incursions by night into the plains of Sharon, 
Gaza, Jericho, and elsewhere, and are then fre- 
quently shot by the hunters. They are smaller than 

* Judges xiv. 5, 6. i Sam. xvii. 34 — 37. I Kings xiii. 24 — 28. 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 43 

the wild boars of Europe, less ferocious, and more 
easily fall a prey to the hunters. Their carcasses 
are very often exposed for sale in Jaffa and Jerusa- 
lem; but as the meat is considered heating, and is 
not eaten by Mohammedans or Jews, it does not 
fetch a high price. At Jaffa, in the winter of 1858, 
I gave about ten shillings for a wild boar, and about 
five for another in the desert of Jericho. If a com- 
mon butcher were once to expose this meat for sale, 
he would lose all his customers, without a hope of 
regaining them. We find this animal mentioned in 
the Bible as "the beast of the reeds V' and "the 
boar out of the wood'," terms fitly describing its 
haunts, which are always in the reed-beds or the 
forests. The traveller in Palestine may convince him- 
self of the justice of these expressions by examining 
the banks of el-'Aujeh (Jaffa) and of the Jordan, 
the neighbourhood of Jericho, and the ancient coun- 
try of the Gadarenes, where our Saviour cast out 
the demons into the herd of swine ^. These locali- 
ties are the favorite resorts of this animal, but it 
is also found in other parts of the country. 

THE JACKAL. 

These animals, closely allied to the fox, which they 
resemble in habit, are very abundant in Palestine. 
By day they lie concealed in caves and fissures, or 
inloL Jpulohres, .voiding the light, which ^ut, 

* Pf. Ixviii. 30 (margin). * Ps. Ixzx. 13. 

• S. Matt. viii. 30. 



44 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

a stop to their orgies. At nightfall they quit their 
foul dens, and forming packs, sometimes as many 
as two hundred in number, betake themselves to the 
neighbourhood of towns and villages, whither they are 
attracted by the odour of carrion, preferred by them 
to every other kind of food. Their movements are 
marked by their mournful howls, answered by the 
barking of the dogs, their bitter enemies. While 
thus travelling in company they never attack any 
one, and defend their lives by headlong flight. 
No doubt the "foxes" to which Samson fastened 
firebrands, after tying them in pairs tail to tail, 
in order to prevent their returning to their hiding- 
places, were jackals ; and I believe that this animal 
is also mentioned in the sixty-third Psalm ^, as it de- 
vours corpses, but the fox does not. It is still very 
abundant near Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod, Ekron, and 
Eamleh: I have frequently met with it during my 
wanderings by night, and on one occasion had an 
excellent opportunity of appreciating their numbers 
and noise. One evening in the month of January, 
1857, while it was raining a perfect deluge, I was 
obliged, owing to the dangerous illness of a friend, 
to return from Jerusalem to Jafia. The depth of 
the snow on the road over a great part of the moun- 
tain, the clayey mud in the plain, and the darkness 
of the night, prevented my advancing quickly; so 
that about three in the morning I arrived on the 
bank of a small torrent about half-an-hour's journey 
to the east of flamleh. I wished to cross ; my 

* Psalm Ixiii. to. 



OH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 45 

horse at first refused, but on my spurring it, ad- 
vanced, and at once sank up to the breast, followed 
of course by my legs, thus teaching me to respect 
the instinct of an Arab horse for the future. There 
I stuck, without the possibility of escape, and con- 
soled my horse and myself with some provisions 
that I had in my saddle-bags, shouting and singing 
at intervals, in the hope of obtaining succour, and of 
preventing accidents, as I knew that the year before 
a mule in the same position had been mistaken for 
B, wild beast and killed. The darkness was pro- 
found, and the wind very high, but happily it was 
not cold; for the only things attracted by my calls 
were numbers of jackals, who remained at a certain 
distance from me, and responded to my cries, espe- 
cially when I tried to imitate them, as though they 
took me for their music-master. About five o'clock 
one of the guards of the English consulate at Jeru- 
salem came from Rami eh, and discovered my state; 
he charitably returned thither, and brought some 
men, who extricated me and my horse from our un- 
pleasant bath, which, as may be Apposed, was not be- 
neficial to our legs. During this most uncomfortable 
night I had good opportunities of ascertaining that 
if another Samson had wished to bum again the 
crops in the country of the Philistines, he would have 
had no difficulty in finding more than three hundred 
jackals, and in catching as many as he wanted in 
springes, traps, or pitfalls ^ This story may also 
be a warning to travellers not to attempt to make 

* Psalm cxl. 5. 



46 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

night-journeys between Jaffa and Jerusalem in the 
winter season; for so long as the rule of the Sub- 
lime Porte endures in Palestine, there will not be 
a bridge built over this torrent, although accidents 
have often happened there. 

SERPENTS. 

Several species of serpents are mentioned in the 
Bible; they do not however all belong to Pales- 
tine, though not a few are still found there. These 
I shall not attempt to distinguish scientifically, but 
refer my reader to Seetzen, who has written on the 
different species which occur in Judaea, and has re- 
marked that he never saw any that were venomous. 
On this point I differ from him, as will presently be 
seen. The Jews were forbidden to eat any reptile*; 
but the Arabs do not follow their example, as they 
seek for certain kinds of serpents that are not veno- 
mous, and after cutting off the head, divide the body 
into small pieces, which they thread on a green stick, 
and roast over a slow fire, sprinkling them from time 
to time, as they turn the stick round and round in 
their hands, with a mixture of lemon, salt, and pep- 
per, with oil, if they can afford it. In March, 1858, 
I saw two Bedawin, in the plain of Jericho, cooking 
a snake in this way, and had the curiosity to taste it. 
The result was so satisfactory that I often ate of this 
dish ; taking however the precaution of steeping the 
flesh in vinegar for some time, before it was cooked, 

* Levit. xi to, 41, 42. 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 47 

to remove the musky flavour. It is then quite as 
good as, if not better than, an eel. 

My readers will no doubt remember that in the 
Bible the serpent is termed "more subtle than all 
the beasts of the field V' and in another place we read 
^'wise as serpents*" The following anecdotes will 
shew the justice of the epithets. I once occupied a 
house at Jerusalem in the Via Dolorosa, about 200 
yards to the east of the Judgment Gate, the outer 
walls and inner court of which were overgrown with 
hyssop ^ I liked the appearance of this, and allowed 
it to remain; but my pleasure was somewhat dimi- 
nished when I found that it harboured a number of 
serpents, which quitted it to bask in the rays of the 
sun. As may be supposed, I ordered a hunt to be 
made after these unwelcome guests, but one of my 
Arab servants interceded for them, saying, *^ Do not 
kill the serpents, they are the friends of our house 
and of the neighbours'." Although I did not feel 
inclined to admit this reason, still the man seemed 
to take the matter so much to heart, that I abandon- 
ed my hostile intentions, and ordered them to be 
supplied with milk every day. They shewed their 
gratitude for this treatment by visiting my bed-room, 
where I used to find them coiled up in a comer. 
These '^faithful friends" are rarely wanting in the 
old Arab houses at Jerusalem, where their presence 
is regarded as a good omen by the inhabitants. The 
most surprising thing is that neither the women nor 

* Gen. iii. I. « S. Matt. x. 16. 

^ I Kings iv. 33. 



48 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

the babies fear them, and the older children even make 
pets of them. Mothers are not unfrequently awa- 
kened in the night by the reptiles, which have fastened 
on their breasts, and are sucking their milk. Some- 
times also they find them in their infants' cradles, 
but instead of being alarmed at this, they treat it as 
quite an ordinary matter. The serpents are some- 
times seen crawling among the fowls, or with the 
cats and dogs; in fact, they appear thoroughly do- 
mesticated, and render considerable services in exter- 
minating rats and insects. From the above it is 
evident that any one who does not admire the pre- 
sence of these guests, must avoid taking an old 
house, or one that communicates with gardens or 
ruins. Serpents are also in the habit of entering the 
folds and grottoes, in which the flocks are penned, 
and, during the night, quietly sucking the milk from 
the teats of the ewes or she-goats, without awaking 
them; which is as good a proof of their cunnmg as 
any that we could find. 

There are, however, some serpents which are not 
harmless like the above. In the neighbourhood of the 
Pools of Solomon, about an hour's journey to the south 
of Bethlehem, reptiles of the asp family have been 
killed by the shepherds, which were from one to two 
feet long, firom one to two inches thick, and of a dark 
^ brown colour. These dart quickly and vehemently 
upon their victim, which dies soon after being struck, 
unless help arrives speedily. I kept one of these 
reptiles preserved in spirits of wine, which I had 
seen kiU a sheep by its poison. Perhaps it belonged 



CH. 11.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 49 

tp the same species of asp as those mentioned in seve- 
ral passages in the Bible * . When an Arab is bitten, 
a bandage is immediately fastened round the limb 
above the wounded part, and if possible the poison 
is sucked from the wound, which is then cauterized. 
Afterwards a poultice is applied, composed of aro- 
matic herbs and the ashes of venomous serpents — the 
latter being applied as " the hair of the dog that bit 
them." If the very animal which inflicted the wound 
can be caught, it is roasted, being considered the 
best application that can possibly be made to the 
bite. 

We know that serpent-worship prevailed among 
the ancient Hebrews, for king Hezekiah destroyed 
the bronze serpent, which Moses had lifted up in the 
wilderness, because the people shewed idolatrous re- 
verence to it*. It would seem as if the Arabs had 
followed the Hebrews in adopting and venerating 
the serpent as a symbol of health, for their santons, 
dervishes, and proselytes, frequently carry them in 
public processions, twined round their necks or arms 
or in their bosoms; and they also take counsel of 
their writhing familiars (or at least would have it 
thought so), when they are wandering about the 
country to effect cures. Snake-charmers still exist, 
as in the time of the Jews^, who are recognized as 
such by the Arabs. They strictly conceal the secret 
of their art, and only impart it to members of their 

^ Job XX. 14, 16. Isaiah xL 8. <fec. 
* Numb. xxi. 9. 2 Kings xviii. 4. 
' Deut. xviii. 11. Psalm Iviii. 5, 



50 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

own family — proving the efficacy of it by easily 
overcoming serpents. Without any fear of being 
bitten, they make them move to the sound of music, 
throw them about and pick them up again, soothe 
and irritate them, wake them and lull them again to 
sleep, and, in a word, do exactly as they please with 
them. I made a friend of one of these self-styled 
magicians, in hopes of discovering something about 
his method of capturing and taming serpents, but I 
found all my endeavours useless, as he refused to sell 
the secret. However, I surprised him by shewing 
him that after practice I could render a serpent mo- 
tionless, irritate it, and make it docile again. I con- 
clude by remarking that the Arabs, like the ancient 
Hebrews^ believe that the sole food of this reptile is 
the dust of the earth. 



BEES, HONEY AND MILK. 

Milk and honey are always coupled together in 
enumerating the blessings of the Land of Promise*, so 
I consider them together in this article. Before, how- 
ever, describing these products of the country, I must 
say a few words about the interpretations which cer- 
tain persons, unacquainted with Palestine, have en- 
deavoured to attach to the word "honey." Some 
think that the word used in the Bible also signifies 

* Gen. iii. 14. Isaiah Ixv. 25. Micah vii. 17. 
' Exod. iiL 8. xiii. 5. Lev. xx. 24. Deut. vi. 3. JosL v. 6. 
Jerem. xi. 5. kc. 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 51 

vegetable honey, and explain this to mean a syrup 
derived from boiling new wine with some sweet sub- 
stances, which, at that time, must have been either 
sugar-cane juice or honey itself; others consider it to 
be a sort of preserve of boiled dates ; others, a kind 
of dew found on the leaves of certain trees, which 
neither exudes from them nor falls from the sky, 
but is deposited there by aphides. None of these, 
however, are likely to have been so plentiful as to 
warrant the word " flowing," so frequently used to 
express the abundance of it ; while wild honey may 
have been plentiful enough. It is indeed true that 
this is no longer so common as it must then have 
been ; but for this there is an obvious reason, namely, 
the destruction of the woods in the country, owing to 
the constant wars and quarrels between neighbours. 
At the present time the inhabitants tear up the 
scented plants and bushes by the roots, while the hus- 
bandmen till the land badly, and do not sow many 
varieties of seed ; so that the bees lack nourishment, 
and produce but little honey or wax, in comparison 
with what they must have done formerly, when the 
land was well cultivated. The same reason applies 
to the milk; for now the luxuriant pastures have 
become sterile wastes, the plantations have been re- 
placed by barren rocks, and the water-springs dried 
up ; so that the number of the flocks and herds has 
necessarily decreased. It is then my opinion that the 
honey mentioned in the Bible was chiefly produced 
by wild bees, part however being made by those kept 
in the ordinary manner. Certainly '^ the honey out 

4—2 



52 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cH. II. 

of the rock'/' that found by Samson*, that which 
'* dropped in the wood," and so nearly cost Jonathan 
his Ufe?, and that which was eaten by S. John the 
Baptist*, must have been wild. There are frequent 
allusions to honey in the Bible, without it being 
specified whether it is the produce of wild or tame 
bees. Isaiah^ also seems to allude to a " hiss" being 
used to summon the bees ; at the present day a 
similar sound is made for the wild bees. Ezekiel® 
also speaks of a trade in honey with Tyre, without 
however stating of what kind it was; so that the 
Bible leaves it in doubt whether bees were kept by 
the ancient Jews; and I am inclined to think that 
most of the honey mentioned in it was produced by 
the insects in a state of nature. 

Many passages in the Bible tend to shew that 
honey was highly esteemed by the Israelites. It was 
offered among the first-fruits*; Jacob sent a present 
of it to Joseph when viceroy of Egypt®; it was 
among the provisions sent to David and his followers 
in Mahanaim®; it was reckoned among the choicer 
kinds of food'*; and we learn from Josephus" that 
it was used in embalming the dead, for the body of 
Aristobulus was preserved in it, and sent to Jeru- 

* Dent, xxxii. 13. Psalm Ixxxi 16. 



* Judges xiv. 8, 14. 








^ I Sam. xiv. 25 — 28. 


* S. Matt. iii. 4. 








* Isaiah viL 18. 


• Ezek. xxvii. 17. 








' 2 Chron. xxxL 5. 


' Gen. xliii 11. 








• 2 Sam. xviL 29. 


^" Prov. xxiv. 13. 


Isaiah 


• • 

Vll. 


15. 


Ezek. xvi. 13. S. Luke 


xxiv. 42. 










" Ant, XIV. 7, § 4. 








- 



CH. II J ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 53 

salem. "We also find allusions to ''being chased 
by beesV' and to sickness caused by eating over- 
much honey*. It was not to be burnt as a sacrifice^ 
perhaps because bees were considered unclean, as 
they often come in contact with polluted things. 

Since the chief pursuit of the ancient inhabitants 
of the country was feeding cattle, milk must have 
been abundant, as we learn from many passages in 
the Bibles 

Let us now see how far the land could be said 
to flow with milk and honey during the latter part 
of its history and at the present day. We find that 
honey was abundant in the time of the Crusades; 
for the English, who followed Edward I. to Pales- 
tine, died in great numbers from the excessive heat, 
and from eating too much fruit and honey*. At the 
present day, after traversing the country in every 
direction, I am able to affirm that, in the south- 
east and north-east, where the ancient customs of 
the patriarchs are most fully preserved, and the 
effects of civilization have been felt least, milk and 
honey may still be said to flow; as they form a 
part of every meal, and may even be called more 
abundant than water, which fails occasionally in the 
heat of summer. In these districts the bees still 
store up their honey in rocks, trunks of trees, and 

' Deut. i. 44. Psalm cxviiL i2< 

' Prov. XXV. 16, 27. ' Lev. ii. 11. 

^ Deut. xxxii. 14. i Sam. jtvii. 18. Prov. xxvii. 27. 

^ M. Sanutus, Liber Secret07tim Fidelium CruoUy Lib. in. p. xii. 



C. II. 



54 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

skeletons of camels; where I have not only seen 
them, but also had to fly before an angry swarm 
that had been driven from its retreat by fire. I have 
also often eaten of the comb^ which I found very 
good and of a delicious fragrance. This abundance 
of wild honey may still be seen in the neighbourhood 
of the village of St John ('Ain KArim), of Tekoah, 
of Gibeon, and of the ancient Herodium ; also in the 
valley of Etham, and in all the places where aro- 
matic herbs are still plentiful. 



GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS. 

Nine different names for grasshoppers are found 
in the Bible; but it is impossible to distinguish the 
species denoted by them, as the ancient versions are 
contradictory, and the names they use are as Httle 
known as those in the Hebrew text*. All that can 
be said is that the Hebrews knew several species of 
grasshoppers, four of which might be used for food*; 
among which were those that nourished S. John 
Baptist in the wilderness'. The Arabs of Pales- 
tine, especially the nomad tribes, still eat them, 
roasting them or boiling them in salt and water. 
Cooked in this way they are very good, as I have 
often found, for I used to eat them, not from neces- 
sity, but from choice ; using them as a substitute for 

^ The reader who deskes to pursue this sulyect further is 
referred to De Wette, Archceologie, c. iv. § 2, note, the Hierozoicon 
of BoChart, Michaelis, and Tychsen. 

* Lev. xi, 22. ^ S. Matt. iii. 4. S. Mark i. 6. 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED, 55 

shrimps, which are not abundant on the shores of 
Palestine. The first time that I tasted them I well 
remembered that a Latin priest, one of my masters, 
used to prove to me the sanctity of the Baptist, 
not by the account of his preaching and doctrines, 
but by the nature of his food. Yet the Bedawy 
Arabs, and many of the Fell4hln, still make great 
havoc among the locusts, which they capture and 
dry in the sun; then after plucking off the head 
and legs, they bruise the bodies in a mortar or 
a handmill. The dust thus made is mixed with 
flour and made into bread; this has a somewhat 
bitter flavour, but it is corrected by camel's milk 
or honey, or even by use, as I have proved. If too 
large a quantity of locust-dust is put into the bread, 
it is not only very bitter, but also rather a heating 
and unwholesome diet. If then my master had 
t)een acquainted with the customs of Palestine, and 
properly instructed in the Bible, he would not have 
attempted to impress upon me, as a mark of rigorous 
and miraculous abstinence, what in reality was only 
a matter of ordinary occurrence. 

The locusts in Palestine are very much larger 
than those in Europe; and though they are ex- 
tremely numerous, I have not, during the eight years 
I have been in the country, had an opportunity of 
witnessing the frightful devastations which from 
time to time they are said to commit. These have 
been vividly described by the prophet Joel', and 

* Joel, chaps. L ii. 



56 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

several modem authors have given accounts of the 
ravages committed by them. One of the most re- 
cent of these is Volney^, whose description well 
illustrates the words of Joel^ "The quantity of 
these insects is incredible to all who have not them- 
selves witnessed their astonishing numbers; the 
whole earth is covered with them for the space of 
several leagues. The noise they make in browsing 
on the trees and herbage may be heard at a great 
distance, and resembles that of an army foraging in 
secret. The Tartars themselves are a less destruc- 
tive enemy than these little animals; one would 
imagine that a fire had followed their progress. 
Wherever their myriads spread, the verdure of the 
country disappears, as if a curtain had been re- 
moved; trees and plants, stripped of their leaves, 
and reduced to their naked boughs and stems, cause 
the dreary image of winter to succeed in an instant 
to the rich scenery of the spring. When these 
clouds of locusts take their flight, to surmount any 
obstacle, or to traverse more rapidly a desert soil, 
the heavens may literally be said to be obscured 
with them... As for the southerly and south-easterly 
winds, they drive with violence these clouds of 
locusts over the Mediterranean, where such quanti- 
ties are drowned, that, when their carcasses are thrown 
on the shore, they infect the air for several days, 
even to a great distance." 

The grasshoppers have a very fierce foe in a 

* Travda in Egypt cmd Syria, Vol. i. Ch. xx. Sect. 5. 
' Joel ii. I — 20. 



CH. II.] ANIMALS NOT DOMESTICATED. 57 

bird, very common in Palestine, called the Semer- 
mer (Turdus Seleucts), which resembles the swallow 
in flight, and is rather larger than it. During the 
winter it retires to Africa or Hindustan, but passes 
the summer in Western Asia. It persecutes the 
grasshoppers and locusts, not only capturing them 
for food, but also merely to kill them. Consequently 
it is held in high honour all over the East, and who- 
ever destroys it is liable to be punished. 



FLIES AND INSECTS OF VARIOUS KINDS. 

These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering 
in Palestine, as I can vouch from my own expe- 
rience. However large or however small they be, 
they attack alike, restless and rabid foes, and make 
themselves insufferable in a thousand ways in every 
season and place, in the house and in the field, by 
day and by night. I have never indeed seen them 
in such quantities as Moses ^ predicted, and as there 
must have been when two kings of the Amorite^ 
were driven from their country by them*. Accord- 
ing to the Talmud they stung their enemies in the 
eyes, inflicting a mortal wound. Still frequently, in 
1857 and i860, while I was encamped near the tents 
of the Bedawln, in the neighbourhood of the Jordai^ 
and to the south of Hebron, flies were brought in 

* Exod. xxiii. 28. Deut viL 20. 

* Josh. xxiv. 12, * hornet,' A.V. 



6o CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. II. 

indeed direct their attacks chiefly on tta victim's 
purse, but are themselves walking collections of en- 
tomological life, which they liberally distribute to 
all whom they approach. To rid the land of these 
would require the club of a Hercules and the muscles 
of a Vulcan: so let the traveller be on his guard 
against them. 



CHAPTER III. 

CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, AND INCIDENTS 
CONNECTED WITH THE BIBLE. 



During my long sojourn in Palestine, I have of 
course not unfrequently been deprived of town com- 
forts, and been obliged to throw myself upon the 
hospitality of the natives. Thus, at the cost of being 
devoured by vermin, I have had the pleasure of 
studying the people in their own homes, observing 
their mode of life, testing their intellectual faculties, 
and amusing myself with their stories. Some of 
these 1 now relate, in order to shew my reader how 
tenaciously the Hebrew traditions, unaffected by 
foreign conquest, have adhered to the minds of the 
Arabs. This phenomenon can only be explained by 
affinity of race, the most powerful and natural bond. 
In each village or tribe there is always a scribe, 
who is attached to the person of the chief to aid him 
in the government, and may be called the sole repo- 
sitory of the knowledge of the state. . To this man 
I always paid my court, inducing him by presents 
to open his mouth and tell me his legends; a few 
of which I now repeat, but only a few, as I am un- 
willing to fill my book with them. 



62 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. III. 



THE WOLVES OF KEBAB AND THE FOXES 

OF SAMSON. 

A two hours' journey from Ramleh, on the left 
of the road from "Jaffa to Jerusalem, is the Arab 
village called Kebab, situated on a hill; concerning 
this the following story is told. *^The great king 
Solomon was displeased with the people who, in his 
time, dwelt there ; because, notwithstanding the great 
numbers of their flocks and herds, they refused for 
several years to pay the tax which the king had im- 
posed upon each owner of thirty oxen and forty sheep 
or goats. These sons of evil made a secret compact to 
elude the law by dividing their herds among them- 
selves, and passing off the women, servants, and chil- 
dren, as owners ; so that no one appeared to possess 
more than twenty-nine oxen and thirty-nine sheep or 
goats. Solomon detected this trick, and was very 
angry ; but before punishing these rude peasants, he 
determined to send a prophet to endeavour to move 
them to repentance. A holy man accordingly visited 
the country, but his words were scorned, and he 
mocked, beaten, and driven away with stones. The 
wise king then determined to punish them. By his 
orders a number of wolves surrounded the village, 
and casting forth devouring flames from their jaws 
burnt it with the surrounding fields, then full of 
rich crops ripe for the harvest. The ashes of the 
inhabitants and their flocks formed the hill on which 
Kebab now stands, an eternal monument of the ven- 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, 63 

geance of God wrought by the hand of Solomon, to 
whom may He be merciful !" Thus ended the Arab. 
This story,* fantastic though it be, reminds me of 
the three hundred foxes or jackals of Samson*, es- 
pecially as the place lies in the vast plain which 
was the scene of the vengeance of this Hercules of 
the Bible, where it would still be an easy matter 
to entrap three hundred jackals in a single night. 



THE Threshing-floor of joshua the 

BETH-SHEMITK 

About half an hour nearer Jerusalem than Kebab, 
we come to Blr el-Job (the well of Job), and a quarter 
of an hour further on is the slope of a craggy hill, on 
which is a level surface of rock, still used as a thresh- 
ing-floor by the inhabitants of Beit-Aimsi, a little 
village behind the hill. This is recognized, both by 
Jews and by Arabs, as the former threshing-floor of 
Joshua the Beth-shemite*. Hither they come as 
pilgrims from distant lands, in the belief that they 
will thus be cured of fluxes of blood if ill, and be 
protected against them if well. The Arabs are not 
unacquainted with the history in the Bible, although 
they clothe it with oriental exaggerations; and the 
more ignorant Hebrews relate the story as follows: 
" The ark of the Lord had been taken by the Phi- 
listines, but in all the cities to which it was brought 
these two terrible plagues arose, the country was in- 

* Judges XV. 5. ^ I Sam. vi 14. 



64 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. HI. 

vaded by swarms of rats, which destroyed all the 
crops, and the people afflicted with haemorrhage, so 
that numbers of them died. Understanding that the 
possession of the ark brought these evils, they re- 
stored it to the Hebrews, when at once the rats 
disappeared and the sick recovered their health." 
As then the ark was set down on the threshing-floor 
of Joshua the Beth-shemite, the rock on which it 
rested is supposed to have retained a healing virtue, 
and is visited by the pUgrims, who touch it with their 
bodies. Meanwhile the inhabitants of Beit-Aimsi 
exact a payment from the Jewish believers, and 
detain the clothes, which they have stripped off, if 
they are not sufficiently generous. 

IMAM AALY. 

In traveUing through "Wady Aaly (Valley of 
Aaly) a clump of green oaks is reached in three 
quarters of an hour, called Shejret Imam Aaly (the 
tree of Imam Aaly); a pleasant resting-place after 
a long and fatiguing journey. Here are the ruins of 
an ancient Mohammedan oratory, and close by it a 
small cistern, the vault of which is nearly destroyed, 
while the hollow only holds rain-water. Concerning 
this the following legend was told me by the scribe 
of Saris: '*In days gone by, when the religion of 
Islam was beginning to spread triumphantly over 
the globe, there was a rich and valiant warrior of the 
country of Yemen, named Seid Aaly. None of his 
neighbours were able to resist his power, and God 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, 65 

prospered all his undertakings, although he was not 
yet instructed in the true faith of the Prophet, and 
still in the darkness of idolatry. So great was his 
reputation for brave deeds, that the pasha who go- 
verned the country for the sultan of Roum, wishing 
to gain so brave an ally against the invaders from 
the desert, gave him his daughter, the fair Miriam, 
to wife. After three days of sumptuous feasting, the 
maiden was introduced into the tent of Seid Aaly, 
who, in the wonted manner, severed with his sword 
the golden veil that hid the features of his bride. 
Struck with the beauty, and still more with the 
goodness that shone in her face, he began to feel the 
flames of love, but an invincible power enchained his 
body and paralyzed his will. At that instant the 
eternal truth was revealed to him in its uncreated 
splendour, and overpowered his faculties. Becoming 
a Mohammedan on the spot, he was anxious to make 
Miriam a sharer in his happiness ; but her eyes were 
closed to the heavenly light, and she refused to ac- 
knowledge the unity of God. Accordingly he re- 
stored his virgin spouse to her father, exacting from 
her a promise that, whenever her heart was opened 
to the doctrines of salvation, she would come to join 
him and impart to him that happiness, which, apart 
from her, he could never more enjoy. From that day 
peace was a stranger to the spirit of Seid Aaly ; he 
abandoned the faithful comrades, who had shared his 
enterprises, his rich herds, and the desert, wherein 
he had spent his youth; and, clad in the lowly habit, 
of a dervish, he retired to this valley, and conse- 

5 



66 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. III. 

crated his life to offering water and other help to 
travellers. Years rolled away, and still he devoted 
his life to prayer and good works, constantly im- 
ploring the Almighty to restore Miriam to him, or 
remove him from this world. At length one day, 
during his noontide rest, he saw in a dream his 
betrothed approaching his hermitage, clad in a rich 
bridal dress, and extended on a litter drawn by two 
bullocks of surpassing whiteness. Awakened by the 
joy, he saw before him a pilgrim lying with her face 
on the ground, with torn garments, and feet all 
bruised and bloody from the rough road. He drew 
near, and recognized his long-expected Miriam, who, 
though on the point of death from fatigue, saluted 
him with the sacred words of the confession of faith. 
Throwing himself upon her, he imprinted an ardent 
kiss on her lips, and with that kiss both their souls 
departed to the joys of heaven. On the spot where 
the bodies of these two faithful servants of the one 
God were found, the angels made the oak-grove 
spring up, and a place of prayer with a religious 
house (Wakouf ) was erected, where the traveller 
ever found water, and blessed the memory of the 
holy Imam. The indifference of the age has allowed 
all this to fall to ruin, to the disgrace of the mana- 
gers of the Wakouf, who have embezzled the reve- 
nues." This legend appears to me to have some 
reference to the loss of the ark, its restitution, and 
the death of Uzzah^, which occurred in the same 
neighbourhood. If I could have related the legend 

' 2 Sam. vi. 7. 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 67 

exactly as it was told by the Arab, the resemblance 
would have appeared stronger, but I have been 
obliged to suppress certain portions. 



THE TOMB OF MOSES KNOWN TO THE ARABS. 

Near the Dead Sea, on a hill to the west of 
Jericho, stands a small mosque, surrounded by a 
building, which evidently has once been a Christian 
convent. I several times visited it, with the intention 
of examining a tomb in the interior of the mosque, 
but was continually disappointed in my hope, because 
it was guarded by fanatical Mohammedans, who, in 
spite of my offers of money, would not allow me 
even to approach thie mosque. At last, however, I 
succeeded, with the aid of the brave Bedawln of my 
escort and a stratagem, which I will presently relate ; 
and very glad I was, for I discovered there an an- 
cient Hebrew sepulchre'. This spot is called Neby 
Musa (Prophet Moses) by the Arabs, who firmly 
believe that the great lawgiver of the Hebrew race 
was buried here. There are difficulties in determininof 
exactly at what period this belief arose, but some 
think that it sprang from a mistake of the Moham- 
medan conquerors, who, finding here the tomb of a 
certain Saint Moses, a hermit of the Eastern Church, 
were led, by the similarity of the name, to believe, in 
spite of the evidence in the Bible \ that it was the 

' This will be described at length in a work which I am pre- 
paring on the Tombs of Palestine. 
* Dent, xxxiv. 6. 

5-2 



^8 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. IH. 

sepulchre of the great prophet. After a careful exa- 
mination of the Greek libraries, and especially of their 
manuscripts, I have ascertained that on this spot a 
convent was erected by S. Euthymius, in which he 
was buried, and that the Mohammedans, when they 
obtained possession of it, changed its name, and 
attached to it the legend which is now adopted by 
the whole country. This is as follows: "The pro- 
phet Moses had lived a hundred and twenty years 
without suflFering from any of the infirmities of age, 
because God (by whom he was beloved) had pro- 
mised to leave him in this world, and not recall him 
to Himself until he descended willingly into the tomb. 
Moses, knowing that his people after his death would 
abandon the laws and ordinances which he had given 
them and provoke the Divine wrath, was anxious 
to remain alive, and was very careful not to approach 
a sepulchre. It was, however, time for him to enter 
upon his eternal repose. One day as he was walking 
among thiB mountains on the west of the Jordan, to 
view the country, he saw upon a hill white as snow 
four men busily engaged in excavating a chamber in 
the rock; these were four angels, sent by God but 
disguised in rough garments to delude the prophet. 
^ What are you doing in this lonely place?' he asked. 
' We are preparing a hiding-place in which our king 
is about to enclose his most precious treasure: this 
is why we are working in the desert. Our work is 
nearly done, and we are expecting the valuable de- 
posit which will soon arrive.' The sun was very hot, 
and no place was near to afford a shelter from its 






CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 69 

rays. The cavern alone looked temptingly cool, and 
offered a delightful shade. Moses, exhausted by 
fatigue, entered it to recline for a moment on a stone 
bench at the end (which in reality was a sarcopha- 
gus), and as he seated himself one of the workmen 
respectfully offered. him an apple of a delicious fra- 
grance, which the prophet took to quench his thirst. 
No sooner had he inhaled the scent, than he fell 
asleep for ever; receiving death by the sense of 
smell, because, as he had seen God, and heard His 
voice, and spoken with Him, death could not enter 
by his eyes, ears, or mouth. His soul was borne on 
the angels' wings before the throne of God, and his 
body rests in the grotto unto this day. From that 
time the rock, which overcame the wariness of the 
prophet, has retained its whiteness on the outside, 
but when excavated it is found to be within blacker 
than the angel of death." At the present day Neby 
Musa is considered by the Mohammedans as a holy 
place of pilgrimage, and is interesting to travellers 
on account of the black (bituminous) rock, from 
which a number of small carvings are made, espe- 
cially at Bethlehem. 

I will now relate how I succeeded in visiting the 
tomb in the mosque. One of my Bedawy friends 
told me in the month of March, 1861, that the 
santon in charge of Neby Musa did not disdain to 
drink raki (a kind of spirit) ; for by this means he did 
not violate the laws of the prophet Mohammed, as 
the liquor was not of a red colour (I should call it 
so). After some conversation with my informant, in 



70 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [OH. III. 

order to prevent mistakes at Neby Musa, I formed 
my plan, obtained an escort of two horsemen from 
the pasha, and departed at once with the Bedawy 
and two others. On arriving at the place I paid my 
respects to the santon, and was well received ; a con- 
versation was commenced, in the, course of which I 
presented him with a little sugar, coflFee, and tobacco, 
and then requested him to accept two bottles of raki, 
so that he might be able to offer refreshment to 
European travellers. He, of course, could not refuse 
an offering made in this form, but received them 
with sparkling eyes and a thousand signs of delight. 
Soon afterwards I left him to the Bedawy, who in 
about two hours came to tell me that my friend was 
dead drunk and fast asleep. I set to work at once, 
examined the tomb, and made a plan of the building. 
When the santon woke up, he requested me to ex- 
cuse him for not remaining in my company, as he 
had been detained by his duties, especially those of 
prayer ! As in duty bound I appeared to believe all 
this, although the Bedawy had informed me that one 
of the bottles was already empty. The legend which 
I have related shews that although the Arabs do not, 
with the Bible, consider the site of Moses' sepulchre 
to be unknown, their traditions in many respects 
agree with what is there related about him. 

JESUS KEPT THE MOHAMMEDAN RAMADHAN^ 

To the north of Neby Musa, and the west of 
Jericho, is a mountain called Kuruntul, i. e. of the 

' A fast ordered in the laws of Mohammed. 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 7 1 

Quarantine, being so called by the Christians and 
Mohammedans in remembrance of the fast kept 
there by our Saviour', or the prophet Isa, as the 
latter call him. I relate the Arab story. " To this 
wild spot the great prophet Isa retired with his 
disciples to keep the holy month of the Bamadhan, 
afar from the tumults of the world. As the view 
westward was obstructed by the mountains of Jeru- 
salem, and consequently the sunset could not be 
seen«, he uiade, by the permission of God, an image 
in clay^ representing a winged creature, and after 
invoking the aid of the Eternal, breathed upon it; 
immediately it flapped its large wings and fled into 
one of the dark caverns in the mountain. This 
creature was the KJiofash (bat), which lies hid so 
long as the sun shines upon the world, and comes 
forth from its retreat when it sets. Every night at 
the Moghreb, L e. at the moment of breaking the 
feisty this bat fluttered around Isa, who then prepared 
himself with his disciples for prayer. As soon as 
they had performed this sacred duty, the Merciful 
caused to descend from heaven a silver table, covered 
with a cloth whose brilliancy illumined the darkness, 
on which were placed a large roasted fish, five loaves, 
salt, vinegar, oil, pomegranates, dates, and fresh 
salad, gathered in the gardens of heaven. On these 
the prophet supped, and the angels of heaven minis- 

* S. Matt iv. 2. S. Mark i. 13. 

' During this fast the Mohammedans do not eat until after 
sunset. 

* Cf. Apoc Gospels of Infancy, i. eh. xv. 2 — 6, IL cL L 4, 5. 



72 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. III. 

tered at table*." This legend also clearly appears to 
have arisen from the Bible history. 



THE GREEN PROPHET, OR THE PROPHET ELIAS. 

About halfway on the road between Jerusalem 
and Bethlehem stands a Greek convent dedicated 
to the prophet EUas, in front of which is a rock, 
on which certain Mohammedans and Christians re- 
cognize the footprint of the prophet, mad^ when he 
escaped the vengeance of Jezebel by flying from 
Samaria into the desert of Beersheba*. Again, one 
hour's journey from Bethlehem southward is a foun- 
tain called the ^sealed fountain,' which supplies the 
pools of Solomon at Etham. Having premised thus 
much, I will give the Mohammedan story of the 
prophet Elias. ''In the time of the Beni-Israel 
(sons of Israel) lived a man beloved of God, called 
Eless or Elias, a good and faithful Mohammedan. 
God willed to make him a prophet to lead back 
wanderers to the right way, and said to him : 'Arise, 
go preach the truth ; and in order that these hardened 
sinners may believ^ thy word, wherever thou shalt 
place thy foot, be the ground never so dry or barren, 
green herbs and flowers shall spring up: if thou 
sittest under a withered tree, it shall again become 
green and put forth leaves; therefore men shall call 
thee Kheder'/ Elias then travelled over the country 
to proclaim the word of the Lord; and on his way 

' Cf. S. Mark i. 13. * 2 Kings xix. 2, 3. 

• That is, ' green/ 



CH. Ill ] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, 73 

from Jerusalem to Hebron rested at the place where 
the convent now is that bears his name, and left 
there the impress of his body: thence he came to 
the pools which had been made by the prophet Solo- 
mon. Now you must know that in the village of 
Kheder (to the north of the pools, where now stands 
the Greek convent of S. George) dwelt a powerftJ 
sheikh, who from his brutality and tyranny was a 
terror to the whole neighbourhood. He determined 
to have the prophet brought to him ; not because he 
was anxious to hear his words and be converted, 
but because he desired to employ the miraculous 
gifts of Elias to his own advantage. As soon as 
the prophet approached the pools, he was seized 
by the myrmidons of the sheikh and taken to his 
house. The tyrant then accosted him with these 
words: 'I will that thou shouldest walk over my 
lands, for thy footsteps are blessed. To-morrow I 
myself will conduct thee over them ; but seek not 
to fly, for not even God Himself shall be able to 
deliver thee out of my hands.' After a night 
passed in a small dark prison, Elias was led forth, 
bound with a heavy chain, one end of which was 
held by the tyrant, and in this humiliating way 
he was compelled to walk towards the pools. At 
every step that the man of God took, the crops 
withered, the herbage shrivelled, and the trees were 
blasted, which is the cause of the sterility of the 
land at this day. Infuriated at this, the sheikh 
meditated throwing his prisoner into the pools, but 
he, worn with fatigue, asked leave to descend into 



74 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. III. 

the 'sealed fountain' to quench his thirst. The 
tyrant granted his request, but retained the chain 
in his hand, thinking that thus his victim could not 
escape. But scarcely had Elias reached the bottom, 
when the narrow water-course opened out to aflFord 
him an easy passage, along which he walked without 
hindrance from the chain, which elongated itself as 
he advanced. After a few steps he drank of the 
water and his bands fell off, the rock at the same 
time closing behind him to separate him from his 
persecutor. Since then he has continued to travel 
(though invisible) over the whole world, rendering 
every place verdant on which he treads, and once 
only in every year making the holy pilgrimage from 
Mino to Mecca. When the wicked tyrant saw that 
his victim had escaped he became mad, and soon 
afterwards died." In this fantastic oriental legend 
we may see traces of an account of the persecutions 
suffered by the prophet at the hands of Ahab king 
of Israel and his wife Jezebel \ 

THE MONUMENT OF ABSALOM IN THE VALLEY 

OF JEHOSHAPHAT. 

In the Bible^ we read, ''They took Absalom, and 
cast him into a great pit in the wood, and laid a 
very great heap of stones upon him.... Now Absalom 
in his life-time had taken and reared up for himself a 
pillar, which is in the king's dale." In the valley of 
Jehoshaphat is a monument bearing Absalom's name, 

* I Kings xvii. i. xviii. xix. 2, 3, <fcc. 

