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THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA

VOL. VII.
EVESHAM-GLASCOCK.

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA:

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE.

EDITED BY

GEORGE BIPLET AND CHARLES A. DANA.

VOLUME VII.
EYESHAM-GLASCOCK.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

549 AND 551 BROADWAY.
LONDON: 16 LITTLE BEITAIK

1874.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the
Clerk s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in
the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Among the Contributors of New Articles to the Seventh Volume of the Revised

Edition are the following :

Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE, Washington, D. C.
FOG.
FROST.

"WiLLARD BARTLETT.

GANGES.
GARROW HILLS.
GILOLO.

Prof. C. TV. BENNETT, D.D., Syracuse Uni
versity.

FISK, "WILBUR.
FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM.
FOSTER, KAXDOLPH S., D. D.

JULIUS BING.

FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL,
FUAD PASHA,
GAMBETTA, LEON,

and other articles in biography, geography, and
history.

DELAVAN BLOODGOOD, M. D., U. S. !S".

FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASCOE.

FRANCIS C. BOWMAN.

FIELD, JOHN.

FORMES, KARL.

FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS.

EDWARD L. BURLINGAME, Ph. D.

FRANCE,

and articles in biography and history.

JOHN D. CHAMPLIN, Jr.

FLAG,
GALLEY,
GEYSERS,
GIBRALTAR,

and articles in biography and geography.

Prof. E. H. CLARKE, M. D., Harvard University.

GALLIC ACID,

GALLS,

GINGER,

and other articles in materia medica.

Hon. T. M. COOLEY, LL. D., Ann Arbor, Mich.

EXCISE,

EXTRADITION,

FUGITIVE,

and other legal articles.

Prof. J. C. D ALTON, M. D.

EXCRETION,
FLINT, A., Jr..

and medical and physiological articles.

EATON S. DRONE.

FLORIDA,
FUR,

and various articles in American geography.

Capt. C. E. DUTTON, U. S. A.

FOWLING PIECE.

ROBERT T. EDES, M. D., Harvard University.

Articles in materia medica.

TV. M. FERRISS.

FRIENDS.

GEOMETRY.

GINGUENE, PIERRE Louis.

Prof. AUSTIN FLINT, M. D.

FEVER, and FEVERS.

ALFRED II. GUERNSEY.

FREDEP.ICKSBURG, BATTLE OF.
GETTYSBURG, BATTLE OF.

J. TV. IlAWES.

FISH CULTURE,
FISHERIES,
GALVESTON,
GEORGIA,

and articles in American geography.

CHARLES L. HOGEBOOM, M. D.

FARADAY, MICHAEL.

FERMENTATION.

FLAME.

FURNACE.

GALVANISM.

GAS.

Prof. T. STERRY HUNT, LL. D., Mass. Inst. of
Technology, Boston.

FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS.
GEOLOGY.

ROSSITER JOHNSON.

EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW, Viscount,
FOSTER, JOHN WELLS,
GAINES, MYRA CLARK,

and other biographical articles.

Prof. S. KNEELAND, M. D., Mass. Inst. of
Technology, Boston.

FLYING LEMUB,
FORAMIN1FERA,
FULMAR,
GIBBON,

and other articles in natural history.

Rev. FRANKLIN XOBLE.

EZZELTNO DA Eo.MANO.

FAURIEL, CLAUDE CHARLES.
FRANC.
GEORGE I.
GILBERT, Sir JOHN.

Rev. BERNARD O REILLY, D. D.

EXCOMMUNICATION.
EXORCISM.
EXTREME UNCTION.
FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF.

Count L. F. DE POURTALES, Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
GALAPAGOS.

RICHARD A. PROCTOR, A. M., London.

GALAXY.
Prof. ROSSITER TV. RAYMOND, Ph. D.

EXPLOSIVES.

PHILIP RIPLEY.

FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT.
GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE.
GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN.

Prof. A. J. SCHEM.

GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.
GERMANY (geographical part).

J. G. SHEA, LL. D.

FOXES,

FRONTENAC, Louis DE BUADE, Count de,

GALVEZ. BERNARDO, Count de,

and articles on American Indians.

Prof. GEORGE THURBER.
FIR,

FUCHSIA,
GERANIUM,

GlLLIFLOWER,
GlNGKO,

GLADIOLUS,

and other botanical articles.

Prof. G. A. F. VAN RHYN, Ph. D.

FAIRIES,

FEEJEE ISLANDS,

FINDS,

GEORGIAN LANGUAGE,

GERMANIC RACES AND LANGUAGES,

and other archaeological, oriental, and philological
articles.

I. DE VEITELLE.
GAUCHOS,

and other South American articles.

C. S. WEYMAN.

FRANCE. WINES OF.
FRESCO PAINTING.
GERMANY, WINES OF.

Prof. JUNIUS B. TVHEELER, U. S. M. A., TVest
Point.

FORTIFICATION.

Prof. J. H. WORMAN.

FLIEDNER, THEODOR.

Prof. E. L. YOUMANS.

EVOLUTION.

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA.

EYESHAM

EYESHAM, a parliamentary borough and mar
ket town of Worcestershire, England,
nearly encircled by the Avon, 13 m. S. E. of
Worcester ; pop. about 5,000. It is well built,
^nd contains three churches, a mechanics in
stitute, reading rooms, and a library. The re
maining tower of the once famous abbey of
Evesham is one of the finest architectural spe
cimens of the time of Henry VIII. The chief
occupation is gardening, but gloves, hosiery,
and parchment are manufactured, and there
is an active trade in malt and hops.

EVIDENCE. Judicial evidence differs from
the proofs by which human judgment is or
dinarily determined in non-judicial matters,
chiefly in certain rules established for the sake
of facility in disposing of complicated questions
of fact, or on grounds of public policy. These
rules may be reduced under the following
heads : 1, cases in which a rule is prescribed
for the purpose of getting at a certain conclu
sion, though arbitrary, when the subject is in
trinsically liable to doubt from the remoteness,
discrepancy, or actual defect of proofs ; 2, cases
in which evidence is excluded on the ground
of being untrustworthy and tending to un
necessary prolixity, or from its very nature
likely to be untrue ; 3, cases in which a legal
presumption is substituted for actual proof, or
in place of what could be proved, being sup
posed to be more consistent with the real rights
of the parties than any result which could be
expected from positive testimony ; 4, the grad
uation of the weight of evidence, which will
be found in some instances to be arbitrary in
its origin, and perhaps not altogether in ac
cordance with the ordinary process of judg
ment. Under the first class w r ill be included
various rules which have been adopted, not
from exact uniformity per se, but for the sake
of having some rule of general application,
among which may be specified the following :
a. That after seven years absence without

EVIDENCE

having been heard from, a man shall be pre
sumed to be dead. It is obvious in this case
that the period fixed upon is no more certain
than any other, but it was necessary, for the
protection of the rights of parties who were
compelled to act upon some presumption, that
a legal rule should be established. If a man
therefore has been absent seven years with
out anything being heard of him, his wife may
marry again without incurring a penalty for
bigamy, though it has not been provided that
the second marriage shall be absolutely valid
in case the husband should afterward return ;
and his heir, or the person entitled to his es
tate by succession, becomes vested with pre
sumptive ownership, the same as if his decease
was actually proved. 5. That after the ex
clusive possession of land or of an incorporeal
hereditament for a certain period of time, a
grant shall be presumed, and the title of the
occupant will be sustained against all claimants.
In England this period was formerly express
ed with some vagueness, as being beyond the
memory of man, and the rule applied there
only to incorporeal estates ; but by a statute
(2 and 3 William IV.) the period has been
limited to 20 years in cases of aquatic rights,
ways, and other easements, and to 30 years
in respect to right of common and other uses
arising out of lands, except tithes and rents.
In the United States the presumption is gen
erally the same both in respect to corporeal
and incorporeal estates. In a large number of
the states 20 years exclusive, undisturbed, and
uninterrupted possession, under claim of right,
is sufficient to establish title to lands or ease
ments. In some states a shorter period is pre
scribed, either generally or for particular classes
of cases, as for example those in which the
claim of right is under purchase at a tax or ju
dicial sale. c. That deeds more than 30 years
old may be used as evidence without proof of
their execution ; in other words, that they

EVIDENCE

prove themselves. The presumption in such
cases is that the subscribing witnesses or others
by whom proof of execution is ordinarily made
may be dead, but the rule is the same even if
such witnesses are actually living. In offering
such a deed in evidence, however, it is neces
sary to give some account of the custody of it,
and to show that possession has been consis
tent with its provisions, so as to rebut any sus
picion in respect to its genuineness, d. An
infant under the age of seven years is conclu
sively presumed to be without discretion. Be
yond that age it will be a subject of proof
whether he is doli capax, but prior to that time
no inquiry is permitted. So an infant under
the age of 14 is presumed incapable of com
mitting a rape, though in fact there are in
stances of sexual capacity before that age. So
when husband and wife are living together
and impotency is not proved, the issue will be
presumed legitimate, although it should be
proved that the wife has during that time com-
mited adultery, e. By the common law, if a
wife do any act in the presence of her husband
amounting to felony, other than treason or
murder, she is presumed to have been under
coercion, and therefore not criminally liable.
This presumption, however, is allowed but
limited force in the United States. The second
class of cases includes two rules which were
formerly of very frequent application, a. What
is called hearsay evidence is inadmissible. By
this is meant that a witness should not be per
mitted to testify what he has heard another
person say, but only what he knows himself.
To this rule there are some qualifications ra
ther than exceptions. Thus it is sometimes
proper to prove what was said by a person at
the time of performing a certain act, as having
some tendency to explain the intent, and there
fore admissible as a part of the res gestce, ac
cording to legal phraseology. In such a case,
however, what was said does not strictly come
under the designation of hearsay, but is itself
a principal fact. So also it is admissible to
prove what has been said by a party to an
action. This again is a principal fact, or at all
events comes under the designation of declara
tions or admissions, and as such is admissible.
So it is permitted in oases of homicide to prove
dying declarations, that is, what is said by the
murdered person shortly before and in expec
tation of death. This is not unusual in trials
for murder, and is competent evidence, both
to show the manner of the death and who was
the murderer ; but it must be strictly con
fined to the homicide, and to facts which it
would have been competent for the party to
have testified to had he survived. The tes
timony of a witness on a former trial may also
be proved on a second trial, in case of his de
cease prior thereto. Again, witnesses are al
lowed to testify to matters of tradition in
respect to old boundaries of estates. The rule
in England is limited to cases in which some
public right is involved, as when a right of

common is in question ; but in the United
States it has been allowed in many cases where
the lines of large tracts of land became mate
rial in determining the limits of smaller estates.
The traditional evidence, as it is called in such
cases, consists of proof of what has been said
long since by persons who may be supposed to
have had some personal knowledge, or to have
heard from others who had such knowledge.
Pedigree, including the facts relating to birth,
marriage, and death, may also be shown by
proof of what lias been said by members of the
family or relatives of the person whose paren
tage or relationship is in question. Many other
illustrations could be cited, but these will suffice.
It should be remarked that upon the same
principle by which the kind of evidence last
referred to is admissible, other modes of proof,
which are ordinarily classed under hearsay,
though they in fact belong to that species of
evidence in no other sense than as above ex
plained in respect to oral testimony, are admit
ted, such as a family register, inscriptions on
monuments, and the like. But with the ex
ceptions, if they may be so called, which we
have specified, hearsay evidence is wholly and
absolutely excluded \&gt;y the English law. The
reasons usually given for this exclusion are its
uncertain and untrustworthy character, the
endless prolixity to w ? hich it would lead in the
attempt to sift facts in judicial proceedings, the
ease with which it might be manufactured for
the occasion, and the probability that better
evidence is attainable. 5. Another rule relates
to the competency of witnesses, and it has
been more prolific of subtle distinctions and
perplexing questions than any other rule in
the law of evidence. A chief ground of ex
clusion was formerly interest in the subject
of the action. The theory was that there is
an inevitable tendency to suppress or pervert
the facts under the influence of a supposed
interest in the result. This of course con
stituted a proper exception so far as respects
credibility ; but instead of receiving the testi
mony subject to a proper discrimination as to
its effects, courts relieved themselves of all em
barrassment in determining its relative weight,
by wholly excluding the testimony of an inter
ested witness. Under this rule not only the
parties to the action, but all persons having an
interest in the result, were, as a general rule,
adjudged incompetent to testify. In determin
ing, however, the nature of the interest which
should constitute a disqualification, it was found
exceedingly difficult to fix precise rules of gen
eral application, and much confliction was in
volved in the decisions. Finally it was settled
that the interest must be a direct gain or loss
by the operation of the judgment in the action,
or that the record would be evidence for or
against the witness in some other action. But
no interest other than pecuniary was sufficient
to exclude, and therefore near relatives might
testify for each other even in the most serious
cases, and where the temptations to shield them

EVIDENCE

by untruthful statements might be the strong
est possible. But husband and wife were not
admitted to testify for or against each other,
for which two reasons were principally as
signed: 1, that it would tend to destroy the
domestic harmony ; and 2, that the wife was
under such coercion of the husband as would
be likely to lead her to distort or suppress the
truth. An exception, from the necessity of
the case, was made of prosecutions for injuries
done or threatened by one against the other.
The conviction at length became general that
the exclusion of witnesses on account of inter
est worked injuriously, and accordingly, both
in England and the United States, the system
has been virtually abrogated. By statute 3 and
4 William IV., c. 42, it was provided that no
person offered as a witness should be excluded
on the ground that the verdict or judgment in
the action could be used for or against him.
The act 6 and 7 Victoria, c. 85 (1843), provided
that no one, except a party, or the husband or
wife of a party, should be excluded from testi
fying on the ground of interest in the subject
of the action or event of the trial. The act 14
and 15 Victoria, c. 99 (1851), enacted that par
ties and persons on whose behalf a suit is
brought or defended shall be competent and
compellable to testify as witnesses for either
party} except that in criminal proceedings for
an indictable offence neither the party charged
nor the husband or wife of such party could be
a witness ; and except also that the provision
should not apply to actions founded upon adul
tery, or for a breach of promise of marriage.
By a subsequent act, 16 and 17 Victoria, c. 83
(1853), the husband or wife of a party in a
civil action was made competent as a witness
except in cases of adultery, but with the quali
fication that such witness should not be bound
to disclose any confidential communication
made by either to the other during marriage.
In the United States similar provisions have
very generally been adopted ; and as a rule all
persons having knowledge of material facts are
competent and compellable to testify, except
husband and wife against each other, and the
defendants in criminal proceedings. The for
mer, however, are allowed to be witnesses for
each other, and by consent may be called by
the opposite party. In a number of the states
the defendants in criminal cases are allowed
either to testify in their own behalf under
oath, or to make a statement without oath
which the jury may receive as evidence ; but
constitutional provisions forbid their being com
pelled to testify against themselves. The third
of the classes into which we have divided the
rules of evidence consists of presumptions of
law in lieu of actual proof, or of what could
be proved, under which may be specified the
following : a. The statutes of limitation, by
which a period of time is fixed when a debt
shall be presumed to have been paid, or satis
faction to have been received. This sort of
presumption is made not for want of actual

proof, as the period is usually short, but to
put an end to controversy within a reasonable
period. The current business of life has enough
to employ our attention without our being bur
dened with the memory of all former transac
tions. (See LIMITATION, STATUTES OF.) &. Es
toppels. A man is said to be estopped when it
would be inconsistent with good faith or with
the policy of the law to allow him to deny a
certain fact or legal conclusion. Thus, if he
claims under a deed or will, he is bound by all
that is contained in it, and is estopped either
from denying any recital therein, or from set
ting up any claim of title adverse to or incon
sistent with such deed or will. An estoppel in
pais, as it is called in the old cases, is when a
man is precluded by his own act or admission
from proving anything contrary thereto. An
instance of this is when a man has by some
statement or admission induced another with
whom he was dealing to enter into a contract ;
he will not afterward be permitted to deny the
truth of such statement or admission if the ef
fect would be to work an injury to such third
party. So a tacit admission, as when the
owner of a chattel stands by while another
sells it as his own, and neglects to give notice
of his right ; this will operate as an estoppel to
his setting up his claim against the -innocent
purchaser. To this head also belongs what is
called res judicata, that is to say, the rule that
when a fact necessarily involved in an action is
once determined it shall not afterward be called
in question as between the same parties or per
sons claiming under them. A judgment or de
cree of a competent court is final not only as to
what was actually determined, but as to every
matter which was involved in the issue, and
which could have been decided. The record
of the judgment is the only proper evidence
of what was in issue, and it cannot be proved
aliunde that some matter was in fact involved
and taken into consideration which does not
appear by the record to have been involved in
the issue. This is the rule as to decisions of
tribunals in our own country. In respect to
foreign judgments and -decrees, the effect is the
same when the court had jurisdiction of the
case, and no fraud has been practised. The
record itself, which must be produced, is not
conclusive as to facts necessary to give juris
diction, and a defendant will be permitted to
prove that he was not personally served with
process ; so any fraud on the part of the court
t or its officers may be shown. But the regu-
i larity of the judgment having been established,
it is conclusive upon all matters embraced in the
issue. The fourth class in the arrangement we
have made of our subject, viz., the comparative
weight of evidence, is of a twofold character.
Judicial discrimination may lead to the rejec
tion of testimony as being entitled to no weight
at all, or it may determine the relative influ
ence which it should have if admissible in the
decision of a question of fact. The former
we have already considered, so far as respects