* 2 Sam. xviiL 17, 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, 75 

the base of which is covered for some depth with a 
large heap of small stones ; and the chamber within 
is also partly filled with them. The reason of this is 
that every passer-by, Mohammedan, Jew, or Chris- 
tian, casts a stone as a sign of his detestation of the 
memory of David's rebellious son. This custom is 
very ancient, and no doubt proceeded from the man- 
ner in which Absalom was buried: for Surius* in- 
forms us that in his day (a. d. 1644) the Christians, 
Jews, Turks, and Moors, were wont to take their 
children to the valley of Jehoshaphat and throw 
stones at the tomb, bidding them do the same, and 
crying, "Here he is! Here he is! the wicked man, 
the murderer, the cruel, who made war against his 
father ! " I have seen Jews and Arabs at the present 
day doing the same with their children, especially on 
Fridays, and if they are of bad dispositions they beat 
them there. The good king Jehoshaphat might 
with reason complain of his bad neighbour, as his 
tomb (just behind that of Absalom) suffers from the 
insults offered to the other, and is almost buried by 
the pebbles thrown at it. This seems an additional 
proof that the ancient customs and traditions have 
been retained uninterrupted by the Arabs to this 
very day. 

THE KEYS OF JERUSALEM WERE IN THE 
POSSESSION OF THE JEWS IN i86i. 

We all know, and the Arabs also are aware, that 
God said to Abraham, " Unto thy seed will I give 

^ Le Pieux P^lerin, Liv. 2, c. 41. 



^6 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. III. 

this landV' and repeate"d the promise several times 
to him, and to Isaac and Jacob. So fully do the 
Mohammedans believe this, that they keep a jealous 
watch over the tombs of these three patriarchs at 
Hebron, to prevent the Jews from approaching and 
obtaining them as intercessors with God to restore to 
them their country. Every Mohammedan also knows 
that Jerusalem once belonged to^the Hebrews, and 
was taken from them as a punishment for their in- 
fractions of the laws of the prophets Jacob, Moses, 
David, and Solomon. Now on July 8th, 1861, the 
day on which the news of the death of Abdul Megid 
and the accession of Abdul Azis arrived at Jeru- 
salem, the Jews waited with all formalities on the 
governor Surraya pasha, and requested him to re- 
store to them the keys of Jerusalem, according to a 
right which they claimed on the death of one sultan 
and the accession of another. At the same time they 
brought forward such proofs of the justice of their 
demand, that the pasha did not refuse it, but re- 
ferred it to his ordinary council, consisting of the 
mufti or chief officer of religion, the khadi or chief 
judge, and other persons of distinction, natives of 
the country. Their decision was in favour of the 
Israelites, the whole council being aware that they 
were the ancient owners of the country. The cere- 
mony was accordingly performed in the following 
manner. Said pasha, the general of the forces, 
accompanied by the officers of his staff, and some 
members of the council, and followed by a crowd of 

* Gen. xii. 7. 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 77 

sight-seers, went to the Jews' quarter, where he was 
met by a deputation of that nation and conducted 
to the house of the chief rabbi, who received the 
piasha at the door, and there was publicly presented 
with the keys. The pasha was then entertained 
with the utmost respect at the divan of the rabbi; 
refreshments, coffee, and tobacco, were served, and 
then the rabbi (not having a garrison to defend the 
keys) restored them with many thanks to the general, 
who was escorted back by the chief men of the Jews 
to the governor of the city, Surraya pasha, to give 
an account of his mission, and shew him that none 
of the keys were missing. So, in 1861, the Jewish 
nation possessed for one hour the keys of Jerusalem, 
which were delivered over to them by the Arabs in 
consequence of the unvarying tradition which they 
had preserved. 

THE ARK OF NOAH. 

The Arabs know that there was a universal 
deluge, and that Noah made an ark by the command 
of God ; but the tradition which they have preserved 
has been so greatly transformed by many fabulous 
additions, that it can hardly be recognized. I pass 
over the greater part of these inventions of an East- 
ern imagination, and will only say that they believe 
that the ark was built at Jaffa, and that Noah 
required so much wood that he was obliged to use 
all the trees, not only in the neighbourhood of that 
town, but also in the plain for a great distance round, 



78 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. III. 

in order to execute the commands of God. They 
further believe that Jaffa possesses its luxuriant fruit- 
gardens, as a reward for the good-will shewn by its 
inhabitants in obeying the directions of the patriarch, 
but that the plain is deprived of trees, as a punish- 
ment for the opposition offered by its occupiers to 
the great work. According to them, the ark was of 
an enormous size, for they will have it believed, that 
fragments of it still remain upon Ararat, though the 
pilgrims of all nations during so many centuries have 
carried away portions as relics. In the course of 
conversations with the Mohammedan Arabs or East- 
em Christians on the dimensions of the ark, I have 
frequently read to them the account given in the 
Bible', that it was 300 cubits long, 50 wide, and 30 
high; but was always vehemently opposed, as they 
asserted that in my book there must be a mistake 
in the translation, and that some larger measure 
should be substituted for cubits; a remark which, if 
the ordinary idea of a universal deluge be accepted, 
is certainly not unreasonable. I have not unfre- 
quently bverheard the dragomans, who are for the 
most part Mohammedans, Greeks, Latins, or Arme- 
nians, complaining that the antediluvian remains 
{i, e. fossils) to be found in the country wherein 
Noah built the ark, were so very few and insigni- 
ficant, that practically there might be said to be 
none at all. The reason of this complaint was, of 
course, that what would have been a remunerative 
traffic was impossible. In fact, after eight years tra- 

^ Gen. vi. 15. 



CH. III.] CEBTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, . 79 

veiling in Palestine, I have found nothing except a 
few fossil shells in the vineyards, called the Desert of 
S. John, near the village of 'Ain-K4rim, situated about 
two hours' journey from Bethlehem, on the west. 
There are indeed some curious '4usus naturae" in Pa- 
lestine, but these are not true fossils, and the inha- 
bitants themselves do not regard them as " antedilu- 
vian," but connect them with appropriate legends. 
For example, on Mount Carmel is shewn the " gar- 
den" or "melon-field of Elias," to which the follow- 
ing legend belongs: — '^The prophet was passing by 
that spot, and saw a man watching a field of melons. 
Wishing to quench his thirst, he requested the keeper 
to give him a fruit, but the churl refused, saying 
that they were only stones. Elias replied, 'Stones 
thou hast called these fruits, and stones shall they 
become !' and so it happened." These melon-shaped 
stones, of a calcareous rock, are hollow in the middle, 
and lined with crystals ^ On the same mountain 
other stones are found, resembling different kinds 
of fruits, as olives, peaches and potatoes. Again, 
on the road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, on the 
north of Kachel's tomb, is Jurn el-Hommos (the 
field of chick-peas), which is so called from the resem- 
blance of the limestone rock to a mass of these seeds. 
The legend is, " That the Virgin passed by with her 
Son, and asked a man, who was tilling the ground, 
what he was sowing. He answered, 'Pebbles.' 
' So they shall be !' replied Mary." Again, in the 
mountains on the west of Jericho, stones are found 

^ Geodes, called commonly in England potato-stones. 



8o CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. lir. 

in the shape of olives, which are collected by the 
Bedawtn for sale, and called the olives of Sodom, as 
they are found in the direction of the ancient city of 
that name. 

To conclude this article, I will relate the legend 
concerning the calcareous crystallizations forming 
the floor of Birket elKhalil (the Pool of Abraham), 
which is situated at the bottom of the deep ravine 
beginning from 'Ain Jidy or Engaddi, on the east 
of Hebron, close to the Dead Sea. Abraham, called 
el-Khalil (the friend of God) by the Arabs, dwelt 
at Hebron. " One day he went with a mule to the 
Birket to obtain a stock of salt, which used to be 
collected and sold there by the inhabitants. The 
labourers rudely answered the patriarch that they 
had no salt to sell, although a large quantity was 
lying about at the time. Irritated at "their inso- 
lence, he replied, 'Henceforth, in this place, which I 
curse, ye shall have neither salt nor a road hence . 
to Hebron. In an instant, the salt was turned into 
the substance of stone, retaining its original ap- 
pearance, and the road to Hebron became imprac- 
ticable." 

THE CREATION OF MAN. ADAM AND EYR 

It has frequently been asserted^, that Adam was 
made from the earth of the plain called " Campus 
Damascenus," near Hebron, which is of a red colour; 

* Adrichomius, Theatrimi Ter. San. Campus Damascenus, Ju- 
dah, 90. Joseplius, 'Ant. i. r, § 2. Brocardus, Ter. San. Descr. 
(Nov. Orbis, p. 319, ed. 1537). Saligaiac. Itin. Tom. x. c. 5. 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 8 1 

from this his name is supposed to be derived, since 
Adam in Hebrew signifies red. It is therefore no 
wonder that the Arabs in general, and especially the 
Mohammedans, regard this field with great reverence, 
and take away morsels of the earth as relics. Ac- 
cording to them, it was Azrael, the angel of death, 
who brought to God the dust of which Adam was 
formed. This had been gathered from the four quar- 
ters of the world, and was of different colours, cor- 
responding with those of the different races of men. 
After God had made man. He placed him in a Para- 
dise, where nothing was wanting that could minister 
to his pleasures; and on his complaining of loneliness, 
gave him Eve as his companion. She afterwards 
led him into sin, and God sent both of them to do 
penance and purify themselves by standing for forty 
days in the waters of the Jordan. Adam faithfully 
obeyed the command of God, but Eve came out of 
the river before her period of probation had expired, 
and thus incurred again the anger of the Almighty, 
who then separated them for one hundred years. 
Edrisi, an Arab historian, asserts that the body of 
Eve is buried at Jeddah, the port of Mecca, and that 
the Kaaba was the dwelling of Adam \ 

THE DEAD SEA (BAHR LUT), AND THE STATUE 

OF SALT. 

All the Arabs, both settled and nomad, are well 
aware that Lot had large possessions of fields and 

* Compare ^ith this account Gen. ii. 7, 8, 15. iii. 6, 10, 23. 

6 



82 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [OH. III. 

cattle in the plain now occupied by the Dead Sea, 
which they call Bahr JAi (the lake of Lot), They 
also point out the statue of salt of Lot's wife, with 
the sites and the ruins of the wicked cities. The facts 
connected with all these are indeed mingled with 
Oriental exaggerations and fantasies, but at the same 
time they are founded upon traditions, which have 
remained in existence in the country, and are con- 
tained in the Bible. By a mere chance, I am able 
to oflfer a perfectly natural explanation of the words 
of Genesis, "his wife... became a pillar of salt V' which, 
we may observe, do not appear to imply any especial 
miracle, but to relate the inevitable consequence of 
disobeying the warning of the angel *. 

In the month of April, 1859, ^ ^^^ engaged 
with some Bedawln, in making drawings and in- 
vestigations in the plain of Jericho. One day I 
was busy upon a plan of the Convent of S. John, 
situated near the Jordan, when, about noon, my 
escort advised me to mount my horse and return 
as quickly as possible to the castle of Jericho, in 
order to escape a coming storm from the east, which 
would raise and bear along clouds of sand. I of 
course listened to their warning, and by riding at 
full speed we succeeded in reaching the house of Zac- 
cheus (as it is called) in the present castle, a few 
minutes before the first blast of the storm. The 
heat of the atmosphere was suffocating, and I could 
not but remember the '' east wind '' so often men- 

^ Gen. xix. 26. ' Gen. xix. 17. 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS, 83 

tioned in the Bible \ The tempest raged, clouds 
of dust covered the sky, and greatly annoyed us 
even in the hut in which we had taken refuge 
together with our horses. The storm lasted about 
one hour in its greatest fury, and gradually went 
down with the sun. The year before I had expe- 
rienced a similar but much less severe tempest, 
during an excursion to the Jordan with my friend 
Count Nicholas Kouschelef, of S. Petersburg, and 
several others. In the evening, while we were at 
dinner in our tent, a sudden blast of the east wind 
carried away the tent, covered the viands with sand, 
and deposited a quantity of salt, far more than 
was sufficient for the scanty food which remained 
unspoiled. Besides, during one night in the month 
of February, 1856, air the terrace-roofs and streets 
in Jerusalem were covered about an inch deep with 
a mixture of sand and salt brought by an east 
wind, a thing which had not occurred before in the 
memory of the oldest inhabitant. To return, how- 
ever, to the storm of 1859. During the night 
a light' shower of brine fell, which next morning 
covered the ground like a hoar frost. The Bedawln 
informed me that this was only the prelude to a 
heavier fall, which would take place on the following 
two nights; and in consequence I remained to See 
the phenomenon. After dinner I made an expe- 
dition toward the Dead Sea, to the Convent of S. 
Gerasimus, and on my return I observed that the 

* Job xxvii. 21. Isaiah xxvii. 8. Jerem. xviii. 17. Ezek. 
xvii. 10. xix. 12. 

6—2 



84 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. ITT. 

shepherds were hastily driving their flocks inland 
or under cover. On asking why they were doing 
this, I was informed that when salt fell in large 
quantities during the night it was very injurious to 
animals. I accordingly determined to make an ex- 
periment, and purchased a well-grown lamb, which 
I tethered in an open place for the night. Near 
it we erected a booth of boughs, under which a 
Bedawy kept watch during the night, to drive away 
the wild beasts. In the morning the lamb was 
dead, and its body and the whole plain of Jericho 
were covered with a crust of salt just like snow^ 
The carcass was exposed for another night, and on 
the morning after it appeared Uke a heap of salt. 
This occurrence seemed to offer an easy explanation 
of the death of Lot's wife ; namely that, either 
disbelieving in the coming destruction of Sodom, 
or from weariness or obstinacy, she lingered behind 
and fell asleep or fainted ; that then a heavy shower 
of salt took place, caused by the cataclysm, and her 
corpse was covered with a thick crust of salt, so 
that it appeared like a statue or column. This, 
explanation will appear more probable, when we 
consider that even now near the south and south- 
eastern parts of the Dead Sea the salt is sometimes 
deposited by evaporation to a depth of six inches 
or even a foot, and the stones, shrubs, and skeletons 
of animals quickly become columnar heaps of salt ; 

* It is just possible that the Bedawy himself might have killed 
the lamb in the hope of being allowed to ea,t it next day, but I 
think this was not the case. 



CH, III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 85 

aud even upon the northern shores, things left for 
some time in the water are encrusted with a thin 
coating. Bathers too find themselves covered with 
small saline crystals which cause much pain to their 
eyes. M. de Saulcy^, however, gives a diflferent ex- 
planation of the death of Lot's wife : " At the 
moment when the huge mountain was heaved up 
volcanically there must have been throughout its 
whole extent tremendous falls of detached masses, 
similar to those we have observed at every step. 
Lot's wife having loitered behind, either through 
firight or curiosity, was most likely crushed by one 
of these descending fragments, and when Lot and 
his children turned round to look towards the place 
where she had stopped, they saw nothing but the 
salt rock which covered her body." We find men- 
tion made of this pillar of salt in the Book of 
Wisdom*, "A standing pillar of salt is a monument 
of an unbelieving soul." Josephus* again writes, 
"Lot's wife... was changed into a pillar of salt; for 
I have seen it, and it remains at this day.'* Ire- 
naeus* says, that it existed in his time, and was 
not like a statue of a woman, but a column of 
salt. S. Clement of Rome has also spoken of a 
column of salt being still visible in his days'. The 
author of the poem on Sodom ^, attributed to Ter- 

* Joui'iiey Round the Dead Sea and in Bible Lands, edited by 
Count" E. de Warren, Vol. 1. p. 269. 

* Wisd. X. 7. "" Ant. i. xL § 4. 

* Iren. iv. c 31, § 3. * Clement, Epist. i. 0. it. 

* c. 3, Vol. II. col. II 04, Migna 



86 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. III. 

tullian, speaks of the statue of salt. It is also 
mentioned by Eugesippus^ These citations shew 
that the tradition remained in the country, and 
that those who first handed it down fixed upon 
one of the masses of salt (like those still to be 
seen) to represent Lot's wife ; just as at the present 
day they still point to one of the many stalagmitic 
masses, which assume every possible form. The 
original heap has, no doubt, long ago been swept 
away, and those now seen will in like manner in 
course of time be dissolved and recombined. 



THE ANCIENT TEMPLE OF THE JEWS IS NOT 

REALLY DESTROYED. 

I conclude thisv chapter with a legend concern- 
ing the temple, which (apparently) is believed by 
certain Rabbis. ^^Not one stone of this ancient 
buUding has been thrown down, but prophets and 
angels have covered it with dust and ruins to con- 
ceal it from the sight of the wicked. The ark, the 
tables of the law, the rod of Moses, the jar of manna 
gathered in the desert, the candlestick, the tables of 
showbread, and all the sacred vessels are there, and 
the prophet Elias daily oflfers sacrifice within its 
walls, because without sacrifices the earth would not 
exist. When God restores again the captivity of the 
sons of Sion, all the stones of the temple will be 
foxmd in their ancient positions, and the holy of 

^ Leo Allalius, Sv/A/iifcro, p. 105. 



CH. III.] CERTAIN ARAB LEGENDS. 87 

holies be restored to its former glory. God will 
then unite Sinai, Tabor, and Carmel, and place upon 
them the new temple, which will never be destroyed. 
Thither will the Messiah bring the crown of the 
house of David, and there will He restore the king- 
dom to Israel, All the silver, gold, pearls, and 
precious stones, which are at the bottom of the water 
and which have been lost since the creation of the 
world, will be thrown up by the sea on the shore 
at Jaffa. The temple will be of silver, gold, and 
jewels; the Jews will return from exile to cele- 
brate the jubilee with the Messiah, and regain their 
ancient possessions \" 

* Tcdmvd Sa/nhed, Emek hammelech Fesickta rabbetha. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CUSTOMS AND HABITS COMMON TO THE ARABS 
WITH THE ANCIENT JEWS, ILLUSTRATED BY 
ANECDOTES. 



BAKHSHISH. 

What traveller in the East, especially in Syria, does 
not know the word Bakhshish ? So many thousand 
times has it been dinned into his ears that he uses it 
at home, and it has thus become almost naturalized in 
Europe. I cannot here enumerate all the occasions 
on which bakhshish is demanded, for they are num- 
berless. Sleeping or waking, dressing or undressing, 
working or idling, still the same cry is heard, hate- 
ful as the fly's buzz, the gnat's trumpet, or the flea's 
bite to the weary traveller. In a word, in Palestine 
men are born, live, and die, to the one tune " bakh- 
shish, bakhshish.'* I will relate a few anecdotes to 
shew some of the cases in which it is demanded by 
the Arabs, remarking that the Christians are as bad 
as the Mohammedans, and that the nomad tribes 
alone have sufficient self-respect to ask for it only on 
reasonable grounds. 

Once, in 1857, a missionary of the Latin rite was 



CH, IV.] AEAB AND JEWISH CUSTOMS. 80 

entreated by some Arabs to visit their district and 
preach to them. Their protestations of respect and 
their supplications were such that the good man had 
not the heart to refuse, and on a fixed day he went, 
A large number of Arabs attended and listened to 
his words. Much pleased with the attention of his 
hearers, and trusting that they had received some 
spiritual benefit, the preacher prepared to depart, 
when the whole congregation crowded around him 
demanding bakhshish, '*for," said they, *^we have 
come hither and listened to you." He threw some 
small coins to those who brought his horse and help- 
ed him into the saddle, and then rode away among 
the yells and curses of his disappointed flock. 

I have frequently come upon men or women 
quarrelling in a village or in the open country, grasp- 
ing each other by the dress or the hair, and scolding 
vehemently at the top of their voices. Sometimes 
I have interfered to prevent a fatal termination to 
the strife and separated the combatants, after pro- 
tecting the weaker party. As soon as tranquillity 
has been restored, both have pronounced the mighty 
word; and when I asked on what pretext they * 

claimed it, was generally informed, " Because I had 
interrupted their business," or " because they had left 
off to please me." I need not say that they forth- 
with received bakhshish from my horsewhip or stick, 
as a lesson for the fixture. In fact, the Arabs some- 
times get up a quarrel when they see a European 
coming, in hopes that they may be parted and so get 
an excuse for asking a gift. 



I 



90 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

One day, I was returning from inspecting the 
repairs of the road between Jaffii and Jerusalem 
(which were executed by order of Surraya pasha in 
1859), and, about two hours' journey from the latter 
place, found a labourer lying by the way side, who 
had been badly hurt in exploding a mine. I stopped, 
washed and bound up his wounds as well as I could, 
and then placing him on my horse, walked slowly 
by his side, accompanied by his brother, to the Latin 
Hospital in the town, and placed him in bed. It 
would naturally be supposed that the patient thanked 
me for my care. Not a word, he only asked for a 
bakhshish ; and as he was so badly hurt, I had not 
the heart to refuse it. This, however, was not all; 
on quitting the hospital I was met by the brother, 
who made the same demand. Out of patience, I 
asked "Why ?" He replied, " Because I have accom- 
panied you hither." "But you have accompanied 
your brother." "No, sir," he answered, "you told 
me to come, otherwise I should not have stirred!" 
He will not quickly forget the "bakhshish" that I 
administered. 

As I was going to Bethlehem, one Monday 
morning (the day on which labourers employed on 
buildings come to Jerusalem), I found a small bag 
containing a stonemason s tools ; I returned and after 
some trouble found the owner, who, instead of thank- 
ing me, asked for a "bakhshish," which was given 
heartily in the same coin as in the last case. 

If you give an order to an Arab, he generally 
executes it properly, and receives the reward which 



Cfl. IV.] AEAB AND JEWISH CUSTOMS. pi 

he has earned; but sometimes he tries to vex you 
by speaking loudly and insolently, in order that you 
may be provoked to beat him. His end is then 
gained, he throws himself on the ground, and utters 
loud and dismal howls, until a trifle is thrown to him, 
when he gets up and is quiet at once. 

Again, suppose you are visited by an Arab ; you 
receive him very hospitably, and perhaps give him 
some prese»ts for his femUy. Forthwith he caUs 
you Father, Benefactor, kisses your beard, hands and 
feet, and you think he will go away quite satisfied. 
Not at all, as he departs he asks iox a *^ bakhshish," 
because he reckons what he has already received for 
nothing, as it is not current coin. 

I could add numbers of other instances, did 
I not fear to weary the reader, all shewing the 
venal, grasping, and discontented nature of the Arab. 
Let us now consider the history of the ancient 
Jews, from whom I believe this custom has been 
derived, and we shall find that it prevailed among 
them. It may perhaps be said that the custom 
exists generally in the East, and this is true ; but 
it is nowhere so rampant and so unreasonable as in 
Palestine. 

Abraham received many presents firom Pharaoh 
king of Egypt, for Sarah's sake, and afterwards from 
Abimelech king of Gerard Jacob on his return 
from Padan Aram sent a propitiatory offering to 
Esau*, and, at a later period, to Joseph in Egypt^ 

' Gen. xii. i6. xx. 14, 16. 

' Gen. xxxii. 13 — 15. xxxiil 11. * Gen. xliii, ii. 



92 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. iv. 

The Israelites, on their departure from that country, 
asked and obtained gold and silver from the people '. 
Jesse sent a gift by the hand of David to the 
captain of the thousand in which his sons were 
serving*. Abigail, the wife of Nabal, appeased 
the anger of David with a present \ Naaman, the 
Syri^ln, oflfered gifts to Elisha, which were reftised 
by him, but taken afterwards by his servant Gehazi^ 
Many other instances might be given, but these 
are sufficient to shew that the Arabs only follow 
(though carrying to excess) the practice of the He- 
brews in the matter of ^' bakhshish." 

INNS FOR TRAVELLERS IN THE VILLAGES 

OF PALESTINE. 

The custom which I am about to describe, and 
of which I have frequently availed myself during 
my travels, exists in many of the villages in the 
interior of the country ; but in those near the larger 
towns, whither some faint ray of European civili- 
zation has penetrated, the inhabitants are become 
more selfish, and hospitality is no longer oflfered in 
the ancient patriarchal form. In the former there 
is a house of entertainment called a khan, its size 
depending upon the importance of the village, con- 
sisting of one or two unfurnished chambers for 
guests, and a courtyard for the beasts of burden. 

* Exod. xL 2, xii. 35, 36. ' i Sam. xvii. 18. 
^ I Sam. XXV. 18, 19, 23 — 27. 

* 3 Kings V, 15, 16, 21^23, 27. 



en. IV.] AJRAB AND JEWISH CUSTOMS. 93 

On the arrival of a visitor, the keeper of the khan 
takes note of his rank in life, and if he be a wealthy- 
man brings him one or more mats, cushions, and 
carpets; then offers water for washing, and after- 
wards a pipe, liqueurs, and coffee. When these pre- 
liminaries are finished, cakes of bread, eggs, dried 
fruits, olives, and milk, are brought, and after the 
meal is over pipes and coffee are again served. As 
I was accompanied during my earlier excursions by 
some of the cavalry of the pasha, I supposed that 
this was one of the exactions which were extorted 
by them from the unfortunate peasants ; and so 
wished to pay for the hospitality that I had received ; 
but I learnt with great surprise that, although I 
could give a "bakhshish" to the attendant, I was 
not to pay for my food and lodging, as that was 
offered to every stranger ; so, at least, I was informed 
by the chief of the village or one of the neighbours. 
All the families in the place are obliged to undertake 
in their turn this duty of supplying the keeper of the 
khan with whatever is necessary for the use of stran- 
gers, and whoever refuses to give what is wanted is 
severely punished by the chief, I cannot, however, 
recommend these khans in summer, as they are 
haunted by swarms of blood-thirsty vermin; but in 
winter they are a tolerable defence from the rain and 
damp. Even then the traveller must reject the car- 
pets and cushions of the establishment, and use his 
own; first taking the precaution to sprinkle them 
well with insect powder, and bum a quantity of it in 
the large brazier, which warms the chamber. I have. 



94 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. iv. 

however, been informed, that, in spite of this patri- 
archal hospitality, the traveller may sometimes be 
robbed, before he reaches the goal, perhaps by those 
whose turn it is to entertain him. 

In accordance with this custom illustrious strangers 
are frequently entertained sumptuously by the chiefs 
upon the more frequented roads. This, at first sight, 
would seem to be a great expense to the hosts, but 
it is not, as they take care to exact from the neigh- 
bourhood every thing that will be wanted, and to pre- 
pare more than will be consumed. Thus their families 
are the gainers by the leavings, and their dependents 
make no complaints; for if they did, they would 
speedily be silenced by a shower of blows. Of this 
custom I was an eyewitness when the duke and 
duchess of Brabant, the grand-duke Constantine of 
Eussia, and the arch-duke Maximilian visited Je- 
rusalem. 

Though the khan may not be very pleasant to 
Europeans, and perhaps not too agreeable even to 
natives, owing to the mal-practices of the greedy 
chiefs, still we cannot but recognize in the institution 
a continuation of the hospitality mentioned in the 
Bible, These khans correspond with the inns called 
MM6n in the Hebrew text, which word signifies a 
refuge for the night, such as are still found on the 
public roads \ This social virtue has undoubtedly 
been received from their ancestors by the inhabitants"^, 

' Gen. xlii. 27. Exod. iv. 24. Jerem. ix. 2, Also termed 
G^ruth, from G^r, *a stranger,' Jerem. xli. 17. 

' Geties. xix. 2, 3. Judges xix. 21. Job xxxi. 32, &c. 



CH. IV.] AEAB AND JEWISH CUSTOMS. 95 

but the nomads are more generous in their exercise 
of it than the others. 



HOW NAMES ARE GIVEN IN PALESTINE. 

Generally throughout the country, but more es- 
pecially in the interior, the Fell^hln and the Bedawln 
are never called by their family names, but are dis- 
tinguished one from another by the addition of the 
father's name, and sometimes the mother's also, to 
that borne by the individual. Occasionally too a 
nickname is added or the name of the man's native 
country. As, for example, James, son of David and 
of Tamar, but more usually James, son of David, son 
of Stephen, In this respect also the Arabs follow 
the customs of the Hebrews *. 



HEAPS OF STONES. 

The traveller in Palestine frequently remarks in 
the open country pyramidal piles of small stones of 
different heights. These, as I proceed to explain, 
have significations differing with their shapes. When 
they are from five to six feet high, and arranged in 
a line with a certain regularity, they are meant 
to mark the spot where a battle has taken place 
between two hostile tribes; as I will describe in 
speaking of wars and confiicts. When, however, 
they are formed of five or more stones and are placed 

* Gen. xxiv. 47. i Sam. ix. i. xvi. i. xvii. 58. S. Mark i. 
19. S. Luke iii. 2, &c. 



96 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cn. IV. 

on the boundary of some property, they signify that 
there two litigants have come to terms^ and erected 
them in token of their agreement, and no one dares 
to remove these landmarks. Sometimes small heaps 
surround fields, where the crops are growing or have 
just been reaped, or are placed upon piles of logs or 
hewn timbers, signifying that they are private pro- 
perty, so that no one ventures to take them. I have 
no doubt that this custom was mainly derived from 
the ancient owners of the soil, for we find many in- 
stances of it in the Bible. Laban and Jacob raised 
a heap of stones as a witness of the covenant between 
them^ Jacob, after his vision, took the stone which 
had served for his pillow and *'set it up for a pillar V 
He that removes his neighbour's landmark is cursed'. 
Joshua set up twelve stones in the Jordan, and 
twelve others, taken from the bed of the river, at 
Gilgal, in memory of the miracle wrought there for 
Israel*. Again, at the close of his life, he "set up 
a great stone under an oak " as a witness unto the 
people, lest they should deny their God*. We may 
also remember that from the earliest times altars 
were formed in a similar manner'. 

THE POOR IN PALESTINE. 

Among the ancient Hebrews the poor in general 
had certain rights, which must have protected them 

* Gen. xxxi. 45 — 53. * Gen. xxviiL 18. 

^ Deut. xxvii. 17. * Josb. iv. 9, 20 — 22. 

* JcMsh. xxiv. 26, 27, 

* Gen. viii. 20. xii. 7, 8. xxvi. 25, «fec. 



CH. IV.] THE POOR. 97 

against extreme want. Besides a great number of 
moral precepts, recommending the poor to kindness 
and protection, we find certain dues secured to them 
by the laws, as '' when ye reap the harvest of your 
land, thou shalt not wholly reap the comers of thy 
field, neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy 
harvest, and thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, nei- 
ther shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard ;" 
also the sheaf forgotten in the field was not to be 
fetched, nor the olive-tree to be beaten over a second 
time ; these were to be left for the poor, the widow> 
the orphan, and the stranger \ who were also to share 
in the third year's tithes*. These ordinances would 
prevent any Hebrew family from being reduced to 
great straits; especially as in the year of Jubilee 
(every fiftieth year), land which had been sold 
4ihrough poverty reverted to its former owners^. The 
laws of Moses make no reference to the beggar in 
the strict sense of the word, nor is he mentioned any 
where in the Old Testament, a fact which is worthy 
of notice. 

Let us now consider the present condition of the 
poor in Palestine. The beggars, whom we meet there,^ 
wear a mask of misery, but do not really suffer, as 
they are assisted by all ; and in one sense they may 
often be said to be richer than their helpers, as their 
wants are easily satisfied, while those of the latter 
are greater and more insatiate. The Arab is a ready 

* Lev. xix. 9, lo. xxiii. 22. Deut. xxiv. 19 — 22. Ruth ii. 2. 

* Deut. xiv. 28, 29. Prov. xix. 17. 
^ Lev. XXV. 10, II, 28. 



98 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [cH. IV. 

thief, and plunders the traveller whenever he has a 
good chance of attacking him, but he is liberal to the 
needy, and his hand is never drawn back from the 
cry of want. In his vengeance he is capable of re- 
ducing to beggary a brother or a friend, who has 
oflfended him, by cutting down his orchard, burning 
his crops, and killing his cattle, but when the vic- 
tim implores help in his poverty, his anger is ap- 
peased, and he thinks only of relieving his neces- 
sities. This is done openly by the Mohammedan 
Arabs; with those who are Christian the mask of 
hypocrisy is more or less worn. In a word, the 
Arab well knows the proverb "He that hath pity 
upon the poor, lendeth unto the Lord; and that 
which he hath given will He pay him again*." It 
will, perhaps, be asserted that Mohammed in the 
Koran ordered the practice of charity, but he did 
not fix the details of the manner in which it was to 
be administered, and it is in these that his followers 
imitate the ancient Hebrews. 

In Palestine the poor man is hospitably received, 
wherever he goes ; whatever be his creed, bread and 
food are always ready for him at every door ; he can 
shelter himself from the storm and the cold in the 
peasant's hut, and is not repulsed from the rich man's 
house. He may gather sticks for his fire, and glean 
in the fields when the harvest is over. He has not 
indeed the advantage of the Sabbatical year, of the 
Jubilee, and the third year tithes, but instead he 

^ Prov. xix. 17. 



OH. IV.] THE POOR. 99 

reaps the benefit of many charitable customs, which 
compensate him for the loss. 

During the great Mohammedan solemnities, as 
for example, the fast of the Ramadhan, the four great 
feasts, and also those of the Kurban Beyram, the 
rich consider that they are not keeping them aright, 
unless they attend to the wants of the poor; accord- 
ingly the mendicants are clad and fed, are visited and 
relieved, if unable to move ; so that the very precept 
of the Bible is observed', ^'Thou shalt rejoice in 

thy feast, thou, the stranger, and the fatherless, 

and the widow, that are within thy gates." Indeed, 
so much is this principle carried out, that a kind of 
rivalry prevails in their liberality. Arab generosity 
is well shewn by an action of the sheikh Aboogoosh, 
the renowned and dreaded chief of the mountains of 
Judaea, of whom I shall speak again : at present it 
is enough to say that he is considered to be the most 
formidable leader of the brigands of Palestine. An 
honest father of a family (a member of the Greek 
Church) came from Constantinople to Jerusalem in 
order to obtain work ; having lost all hope of success, 
lie was anxious to return with his family to his for- 
mer abode, but was unable to do so from want of 
means. Disappointed in procuring help from the 
Christians, he applied in 1857 to this chief, who was 
acquainted with him, and who, on learning his state, 
furnished him with provisions, paid his expenses to 
Jaffa, giving him besides two hundred francs to con- 
vey him thence and relieve his necessities. The pro- 

' Dcut. xvi. 14. 

7—2 



-' -> ^ ' 



100 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

sperity which the man now enjoys dates from this 
time. 

To return, however, to the resources of the poor. 
In many of the large towns, and especially in Jeru- 
salem, there are public charities, to which both 
strangers and natives can apply, without being asked 
by an inspector for their certificate of poverty, or to 
what communion they belong, and can share in the 
daily distribution of bread and soup. The hospice 
called Tekhi^ el-Khasseki Sultane, generally known 
in the Holy City as the Hospital of S. Helena, is 
one of these institutions, and there are others at 
Hebron, Gaza, and other places'. 

From the encouragement given by the Moham- 
medans to beggars it comes that they are so indis- 
creet as to say to Europeans, who offer them bread 
when they ask an alms, " we do not want bread, but 
bakhshish,'^ i. e, money ; and if this is refused, they 
are liberal in their curses, when they think they will 
not be understood. In Jerusalem, the lepers also 
present themselves as poor, and no one refuses 
them, from compassion for their sores and mutilated 
limbs, so freely exhibited ; but no one who knows 
the country is bountiful in his gifts to them, being 
aware that they possess mules, houses, and revenues, 

* Unhappily these institutions are not now so rich as they 
formerly were ; for their present managers hold that charity begins 
at home, and help themselves not to the bread and soup, but to 
the property of the establishment. This they do more greedily as 
their office is not permanent ; so that every charitable foundation 
in Palestine is being continually devoured by these dragon?, called 
effendis, of whom more anon. 



CH. IV.] WAKUFF, lOI 

health alone being wanting. The dervishes act in 
the same manner, but their poverty is like that of 
the Jesuits in Europe. 



WAKUFF. 

This name is given to property left in trust for 
charitable purposes; and if that which is in Pales- 
tine were sensibly and honestly managed, not only 
would the condition of the poor be much improved, 
but the institutions themselves might be enlarged 
and rebuilt. However, instead of this, these chari- 
ties of a past age are perishing for want of funds, 
being plundered by those who should be their guar- 
dians, who violate the commands of the founder, 
and rob the poor, the widow, and the orphan. These 
false shepherds are the Mohammedan effendis of 
Jerusalem and of every other place in the Holy Land 
that possesses Wakuff, and furnishes food for the 
voracity and venality of those who rule the people. 
Every mosque, college, hospice, hospital, religious 
establishment, and public fountain, is endowed with 
certain properties, the revenues of which, derived from 
long leases, are managed by trustees called Mute- 
welli. According to the rules, every time that a 
property changes hands by the death or resignation 
of the lessee, these men are bound to let it out again 
to the highest bidder, so that the rent may increase 
with the value of the estate. Instead of doing this, 
they still retain the prices imposed at the time of the 



102 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cH. IV. 

original foundation (when the piastre was worth 
nearly fiv.e francs instead of twenty-two centimes, as 
at present) ; so that in consequence of the enormous 
change in the value of money an endowment of 
twenty thousand piastres is not really worth more 
than a thousand. Thus, while the Wakuff is ruined, 
the Mutewelli are enriched ; for at every change of 
tenants they, with the utmost cunning, demand a fee 
for affixing their seal to the conveyance, an indis- 
pensable formality. The new deed is only an exact 
copy of the old one, with the price therein un- 
changed ; but as these worthy men do not wish to 
benefit the new tenant only, they manage the mat- 
ter by consenting to receive a "bakhshish," which 
makes things pleasant to both parties. Owing to 
this arrangement the revenues of the Wakuff are 
diverted into private purses, and do not suffice even 
to make the simplest repairs in the buildings of the 
establishments, which become more ruinous day by 
day, until at last a general downfall takes place. 
Hence it is that all the hospices, hospitals, and 
schools in Jerusalem and in the rest of Palestine, 
are either in ruins or greatly impoverished; while 
the fountains no longer offer a refreshing draught to 
the thirsty traveller. 

These deplorable abuses are rather due to the 
men than to the faults of the system. Though in 
it there are some grave defects, it appears to be 
founded on the idea of a theocratic government and 
ownership. To take an ancient example, Moses 
may be said to have constituted the Holy Land a 



CH. IV,] MONEY BURIED IN PALESTINE,. 103 

Wakuff with a tenancy of fifty years I Just as 
among the Hebrews Jehovah was the sole owner', 
so the Mutewelli are the real possessors, the person 
who farms the land having only temporary rights 
in it. Although in the former case the law, which 
in reality made property inalienable, only applied 
to land, owing to the legislator's predilection for the 
nomad life, it extended the privilege to the town- 
houses of the clergy, ^. e. of the Levites^, so as to 
give them a perpetual right of redemption. The 
above description will explain to the traveller why 
so many edifices, especially in Jerusalem, are in a 
state of ruin, and why on his journey through the 
country he finds so many cisterns and fountains 
dried up. 



MONEY BURIED IN PALESTINE. 

Not seldom when ruins are removed money is 
found enclosed in small leathern bags, or more fre- 
quently in earthenware vases. I have never indeed 
been so lucky as to meet with this good fortune, 
in all the masses of rubbish that I have removed ; 
for this, however, I cared little, as I was only 
anxious to discover ancient Jewish coins, which are 
never found thus united, but scattered singly up and 
down the country. Once only have I seen coins 
found in this way which did not belong to the or- 

* Levit. XXV. 13. * Levit. xxv. 23. 

^ Levit. xxv. 33, 34. 



104 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

dinary money of the country; these were Cufic, and 
were discovered by the Arab dragoman of the French 
consulate in a plot of land near the Judgment 
Gate in Jerusalem. Hoarding is a genuine Arab 
custom, and was produced by the voracity of the 
^^ paternal government/' which made the poor man 
afraid of shewing that he possessed anything, lest 
it should be extorted from him. Now, thanks to 
the good rule of Kiamil pasha and Surraya pasha, 
and the energy of the consuls, a great change for 
the better has been inaugurated, and though they 
have not yet been able to overcome every abuse, 
yet extortion is less barefaced than formerly, and is 
practised in a more graceful manner; so that we 
may hope that this custom, so prejudicial to im- 
provement, and such a frequent cause of loss, will 
soon cease entirely. 

We of course cannot expect to find this habit 
prevaihng among the chosen people, as it is due 
solely to the venality of the government of the Sub- 
lime Porte ; but we see an instance of it in the case 
of Achan with the silver, the gold, and the goodly 
Babylonish garment from Jericho \ 



THE EFFENDIS OF PALESTINR 

The title of EfFendi belongs to all those who, 
from their birth, fortune, or intelligence, or from 
the offices they discharge, are raised above the ordi- 

* JosL vii. 21. 



CH. IV.] THE EFFENDIS. I05 

nary level of the people, and are their guides, coun- 
sellors, or moderators, according to circumstances. 
They may be said to be the aristocracy of the people, 
and form the council named "megilis," whose duty 
is to assist the governor of the country in his busi- 
ness and deliberations. From them are chosen the 
municipal authorities, the councils for administering 
the mosques and public charities; to them the re- 
ceipts of all the imposts are confided; and, in a 
word, all the public offices, to which the local go- 
vernment, and even that of the Sublime Porte, have 
the nomination. Instead, however, of being, as they 
should be from their position, upholders of the law, 
protectors of the weak, and examples to all, they 
are a curse to the country, and a greater evil to Pales- 
tine than the plagues were to Egypt ; because those 
were temporary, but these are permanent. Their 
order, however, presents some resemblance, except 
in its corruptness, to an institution of the ancient 
Hebrews, which we will consider before enlarging 
upon the faults of the efiendis. Among this people 
the elders exercised great authority, and were held 
in high respect ^ as their experience made them the 
natural counsellors and judges of the nation. At a 
later period the word became a regular title, con- 
ferred on those who by their wealth or wisdom had 
placed themselves at the head of a tribe or taken a 
lead in public afikirs. They are found among the 
Hebrews in Egypt, in the desert, and at every epoch 
of the national history. Sometimes the elders of all 

* Josb. xxiii. 2. xxiv. i. Job xii. 12, <kc. 



I06 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. IV. 

Israel are mentioned*, sometimes those of a tribe or 
of the cities*. In certain expiatory rites they repre- 
sented the city or the whole nation^. They were the 
municipal authorities, and frequently formed a court 
for trying crimes*. They also assisted the chief 
ruler with their counsels, with whom we often find 
them in direct union; whom also they sometimes 
compelled to yield to their will. Moses, at the time 
of a dangerous revolt, availed himself of their ser- 
vices by selecting a body of seventy to aid in sup- 
porting his authority*. Joshila, after a defeat, fell 
down before the Ark with the elders of Israel^. 
They required Samuel to resign his ojBSce and ap- 
point a king^, and at a later period conferred the 
royal power on David®; and many other examples 
of a similar kind might be cited, if it were neces- 
sary, to shew what was the nature of the position 
which they occupied. 

The same influence, though in a less degree, is 
still exercised by the efiendis of Jerusalem, who 
are constituted and organized as the Jewish elders; 
but, unhappily for those who are under their power, 
they are destitute of patriotism, philanthropy, and 
virtue, and ignorant of the precept, "Thou shalt 

* Josh. vii. 6. I Sam. iv. 3. 2 Sam. iii. 17. 2 Chron. x. 
6, kc, 

* Deut. xix. 12. xxi. 20. Judges viii. 14. i Sam. xi. 3. 
I Kings xxi. 8. 

* Deut. xxi. 2, Lev. iv. 15. ix. i. 

* Deut. xxi. 19. xxii. 15. xxv. 7. 

* Numb. xi. 16. ' Josh. vii. 6. 
' I Sam. viii. 4. ® 2 Sam. v. 3. 



CH. IV.] THE EFFENDIS. 107 

take no gift : for the gift blindeth the wise, and per- 
verteth the words of the righteous ^" Among them 
are good and bad, wise and foolish, rich and poor, 
fanatic and moderate, contented and discontented; 
consequently they are divided into parties, which 
however act in perfect harmony in any question 
about the duty (as they call it) of laying burdens 
on the Christians. For the last few years the people 
have been more regardless of their quarrels, and the 
Christian convents have shewn themselves less ready 
to suffer their attempts at extortion; owing more 
especially to the good rule of the late governor, Sur- 
raya pasha, the activity of the consuls, the increase 
of the European population, and, above all, to the 
waning prestige of Mohammedan fanaticism and 
of the Turkish nation, that ^'sick man" whose last 
agony and death is near at hand. It is a disgraceful 
thing that any nation, deaf to the cries and sufferings 
of so many miserable Christians throughout the East, 
should strive with all its efforts to retard this event. 
God however is more powerful than the policy of 
this world, and will accomplish His designs. 

The effendis finding themselves less successful 
against the Christians than formerly, have turned 
upon the natives, their fellow-believers, whom they 
no longer rob by open violence, but by craft and 
well-disguised knavery. For example, an effendi is 
in charge of a district, for which he receives from 
the government a monthly pay of a thousand Turk- 
ish piastres (about eight guineas). This of course is 

* Exod. xxiii. 8. 



I08 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

insufficient to maintain the dignity of his rank and 
repay him for what he has spent to obtain it and 
settle himself there. Consequently he sells his gqod 
will and protection to the highest bidder, and is 
liberal with his visits, which are considered as fa- 
vours, to those who are likely to supply him with 
booty. However, he never asks for anything, and 
must be pressed before he will accept. Sometimes 
he complains in a friendly way, especially to those 
who have suits before him, that the barley for his 
horse is dusty and gritty, that the meat of the coun- 
try is not juicy, or his coffee not true Mocha, that he 
cannot buy good coffee-services, glasses, pipe-stems, 
carpets, or the like. Soon he finds that his hearers 
are neither deaf nor stupid : woe to them if they are ! 
Still he has asked for nothing, and therefore cannot 
be accused of cupidity. When a present is made, 
it is of course only to prove that the articles can be 
got in the country, and so he calls for his servants, 
and with angry looks shews them the things, ex- 
claiming, ^^ Why cannot you find out the good things, 
since they are to be got? Away with you directly" 
(so he says, lest they should reply); "I shall know 
how to punish." Thus he apparently fumes and rages, 
but at last he always suffers himself to be appeased 
by the donors and the other bystanders, lest he 
should seem ungrateful to them. 

Again, in the discharge of his duties as governor, 
he has to visit the towns and the surrounding country 
under his charge, and of course on a rigorous exami- 
nation, it is not hard to find faults. This road is not 



CH. IV.] THE EFFENDIS, I Op 

clean, that wants paving; this conduit needs repair; 
these houses are falling down and are dangerous; 
the bakers sell their bread underweight; the but^ 
chers ask more than the lawful price, and the like. 
Then follow abuse, threats, and edicts, fulminated 
against the law-breakers, who are beaten and impri- 
soned. But what comes of it? Nothing, so far as 
I know, except that the evils are undiminished, and 
the laws unexecuted ; while the magistrate finds his 
monthly allowance of a thousand piastres multiplied, 
and his house provided with every luxury. 

Again, during a country tour, we hear him make 
such remarks as these, "What fine cattle these are! 
What is the price of that white lamb! How my 
children would like that kid as a play-fellow ! Please 
let me have a little wool when you shear, I will pay 
for it when you like, but mind it is all white, the 
cost is no object (no more it is). Are your cattle 
good milkers? How much cheese do you make in 
a year?'' So he chatters pleasantly for a time, then 
suddenly flies into a passion and storms. The poor 
farmer, frightened out of his wits> cannot tell what to 
make of it, till at last it appears that his cattle are 
feeding where they have no right, and he is ordered 
to present himself at the end of three days before the 
governor, who departs after threatening him roughly. 
One of his servants, however, ptops behind on some 
trifling excuse, and teaches the terrified farmer how 
to soothe his master's wrath. A private visit to 
the governor's house precedes the public interview, 
and some of the things noticed by him find their 



no CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. IV. 

way thither. Then, when the cause is called on, the 
magistrate undertakes the poor man's defence, ex- 
cusing him on the ground of ignorance, or saying 
that his cattle had only just passed the boundary 
when he saw them. This actually occurred in the 
district of Hebron. As may be supposed, I have 
known many effendis, who went to their districts 
poor, ill-mounted, and ill-provided, return rich and 
well supplied with horses and furniture. Hence 
law is a mockery, and justice is bought and sold; 
the holders of office have paid for their places, and 
lose no opportunity of repaying themselves; the 
vices of the rulers are eagerly copied by their sub- 
ordinates, and the whole is one vast system of bri- 
bery and corruption. 

To give an idea of the high tribunal of justice, 
I will relate a circumstance which occurred during 
my stay at Jerusalem; one indeed which has often 
happened before, though without being so generally 
known, and which will often happen in the future. 

I must first, however, mention that the khadi, 
who is the chief judge in causes civil and criminal, 
and, in a word, the head of the law, holds his office 
for a year only. He is an efiendi, chosen by the 
high court of justice at Constantinople, and has the 
appointment of all the other inferior judges in the 
different districts of the pashalic, with which the 
pasha himself has nothing to do. Consequently the 
khadi, from the moment of his arrival, is sur- 
rounded by a number of effendis, aspirants to these 
posts. In i860 a well known intriguer contrived 



CH. IV.] THE EFFENDIS. Ill 

to ingratiate himself with the new magistrate, who, 
though he had been warned against the fellow, did 
not repulse him, but lent a ready ear to his words. 
This man recommended an eflfendi of NabMs for 
the office of judge in that town, and the khadi pro- 
mised to appoint his nominee on payment of twenty- 
four thousand piastres (about two hundred pounds 
sterling), sending at the same time the rascal to in- 
stall his friend in the post and receive the money. 
All was done in due course, but the man, instead 
of taking back the money to the khadi, departed 
secretly for Beyrout, having first recommended his 
friend to return at once to Jerusalem to make the 
acquaintance of the khadi, and thank him in person. 
The poor man attended to the hint, but on present- 
ing himsolf was not received as favourably as he had 
hoped, and after a few words learnt that his two 
hundred pounds had never reached their destina- 
tion. It was in vain that he shewed the receipt of 
the fraudulent commissioner; the khadi was not 
going to be a loser; so in order to retain his 
office, he had to pay the sum over again. It may 
be easily imagined what kind of. an administration 
this man's would be, when he had four hundred 
pounds to make up before he could gain anything. 
The two rogues had not the sense to keep their own 
counsel; anger at having been cheated overpowered 
their discretion, and the story got abroad. That 
justice was blind I knew from a child, but I was 
grey before I heard of a Turkish khadi and an Arab 
eflfendi being taken in by a Greek Catholic. My 



112 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

intimacy with Surraya pasha made me acquainted 
with many other cases of roguery ; and I confidently 
ask how it is possible for a country to be prosperous 
that is at the mercy of such men as these ? 



THE SANTONS IN PALESTINE. 

The name Santon is applied to certain persons 
who are found in the mosques, in the towns, and in 
some of the Mohammedan oratories in the villages 
and open country, and even in grottoes and caverns, 
or who wander about the country, pretending to 
prophesy, to give wise counsels, to possess miracu- 
lous powers, and to heal the sick. Consequently 
they are highly esteemed by the Mohammedans, 
who deem themselves favoured if they are visited 
by one of these men, welcoming such a guest as the 
harbinger of prosperity, and supplying him with 
provisions on his departure. They may be divided 
into two classes, the wise, who live in houses near 
the sanctuaries, and the fools, who are considered to 
be inspired, and allowed to do as they please; con- 
sequently as but few of them are really mad, they 
indulge in every kind of caprice and extravagance : 
some wander naked over the country ; others, with 
a girdle round their waists and very long hair, sing 
incessantly, so long as they are heard or seen; 
others, covered with rags and foaming at the mouth, 
gnash their teeth and roll their eyes in frenzy. Dif- 
ferent powers are attributed to the different mem- 



CH. IV.] THE SANTONS. 1 1 3 

bers of these two classes ; one can cure sterility in 
women, another obtain rain in time of drought, an- 
other render the fields fruitful, another restore the 
sick to health, and many can foretell events to come. 
Some of the Mohammedans do not believe in the pre- 
tensions of these fellows, but they are, notwithstand- 
ing, obliged to endure them and entertain them in 
their rooms, when they thrust themselves uninvited 
into their company and festivities, because otherwise 
they would become unpopular with the common 
people. I have often seen Kiamil pasha and Surraya 
pasha patiently enduring the presence of these men 
at their divans, though they were covered with dirt 
and vermin, and feasting them on their departure 
to the satisfaction of the bystanders. Once, how- 
ever, at the time of the Syrian massacres, Surraya 
pasha was moved to displeasure by one of these 
fanatics, who sang songs in Jerusalem calculated to 
excite the passions of the people. He ordered him 
to be seized and brought before him, after which he 
was released with the promise of prison and a beat- 
ing if he did not change his tune. The man 
attended to the warning and left the city at once, 
seeing fiiU well that he had encountered a more 
powerful santon than himself, who would unques- 
tionably keep his word. 

One or two instances will shew the respect in 
which some of these men are held. The mosque of the 
Ascension on Mount Olivet was kept by a santon 
whom I always respected, because I never heard 
him utter a word of fanaticism: his conversation 

8 



114 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

was marked by moderation and charity; he con- 
sidered the Christians to be sons of God as well 
as those of his own religion, and entertained them 
in his house before shewing them the mosque and 
its precincts. In 1855 tte rain did not fall at the 
usual time; prayers were offered up for it by the 
various communities in Jerusalem. Still it came not, 
so the Mohammedans asked if God had heard the 
entreaties of the faithful. The good old man made no 
reply, but fell on his knees and prayed ; then placing 
first one ear and then the other on the ground, he 
raised himself after some minutes, and said to the 
bystanders, " the earth asks nothing." This done, he 
withdrew, leaving them to interpret his words. After 
twp days, as it happened, rain came, and the obvious 
explanation of the oracle was that the earth asked 
nothing, because it knew that rain was about to fall. 
Had this not been the case, the words would have 
meant that the earth was not yet in want. Again, 
before Surraya pasha rid Hebron of two famous 
brigands, and while he was considering how to get 
both of them into his power, he asked a santon of 
Ascalon whether what he was then meditating would 
succeed. (He never breathed a syllable of his de- 
signs to any one until the moment of their execu- 
tion.) The Santon replied, "That, which you pur- 
pose, will succeed, but take care lest a mesh of the 
net break." A few days later one of the brigands 
was captured near Jerusalem, and three days after- 
wards the other, and more dangerous, was secured 
at Hebron. These were the brothers Salem and 



CH. IV.] THE SANTONS, II5 

Abdelrokman, who had ravaged the country for so 
many years, setting the governor at defiance. After 
this the santon came to congratulate the pasha, and 
to remind him that he had prophesied rightly. He 
took the man under his protection, not because he 
believed in his power as a seer, but because of the 
talent shewn by his answer; for had one, or both, 
of the brothers escaped, then a mesh would have 
been broken, and the prediction not the less true. 

We may compare the more sensible among these 
santons with the prophets of BaaP, and the beha- 
viour of the more insane with that of David when 
brought before Achish, king of Gath*. We cannot 
fail also to be reminded of the divine frenzy that 
overcame Saul when *^he stripped oflf his clothes 
and prophesied, and lay down naked all that day 
and all that nightV' and of the ''hairy garment" 
and appearance of Elijah and others*; these things 
shew how the outward forms have remained, though 
the spirit is now widely different. 

I now proceed to speak of the honours accorded 
to these santons after death, and will describe the 
funeral of one of them which I witnessed in 1858. 
Before doing so, however, I will say a few words 
about the man himself. A santon named Daud 
(David) lived in Jerusalem in apparent destitution, 
though in reality he was by no means badly off. He 
was clad with a loose blue robe, which, when worn out, 

* I Kings xviii. 26 — 28. * i Sam. xxi. 13. 
' I Sam. xix. 24. 

* 2 Kings i. 8. Isaiah xx. 2. Zech. xiii. 4. S. Matt. iii. 4. 

8—2 



Il6 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

was at once replaced by the charity of the Moham- 
medans; in it were two large side-pockets, always 
well filled. I sometimes added to his store, as 
it was a good way of ingratiating myself with the 
people, and so avoiding opposition to my researches. 
Although he thus came to consider me less of an 
infidel than other Christians, he never allowed me 
* to witness his miracles, the accounts of which I pass 
over; but he used to accompany me during my ar- 
chaeological investigations, and was a great protec- 
tion to me wherever I went. One day, however, 
my friend was found dead in one of the numerous 
chambers inside the Haram es-Sherlf : no cause could 
be assigned to account for his end, and the common 
people asserted that his soul, after flying for some 
hours about the interior of the dome of the mosque 
of Omar, visited the tomb of David on mount Sion, 
and then winged its way to heaven. While it was 
thus employed, the Mohammedans came together in 
crowds to visit his corpse ; many kissed it and carried 
away small fragments of his dress as rehcs; and 
numbers of women, imitated by men, youths, and 
boys, rolled upon the ground, uttering cries and 
groans, and tearing their hair and flesh. These 
signs of grief recalled to my mind the conduct of 
David and his followers on hearing of the deaths of 
Saul and of Abner^ 

Of course these demonstrations of grief were 
followed by a splendid funeral, and a multitude of 
every rank and station, of both sexes, assembled in 

* 2 Sam. i. II. iii. 31, 32. 



CH. IV.] THE , SANTONS. 1 1 7 

the Haram es-Sherif for that purpose- The corpse was 
laid on a bier, covered with rich carpets and Persian 
shawls; first went a moving wood of banners and 
branches of palms and olives ; then followed santons, 
dervishes, effendis, the people singing and repeating 
continually, '^ La ilah ilia 'llah wa Mohammed resul 
Allah," (There is na God but God, and Mohammed 
is the prophet of God). A number of blind men 
preceded the bier, which was carried by six persons^ 
who were changed every minute, because, from the 
most powerful effendi to the lowest of the people, all 
appeared anxious to have the honour of bearing the 
mortal remains of DaAd. Many in their hearts 
were by no means desirous, but that was not the 
time to shew indifference, as the populace would 
have remarked it, and perhaps passed from grief to 
rage. After this foUcAved a crowd of women, many 
weeping, others sighing, uttering loud yells, and 
throwing handkerchiefs into the air, one of the 
strongest marks of sympathy with a Mohammedan 
funeral. In this manner the procession quitted 
the mosque of Omar and the Haram es-Sherif, 
•and directed its course towards the Jaffa Gate, 
by the road leading straight up to it from the 
Haram. No little time was occupied in accomplish- 
ing this ^distance, owing to frequent halts; and on 
enquiring the reason of these, I was gravely answered 
that the santon resisted them, as he was unwilling 
to be buried, and leave the city and its sanctuaries, 
so that the bearers were stopped by a superhuman 
force, which they could only overcome by repeatedly 



Il8 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

uttering the name of God. At the Jafik Gate the 
contest was stronger than ever, and I was assured 
that positively Daftd would not quit the enclosure 
of the walls. In this difficulty the pasha appeared 
upon the gate, when the santon condescended to 
pass it, and the prayers and escort of the governor 
prevailed upon him to go quietly as far as the ceme- 
tery of Birket Mamillah, where he allowed himself 
to be buried, among the sighs of many, and the mad 
demonstrations of grief of the women. For eight 
days his tomb received great honours, and even now 
some go to pray in vain to him for aid. Thus 
the Arabs act towards their santons as the Israelites 
did towards their prophets. 

A JOURNEY TO THE JOEDAN AND THE 

DEAD SEA. 

Whatever be the rank or numbers of the travel- 
lers who wish to make this excursion, an escort is 
a moral guarantee, and is considered indispensable 
to protect them against any injury from the tribes 
right and left of the Jordan; who, from their wild 
and covetous natures, are not disposed to receive 
uninvited guests. Formerly the escort was supplied 
by the sheikhs of the tribes or villages on the road, 
and the price was fixed by an ancient custom at a 
hundred piastres (about sixteen shillings) for each 
traveller; but after many conflicts had arisen be- 
tween the tribes and villagers about their rights on 
this point, Surraya pasha decreed that he would not 
recognize an escort unless it were supplied by the 



CH. IV.] A JOURNEY TO THE DEAD SEA. II9 

government, in which case he would render himself 
responsible for everything. Therefore the cavalry 
of the government are now the official escort. 

Many writers on Palestine have vividly depicted 
the dangers they incurred, and the threats of attack 
from which they suflfered during this excursion; 
while others have described how they were armed, 
and ready to resist every attack. I must, however, 
venture to declare that these dangers are only to 
be found when the rules of the government are dis- 
regarded, and that in all otl^r cases the traveller 
is perfectly safe with two horse-soldiers; not be- 
cause they are any real defence, for they would be 
the first to fly, but because they produce a moral 
efifect by representing the power of the government, 
which sends the traveller only where it is sure to 
meet with prompt obedience. As for arms and re- 
sistance, they are all very well in Europe, but useless 
in a place where every stone may hide its man, and 
the assailants, though they may suffer loss, must 
prevail by force of numbers. In an affair of this 
kind it is no use thinking of courage or glory ; pru- 
dence only is necessary so as to suffer as little as 
possible. Unless blood has been shed by the person 
attacked the danger to life is very small, for the 
Arab respects it, as he fears having to pay the price 
of blood, and knows well that the death of a tra- 
veller will bring every sort of evil from the govern- 
ment on his tribe or his village. Persons travelling 
with an escort see very few people along the road 
from Jerusalem to the Jordan and the Dead Sea; 



120 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IV. 

but if they were unguarded, the nomads who are 
concealed among the rocks and secret valleys would 
soon make their appearance to check the folly of 
the intruders into a country, which they consider 
to be under their j urisdiction. This road has been in 
bad repute from the (earliest times, for along it is 
" the going up of Adummim V* (blood), so called from 
the crimes of which it has constantly been the scene ; 
as we learn also from the parable of the Good Sama- 
ritan 2. I therefore strongly recommend travellers to 
comply with the regulations of the local government, 
unless they wish to suflfer harm, A circumstance 
which occurred in i860 will serve as an example. 
A caravan of fourteen Americans, who despised the 
precautions of the government, and trusted to their 
strength and their revolvers, went to the Jordan with 
some Arabs. I suppose they thought that the name 
of America would be respected even in these deserts; 
for I cannot believe them to have been so mad as 
to suppose that the hordes of nomads would fear 
their small party. They had the hardihood to pitch 
their tent on the very bank of the Jordan, in itself 
a most unusual proceeding. They supped, and at a 
late hour retired to rest, hearing nothing but the 
muimurs of the stream. While they were all fast 
asleep, a large band of robbers crossed over from 
the other side of the river, stealthily surrounded the 
camp, entered the tents, seized upon arms, provi- 
sions, clothes, and everything ; then placing the half- 
naked heroes upon their horses, which they gene- 

* Josh. XV. 7. xviii. 17. * S. Luke x. 30. 



CH. IV.] A JOURNEY TO THE DEAD SEA. 1 21 

rously left them, sent them back to Jerusalem, covered 
with confusion. Of course they complained loudly 
to his Excellency, Surraya pasha, who might easily 
have disregarded them, as he knew that America 
would not blame him for what had happened through 
the rashness of her sons; but, with his wonted kind- 
ness, he contrived in thS course of a few days to 
recover what they had lost. This shews that the 
pasha is able to make his authority respected, and 
does not fail in courtesy, even to those who have 
not shewn any to him. 



CHAPTER F. 



THE HOUSES AND TH^EIR APPURTENANCES. 



The houses of the ancient Hebrews were built of 
stone, brick, and clay. From the time of David 
and Solomon^ the public buildings and some of the 
dwellings of the great were constructed of stone, 
and occasionally even of marble; but brick must 
have been a far commoner material with the middle 
classes, both in the towns and in the country*; while 
clay was no doubt generally used by the poor. In 
their laws^ we find directions concerning the leprosy 
in houses, its examination by the Levites, and its 
treatment, together with strict orders to destroy the 
house when it appeared incurable. This leprosy 
must have been a nitrous efflorescence and rotting 
of the walls, which tainted the air and was injurious 
to the health of the inhabitants, and would, if it 
increased, in course of time cause the house itself 
to crumble away and fall. We also find orders 
to build a parapet round the roof of every new 
house, lest any one should be injured by falling 
over*; for, as I shall presently shew, the terrace- 

* I Kings vii. 9 — 11. i Chron. xxix. 2. " Isaiah ix. 10. 
' Levit. xiv. 33 — 48. * Deut. xxii. 8. 



CH. v.] THE HOUSES, dec, 1 23 

roofs were used then just as they are now. The 
Hebrews appear to have been acquainted with the 
art of making bricks from a very early period ; these 
were formed of trodden clay, mixed with straw, and 
dried in the sun or in a kiln^ At the present 
time the ancient customs still prevail in the interior 
of the country, where the chiefs of the villages alone 
possess stone houses ; while of the rest, the richer have 
wretched cottages of unbaked brick, and the poorer 
huts of clay. I pass by the houses in the cities, as 
these have been affected by the influence of foreign 
conquerors and of European civilization; so that we 
must not expect to find traces of the ancient cus- 
toms among them. Building materials are plentiful 
in Palestine, but the people are too wild and indo- 
lent to avail themselves of them ; and prefer living 
in a miserable hut or a ruin, to the trouble of con- 
structing a comfortable dwelling. They still make 
bricks after the Hebrew fashion, but have lost the 
art of baking them, and so simply dry them in the 
sun. Houses built of these are found all over the 
ancient Philistine country, between Jaffa and Gaza. 
The poorer construct their huts with mud and clay, 
mixed with camels' and cows' dung, and straw 
broken small. The latter materials are especially 
used in forming the terrace-roofs, since they are 
very well suited to resist the action of water. 

A few words about the building materials, in 
which I stated Palestine to be rich, may not be 
uninteresting. Limestone (Jurassic and cretaceous) 

* Gen. xi. 2, 3. Exod. v. 7. 2 Sam. xii 31. Nahum iii 14. 



124 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

is abundant, and works excellently : the red, white, 
and yellow breccias take a very fine polish. The 
pavements of many of the churches in Jerusalem, 
the columns of the- mosque el-Aksa, of the basilica 
of Bethlehem, and the various ornamental works in 
many of the towns, clearly prove this. The stone 
called "melaki" is a hard limestone, worked with 
difficulty, resembling marble in appearance, and pro- 
bably called by that name in former times. The 
facade of the Italo-Austrian hospice of Jerusa- 
lem is built of it. The stone '^misi" is very white, 
of a compact grain, and worked with difficulty. The 
remains of the ancient walls of Jerusalem, and many 
of the older buildings, are constructed of it. The 
"caculi" is a soft stone of different qualities; it is 
used in most of the Arab buildings of the present 
day, as well as in the walls erected by Solyman. 
Other kinds of stone are employed in vaults, small 
enclosure-walls, ovens, and kitchen-chimneys; and 
some varieties are carved into various trinkets by 
the work-people, and sold to strangers; such as the 
bituminous rock of the Dead Sea, the red ^' Holy 
Cross" stone, and the chalk of the Milk Grotto at 
Bethlehem. However, had it not been for the Eu- 
ropeans, none but the commonest pebbles would 
have been used by the natives. 

As we can form so little idea from the Bible of 
the general plan and arrangement of the houses, 
I pass on to describe some of the parts which are 
necessary for use and for comfort. With the He- 
brews, the doors, either single or double, moved on 



CH. v.] THE HOUSES, &c. 1:^5 

two pivots, fitting into holes in the threshold and 
lintel^, and the Arabs adopt the same plan at the 
present day, as can be proved by examining an- 
cient houses, and comparing them with the huts 
in the villages. The bolts, locks®, and keys^, were 
usually of wood, and with the FelUhln, who (as 
they say) do not live as Europeans, these are 
still found of the same materials*. Keys of metal 
appear to have been very rare, as they still are in 
the villages; the few that are to be seen being firmly 
fastened to the door lest they should be stolen. 
Over the doors were inscriptions of a religious na- 
ture, in accordance with the laws of Moses ^; these 
may still be observed upon the older Arab houses 
and on the gates of the present cities; in the 
country they are universal. The windows looking on 
the street were grated and latticed^, to exclude the 
sun and admit the air; these barriers could be 
opened at will'; they are still to be seen in all the 
towns, but their use is changed, as they serve to 
conceal the women kept in the harem, who how- 
ever know how to open them when they so desire. 
In the houses of the wealthier Hebrews we read of 
large and airy apartments ^ rooms for banquets and 
festivals^, chambers for repose'®, and others warmed 



^ I Kings vii. 50. Prov. xxvi. 14. * Cant. v. 5. 

^ Judges iii. 24, 25. 

^ Of. Travels avd Adventures of Dr Wolff, Vol. i. p. 242. 

* Deut. vi. 9. xi. 20. * Judges v. 28. Caut. ii. 9, 

^ 2 Kings xiii. 17. ® Jerem. xxii. 14. 

^ I Sam. ix. 22. '® 2 Sam. iv. 7. 



126 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. V. 

in winter with a brazier' ; all these may still be 
found among the richer Arabs, who practise hospita- 
lity on a large scale, and keep up the ancient cus- 
toms. Again, with regard to furniture, the Bible 
mentions beds, tables, chairs and candlesticks ^ The 
FeMhln do not know the first three of these; the 
Arabs in the towns do, but have borrowed them from 
the Europeans. As luxury increased among the 
Hebrews, we find in the houses of the rich not 
only beds for repose by night ^, but also couches 
of cedar- wood* and other costly materials, for use 
by day. One is described, belonging to King Solo- 
mon, with pillars of silver, a bottom of gold, and 
coverings of purple'. Again, we read of them as 
decked with " tapestry, with carved works, with fine 
linen of Egypt^" We also read of couches for re- 
clining at table; perhaps also of divans arranged 
along the wall of a room ; a practice still followed 
not only in Palestine, but in all the East. The 
beds were fitted up with carpets and cushions', as 
among the Arabs at the present day. Let the tra- 
veller beware of them, for they swarm with hordes 
of nomads, more bloodthirsty than the Bedawtn! 
The candlesticks now in use among the richer Arabs 
are "standards," placed upon the pavement; they 
give a strong light, but none of them at all corre- 

* Jerem. xxxvi. 22. * 2 Kings iv. 10. 

® Gen. xlvii. 31. xlix. 33. Job vii. 13. Psalms vi. 6. 

* Cant. iii. 9 (margin). 

* Cant. iii. 10. * Pro v. vii. 16, 17. 

' I Sam. xix. 13. Prov. vii. 16. Ezek. xiii. 18 — 20. 



CH. v.] THE HOUSES, <tc, 1 27 

spond with the description given of the "golden 
candlestick." 

We must not pass over the hand-mill, used to 
grind the corn, which is mentioned as early as the 
time of Moses \ It consisted of two stones, the 
lower, which was very hard*, being fixed, while the 
upper was moveable*. It was worked by the female 
slaves*, and sometimes by prisoners*. The noise of 
the mill was thought to enliven the house, and its 
silence is used as an image of desolation *. Two kinds 
of flour are mentioned in the Bible, shewing that con- 
siderable perfection had been reached in making 
these machines. Among the Arabs there are some 
horse-mills, but, notwithstanding, every house has its 
hand-mill, exactly resembling that used by the He- 
brews, which is worked by the slaves, male and fe- 
male, who sing all the time they are grinding. The 
proprietors of the public mills take care not to have 
the mill- stones too hard, so the flour is rendered 
gritty, and consequently heavier. After passing 
many sleepless nights in a house next door to a mill, 
I cannot speak in high terms of the cheerfulness of 
its noise. 

TERRACE-ROOFS. 

These appear to have been as much in use among 
the Hebrews as they now are among the Arabs. 

* Numb. xi. 8. Deut. xxiv. 6. * Job xli 24. 

■ Judges ix. 53. 2 Sam. xL 21. 

* Exod. xi. 5. Isaiah xlvii. 2. 

* Judges xvi. 21. Lam. v. 13. 

* Jer. XXV. 10. Eccles. xii. 4, 



128 CUSTOMS AFD TRADITIONS. [cn. V. 

They were almost flat, being only slightly elevated 
in the centre to allow the water to drain off into 
the gutters\ A passage in Isaiah* may perhaps 
indicate that they were constructed with bricks; 
which, from the abundance of the material, is by no 
means improbable; but it is very likely that some 
kind of plaster was employed, similar to that so com- 
monly used by the Arabs at the present day, which 
is formed of small stones, lime, sand, and ashes, and 
when properly mixed and beaten down, makes the 
house quite rain-proof. The huts of the poor were 
only covered with a solid bed of earth, which was 
frequently overgrown with vegetation', like those still 
to be seen in the towns and villages of Palestine. 
These roofs, constructed either in platforms or ter- 
races, had various uses. We read of them being 
employed as drying-grounds*, as places for exercise 
in the cool of the day*, for sleeping in fine weather*, 
for prayer', for private conversation®, and for giving 
way to unrestrained grief ^ Dwelling on "a corner 
of the house-top" is mentioned as a proverb^**. In 
times of tumult they were sought as places of ob- 
servation or defence"; sometimes also things were 
done on them for greater publicity '^ The "booths" 
for the feast of tabernacles were often erected upon 
them ^*^; and in the times of idolatry altars were raised 

* Prov. xix. 13. xxvii 15. * Isaiah Ixv. 3. 
® Psalm cxxix. 6. * Josh. ii. 6. 

* 2 Sam. xi. 2. '2 Sam. xvi. 22. ^ Acts x. 9. 
® I Sam. ix. 25, 26. " Isaiah xv. 3. 

'® Prov. xxi. 9. XXV. 24. " Judges ix. 51. Isaiah xxii. i. 

" 2 Sam. xvi. 22. S. Matt. x. 27. ** Nehem. viii. 16. 



CH. v.] TERRACE-ROOFS: I29 

there to the ^'host of heaven ^'^ The stairs were 
generally built against one side of the house, and 
led directly from the court to the upper chambers 
and the roof, so that the inmates could ascend and 
descend without entering the house itself*; and as 
the roofs communicated one with another, they could 
escape along them in case of danger ^ We read 
of a portion of the roof being removed or broken 
through in order to obtain entrance into the chamber 
below ^, in the case of the paralytic let down at the 
feet of our Lord. We also find chambers for special 
purposes noticed in several places*. 

The Arabs still use their terrace-roofs in the 
same way as the ancient Hebrews; for during the 
summer the wealthier families erect tents upon 
them, and the poorer construct sheds with old mats, 
under which they sleep during the hot weather, and 
so escape in some degree the swarms of pestilent 
insects that infest their rooms* In the evening they 
walk upon them, and during the day do much of 
the house-work there. Fires are lighted on them 
in seasons of rejoicing, and, in case of an attack, 
the women retire thither and utter loud shrieks, 
while the men with guns or stones defend them 
against their assailants, as I saw at Bethlehem in 
1856. The cisterns for the use of the house are 
filled by the water draining from these terrace-roofs 

* 2 Bangs xxiii. 12. Jerem. xix. 13. ZepL i. 5, 
' I Kings vi. 8. ^ S. Matt. xxiv. 17. 

* S. Mark ii. 4. S. Luke v. 19. 

* Judges iii. 20. i Kings xvii. 19, &c. 



130 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [cH. v. 

in time of rain. On the larger roofs there is usually 
a chamber, and the Arabs follow the law of Moses, 
by always surrounding them with a wall, ' about 
six feet high, constructed with tubes of earthenware ; 
so that the women can see without being seen. This 
contrivance, together with the irregular arrangement 
of the windows and doors, gives a dull appearance 
to the exterior of the house. I could carry the sub- 
ject much further, but from what I have said it will, 
I think, be evident that the Arab houses of the 
present day have a strong resemblance to those of 
the ancient Hebrews, and that the divergences are 
due to the differences in civilization and religion, 
and to the degradation that bad government has 
produced in the present inhabitants of Palestine. 

THE GARMENTS OP THE MEN. 

In the Bible we find a great number of words 
referring to dress, or to articles of the toilette, but 
the details given are not always sufficient to enable 
us to identify them; still we may find some light 
thrown upon their meaning by an examination of 
the things in use among the Arabs at the present 
day. In the East customs are far more permanent 
than in the West; and in the interior of Palestine 
the inhabitants have been wont to retire before the 
ravages of war to the eastern or the southern de- 
serts ; and after maintaining, in their isolation, 
primitive customs, have in more peaceful times 
brought them back again intact to their fatherland. 



CH. v.] THE GARMENTS OF THE MEN 131 

In the following enquiry I shall confine myself to 
certain things which have evidently been in vogue 
in the country from the earliest period, and which 
are clearly mentioned in the Bible as used by the 
ancient Jews. The materials of their dresses were 
wool, linen, and sometimes silk^; and a short time 
before the Babylonish Captivity cotton also was in- 
troduced. The commonest colour was white ^ but 
the rich wore dresses dyed with red, crimson, violet, 
and purple, and ornamented with embroidery. These 
colours are still, with some few exceptions, worn 
generally by the FeMhln. The rich in many cases , 
wear silk of different hues, and all the poorer people 
white and blue. Red and purple are used at wed- ^ 
dings and on other important occasions. Cotton 
is generally worn by the townspeople and the more 
civilized, but among the FeMhin the commonest 
materials are linen and woollen. The principal 
dresses mentioned in the Bible are the tunic and the 
mantle: the former came down to the feet, and was 
provided with sleeves; it was made of linen, and 
sometimes worn over a shirt, which was loose and 
probably long% being bound round the waist with 
a girdle. Tunics, as well as large shirts, are still 
commonly used in the whole of Palestine. The 
wealthier classes wear both, the poorer only the 
shirt, especially when at work. By fastening up this 
with a girdle they prevent it from reaching below 
the knees, and so gain greater freedom of action ; 
but before presenting themselves to any person 

* Ezek. xvi. 10. * Eccles. ix. 8. * 2 Sam. x. 4. 

9—2 



132 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. v. 

in authority they loose it, so that it falls down 
to the ankle, and is displayed in its full dirtiness; 
for usually it is only changed once a month. The 
peasant uses his shirt for all purposes: if he wishes 
to sleep, he protects his head and feet in it from 
the dew; if he has a heavy burden to carry, he 
fastens it in his shirt and slings it on his bare back ; 
if he washes his hands and face before eating, he 
dries them on his shirt, and so with his feet; he 
places small parcels in the bosom; he carries his tools 
in it on his way to work, and provisions to the city 
for sale ; and, if with a European on a journey, wiU 
offer it as a towel to his master. The tunic denotes 
greater respectability, and is treated with more care, 
being held up out of the dirt on a journey, and 
rolled up for a cushion at night. Drawers appear 
to have been worn by the priests alone, and their 
length is described to us^ They are still only used 
by the richer classes among the Arabs, but always 
by them. Mantles, among the Hebrews, appear to 
have been made of different patterns and materials, 
and to have resembled the garment called "haik" 
by the Arabs. They were four-cornered, and, ac- 
cording to the law of Moses, were to be bordered 
with fringes and a riband of blue, as a remembrance 
of the commandments of the Lord, and a warning 
against idolatry*. "We also find mention of a larger 
kind of mantle worn as a robe of state by kings'*; 

* Exod. xxviii. 42. 

* Numb. XV. 38, 39. Deut. xxii. 12. S. Matt, xxiii. 5. 
^ Jonah iii; 6. 



CH.V.] THE GARMENTS OF THE MEN, 1 33 

prophets had a similar one, made of hair^ At the 
present day we find large mantles with the chiefs of 
the villages and of the nomad tribes ; these are gene- 
rally black in colour, but sometimes red, and being 
very large and long, are raised in front by holding 
the left arm against the breast. Hair mantles are now 
not to be found ; but in their place pelisses are com- 
mon, coarsely woven of wool, or of goat's or camel's 
hair, which probably differ in size only from those 
worn by the prophets. The children of both sexes 
of the rich were clothed in long tunics, striped with 
various colours*; this custom still prevails unchanged 
among the Arabs. Sandals alone were worn on the 
feet, without any other protection, as is obvious from 
many passages^, and the same fashion still remains 
among the Beda\^n, the FeMhln, and the common 
people generally. The Hebrews covered the head 
with a turban, which in the Bible appears under 
several names; and no doubt was of different pat- 
terns. One was a kind of mitre*, another was a 
turban, worn by kings and persons of distinction*, 
which undoubtedly consisted of a pointed cap, round 
which a strip of linen or (at a later period cotton) 
was wrapped several- times. A few years ago these 
pointed caps were still to be seen ; they were made 
of hair-cloth, and worn especially by the Arab dra- 
gomans in the service of the different religious com- 

* I Kings xix. 13, 19. 2 Kings i. 8. ii. 8. 

* Gen. xxxvii. 3. 2 Sam. xiii. 18. 

* Gen. xviii. 4. xxvii 32. xlii. 34, &c. 

* Exod. xxix. 9. A.V. bonnet. * Isaiah bdi. 3. Ezek xxi. 31. 