EVIDENCE

the incompetency of witnesses and the exclu
sion of hearsay testimony. But evidence is
sometimes excluded for reasons of more limited
application. Thus, inferior testimony is not
admitted when a party has it in his power to
produce what is of a higher order ; as if the
question be as to the title to real estate derived
from a deed, the best proof will of course be
the production of the deed itself, and no other
proof will be admitted as a substitute, unless a
satisfactory reason is given for its non-pr*oduc-
tion, as where it has been lost or destroyed.
But in this case, the substituted evidence must
be exclusively as to the contents of the deed.
But where under statutes providing therefor
conveyances of real estate are recorded, the
record or a certified copy is allowed to be read
in evidence with the same effect as the original.
So when a contract is in writing, it is necessary
to produce the writing itself, and no other evi
dence can be given of the terms of such con
tract, without showing first the loss of the
writing, or that for some other satisfactory
reason it is impracticable to produce it ; upon
making which proof, parol evidence may be
given as to the contents. And whenever, in
the course of a trial, a fact comes in question,
the evidence of which is in writing, the same
rule is applied, viz., that no other evidence can
be admitted than the writing itself if in ex
istence, and if not, then only the substituted
proof of its contents. It may however happen
that nothing more than the purport can be
shown, and not the exact phraseology; and
some latitude will be allowed in such case, as
by admitting proof of the acts of parties, and
other circumstances, but still having in view to
get at what was expressed by the writing. It
does not follow, h.owever, that when the best
or what is called primary evidence cannot be
produced, inferior or what is called secondary
evidence will in all cases be admitted. Thus,
hearsay evidence is in general excluded, even
if none better can be procured. Upon the
same principle, when a writing is put in evi
dence, it must have effect according to its
terms, and parol evidence is not admissible to
give it a different construction, or to defeat its
operation according to the import thereof; or
even if the writing is ambiguous, it cannot be
explained by other evidence, if the ambiguity
is intrinsic, that is, if the phraseology is per se
doubtful. But if the ambiguity arises from
something referred to but not fully expressed
in the writing, explanation by other evidence
is admissible. The latter is designated in law
as a latent ambiguity, by which is meant that
it does not appear upon the face of the instru
ment, but arises from something extrinsic. So
also, when parties to a contract have under
taken to express it in writing, it will be as
sumed that they have expressed the whole, and
nothing can be added by parol evidence, so far
as relates to what the parties had in view at
the time the contract was made. This is in
effect saying that the written contract must

speak for itself, and will be presumed to con
tain all that was intended at the time, though
this contract may be varied by a subsequent
parol agreement for good consideration. To
the general rule as above stated there are,
however, some qualifications. 1. It is admis
sible to explain the subject of the contract and
all the circumstances which may properly be
supposed to have been had in view by both
parties, for the purpose of understanding the
phraseology which they may have used. 2.
Terms peculiar to a science, profession, art, or
trade may be explained by witnesses conver
sant therewith. 3. Parol evidence is admissible
to impeach a written instrument, by showing
fraud, illegality of the subject matter, or what
ever would operate in law to avoid it. The
admissibility of evidence is in judicial proceed
ings a matter of law, and in jury trials is deter
mined by the court. But it is not alone for
this purpose that discrimination is required.
A question of fact usually involves testimony
on both sides, which must be collated, and the
relative weight of which must be determined
in order to reach a correct conclusion. Usually
the court arranges and sifts the evidence in the
instructions given to the jury, and it is obvious
that without this aid the jury would be incom
petent to analyze the evidence in a complicated
case. Since the disqualification to testify by
reason of interest has been abolished, the rea
sons which formerly were insisted upon as
grounds of such disqualification are still proper
to be considered with reference to the credit
of the witness. It would be out of place to
discuss these reasons at large in the brief sum
mary of principles to which this article is neces
sarily limited. A single case may however be
appropriately referred to, viz., the impeach
ment of a witness by direct testimony of other
witnesses, showing that he is unworthy of
credit. This kind of testimony is peculiar.
The inquiry is limited to the general reputation
of the witness whose veracity is in question,
and the impeaching witness is not allowed to
testify to particular facts. The usual course
of examination is to inquire what is the gen
eral reputation of the witness as to veracity,
and formerly it was permitted then to ask the
impeaching witness whether he would believe
the other under oath, but the authorities are
in this country not altogether uniform a.s to the
latter practice. It may not be improper here to
say that the rule as to impeachment of a wit
ness is seldom of use, except where he is no
toriously destitute of principle. A witness is
also allowed to be impeached by showing that
he has made out of court statements contra
dictory to his evidence in court ; but before
these are permitted to be shown his attention
is called to them, that he may have opportunity
for explanation. We have thus briefly analyzed
the general principles of the law of evidence.
Our subject would however be imperfectly
treated if we should not refer to some of the
rules which have more particular relation to

EVIDENCE

the practice of the courts. One is that the
best evidence must always be produced ; or in
other words, that inferior evidence will not be
received when a party has it in his power to
produce better. But it does not follow, as be-
fore remarked, that when a party has not the
power to produce the best, any other without
restriction is admissible. The secondary proof
must still be such as is held competent under
other rules, or it will be rejected. The mean
ing of the rule is that inferior evidence, al
though otherwise competent, shall not be ad
mitted when better can be had. We have
before adverted to the distinction between
writings or documentary proof, and oral or, as
it is usually called, parol evidence. The dis
tinction is founded upon the uncertainty of
memory. Whatever has been put in writing
can never be proved by mere recollection with
perfect exactness ; the writing itself is of course
the most trustworthy, and according to the
rule above mentioned it must be produced or
its loss proved before its contents can be shown
by other evidence; and this is true whether
the writing relates to the principal fact or
subject of the action, or is merely incidental.
Again, when the question is as to a fact re
specting which there is evidence in writing,
but an offer is made to prove the fact by evi
dence aliunde without producing the writing
or proving its contents, the rule is that if the
writing was the concurrent act of both parties,
as if it was signed by them or was prepared
with the privity of both as an expression of
their mutual understanding, it is thereby con
stituted the primary evidence of the fact to
which it relates, and must be produced. This
includes not merely a written contract which
is the subject of the action or defence, but any
other writing which the parties have agreed
upon as the expression of any fact incidentally
involved in the action. There is this difference,
however, between the two cases : that in the
former no other proof can be received but the
instrument itself, or if lost, proof of its con
tents ; whereas in the latter there may be
other evidence bearing upon the same point
which is admissible, together with the writing,
and in some instances without it, where it is
not intentionally withheld. Thus a written
correspondence between the parties may be
material to show their understanding in re
spect to some transaction, but this would not
preclude proof of conversations or other acts.
If, however, the correspondence contains a
contract, then, according to another rule, no
other evidence can be received except what is
necessary for the proper explanation of the
meaning of the parties in the language used by
them. It is not material which party has pos
session of the writing ; the rule is the same in
either case. If wanted by one party, and the
other has possession of it, upon notice by him
to the other to produce it, and its non-produc
tion, he may give parol evidence of its con
tents. It is to be understood that the rule

above mentioned applies only to a writing in
which both parties have concurred. When it
is a memorandum by one without the privity
of the other, it cannot be evidence at all, ex
cept under the recent modification of the law
of evidence allowing parties to be witnesses,
and is subject to the same rule that applies to
any other witness. The rule as to a memoran
dum made by a witness at the time of the trans
action referred to in it is, that he may refer to
it for the purpose of refreshing his memory ;
but having done so, he is to testify what with
this aid he is able to recollect. But if he has
no recollection independent of the memoran
dum, the later doctrine is that on proving that
it was made at the time of the transaction re
ferred to, and that he then had knowledge of
the subject, the memorandum itself may be put
in evidence. Ttte mode of proving a writing
which is attested by a subscribing witness is
peculiar. In such a case the subscribing wit
ness must be called if living and within the ju
risdiction of the court ; but if dead or absent
from the country, proof of his handwriting or
that of the party will be sufficient to make the
instrument evidence. The exclusion of proof
of execution by any other person than the sub
scribing witness has often been the occasion of
inconvenience ; and the reason usually assigned
for it, viz., that the subscribing witness is sup
posed to have some knowledge of the subject
which another would . not have, is certainly
very singular, as if he had such knowledge he
would not be allowed to testify to it, if it would
at all vary the effect of the instrument. In
England, by acts 17 and 18 Victoria, c. 125
(1854), a subscribing witness to an instrument
which is not required by law to be attested
need not be called, but the instrument may be
proved in the same manner as if there was no
such witness. The rule that parol evidence is
not admissible to contradict, vary, or explain a
written instrument has been before referred to,
and certain exceptions or qualifications were
mentioned ; but it should be added that in a
proper proceeding instituted to reform the in
strument, it may always be shown that, through
accident, mistake, or fraud, it was not made
to express the real intent and contract of the
party. Such a proceeding must be in chancery,
except where the common-law courts are vest
ed with equity jurisdiction. In the examina
tion of witnesses, a very different mode is pre
scribed to the party calling a witness from what
is allowed to the opposite party. The counsel
of the former must not put leading questions,
and if the witness should make adverse or un
satisfactory answers, still he was deemed the
witness of the party and could be examined
only in accordance with that theory ; that is to
say, he could not be cross-examined by such
party. This at least was formerly the rule, but
it has recently been relaxed so far as to allow
him to be treated to some extent as an adverse
witness, when it is apparent that he is so. On
the other hand, cross-examination by the other

EVOLUTION

party is allowed to an almost unlimited extent,
and the privilege is often used to pervert ra
ther than elicit the truth. It would be difficult
to fix a precise limit of restriction, as it neces
sarily rests very much in the discretion of the
court ; hut the prevailing practice seems to
be suited rather to a remote period, when
from the disorders of society and consequent
laxity of moral principle there was little reli
ance to be placed on the oath of witnesses, than
to the present advanced state of social order.