134 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

munities; now however the turban is commonly 
worn by all, being of greater or less size, according 
to the caprice of the wearer. For the most part it 
is very large, since it is the best protection against 
the rays of the sun, frequently so dangerous; conse- 
qaen% it is also used by the Christian Arabs and 
by some Europeans. The Mohammedans, however, 
aUow none but members of their own body to wear 
yellow or green turbans, and greatly dislike to see 
them made of common white muslin ; so that the 
Christians have to restrict themselves to blue, black, 
and white striped with some colour, or to varie- 
gated patterns, and sometimes tissues of gold and 
silver. With the poorer classes, such as drivers 
of beasts of burden, keepers of flocks, and the like, 
the turban is used for other purposes than a mere 
defence against the sun. The folds of it, unrolled, 
serve at a pinch for a cord, and the cap (tarboosh) 
of strong red felt for a bucket to draw water out 
of a cistern, as I have often found to my advantage. 
When reposing by day the band may be spread over 
the face as a defence against the flies, and be ex- 
tended on four pegs at night as a covering from the 
dew. By the common people it is used as a recep- 
tacle for papers of importance, letters, money, sewing 
materials, and trifles which they have stolen, so that 
though heavy it is very convenient. 

DRESSES OF THE WOMEN. 

The dresses which I have described are common 
to both the sexes, but the women have them made 



CH. v.] THE GARMENTS OF THE MEN. 1 35 

fuller, and of finer stuff, besides wearing with them 
certain ornaments which are peculiar to their sex. 
By the laws of Moses a woman was forbidden to 
wear a man's garb, and vice versaK The clothes of 
the women have frequently special names, indicating 
a difference in material, fashion, or ornamentation, 
so that it is impossible to give a minute account; 
and the number of dresses now worn in the country, 
many of which may very probably be derived from 
the Jewish period, is not small. I therefore restrict 
myself to describing those which are most frequeutly 
to be seen at the present day. From the fact that 
six measures of barley could be carried in it*, we 
should suppose that the mantle of the women was 
very large ; and the Arab women among the FeMhln 
and the Bedawln now have a square mantle, mainly 
woven of cotton, which is thrown over the head 
and used as a veil when they wish to conceal their 
faces. Of this they still avail themselves for dif- 
ferent purposes ; such as carrying things to market, 
bringing home sticks or gleanings, or anything else 
that they have picked up. They make a bag of it 
by tying the four comers together over their breasts, 
and place in the hollow so formed behind their backs 
a baby or a new-bom lamb ; they carry home in it 
purchases made in the town ; and, according to cir- 
cumstances, use it as a carpet, a towel, or a co- 
verlet. 

The Hebrew women also appear to have worn 
another kind of upper garment, probably a sort of 

Deut. xxii. 5. * Kuth iii. 15. 



136 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

second tunic, with full sleeves^ much larger than the 
under one. This, made of blue cotton stuff, is 
also worn by many of the Arab women. Several 
of those who work in the harvest-fields, or at 
threshing or winnowing, avail themselves of this 
dress; finding it very convenient in pilfering, as 
they arrange the sleeves so as to hold small quan- 
tities of com, which they then introduce into the 
tunic, concealing in it a front pocket, and so by de- 
grees make some Httle provision for themselves. 
We read in EzekieP of being " shod with badgers' 
skin:" this might either have been attached to the 
sandal as an upper leather, or been used for pur- 
poses of luxury in the manufacture of the sandal 
itself; nothing, however, of this kind is now found 
in Palestine. An ornament which appears to have 
been a kind of high heel is mentioned in Isaiah*; to 
it small bells, or plates of metal, were attached, 
that tinkled as the wearer walked. The women in 
the East may still be seen wearing shoes of this 
description, which were originally intended to raise 
the feet above the mud and wet of the street, but 
now have come to be considered as an ornament, 
since they give greater height to the figure. Some- 
times indeed they are made so high that the wearers 
lose their balance. I have never seen bells attached 
to any of these shoes, but they are often elabo- 
rately inlaid with mother-of-pearl and tortoise-shell. 
The Jewish women wore a turban on their heads, 

* Ezek. xvi. 10, * Isaiah iii. 16, 18. 



OH. v.] THE GARMENTS OF THE MEN. 137 

and also networks At the present day small tur- 
bans are used by the wealthier Arabs, and head- 
dresses closely resembling them by the peasants, 
but not network. The veil was also an important 
part of the covering of the head, but we have no 
proof that the Hebrew women might not appear 
with the face exposed. In the patriarchal age the 
women of rank certainly went unveiled without 
hesitation*. Rebekah only covered herself when 
about to meet her future husband from a motive of 
modesty ^ Tamar also wore a veil for purposes of 
concealment*, but afterwards laid it aside. Again, 
from the instance of Hannah', we may conclude 
that they appeared uncovered in public. At the pre- 
sent day, as everyone knows, the veil is used univer- 
sally in the East; but in Palestine, in the country, 
the women wear it precisely as in the Jewish age; 
that is, they cover themselves with it when they 
have any special reason, but generally have their 
faces exposed. The strictness with which the rule 
of wearing the veil in cities is enforced, has certainly 
not been derived from the Hebrew women, who en- 
joyed far more liberty, and were evidently much more 
nearly on an equality with the men than these their 
successors. This freedom of the Hebrew woman, 
both before and after marriage, is in striking con- 
trast with the seclusion and degradation of her sex 
in the East at the present day; yet the veil, the 

* Isaiah iii. 18 (margin). 

■ Gen. xii. 14. ' Gen. xxiv. 65, . 

* Gen. xxxviii. 14, 15, 19. " i Sam. i. 12. 



138 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

necessary adjunct of her humiliation, in no way tends 
to encourage morality, or to secure the ends for 
which she is condemned to wear it; for beneath its 
folds, and beneath the large white wrappers which 
give a spectral appearance to the women of all 
classes in the towns of Palestine, hypocrisy can be 
successfully practised, intrigues arranged, and every 
kind of mischief concocted. 

THE GIRDLK 

An indispensable article of dress to both sexes 
was the girdle. That of the women, with the He- 
brews, was made of linen or cotton, and wrapped 
several times round the body, in the same way as it 
was worn by the priests^; it was one of their chief 
ornaments, especially after marriage ^ That of the 
men was of leather, or sometimes of linen'*, and 
was plainer. This custom stiU prevails throughout 
Palestine: the women wear girdles, but the richer 
classes substitute silk or cloth for linen ; this, how- 
ever, or more frequently cotton, is still worn by the 
lower classes, but with both it is an important part 
of their clothing. With the men, those who can 
afford them, wear rich girdles of silk or cloth; the 
country people, the workmen in different trades, the 
couriers, and the drivers of beasts of burden, have 
them made of leather of different widths (never 
less than four inches), and containing several small 

^ Exod. xxxix. 29. ^ ' Isaiah iiL 24. Ezek. xvL 10. 

* I Kings xviii. 46. 2 Kings i. 8. Jerem. xiii. i — 4. 



CH. v.] THE GIRDLE. THE HAIR. 1 39 

pockets, in which is carried their stock of valuables, 
such as matches, gunpowder, lead, and the like. In 
it also are stuck their fire-arms and knives, their 
pipe-stems and their small leather water-bottles. 
Whenever I had occasion to send one of these peo- 
ple as an express, the man, in order to shew that he 
would hasten to execute my commands, tightened 
his girdle about his loins, reminding me of the de- 
scription of Elijah when he prepared to run before 
Ahab to the gates of JezreeP. 

THE HAIR. 

Great attention appears to have been paid to the 
hair by the Hebrews of both sexes. The youths were 
in the habit of wearing it long, and in great quan- 
tities*. Baldness was held somewhat in aversion', 
and we find directions given about the manner of 
cutting the hair, and a prohibition against shaving 
it from the sides of the head. This custom, forbid- 
den by the legislator* and denounced by the pro- 
phets*, was probably in honour of a deity resem- 
bling the classic Bacchus^ : it has maintained its 
ground among the Palestine Arabs unto the present 
day, for they shave the head all round, leaving only 
a tuft in the centre; certain dervishes and santons 
excepted, who let their hair grow long. The Arab 

* I Kings xviii. 46. C£ 2 Kings iv. 29. ix. i. Job xxxviii. 3, &c. 
' Cant. y. 2, II. '2 Kings ii. 23. Is. iiL 24, dbc. 

* Lev. xix. 27. xxi. 5. 

^ Jerem. ix. 26. xxv. 23. xlix. 32 (margins). 
^ Herodotus in. 8. 



140 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

women do not, as a rule, wear their locks very- 
long ; usually they reach down to the neck, and are 
bound with a coloured riband. Many, however, of the 
lower classes have long tresses, which are so filthy 
as to make it prudent for lovers of cleanliness to 
keep their distance. 

The beard was considered to be an honour to a 
man; it was allowed to grow long, and Moses ^ for- 
bids them "to mar the comers of their beards/' 
Any injury done to the beard was the grossest in- 
sult that could be offered to a Jew, as is shewn by 
the terrible vengeance that David exacted &om 
Hanun king of Ammon for this outrage on his 
ambassadors, and from his bidding the sufferers 
" remain at Jericho until their beards were grown," 
as if they had thus been rendered unfit to appear 
in public*. At the present day the beard is consi- 
dered as a sign of vigour; and is an object of re- 
spect, not only in Palestine, but also in all the East. 
Were I to appear shaven on my return to Pales- 
tine, many of the natives would think that I had 
been insulted in Europe, The Arabs reverence the 
beard so highly as to swear by it, and this oath is 
regarded as so sacred that the man who violated it 
would be universally reprobated. Thus too in sign of 
friendship, or agreement on any matter, each touches 
and kisses the beard of the other ; a practice which, 
in my numerous excursions, I have found far more 
convenient than losing time over writing contracts 
and signing them before witnesses. Any insult 

* Levit. xix. 27. xxi. 5. * 2 Sam. x. 4, 5. 



CH. v.] THE HAIR. 141 

offered to the beard is always followed by mischief; 
and sometimes, if the afiront be not repaired in 
time, by war and bloodshed. The Turkish authori- 
ties in Jerusalem, and the chiefs of the villages fre- 
quently threaten, and sometimes actually do it, to 
cut off the beard of a man who is a liar or an oath- 
breaker, or who disobeys some important order. 
For instance, at the time of the Lebanon and Da- 
mascus massacres in i860, Surraya pasha had strictly 
commanded that no one should speak in favour of 
them, or utter any menaces against the Christians. 
However, a certain person, dwelling near the tomb 
of David on Mount Sion (a. district inhabited by 
men of some consequence in the opinion of the 
Arabs of the town) disobeyed these orders. The 
pasha commanded him to be brought at once into 
his official divan, and thus addressed him: "You 
have disobeyed my orders and exposed me to the 
painful necessity of punishing you." Then turning 
to the effendis, who had been summoned into coun- 
cil, he continued, " I cannot understand how a man, 
who lives by the tomb of the prophet David, can 
have been so immoderate in his language; I must 
punish him." With these words he seized the 
offender's turban, and flung it at his feet, exclaiming, 
'* Thou art unworthy to wear this honourable badge 
of Islam. Our prophet Mohammed enjoins charity, 
and thou hast not practised it." He then sent for 
a barber, and had one side of the man's beard shaved 
off to the middle of his chin, after which he dis- 
missed him. This produced a great effect on the 



142 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

bystanders and on the whole population of Jerusa- 
lem. The Mohammedans learnt more certainly than 
ever that over them was a judge who feared no one 
in the discharge of his duty, and the Christians had 
a fresh proof that in the Holy Land they had a 
powerful protector, who would sacrificie himself, if 
necessary, for their safety. This instance, one out 
of many, shews that the beard is held in no less 
respect by the present inhabitants of the country 
than it was by the ancient. 

ORNAMENTS. 

The men usually did not cany any other orna- 
ments than a seal-ring, a cord, and a staff. The ring 
was worn on a finger of the right hand^ and occa- 
sionally suspended on the breast* by a cord, which 
perhaps, in the more luxurious ages, might have 
been made of precious metal. Every Arab in Pa- 
lestine has his signet, which he generally wears, 
either on the little finger of the right hand, or in a 
small leather bag hung round his neck by a cord or 
chiain. The seal is used now, as formerly, in place 
of a signature, and is attached to every agreement 
or document in which its owner is interested. With 
the Arabs it is, however, no safeguard against for- 
gery ; for, as it bears the initials or name of the 
owner, and in the impression these appear white on 
a black ground, a slight touch of the pen is sufficient 
to change a name, or, if needful, the whole can be 
effaced by slightly damping the black. 

* Gen. xli. 42. Jerem. xxii. 24. " Cant. viii. 6. 



CH. v.] ORNAMENTS. I43 

The staff was of several kinds. We are told by 
Herodotus^ that the Babylonians wore a ring and 
carried a staff surmounted by an ornament, such 
as an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or the like ; per- 
haps those used by the Jews were similar to these ; 
for they appear to have been of some value, since one 
was demanded by Tamar as a pledge*. Many of 
the rich Arabs are in the habit of carrying a hand- 
some staff on public occasions, or when they are 
walking with an air of dignity in the streets of the 
city, or on their own property in the country; this 
differs very much from that which is commonly car- 
ried as a walking-stick, and as a defence against dogs 
and rogues; the latter of whom, so far from being 
satisfied with the blows on their feet received in due 
course from the administrators of justice, expose their 
backs and heads to a similar discipline, which, if well 
applied, is often more efficacious than the other. 

The ancient Hebrews were in the habit of wear- 
ing amulets, and it was no doubt to abolish this 
superstition that Moses commanded them to bind 
upon their arms and foreheads some of the most 
important precepts of the law*. Amulets are still 
used in Palestine alike by the Mohammedan and 
Christian Arabs. The former inscribe upon them 
passages from the Koran, and even go so far as to 
bind them to animals that they highly value; the 
latter enclose in them relics, or some talisman, made 

* Herod, i. 195, ' Gen. xxxviii. 18. 

' Exod. xiii. 9 — 16. xx. i — 17. Deut vL 4 — 9. xi. 13 — 21. 
C£ Prov. iii. 3, 22. vi. 21. vii. 3. 



144 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH, v. 

of the ashes of serpents or scorpions, or some other 
strange Oriental fantasy. Among the poor remnant 
of Israel, now living in Jerusalem, many of both 
sexes attend the services in the synagogue with a 
small cubical box, bound on to their foreheads and 
arms, containing some of the texts to which reference 
has already been made. 

The jewels and other ornaments of the Hebrew 
women were very numerous, so I will only mention 
those which were commonest, and are still to be seen 
in Palestine. They certainly had ear-rings^ of various 
forms, and of different metals ; which sometimes also 
were jewelled. In the interior of the country, and 
among the nomad tribes (where the ancient customs 
are most carefully preserved, as they are unaffected 
by European commerce like the citizens), long gold 
and silver ear-drops are seen, but these are very 
rare ; rings of silver, and occasionally of- gold, are 
much commoner; these are about one or two inches 
in diameter, and so heavy as to require to be sup- 
ported by cords, or chains, across the head. 

The nose-drops'* were made of ivory or metal, 
and occasionally jewelled : they were more than an 
inch in diameter, and hung upon the mouth. Eli- 
ezer gave one to Rebekah, which was of gold, and 
weighed half a shekel* : and a fair woman without 
discretion is in the Proverbs* compared to a "jewel 
of gold in a swine's snout." Rings are not now 

* Isaiah iii. 20. Ezek. xvi. 12. 
■ Gen. xxiv. 47. Isaiah iii. 21. Ezek. xvi. 12. 
® Gen. xxiv. 22. * Prov. xi. 22. 



CH. v.] ORNAMENTS. 1 45 

seen in the snouts of pigs in Palestine, but they are 
in those of horses, mules and asses, being placed 
there by the Arabs to aid in evaporating the mois- 
ture from the nostrils. At the present day the wo- 
men in the country and in the desert wear these or- 
naments in one of the two sides of the nostril, which 

drop like the ears in consequence. The custom exists 
also in many other parts of the East, especially 
among the dancing-girls and odalisques. 

Necklaces, collars, and chains, hung round the 
neck, and resting on the breast, were worn ; these 
were made of gold-thread, precious stones, pearls, 
and similar materials. Various ornaments of gold 
were attached to the different chains, such as ears of 
corn, small suns or crescents^, amulets, or talismans^ 
Sometimes a gold chain was worn round the neck 
and fastened to the head-dress ^ All these orna- 
ments are still common in Palestine, both with rich 
and poor ; the patterns being the same, although the 
materials are different. The women of Bethlehem 
and of Nazareth, especially, wear on their throats 
thin gold chains, to which small coins of different 
kinds are attached. 

There were apparently two kinds of bracelets or 
arm-rings*; one worn near the elbow ^, the other 
near the hand*. They seem to have been round or 
flat rings of gold -or silver: those given to Eebekah 



* Isaiah iii. i8. * Isaiah iii. 20. 

^ Cant i. 10. * Numb. xxxi. 50. 

* 2 Sam. i. 10. * Gren. xxiv. 30 — 47. Ezek. xvi. 11. 

ID 



146 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [OH. V. 

were of gold and ten shekels in weights Some, 
however, appear to have been formed of chains. 
These are still in use in Palestine. The ladies wear 
gold bracelets, either rings or chains, which are made 
in the country; those belonging to the peasants are 
generally very large flat rings, which are worn on 
the wrists, close to the hands ; they are very rarely 
worn round the middle of the arm ; but this custom i» 
much commoner among the FelMhln and Bedawln. 
The most remarkable for material and for design 
belong to the women of Bethlehem and Nazareth, 
wh6 set a high value on these ornaments, and spare 
no pains to amass them. 

The Hebrew women wore rings* on the fingers of 
both hands ; and it is no uncommon thing to see a 
miserable Arab woman, with ragged clothes which 
scarcely cover her, wearing two or three rings ; which, 
if silver be too dear for her, are of copper, or iron, or 
even of glass. I may mention here that there is a 
large manufactory of glass at Hebron, where a great 
number of women's rings and bracelets of different 
colours are made ; these have a very large sale, for 
in^Syria, and especially in Palestine, all the women, 
rich and poor, use them; and the bracelets worn 
round the middle of the arm are of the same ma- 
terial. These are the only jewels of many Arab 
women, until their husbands have the good fortune 
to provide them with better; which are procured 
by robbery, or given by European travellers; in the 
latter case, they take care before accepting them 

* Gen. xxiv. 22. * Isaiah iii. ai. 



CH. v.] ORNAMENTS. 147 

to find out that the silver is good, and that they 
have a pair, as their wives do not like to favour 
one arm more than the other. So M. de Saulcy 
found to his cost in his journey round the Dead 
Sea^ I once ofi'ered two of silvered copper to a 
Bedawy, who returned to me again in a few minutes, 
saying that they were too heavy for his. wife, and 
I was compelled to give him another pair, which were 
lighter indeed, but double the value of the first. 

Anklets* are very uncommon in Palestine, but 
they are worn by some of the women of Jericho, 
and by those of the nomad tribes on each side of the 
Dead Sea. 

The purses", which the women wore fastened to 
their girdles, were probably made of some rich stuff 
and embroidered, like those used at the present day 
by women of rank in the East. 

One very important adjunct to the toilette table 
of the Hebrew ladies was a kind of paint or dye, 
used to tinge the eye-lashes and lids with black, so 
as to give greater brilliancy and richness to the eye. 
The practice is mentioned in the description of Jeze- 
bel, who "put her eyes in paintingS" and also in the 
prophetical writings. I have not unfrequently en- 
tered a house and found the women with their eyes 
as nature left them; however, after the first com- 

^ Narrative of a Journey round the Dead Sea, Vol. i. p. 283. 
' Numb. xxxi. 50. Isaiah iii. 20. 

* Isaiah iii. 22 (A. V. "crisping pins"). 

* 2 Kings ix. 30 (margin). Jerem. iv. 30 (margin). Ezok. 
xxiii. 40 

10—2 



148 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

pliments have been paid, they have retired upon 
some pretence, and on their return have been so 
altered by dye and rouge as to be hardly recogniz- 
able. We may judge of the importance attached to 
this custom by the ancient Jews, from the fact that 
Job's youngest daughter was named Keren- Hap- 
puch^ (horn of antimony, the pigment used for this 
purpose). This dye, called Stibium by the Romans 
and Shol by the Arabs, is a powder brought from 
Fez ; made of a sulphuret of antimony. Horns con- 
taining stibium have been found in Egypt in sarco- 
phagi, with silver, ivory, and wooden needles, and 
minute paint-brushes for applying it, among other 
articles of the toilette. The women, however, were 
not alone in this vanity ; since we find from many 
ancient authors* that the men sometimes did the 
same; for instance, Herod the Great dyed his hair 
and beard, and painted up his face^ I must, how- 
ever, in fairness say that this custom is not confined 
to the East in the present day. Another very fa- 
vourite practice of the oriental ladies is to dye the 
nails and the palms of then: hands, as well as their 
hair, with the leaves of a plant called Al-Henna by 
the Arabs, and Cyprus by the Greeks and Romans. 
The dye is prepared in the following manner: the 
young leaves of the shrub are boiled in water, then 
dried in the sun and reduced to a powder which is 
of a dark orange colour. After this has been mixed 

' Job xlii. 14, 15. 

^ Josephus, Jewish War, iv. 9, § 10. Juvenal, Sat. n. 93. 

■^ Josephus, Ant. xvi. 8, § i. 



CH. v.] ORNAMENTS. 149 

with warm water, it is applied to the skin. This 
unbecoming fashion is very common in Palestine, 
and makes the women look like vampires stained 
with the blood of their victims. The flowers of this 
plant are very beautiful, resembling clusters of grapes 
of different colours, and have a fragrant scent. The 
Arabs use them as ornaments for the head, and fill 
their houses with them ; consequently the time when 
the Henna is in bloom is the best for visitinor the 
dwellings of the poorer classes, as its odour over- 
powers the bad smells that at other times are so dis- 
gusting. It seems probable that this plant is men- 
tioned in the Bible ^, and as we know that the cus- 
tom was of great antiquity in Egypt, it is not un- 
likely to have been followed by the Jewish ladies. 

To the above articles we must not forget to add the 
mirror^, which was of metal, small in size, circular or 
oval in form, and furnished with a handle. Many of 
these are still found among the ruins in Palestine, 
and closely resemble those now in use in the country. 

We read frequently of perfumes and unguents, 
which were almost indispensable to the Jews' owing 
to the heat of the climate and the frequent use of the 
bath. The preparation of these was a regular art, prac- 
tised sometimes by men, sometimes by female slaves*. 
The oil and incense used in the sanctuary were made 

* Cant. i. 14; iv. 13, A. Y. camphire, cypress (margin). 

* Exod. xxxviii. 8. Job xxxvii. 18. 

^ Prov. xxvii. 9. Isaiah iii. 20. S. Luke vii. 37. S. John 
xL 2 ; xii. 3. 

* Exod. XXX. 25 — 35. I Sam. viiL 13. 2 Chfon. xvi. 14. Eccles. 
x. I. 



I50 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [OH. V. 

by the priests, and the receipts are given in the law 
of Moses'. The ingredients of the former were, pure 
myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, cassia, and 
olive oil ; of the latter, stacte, onycha, galbanum and 
pure frankincense, and we also read of aloes and 
other substances being used as perfumes^. Most 
of these were imported from abroad, chiefly from 
Arabia and India; Sheba being a special mart in 
consequence of the commerce with Phoenicia^. Per- 
fumes and perfumers are still found among the 
Arabs, but the art is simpler now than it was in 
times of old, as the foreign ingredients are no longer 
imported, and consequently only those of native 
growth are used ; here too they chiefly confine them- 
selves to the flowers of the orange, lemon, and rose, 
neglecting many others in which Palestine is very 
rich. All the Arabs are fond of perfumes, although 
from their dirty habits one would think that but few 
could appreciate them. The oils and unguents of 
antiquity are now replaced by scented waters, which 
are very much used when persons of distinction visit 
the convents or private houses; an excellent custom, 
as the nose of the visitor is less likely to be offended 
by the bad smells inseparable from these places. 
The women use many perfumes, especiaUy otto of 
roses, so largely that it gives one a head-ache to 
stand talking with them. 

Another custom of Palestine, adopted not only 

' Exod. XXX. 23, 24, 34, 35, 37. 
* Psalm xlv. 8. Prov. vii. 17. 
Isaiah. Ix. 6. Jerem. vi. 20. Ezek. xxvii. 22. 



CH. v.] ORNAMENTS, 1 51 

by most of the natives of both sexes, but also by 
many pilgrims from abroad, is that of tattooing. A 
figure^ engraved on a wood block, and blackened 
with charcoal, is stamped on some part of the body, 
and the outlines are pricked in with fine needles 
dipped in a black liquid made of gunpowder and 
ox-gall, the whole . being washed afterwards with 
wine. Some say the process is not painful, others 
the contrary. As I have not tried it I cannot offer 
an opinion. The marks thus made cannot be obli- 
terated. The Mohammedan Arabs, and especially 
the women in the country, consider them to be an 
ornament, and their example is followed by many 
in the towns. The Christians and the pilgrims gene- 
rally imprint upon their arms or breast the five 
crosses of Jerusalem or figures of the Saviour, the 
Virgin, or their patron Saints. This practice is 
very ancient, for it was not uncommon among the 
heathens. The Syrians, who visited the temple of 
HierapoUs, imprinted a figure of the goddess, or 
some symbolical emblems, on their hands or on the 
back of their necks. The number of pilgrims to 
this temple was so great that but few of that nation 
were unmarked ^ We have no positive evidence that 
this custom was ever in vogue among the Hebrews, 
but it is not impossible, for we find it forbidden by 
Moses ^, and we know that they generally disobeyed 
his precepts. 

It remains only to speak of the baths, which are 
in Palestine both an important part of the toilette 

^ Lucian de Dea Syria, c. lix. " Lev. xix. 28. 



152 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

and also most essential to health. Their use was 
enjoined by Moses, not only, as I believe, because 
of their religious significance, but also from their 
salutary effect in a hot country, where clouds 
of sand and dust are raised by the east winds. 
Indeed, among all the oriental nations washings 
have always partaken of a rehgious character, as we 
can see, for example, in the history of the Hindus^, 
or of the Egyptians*; but Moses, while inculcating 
the practice, deprived it of the superstitions which 
were involved with it. The Hebrews bathed both 
in running water ^, and in baths in the inner courts 
of their houses, the women especially in the latter*. 
There is no mention of public baths in the Old Tes- 
tament, but they occur at a later period in the Tal- 
mud. For soap, nitre was used with alkalies ex- 
tracted from plants, which grew, as they still do, on 
the hiUs and marshes \ We read of washing with 
snow-water in the Book of Job*. At the present 
day the baths in the cities are much thronged ; these, 
like all in the East, are vapour-baths. As they are 
now so familiar to everyone I need not describe 
them. In the country, fresh-water baths are fre- 
quented rather for amusement than for any other 
purpose, but as the supply of water is not abundant, 
the peasants are filthy to an extreme, and are ob- 
viously not followers of the ancient Israelites, whose 

* Laws of Menu. v. § 57 et seqq. (Sir W. Jones' Works, 
Vol. III.) 

* Herodotus, Lib. n. c. 37. ' Lev. xv. 13. 

* 2 Sam. xi 2. * Jerem. ii. 22. Mai. iii. 2. 

* Job ix. 30. 



CH. v.] OENAMENTS. 1 53 

descendants also have abandoned the practices of 
their forefathers. It is hardly possible to recognize 
on the Sabbath a Jew whom you have been accus- 
tomed only to see in the week-time; so greatly is 
he altered by having changed his dress, brushed his 
hair, and washed his face. Unhappily, however, a 
nearer approach renders it obvious, to one sense at 
least, that these lustrations are merely external; not 
because they are too poor, but because they are too 
sordid and avaricious to pay for a bath. 

OF FOOD AND COOKERY. 

I do not enter into the question of the various 
kinds of food eaten by the Hebrews, and the manner 
in which it was cooked, as this would be a very long 
affair, and would take up much time. Referring my 
reader therefore to the various works upon the sub- 
ject, I shall speak simply of those about which no 
doubts can arise, and which have been transmitted 
by the Hebrews to the present occupants of the coun- 
try. We are able to see what was the ordinary 
food of the people at the time of the introduction 
of monarchy, from the supplies received by David 
at different times for the support of his followers. 
These were lentils, beans, wheat, barley, flour of 
both qualities, parched com, bread, wine, olive-oil, 
oxen, sheep, goats, honey, milk and cheese, besides 
grapes, figs, and other dried fruits ^ These are still 

* I Sam. XXV. i8. 2 Sam. xvi. i. xvii. 29, 30. i Chron. 
xiL 40. 



I 

154 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. v. | 

to be obtained in Palestine^ and are used as food, 
but are not all as abundant as formerly, because the 
ground, to so great an extent untilled, is not as pro- 
ductive as it once was. Oxen, for example, are not 
common, and the poverty of the pastures makes 
those that there are thin and meagre. The same is 
true of the cows and their produce. Additions to 
the above articles of food have been introduced at 
various times, but these are less common, and not 
in such general use. 

Bread was generally made of wheat-flour, but 
barley also was eaten by the poorer classes ^ The 
dough was made in a kneading-trough^, and raised 
with leaven, except when it was required quickly ^ 
The loaves were of a moderate size, oval or circular 
in form, whence their name, kiccar (circle), and very 
thin ; consequently they were always broken instead 
of being cut*. They were generally baked in a 
small oven*. How this was made is not recorded 
in the Bible; but probably it resembled that now 
in use among the Arabs of the country, and espe- 
cially with the nomads. This consists of a jar, made 
of a paste composed of clay and camels' dung, with 
a little titurated straw, baked at a slow fire to pre- 
vent it from cracking. It is about 2^ feet high, and 
rather more than 2 wide, is without a bottom, and 

* 2 Kings iv. 42. * Exod. xiL 34. 

* Gen. xix. 3. Exod. xii. 39. Judges vi. 19. 

* Isaiah Iviii. 7. S. Matt xiv. 19 ; xxvi. 26. S. Mark xiv. 
22. S. Luke xxiv. 30, &c. 

* Lev. xxvi. 26. 



CH. v.] OF FOOD AND COOKERY. 155 

narrows towards the top- It is placed upon the 
ground, and is warmed by kindling small pieces of 
wood inside'. When the fire is burnt low, and only 
the embers are left*, the jar is taken up and placed 
upon a thin layer of lighted charcoal, on which the 
bread is laid to bake. A cover is then placed on 
the jar, upon which, as well as about the lower rim 
of the jar, hot embers are heaped. In this way lear 
vened bread is cooked, but when they are making 
unleavened (like that prepared for the angels'*) they 
place the embers within and against the sides of 
the jar to bake it more quickly. In Palestine we 
can stm eat bread baked as it was in the days of 
Abraham and the Jewish kings, except that now 
the bakers and managers of the public ovens*, owing 
to the bad management of the government, are 
allowed to sell bread full of grit and in every way 
bad. This however only applies to the towns, the 
unleavened bread which the Arabs in the country 
bake for a stranger is much better. The kind of 
oven described above was also known to the ancient 
Egyptians* and Grecians. The Bedawln and many 
of the FeMhln in the interior of the country bake 
their unleavened bread upon the sand or upon a 
stone, which has been heated by a fire of wood, or of 
cows' or camels' dung; a custom which seems also 
to have prevailed among the Israelites*. They also 

^ Isaiah xliv. 15. ' Isaiah xliv. 19. 

" Gen. xviii. 6. * Jerem. xxxvii. 21. Hosea vii. 4. 

* Herodotus, Lib. n. ch. 92. 

• I Kings xix. 6. Ezek. iv. 15. Hosea vii. 8. 



156 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. v. 

made "unleavened cakes of fine flour mingled with 
oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil, baked 
in the ovenV' which were used in the sacred ofier- 
ings, besides a kind of fritter made with honey and 
flour, cooked with oil in a frying-pan*. All these 
are still made in Palestine, and anyone who likes 
to go out early in the morning towards the shops 
of the pancake-sellers may be convinced of the fact 
by the horrible smell caused by purifying the oil of 
sesame, which being cheaper is used instead of olive- 
oil. The process is as follows, the oil is placed in a 
fiying-pan, and when it begins to boU it gives off 
this stench, and throws up a thin scum : this is ab- 
sorbed by putting sops of bread into the pan, after 
which the oil is used in cooking. 

We find in the Bible that the Hebrews were 
allowed to eat beef, veal, mutton, and goat, with 
several kinds of game and wild fowP. Fishes are 
not very frequently mentioned, but were undoubtedly 
used*; for they are divided into clean and unclean 
in the laws of Moses', and we have nets and other 
tackle used in their capture named more than once^. 
Besides, in the time of Nehemiah, one of the gates 
was called the Fish Gate''; probably, because through 
it the Syrians brought their fish into the city, and 

* Levit. ii. 4. * Exod. xvi. 31. Levit. iL 7. 2 Sam. xiii. 6. 
° Levit. xi. 2 — 19. i Kings iv. 23. 

* Numb. xi. 5. S. Matt. xv. 36 — 38. * Levit. xi. 9. 

' Job xli. I, 2. Isaiah xix. 8. Ezek. xxvi. 5; xlviL 10. 
Amos iv. 2. S. Matt. iv. 18, <fec. 

2 Ohron. xxxiii. 14. Nehem. iii. 3; xiii. 16. 



CH. v.j OF FOOD AND COOKERY, 157 

perhaps had a market there. Beef and veal at the 
present day may almost be said to have gone out 
of use among the Arabs of Palestine, not so much 
owing to the scarcity of cattle as to their being hardly 
fit to eat from bad feeding. As regards the chase, 
instead of the roebuck, fallow-deer, and stag, only a 
few gazelles and wild boars are found in the country, 
the latter of which are not eaten by the Moham- 
medans, who, however, do not disdain the hare. 
Fowls are plentiful, but those brought to the market 
are very emblems of poverty ; so that whoever wishes 
to eat anything more than sinews and bones, had 
better fatten them at home. Wild fowl, though not 
uncommon in some parts of the country, are rarely 
offered for sale; as the Arabs do not care to waste 
powder and shot over them, reserving their ammu- 
nition, as they say, for better occasions ; that is, for 
highway robbery, war, or self-defence against their 
brother thieves. Fish is considered a delicacy by the 
Arabs, but is not regarded as nutritious or suited to 
form a staple article of food, ^o that they do not take 
any trouble to bring it either from the Jordan, 
the lake of Tiberias, or the Mediterranean; conse- 
quently the dealers in the city frequently only have 
it for sale in the winter season. A kind of fish, 
five or six inches long, and marked on the back with 
different shades of green, is found at Jaffa, which 
makes any one who eats it giddy and sick. The 
poison seems to lie in the head, for if this be cut off 
while the animal is alive, it is perfectly wholesome. 
The lake of Tiberias contains a great number of 



158 CUSTOMS AND TEADITIONS. [OH. V. 

fishes, one species of which, called El-ialtry by the 
Arabs, is also found in the Nile. These are short 
and thick, with small bones, and are very good to eat. 
Another species found there, is called by the natives 
S. Peter's fish. This, besides being a favourite dish, 
is preserved in spirits of wine, and sold to pilgrims. 

Beans and lentils ' appear to have been the vege- 
tables most commonly in use among the Jews, but we 
also read of gourds', and various garden produce; all 
these were cooked with olive oU. These are still 
eaten by the Arabs, but of course the progress of 
agriculture has introduced others, as rice, salad-herbs 
and the like; the laziness of the Arab, however, 
prevents his making the most of these, and the few 
who are industrious have to watch day and night 
lest the thievishness of their neighbours should rob 
them of the results of their toil. Fruit, especially, 
is very difficult to keep, as it is rare in the country. 
I pass over the various vessels used in cooking and 
on the table, as these are most of all likely to have 
been affected by the change of time and circumstan- 
ces; one thing, however, we may remark, that they 
appear to have been usually made of metal, perhaps 
because of the laws of Moses, by which an earthenware 
vessel, if rendered impure, was to be broken, while 
one of metal could be cleansed by hot-water, or the 
action of the fire^. At the present day, metal is 
universally used both in the kitchen and on the table 

* Gen. XXV. 34. Ezek. iv. 9, <fec. * 2 Kings iv. 39. 

* Lev. vi 28; xi. 33; xv. 12. Numb, xxxi 22. Ezek. xxiv. 
II. 



ch. v.] of food and cookery. 159 

by the middle and upper classes among the Arabs ; 
earthenware, however, is gradually being introduced, 
especially among the lower classes; but whenever 
these offer any refreshment to a person of distinction, 
they present it upon plates of copper or tin, which 
they borrow for the occasion, if they have none of 
their own. 

Water, or wine mixed with water, appears to 
have been the ordinary drink, the latter being fre- 
quently mentioned in the Talmud. Wine and its 
effects are spoken of many times in the Bible*, 
where we also read that spices were occasionally 
added to increase its strength. Another drink call- 
ed Sh^char is also named; this was prepared from 
com, or from fruit other than that of the vine. S. 
Jerome says that it was intoxicating, and was made 
either from com or from the juice of apples*. A 
kind of thin wine, called vinegar, was drunk by the 
labourers', and we also find that milk was frequently 
used^ 

Of the different vessels used to contain liquids 
there are two which I wish to describe particularly, 
the leather bottle and earthenware jar. The former 
is first mentioned when Hagar was sent away into 
the wilderness with her son *, and afterwards on se- 
veral occasions*; the latter is also frequently found ^, 

' Gen. ix. 31 ; xix. 32. Prov. xxxi. 5, 6. Cant. viii. 2. Isaiah 
i. 22 ; V. I T. S. Luke v. 39, &c. * Ep. ui. (Ad Nepolianum), §11. 
® Ruth ii. 14. * Deut. xxxii. 14. 

* Gen. xxi. 14. 

• Ps. cxix. 83. S. Matt. ix. 17, <fec. 
^ Ps. ii. 9. 



l6o CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. V. 

and the mode of manufacture is described by Jere- 
miahs A great number of skin bottles is now 
manufactured at Hebron, whence they are exported 
to different parts of the East. The manner of pre- 
paring them is as follows: the animal, a goat or a 
kid, is killed and the head and feet cut off, after 
which the body is drawn out through the aperture 
at the neck, without cutting open the belly. The 
holes are then sewn up with a waxed thread, except 
that last mentioned, by which the skin is filled. 
When this is done, corrosive substances are put in^ 
side to destroy any fragments of flesh that may 
adhere to the skin, after which it is washed out with 
salt water, and is then ready for use. The process 
occupies about thirty days, after which water, wine, 
oil, milk, or honey can be put in without acquiring 
any unpleasant taste. No one thinks of travelling in 
the East, more especially in Egypt or Palestine, 
without having one of these skins full of water 
among his baggage, besides some of smaller size 
fastened to his saddle or girdle. These bottles are 
also used as chums in every part of the country, by 
shaking them about until the butter forms. The jars 
are usually made of a porous paste, with necks of 
different lengths, and are circular or ellipsoidal in the 
lower parts. They are small in size, and are very 
much used in the houses for cooling water, a purpose 
which they answer very well. Josephus* alludes to 
these when he says, with reference to the water of 
Gennesareth, " When this water is kept in the open 

* Jer. xviii. 3. * Jewish War, in. 10, § 7. 



CH. v.] OF FOOD AND COOKERY, l6l 

air it is as cold as that which the country people 
procure by night in summer." This custom is still 
followed, and it is very probable that the " pitchers^," 
in which Gideon concealed the lighted brands before 
his night attack on the camp of Midian, were similar 
to these : as they are exactly of the right shape for 
that purpose, and a sufficient number would easily 
be found in his army. Vases of a larger size are also 
made ; they are used for making or keeping wine ', 
and for various other purposes; especially for protect- 
ing flour from damp and moisture, as was done at Za- 
repta, in the days of the prophet Elijah'. The small 
vases are the inseparable companions of the workmen 
and labourers, being carried attached to their girdles 
on the road, and placed in some shady nook during 
their work. This custom has certainly existed in 
Palestine from an early period; it explains the 
great abundance in which fragments of these vases 
are found both among ruins and in the open fields. 
The art of making them is well known in the 
country; the machine consists of two circular stones 
or wooden wheels placed one above another; the 
upper being the smaller. Glass also mugt have been 
known to the Hebrews ; the only passage, however, 
which probably alludes to it, classes it with gold, as 
if it were very rare*. 

Owing to the influence of the laws of Moham- 



a 



* Judg. vii 1 6, 19, 20. ' Jerem. xiiL 12; xlviii. 11. 

I Kings xvii. 12; cf. xviii. 33 (A. V. barrel). 
" Job xxviii. 17 (A. V. crystal). 



1 62 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [cH. v. 

med, the Arabs now generally drink only water and 
milk ; some, however, do not refuse white and yellow 
liqueurs and wines; believing that iu this they do 
not disobey their prophet, who, they say, forbade red 
wine only, not that of any other colour* Many also 
will not drink the forbidden cup openly ; sometimes, 
however, in a party they are so overcome by the fra- 
grance of the wine, that they shut their own eyes, 
thinking thus to be unseen by others, and drink it 
oflf. The effect is soon visible, they sing uninvited, 
though the dinner be but just begun, and make more 
noise than a European. 

So far as we can infer from the Bible, the chief 
meals in the day were taken about noon and in the 
evening\ The Arabs in general follow this custom, 
but still they are ready to eat, if circumstances be 
favourable, at all times, so long as it cost them no- 
thing; when they take good care to recompense 
themselves both for the abstinence which they may 
have practised to gain an appetite, and the fasts 
imposed upon them by poverty. Like the heroes of 
old, the Arabs think it a stain on their reputation 
if they do ijpt eat largely; and to say how much 
meat a man can eat, or how much water, or even in- 
toxicating liquor, he can drink, is their way (espe- 
cially among the nomad tribes) of expressing how 
strong he is. 

The Jews always washed their hands before eat- 

* Gen. xliii, i6 — 32; Ruth ii. 14 — 17; iii. 7; i Kings xx, 
16; Acts X. 9, 10. Cf. Josephus, Jewish War, i. 17, § 4. 



CH. V.} OF FOOD AND COOKERY, 163 

ing*; at the first they appear to have sat at table ^, 
probably indeed on the ground; though afterwards 
we read of soft couches on which the voluptuous re- 
clined^. The tables and couches were probably both 
very low. Before the meal, the host or the prin- 
cipal guest offered a prayer, or asked a blessing*; 
after it he returned thanks*. The meat, ready 
cut up, with the other victuals, had already been 
placed upon the table in large plates ; each person 
received the portion given to him by the head of the 
family® on a round piece of bread which was before 
him, and ate with his fingers. One or two dishes 
of sauce served for the whole party, into which they 
dipped their breads Spoons and forks were not 
placed upon the table, and are not mentioned in the 
Bible; we read, however, of knives, of plates of va* 
rious forms, and of cups of different kinds^. 

From the above brief sketch it will appear that 
habits of the Jews at table were similar to those 
which still prevail in the East. Cushions are still 
used as seats instead of chairs ; but to enable my 
reader to understand the resemblance better, I will 
give a description of one of the numerous dinners, at 
which I have been a guest. 

^ S. Matt. XV. 2. S. Mark viL 3. 

■ Gen. xxvii. 19 ; xxxvii. 25. i Sam. xx. 25. 

* Amos vi. 4. * I Sam. ix. 13. 

* Deut. viii. 10. * Gex. xliii 34. i Sam. i. 4. 
' S. Matt xxvi. 23. 

® Gen, xliv. 2 — 12. i Kings vii. 51. Cant. vii. 2. S. Matt, 
xxvi. 27. 

II — 2 



1 64 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cH. V. 



AN AEAB DINNEK. 

The habits at table are alike in the dwellings of 
rich and poor, and the repasts differ only in the 
quantity and quality of the dishes, and the value of 
the table-service. At the tinie of dinner a large 
tray of silver, latten, brass, or even wood, as the 
case may be, is placed in the middle of the room on 
a carpet spread upon the pavement, or sometimes 
on a small table, inlaid with mother-of-pearl or 
unpolished stone. The guests take their seats around 
it on the ground or on cushions. On the tray there 
are as many round loaves as there are guests. If 
the number of guests be large, the cloth is spread 
on the ground, and each takes his seat, as he 
pleases, opposite to a loaf, which marks his place. 
The different attitudes are curious; one sits cross- 
legged, another kneels, some lie on one side, and 
altogether they form a very picturesque group. 
"When all have taken their places, the meats are 
served up, whole or carved, according to the less or 
greater degree of civilization of the entertainer. The 
dinner consists of one course only, meats and sweets 
being put on the table together, so that "you see 
your dinner" is literally true with the Arabs. The 
host helps the guests to the viands with his own 
hand; and they receive their portion on the bread, 
which is the only plate used. The dishes of stews 
and sauces are common to all, and each one of the 
comJ)any dips in his fingers. In the houses of some 



CH. v.] AN ARAB DINNER. 165 

of the rich, when the dish of rice, called pilau, (which 
marks the end of the repast) is brought, wooden 
or ivory spoons are handed round, but usually each 
person uses his own fingers, in the following manner; 
he takes up a handful from the dish, and squeezes 
it tightly into a ball or cylinder, which he then puts 
into his mouth. After that, he shakes his open hands 
over the dish to throw back any grains that have 
adhered to them, lest they should be wasted. This 
process goes on every instant till all are satisfied. 
The jreader may suppose the effect of this spectacle 
on the appetite of a European. After the first time, 
I took care, when spoons were not provided, to con- 
fine my attention to dishes that were not thus pol- 
luted. The above description is, it must be con- 
fessed, only true of those families which are stiU 
quite uncivilized. Among the more refined, three 
fingers only are used in eating instead of the whole 
hand, and sometimes knives and forks are in- 
troduced, besides spoons. The consequence of this 
is often irresistibly ludicrous; for the unskilful Arab 
in trying to follow the European custom, pricks his 
lip with his fork or cuts it with his knife, which he 
then angrily throws down with a hearty (silent) 
curse at foreign fashions, as he tries to staunch the 
blood. 

Unfortunately also the mode of drinking at table 
does not resemble the European. Two or three cups 
of different sizes are handed to any one who desires 
to quench his thirst, so that the whole company 
drink in common. These very rarely contain wine. 



l66 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. V. 

usually water flavoured with essence of oranges, roses, 
and the like. Wine and brandy are only found on 
the tables of the more fashionable persons; here also 
there is a drawback, because some guests, in order to 
drink largely without being noticed, put the bottle 
to their lips. Under these circumstances I have 
frequently envied the Jews now living in Palestine, 
many of whom never drink, even from a fountain, 
without first straining the liquid through a piece of 
linen (often very dirty, it must be confessed) to avoid 
swallowing flies or other insects \ Let me also warn 
any one of my readers who may be anxious to be 
present at osxe of these entertainments, not to go in 
his best clothes ; for whoever carves a dish uses only 
his hands, and in tearing the meat violently asunder 
plentifully bespatters those near him ; sometimes too, 
a guest's heart is so warmed with the good cheer 
that he waxes affectionate and seizes the first oppor- 
tunity of giving his neighbour a hug with his greasy 
hands, or throws him a piece of meat as a polite and 
delicate attention. These repasts are generally ac- 
companied with music ; and the shrill cries and nasal 
sounds uttered by the musicians, who think they are 
not singing well unless they are making as much 
noise as possible, are enough to deafen a European. 

Such then are the principal points of connexion 
between the past and the present inhabitants of 
Palestine; and, though the progress of time, the 
influence of foreign nations, and the decline of the 
native race in civilization, have produced some effect, 

' S. Matt. X3dii. 24. 



CH. v.] ^iV^ ARAB DINNER, 1 67 

stilly I think^ enough has been said in the present 
chapter to shew that on the whole the customs of the 
Jews of old time are maintained in their integrity 
by the Arabs. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CONTRAST BETWEEN THE SOCIAL POSITION OF 

THE WOMEN AMONG THE ANCIENT JEWS 

AND MODERN ARABS. 



It would appear as if the author of the Book of 
Genesis had designed to impress upon his readers the 
equality of the woman with the man, by the simi- 
larity of their names \ and by declaring that she 
was created in his likeness and as his helpmate and 
inseparable companion*. As this statement is not en- 
forced by special laws, we may conclude that among 
the Jews the women enjoyed a free and independent 
social position. Nor are instances wanting in the 
national history to shew that this was the case; a 
few of which I will cite as examples. Miriam, the 
sister of Moses, headed a company of the daughters 
of Israel in celebrating with solemn dance and song 
the ruin of the Egyptians'; while on another oc- 

^ Heb. Ish (man), Ishshah (woman). 
' Gen. ii. 7. 20. 23, 24. ^ Exod. xv. 20. 



CH. VI.] THE WOMEN. 1 69 

casion, she appeared in active opposition to her 
brother's authority*. The daughters of Shiloh were 
dancing unguarded in the vineyards when carried off 
by the children of Benjamin'. Deborah judged the 
people, and incited Barak to fight against Sisera, 
going with him to the battle*. The women went 
forth in procession to greet Saul and David on their 
return from defeating the Philistines*. Athaliah 
was able to destroy the seed royal and retain the 
supreme power for six years*: and in the reign of 
Josiah, the prophetess Huldah was so highly es- 
teemed as to be consulted by the high-priest Hilkiah 
and the chief officers of the kingdom. Again, among 
aU ranks, the wife appears to have had Uberty of 
action apart from her husband. We read of the wife 
of Manoah being alone in the fields in the absence of 
her husband*; of Abigail departing with presents to 
appease the wrath of David,, unknown to Nabal^; 
and of Michal venturing to reproach her royal 
husband for dancing in the presence of the people, 
and being reproved, not for presumption but for 
wilful ignorance of the motives of his conduct®.. 
These, and many other examples, shew that the in- 
dependence of the woman was a custom deeply 
seated in the nation, and founded upon that of the 
patriarchal ages. The general drift of the injunctions 
in the laws of Moses, and the mode in which the 

* Numb. xii. 1. ' Judges xxi. 21. 23. 
^ Judges iv* 4 — 14. * I Sam. xviii. 6 — 8. 

* 2 Kings xi. 1. 3. ^ Judges xiii. 9. 
^ I Sam. XXV. 14. 18 — 20. 37. ^ 2 Sam. vi. 20. 



170 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cH. VI. 

wife is described in the Bible*, seem to shew that mo- 
nogamy, and not polygamy, was regarded as the rule 
among the Jews. Those cases, in which the latter 
is allowed by the law, generally appear to be excep- 
tional ; while, on the contrary, the king is expressly 
commanded not to multiply wives to himself*. More- 
over, as the making of eunuchs was practically for- 
bidden^ the maintenance of such an institution as 
the harem was rendered almost impossible ; and the 
fact that mamage with foreign womea was dis- 
couraged*, while the rights of the wife, even though 
taken from among the slaves*, were protected by 
law, justifies us in considering a departure from the 
rule of monogamy as rather tolerated than encouraged. 
Hence, we may conclude that, among the ancient 
Jews, the woman was held in esteem, and had her 
proper rights and social rank in every grade of 
society, and that though occasionally the great men 
may have imitated the habits of the neighbouring 
nations, and indulged in a number of wives, this 
was not the custom with the general body of the 
people. 

Let us now examine the position of the women 
in Palestine at the present day. On this point 
many authors have written with so much minute- 



1 Gen. ii. 24. Deut. xx. 7 ; xxiv, 5 ; xxv. 5« 1 1* Psalm 
cxxviii. 3. Prov. v. 18; vi. 26; xii. 4; xix. 14; xxxi. 10 — 31. 
Mai. ii. 14, 15. 

* Deut. xviL 17. ^ Deut. xxiiL i. 

* Exod. xxiii. 32; xxxiv. 12. 15, 16. Deut. vii. 2 — 4. 

* Exod. xxi. 10. 



CH. VI.] THE WOMEN, 171 

ness, that I shall not endeavour to discuss the sub- 
ject at length, but shall confine myself to a few 
important particulars, which have fallen under my 
own observation. 

In the towns, and with the richer classes of the 
Mohammedans, the woman is regarded as a mere 
animal; she is bound to be blindly subservient to 
every caprice of her lord and master ; and is, in a 
word, an absolute slave, without the slightest freedom 
of will, thought, or action. Condemned at an early 
age (generally from 12 to 14 years) to the idle and 
degrading life of the harem, she soon becomes sunk in 
sloth and sensuality, and the few sparks of intellect 
and spirit which may still survive are not employed 
in raising her from her debasement, but in plunging 
her deeper into the mire, when a chance but rare 
opportunity is found. Few, or none, occupy them* 
selves in household matters, or learn to do any work 
or to read so as to amuse themselves and wile away the 
time; their sole occupations are eating, suckHng their 
infants, talking scandal, and plotting every minute 
how to elude their owner's vigilance; perhaps in the 
hope of stinging him by the stain which they purpose 
to bring upon his* honour. When a man has several 
wives, his house is the scene of continual broils, 
which are fostered by anger, revenge, treachery, and 
every bad passion. This life of misery begins anew 
every morning, and concludes every evening with 
oaths, with cursing, and with tears. Sometimes their 
quarrels come to their master's ears; then those 
who are out of favour are beaten, knocked down. 



172 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VI. 

and threatened with divorce, and have to bide their 
time till his fickle fancy gives them a chance of rer 
taliation. 

I have never been in a harem, but I once lived 
next door to one at Jerusalem, and used to hear 
shrieks and cries, doors banged, and people running 
out of the house ; all signs of the grief and confusion 
that reigned in the place. How often on such oc- 
casions have I thought of the contrast between the 
mournful reality and the fictions of writers, who have 
thrown a gloss of poetry and romance over life in a 
harem. If they have erred designedly in giving 
allurement to things in themselves so horrible, they 
must be held guilty of propagating immorality and 
every vice. Many instances there are, which I could 
give, shewing the debasement of the women in the 
harems of the East, but I blush to record them; 
suffice it to say that the doom of Sodom and Go- 
morrah might justly fall upon these dens of iniquity, 
for they are in no way behind the cities of the plain 
in sin and pollution. 

Let us now consider the position of the woman 
in the country, especially in the interior; here too 
she is the servant and slave of her husband's will; 
but nevertheless she manages the affairs of the 
household, assists him and his companions in every- 
thing, na^, b sometimes hk adviL, and even hU 
master. Among these classes polygamy is rare; the 
chiefs and the men of substance have sometimes two 
wives; but the majority of the people only one; con- 
sequently here the woman is more highly esteemed 



CH. VI.] . THE WOMEN. 1 73 

than her sisters in the city ; with good reason, for she 
is always hard at work in the house and in the field, 
carrying things to market, buying food, and being 
in every way a help, instead of a toy, of her hus- 
band. She is thrifty, untiring, brave, and generally 
honest. She knows how to rejoice in good fortune, 
and to bear ill; her spouse is aware of her good 
qualities, and allows her freedom of action. Woe, 
however, to her if she be found faithless ; cudgelling, 
and sometimes even death, are the penalties of her 
fault. Husbands, however, do not give any public 
manifestation of the esteem in whifch they hold 
their wives, but rather the contrary; for example, 
if the pair are on a journey with their children, and 
are rich enough to possess an ass or a mule, the man 
and the children ride, while the woman, carrying a 
baby at her breast, and perhaps a bundle upon her 
head, walks by the side. When they halt, she goes 
to obtain food and prepares the meal, while he re- 
poses and smokes a pipe. If they have no beast of 
burden, the man carries the smaller load; if any 
occasion of family rejoicing arise (which always 
terminates in a feast) all the trouble and service 
falls on the woman ; if two men begin to make com- 
plimentary inquiries about their respective families, 
the wives are mentioned last, the cattle and boys 
being named before them. Hence we see that the 
social position of the woman among the Arabs is 
very far below that which she occupied among the 
ancient Hebrews. 

Neither polygamy nor bigamy exists among the 



174 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [oH. VI. 

Christians in Palestine, but still the women do not 
enjoy much greater advantages or suflfer much less 
than those who are Mohammedans. It must how- 
ever be acknowledged that their social position is 
superior to that of the latter, but far too many of 
them use their liberty to humiliate instead of to 
elevate themselves. 



PRICE OF A DAUGHTER, BETROTHAL, MARRIAGE, 
BIRTH OF CHILDREN AND BARRENNESS. 

In the Je\^sh nation, where everyone considered 
marriage a duty, and where the laws and customs 
allowed a second wife to be taken, it came to pass 
that fathers were not only able to find husbands for 
their daughters without giving them a dowry, but 
even to ask a price for them. This custom dated 
from the patriarchal times; though the price was 
not fixed by any law, and varied with circumstances, 
and with the rank of the parties concerned. In one 
case, however, that of seduction, the sum of fifty 
shekels of silver is ordered by the laws of Moses to 
be paid to the father of the damseP. Sometimes 
the wife was given in return for money or for food*; 
sometimes for a certain period of service, as in the 
case of Jacob'; sometimes for deeds of valour, as in 
the cases of Caleb* and of David*. If the maiden 
had elder brothers, they joined their father and mo- 

^ Exod. xxii. 16, 17. Deut. xxii. 29. 
' Gen. xxxiv. 12. Hos. Hi. 2. ^ Gen. xxix. 18. 27. 

* Josh. XV. 16, 17. * I Sam. xviii. 25. 27. 



CH. VI.] BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. I75 

ther in the deliberations about the marriage'. When 
the price was arranged, the damsel's consent was 
asked; an indispensable formality, founded on the 
history of Rebekah". In ancient times the whole 
matter was concluded in the presence of witnesses, 
and confirmed by an oath^. The custom of writing 
and sealing a contract* is probably not earlier than 
the Captivity. The affair was then ratified by be- 
trothap, but the damsel was allowed a certain time 
to make her preparations before the wedding, after 
which she went to live with her husband. The delay 
of ten days asked for Rebekah by her parents^, the 
interval between the betrothal and marriage of 
Samson with the Philistine woman'', and of S. Jo- 
seph with the Virgin Mary^ are instances of this 
custom. Unfaithfulness during this period was 
punished by deaths 

In the choice of a companion for life the man 
was rarely led by the impulse of his heart, The 
case of Samson'® appears to have been quite excep- 
tional ; usually the parents selected a bride for their 
son, and the marriage was very frequently concluded 
without the parties most interested having ever seen 
each other". When the parents or the sons had 
made their choice, the father went to find the 

^ Gen. xxiv. 50. 55; xxxiv. 11. * Gen. xxiv. 57. 

^ Ezek. xTi. 8. Mai. ii. 14. * Tobit vii. 14. 

* Deut. xxii. 23. " Gen. xxiv. 55* 
' Judges xiv. 8. ^^ S. Matt. i. 18. 

^ Dent. xxii. 24. *^ Judges xiv. 2, 
" Gen. xxiv. 3, 4; xxxviii. 6, <fec. 



1/6 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. yi. 

maiden's nearest relations, in order to ask her in 
marriage, and make the necessary arrangements, 
more especially about her price and the conditions of 
the betrothal. When these were agreed upon, the 
event was celebrated by a festivaP. The custom of 
not giving the younger daughter in marriage before 
the elder, first mentioned in the case of Leah and 
Rachel ^ was maintained by the Jews. 

During the patriarchal epoch men appear not to 
have entered into marriage until they had reached 
a very considerable age, but in later days this bond 
was formed soon after passing the period of puberty, 
which in southern countries arrives much earlier 
than in northern. For example, Jehoram king of 
Judah, who died at the age of 40, left a son 22 
years old; Amon, aged 24, left a son of 8, who also 
became a father at 14; Jehpiakim had a son born to 
him when he was 18; and we may fairly conclude 
that the example of the royal family would be fol- 
lowed by the other classes of society. According to 
the rabbinical traditions a youth ought to marry at 
the age of 18, and daughters are pronotmced mar- 
riageable at the age of 12*. 

On the day fixed for the wedding, the bride, 
after bathing and perfuming herself with scents and 
fragrant oils, was decked in her richest attire, and 



' Gen. xxxiv. 12. ^ Gen. xxiv. 54; xxix. 22. 

® Gen. xxix. 26. 

* Maimonides, Hebraeorum de Connubiis, c. 2, § i. (Paris, 



CH. VI.] MARRIAGE. 177 

crowned with a cliaplet^ Then, in the midst of her 
relations and friends, she awaited the hour of sun- 
set. The bridegroom, similariy adorned and crowned^, 
went in the evening with his groomsmen^ to his 
father-in-law's house to fetch his bride, who quitted 
her home after receiving the blessings of her pa- 
rents* . The pair, walking beneath a canopy, and 
followed by their relations and friends, proceeded by 
torchlight to the music of drums and other instru- 
ments with shouts and songs of joy ^ On arriving 
at the bridegroom's house, a banquet, prepared by 
him or by his relations, awaited the wedding-guests*'. 
No direct religious ceremony is mentioned in the 
Bible as taking place on the occasion, except that 
the couple received the blessings of their parents 
and friends'. At the conclusion of the feast the 
bridegroom was conducted to the nuptial chamber, 
whither the bride had already preceded him^. It 
appears also that the parents were always ready to 
produce proofs of the purity of their daughter'. 
The festival was prolonged for seven days longer^°, 
and the newly-married couple were visited and con- 
gratulated by their friends. 

The great desire of a Hebrew wife, as appears 

* Isaiah Ixi. 10. Jerem. ii 32. Ezek. xvi. 9 — 13. 

• Isaiab IxL 10. Cant. iii. 11. ° Judg. xiv. 11. 

* Gen. xxiv. 60. 

* Jerem. vii. 34. i Mace. ix. 37. 39. S. Matt. xxv. i. 

• Judg. xiv. 10. S. John ii 9, 10. 
^ Buth iv. II. Tobit vii. 13. 

^ Ps. xix. 5. Joel ii. i5. Tobit viii. i. 

• Deut. xxii. 15. ^° Gen. xxix. 27. Judg. xiv. 12. 

12 



178 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cil. VI. 

from many passages in the Bible ^, was to present 
her husband with a numerous offspring. Barren- 
ness was considered as a punishment inflicted by 
heaven; it was a "reproach" to a woman*, and often 
exposed her to the affronts and taunts of a more 
prolific rival in her husband's affections ^ The con- 
sequence sometimes was that she was willing to 
divide her conjugal rights with her maidservant, 
and adopt the children that were born*. The birth 
of an infant, especially of a male, was consequently 
a joyful event in a family, especially to the father, 
who saw his name thus perpetuated, A daughter 
was by no means so welcome*; among the ancient 
Arabs a female infant was a great grief, and was not 
always allowed to live^ Soon after birth, the child 
was washed, rubbed with salt in order to harden the 
skin, and wrapped in swaddling clothes^. The father 
then came and adoptedthe infant by taking it on 
his knees, a ceremony sometime^ performed by the 
grandfather^; the same thing was done by a wife 
who had ceded her conjugal rights to a servant*. 
The male children were circumcised eight days after 
birth ^°. The mother generally suckled her children, 
and did not wean them until the third year; when 
a festival was held in honour of the event". Wet- 
nurses were only employed in cases of necessity". 

* Ps. cxxvii. cxxviii. &c. ' Gren. xxx. 23. " i Sam. L 6. 

* Gen. xvi. 2; xxx. 3. * Ecclus. xlii. 9, 10. 
® Pococke, Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 91. (Oxfd. 1806.) 

' Ezek. xvi. 4. ® Gen. 1. 23. 

* Gen. xxx. 3. *® S. Luke ii. 21. 
" Gen. xxi. 8. " 2 Kings xi 2, 



CH. VI.] MARRIAGE. 1 79 

During their early years, the children of both sexes 
were under the mother's care; afterwards the edu- 
cation of the sons was undertaken by the father, 
who sometimes committed them to a tutor ^ Of the 
details of the education of the children of either sex 
we know but little, except that they were carefully 
instructed in the precepts of the law and the tra- 
ditions of the elders. 

The above may suffice for a sketch of the customs 
of the ancient Jews in the matter of marriage; I 
will now describe the more important characteristics 
of those of the Christian Arabs, whose habits dijffer 
from those of the Mohammedan only in the use of a 
priest and a service in a church. 

Marriage, among the Arabs, is regarded solely 
as an affair of commerce ; and a love match, or even 
one which the parties themselves have arranged, is 
very rare, especially in the country. A father, who 
has several daughters, treats them kindly in his 
house, not because of any real affection, but because 
of the use they are in his business, especially in agri- 
culture. He regards them just as he would sheep 
or cows, and sells them in the same way, obtaining 
a greater or less price, according to his rank and 
fortune, and their beauty. So that at the present 
day every daughter could speak of her father as Leah 
and Eachel did of Laban^ In the towns, from 2,000 
to 4,000 piastres are given for a daughter, or even 
more if the bridegroom's father be very rich; but in 
the country, the price is almost always from 2,000 to 

* Num. xi. 12, 2 Kings x. i. 5. * Gen. xxxi. 15. 

12 — 2 



l8o CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. vr. 

3,000 piastres ^ The transaction is arranged between 
the parents of the young couple, assisted by their 
friends and nearest relations; and is just the same 
as if a mare or a camel were to be sold ; the pedi- 
grees of the families and the beauties of the damsel 
are vaunted, and the bargaining occasionally lasts for 
several days, until the price is finally settled. Some- 
times the buyer is not able to pay the whole sum at 
once, and it is then agreed how and by what instal- 
ments he shall make up the amount ; and until he is 
quite out of debt, he is not allowed to claim his 
bride. After this it is arranged what entertainments 
the bridegroom shall offer to the bride and her re- 
lations ; this is easily done, as there are certain cus- 
toms and traditional rules on the point When all 
these questions are settled, they fix the number of 
days, months, or years, that are to elapse before the 
wedding; and the agreements are committed to 
writing and signed in the presence of witnesses. 
Banquets are then given by the contracting parties, 
at which the friends and relations are present ; at 
these mutton, rice (pilau), and dried figs, are served, 
and (with the Christians) plenty of brandy. I have 
spoken of a lapse of years before the actual wedding, 
because children of a tender age are not unfrequently 
affianced, in order to cement or strengthen an alliance 
between two families. The nuptials are rarely cele- 
brated immediately ^^after the betrothal or the pay- 
ment of the price ; because the father of the bride 
receives presents at certain periods of the year dur- 

* There are about six piastres in a shilling. 



CH. VI.] MARRIAGE. l8l 

ing the betrothal, and so it is to his advantage to 
retain her as long as possible ; this delay also gives 
her a better trousseau, as I will explain presently. 

When the preliminaries just described have been 
settled the formalities commence, and the first is 
asking the girl in marriage, which is performed as 
follows: The bridegroom's father accompanied by 
two or three friends as witnesses visits the father of 
the bride, who receives them in company with his 
friends and relations. After some coffee has been 
drunk and some pipes smoked, the request is made 
and granted. A feast then gladdens the hearts of 
all, and none of them think whether the parties most 
interested will be equally pleased. The fathers only 
look at their own interests; and the children submit 
to marriage, not with any religious feeling or emo- 
tion of the heart, but as a matter of business; that 
is, if they are capable of thinking at all, which is 
frequently not the case, as the girls are often too 
young (perhaps 12 years old) to understand any- 
thing about it, and youths, who have been betrothed 
when quite unconscious of the matter, dare not 
refuse when they are old enough to have a will of 
their own; as they would be execrated by all, and 
often cause strife and bloodshed. If there are seve- 
ral daughters in a family, the father disposes of them 
one after the other, beginning with the eldest. 

In the country, and among the Greek Christians, 
two days after the proposal of marriage is accepted, 
the bridegroom's father, accompanied by his nearest 
relatives, the papa (priest), the chief of the village. 



l82 CUSTOMS AFD TRADITIONS. [CH. vr. 

and a number of friends, returns to the bride's house 
with a large new coloured handkerchief, in which are 
folded 20 piastres, several bottles of brandy, and 
a quantity of dried fruit, coffee, sugar, and tobacco, 
in proportion to the number of the guests of the two 
parties. On arriving at the bride's house, after eat- 
ing, drinking, and singing, the priests rise and take 
the handkerchief with its contents, and, after some 
prayers, give it to the damsel, with her father's per- 
mission, as a legal token that she is no longer her 
own mistress, and that her husband already under- 
takes the duties of clothing and maintaining her, 
which are expressed by the handkerchief and the 
money. This done, they all return home, and the 
lover is at liberty to visit his betrothed wife, when- 
ever he pleases, as they are now considered to be 
united by an indissoluble tie; and if the bride be 
faithless or be insulted by any one, her father and 
betrothed are implacable avengers of the crime, and 
will seldom be satisfied with anything short of the 
death of the offender \ If the bridegroom or his 
father do not pay the price of the maiden on the day 
that the proposal is made or during the next two 
days, then, when they are in a position to perform 
their promise, they purchase a sheep, rice, coffee, and 
brandy, and, accompanied by the papas and those 
who went on the former visits, take them with de- 
monstrations of joy to the house of the bride's father, 
where they have a feast, after which the bridegroom 

* See the sections on " the price of blood '* in Chapter vn. for 
an example of this. 



CH. VI.] MARRIAGE. 1 83 

or lis father pays the price into the hands of the 
priest, or, in his absence, of one of the chiefs or 
visitors of distinction, who, before witnesses, hands it 
over to the father. If the bridegroom is poor, he 
pays 500 or 600 piastres at once, and the rest by 
fixed instalments; and until this is done the wedding 
cannot be completed. 

During the interval between the betrothal and 
the wedding, the husband is required to make pre- 
sents to his wife on the occasion of the solemn fes- 
tivals, and to prepare for the necessary expenses to 
be incurred in clothing her, in furnishing his house, 
in entertaining their relations and the rest of the 
guests, and in gifts to those who take part in the 
ceremony. If he is a Christian, he is expected to 
send to the house of his future father-in-law some 
pounds of mutton and twenty piastres before Chrisfc- 
mas-eve ; this present is always carried by one of his 
female relations, who sings as she goes, and is ac- 
companied by others, who follow her example. The 
father then invites the family of the donor to dinner, 
and gives the money to his daughter for her head- 
dress. The day following Christmas-day, the hus- 
band sends or takes some sweetmeats to his wife, 
with a further present of money. Before Lent, it is 
again his duty to send a piece of mutton and some 
rice, which he and his relations are invited to eat. 
At Easter he must send his betrothed a sheep with 
some coins round its neck, and a handsome hand* 
kerchief, in which four candles are wrapped. The 
wealthier Mohammedans send the same gifts, except 



l84 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VI. 

the candles ; but the poorer simplify matters by tak- 
ing the bride to their own homes. Hence, it is 
evidently the interest of the bride's father to delay 
the wedding as long as possible, or to betroth his 
daughter at an early age ; as thus a greater number 
of presents are sent to both of them. 

The customs of the people in the cities differ a 
little from those which I have described, but as the 
alterations are only caused by departure from pri- 
mitive customs, I take no further notice of them. 
Those which I am describing are in vogue among 
the Greeks, but they are the same with all the other 
natives of the country. When the husband is ready, 
or is pressed by the relations, to complete the mar- 
riage, he buys dresses and ornaments for his wife, 
more or less costly in proportion to his means, be- 
sides the following articles; namely, a dress worth 
100 piastres for each of her two oldest uncles, both 
on the father's and the mother's side; another of 
equal value for her eldest brother, and others of less 
value for the rest; a silk or cotton dress for each of 
her aunts and sisters; in addition he has to hand 
over to her father loo piastres to provide for the 
expense of painting her face some ^ hours before the 
wedding; this gift is called by the Arabs the price 
of nacasse suoge (tattooing the face) ; he has also to 
entertain the bride's two oldest uncles, at a cost of 
not less than 50 piastres, to recompense them for the 
trouble that they have taken in the preliminary 
arrangements. The sums paid to the papas, their 
acolytes, and the church, need not be mentioned at 



CH. VI.] MARRIAGE CEREMONIES, 1 85 

length; among the Greets they are sure not to be 
trifles, 

"When the purchases and payments are made, 
the bridegroom begins to make arrangements for 
the preliminary festivities by gathering together on 
a Sunday all the women belonging to his own fa- 
mily, and those of his relations and friends, to grind 
corn and make bread and cakes all night. On 
Monday morning he calls together all his neigh- 
bours who own beasts of burden, gives them bread, 
and asks them to go and fetch him wood and bushes 
from the forest. They all consent, and return with 
heavy loads, upon which they are entertained at 
dinner. In the evening a bonfire is built up with 
this wood in an open space, and two companies of 
youths take their places round it, who felicitate the 
lovers in songs, clapping their hands and playing 
with their swords, while a number of girls dance and 
sport among them without fear of hearing the slight- 
est impropriety. The bridegroom and his relations 
serve coffee, dried fruits, and brandy, to these un- 
melodious musicians and to the dancers, in order to 
promote the general joy. These amusements are 
repeated every evening of the week. On Saturday 
evening a number of the relations, both of the bride 
and bridegroom, visit the house of the former in 
order to conduct her to the bath, if there be such a 
thing; if not, she bathes at home; in either case 
songs are sung and noisy shouts of joy are raised. 
The henna is then prepared, so that the dye may be 
ready on the morrow for staining the bride's hands 



1 86 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH, Vt 

and feet before she goes to church. On Sunday, the 
bridegroom, clad in his best, rides to an open spot; 
preceded by a number of young men, firing guns, 
singing, shouting, leaping, and dancing; the women 
follow, carrying sticks, to which are fastened the 
dresses and ornaments which have been bought for 
the bride, and making quite as good use of their 
limbs and throats as the youths. On reaching the 
place, they plant these sticks into the ground, and 
the bridegroom rides round them, while the women 
dance with shouts of joy. The men set up a target 
for the marksmen ; this is generally a bird, supposed 
to be of evil omen, and evejy one who succeeds in 
killing it, receives a prize of 5 piastres and a pair 
of shoes from the bridegroom as a reward for re- 
moving an evil augury from his nuptials. After 
this they return still shouting to the village, where 
they find a repast prepared to renovate their voices. 
An hour before twilight the bridegroom, accom- 
panied by the papas, the chiefs of his village or 
quarter, and his family, goes to his father-in-law's 
house, carrying rice, dried fruits, honey, and brandy, 
and all the guests of both parties eat again and sing 
nuptial songs congratulating and blessing the couple. 
After a while there is a general silence, which is broken 
by the priest or a chief asking the bride's father 
iether L £ut„« son-in-law L whoUy paid the 
*' price of virginity," and fulfilled all his other 
duties since the betrothal; the father replies that 
everything has been done in accordance with the 
traditional laws of the country; his words are con- 



CH. VI.] MAERIAGE CEREMONIES. 187 

firmed by the witnesses, and then they all prepare 
to go to church. First walks the bridegroom with a 
pipe in his hand and a dagger at his breast, the 
tokens of manhood and of strength ; he is followed by 
all his relations and friends with torches and candles, 
and with songs and music. His looks are so serious 
and sad that he seems as if he were on his way to 
execution; but these are assumed according to eti- 
quette. On reaching the church-door, the procession 
draws up on the right side of it, and awaits the ar* 
rival of the bride, who comes completely enveloped in 
a veil, and supported by her father and oldest uncle ; 
while all the women block up the way dancing exult- 
ingly. As soon as she reaches the church, she is 
crowned, and then, followed by the bridesmaids and 
groomsmen, walks to the altar with her future hus- 
band, where the priest pronounces the marriage 
benedictions, concluding with these words : *^ God 
be witness, with all His angels, saints, male and 
female, and all Christians here present, that ye are 
indissolubly joined together in marriage." Then all 
the party sing a hymn of praise, and depart with 
the priests. The joyful procession goes by torchlight 
to the bridegroom's house ; and as the happy couple 
pass along the streets, some of the poor owners of 
the cottages throw a small cup of coffee before their 
feet, as a mark of respect, and others sprinkle them 
with rose-water, uttering good wishes, in the hope 
of ingratiating themselves, or of getting a bakhshish. 
The bride is still closely veiled, and is led by her 
husband and her father, or by his nearest relatives, 



1 88 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VI> 

who commit her to the care of the women of the 
family as soon as they arrive at the house. A 
sumptuous feast, blessed by the papaSy awaits the 
men in one chamber and the women in another. 
May my good fortune ever keep me away from the 
noise, the confusion, the heat, and the other dis- 
agreeables of this revel. Were I a writer of ro- 
mances I might perhaps be able to paint in glowing 
words the love of the bride and the caresses of the 
bridegroom; but having the misfortune of seeing 
things as they are, I have only been able to pity a 
young girl of 12 or 14 years old, who submitted like 
an automaton for twelve hours to everything that 
she was told to do ; and who, heated and deafened 
with the noise, yawning and sleepy, seemed rooted 
to the ground in the middle of the crowd that danced 
and yelled around like maniacs. As for the husband^ 
sometimes he is a mere boy, and acts like the bride ; 
but if he is of more mature age, he joins in the mirth 
like a man worn out with fatigue, and perhaps a 
little drunk. The spectacle which I have described 
is, however, worth seeing once, and Bethlehem and 
Beitjala are the best places for witnessing it. The 
ceremony is performed in the same way by the Mo- 
hammedans, except that they do not go to the 
church, as they have no religious ceremony on the 
occasion. 

When the men's feast is over, about 9 o'clock in 
winter and 11 in summer, a carpet, weather per- 
mitting, is spread on an open place near the house, 
on which the husband takes his seat; bonfires light 



CH. VI.] MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. 189 

up the scene, and each of the guests comes to pay 
him a compliment and make him a present of some 
money, as a contribution towards the great cost 
of the eight days' festival. This custom of mutual 
help sometimes not only repays the expenses, but 
even gives the husband something over, if he comes 
of a good family and is a popular man. When this 
ceremony is over, the oldest relation present con- 
ducts the bridegroom to the nuptial chamber, where 
he finds his bride awaiting him; and the rest of the 
guests return to their own homes. In some of the 
wilder parts of the country, the bride's parents, with 
a few chosen friends, wait until the bridegroom de- 
clares himself satisfied with her purity; the proofs 
of this are received with a loud cry of joy, and then 
all is once more silent ^ 

The next day the bride's godmother prepares a 
repast, which she brings with signs of joy to the 
house of the married couple, to be eaten with those 
whom they choose to invite : these are the guests of 
the preceding day. At the conclusion of the feast 
both the men and the women make a present of 
money to the bride, after which the party breaks 
up. Three days after, the bride's father fills a large 
dish with some mutton prepared with rice, and 
places on the top 200 piastres; this he sends to his 
daughter, as a token that he does not forget her, 
but is always ready to help her in time of need. 
She takes the money, and invites some friends to 

' Deut xxii. 15. 17. C£ Lane, Modem Egt/ptians, Vol. l 
p. 257. (3rd Edn.) 



1 90 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS.' [CH. TI. 

dinner, who also present her with money before they 
leave. When seven days have elapsed from the 
wedding, the husband procures one or two sheep, and 
invites the bride's relations and friends, who, after 
dinner, are expected to make a present to her; this 
money, and this alone of all that is given her, is left 
in her own power by her husband, to be spent on 
her dresses, or in increasing the ornaments of coins 
worn round her face and head. After this there are 
no more feasts; so the household and the village 
return to the usual monotony of Arab life. 

Though the Arab is rude, and shews little 
thought for his wife, he manifests kindly feeling for 
her when she bears him plenty of male children, 
because they increase his power and importance^ 
Hence when a male child is bom the father eagerly 
receives it in his arms and presents it to his rela- 
tions and friends, who hold banquets on the occa- 
sion, at which they shew every token of joy, and do 
not forget to make presents to the mother : the god- 
fathers also do the same to the infant. At the bap- 
tism (the time of which depends upon the health of 
the child or the will of the priest) the festivities are 
renewed. The Mohammedans have similar customs 
on the occasion of circumcision, which rite is gene- 
rally performed on the eighth day. When, how^ 
ever, a daughter is born, no signs of joy are shewn, 
especially by the Mohammedans, and some are 
brutes enough to abuse the mother, as if it were 
her fault; and if, unhappily, she bring forth several 

* Ps. cxxvii. 4, 5, 



CH. VI.] CHILDREN. 191 

daughters she is considered ill-disposed, is despised, 
and perhaps even pays with her life for an offence 
which she cannot help. 

A barren woman is reviled by her husband and by 
the rest of her own sex ; and if a Mohammedan, is 
always divorced. If she remain in her husband's 
family she is regarded as a slave, and suffers constant 
slights and humiliations; so that her life is a con^ 
tinual misery that ceases only with death. 

As soon as a child is born, it is rolled up in 
clothes, which have been sprinkled with salt in order 
to harden the skin and prevent the child from being 
injured by the air, to which it is now exposed 
for the first time. The common people do not un- 
wrap these for two or three days. The mothers 
suckle their babies, but if their milk fail, that of 
goats is used, and sometimes, with the nomads, 
camel's milk and water. They wean them at the 
age of two years, putting it off so long because the 
climate is very injurious to infants. Inoculation 
with smaU-pox, teething, and dysentery, decimate 
the children in Palestine, hence weaning is deferred 
as long as possible so that during illness they may 
have recourse to their natural food; the effect of 
this, however, is that they often die from debility 
alone. The wrinkles and other signs of premature 
old age that disfigure the women of Palestine are due 
to their early marriage, their long suckling, and their 
hard work. When twenty-eight or thirty years old 
they are veritable crones. The Arabs, Christians or 
Mohammedans, pay little or no attention to the 



192 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VL 

instruction of their children. The former send them 
to the schools kept by their respective religious com- 
munities, where they are taught precepts which they 
carry into practice very imperfectly; the latter have 
public schools, where the Koran is taught. As soon 
as the children are strong enough, learning is put 
aside, and they go to work of some kind to get a 
living. 