EVOLUTION, the term now generally applied
to the doctrine that the existing universe has
been gradually unfolded by the action of natu
ral causes in the immeasurable course of past
time. The question how the present order of
things originated seems natural to the human
mind, and has been put by all the races of
men. The answer given in t]jeir cosmogonies,
that it was created as we now see it by super
natural power, has been generally accepted as
a matter of religious faith. The early Greek
philosophers first brought the question into the
field of speculation, and taught that all natural
things have sprung from certain primal ele
ments, such as air, w r ater, or fire. As regards
the origin of life, Anaximander is said to have
held that animals were begotten from earth by
means of moisture and heat, and that man did
not originate in a perfectly developed state,
but was engendered from beings of a different
form. Empedocles taught that the various
parts of animals, arms, i eet, eyes, &c., existed
separately at first; that they combined grad
ually, and that these combinations, capable
of subsisting, survived and propagated them
selves. Anaxagoras believed that plants and
animals owe their origin to the fecundation of
the earth whence they sprung by germs con
tained in the air. Aristotle, the father of natu
ral history, entertained much more rational
views upon the subject, and it is maintained
that he held opinions as to the causes of di
versity in living beings similar to those that are
entertained by the latest zoologists. It has
been asserted that some of the early theolo
gians, including St. Augustine and St. Thomas
Aquinas, announced doctrines that harmonize
apparently with the modern views of evolu
tion. We however find no development of the
ideas thus shadowed forth. Linnseus and Buf-
fon seem to have been the first among modern
naturalists who formed definite conceptions of
a progressive organic development, but they
djd little to elucidate the idea. Immanuel
Kant announced in 1755 his theory of the me
chanical origin of the universe, and supposed
that the different classes of organisms are re
lated to each other through generation from a
common original germ. Dr. Erasmus Darwin,
grandfather of Charles Darwin, in his Zoono-
mia (1794), maintained the natural genesis of
organic beings. But the first to frame a dis
tinct hypothesis of development was Lamarck,
who published his Philosophic zoologique in
1809, and developed his views still further in

1815 in his Histoire naturale des animaux sans
xertebres. lie held that all organic forms, from
the lowest to the highest, have been developed
progressively from living microscopic particles.
Similar conclusions were arrived at by Goethe
in Germany, and by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in
France in his work Sur le principe de V unite
de composition organiqite, published in 1828.
The views thus far were of a general and high
ly speculative nature, and without firm scien
tific ground-work. It was only when the ques
tion was narrowed down to that of the muta
bility or immutability of species, and to the
causes and extent of variation as determined
by observation and experiment, that the real
difficulties of the case were grappled with, and
the inquiry assumed a strictly scientific char
acter. In 1813 Dr. W. 0. Wells read a paper
before the London royal society, in which he
recognized distinctly the principle of natural se
lection as applied to certain races of mankind.
In 1822 the Rev. William Herbert, afterward
dean of Manchester, declared his conviction
that " botanical species are only a higher and
more permanent class of varieties;" and he
extended this opinion to animals. Leopold
von Buch, in his Physikalische Beschreibung der
Canarischen Inseln (1825), expresses the opin
ion that varieties change gradually into perma
nent species, which are no longer capable of
intercrossing. In 1826 Prof. Grant of Edin
burgh published a paper on the spongilla in
the "Philosophical Journal," in which he held
that species are descended from other species,
and that they become improved in the course
of modification. Karl Ernst von Baer, in his
Ueber Entwiclcelungsgeschichte der Thiere
(1828), maintains similar views as to animals.
Oken, in his Natur philosophic (1843), published
his belief in the development of species ; and
in 1846 J. d Omalius d Halloy of Brussels ex
pressed his opinion that probability favors this
theory rather than that of separate creations.
Isidore Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, in his lectures
published in 1850, gives reasons for his belief in
the modification of species by circumstances,
and in the transmission of differences thus
produced. In 1852 Herbert Spencer argued
that species have undergone modification
through change of circumstances. M. Nau-
din in the same year published a paper on
the origin of species in the Rexue horticole, in
which he averred his belief that botanical
species are formed in a manner analogous to
varieties under cultivation; and Franz L T nger,
also in 1852, expressed similar opinions in his
Versuch einer Geschichte der Pflanzenwelt.
In 1863 Dr. Schaff hausen, in a paper published
in the Verhandlungen des Naturhistorischen
Vereins des preussischen Rheinlands, &c., main
tained the doctrine of progressive development
of organic forms. On July 1, 1858, two essays
were read before the Linna3an society, one by
Charles Robert Darwin, entitled "On the
Tendency of Species to form Varieties, and on
the Perpetuation of Species and Varieties by

EVOLUTION

means of Natural Selection;" the other by
Alfred Russell Wallace, entitled " On the Ten
dency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from
the Original Type." These papers showed
that these two naturalists had arrived at almost
exactly the same general conclusions ; but the
priority may safely be assigned to Darwin,
who, although he had not previously made
public his views, had submitted a sketch of
them as early as 1844 to Sir Charles Lyell, Dr.
Hooker, and others. In 1859 he published the
treatise entitled " On the Origin of Species by
means of Natural Selection," which was the
means of diffusing so widely the theory, elab
orated by him through years of patient and
careful investigation, that it is commonly des
ignated by his name. In this work he did
not apply the doctrine of evolution to the hu
man race, although he had long held the opin
ion that man must be included with other or
ganic beings ; and it was not until after Hux
ley, Spencer, Lyell, Lubbock, Gegenbaur,
Vogt, Rolle, Haeckel, Canestrini, Francesco,
and others, had accepted the extreme conclu
sion, that he published "The Descent of Man,
and Selection in Relation to Sex " (1871). In
1872 Haeckel, who previously had discussed
the genealogy of man in Natiirliche Schop-
fungsyeschichte (1868), published his Mono-
graphie der Kalkschwamme, in which he claims
to give an analytical demonstration o f the prob
lem of the development of species. The the
ory as now generally held is thus stated by
Prof. Huxley: "Those who hold the the
ory of evolution (and I am one of them)
conceive that there are grounds for believing
that the world, with all that is in it, did not
come into existence in the condition in which
we now see it, nor in anything approaching
that condition. On the contrary, they hold that
the present conformation and composition of
the earth s crust, the distribution of land and
water, and the infinitely diversified forms of
animals and plants which constitute its present
population, are merely the final terms in an
immense series of changes which have been
brought about, in the course of immeasurable
time, by the operation of causes more or less
similar to those which are at work at the pres
ent day." The idea expressed by the term
development involves the same principle, but
it is usually restricted to the evolution of or
ganic beings. We will first consider the doc
trine as applied to the development of the
various forms of life, and then in its broader
aspects as a theory of universal evolution.
It has been proved by geology that the earth
and its life, instead of being called suddenly
into existence a few thousand years ago, have
existed for millions of years ; and as the moun
tains and continents are known to have at
tained their present form by the action of
natural agencies, it is thought probable that
other objects of nature have been produced in
a similar way. The earth has teemed with liv
ing beings through incalculable periods of time,