The above comparison of the customs of the 
ancient Jews and the modern Arabs will, I trust, be 
sufficient to shew the reader that there is a close 
resemblance between them; and that the differences 
are only those due to the change in their religion. 

Translations of certain Songs sung by the Arab Women 
IN Palestine at Weddings and Births ^ 

(1) 

Oh ! blessed be the name of God. Oh ! how He orders all 
things aright. Yes, yes, yes, He alone Ls truly powerful :, no hap- 
piness can come but by His will. 

La, la, la &c. (this refrain is repeated at the end of every verse 
by the women who are not singing.) 

Run 1 run ! O youthful bride, whither thy destiny guides thee. 
Wander through the fields, pluck every flower thou seest, joyfully 
adorn thyself with them. Rightly thou doest it, for thou hast a 
father and a mother ever obedient to the will of God. 

Be glad, O youthful bride ! All the village smiles upon thy 
marriage. Thou hast been an obedient lamb, therefore shall rosy 
days be thina Come forth and shew thy beauty, joined to strength, 
and courage* The wedding-present is ready. 

Go, then, whither thy destiny leads thee, O fair bride ! Tread 
delicately on the carpets. Should thy spouse speak to thee, what 

These are literal translations from the Arabic originals, ex- 
cept that a number of expressions, which would be offensive to the 
reader, have been omitted. 



CH. VI.] ARAB SONGS, 193 

wilt thou answer) Tell him thou art his, thou lovest him^ and 
he is thy delight. 

O ye guests, eat with your hands, behold her beauty with your 
eyes. Yes, yes, yes. To-morrow will we return to the feast, to 
songs of joy ; meanwhile we go to our children, who without us 
cannot sleep. 

Happy pair, may God protect ye throughout life. Fear ye 
TCim. He alone can make you happy, if ye fear Him. He alone 
makes the fields green with grass. He alone withers up the herb, 
and sends son*ow upon sorrow. 

Behold the bride I She comes from her marriage-bed to her 
gifts. O happy bride 1 Open thy purse and become rich. Nothing 
can be worthless that comes from thy hands. 

How often hath the bride, seated on cushions embroidered with 
gold, obtained that which her heart desired. O friends, tell ye her 
enemies that she is happy, happy in the embrace of her husband ; 
thus let them burst with envy. 

How gently the dew falls down and bathes the petals of the 
fiowers. Bless, O God, the labours of the husbandmen, the crops 
of their fields, their flocks and herds, and may their tolls be re- 
compensed. 

Behold, the wife hath brought forth ; she is risen from the 
bed whereon she reposed, whereon she slept ! She hath brought 
into the world a child, the &drest of boys j he will learn to play 
with the sword. 

Yes, darling brother, thou art like to a minaret lighted by a 
lamp, that shews its beams from afar. If to love man is a bless- 
ing, to love thee, my dear husband, is a duty. 

Dear £Either, we have not lost thee, nay, we have bound thee 
to us, as a necklace of pearls, as a collar of jewels. We have kept 
thee, the chief of our joys. 

For the love of God open the house-door ; bring in the bearer 
of good tidings and of happy omens, who makes us rejoice. Be- 
hold ye my prayer to God ; the Almighty has made me happy ! 

Hear ye the bird singing in the garden : Behold the husband 
like to a rose ; behold the husband as a bunch of violets full of 
sweetness, full of verdure ! 

Who comes not to rejoice with us % May his lips swell and 
I alone be ^ble to heal him ; while I am sharing the joys of the 
wedding. 

13 



194 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. VI. 

Hear, O mine enemj, what I have sung for thee. Lord, save 
mine enemy, and let him love me ; but if he will remain my foe, 
let a tree grow upon his head, and no one be able to cut it down. 

Thou who art come to me, be thou welcome here. Thou hast 
placed thy foot in my house, thou hast filled me with joy. Go, 
young boys and girls, place vessels of silver and of porcelain outside 
the doors to do honour to our friend. 

Oh yes I she is welcome ! Let us hail the arrival of her whose 
eyes shine with beauiy, whose form is gracefid ; tall as a young 
palm-tree, who can shut the window without a stool. 

The orange, the cedar, the lemon have spread* abroad their 
branches. They put forth in many places their sweet-scented 
flowers ; thus they fill with blessing and delight the mother of the 
husband. God make her happy ! 

O thou, who comest ladened with fruits, who scatterest per- 
fumes at every step : compared with thee others are but timid 
lambs ; thou canst match with him who has smitten down a bull. 

How beauteous is the sun, who illumines our houses with his 
rays ! How beauteous is a necklace of pearls ! God, O friend, pro- 
tect thee, for thou resemblest one of those in the Sultan's palace. 



(2) 

God guard all in this joyous feast ! King of kings, He can re- 
duce us to ashes with the same fires with which He delights us. 

O bride, perfect in beauty, fair as a half-open rose, thou blushest 
at the sight of thy betrothed. 

Fair art thou as a queen adorned with sapphires. Long may 
she live, who brought thee forth and nourished thee. 

O cake of love, that changest not colour on its way from the 
oven. Ho ! run ye all to taste it, let the dancers renew their 
strength. 

O tall as a palm-tree, bending from its own height, fall low 
before God the giver of such happiness. 

O green as Carmel, thank Grod, the giver of such gifts to thee ; 
He giveth and He taketh away at His own will. 

*0 fairest, cause of peace and joy, may God grant us to dance 
and sing when thou bearest a handsome boy. 

Live happy with thy spouse, be a mother of sons. They are 



CH. VI.] ABAB SOI^GS. 195 

the strength, the honour of the village. Without them we shall 
be without joy. 



(3) 

How great is my joy. My mother is fruitfiil in sons, like a 
tent supported by pillars. O my mother, thoU art envied for so 
many sons, thou art as an iron spike, in the eyes of thy enemies. 

O jar of basil, O pomegranate of sweetest taste, O young bride, 
who hast been the joy of thy home, pray that God may crown 
thee with sons, that thou be not barren and disgraced. 

Hail to thee, adorned like a pink in full flower, lavish in thy 
expenses, esteeming a gold coin as iron, and killing a sheep for 
thy friends as if it were a little bird. 

No sorrow or harm shall come to thee; if thou hast sons, God 
will give them to thee : He will make thee glad, esteemed and 
honoured throughout the country ; thou who art in the race as a 
gazelle. 

Thy house is adorned with a fair diamond. Therefore we 
rejoice, and grief is far from us. May God render thee rich in 
blessings like an olive fiill of fruit in a good season. 

O our Either, our chief, thou dost govern the family ; may thy 
days be prolonged until thou hast given wives to thy sons from 
the eldest to the youngest. 

Lo how our red standard waves ! sleek are the horses, the 
men are assembling. They come as the early gleams of a glorious 
dawn, the heralds of the sun. 

O, chiefs of our tribe, ye are like a cake covered with sugar. 
Ye defend our families, ye protect and maintain our rights. God 
recompense you with happiness in your families and prosperity 
with your mares. 

Welcome among us ! Blessed of God be your swords ; they shed 
the blood of our enemies ; spare our sons and husbands to obtain 
a brave offspiing in our village. 

O thou of crimson cheeks, know that love of thee has smitten 
my heart, as a scorpion kills a boy. If thou art absent from me, 
only for eight days, on the ninth, I shall hasten on thy footsteps, 
even to the desert, to recover thee. 



13—2 



196 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cn. VI. 

THE MANNER IN WHICH A WEDDING IS CELE- 
BRATED BY THE LATINS AT JERUSALEM. 

When a Latin Christian invites a person of rank 
to a wedding, he leaves at the house of his guest a 
white wax-candle, to be used like a torch of Hymen, 
in accompanying the bride to church. The festivities 
in a house where a wedding is going to be celebrated 
commence sometimes two days before, but usually 
on the morning of the day itself In the twilight 
the din of music and howls of the singers rise to 
their highest. The women chant a monotonous 
strain^ breaking now and then into a shrill scream 
of " glu, glu, glu," in full chorus, a sound most dis- 
agreeable to an unaccustomed hearer. The song is 
either one of those which I have quoted, or a simi- 
lar one in praise of the bride and bridegroom; but 
the words are unintelligible, as they are badly pro- 
nounced and drowned by the music. The principal 
instrument is the dumdum, which consists of two 
small drums fastened together, each of which is 
formed of a piece of parchment stretched over a 
brass hemisphere, and has a diflferent note; these 
are struck with two short sticks, producing a rhythm 
with but little variation, which swells or dies away 
to suit the words. There is also the violin, which 
produces the most surprising and unexpected vari- 
ations, and the kanoon, a kind of dulcimer with metal 
strings; from this the player, taking the precau- 
tion to encase his fingers in metal thimbles, evokes 
sounds not less astonishing than those of the violin. 



CH. VI.] A LATIN WEDDING. "^ I97 

Lastly, there are the cymbals, whose monotonous 
notes are not unsuited to the rest. These instru* 
ments appear to be only intended to overpower the 
"tic-tac" of the dumdum, but it prevails against 
them and makes itself heard above all the rest. 
Some Europeans appear to like this music; I can- 
not say that eight years' familiarity has taught me 
the taste, and to the last I gave it as wide a berth as 
possible. 

As soon as the guests enter the house, they are 
conducted, according to their sex, into the chamber 
of the men or women, where coflfee, a chihook, and 
other refreshments, are speedily brought to them. 
When a certain number have arrived, the grooms- 
men come to lead the bridegroom to church; they 
place a pipe in his hafids, and a procession of 
all the guests is formed, each carrying a lighted 
candle. Festivities, as I have said, are also kept up 
in the bride's house ; and when the time for going to 
church arrives, she is completely covered with a red 
cloth embroidered with gold, which prevents her 
from seeing or being seen, and makes her look like 
a mere bundle. Thus veiled, her bridesmaids (who 
are her nearest relations or her most intimate friends) 
lead her on, supporting her by the elbows, while the 
guests follow after, bearing lighted candles. The 
women, all clad in large white mantles, in the mid- 
dle of such a number of lights, resemble a shadowy 
band of ghosts. The processions halt for a moment 
in front of friends' houses, where the inmates pour 
a cup of coffee at the feet of the principal person, 



198 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VI. 

and sprinkle him or her, together with the rest of 
the guests, with rose-water. Congratulations and 
good wishes are offered incessantly. By a most 
careful calculation it is arranged that the two pro- 
cessions reach the church at the same moment, where 
the priest pronounces the nuptial benediction, and 
delivers an appropriate discourse. On quitting the 
church the married pair proceed to the bridegroom's 
house, not arm in arm, but the wife first, followed 
by the husband. The former is still enveloped in 
her veil, the latter walks silently with downcast 
eyes. The Jerusalem code of etiquette requires that 
the happy couple should wear the most lugubrious 
aspect possible, in order to shew that they are me- 
ditating on the future, and with their new position 
have assumed new cares. 

On axriving at the bridegroom's house, the bride 
with the rest of the women enters the women's 
chamber, while he remains in that of the men. In 
both songs, music, dancing, and a thousand frolics, 
are commenced, and cakes, pistachios, and all kinds 
of Arab confectionary eaten. Small glasses of raki 
(spirit of anise) are served in rapid succession to the 
men. The height of good manners is to turn to the 
bridegroom and his relations before drinking and 
congratulate them. This goes on all night long and 
a great quantity of raki is consumed. Three days 
after the wedding the guests call upon the married 
couple and make them presents in money, in order 
(as in the country) to help to defray the expenses of 
the festivities. There is a certain advantage in the 



CH. VI.] A LATIN WEDDINO. 1 99 

processions as they render the feet of the marriages 
public, and secure plenty of witnesses. Those of the 
Latins are the least nuisance since they walk in si* 
lence, while the Greeks and Armenians sing as they 
go to churchy and the Mohammedans have music in 
addition. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE CHIEFS OF THE NOMAD TRIBES AND OF 
THE TILLAGES, WITH THEIR SCRIBES. 



The Arabs, as is well known, are divided into two 
classes, the agricultural or Fellsthin and the pastoral 
or Bedawln. Their manner of life causes so wide a 
separation between them that they may almost be 
considered as strangers one from the other. The 
FeMhln, settled on their land, render a more or less 
complete obedience to the commands of the Sublime 
Porte, and so belong to the same category as all the 
other Mohammedan nations, except that they retain 
certain laws and traditional uses, which are recog- 
nized by the government; because any attempt to 
annul them would only excite the greatest exaspera- 
tion, without any hope of eradicating these deeply im- 
planted remains of the ancient Hebrew jurisdiction. 
The Bedawln, whose name is the plural of the word 
Bedawl (man of the desert), although divided into 
independent tribes, which are often hostile one to 
another, may be regarded as a single nation, united 
by a common speech. They change their place of 
abode on the vast sandy region that forms their home. 



CH. VII.] THE BEDAWI^. 201 

as often as they are moved by caprice or by the 
slightest symptom of danger; thus rendering vain 
all the attacks of their enemies, who, brave and pru- 
dent though they be, cannot contend with the climate, 
the difficulties of the country, and the want of water. 
In every age, the nomads, led by the chiefs of their 
families (sheikhs) have pitched their tents on every 
spot from the banks of the Euphrates to those of the 
Nile, from the shores of the Mediterranean to those 
of the Persian Gulf. No one has been able to 
enslave them* The Persians, the Grecians, and the 
Romans, traversed their inhospitable country, but 
were unable to drive them out. Haughty in their 
freedom,, the Bedawln have ever regarded with con- 
tempt the slavish races by which they are surround- 
ed, and so have preserved, almost in their integrity, 
the ancient habits of the Hebrew patriarchs; there- 
fore in this chapter I purpose mainly to consider 
these tribes, without however neglecting any import- 
ant characteristics which may be afforded by the 
agricultural race in Palestine. 

The country is under the rule of a governor sent 
by the Porte, who is supposed to be guided by de- 
crees and orders from the court at Constantinople ; 
however, even in his department, there are certain 
customs and ancient laws (called natural) with which 
he cannot interfere, a^ they are maintained by the 
chiefs of the villages and of the tribes; these he is 
obliged not only to respect, but also very frequently 
to adopt ; thus paying a tribute to the Mosaic code, 
which is still to a great extent in force. Did he 



202 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

attempt to do otherwise his authority would be set 
at naught; for it rests only on moral force^ his 
military power being inadequate to contend with 
that of the sheikhs of Palestine. Consequently he 
is obliged to recognize the chiefs of the villages and 
of the tribes, who treat his orders with more or less 
respect according to circumstances. 

Let us then examine the position of these chie& 
among the Hebrews and among the Arabs, With 
the former the chiefs of the tribes and families were 
men distinguished for their talent, and probably 
chosen by election ^ We read of them early in the 
history of the nation*; they were the defenders of 
the interests of their families ; they assembled in the 
public places or in the gates of the city; and the 
people could witness their meetings. Among the 
duties specially laid upon them, was presiding over 
the taking of the census'. They were most probably 
called together by couriers ; in the desert the whole 
assembly of the people was summoned by the sound 
of two trumpets, the chiefs by only one*. They no 
doubt had inferior officers ; one class of whom, cor- 
responding apparently with the scribes of the present 

' It is not distinctly stated in the Bible that these chie& were 
elected, but it appears so, as Moses appointed chie& to preside 
over the distribution of the land in Canaan who were not the de- 
scendants of the chie& mentioned during their stay in the desert. 
Num. xxxiy. 17 — 28. Cf. i Chron. iL 9, 10; vii. i — 3. Num. iiL 
24> 30» 35; 3tvL 2 j XXV. 14. 

' Num. ii. 3 ; xvi. 2. 

' Num. i. 4 — 16 j viL 2. Josh. xxii. 14 — 30. 

* Num. x. 3 — 4. 



CH. VII.] THE CHIEFS. 203 

day, we find occasionally mentioned. These kept the 
records of the genealogies; raised the levies of the 
troops*, and made to them the prescribed proclama- 
tions'; communicated the general orders', and formed 
a portion of the assembly of the representatives of 
the nation. They were elected to their office*, and, 
as the Levites were most likely to be qualified for 
such duties, were frequently chosen from among that 
body*. 

Let us now see how the Arabs imitate the 
Hebrews. The whole political organization of the 
Bedawln consists in assembling, first by families, 
then by tribes. Each of the former has at its head 
a sheikh, who is chosen for his wealth, valour, and 
wisdom; consequently the tribe ha^ a^ many sheikhs 
as there are families; and the most distinguished 
and powerfiil of these is elected chief of the whole 
tribe. Sometimes noted chiefs give] their names to 
the tribes, which are handed down unchanged gene- 
ration after generation, and remain until some one 
else effaces the memory of his predecessor by his 
own feme. All the small families which are too 
weak to remain independent of themselves, combine 
under the protection of some name inspiring more fear 
than respect, and so by the gradual agglomeration 
of individuals and families, a tribe {Kablid) is formed, 
which rises or falls in power according to the bravery 
of its leader. The name of the various small tribes, 

* I Cliron. xxvii. T. * Deut. xx. 5 — 9. 
' Josh. L 10; iii. 2. * Deut. xvi. 18. 

* 2 Chron. xix. 11 ; xxxiy. 13. 



204 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

as distinguished from the larger, is Beni (sons), 
as for example the name Beni Rechah (sons of 
Rechab) expresses that that body are dependents on 
the tribe which was or is Rechab's. The form of 
government in these tribes is patriarchal, but it is 
greatly modified by aristocratic influences; for the 
families of the chiefs have privileges by right of 
birth, which give them great weight ; still the forms 
of a democracy are preserved, for sometimes the 
whole tribe is summoned to adjudicate upon an im- 
portant question, and the decision is obtained by 
a majority of votes. The authority of the chief is 
very often absolute, and when he is a man of valour, 
and of a firm and imperious spirit, he can carry his 
power to excess; still, sooner or later, he generally 
expiates in his own person any injustice that he may 
have committed. At his orders the tents are struck, 
and war or peace is made ; but he generally consults 
either the principal persons or a general assembly of 
the tribe on these points. No pay is attached to 
his office, he has only the produce of his own flocks, 
a share of the plunder taken in the forays which 
he leads, and a toll from the caravans or parties of 
travellers who cross his territory. As a set-oiff to 
this, many expenses faU upon him, such as the 
entertainment of allies, and of all who visit the tribe 
on matters of business. It is his duty to offer to his 
guests pipes, coffee, milk, bread, rice, and sometimes 
a roasted sheep. If he is not liberal, his valour will 
not make much impression on his people, and his 
authority will be endangered ; for the Arab, ever 



CH. VII.] THE CHIEFS, 205 

poor and hungry, places the generosity of his leader 
above every other quality, and will lay down his 
life for an open-handed chief. A popular sheikh 
passes his days among his people without dread of 
harm, for in general he relies more on their regard 
than on their fear ; if he were to oppress them they 
would abandon him to enter another tribe; and his 
relatives would depose him and take his place, with- 
out any risk of hindrance from foreign forces. 

Let us now consider the position of the chiefs 
of the husbandmen, or of the villages. These are 
usually elected and deposed by the people of the 
country, but Surray a pasha, during his rigorous rule, 
was able to degrade some from their offices, to send 
them to the galleys, and elect others in their places 
of his own free will. It is doubtful, however, 
whether others will be able to follow his example. 
The chiefs of the viUages possess administrative and 
executive power in their respective districts; they 
are like feudal chieftains, and can do as they please 
when once they have purchased the protection of the 
government at Constantinople, and of the pasha of 
Jerusalem. Hence with them the strong oppress 
the weak, and in consequence blood is shed, fields 
are laid waste, flocks are ravaged, and, in a word, 
every injustice and barbarity is perpetrated, without 
the sufferers being able to obtain redress; since by the 
tyrant's gold, the heads of the government have been 
rendered deaf to their cries and blind to their wrongs. 
Some of these chiefs enjoy a high reputation, and 
gather around themselves many of the less powerful, 



206 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

SO as to be able to bring a strong force into the field 
against the government : when a quarrel of this 
kind breaks out^ the discord that usually reigns in 
the country ceases, and all unite in opposing the 
common enemy. This was the case when Ibrahim 
pasha invaded Syria ; he gained the victory indeed, 
but after no slight loss; and as soon as ever he 
withdrew, things returned to their former condition. 
Therefore the chiefs of the husbandmen also resemble 
those of antiquity in their influence in the country, 
in receiving the taxes, and taking the census of their 
inferiors for the government at Jerusalem. 

Attached to the persons of the chiefs, both among 
the Bedawln and FeMhln, are certain men who have 
great influence on account of their superior education. 
This consists only in a knowledge of reading, of writ- 
ing, of particular passages in the Koran, and especi- 
ally of prayers. These are the scribes, secretaries, and 
Imams, who, as of old, carefully preserve the gene- 
alogies, not only of the men, but also of the horses 
of the tribes ; they are well acquainted with all the 
traditions ; make proclamations of war and of peace ; 
promulgate orders communicated to them by the 
chiefs ; are present not only at the public assemblies, 
but also at the private councils ; sing the prayers in 
the rites of Islam, and are the most polished villains, 
the most accomplished knaves, and the most illus- 
trious scoundrels of the crew : so that the sole dif- 
ference between them and their predecessors in old 
times is that the latter were just, upright, and ho- 
nourable men, while the former, though generally 



CH, VII.] CHIEFS AND TRIBUNALS. 20/ 

faithful to their chiefs, are in every other respect 
venal and untrustworthy. 

The chiefs of the villages in Palestine appear to 
me to occupy a similar position in the country to the 
' kings' so frequently mentioned in the earlier Bible 
history ; as, for example, those of Sodom, Gomorrah, 
Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar, who banded together 
against Chedorlaomer * ; or those of Jerusalem, He- 
bron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, who formed a 
league against Joshua*, 



TRIBUNALS. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 

The Hebrew courts of justice were held in some 
public place, or in one of the gates of the city, in the 
presence of the multitude^ ; the appointment of a 
separate building for the Sanhedrim was a later 
arrangement. The usual time for holding the court 
appears to have been the morning, when a greater 
number of people could attends The judges did not 
receive any pay, and were strictly forbidden to accept 
gifts from parties interested*, so that impartial jus- 
tice was secured. The trial was conducted by verbal 
examination, and the jurisdiction was summary, but 
it must have been preceded by a rigorous examina- 
tion *• In criminal matters the testimony of at least 

^ Gen. xiv. 2. * Josh. x. 3, cf. xii. 8 — 24. 

^ Gen. xxxiv. 20. Deut. xxi. 19; xxii. 15. 2 Sam. xv. 2. 

* Jerem. xxi 12. Ps. ci. 8. * Deut. xvi. 19; xxvii. 25. 

^ Deut. xiii. 14 ; xvii. 4. 



208 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

two unsuspected witnesses^, ^ven upon oath% was 
requisite. In a civil question the testimony (upon 
oath) of a single witness was received*. The parties 
interested pleaded their own causes*^ but sometimes 
one of the bystanders spoke on behalf of the accused 
or of the weaker party ; this was considered to be a 
righteous act*. 

Let us now compare with the above account the 
manner in which these matters are managed by the 
Arabg at the present time. . The places where the 
sheikhs of the tribes or of the villages transact their 
business are always in the open fields, where every 
one can come and hear what is going on, 1^ how- 
ever, the weather is unfavourable the meetings are 
held under a large tent, or in a suitable house, or 
even in a dilapidated church : generally a level spot 
is preferred which is situated at some little distance 
from the camp and the enclosures, and is in the 
neighbourhood of water : for this element is neces- 
sary not only for quenching the thirst of the speakers 
and the smokers, but also for the ablutions of those 
who have to oflfer prayers after the Mohammedan 
rites. At these tribunals suits and quarrels are ad- 
justed, causes, civil and criminal, are tried, and treaties, 
levies of troops, taxes, questions of war or peace, in 
a word everything which requires the sanction of the 
chief or of the people, are debated, so that the same 

' Numb. XXXV. 30. i Kings xxi. 10, 13. S. John viii. 17. 

* Lev. T. I. ' Exod. xxiL 11. 

* Deut. XXV. I. I Kings iii. 16 — 22. 

* Job xxix. 12 — 17 ; xxxiii. 23. 



CH. VII.] TRIBUNALS. 209 

assembly is at one time a court of justice, at another 
a chamber of commerce, and at a third a parliament. 
In summer it is held either in the morning or in the 
evening, in order to avoid the heat of the sun. The 
discussions are public, every one being able to share 
in them; but the chiefs and their scribes differ 
greatly both in their qualifications and their virtues 
from those of the ancient Hebrews, for they sell 
their decisions to the highest bidder, and prptect 
those who are likely to be useful to them.. The 
trials are still conducted by word of mouth, but the 
sentences depend on the caprice of the chief and his 
counsellors. Practically no court of appeal exists, 
for the only one is that of the local government of 
the Porte; and there, where money is law, a poor 
man could do nothing. Besides, even if this court 
were incorruptible, it would have the greatest diffi- 
culty in arriving at the truth, owing to the venality 
of its subordinates, and, further, a peasant would 
never dare to accuse his sheikh of injustice, as he 
would ever after be a marked man and open to his 
vengeance. 

The contending parties at a trial plead their own 
causes, and often come to blows in the court, to the 
amusement of the judges ; who, when so disposed, 
separate the combatants by soundly thrashing them 
both with their pipe sticks. The litigants however 
are not the only speakers ; they are accompanied by 
their respective relations and friends, who take part 
in the dispute^, so that often the noisiest or the 

* Ps. cxxvii. 5. 



2IO CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

strongest band has the sentence given in its favour. 
The sheikh judges both civil and criminal cases ; but 
in the latter, whatever the fault may be, he rarely 
pronounces sentence of death without consulting the 
elders of the district, and never decides without the 
evidence of at least two trustworthy witnesses ; in 
the former, on the contrary, the value of the testi- 
mony is seldom closely investigated, and for a small 
sum of money evidence of any kind can be obtained ; 
this is owing to the deceitful disposition of the Arab, 
who regards his words merely as a means of making 
money. In justice, however, to the nomad tribes 
I must here observe that they are very diflferent from 
the peasants in their courts of law, their evidence, 
and their oaths; for with them any one who was 
found wanting in any of these matters, would, even 
if he escaped punishment, be considered by his tribe 
as an outcast. 

There are several forms of oaths in vogue with 
the Arabs, and as they are not all considered of 
equal value, it is lawfiil to vary them as much as 
possible. One mode of swearing is by touching the 
hand and invoking God ; another is by placing the 
hand on the head and invoking God. They summon 
Him as a witness to their veracity, caU down evils 
on themselves if they are not speaking the truth, 
and the like. These oaths, however, are not wor- 
thy of much confidence, especially when they are 
made to a European ; that, taken on their own 
beards, by invoking the anger of Allah (God) on 
them; and that, given by a man who has eaten 



CH. VII.] OATHS AND PLAGES OF REFUGE, 211 

bread and salt and drunk water with the person to 
whom he swears, are the only oaths which are really 
binding upon them (especially upon the Bedawln). It 
is owing to these two oaths, which I have frequently 
received on different occasions, that unlike many 
other travellers in Palestine, I have no story to tell 
of perils encountered in my numerous and lengthy 
excursions, and am unable to describe how I saw 
robbers, made ready my weapons, prepared for an 
attack, and spent the night in firing shots. How 
many travellers there have been, who, in the belief 
that they were assailed by an enemy, have wasted 
the precious hours of sleep, to say nothing of powder 
and shot, in firing at. bushes and stumps prepared 
beforehand by their escort, who knew very well with 
what kind of people they were dealing I The reader 
must excuse this digression, as the information, if 
ever he visits the country, may be useful to him at 
some future time. 

PLACES OF EEKJGE* 

It was probably with a view of preventing the 
abuses of a custom, too deeply implanted to be 
eradicated, of avenging, as a point of honour, the 
death of a relation on the person of the slayerj that 
the Hebrew legislator appointed certain cities, to 
which any one who killed his fellow without pre- 
meditation, could fly for refuge until the case was 
investigated ^ These cities were six in number', 

* Exod. xxi. 13* Numbi xxxv. 11. Deut. xix. 3. 
' Josh. XX. 1—9. 

14—2 



212 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

Bitoated at nearly equal distances and easy of access. 
There the slayer, if acquitted of the guilt of deliberate 
murder^ remained in safety until the death of the 
high priest, when he was considered to have expiated 
his fault and could return home without fear of mo- 
lestation. If however he was adjudged to be guilty 
of murder, he was delivered to the avenger of blood, 
on whom devolved the duty of executing the sen- 
tence \ or failing jsuch an one, the punishment was 
inflicted by the judges themselves. 

At the present day there are no regularly ap- 
pointed cities of refuge, but a similar custom still 
prevails. It often happens that when a man has 
committed a crime, or killed some one either by 
accident or design, in his own village or in the public 
road, he has no safety except in flight ; for otherwise 
he would undoubtedly be the victim of the first out- 
burst of rage on the part of the friends of the person 
injured or killed. Accordingly the fugitive betakes 
himself to another district, and there, presenting 
himself before the chief, confesses his crime ; after 
which all the inhabitants are bound to protect him 
until he has stood his trial. Sometimes even the 
governor of the pashalic demands the fugitive, but 
is unable to obtain him ; although he may resort to 
harsh measures against the chief and people of the 
village which is protecting him : were they to yield, 
they would be generally execrated and detested for 
betraying one who had fled to them for refuge. 
Sometimes the governor insists on his demand, and 

* Deut. xix. 12. 



CH. VII.] PLACES OF REFUGE. 213 

sends a detachment of soldiers to the district, to 
be quartered there until the man is given up. This, 
however, is all in vain, the fugitive is sent to another 
village, and the people endure the penalty cheerfully, 
even though their chief and their principal men be 
thrown into prison ; so that the governor is at length 
obliged to acknowledge himself foiled, and respect the 
rights of sanctuary. If he had recourse to arms, the 
event would be uncertain ; for however insignificant 
the village might be, assistance would be sent to it 
from all quarters, even from those who were previous- 
ly its enemies. Sometimes the fugitive, being hard 
pressed by his pursuers, is compelled to take refuge 
in the first house that he approaches, which may 
happen to belong to one who is his bitter foe ; never- 
theless the owner at once becomes his protector, for 
if he were to fail in fulfilling this obligation, his 
fields would be ravaged, his fruit-trees destroyed, 
and when he was utterly ruined not a hand would 
be moved to assist him. If, however, he is constant 
in the discharge of his duty, he looks unmoved on 
the mischief done by his enemies, knowing that he 
will be fully recompensed for his losses and will gain 
greatly in popularity. 

The Arabs recognize this custom of taking sanc- 
tuary, not only in their villages and their houses, but 
also in the streets and even in fights, as I proceed to 
explain. It may chance that a native or a European 
has fled for refuge to a village, that engages in war 
with another in which are enemies of the fugitive : 
under these circumstances flight would be dangerous, 



214 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

by reason of the ambuscades on the roads and the 
continual forays ; yet it is necessary to provide for 
his safety, because if the place were attacked by a 
superior force he would fall a victim. If he were 
sent away under an escort of men, they might be 
attacked and overpowered either in going or return- 
ing, and the village thus be imperilled by the loss of 
its defenders. He is therefore put in charge of two 
women, and with this feeble guard he is perfectly 
safe ; for it is a point of honour with an Arab not 
to lay a hand upon anything which is under the 
protection of a woman. Still it may happen that 
the fugitive after leaving his escort is in danger of 
capture ; in that case he calls to his pursuers, naming 
some chief well known to them, "Take care of me, 
I place myself under the protection of sheikh Salem" 
(for example). Forthwith they lead him to the per- 
son whose name he has used, and await his decision. 
If they in any way disregarded the demand, and it 
came to the sheikh's ears, he would be excessively 
enraged at the despisers of his name, as he would 
suppose that they had acted thus through fear that 
he would not do justice. Again, when an Arab is 
attacked and hard pressed, he can free himself from 
his enemies by tying a knot in one of the cords which 
form the fringe of the handkerchief {kejie) worn on 
his head and uttering the name oi Allah (God). Of 
course this means of escape is difficult in practice, 
as it is no easy matter to do, when attacked by 
several persons at once ; if, however, a fugitive can 
accomplish it, his assailants are in a moment changed 



CH. VII.] PLACES OF REFUGE, 21 5 

into his protectors ; they take him out of harm's way, 
and put him in a place of safety, in the tents of their 
women, if there is none other ; there at any rate he 
is quite secure, as these are an inviolable asylum. 
Afterwards the matter is calmly investigated, and if 
the accused be found guilty and be unable to redeem 
himself, he is given over to his enemy. These customs 
shew how tenaciously the Arabs have adhered to 
the practice of the ancient Jews in the rights of 
sanctuary. 

OF DIFFERENT PENALTIES. 

Besides expiatory sacrifices and excommunication, 
three kinds of punishment are mentioned in the law 
of Moses : these are death, chastisement, and fine. 
The lex tdlionis^ was the chief principle in punishing 
offences with the Hebrews, and it will be seen that 
the same is still in vogue with the Arabs. Death 
was inflicted (i) by stoning; a mode of execution 
frequently mentioned in the Bible ^, though without 
any details as to the manner in which it was effected. 
The Mishna informs us that the criminal. was cast 
down at the foot of a stage double the height of a 
man, whence stones were hurled down upon him. 
This punishment is never inflicted by the chiefs in 
Palestine, but it appears that criminals are some- 
times clandestinely put out of the way by this means, 
and buried under a heap of stones, as skeletons are 

* Lev. xxiv. 19. 

* Deut. xvii. 5. Josh. vii. 25. Acts viL 58. 



2l6 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VIT. 

found in the fields concealed in this manner. (2) 
Death by the sword, the manner of which was not 
prescribed in the law, but after the captivity it was 
by decapitation. So perished the murderers of Saul* 
and Ishbosheth', the traitor Adonijah, the hoary 
assassin Joab', and, in later times, the apostle James, 
the brother of John*. Among the Arabs there is 
no regular executioner, but either the person who 
has the right of vengeance, the chief himself, or 
one of his intimate friends, carries out the sentence. 
This is quite in accordance with the customs of the 
ancient Jews, with whom, as may be seen from the 
passages cited above, the king sent one of his officers 
to perform his decree. Among the Jews the corpse 
was hung to a post or a tree until the evening*, when 
it was taken down and either burnt ^, or buried under 
a heap of stones^ The Arabs behead the criminal, 
and afterwards divide the body into several pieces, 
which they hang up in the places where his crimes 
have been committed; and those who demanded the 
"price of blood" dip handkerchiefs in the gore, which 
they shew to their relations and friends as a proof 
that vengeance has been obtained. (3) Strangulation ; 
this penalty, found in the Talmud, is not mentioned 
in the laws of Moses; it was ndt introduced until 
after the captivity. All these punishments were in- 
flicted by the Hebrews at a distance from dwellings 

m 

* 2 Sam. L 15. '2 Sam. iv. 12. 

* I Kings ii. 25, 31, 34. * Acts xii. i, 2. 

* Deut. xxi. 22, 23. Josh. viii. 29; x. 26, 27. 

* Josh, vii 25. ^ Josh. vii. 26. 2 Sam. xviiL 17. 



OH. VII.] OF DIFFERENT PENALTIES. 2 1 7 

in order that the land might not be polluted. The 
Arabs execute them at the place where the tribunal 
has been held. 

Corporal punishment among the Hebrews was 
usually inflicted by blows of sticks or rods, which 
were received lying flat on the ground' ; the num- 
ber of blows was not to exceed forty*. It was 
not considered to be a disgrace. This mode of 
punishment is constantly practised with the Arabs. 
As soon as ever the sentence is given by the sheikh, 
the spectators, whatever may be their rank, assist 
the executioners ; the man is laid down flat with his 
face on the ground, and either bound or held firmly 
in that position ; his feet are then fixed between two 
bars of wood so that the soles are turned upwards, 
and on them blows (often more than forty) are in- 
flicted with a kurbash, that is a whip of hippopota- 
mus hide. This punishment, owing to its frequency 
and the great number of those who undergo it, is 
not considered to be a disgrace ; were it so Palestine 
would be full of infamous persons, as very few, either 
of the common people in the cities or the labourers 
in the country, have escaped it. Another kind of 
corporal punishment of the highest antiquity, result- 
ing from the lex talionis, was authorized by the law 
of Moses. Whoever had wilfully injured his neigh- 
bour in any member of his body, was condemned to 
suflfer a similar mutilation'. A pecuniary compen- 
sation might however be made, instead of undergoing 

* Deut. XXV. 2. • Deut. xxv. 3. 

* ExocL xxL 23 — 25. Lev. xxiv. 19, 20. Deut. xix. 21. 



2l8 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

the penalty, for everything short of murder'. This 
law is still in vogue among the Arabs, and I have 
often been called upon to act as judge, when a quar- 
rel had arisen between some of my builders, stone- 
masons, or excavators, and had resulted in some one 
being hurt and obliged to leave off work. If the 
sufferer had not himself provoked the strife I always, 
in concert with the chief, inflicted a fine upon the 
offender, proportionate to the time lost by the other. 
Sometimes, however, this right of retaliation is de- 
manded by the Arabs when they have not the slight- 
est claim to it. In 1859, when I was repairing the 
road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, two miners, owing to 
their own imprudence, were hurt by an explosion ; 
whereupon their relatives ran howling to my tent, 
demanding compensation for the loss. I was willing 
to assist them, but they claimed the rights given by 
the law of Moses; and as I was unable to make 
them sensible of their mistake by kindness, I applied 
the " stick law," which soon convinced them of their 
error. On another occasion when I was directing 
the buildings of the Convent of the Daughters of 
Sion, a boy was hurt by a fall. I was anxious to 
send him to the hospital, but his father would not 
consent until he had received a similar lesson. The 
Arabs have a fixed tariff for each member, so that 
anyone who has money can easily make compensa- 
tion; but whoever is without this "golden ointment" 
had better seek safety in flight, unless he wishes to 
undergo the sentence of the ancient law : " If a man 

* Numb. XXXV. 31. 



CH. VII.] OF DIFFERENT PENALTIES. 219 

cause a blemish in his neighbour ; as he hath done, 
so shall it be done to him/' 

Lastly, a fine was used by the Hebrews to make 
amends for various injuries done unintentionally to 
person or property; the amount depended on the 
nature of the hurt. This penalty also exists in the 
Arab traditional code of laws, and is often inflicted 
on anyone who has the means of paying it, because 
the receiver of the fine, whether it be in money or in 
goods, is always bound to hand over a certain portion 
of it to the chief who has pronounced the sentence. 
It happened one evening ^ it was getting dusk 
that a man near Cana in Galilee fired, as he thought, 
at a jackal, but unfortunately killed an ass. He 
reported the accident to the chief, and the owner of 
the beast was summoned ; an arrangement was made, 
and it was agreed that the marksman should pay 
100 piastres as compensation. When he gave the 
fine into the chief's hands, the latter asked in what 
place the beast was killed, and on hearing that it was 
on a piece of waste land, he put the money into 
his own purse, considering himself the owner of the 
ground as chief. The victim of this rascality began 
to cry out and bemoan himself; and the tyrant would 
perhaps have fined him too, if I had not got him out 
of the place by fair words and a little money. I could 
produce many like instances to shew that in Pales- 
tine the eyes of justice are wide open. 

Imprisonment, as a punishment, is not named 
in the law of Moses^ We find it, however, men- 

^ In Lev. xxiv. 12 the 'putting in ward' is for security before 
the sentence. 



220 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VIT. 

tioDed in the days of Jeremiah\ There are still no 
prisons even in the large villages ; and all that there 
are in the land belong to the local government, 
so for that reason I need not notice them. When 
a criminal is captured in the country he is at once 
brought before the chief and tried ; and if it happen 
that the trial is deferred for a day, the latter keeps 
him fast bound in his own house under the eye of 
a trusty guard. If it is a civil offence that has been 
committed, such as a refusal to pay a debt, or a tax, 
or the like, payment is at once required ; and if the 
accused has not the means he has to give surety, or 
in default of that is released upon a promise of dis- 
charging his obligations as soon as possible. A know- 
ledge of the consequences to himself if he break his 
word, and to his relations if he run away, ensures 
his keeping his faith. We see then, from what has 
been stated, how close an agreement there is between 
the Arabs and the Hebrews on all the matters dis- 
cussed in this article. 



HOMICIDE AND THE PRICE OP BLOOD. 

Quarrels are frequent among the Arabs, but they 
are accompanied with more noise than hurt. They 
are very slow to shed blood, because a murder is the 
beginning of a long series of reprisals between the 
famiUes of the slayer and the slain. The law of Jar 
(retaliation) exists in the country in its most implaca- 
ble rigour, and whoever failed in acting up to it 

* Jer. xxxviL 15. 



CH. VII.] HOMICIDE AND THE PRICE OF BLOOD. 221 

would be deemed a nidering. It is not disowned 
even by the Christians ; and if sometimes they do not 
carry it into full force, this is not owing to the desire 
of the injured party, but to the clergy, who exert 
their utmost influence on the side of peace, and allay 
the strife with money. This charm will teach the 
Arab to grasp readily the hands of the slayer of his 
father or his son, saying, " Such an one has killed my 
father, but he has paid me the price of his blood." 
Otherwise, if the price be not paid, the murder is 
avenged from tribe to tribe and from country to 
country, so that not only is the life of the slayer in 
danger, but those of all his relations, however distant 
they may be, so long as there is blood between the 
two famiUes. When the parties thus embroiled be- 
long to the same tribe or country, they can be set at 
one again without much diflSculty, but if they are of 
diflferent places, and the "price of blood" is not im- 
mediately paid, the strife is handed down from gene- 
ration to generation, and sometimes is the cause of 
war on. a large scale. If a murderer be slain, his 
parents, though he has iiot paid the price, are not the 
less bound to revenge his death ; and so the quarrel 
is perpetuated until the debt be discharged, which is 
seldom done without the loss of more than one life. 
This severe law also applies to wounds, to deaths 
caused by animals, and to killing cattle, but in these 
cases matters are more readily arranged. These cus- 
toms are sufficient to explain why it is that there is 
no permanent peace between the people of Palestine 
and the nomad tribes, and that attacks are made 



222 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 

from time to time ; for in these fresh blood is shed 
and the difficulty of making peace greatly increases. 
The law of retaliation in the East is analogous to the 
custom of duelUng in Europe; a brutal and stupid 
practice, which has never been in vogue among the 
Arabs, the only thing at aU resembling it being a 
combat between two small bands of picked warriors, 
or two champions in the presence of hostile forces ; 
but this is done in order to save greater bloodshed, 
an end which certainly cannot be attributed to a duel. 
When life is taken the slayer must at once aban- 
don his own neighbourhood, and, accompanied by his 
relations, place himself under the protection of some 
sheikh, who is able to defend him. The next day 
after arriving at the place of refuge, he requests the 
principal persons of the tribe to visit the family of the 
slain man to obtain a truce. If this is arranged, the 
family of the slayer take a sheep, a quantity of rice, 
butter, salt, and wood for cooking, and with these go 
to the house of the dead man ; there the two families, 
expressing in their looks the deepest sorrow together 
with some other persons (among whom are the 
sheikhs of the two tribes or their representatives), 
eat the meal. When they have finished, they treat 
of an extension of the truce; and if this be granted the 
maintenance of order afterwards rests with the chiefs. 
If during the truce any member of the family of the 
man that was killed, insults, strikes, or slays, one of 
the other party, the chiefs, who guaranteed the com- 
pact, have the right to demand the price of blood, 
or to kill four persons of the party that has broken it. 



CH VII.] HOMICIDE AND THE PRICE OF BLOOD. 223 

If, by chance, the chiefs are not strong enough to 
punish the aggressors, they must demand aid from 
the sheikhs of the neighbouring villages, who, al- 
though they may previously have been hostile to 
them, are bound to send the strongest force in their 
power to aid them in avenging their injured honour. 
It may also happen that during the truce some mem- 
ber of the family that has lost a man steals some- 
thing belonging to the other side, with a view of be- 
ginning to help himself to the price of blood (which 
as yet is not fixed). In this case the law of the coun- 
try orders that the thief or his relations shall restore 
the thing stolen fourfold ^ 

Not unfrequently the family of the homicide re- 
main in their own country, in order not to abandon 
their occupations. They must then place themselves 
under the law called ^' the nine days of sleep." This 
requires that during the nine days after the crime 
they musfe visit the parents of the dead man, present 
them with 90 piastres (about 15 shillings), besides a 
sheep, rice, butter, salt, and wood enough for cooking 
these. These provisions are solemnly eaten, and the 
relations of the slayer are obliged to listen to the 
praises of the dead man from the mouth of his people, 
which are recited in order to enhance his value and 
increase the price of his blood. These they must not 
controvert, lest they should give fresh offence. They 
must pass the rest of the day after the repast and 
the night following in the dead man's house in order 
to shew that they took no part in the crime, and that 

* Exod. xxii. I. 2 Sam. xiL 6. S. Luke xix. 8. 



224 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH.TII. 

they put entire confidence in the faith of those who 
might lawfully be at enmity with them. The next 
day on departing they give the 90 piastres as. an earn- 
est that they are ready to pay the whole "price of 
blood ;" and from that moment the homicide alone is 
pursued ; but he is by this time in a place of refuge, 
whence, by means of friends, he can arrange terms to 
restore himself again to freedom. During the time of 
the truce he must not leave his place of refuge, but 
must endeavour to obtain from his relations and 
friends the means for paying the ''price of blood," 
the amount of which is nearly known, as it is fixed 
by custom both for men and women at sums depend- 
ing upon their age, strength, and rank. When this 
is ready he takes five sheep, with butter, salt, wood, 
and pieces of silk to the value of 100 piastres, and 
goes with his relations and friends, accompanied by 
the chiefs of the villages, towards the family of the 
dead man. On drawing near, the elders take his 
turban from his head and hang it about his neck, in 
which condition he and the whole company present 
themselves before the other party, and ask pardon for 
the wrong that has been done. They receive him 
calmly, uttering a few stifled groans. When the 
meal is ready it is eaten by both families in perfect 
silence, and with looks of sorrow. After it is con- 
cluded, the family that has been injured assembles 
apart in some open space, and invites the homicide 
and his party to come thither. He takes the strip 
of stuff that forms the turban of one of the other 
family, and, after fastening it to a stick, presents it 



CH. VII.] HOMICIDE AND THE PRICE OF BLOOD. 225 

to the chiefs who have guaranteed the truce ; there- 
upon they turn to the mourners, and say, ''We con- 
jure you to tell us what price you ask for the blood 
of your slain." They reply, in general, about 20,000 
piastres. The chiefs then join them, and tie 20 knots 
in the above-mentioned strip, as a mark of the num- 
ber of thousands that have been demanded The chief 
repeats the question, entreating them by the love of 
such an one, mentioning some person whom he knows 
to be loved, respected, or feared, by the family who 
fix the price; this is continued until only six knots 
are left, which imply that the sum is reduced to six 
thousand piastres. This, together with the above- 
mentioned silk, is then handed over to the mourners. 
The money is divided by the chief of the family among 
all the persons who have an interest in it, including 
even a male child who may have been born the night 
before, but excluding all the women. When this is 
done the relatives of the homicide say to those of the 
victim, " Lo, we have paid the price of blood accord- 
ing to the number of the knots left in the band of 
the turban, let us know who will be surety, and will 
pledge his faith to maintain concord between our 
famihes." One of the chief men on the other side 
comes forward and cries, "I make myself responsible 
before God for the maintenance of peace, and pledge 
my honour between the two parties." After this the 
homicide pays 500 piastres to him and replaces the 
band on the head of the lender, offering him a bakh- 
shish ; and then all depart to their own homes. 

If the homicide, owing to poverty or any other 

15 



226 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIOXS. [CH. Yll. 

cause, is unable to pay the whole price, he must pro- 
duce a surety who promises that the sum shall be 
made up in a certain time ; and if, when the time is 
past, the debt be not discharged, hostilities recom- 
mence, and the injured family have the right of kill- 
ing a man of the other side, as they consider that 
the treaty made in a public assembly is then broken ; 
moreover, those who have given the pledges are 
added to the number of the enemy. 

Sometimes the family of the slain can refuse the 
price of blood, and avail themselves of another law, 
saying to the person w^ho comes to mediate, "We 
do not want money for the blood of our relation, but 
we choose that the whole family of the homicide shall 
be sold to us." If these give their consent, the 
matter is arranged in the following manner. They 
provide themselves with two or three sheep, with 
rice, butter, salt, and wood, sufficient for preparing a 
repast for the guests who will be present, and with 
these they go to the dead man's house. After the 
repast, his nearest surviving relations clothe the next 
of kin to the homicide with dresses of silk or com- 
moner materials. If the homicide is without relations, 
he is sold himself. From this time the family that 
is sold pays its share of all the losses sustained by 
the dead man's family, but does not participate in 
its gains. If, however, any member of the homi- 
cide's family does not choose to be sold, he takes a 
sheep, rice, butter, and wood, and with these betakes 
himself to the door of the principal chief of another 
district or tribe, and entertains him at dinner ; where- 



CH. VII.] HOMICIDE AND THE PRICE OF BLOOD. 227 

upon the chief gives him a dress, and thus, as it 
were incorporating him into his clan, becomes from 
that instant his defender and protector. Lastly, the 
homicide who saves his own life, either by paying 
the price of blood or by selling himself, affixes a pole 
bearing a turban to the roof of his house for seven 
days, as a sign that he has paid the debt and re- 
deemed himself 

If a man has unfortunately killed a woman, he 
conforms to the same customs as regards the truce, 
but the price of blood in this case is never more than 
2000 piastres* ; the greater part of which is given to 
the relations of the woman, the husband receiving 
800 piastres, and a silk dress. If the woman was 
pregnant, and the offspring would have been a boy, 
the slayer has to pay as if he had slain a man, and 
the price is received by the husband ; but if it would 
have been a girl, he pays as if he had killed two 
women, and the father receives the full value of the 
daughter ; in each of these cases the husband takes 
the 800 piastres for the wife. If a maiden is killed, 
a sister of the slayer is given by her family to the 
brother of the slain as his wife, or if this be impos- 
sible, the price of a woman has to be paid, in the 
way mentioned above. Such are the principal cus- 
toms among the Arabs, both settled and nomad, with 
regard to the price of blood, 

* Lev. xxvii. 4. 



15—2 



228 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 



LAWS CONCERNING ADULTERY AND SIMILAR 
CRIMES AMONG THE ARABS. 

If a man has dishonoured a woman, and she has 
resisted to the utmost of her power, she is held inno- 
cent, and the ravisher has no safety except in flight ; 
for, as soon as his victim has told her relations, they 
all seek to be revenged, not only on the malefactor 
but also on all who belong to him * ; so that he must 
have recourse to the same means as in the case of a 
murder. If he is taken in the act by the woman's 
relations, he is instantly slain ; but if he contrives to 
escape, he may make a truce in the manner which 
I have already described, and is under the same laws 
and liable to the same penalties, whether his attempt 
has succeeded or not. If a free man force a virgin, 
he must marry her, but he must pay twice 'Hhe 
price of her virginity '' to her parents'*. If, owing to 
any lawful impediment, the seducer is unable to marry 
her, he must pay as if he had killed a man. He is 
also liable to their vengeance ,for the insult, and there- 
fore must take the usual means to reconcile himself 
with them. If the woman consents to the crime, 
she is put to death by her nearest relations^ If they 
were to refuse to slay her, the whole family would 
be dishonoured, and would be spurned by every one ; 
they would lose every civil right, would never find 
a protector, and the daughters would be unable to 

* Deut. xxii. 25 — 27. ' Exod. xxii. 16, 17. 

' Deut. xxii. 22. Ezek. xxiii. 45 — 48. S. John viii. 4, 5. 



CH. VII.] LAWS CONCERNING ADULTERY, 229 

procure husbands or the sons wives; whereas the stain 
upon their honour is washed away by the blood of 
the guilty woman. 

The sentence of death in this case is executed in 
the following manner. The family collects together 
the greatest possible number of sheikhs and persons 
of consequence, with all its relations and friends, in 
an open place, whither any one can come. Then 
when they are assembled, one of the heads of the 
family exclaims, "God has not allowed my family to 
live free from grief, but He too grants to me to 
avenge the shame brought upon my house ;" he then 
relates the circumstances which have brought them 
together, and adds, "My honour and that of my 
family shall be purified this day by means of this 
sword which I hold in my hands." The guilty woman 
is then led forth, is laid upon the ground, and her 
head severed from her body by the hands of her 
brother, her father, or her husband, as the case may 
be. The executioner then walks thrice between the 
head and the body, crying aloud each time, " Lo ! 
thus our honour is left unstained !" After this the 
relations of the victim approach and dip their hand- 
kerchiefs in her blood, repeating the same words, 
without manifesting the slightest emotion* If, how- 
ever, any kind-hearted man wishes to save her life, 
he can do it, provided he be not one of her relations, 
in the following manner. When the adulteress is led 
forth to death, he approaches her and says, "Wilt 
thou repent of thy fall? if thou wilt I can defend 
thee I" Of course she replies in the affirmative; she 



230 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cn. vir. 

then continues, '^ If thou takest me under thy pro- 
tection, I give thee the right to cut my throat if I 
commit the sin again/' The man then stands forth 
in the middle of the assemblage, takes off his clothes, 
and when he is perfectly naked says, " I declare that 
from the time when I began to walk, I have never 
seen this woman commit a crime; if then she has. 
done this, it is certainly an evil spirit who has tried 
to work her ruin, and I redeem her." The whole 
concourse burst into cries of joy, exclaiming, *^ Be 
thou happy, O noble man, blessed be thou of God in 
thy family, in thy cattle, in thy fields ; be thy days 
prolonged for the charitable deed which thou hast 
done!" The tragic scene is changed at once ; amid 
the general joy the woman returns to the bosom of 
her family, and no one has any right to cast her past 
fall into her teeth. 

If, however, she is not fortunate enough to find a 
protector and expiates her crime by death, her body 
is cut in pieces by her relations, which are thrown 
into a ditch without the slightest sign of sorrow, with- 
out funeral rites, and without any thing to mark the 
spot where they lie. 

VARIOtrS LAWS. 

If a person fall from the wall of his neighbour s 
house and is killed, his relations become owners of 
that wall, but can exact no further penalty. If any 
one is killed by a beast his relations have a right to 
it, provided that it was not previously known to be 



CH. VII.] VARIOVS LAWS. 23 1 

dangerous ; if, however, it was, the owner has to pay 
a third of the price of blood according as the victim 
is a man or a woman \ 

If, in a quarrel, a man destroys an eye of either 
a man or a woman he must pay half their respective 
'prices of bloods' If he strikes another on the hand, 
or arm, or foot, or leg, so as to inflict a severe wound 
or destroy the limb, he is obliged to fly as if he had 
committed a murder, and treat for a truce. When 
this is granted, he takes the provisions which I have 
already mentioned several times, and goes with his 
relations and friends to the house of the wounded 
man. On his arrival the leech is called, and he is 
compelled to pay all the expenses of attendance and 
medicines as well as the value of the wounded man's 
time (calculated according to his earnings when well) 
until he is able to return to work^ The truce lasts 
until the man is cured, and the afiair is generally 
concluded by one or two dinners at the cost of 
the giver of the wound. If, however, the injured 
man loses a limb or is disqualified from following 
his avocation, the chief of the district obliges the 
other to pay a thousand piastres; these are taken to 
the sufierer's house, together with two silk dresses, 
two sheep, rice, butter, salt, and wood ; and after a 
repast, to which the relations and friends of both 
families are invited, the one gives to the other the 
money and the dresses, and pays besides all the ex- 

* Exod, XXL 28 — 31. 

* Exod. xxi. 24, 25, 27. Lev. xxiv. 19. 
*'' Exod. xxi. 18, 19. 



232 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. Vir. 

penses of his illness and a compensation for the time 
he has lost during the truce. After this the injured 
man gives in return a written security, in which he 
promises upon his honour and upon the word of the 
sheikhs who have made the peace, that he will not 
hurt his adversary in the time to come either by 
day or night, either in his own person or in that 
of any member of his family, either in his herds or 
in his trees; nor will he incite another to be his 
avenger. If, after this promise, he fail in any one 
of the conditions by robbing, striking, or otherwise 
harming his enemy, then the chief, who guarantees 
the maintenance of the treaty, compels him to pay 
fourfold for the wrong he has done, and to make 
amends for all the mischief which may result from 
his breaking the laws and setting at nought the 
authority of the chiefs who have arranged the peace 
between the two. 



THE COST OF A KISS AT HEBROK 

When I was visiting Hebron in company with 
some Armenian gentlemen in 1856, a dreadful in- 
stance of the working of the '' price-of-blood " law, 
which occurred on the day of our arrival, struck with 
horror all the inhabitants of the country, excepting 
those who had exacted the penalty. The circum- 
stances were as follows ; a youth of eighteen met in 
the fields a girl of fifteen, who was already betrothed, 
and tried to kiss her against her will. She told her 
parents and her future husband, and they were so 



CH. VII.] THE COST OF A KISS AT HEBRON, 233 

enraged at the aflfront, slight though it was, that 
they demanded the youth's life as a sacrifice to their 
wounded honour. Unhappily the two families belonged 
to different districts, and consequently were enemies; 
so that all the efforts made by the sheikhs, the elders, 
and even the government to arrange the matter were 
unavailing ; although the relations of the unfortunate 
youth were willing to pay a very large sum of money, 
far above that which was usual in a case of that kind. 
The avengers would have nothing but blood. De- 
prived of all hope, the youth's father assembled his 
relations and friends in an open space on the west of 
the city, and invited thither the avengers. They 
came; again he entreated them for the life of his 
only son, offering them all that he had. It was in 
vain ; he was refused. Drawing his sword he struck 
off his child's head and without a tear uttered the 
words, **Thus wipe I away every stain from my 
family .'* This said, he instantly swooned away. His 
friends restored him to life, but reason had fled ! 

In a few days' time, a quarrel broke out between 
two clans in Hebron, and either by chance or by de- 
sign the avengers, who had so mercilessly demanded 
the youth's blood, were all slain; not one, with the 
exception of the betrothed couple, being left alive. Is 
it not true that "whoso sheddeth man's blood, by 
man shall his blood be shed^"? 

^ Gen. ix. 6. 



234 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VII. 



LAWS CONCERNING ROBBERY. 

When any one captures a thief in his own house, 
he must bind him and take him before the chief of 
the district, who, if the evidence be sufficient, con- 
demns the malefactor first to pay a fine of 500 or 
600 piastres for entering a house with felonious 
intent, and secondly to repay fourfold whatever he 
may have stolen. If the owner of the house wounds 
or kills the thief, he will have to pay the ' price of 
blood,' and will not be allowed to plead extenuating 
circumstances; but if the thief wound or kill the 
other, he will go unharmed unless the family he has 
injured can bring sufficient evidence against him. 
Whoever is detected robbing a field planted with 
vines, olives, figs, or the like, is condemned to repay 
fourfold whatever he has stolen. 

It is then, I think, evident that although in some 
particulars the laws, which now prevail in the coun- 
try of Palestine, differ from those which governed 
the ancient Jews, yet still they are identical with 
them in their general principles, and may fairly be 
supposed to have taken their origin from them. 



CHAPTER nil. 



THE ARAB MODE OF PAYING A DEBT. 



It not unfrequentiy happens among the Arabs, both 
FeMhln and Bedawin, that a man who has borrowed 
money of another is unable to repay it at the proper 
time, either owing to unavoidable poverty, or be- 
cause the money was obtained with fraudulent in- 
tent; a thing by no means uncommon even among 
veiy intimate friends. When the debtor is unpro- 
vided with the means of meeting his obligations, he 
visits his creditor a few days before the debt becomes 
due, in order to obtain an extension of the time; a 
request which is never refused, as a present of money 
or food is generally made in return ; without this 
however it is granted in a case of real distress. When 
the new period is run out, if the debt yet remain un- 
paid, the creditor, accompanied by two of his rela- 
tions, goes tp the debtor's house, as if to pay him an 
ordinary visit. The host is obliged to set before 
them a good meal, with coffee and pipes; the con- 
versation runs upon indifferent matters; but at the 



236 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. VII l. 

moment of leaving, the creditor, while thanking and 
complimenting the master a thousand times on his 
hospitality, says " My dear brother, mind you don't 
fail to bring before the day after to-morrow the 
trifle of money that you owe me." If this hint 
produces no effect, he returns with six others, whom 
the debtor has to entertain, and at their departure 
the above words are repeated with the addition, 
" Three days more are past, and the interest of them 
must be paid." If a third visit be necessary, the 
number of attendants is increased to twelve, and 
these, after regaling themselves, with one accord urge 
their host to pay the debt. If he replies that he 
really has not the money, he is advised in a friendly 
way to dispose of his cattle, his com, or something 
else to make up the sum, and is allowed three days 
to arrange the matter. If the money is not paid at 
the end of this time, the creditor, with the consent of 
the chief of the village or the tribe, may take a suf- 
ficient quantity of these things to repay himself, 
without the debtor having any right to complain of 
being thus deprived. This custom, so common in 
Palestine, very often produces much ill feeling, 
which vents itself in destroying crops, cutting down 
trees, and other acts of wanton mischief. It is not, 
however, in force in the cities, for there the authority 
of the Porte prevails, and justice or injustice is 
done at the will of the man in oflGlce. 



CH. VIII.] THE BLOOD OF CHILDREN, 237 



THE BLOOD OF CHILDREN. 

In Palestine, as in the whole of Syria, especially 
among the ignorant Christian population, a most un- 
fortunate prejudice is current, that the Jews, just 
before their Passover, try to get hold of Christians, 
especially of children, in order to mix their blood 
with unleavened bread ; since, without this condi- 
ment, it would not be prepared according to the di- 
rections in the law of Moses. Unhappily this absurd 
fancy is not scouted as it ought to be by too many 
of the priests and monks of the Eastern Churches ; 
so that sometimes the Jews are exposed to insults 
which give rise to serious disturbances, without hav- 
ing afforded by their conduct the slightest ground for 
such an imputation. If the Eastern clergy studied 
their Bibles, they would soon discredit these fables ; 
but, as few of them know anything about that book, 
they are not the persons to abolish prejudices, which 
they foster by their preaching to the faithful from 
morning to night ; certainly they cannot know that it 
was the blood of a lamb, not of a man, which was to 
be sprinkled on the door-posts and linteP, and they 
even seem to believe that heathen leeches prescribed 
baths of children's blood as a cure for leprosy ^; per- 



* Exod. xii. 22. 

* Brev. Rom. in festo S. Silvestri, Lect. iv. 



238 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cH. VIII. 

haps too they have heard of some Rabbinical books' 
in which it is said that Pharaoh bathed in the blood 
of children to cure his leprosy, and that his ma- 
gicians ordered the same remedy for another disease, 
and have transformed Pharaoh into a Jew, and the 
children into Christians, This is no exaggerated accu- 
sation, for I have heard greater absurdities from the 
lips of the Greek and Armenian monks in Jerusalem : 
for example, they have shewn me the place where 
Melchizedek planted the first olive after the Deluge, 
and where he first made bread, and a thousand similar 
absurdities. 

However I will give an instance of the popu- 
lar belief in this falsehood, which fell under my own 
notice. One day in 1858, on going out of my house 
in Jerusalem, I saw a very respectable Jew running 
at full speed, pursued by some Arabs, who as soon as 
he reached me claimed my protection against his 
assailants. These tried to drag him away from me; 
I asked what was the matter ; but had only yells and 
incoherent exclamations in reply ; so I determined to 
place the Jew inside my own doors for security. The 
Arabs, however, resisted, and though I was close 
to home I should not have been able to defend 
him had not my European servants arrived upon 
the scene; this reinforcement turned the tide of 
battle, and the enemy quickly fled, not without torn 
beards and conspicuous bruises from our cudgels, .as a 

* One hundred and fifty Israelitisb children are said to have 
been killed every day, and the king to have bathed every morning 
and evening in their blood. 



CH, vni.] THJS BLOOD OF GEILDREF. 239 

warning for the future. When I got the Jew safe 
within, he told me the reason of the disturbance. As 
he was walking through the town he found a little 
boy crying, and stopped to ask what was the matter. 
He found that the child had lost his way, so he took 
him by the hand and went to help him to find his home. 
Some men, however, came up, and rudely snatched 
the child from him, saying, '' You have taken him to 
kill him, and you shall smart for it I" Thereupon he 
took to flight, and happily met me. After hearing 
this I returned to the street and found that the 
vanquished enemy had returned with reinforcements, 
and were waiting to demand the Jew from me. I 
shewed them very plainly, more by actions than 
words, that they were not going to have him; and 
to pacify them suggested that I would take 
him to the governor to be imprisoned. This pro- 
posal was joyfully accepted. I took the frightened 
man, and, accompanied by the Arabs, went to the 
governor's house; where I placed them all in the 
custody of the police, and then went to see Surraya 
pasha. I informed him what had happened, and after 
a short examination the Jew was released and the 
Arabs sent to prison. 

On another occasion two Jews were accused of 
endeavouring to obtain possession of a Greek pilgrim, 
but when the governor investigated the question it 
was clearly proved that they were innocent, and that 
the man was trying to rob their house. The Jews in 
the East, as I have had proof over and over again, seek 
not to destroy the life of others but to preserve their 



240 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. VIII. 

own, enduring with meekness, constancy, and pa- 
tience, the insults and injuries which they receive 
from Christians and Mohammedans alike. 



CUSTOMS OF THE ARABS IN TIMES OF GRIEF 
AND MOURNING. FUNERAL DIRGES. 

The Arabs have taken all their modes of mani- 
festing sorrow and mourning from the Hebrews, as is 
easily proved by comparing the habits of the people 
at the present day with the accounts in the Bible. 
When a calamity befalls a family, all their relations, 
connexions, and friends, immediately hasten together 
to console them. This undertaking is commenced by 
sorrowing with them and exhibiting every antic sign 
of grief that comes into their heads, and is concluded 
by eating. The modes of expressing affictions, pub- 
lic or private, are as follows ; first they break out 
into desperate cries which 'are heard at a great dis- 
tance*, and sing at intervals mournful dirges (some of 
which will be found further on), imitating the an- 
cients in this matter also^: then to rest their wearied 
throats, with sad faces and among clouds of tobacco 
smoke they talk over their calamity, cursing their ene- 
mies, if they are the cause of it, meditating schemes 
of revenge, and imploring at every moment the aid 
of God, remaining all the time seated with the 
mourners on the ground, regardless of comfort, like 
the friends of Job when for seven days and nights 

^ Jerem. ix. 19 ; xxxxL 15. 

* I Kings xiii. 30. Jerem. xxii. 18; xxxiv. 5. 



CH. VIII.] CUSTOMS OF THE ARABS. 241 

they sat by his side as he lay on the ashes ^; thirdly, 
they put on their worst clothes, tear them, let their 
beards grow, and roll themselves on the ground, cast- 
ing dust and earth upon their heads ; the women dye 
their faces with black, uncover their heads, let their 
hair fall loose and dishevelled, frequently tearing it ; 
and not satisfied with this, they scratch their faces 
and hands, and foam at their mouths ; they knock 
their heads against the walls, and rage like maniacs 
among those engaged in offering consolation, who in 
their turn act in the same way. Compare with this 
Jacob mourning for Joseph*, Tamar for her insulted 
honour'^, David, with his followers, for the capture 
of Ziklag*, for the death of Saul and Jonathan*, for 
the mortal illness of his child*, and numerous other in- 
stances in the Bible. Had the prophet Jeremiah re- 
visited Palestine in the years 1856 and 1857, when 
the south of Judaea was distracted by civil war, and 
villages and fields were constantly being ravaged, 
he might have again exclaimed ^' Judah mourneth, 
and the gates thereof languish; they are black 
unto the ground ; and the cry of Jerusalem is gone 
up^" 

When any member of a household dies, the whole 
family, relations, and friends, assemble at once and 
commence the customary mourning, which is con- 
tinued until seven days have elapsed from the fune- 



* Job ii. 8 — 13; iii. iv., <kc. 

^ 2 Sam. xiii. 19. 

' 2 Sam. i. II, 12. 

^ Jerem. xiv. 2. 



* Gen. xxxvii. 33 — 35. 

* I Sam. XXX. 3, 4, 6. 
® 2 Sam. xii. 15 — 17. 

16 



242 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VIII. 

ral; although the manifestation of their grief becomes 
gradually less violent. As soon as the last struggle 
is over, the nearest surviving relations close the eyes 
of the corpse ; a duty which seems, as is natural, to 
have belonged to them from the earliest times'. This 
done, the body is washed*, the apertures closed with 
cotton, the hands and feet bound together with band- 
ages, the head covered with a handkerchief, and 
the corpse is wrapped in a winding- sheet*, after the by- 
standers have kissed or touched it for the last time. 
It is then laid upon a bier or in an open coffin in 
which a pitcher of water, some loaves, and a few 
coins, are placed : these are buried with it ; a custom 
which was always followed by the ancient Israel- 
ites. All these preparations for the funeral are 
made by the nearest relations among the grief of all^ 
When the guests, who have been invited to the cere- 
mony, have all arrived, the body is carried to the 
grave. This is generally done about eight hours after 
death, because the majority of the Arabs inhabit 
very small cottages, and all sleep in one room, or at 
most in two, according to the size of the family.; 
therefore in order that the corpse may not taint the 
air, they thus unfeelingly carry it away, without con- 
sidering that death in some cases may be only appa- 
rent; though the principal clergy use all endeavours to 
put a stop to this improper custom. The bier is borne 



* Gen. xlvi. 4. Tobit xiv. 15. ' Acts ix. 37. 

S. John xi 44, ^ S. Matt xxvii. 59. 

Gen. xxiii. 19. Judges xvi. 31. Amos vi. 10. i Maccab. 

ii. 70. 



3 

5 



CH, VIII ] CUSTOMS OF THE ARABS. 243 

from the house by several inen\ who are frequently 
relieved, since all the guests are anxious to take a part 
in fulfilling this last sad duty. They are followed 
by the relations and friends, expressing their grief 
by their gestures, while the women fill the air with 
cries, wailings, and songs^ When the person was 
of rank and consequence (among the Mohammedans) 
his body is accompanied by musicians, but no longer 
by flute-players'. On arriving at the place of burial 
the outcries are at first redoubled, but they cease when 
one of the friends pronounces some words on the dead 
person, as David did over the grave of Abner*, On 
the death of any one of high rank or great popularity 
there is a public mourning throughout the whole 
country, like that of the Israelites for the loss of 
Aaron*, Moses*, and Samuel^; except that the Arabs 
to soothe their grief (as I believe) eat voraciously in- 
stead of fasting. Many other signs of mourning are 
customary among the Arabs, such as cutting their 
turbans and scarfs, wrapping themselves up in their 
mantles and the like; these are too numerous to be 
described in detail; many of them however are men- 
tioned in the Bible®. When the funeral is over, 
especially in the country, the relations of the dead 
are invited to a meal by another family, after which 
all return to their own homes. 



* Acts V. 6. '2 Sam. iii. 32. Jerem. ix. 17. 

* Jerem. xlviii. 36. S. Matt. ix. 23. 

* 2 Sam. iii. 33 — 34. * Numb. xx. 29. 

® Deut. xxxiv. 8. ' i Sam. xxv. i ; xxviii. 3. 

^ Ezek. xxiv. 17, (tc. 

16—2 



244 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VlH. 

On the following days visitors come from friendly 
villages to condole with the bereaved family, and are 
entertained with coffee, pipes, and a meal. Great 
expense is thus caused, especially by the number of 
women, who avail themselves of the opportunity for 
a gossip, just as they do in every other part of the 
world. When all the lamentations and funeral feasts 
are over, the person who was appointed to manage 
everything comes and gives an exact account of the 
money spent, if indeed an Arab can be exact, and the 
cost is equally shared among the men of the family 
and the association for common defence, among which 
are included all the boys, even those born but the 
night before. 

Among the Hebrews the friends of the family 
entertained the mourners after the funerals The 
great lamentation lasted for seven days*, after which 
time it was observed less strictly. It is then evident 
how slightly the Arabs, especially the Mohammedans, 
differ from the Hebrews in their customs in mourn- 
ing. With the Christians the resemblance is not so 
close, owing to the changes introduced by their reli- 
gion. 

FUNERAL DIRGES*. 

(Chorus), O God ! All power belongs to Thee, Thou hast 
been, art, and ever wilt be the first. The dust of earth is moved 
by Thee, and at Thy will hath every creature life. 

* 2 Sam. iii. 35. Jerem. xvi. 7. Ezek. xxiv. 17. Hosca ix. 4. 

* Gen. 1. 10. I Sam. xxxi. 13. Ecclus. xxii. 12, 13. 

' These are literal translations of the dirges sung at funerals 
by the Arabi. 



CH. VIII.] FUNERAL DIRGES. 245 

« 

Abazia^ never saw a Being greater than Thee; nor can there 
be foand in the Universe one who can do as Thou hast done and 
doest. 

From dust hast Thou fashioned us, to dust Thou briugest us 
down; but grant that the dead may live again both here on earth 
with their children and in eternity. 

I passed by my friend*s house as I was wont to do; I bathed 
the walls with my tears and said, " O house, where are thy former 
inhabitants )" but there was none that answered. 

A white shade came before me, and cried, " They are in eter- 
nity, never more wilt thou see them, until thou art called to follow 
them. Reflect, thou wilt not live for ever !" 

O thou who art numbered with the dead, behold our tears, 
hear our cries. The angel of death is ever silent. Live in peace ! 

O damsel, there is no maiden like to thee, none even worthy to 
clothe thee ! Where is thy spouse, O unhappy man ? Thou may- 
est search the city and the Arabs' tent, but thou wilt never find 
her equal. 

Thou, whom death has laid low beneath this covering, which 
we call earth, when wilt thou rise again? She answers me, 
"When the angel of death sounds his trumpet and when God 
shall so will." 

This husband was not bom to be happy. Why so young hast 
thou sought the tomb ? When he comes to the burial-place the 
daughters of the tomb will enquire one of another, " Who is this ? 
Is he single or married f * 

O ye who dwell in the tombs, see ye not an eternal guest is 
come. Make ready a bed and a coveriDg. The dead reply, 
" Here have we neither bed nor covering. He will sleep like us 
beneath the earth and stones." 

O thou who art going to the tombs, stay a moment and tell 
me why thou hast abandoned thy house? Know well that he 
who has blamed and wept for the dead will presently blame thee 
too; for Thou hast decreed that all shall be mortal, 

* An Arab warrior. 



246 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. VIII. 

ATTACKS BY ROBBERS. 

Most travellers in Palestine are accompanied by 
an escort, whose duty it is to defend them from every 
peril and danger on their journey. If the escort is 
composed of Bedawln, a contract is made for this 
purpose ; but if of the cavalry, the government itself 
is the security. Still this precaution does not seem 
to take away the sense of danger in the case of many, 
for on returning home, safe and sound, they do not 
appear to rest content until they have published some 
anecdote of how they were in danger of being at- 
tacked by robbers, or how they saw them in the dis- 
tance, but kept them from coming nearer by the sight 
of their arms, I must be excused a little incredulity 
on this head, as, after travelling in all parts of Pales- 
tine for eight years, by day and by night, in good 
weather and in bad, in moonlight and in darkness, 
both alone and in company in dangerous places, I have 
never met with any insult. It is very rare that an 
attack of this kind is really made, but the travellers 
are often unconsciously the cause of an apparent 
attempt. Before they start, they are continually 
asking about the robbers and preparing their arms in 
the presence of their escort, shewing them that they 
are ready for every accident. Then, when they are 
on the road, every passer-by excites their suspicions, 
which are increased if they see any men moving 
about singly among the rocks on the mountains. 
They prepare for action, they hold their guns ready 
in their hands ; all these movements are observed by 



CH. viil] attacks by robbers. 247 

their escorts, who, however, craftily take no notice, 
until the question is asked, are these robbers, when 
the reply is in the affirmative. This answer is given 
in order to increase the apparent value of their 
services, and obtain a larger bakhshish at the end of 
the journey. For this reason they often fire some 
shots in the night-time, call out "At the robbers, at 
the robbers," mount their horses and go apparently 
in pursuit, discharging their guns; the travellers, 
roused suddenly from sleep, run out of their tents, 
bewildered by the noise and uproar; while the horse- 
keepers increase the confusion, some by mounting 
their masters' horses and appearing to ride after the 
enemy, others by rushing as if to defend the baggage. 
After a short time the escort return, saying that the 
robbers are beaten off, and a victory is gained with- 
out either bloodshed or death. Again, on a night- 
march, half the troop goes in front and the rest in 
the rear, with the travellers in the middle. When 
the road becomes narrow and rough, the chief with 
a mysterious air gives some orders to one of the band 
who rides on in advance with two or three com- 
panions to make a reconnaissance ; shortly after some 
shots are heard, and when the chief and his attend- 
ants reach the place of attack, the fire becomes hotter, 
after which comes the welcome news, "The robbers 
are fled. Perhaps one is killed, but we had better 
get over this bad ground as quickly as possible." If, 
when the attack is made in the open country or on 
the road, one of the travellers rides towards the 
escort, they are sure to gallop on a short distance. 



248 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. VIII. 

and then, lest he should do any mischief with his 
gun, they return and inform him that the robbers 
fled at the first discharge. Hence most of these sto- 
ries, are founded on a mere love of romancing, and 
the practical effect of them is that the escort, as they 
all along intended, put a bakhshish in their pockets. 
This, as I have already said, is the true state of the 
case; with an escort sent by the government, there 
is not the least likelihood of any unpleasantness aris- 
ing ; and after a proper contract has been made with 
a leading chief of the Bedawin, the traveller can tra- 
verse his barren districts and those of his allies as 
safely as any other country. 

In 1856, during the height of the wars at Hebron, 
M. Frederick D. Mocatta, of London, and I made 
an excursion thither, and returned after dark with- 
out molestation ; although the contending parties had 
been fighting on the very morning of our arrival and 
we were without an escort, because I had requested 
the pasha not to send one. I have not unfrequently 
visited N^blAs, and have never met with either an 
insult or an attempt at robbery ; but of course I did 
not go to make proselytes or to run counter to the 
feelings of the inhabitants. I have gone down to 
the Jordan and the Dead Sea twenty-four times, 
have travelled along the coast of Phoenicia from 
Jaffa to Haifa four times, and visited the most deso- 
late and dangerous places in Palestine, even at the 
period of the Lebanon massacres, and yet have never 
been molested. Many as are the Europeans whom 
I have known in Palestine, I have never heard of 



CH. VIII.] CONTRACTS OF SALE. 249 

any injury being done to them; so that future tra- 
vellers may set their minds at rest, and learn from 
what I have said, that if they take the proper pre- 
cautions they may travel in perfect security. 



CONTRACTS OF SALE FOUR THOUSAND YEARS 
AGO AND AT THE PRESENT DAY. 

The account of the purchase of the cave of Mach- 
pelah by Abraham^ gives us an opportunity of insti- 
tuting a comparison between the past and the present 
in the manner of transferring property, when every 
precaution was taken to prevent any dispute arising 
at a future time. Abraham, after the death of 
Sarah, wished to purchase a sepulchre from the chil- 
dren of Heth, and in the audience of the people in 
the gate of the city asked Ephron the Hittite to sell 
him the cave. The reply was, " Nay, my Lord, hear 
me: the field give I thee, and the cave that is 
therein, I give it thee : in the presence of the sons 
of my people give I it thee : bury thy dead/' Abra- 
ham, in thanking him for his generous offer, refused 
to receive it as a gift. The owner then replied, ' ' The 
land is worth four hundred shekels of silver ; what is 
that betwixt me and thee ? bury therefore thy dead." 
Then "Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, 
which he had named in the audience of the sons 
of Heth.... And the field of Ephron, which was in 
Machpelah, which was before Mamre, the field, and 

^ Gen. xxiii. 3 — 18. 



250 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VIII. 

the cave which was therein, and all the trees that 
were in the field, that were in all the borders round 
about, were made sure unto Abraham for a posses- 
sion in the presence of the children of Heth, before 
all that went in at the gate of his city." 