and fossil remains of them are found distributed
through the rocky layers that have been suc
cessively formed, until they are several miles in
thickness. But not all kinds of animals and
plants existed from the beginning, leaving their
mingled remains in the lowest strata ; the low
est types of life, vegetable and animal, appeared
first. The successive phases of life are so
definite that they have been held as mark-
ing oif the earth s history into a series of
ages. The invertebrates (radiates, mollusks,
and articulates) are found in the Silurian or
oldest stratified rocks ; and from the predomi-
nance of the mollusks the period has been
called the age of mollusks. Fishes, which are
higher in the scale, begin to appear in the
Silurian, but become so abundant in the later
Devonian period that it is called the age of
fishes. Amphibious animals, as an advance on
the fishes, appear in the carboniferous age,
which again is followed by the age of reptiles.
To this succeeds the age of mammals, and last
ly comes the age of man, the series, which be
gan with the lowest forms of life, terminating
with the highest. That the order has been
progressive, and that its lower terms have
been more general in character, while the
later terms have been more specialized and
perfect, is admitted by all naturalists. Prof.
Owen says: "In regard to animal life and its
assigned work on this planet, there has plainly
been an ascent and a progress in the main ;"
and he has " never omitted a proper opportu
nity for impressing the results of observation
showing the more generalized structure of ex
tinct as compared with the more specialized
forms of recent animals." Prof. Agassiz holds
that " the more ancient animals resemble the
embryonic forms of existing species ;" that is,
are lower in the scale of development than the
later forms. Mr. Wallace remarks : " As we
go back into past time and meet with the fossil
remains of more and more ancient races of ex
tinct animals, we find that many of them are
actually intermediate between distinct groups
of existing animals;" the ancient fishes, for
example, present unmistakable reptilian traits,
while the early reptilians combined also the
characters of birds which had not yet appeared,
As regards the continuity of the course of life,
Prof. Dana remarks : " Geological history is
like human history in this respect ; time is one
in its course, and all progress one in plan. . . .
The germ of the period was long working on
ward in preceding time, before it finally came
to its full development and stood forth as a
characteristic of a new era of progress. . . .
The beginning of an age will be in the midst
of a preceding age ; and the marks of the fu
ture, coming out to view, are to be regarded as
prophetic of that future. The age of mammals
was foreshadowed by the appearance of mam
mals long before in the course of the reptilian
age, and the age of reptiles was prophesied
in the types that lived in the earlier carbonif
erous age." The animal kingdom displays a

EVOLUTION

unity of plan or a correlation of parts by
which common principles are traced through
the most disguising diversities of form, so that
in aspect, structure, and functions the various
tribes of animals pass into each other by slight
and gradual transitions. The arm of a man, the
fore limb of a quadruped, the wing of a bird, and
the fin of a fish are homologous ; that is, they
contain the same essential parts modified in cor
respondence with the different circumstances
of the animal ; and so with the other organs.
Prof. Cope says : " Every individual of every
species of a given branch of the animal king
dom is composed of elements common to all,
and the differences which are so radical in the
higher grades are but the modifications of the
same elemental parts." There are many cases
of rudimentary and useless organs in animals
and plants. During the development of em
bryos organs often develop to certain points,
and are then reabsorbed without performing
any function, although generally the partially
developed organs are retained through life.
Certain snakes have rudimentary hind legs
hidden beneath the skin ; the paddle of the
seal has toes that still bear external nails ;
some of the smooth-skinned amphibia have
scales buried under the dermal surface ; rudi-
mental teeth have been traced even in birds ;
and there are rudimentary eyes in cave fishes
and rudimentary mamma3 in men. Classifica
tion is an arrangement of living beings by re
lated characters. In the earliest attempts the
organic tribes were arranged in a serial order
or a chain from the bottom to the top of the
scale; but this has been abandoned, as also
have those symmetrical systems which as
sumed that the characters of different groups
are equivalents of each other. The endeavor
to thrust animals and plants into these arti
ficial partitions is of the same nature as the
endeavor to arrange them in a linear series ;
and it assumes a regularity which does not
exist in nature. Classification now represents
the animal kingdom as consisting of certain
great sub-kingdoms very widely divergent, each
made up of classes much less widely divergent,
severally containing orders still less divergent,
and so on with gene ra and species, like the
branches of a growing tree ; and the old meth
od of classification, as Mr. Spencer remarks,
involves exactly the difficulty " which would
meet the endeavor to classify the branches of
a tree as branches of the first, second, third,
fourth, and fifth orders ; the difficulty, namely,
that branches of intermediate degrees of com
position exist." There is a remarkable analogy
between the present distribution of animals in
space over the earth and their past distribution
in time as we trace their fossils in the succes
sive geological formations. The larger groups,
such as classes and orders, are generally spread
over the whole earth, while smaller groups,
such as families and genera, are commonly con
fined to limited districts; but when a group
is restricted to one region, and is rich in the

minor groups called species, it is almost in
variably the case that the most closely allied
species are found in the same locality or in
closely adjoining localities. The same fact is
seen in geological distribution. Mr. Wallace
observes : " Most of the larger and some
smaller groups extend through several geologi
cal periods. In each period, however, there
are peculiar groups, found nowhere else, and
extending through one or several formations.
As generally in geography no species or genus
occurs in two very distant localities without
being also found in intermediate places, so in
geology the life of a species or genus has not
been interrupted. In other words, no group or
species has come into existence twice." From
these facts Mr. Wallace deduces the following
important law : " Every species has come into
existence coincident both in space and time
with a preexisting closely allied species." The
adherents of development maintain that these
facts, and many others of kindred significance,
are only to be explained by the continuous
operation of a great natural law of descent and
divergence by which the present life of the
earth has been derived from its preexisting
life. That the numberless forms of life should
have been held as independently created, so
long as the earth was regarded as having been
recently and suddenly called into existence,
was inevitable ; but now, when it is known
that the order of nature is extended backward
into immeasurable time, the supposition that
species were called into existence by hundreds
of thousands of separate and special creations,
running through the geological ages, and as
we approach our own epoch suddenly and un
accountably ceasing, is held to be an unwar
ranted assumption which science can no longer
accept. As remarked by the Rev. Baden
Powell: "The introduction of a new species
is part of a series. But a series indicates a
principle of regularity and law, as much in
organic as in inorganic changes. The event is
part of a regularly ordained mechanism of the
evolution of the existing world out of former
conditions, and as much subject to regular laws
as any changes now taking place. If the series
be regular, its subordinate links must each be
so; the part cannot be less subject to law than
the whole. That species should be subject to
exactly the same general laws of structure,
growth, nutrition, and all other functions of
organic life, and yet in the single instance of
their mode of birth or origin should constitute
exceptions to all physical law, is an incon
gruity so preposterous that no inductive mind
can for a moment entertain it." This is the
ground taken by the great majority of contem
porary naturalists. They believe in evolution
in some form as a great fact of nature; but
many think that we know nothing as to how
it has been brought about, while others hold
that the problem of the modes and causes of
evolution, although obscure, is no more barred
from successful investigation than are the other

EVOLUTION

phenomena of nature. The following facts |
have been offered as throwing light upon the i
way in which the diversities of life have ori- |
ginated. Organic beings differ from inorganic j
in their moditi ability. They are capable in
various degrees of adaptation to new condi- I
tions. Plants taken from their native situa
tions and cultivated in gardens undergo changes
so great as often to render them no longer rec
ognizable as the same plants. The muscles are
strengthened by exercise and the skin thick
ened and hardened by pressure, while the
bones of men who put forth great physical
exertion are more massive than the bones of
those who do not labor. In the words of
Mr. Spencer: "There is in living organisms a
margin of functional oscillations on all sides
of a mean state, and a consequent margin
of structural variation." These variations
may become fixed through the law of he
reditary descent. It is the law of trans
mission of characters which preserves species
and varieties from generation to generation,
oaks being always derived from oaks and dogs
from ancestral dogs. It is not only the normal
qualities that are perpetuated, but malforma
tions, diseases, and individual peculiarities are
also transmitted. While offspring tend to grow
in the likeness of parents, they also tend to
grow in unlikeness; while moulded upon the
parental type, the resemblance is usually im
perfect. Nor are variations confined to any
particular organs or characters, but they may
be manifested by every part, quality, or in
stinct of the creature. These divergences may
be selected and fixed by breeding so as to give
rise to new kinds or varieties. Nature begins
the variation, art secures its perpetuation and
increase. How profound are the modifications |
that may be thus produced is shown in the
numerous breeds of dogs, all of which belong
to the same species. Not only have they
reached extreme diversities in size (the largest
being, according to Cuvier, 100 times larger
than the smallest), but in muscular, bony, and
nervous development, in form, strength, fleet-
ness, and variety of instinct and intelligence,
their divergences are almost equally remark
able. Domestic pigeons afford -another ex
ample of the great plasticity of the living or
ganism, by which it can be moulded into the
extremest diversities. Naturalists believe that
from a single species, the wild rock pigeon,
there have arisen no fewer than 150 kinds that
breed true or hold to the variety ; and how
deep have become the differences among them
is thus stated by Prof. Huxley: "In the
first place, the back of the skull may differ a !
good deal, and the development of the bones !
of the face may vary a good deal ; the beak i
varies a good deal ; the shape of the lower jaw j
varies; the tongue varies very greatly, not i
only in correlation to the length and size of j
the beak, but it seems also to have a kind of |
independent variation of its own. Then the I
amount of naked skin round the eves and at [

the base of the beak may vary enormously ; so
may the length of the eyelids, the shape of the
nostrils, and the length of the neck. I have
already noticed the habit of blowing out the
gullet, so remarkable in the pouter, and com
paratively so in the others. There are great
differences, too, in the size of the female and
the male, the shape of the body, the number
and width of the processes of the ribs, the
development of the ribs, and the size, shape,
and development of the breast bone. We may
notice, too (and I mention the fact because it
has been disputed by what is assumed to be
high authority), the variation in number of
the sacral vertebra. The number of these
varies from 11 to 14, and that without any
diminution in the number of the vertebras of
the back or of the tail. Then the number and
position of the tail feathers may vary enor
mously, and so may the number of the primary
and secondary feathers of the wings. Again,
the length of the feet and of the beak, although
they have no relation to each other, yet ap
pear to go together ; that is, you have a long
beak wherever you have long feet. There are
differences, also, in the periods of the acquire
ment of the perfect plumage, the size and shape
of the eggs, the nature of flight, and the powers
of flight, so-called homing birds having enor
mous flying powers ; while on the other hand,
the little tumbler is so called because of its
extraordinary faculty of turning head-over-
heels in the air, instead of pursuing a distinct
course. And lastly, the dispositions and voices
of the birds may vary. Thus the case of the
pigeons shows you that there is hardly a single
particular, whether of instinct or habit, or bony
structure, or of plumage, of either the internal
economy or the external shape, in which some
variation or change may not take place, which
by selective breeding may become perpetuated
and form the foundation of and give rise to a
new race." Nor is this variation confined to
domestic animals. Wild species both of plants
and animals vary, become diversified, and give
rise to new varieties. As many as 28 varieties
of oak have been made out within the limits
of a single species. The wolf species exhibits
some 15 varieties, and lions, tigers, bears, hyae
nas, foxes, birds, reptiles, and fishes all exhibit
marked varieties, which show that wild species
undergo modification in a state of nature;
What was needed to make out the analogy of
variation between wild and domesticated ani
mals was to discover some process in nature
which is the equivalent of human agency in
breeding. Mr. .Darwin believes that he has
discovered this process, and calls it the princi
ple of "natural selection." He says that living
beings in a state of nature are subject to cer
tain external conditions, such as climate, situa
tion, character of soil, and exposure to enemies,
by which they are surrounded and limited.
They are endowed with enormous powers of
increase, so that any one of the hundreds of
thousands of species of plants or animals, if all

EVOLUTION

its progeny were preserved, would go on multi
plying until it covered the eartli or filled the
sea. Space is fixed and food limited, and the
consequence is a universal conflict, the war
of races ; and in the " struggle for existence "
multitudes perish and comparatively few sur
vive. This survival is not a matter of chance.
Mr. Darwin maintains that it is regulated by
law, and that those only survive which are in
some way hest adapted to the conditions of
life. The strongest, the fleetest, the most
cunning, and the best adapted to the condi
tions will live and multiply, while the less fit
will disappear. The introduction of European
plants and animals into New Zealand affords
an instructive example of how races encroach
on each other s areas, the weaker being extir
pated by the stronger in the competition for
existence. Dr. Hooker says: " The cow grass
has taken possession of the roadsides; dock
and water cress choke the rivers; the sow
thistle is spread over all the country, growing
luxuriantly up to 6,000 feefr; white clover in
the mountain districts displaces the native
grasses ; and the native (Maori) saying is :
* As the white man s rat has driven away the
native rat, as the European fly drives away our
own, and the clover kills our fern, so will the
Maoris disappear, before the white man him
self. " Mr. Darwin in his works gives a great
number of facts showing how apparently trifling
variations give advantages to their possessors,
which determine their survival and become
perpetuated in the race. The principle of
natural selection, or, as it is termed by Her
bert Spencer, the u survival of the fittest," is
now generally recognized as a genuine agency
or vera causa, and the opponents of develop
ment admit that it may give rise to varieties,
although they deny that it is competent to
produce the deeper diversities of species. The
extent of its operation remains yet to be de
termined, but many naturalists agree with
Prof. Helmholtz that Mr. Darwin has contrib
uted to science an u essentially new creative
idea." Mr. Darwin, however, does not as
sume to be the discoverer of the principle
of natural selection, and he points out that
others before him have recognized the action
of the process, though without seeing its full
significance. What lie claims is to have first
shown the efficacy of the principle in producing
divergency of types under the laws of variation
and heredity. But having discovered a new
factor in organic development, and published
his work on the " Origin of Species " at the
fortunate moment when naturalists had be
come widely dissatisfied with the old views, he
became prominently identified with the devel
opment doctrine, and this has led many into
the error of regarding Darwinism as the equiva
lent of evolution, of which, as we are now to !
see, it is but a minor part. The advance of
civilization in the historical period gave rise
to the modern idea of progress, which was
strengthened by the discoveries made early in j

the present century concerning the past course
of terrestrial life. The process was crudely
conceived, in the one case as the successive
development of all living creatures in a graded
and linear series, and in the other case as the
continuous movement of humanity toward a
state of final perfection. About the year 1850
Mr. Herbert Spencer entered upon the system
atic study of the subject. The problem was
strictly a scientific one, and he had a wide and
accurate preparation for it by a mastery of
scientific knowledge which Mr. Mill has pro
nounced "encyclopaedic." Mr. Spencer was
also remarkable for his power of analysis, his
grasp of wide-reaching principles, and his in
dependence of opinion. The essence of pro
gress is change. Mr. Spencer asked what,
then, are the laws of change by which it is
effected? Complying with the Newtonian
canon that the fewest causes possible are to be
assumed in the explanation of phenomena, he
took up the question as resolvable in terms of
matter, motion, and force. Progress being a
theory of the successive changes by which things
are produced, his task was to ascertain the
dynamical conditions or laws under which the
forms of nature rise, continue, and disappear.
The objects of nature coexist and are maintained
in a certain order in space. Newton discov
ered that this is effected by the operation of a
simple and universal law. The objects of na
ture undergo changes in time, emerging and
vanishing, some quickly and others slowly : is
there a universal law by which these changes
also are governed ? This was the aim of the re
search. Mr. Spencer early found that the con
ception of progress which implies movement in
one direction only is erroneous. There is no
unbroken march of events ; breaks and regres
sions alternate with advancement, and de
scending as well as ascending changes have to
be accounted for. lie therefore rejected the
term progress as having erroneous implica
tions, and adopted the term evolution, as more
fully indicating the scope of the inquiry and
better expressing the strictly scientific nature
of his theory. The naturalist Von Baer had
already attempted to define and generalize the
changes of organic growth, and had formulated
them as from the homogeneous germ state to
the heterogeneous adult state by a process of
differentiation. Mr. Spencer soon found that
this formula gave but a very partial account
of what takes place in organic development.
The change was shown to be not only from
uniformity to unlikeness, or a differencing of
parts, but from the indefinite to the definite,
from the incoherent to the coherent, producing
the integration of parts, or increasing unity
with increasing complexity. The conditions
and course of changes in which organic evolu
tion consists being ascertained, the question
arose as to their extent, and Mr. Spencer be
came convinced that the law of organic move
ment is not an isolated fact in nature, but
"that the process of change gone through by

EVOLUTION

each evolving organism is a process gone
through by all tilings." Science had shown
that the universe, past and present, is subject
to orderly changes; he discovered that funda
mentally this order is one. The nebular hy
pothesis proposed by Kant, confirmed by Iler-
schel and Laplace, and accepted by astrono
mers, explained the origin and motions of suns
and planets by slow condensation from a nebu
lous mist diffused through space. The geolo
gical history of our earth shows that it has un
dergone a vast series of progressive changes,
and, as Prof. Dana says, " was first a feature
less globe of fire, then had its oceans and dry
land, in course of time received mountains and
rivers, and finally all those diversities of sur
face which now characterize it." The course
of organic life, as we have seen, was a pro
gressive unfolding into greater diversity and
specialty. Mind is developed with the body,
and therefore mental phenomena obey a law
of unfolding. As human society is made up
of units that are capable of these changes, it
presents in the past a gradual development of
intelligence, arts, and institutions, as now em
bodied in our diverse and complex civilization.
By a careful analysis of the phenomena in these
widely separated cases, Mr. Spencer showed
that they all conform to a great general law,
of which individual life is but a special case.
Equally in the inorganic, the organic, and the
super-organic spheres, the progressive changes
are from the homogeneous to the heteroge
neous by differentiation. But with increasing
divergences there is also increasing definite-
ness, coherence, complexity, and integration.