Let us compare with this the^ customs prevalent 
at the present day. When a person of rank wishes 
to purchase anything from one of lower degree his 
first step is to invite him to his house, so as to dis- 
pose him, when fresh from his good cheer, to grant 
the request. When the host sees a favourable op- 
portunity he asks the question, and at once receives 
this reply, '^I am your servant, what I possess is 
your property ; let us not talk about prices ; I give 
it you, it is yours.'' As often as the intending buyer 
repeats his demand in the hope of finding out the 
price, so often does he hear the very words of Ephron 
repeated a thousand times, while he has to submit to 
his beard being kissed, and to listen to incessant offers 
of the thing that he wants for nothing. It must not,* 
however, be supposed that the Arab is sincere in his 
protestations; he is only seeking to gain time in 
order to discover whether his questioner is in earnest 
or not, and to consider, when he is fasting and sober, 
what he can make by the bargain; endeavouring 
also to get the other to make a bid, especially if he 
be a more honest man than himself. When, after 
several meals and sittings, they at last agree upon 
the price, the affair is not yet settled, for the seller 
takes several days in order to consult with his rela- 
tions, who want a bakhshish, without which nothing 



CH. VIII.] ARAB DOCTORS AND THEIR MEDICINE, 25 1 

can be done. When at last the day for payment is 
come, the money, especially if it be gold, is carefully 
weighed, as it is always light, because it has been 
bored and worn as an ornament by the women, and 
because the common Jews never take a coin without 
filing away a Httle before they restore it to circula- 
tion. So that there is still a great resemblance be- 
tween the mode of transacting sales in the past and 
present age. 



ARAB DOCTORS AND THEIR MEDICINE. 

In every village of the Fell4hln and every tribe 
of the Bedawln there are doctors, who however do 
not find their profession lucrative, as every head of 
a family performs these duties for those around him : 
consequently far more are killed than are cured ; of 
that, however, the government takes no heed. The 
barber of the tribe generally practises the healing 
art, gives medicine, sets broken limbs, bleeds, applies 
plaisters, cauterizes sometimes, and shaves a dead 
man's beard more easily than that of one who is 
alive. As barber he has some razors, more like 
saws, and as his customers pay him very little for 
shaving their heads, he works as fast as possible ; 
fortunately for him he is not expected to pay the 
price of blood. Besides following his profession, 
he sings and plays a small instrument like a guitar, 
a useful accomplishment, as it gathers a crowd round 
him. When he practises surgery his razor does the 
work of a lancet, and a knife is used in amputations ; 



252 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VIII. 

to these, however, the Arabs are loth to submit. If 
any one loses a finger or toe in battle or in moving 
stones, the injured part is at once wrapped up in 
rags dipped in vinegar or, if that cannot be got, in 
salt and water; and if the haemorrhage still con- 
tinues, oil and butter are boiled in a pan, the patient 
is bound tight, and the wounded limb plunged into 
it. Poultices made of all kinds of aromatic herbs, 
and even of camel's dung, are applied in cases of 
rheumatic and other pains. I was once so severely 
bruised by a fall from my horse that I could not 
stir, and as I was a long way from Jerusalem I 
allowed a native doctor to poultice me ; the remedy 
succeeded admirably, for I was able next day to con- 
tinue my journey. 

If soothing applications produce no effect, cautery 
is tried; two or three burns are made with a red 
hot iron, in order to open outlets from which the 
evil humours may escape : these are kept running 
until health is restored. Poultices of pigeons' or 
fowls' dung pounded in a mortar with boiled mint 
or sage are applied to boils that are slow in coming 
to a head. When anyone is bitten by a dog (hydro- 
phobia is rare) a poultice of boiled onions mixed 
with salt is applied. I have tried this remedy myself 
and can answer for its efficacy. Teeth are extracted, 
after no little pain to the patient, with iron tweezers 
or even pincers, better instruments being unknown. 
Tobacco or mint leaves are chewed to assuaore the 
pangs of toothache, and in an aggravated case opium 
is used. I have already mentioned the mode of 



CU. VIII.] ARAB DOCTORS AND THEIR MEDICINE. 253 

healing the bites of venomous serpents \ Headaches 
are treated with vinegar and water, but sometimes 
blood is let for them, and occasionally a blister is 
applied to the neck, or, with the more ignorant, a 
small bum is made. In cases of ophthalmia par- 
ticular colours and lotions made of diluted rosewater 
are used : sometimes the ears are bored and heavy- 
ear-rings worn for several days. In fractures the 
limb is unskilfully set, with much pain to the patient, 
and common wooden splinters are bound about it; 
baths of vinegar and water are used to subdue any 
inflammation ; very often mortification ensues and 
the patient dies ; this, however, is attributed to des- 
tiny, which influences all the actions of the Arabs. 
With regard to their medicines I can say but little, 
as I have never seen them made up and cannot tell 
the names of the herbs used ; but I know that they 
all grow in the country, and that for intermittent 
fevers a draught is concocted from the juices of bitter 
roots and plants, such as absinth, sage, and the like, 
with a small dose of brandy. This, as I have found 
by experience, is certainly efficacious in the long run. 
Mandrakes* also are still used as a cure for sterility, 
as they appear to have been in the days of EacheP, 

* Chapter II. page 49. 

* Atropa mandragora. See Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 
Art. Mandrake. 

* Gen. XXX. 14 — 16. 



254 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. Vlii. 

THE FURNITURE OF A BEDAWIN TENT. FOOD 

OF THE NOMADS. 

As one may suppose, there is no great quantity 
of furniture in an Arab's tent. A long lance, a pair 
of old pistols, a sabre, a matchlock, whose pattern 
recalls the invention of firearms, a long knife or 
yataghan^ and a stick with a heavy iron knob, are 
his weapons. Sometimes, however, some excellent 
arms are found in a poor tent, a sure sign of the 
owner's sagacity, as he has certainly stolen them 
from some traveller. We also meet with muskets 
fitted with bayonets and European swords, these 
date either from the time of general Buonaparte 
or Ibrahim pasha. There is a small handmill for 
grinding corn or dried locusts, a wooden mortar for 
pounding coffee, two flat stones for crushing salt, an 
iron or stone platter for baking bread, made without 
leaven for present use, a coffee pot, some earthenware 
jars for keeping water, some skins or leathern bottles 
for carrying the same, some wooden plates, some 
small coffee cups of different patterns, a pot, a mat 
or worn out carpet, which is used as a bed, and as an 
ornament on the ground when guests are received, 
some sheepskins or goatskins for coverings, and some 
rude musical instruments : these are the goods of a 
well-to-do Arab ; the poorer classes are not so amply 
supplied. 

The tents are generally six or seven feet high, and 
rectangular in form, made of a strong coarse cloth of 
camel's or goat's hair, which is spun by the women, 



CH. VIII.] FURNITURE AND FOOD, 255 

and woven in a common loom. As a substitute for 
this a stuff, made with the fibres of a root called Ufi- 
adun, is sometimes used. These tents are of a dark 
colour^ ; the roofs slope, so that they are almost 
waterproof, unless the rain be very heavy and last 
for several days. Inside they are sometimes divided 
into three compartments, one of which is called 
dlrcobhach, and belongs to the women, whose especial 
duty it is to pitch and strike the tent. The tents 
may be said to have a fixed order in a camp, as they 
are arranged round an open place where the cattle 
are penned at night. No works are constructed to 
defend these, nor are sentries posted ; the dogs alone 
are trusted to wake all the sleepers on the approach 
of strangers. When any danger threatens, the chief 
gives a signal, each family packs up the goods in 
its own tent and loads them on the camels, the cattle 
are driven in advance, and quicken their pace as 
though they understood their master's wishes. On 
a march of this kind the horsemen ride in front to 
reconnoitre, and then fall back on the flanks, and if 
necessary, bravely and obstinately protect the retreat 
with the help of the footmen armed with guns and 
knives. 

The food of the Bedawtn corresponds with their 
furniture ; for these sons of the desert live poorly, 
and constantly practise an involuntary abstinence. 
We may reckon about eight or nine ounces of solid 
food to be their daily allowance ; this is made up 
of curds, of sour fruit, stolen from the cultivated 

^ Cant. i. n. 



256 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. VIII. 

lands whenever a chance occurs, of a little meal and 
rice, of locusts, as I have already explained, of small 
cakes of durah or flour, of lentiles and beans, of sour 
salt cheese, hard as a brick, and of a little coffee with- 
out sugar. Meat is kept for high days and holidays, 
such as weddings or funerals in the chiefs family, 
but it is always so hard and tough, that the victim, 
whether camel, sheep or goat, appears to have been 
the patriarch of the herd. Hence the Bedawy almost 
always feels the want of a more satisfying diet, which 
he is constantly trying to obtain, both in his own 
district and in the neighbouring cultivated country. 
He hunts for the coarsest food, consumes quantities 
of roots and herbs, eats grasshoppers boiled in water, 
roasts rats, serpents, and lizards, is no bad cook of 
gazelles, hares, cats, and coneys, when he can snare 
them, besides birds of all kinds and fishes if they 
are to be got. This is the cause of his slender and 
thin habit of body, of his thievish disposition, of his 
constant predatory excursions into the cultivated 
districts, and especially into the gardens, to devour 
unripe fruits and all kinds of vegetables. When a 
Bedawy thief is caught in the fact, he remains quiet, 
after a slight attempt at flight, and confesses his 
crime, averring that he has been driven to it by 
hunger ; and if he can only eat does not disdain to 
be beaten : but whoever is rash enough to punish 
him, smarts for it afterwards; for when his tribesmen 
are told of what has been done, they swear vengeance, 
and regard it as a positive duty to destroy all that 
they can find on the offender's property, unless he 



CH. VIII.] MILITARY FORGE, 257 

pays an indemnity for the sufferings of their comrade. 
This may sound incredible to Europeans, but it is 
the case ; and the Turkish authorities cannot prevent 
it ; in fact they only make matters worse ; for if the 
owner appeals to them for protection, they send some 
of their horse soldiers, who have to be maintained, 
with their horses, at his cost, and who, during their 
night-watches, eat whatever comes to hand, utterly 
regardless of any objections on the part of the owner. 
The FeMhin of Bethlehem, M. Meshullam of Hartas, 
and many both of the vine growers at Hebron and 
Ain Kdrim (S. John) and of the tillers of gardens 
at a short distance from Jaffa, can say whether I have 
exaggerated or not : these persons, during the eight 
years which I have passed in Palestine, have suffered 
not a little from the nomad tribes in their neighbour- 
hoods, in spite of the energy and power of Surraya 
pasha, who, as of course he could not go in person, 
was obliged to send his cavalry officers ; men more 
inclined to maintain disorder than order, whose or- 
ganization and discipline will form the subject of the 
following article. 



THE MILITARY FORCE AT THE DISPOSAL OF THE 
PASHA OF JERUSALEM, ESPECIALLY THE BASHI- 
BAZOOK, OR IRREGULAR CAVALRY. 

The Bashi-Bazook form the backbone of the 
forces with which the pasha has to maintain order 
in the country; for besides them there is only a 
battalion of* regular infantry, not more than 600 

17 



258 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS [CH. VIII. 

strong, and two small three-pounder field pieces. 
Before speaking more particularly I must state three 
things, (i) As I have already said every public 
post in the govemnaent of the Porte is sold, and 
money, not merit, is the usual recommendation. 
(2) Hence, since no one can tell how long he will 
be allowed to keep his place, every one thinks only 
of repaying himself for what he has spent, and of 
making the most of the opportunity of gaining some- 
thing for the future. (3) As the heads act, so do 
the subordinates ; consequently the countries go- 
verned by the Porte are a disgrace to Europe in 
this age of civilization. 

To proceed then with the Bashi-Bazook, The 
proper number of the force belonging to the pasha 
of Jerusalem is about 600 horsemen ; these are di- 
vided into four troops, each commanded by a captain, 
who purchases his step at a price varying between 
fifteen and twenty -five thousand piastres* ; the greater 
part of this comes from the revenues of the state ; 
the rest is collected under the name of bakhshish 
by the scribes who co-operate with him. Each troop 
is divided into ten squadrons under the command 
of an oflScer ; this man buys his post from the cap- 
tain, who recommends him to the government, and 
so repays himself part of his own expenses. . These 
officers form themselves into two divisions and choose 
from their own body two captains of picquets, who 
also recompense their electors. Each man enlisted 

^ That is, from about £125 to £208. Six piastres are about 
one shilling. • 



CH. VIII.] MILITARY FORCE. 259 

Las no fixed time of service, and can be discharged 
when he wishes by giving notice beforehand to his 
captain. He is dressed and armed according to his 
own pleasure : some carry lances, others guns of dif- 
ferent patterns, but all have pistols, knives, yataghan, 
and a girdle round the waist to carry their small 
arms and ammunition. Both the horse and its trap- 
pings are furnished by the rider ; so that when the 
troop is drawn up, the dresses, accoutrements, and 
chargers, are as different as possible: some of the 
last being as bad as others are good. Each captain 
has his band, which consists of two small drums, 
carried on horseback, one on each side of the saddle, 
in front of the drummer, who wears a fantastic dress. 
These are beaten when the march begins, when the 
troop approaches a friendly village, or in escorting 
travellers, from whom they hope to obtain a bakh- 
shish. 

They have no tents when on a campaign ; their 
bed is the ground, and the sky their covering by 
night ; leafy trees, caverns, or ruins, protect them 
from the rays of the sun by day. Each man carries 
his baggage on his own horse ; this consists of a bag 
of barley for his horse, a small leathern water-bottle, 
a cloak, and two haversacks carried one on each side 
of the saddle, containing, when not filled with the 
fruits of a night expedition, a few provisions. The 
chiefs fare better than the common soldiers, but they 
also rarely use a tent. Europeans should keep away 
from their camping places, for these heroes flock 
around him begging tobacco and snuff, powder and 

17 — 2 



26o CUSTOMS AND TRADITIOXS, [CH.VIII. 

lead, food, and the invariable bakhshish ; and are as 
ill-favoured as the inhabitants of the nether world 
described by Virgil and Dante. Moreover they 
abound more in insect life than a Croat soldier. I 
am entitled to pronounce an opinion as I have suf- 
fered from too close a proximity to both^ 

They are paid by the government at the following 
rate. Each captain receives about looo piastres a 
month. Of the subalterns, the upper class receive 
about 300, and the lower about 150 for the same 
time. The common soldiers have 2 piastres a day. 
Besides this, each man has daily a scanty ration of 
bread, not enough for his breakfast, and a similar 
quantity of barley for his horse. It may then well 
be asked how he can clothe and maintain himself 
and a family; how he can keep a horse and its 
accoutrements in proper condition. The Porte does 
not trouble itself with this. "Let them shift for 
themselves, they have always managed thus," is the 
reply : meanwhile criminals multiply in Palestine, 
since those whose duty it is to suppress them and 
protect the public roads are themselves leaders in 
pillage and disorders, being never at a loss for ex- 
pedients to clear themselves and throw the blame 
on those who have nothing to do with it. Thus the 
defenders of the laws are the greatest breakers of 
them, and set the worst examples. For example, if 
they are sent into a district to protect property and 

* From the former at Peschiera, May 29, 1848 ; from the lat- 
ter especially in the campaign of Hebron and Gaza, made with 
Surraya pasha in the summer of 1859. 



CH. VIII.] MILITARY FORCE. 261 

keep ojff enemies, they oppress the inhabitants instead 
of defending them ; they exact supplies of barley 
without payment, even selling their own forage ; they 
wander about the country gathering the fruits, caring 
little whether they are ripe or not. If it is the grass 
season, they feed their horses on it without stint, and 
tl^^y g<> to the Fell^hln's huts at meal times, and 
share their food, by this means saving their own 
pay and bread. I was an eyewitness of their mal- 
practices in 1859, when in charge of the repairs of 
the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem. If I sent them 
to find labourers they took bribes and brought only 
those who were of little use : they wasted their time 
in loitering in the villages, in plundering and quar- 
relling with the people ; and the only fruit of my 
complaint to the pasha, was the issue of strict orders 
to which no attention was paid. Hence it may easily 
be inferred that the Bashi-Bazooks are among the 
worst thieves and the greatest nuisances in the 
country. 

In time of war their strength is raised to 800, 
the maximum allowed by the government at Con- 
stantinople : the roads then are dangerous, for the 
warriors disguise themselves and plunder rapaciously. 
To do them justice they are not void of generosity; 
though they take everything else they leave life. 
On the field they shew themselves ill drilled and 
undisciplined; their mode of attack is a disorderly 
charge, and the enemy if outnumbered generally fly 
at once ; if they do not, so far as my experience 
goes, the Bashi-Bazooks do. Some of them are 



262 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. VIII. 

lindoubtedly brave men, but the fear of bringing 
down on themselves and their squadron the avengers 
of blood, is a great restraint upon them. 

In times of peace the four chiefe are quartered at 
Jerusalem, Hebron, Gaza, and Jaffa. Each conse- 
quently has 1 50 men under him ; half of these he 
keeps in garrison, the other half he sends to their 
own homes, thus saving their pay and the value of 
their rations ^ This is no gain to the Porte; it pays 
for 600 soldiers; so the captains and other officials 
in the country divide the spoil, in what proportion I 
know not. When the pasha is going to inspect a 
corps, he always gives some days notice to the cap- 
tain, then the absentees are recalled, and if they can- 
not arrive in time, their places are supplied by tern- 
porary substitutes, so that the pasha finds the muster- 
roll apparently correct. Such was the state of affairs 
before the arrival of Surraya pasha ; during his go- 
vernment great improvements were made, but things 
have now fallen back again to their former condition. 

The regular infantry might be effective if its pay 
were punctually given, but as this is often at least 14 
months in arrear, it cannot be trusted in a campaign 
without it is well supplied beforehand. When on guard 
at the gates of the city the soldiers recompense them- 
selves by exacting small gifts from all who pass, 
levying a kind of (illegal) octroi from sellers of char- 

* Reckoning five piastres as the minimum value of the rations, 
we have a saving of seven piastres a head, or 525 piastres a day; 
that is, of 15,750 a month of 30 days, or of 63,000 piastres for the 
whole army. 



CH. VIII.] MILITARY FORCE. 263 

coal, lime, wood, vegetables, tobacco, corn, melons, 
eggs, or any thing else, who are obliged to yield with 
a good grace or they would suffer for it in person 
and in pocket. They also get a small donation when 
they have to open the gate after dark to a traveller; 
they knit woollen stockings when standing sentinel 
or when in barracks, which they sell ; when sent into 
the country on picket duty they live free of expense, 
and generally bring back some provisions with them ; 
they have various tricks to save the powder served 
out to them for firing when on drill ; and they sell part 
of their rations and bread. Thus, by scraping together 
money from all these sources, and receiving a good 
meal twice a day, they live pretty well. They always 
sit down to table with three cheers for the sultan and 
with the discordant music of their band. 

There are ten artillerymen, citizens of Jerusalem, 
who w©3,r a uniform and go on duty in pairs to guard 
the old cannon in the castle of David: these are 14 
in number, but 3 only are fit for use. They are 
fired on festivals, and every evening during the 
fast of Eamadhan. The soldiers have i piastre a 
day, and 4 when employed in making cartridges in 
the citadel. Their pay, however, is always in arrear, 
so that they work at other things; the serjeant keeps 
the keys of the tomb, called by the Jews that of 
Simon the Just. Such was the army of Palestine 
on the arrival of Surraya pasha and such it now is 
after his departure. 



CHAPTER IX. 



OF THE DISSENSIONS AND STRIFE IN PALESTINE. 



The traveller cannot go far in the country without 
meeting natives armed with scymitars, knives of 
various sizes, lances, iron-shod staves, axes, pistols, 
and guns, whom he might in consequence be led to 
mistake for redoubted warriors. On the contrary 
they are generally only peasants, men of peace in 
reality, who are compelled by circumstances to be on 
their guard against attack. The cause of this is the 
unhappy strife, so pernicious to the country, ^which 
prevails between the two parties called the Keisiyeh 
and Yemeniyeh, into which not only all the Fell^hln, 
but also the Bedawin of the plains of Jericho and 
Gaza, are divided. The following story is condensed 
from the account of the origin of these sects, given 
to me by an Arab. '^ These were the names of two 
brothers of the race of Antar, who were both at the 
same time enamoured of a beautiful damsel of noble 
birth, and for some time fought singly to prove 
which should be worthy to declare his love. How- 
ever all their proofs of valour left the matter unde- 
cided, as they simultaneously met with good or bad 
fortune. They next fought in company with their 



CH. IX.] PALESTINE'S DISSENSIONS. 265 

friends, but still the loss on each side was always 
equal. Their father, seeing that fortune treated 
them alike, and lamenting the dissensions which were 
beginning to arise between their followers, went to the 
damsel's father, informed him of the dispute between 
his sons, and asked him to aid him by permitting his 
daughter to declare whom of the two she preferred. 
The proposal was accepted, the rival brothers were 
summoned, and arrived on their fiery steeds at the 
house of the maiden's father, who welcomed them 
with a sumptuous banquet, in the course of which 
both he and the other guests whom he had invited 
were forced to confess that they felt an equal affection 
for both the brothers. In the course of the even- 
ing the maiden herself was brought in accompanied 
by songs and music, and the two brothers shook 
hands ; and each, touching and kissing the other's 
beard, swore that, when the choice was made, all en- 
mity should depart from his heart and peace should 
be re-established between them. The matter, how- 
ever, was not to be so easily settled; she felt equal 
love for both and declared that she would choose the 
one who should best undergo the tests that she would 
propose. This decision was joyfully accepted by the 
champions themselves and by their relations. The 
trials were to occupy four days. The first took 
place on the morrow; it was a conflict on horseback, 
in which the two were to contend without weapons 
of any kind. The attack began and lasted for three 
hours without one being able to conquer the other: 
both were thrown, but they regained their saddles at 



266 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. IX. 

the same instant: their blows produced the same 
effect, and one was not more exhausted than the 
other. A banquet took place in the evening at which 
each was allowed to converse with his ladylove and 
was bidden to the next trial. For this two small 
medals were set up ; each was to shoot an arrow at 
one of these from a distance of a hundred paces^ and 
then to run and bring it to his mistress : the arrows 
flew, struck the marks in the centre, and at the same 
moment were seized and brought back by the archers. 
Next two silver rings belonging to the maiden were 
set up at a distance of fifty paces; the champions 
sent their arrows whizzing through their centres, and 
were allowed to wear them as a reward for their skill. 
After this guns charged with shot were placed in their 
hands ; they fired at small birds and the leaves of trees, 
but always with equal success. That evening was 
spent as the former. On the following morning two 
magnificent but hitherto untameable steeds were led 
forth ; these they were to break in : the two heroes 
rendered them gentle as kids; rode a race with them, 
arriving at the goal at the same moment; and after- 
wards made them leap over the barriers of the lists. 
As a final trial for the day they were bidden to pick 
up some sand, while their steeds were at full gallop. 
This command also was executed, and then the even- 
ing was passed in festivities. On this occasion, the 
lady bade them take a day's rest before the last test ; 
this was to mount the steeds which they had tamed, 
and to join in mortal combat with the weapons which 
she would supply to them. 



CH. IX.] PALESTINE'S DISSENSIONS 267 

"On the appointed day the people flocked together 
to gaze upon the conflict; the combatants, ready on 
the field of battle, awaited their arms; the maiden 
arrived ; she placed in the hand of each a sword and 
a lance, and the fight began. Blows fell thick and 
fast like hail; blood soon stained the ground, until at 
last Azrael the angel of death, took away both their 
souls at the same instant. Then the maiden, bereft 
of both her lovers, stepped between their lifeless bo- 
dies, and, bidding her parents and friends a last fare- 
well, drew a hidden dagger from her bosom, and 
plunged it into her heart ; thus following into eternity 
those whom she had loved on earth with an equal 
love." My Arab informant went on to say that from 
that time the two heroes' spirits seemed to agitate 
the country, for the two parties were perpetuated, 
and on the slightest provocation, the red and white 
flags, the badges respectively of the Keisiyeh and Ye- 
meniyeh, were unfurled and blood flowed. Rejecting 
the greater part of this legend as mythical, we may 
consider it to be very probable that these two parties 
have existed from a very early period, going back 
either into the Jewish history, or to that of the wars 
between the kings of Egypt and Syria. The name 
Yemeniyeh may denote a tribe, from Yemen, which 
word signifies " right," while Keisiyeh, called by some 
Keeseri, may be derived from Eisir, "left." These 
parties remind us of the rivalries of the descendants 
of Isaac and Ishmael, of Esau and Jacob, and of the 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The hostility between 
the Yemeniyeh and Keisiyeh is handed down from 



268 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [cH. IX. 

father to son, and is a constant source of strife be- 
tween .diflferent villages, and even between the differ- 
ent families of the same district, from which wars 
not unfrequently arise ; but, before describing these, 
I will relate a few instances shewing how readily 
quarrels are excited, and how easily they are some- 
times patched up again for a while. 

The districts of Ramleh and Lydda in the plain 
of Sharon are about an hour's distance one from 
another, each being on one of the two roads from 
Jaffa to Jerusalem ; the former belongs to the Yeme- 
niyeh, the latter to the Keisiyeh. In April 1857 ^^ 
Arab of Lydda married a Mohammedan girl from 
Ramleh : the bride's parents, with all the joy usual at 
weddings, placed her on a richly caparisoned camel, 
on the back of which a sort of palanquin was fixed 
which, like the bride, was covered with a white veil. 
This was accompanied by a rejoicing crowd, uttering 
the customary yells, and by horsemen, who galloped 
about brandishing their white flags. Men and wo- 
men mounted on asses followed the camel, which not 
unfrequently fell on its knees, when, with its rider, it 
looked like a white bundle ; for the flowing mantle of 
the bride hid the beast under its ample folds; when it 
recovered its feet it was greeted with the laughter 
and applause of the crowd. I followed the train 
with my servant, and was almost more honoured than 
the bride, being serenaded by the dreadful music of 
'' bakhshish, bakhshish," until I was compelled to 
purchase peace by throwing them a trifle. When 
the confines of the district of Ramleh were reached, 



CH. IX.] PALESTINE'S DISSENSIONS. 269 

the bridegroom with a long train of friends awaited 
the bride ; whereupon according to custom her veil and 
the covering of her palanquin were changed for red. 
During this a few jests were exchanged between some 
of the two companies, and a quarrel began, which 
might have had serious consequences if certain persons 
unconnected with either party had not interposed, 
first with soft words, and then, when these were un- 
heeded, with some judicious applications of their 
horsewhips to the more unruly. The reader may ask 
what the bride was doing during this dispute; she 
remained calmly seated upon the camel, which, de- 
serted by its leader, quietly browsed upon the herb- 
age and the leaves of the trees. "When peace was 
restored between the future relations, the whole party 
went on to Lydda, where they heartily drank the 
health of those who had reconciled them in this 
summary manner, and given them a bakhshish on 
parting. 

Again, near Bethany, on the road to the Jordan, 
a Yemen of the district of Hebron was travelling 
with a mule, when a Keis hunter of Abudis acci- 
dentally shot his beast. Hence arose a twofold strife ; 
one owing to the differences of the parties, the other 
to the price of the blood shed. The chiefs of the two 
parties endeavoured to arrange the general question, 
without paying much attention to the price of blood, 
and had succeeded; when one morning the hunter, 
on coming out -of his house, saw his own ass hung up 
to a tree in front of the door. This, of course, was 
as oil upon fire, a guerilla war appeared imminent, 



270 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. IX, 

and was only averted by the threats of the pasha of 
Jerusalem and his assertion that the peace had al- 
ready been arranged, and that the ass was to be con- 
sidered as an equivalent for the mule. 

These instances may serve to give an idea of how 
these quarrels arise ; I will therefore proceed to give 
some account of the manner in which they are carried 
on. When war is declared between two villages, each 
side invites its friends and allies to arms by sending 
runners blowing horns, and lighting fire signals on the 
mountain summits. Thus in the nineteenth century 
the same methods of calling together the people are 
followed as in the early days of the Jewish nation^ 
Sometimes also in order to arouse the passions of 
their friends, the summoners send round tokens of 
the wrong that they have sufiered, such as handker- 
chiefs dipped in the blood of the slain, or their blood- 
stained clothes fastened to a pole 2. 

The Arabs of the present day, as we shall see, 
difier greatly from the former possessors of the soil in 
their manner of conducting wars : human life is spared, 
but woeful destruction takes place among the cattle, 
plantations, crops, houses, and everything else that 
falls into their hands. Their manner of fighting is 
also peculiar. They are not drawn up in order, 
but each marksman goes to his appointed place, 
where he builds up a barricade of stones ; so that all 

* Compare Judg. iii. 27. i Sam. xi. 3. xiii.3. Isaiah xviiL 3. 
Jer. iv. 6, 21. vi. i. li. 27, for accounts of the signals of war in 
ancient times. 

* Judg. xix. 29. 



CH. IX.] PALESTINE'S DISSENSIONS 271 

the warriors on either side are hidden, and the only- 
sign of their presence is an occasional shot, fired 
rather in bravado, than with any intention of hitting. 
In this position they remain watching each other for 
several days, and casualties are very rare. Some- 
times also the women appear upon the field, being 
protected from harm by the invariable custom; so 
far is this carried that they frequently place them- 
selves as shields in front of their relations, when the 
latter wish to change their places. If blood is shed, 
an attack is often made by the horsemen ; but even 
then care seems to be taken not to incur the expenses 
of the price of blood, which would have to be paid 
when peace was arranged. Hence the lex talionis 
appears to save life on an Arab battlefield, especially 
when war is waged between peasants: these confine 
themselves to inflicting every other possible injury 
upon an enemy. Sometimes indeed the Arab is mur- 
derous enough, but that is when he is fighting a 
foreign foe. Among themselves they know that he 
who kills pays, and so, when a grievous wrong calls 
loudly for reparation, they only shew themselves in 
the night-time. 

The effects, however, of these party warfares are 
sometimes very serious. When I came to Palestine 
in 1854 the country was in a most disturbed state^ and 
great excesses were committed in consequence of the 
contentions of the Keisiyeh and Yemeniyeh, of which 
I will relate a few instances. Three hours' journey 
west of Jerusalem, on the Jaffa road, is a village 
called Abu-Ghiish, a name derived from the family of 



272 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [cH. IX. 

the governing chief who has made the place notorious. 
Formerly travellers, who crossed the mountains of 
Judaea, were always in fear of the extortionate rapa- 
city of the villains infesting that part of the road 
which passed through the territory of sheikh Abu- 
GhAsh. Appointed chief of the district by the Porte 
to collect the tribute for the Government, he was be- 
lieved to have been not unmindful of his own interests, 
and to have employed the money which should have 
been paid into the public treasury in forming a body- 
guard, strong enough to make head, if needful, 
against the governor of Jerusalem, whose dependent 
he was, and with whom he at first had to wage a 
severe war. Once he was captured and sent to Con- 
stantinople, where, however, he saved himself from 
death or the galleys, partly by his money, and partly 
by the influence of some of his protectors. It may 
be observed that, when he was taken prisoner, many 
were ready to claim for themselves a share in ridding 
Palestine of a great brigand, but when he was set at 
liberty, all were anxious to have the honour of being 
concerned in saving him ; this, however, if tales be true, 
was entirely the doing of the great Greek convent at 
Jerusalem. Abu-Ghiish, warned by the danger which 
he had run, changed his mode of life on returning to 
his own country ; becoming faithful to the governor 
and a protector of travellers, as he now is; putting 
down at once the slightest disorder in his country. 
Thus before the arrival of Surraya pasha in 1857 
he might have been considered as a great feudal 
chieftain, fully able to call several thousand men 



CH. IX.] PALEST INirS DISSENSIONS, 273 

into the field. Since that period, as I will presently 
shew, his power has greatly declined. Other chiefs 
of the same kind have, in former times, attempted to 
raise themselves to the position of rebel feudatories 
of the Porte by taking up arms against the pashas of 
Jerusalem, who have encouraged them by their venal- 
ity in selling them pardon or protection. For these 
large sums have been willingly paid, which the 
chiefs hoped to replace by obtaining the government 
of another district ; no difficult matter. The principal 
man of these, after Abu-Ghiish, was one called Lakam 
(butcher) from his origin. In 1854, ^^^ followers of 
these two, Yemeniyeh and Keisiyeh respectively, were 
at strife, and the inhabitants of a large part of Judaea 
Proper, as well as the nomad tribes on the south and 
east, were divided between these parties. It was 
reckoned that Abu-Ghiish could call out from eight to 
twelve thousand warriors, and Lakam from six to 
nine thousand. Though the number slain in their 
battles was not great, no mercy was shewn to property. 
I went over the part of the country wherein the war 
had chiefly raged, namely the districts of Hreub, 'Ain 
K4rim and its neighbourhood, and saw that the most 
wanton devastations had been committed. Vine- 
yards and olive groves had been completely ruined, 
villages and crops burnt, solitary houses pulled down, 
and cattle slaughtered. It was calculated that about 
twenty thousand vines, nine or ten thousand olive 
trees, and more than a thousand fruit trees of various 
kinds were destroyed, and at least three thousand head 
of cattle killed or stolen. While the west of Judaea 

18 



274 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS, [CH. IX. 

was being thus ravaged, the district on the south, 
where the two brothers Abdelrokman and Salem 
were fighting for the government of Hebron, was 
suffering as severely, being plundered by each party 
in turn. Besides, sheikh Abu-Dis, a short distance on 
the east of Jerusalem, was at war with some of the 
Bedawln tribes, about the right of protecting pilgrims 
on the journey to the Jordan and the Dead Sea. In 
the midst of all this, Surraya pasha assumed the 
government, and, though insuflSciently provided with 
forces, applied himself undismayed to the task of 
restoring order, and before i860 had conquered all 
of them, had reduced Abu-Ghiish to the rank of an 
humble vassal, had on different occasions captured 
Lakam, Abdelrokman, Salem, and many others of 
the robber chiefs, and sent them to the galleys at the 
fortresses of Rhodes and Cyprus; so that, even if he 
did not abolish the parties of the Yemeniyeh and Ke- 
isiyeh he certainly reduced them to tranquillity. With 
the money which he had taken from the rebels, he 
compensated the sufferers, punished the less guilty, 
enriched the public treasury, paying off arrears, dis- 
ciplined the cavalry, disarmed the people, established 
small bodies of troops to guard the roads, and did 
much to abolish the venality of the effendis and their 
subordinates; so that at the time of the massacres of 
the Lebanon there were no disturbances in Palestine. 
This shews what may be done by a good ruler, a rare 
person in a government so corrupt as that of the 
Turks. 

The Keisiyeh and Yemeniyeh are not the only 



CH. IX.] THE SCHOOLS. 275 

sources of dissension in Palestine, nor do the Moham- 
medan Arabs alone live in constant rivalry ; the Chris- 
tians of each religious community are constantly at 
strife one with another; fighting when they can, and 
confining themselves to a war of words when more 
active manifestations of anger are repressed by the 
Mohammedans. Too often the ill-feelings thus en- 
gendered break loose from every restraint and produce 
the most deplorable consequences. The few remarks 
which I am about to make upon one or two points 
connected with the present state of afiairs in Pales- 
tine, will sufficiently demonstrate this; I only add 
that, after a residence of eight years in the country, I 
cannot say that there are any signs of improvement, 
for things grow worse instead of better every day. 



THE SCHOOLS. 

All the religious communities, Hebrew, Christian, 
and Mohammedan, in the cities, and in many of the 
smaller towns, have elementary schools, to which a 
large number of families send their children of both 
sexes, not doing this from the single desire of having 
them taught, but because in these benevolent insti- 
tutions, founded by legacies or maintained by con- 
stant suppHes of alms from Europe and other places, 
food is usually distributed every day, and some 
bread also given to the parents. Were it not for 
this liberal expenditure, the schools would be almost 
deserted. They are chiefly employed in giving 
instruction in the catechism of the sects to which they 



276 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IX. 

belong. The teachers, not content with inculcating 
the tenets of their own party, enlarge angrily upon the 
faults of the others, recounting their schisms and 
heresies, telling of the way in which they have been 
oppressed by them, the examples being often exagge- 
rated, so that the poor children are trained from 
their earliest years to hatred, jealousy, and prejudices, 
which, as time goes on, become more and more 
deeply rooted in their minds. When they return 
home in the evening, they tell their parents what 
they have heard at school, and these too imbibe the 
same spirit, so that the mischief is extended, and 
handed down from generation to generation; hence 
amid the heart-burnings of sects, fostered by those 
who ought to strive to allay them, the teaching of 
the Gospel and the example of the Saviour are in 
danger of being utterly forgotten. 

PROSELYTISM. 

This is one of the chief causes of party warfare 
in Palestine, for too many of the missionaries rather re- 
semble followers of the Yemeniyeh and Keisiyeh than 
teachers of the Gospel. It is true indeed that they 
do not attempt to make proselytes sword in hand, 
but they do worse ; for they remorselessly lash with 
their tongues the rival sects, relating from the very 
pulpit tales made up for the occasion ; and by writing 
and printing highly coloured accounts of things as 
they appear to them, either by carelessness or design, 
do far more to break than to keep the peace. I could 



CH. IX.] PROSELYTISM. 277 

bring forward numerous facts in support of my asser- 
tions did my space allow it, but I must confine 
myself to two or three which may serve as ex- 
amples. 

On Good Friday the Jews cannot quit their own 
quarters, as the Latins, Greeks, and Armenians would 
insult and otherwise illtreat them. On some occa- 
sions the pasha has been obliged to guard the en- 
trances of their streets with bodies of soldiers and 
police to protect them from the fanatical Christians, 
who would have made an attack upon them. No 
Jew, who lives at Jerusalem, dares to pass in front 
of the court of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 
for he well knows how great a risk he runs of 
suffering for his curiosity. If, on an occasion like 
this, he were murdered, the malefactors would not 
be severely punished; for all the native popula- 
tion unfortunately hold the opinion that to injure 
a Jew is a work well pleasing in the sight of God. 
This is due to the fact that the Jews, although 
numerous, do not know how to make themselves 
respected ; and to the sermons constantly delivered 
by the Latins, Greeks, and Armenians, in which the 
most opprobrious and unseemly epithets are heaped 
upon them, even in the churches themselves, and of 
course still more in less sacred places. These are 
all believed by the faithful, who are thus excited by 
their priests to insult all whom they meet. Again, 
the poorer Jews when going or returning from pil- 
grimages between Jerusalem and Hebron, avoid 
passing through Bethlehem to escape the insults 



278 CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. [CH. IX. 

which the "good Christians" of that place, excited 
by their monks, always inflict upon them. The rich, 
however, are free from all these inconveniences, for 
the bakhshish which they liberally distribute soothes 
down all party spirit ; so that they are not only tole- 
rated, but even honourably entertained in the con- 
vents of these Christians, their liberaUty making 
them welcome guests to both monks and people. 
They can visit the Tomb of Christ, the mosques and 
churches in Jerusalem itself, and be received every- 
where with respect, paid not to their personal excel- 
lencies, but to their gold. Some of the wealthier 
members of the Jews now in England know full well 
that this is true. 

Greek and Armenian pilgrims flock to Jerusalem 
from all parts of the East, where they are at once 
taken by the monks of their respective persuasions 
to visit the stations commemorating the suflferings 
and death of the Redeemer, most of which have 
been incorporated by tradition into the present 
Church of the Holy Sepulchre. At each station 
one of their conductors delivers a sermon, in which 
he first describes the scene to which the spot is 
sacred, and then inveighs against the Latins and 
Greeks (if he is an Armenian), or against the Ar- 
menians (if he is a Greek), calling them usurpers, 
robbers, scoundrels. The poor pilgrims, seeing their 
conductors standing in sacerdotal garments, with 
lighted candles, and with the host in their hands, 
believe all that they hear, are enraged, and lay plots 
against their rivals ; thus on the occasion of the great 



OH. IX.] PROSE LYf ISM, 279 

feasts, especially that of the descent of the Holy 
Fire on Easter Eve, their enmity often breaks out 
into open violence, so that daggers have sometimes 
been used, the images and sacred vessels belonging 
to their enemies have been destroyed, and a thou- 
sand other sacrilegious acts committed around the 
sepulchre of Christ. The natives of the country do 
not keep aloof from these conflicts, but avail them- 
selves of the opportunity to vent their suppressed 
hatred of their rivals and to shew themselves zealous 
defenders of their respective convents ; which neither 
rebuke nor punish their excesses, but foster them 
and do their best to shield the offenders from justice. 
The Protestants too are not indifferent to these ex- 
cesses of the other Christian communities, but freely 
comment upon them in pamphlets and letters, and 
avail themselves of the occasion to make converts, 
caring little whether they be Christians who will 
afterwards lead them into trouble or Jews in want 
of some money. Further, they call the Greeks and 
the Latins heretics, idolaters, heathen; and they stir 
up still worse feeling by sermons in which they ridi- 
cule their services, their processions, their worship of 
the Virgin and the Saints ; a treatment which is 
repaid by the others with abuse and invectives. In 
spite of the money that they have spent, and the Bibles 
that they have distributed, the Protestants are left 
behind by the other Christian communities; the 
breaches that, since 1840, they have made in their 
opponents' ranks are small in comparison with the ex- 
pense of the mission ; and I cannot say that I see much 



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