^Evolution is thus a universal law, while the
development of the individual and the career
of the* race, so far from being exceptional phe
nomena, are but parts of the great system of
change to which the whole cosmos conforms.
Evolution being thus disclosed as a universal
dynamical law, the question next arises, how
is it to be interpreted ? Is it an ultimate law
like gravitation, or is it a derivative principle
deducible as a necessity from the established
laws of matter, motion, and force ? Mr. Spen
cer proves that evolution is a resultant of dy
namical agencies, and that, given matter as a

, vehicle of change, motion as the result of
change, and force as the cause of change, such
are their established laws of interaction that
evolution follows as an inevitable consequence.

s We can here only touch upon the leading ele
ments of the elucidation, and must refer the
reader to Mr. Spencer s "System of Philoso
phy" for the full elaboration of the subject.
Modern science has established the great prin
ciples of the indestructibility of matter and the
conservation of force. (See CORRELATION OF
FORCES.) Mr. Spencer maintains that these
resolve themselves into the single law of the
persistence of force, and that this is the funda-

mental postulate of evolution. Whatever in
terpretation is given to the principle, it cer
tainly becomes a fundamental condition of the
VOL. vii. 2

changes taking place in nature. If matter and
force throughout the universe are neither cre
ated nor destroyed, all changes must be changes
of transformation. The stock of material and
energy being limited, each new effect must be
at the expense of something preexisting ; and
hence in the ongoings of nature one thing is
necessarily derived from another, while the
problem of advance becomes one of trans
mutation. Mr. Spencer traces out the several
causes of transformation or factors of evolu
tion, and shows that they are all corollaries
from the supreme law of the persistence of
force. Briefly indicated, these are as follows :
1. The principle of the rhythm of motion.
Under the law of the persistence of forces
and the diversity of their forms, there arise
constant conflicts of effect, so that motions
are not uniform but varying. Action is met
by counteraction, and the result is that move
ments take a rhythmical form. Boughs, for
example, sway in the wind, water is thrown
into waves, sound arises in vibrations, earth
quakes are propagated in shocks, planets swing
through eccentric orbits, breathing is recur
rent, the heart beats, scarcity alternates with
abundance, and prices rise and fall. From
the minutest organism throughout the whole
frame of things to the most distant systems,
from momentary pulses to geological cycles,
the agitations of things take the form of thrills
and surges, which produce incessant and uni
versal redistributions of matter and force.
How are these redistributions directed? 2.
They are controlled first by the law of the in
stability of the homogeneous. The relatively
homogeneous is the commencing stage of all
evolution, and Mr. Spencer has shown that
this is an unstable condition, and under rhyth
mic disturbance tends constantly to rearrange
ment and greater complexity. Xo object can
exist without being acted upon and altered by
forces, and no mass can be thus acted upon in
all parts alike ; unequal action therefore tends
to destroy homogeneity and produce ever in
creasing diversity. For this cause the nebu
lous condition could not continue ; the homo
geneous germ divides into unlike parts ; a class
of animals or plants distributed over a geo
graphical area, being unequally acted upon by
environing conditions, would fall into diversity;
and for the same reason a uniform social con
dition would be resolved into heterogeneous
societies. 3. The transformations of evolu
tion are further explained by the dynamical
principle of the multiplication of effects.
Throughout all nature simple agencies produce
diverse consequences, every impulse of force
yielding a multiplicity of results. A simple
mechanical collision of two bodies may pro
duce effects of sound, heat, light, electricity,
and various chemical and structural changes;
an accident to the foot may entail a train of
consequences affecting the whole constitution ;
the upheaval of a continent may produce the
most extensive alterations in the life of races ;

EVOLUTION

while an invention like that of the steam en
gine works its multiform effects throughout
civilization. By this law the principle of the
instability of the homogeneous is powerfully
reenforced, and the cause of universal move
ment toward greater diversity is rationally ex
plained. But these modes of action alone
could only result in a vague chaotic hetero
geneity, and could not account for that orderly
heterogeneity in which evolution essentially
consists. 4. This finds explanation in the
principle of segregation. When a mass is
acted upon by forces which promote the re
distribution of its parts, its units are not only
differentiated and regrouped, but there is a se
gregation of like units which become separated
from the neighboring groups. A familiar ex
ample of this is seen in the winnowing pro
cess, by which a force applied to a mixed mass
brings all the grain together in one place
and the chaff in another. The same thing is
seen when several salts are dissolved in a
liquid, and each crystallizes out by the combi
nation of like chemical molecules. The or
ganism conforms to this principle from its ear
liest stage of growth, the special elements of
the bony, muscular, and nervous systems being
withdrawn from the nourishing fluids and se
gregated in the distinctive parts. We have
already seen that natural selection is a win
nowing process, by which the unfit are ex
cluded, and the better adapted are separated
and preserved. In social development the
same thing is seen. Not only are there con
tinual differentiations of groups and classes
by which society becomes heterogeneous, but
these groups are unified by similarity of oc
cupation, character, taste, and race. Stock
brokers cluster in Wall street, and the Mor
mons segregate in Utah. Thus in all the
spheres of change redistribution leads to
unification. 5. This end is further promoted
by the important dynamical law that mo
tion takes place along lines of least resis
tance. The operation of this principle in in
organic nature is self-evident. Water forms
its channels in the direction of least obstacles.
Mr. James Hinton has shown that organic
growth takes place in obedience to this law,
and Mr. Spencer proves that it governs both
mental and social changes. This law, in con
nection with the principle that movement set
up in any direction is a cause of further move
ment in that direction, by which lines of con
nection become established, goes far to account
for that integration of structures and functions
which is disclosed in all phases of evolution.
But can evolution go on for ever, or is it lim
ited? This brings us to the process by which
it is constantly antagonized and always finally
terminated, the counter-agency of dissolution.
All redistributions of matter and motion are
either evolution or dissolution, but neither of j
these processes ever goes on absolutely unquali-
fied by the other, and the change in either di- :
reetion is but a differential result of the con- I

flict. Mr. Spencer s formula, to be complete,
must embrace both sets of correlative changes,
and its determination led him to the following
universal law : 0. Every change wrought in an
object must be either a transposition of its
mass, or a variation of its internal or molecu
lar motion. As it loses this contained or in
sensible motion, there follows a concentration
of the parts and increasing integration ; if it
acquires insensible motion, there is dispersion
of the particles, or disintegration ; that is, with
concentration of matter there is dispersion of
motion, and with absorption of motion there
is diffusion of matter. These are the two as
pects of the universal metamorphosis, and when
approximately balanced there is equilibration.
Evolution is integration; dissolution is disin
tegration. We have here confined ourselves
to the most abstract statement of Mr. Spen
cer s theory ; its concrete applications will be
found extensively worked out in his "First
Principles" and in the biological, psycholo
gical, and sociological divisions of his " Philo
sophical System." As a method of philoso
phy it aims only to explain phenomena ; all
phenomena being regarded as manifestations
of the unknow r n power which transcends the
reach of thought. Philosophy is regarded
as the highest explanation of things, and as
each science is unified by its largest induc
tions, the family of sciences is brought into a
completer unity by a law that comprehends
them all. Whatever ultimate form the the
ory of evolution may take, its influence must
be powerfully felt in the direction of future
inquiries ; for many who withhold their assent
from it as an established truth of nature never
theless recognize it as an invaluable working
hypothesis. As remarked by Prof. G rove :
"The first question is, does the newly proposed
view remove more difficulties, require fewer
assumptions, and present more consistency
with observed facts than that which it seeks
to supersede ? If so, the philosopher will adopt
it, and the world will follow the philosopher,
after many days." Mr. Spencer s theory has
been clearly summed up by himself in the fol
lowing propositions: "1. Throughout the uni
verse, in general and in detail, there is an un
ceasing redistribution of matter and motion.
2. This redistribution constitutes evolution
where there is a predominant integration of
matter and dissipation of motion, and consti-
stutes dissolution where there is a predominant
absorption of motion and disintegration of mat
ter. 3. Evolution is simple when the process
of integration, or the formation of a coherent
aggregate, proceeds uncomplicated by other
processes. 4. Evolution is compound when,
along with this primary change from an inco
herent to a coherent state, there go on secon
dary changes due 1 to differences in the circum
stances of the different parts of the aggregate.
5. These secondary changes constitute a trans
formation of the homogeneous into the hetero
geneous a transformation which, like the first,

EVOLUTION

fiVREUX

is exhibited in the universe as a whole and in
all (or nearly all) its details: in the aggregate
of stars and nebula: ; in the planetary system ;
in the earth as an inorganic mass; in each or
ganism, vegetal or animal (Von Baer s law;;
in the aggregate of organisms throughout geo
logic time; in the mind; in society; in all
products of social activity. 6. The process of
integration, acting locally as well as generally,
combines with that of differentiation to render
this change not simply from homogeneity to
heterogeneity, but from an indefinite homoge
neity to a definite heterogeneity; and this trait
of increasing definiteness, which accompanies
the trait of increasing heterogeneity, is like it
exhibited in the totality of things, and in all
its divisions and subdivisions down to the mi
nutest. 7. Along with this redistribution of
the matter composing any evolving aggregate,
there goes on a redistribution of the retained
motion of its components in relation to one
another ; this also becomes step by step more
definitely heterogeneous. 8. In the absence
of a homogeneity that is infinite and absolute,
this redistribution of which evolution is one
phase is inevitable. The causes which neces
sitate it are : 9. The instability of the homo
geneous ; which is consequent upon the differ
ent exposures of the different parts of any lim
ited aggregate to incident forces. 10. The trans
formations hence resulting are complicated by
the multiplication of effects : every mass and
part of a mass on which a force falls subdi
vides and differentiates that force, which there
upon proceeds to work a variety of changes,
and each of these becomes the parent of simi
larly multiplying changes; the multiplication
of these becoming greater in proportion as the
aggregate becomes more heterogeneous. 11.
These two causes of increasing differentia
tions are furthered by segregation, which is a
process tending ever to separate unlike units
and to bring together like units,; so serving
continually to sharpen, or make definite, dif
ferentiations otherwise caused. 12. Equilibra
tion is the final result of these transformations
which an evolving aggregate undergoes. The
changes go on until there is reached an equili
brium between the forces which all parts of the
aggregate are exposed to, and the forces these
parts oppose to them. Equilibration may pass
through a transition stage of balanced motions
(as in a planetary system) or of balanced func
tions (as in a living body) on to the ultimate
equilibrium ; but the state of rest in inorganic
bodies, or death in organic bodies, is the neces
sary limit of the changes constituting evolution.
13. Dissolution is the counter change which
sooner or later every evolved aggregate under
goes. Remaining exposed to surrounding forces
that are unequilibrated, each aggregate is ever
liable to be dissipated by the increase, gradual
or sudden, of its contained motions ; and its
dissipation, quickly undergone by bodies lately
animate and slowly undergone by inanimate
masses, remains to be undergone at an indefi-

! nitely remote period by each planetary and stel
lar mass, which since an indefinitely remote
I period in the past lias been slowly evolving;
the cycle of its transformations being thus
completed. 14. This rhythm of evolution and
dissolution, completing itself during short pe
riods in small aggregates, and in the vast ag
gregates distributed throughout space, comple
ting itself in periods which are immeasurable
by human thought, is as far as we can see uni-
j versal and eternal ; each alternating phase of
I the process predominating now in this region
of space and now in that, as local conditions
determine. 15. All these phenomena, from their
great features down to their minutest details,
are necessary results of the persistence of force,
under its forms of matter and motion. Given
these in their known distributions through
space, and their quantities being unchangeable
either by increase or decrease, there inevitably
result the continuous redistributions distinguish
able as evolution and dissolution, as well as all
those special traits above enumerated. 16. That
which persists unchanging in quantity but ever-
changing in form, under these sensible appear
ances which the universe presents to us, trans
cends human knowledge and conception is
an unknown and unknowable power, which we
are obliged to recognize as without limit in
space and without beginning or end in time."
Besides the works already mentioned, the
following are important: Spencer s "First
Principles," " Principles of Biology," "Princi
ples of Psychology," " Principles of Sociology,"
and "Descriptive Sociology "(1860- 73); Dar
win s "Variation of Animals and Plants under
Domestication" (1868); St. George Mivart s
"The Genesis of Species" (1871); Huxley s
"Man s Place in Nature" (1864), "Lay Ser
mons" (1870), and "Critiques and Addresses"
(1873). The relation of the doctrine of evo
lution to Christianity is discussed in "The
Bible and the Doctrine of Evolution," by W.
W. Smyth (1873) ; "The Theory of Evolution,"
by the" Rev. E. Henslow (1873) ; " What is
Darwinism? " by Charles Hodge, D. D. (1874) ;
and " The Doctrine of Evolution," by Alexan
der Winchell, LL. D. (1874).

EVORA, a city of Portugal, capital of the prov
ince of Alemtejo, 75 m. E. S. E. of Lisbon ;
1 pop. about 12,000. It is surrounded by a wall,
and has remains of two ancient forts. It is
the seat of an archbishop, and has a splendid
Gothic cathedral, a number of convents, hos
pitals, a house of charity, a diocesan school,
barracks, a museum, and some manufactures
of hardware and leather. A university, estab-
i lished in 1550, and placed under the direction
: of the Jesuits, was suppressed at the time of
I the exile of that order (1767). Among the nu-
j merous monuments of antiquity are a ruined
i temple of Diana, and an aqueduct by which
; the city is still supplied.

EVREIX (anc. Mediolamim, or Ciritns Elm-

rovicurri), a city of Xormandy, France, capital

; of the department of Eure, 55 m. W. by X. of

EWALD

EWBANK

Paris, in a pleasant valley on the Iton, which
flows through the city in three branches; pop.
in 1806, 12,320. It is surrounded by gardens,
vineyards, and highly cultivated fields. It is
the seat of a bishop and of several courts and
schools, has a botanical garden, a public li
brary, a museum of antiquities, a large hospi
tal, an insane asylum, and cotton and woollen
mills, and is the centre of a large trade in gro
ceries and grain. Among the notable buildings
are the abbey church of St. Taurin, dating
from the 7th, and the cathedral, from the llth
century. At a little distance from the town
was the fine old chateau of Navarre, founded
in the 14th century, which was the residence
of Charles Edward Stuart from 1746 to 1748,
and of the empress Josephine for some time af

ter her divorce, and was destroyed in 1836.
The town was taken from the Romans by Clo-
vis, and in 892 the Normans captured and
sacked it. In 989 it became the capital of a
county of its name erected in favor of a son of
Richard I., duke of Normandy. It passed into
the possession of England with the rest of Nor
mandy, and the name of the Devereux, earls
of Essex, was probably derived from it. King
John ceded it to Philip Augustus in 1200. In
1298 the county was given to Louis, son of
Philip the Bold of France ; and in 1328 his son
Count Philip became by marriage king of Na
varre. The county was confiscated from the
son of the latter, Charles the Bold of Navarre,
in 1378. In the vicinity, at Vieil vreux, ex
cavations have led to the discovery of the re-

Evreux.

mains of a theatre, baths, &c., which are sup
posed to mark the site of Mediolanum ; and
many medals and household utensils found here
have been deposited in the museum of fivreux.
EWAL1), Georg Heinrich Ariffnst von, a German
orientalist, theologian, and historian, born in
Gottingen, Nov. 16, 1803. In 1831 he was ap
pointed to the chair of philosophy, and after
ward to those of oriental languages and theol
ogy, at Gottingen. He was one of the seven
professors who were dismissed in 1837 on ac
count of their remonstrance against the un
constitutional proceedings of King Ernest Au
gustus of Hanover. He spent some time in
England, and was professor of theology at
Tubingen from 1838 to 1848, when he was
reinstated in his chair at Gottingen. Among
his linguistic works are : Grammatica Cri-
tica Lingiuv Arcibicm (2 vols. 8vo, Leipsic,
1831- 3); Ueber das dthiopische BucTi He-nock
(1854) ; Ausfuhrliches Lelirlmcli der aebrdisch-
en Sprache des altcn Bundes (6th and enlarged
ed., 1855 ; also abridged, Hebraische Spracn-
lelire fur Anf finger, 3d ed., 1862). His critical
writings are very numerous, embracing works
on Canticles, "The Poetical Books of the Old
Testament," " The Prophets of the Old Testa
ment," "The Three First Gospels," St. Paul,

John, &c. His great historical work is his Ge-
scMclite des Volkes Israel bis Ghristus (3d ed.,
7 vols., Gottingen, 1864 et seq. ; translated
by J. Estlin Carpenter, "History of Israel,"
vols. i.-v., London, 1868- 73). He was the
projector of the Zeitschrift far die Kunde
des Morgenlands, and edited the Jahrbucher
der Mblischen WissenscJiaft, in which he pro
pounded his theological views. His leaning to
ward Baur and other adherents of the Tubin
gen school, with whom he became acquainted
during his residence in that city, involved him
in many controversies. In 1841 he was enno
bled by the king of Wtirtemberg. When Prus
sia took possession of Hanover in October, 1866,
J Ewald s fidelity to the extinguished dynasty
subjected him to a trial for treason ; but he was
acquitted, and in May, 1869, he was elected a
member of the North German parliament. His
latest published works are Das Sendsclireiben
an die Hcbrder und Jacobos 1 Rundschreiben
(1 871), and Sieben Sendschreiben des neuen Bun
des (1871).

EWALD, Johannes. See EVALD.

EWBANK, Thomas, an American writer on
practical mechanics, born at Barnard Castle,
Durham, England, March 11, 1792, died in New
York, Sept. 16, 1870. At the age of 13 he

EAVELL

EWING

was apprenticed to a tin and copper smith, and
about 1819 emigrated to New York. In 1-8:20
lie commenced the manufacture of metallic
tubing in that city, and retired in 183G to de
vote himself to literary and scientific pursuits.
In 1842 appeared his "Descriptive and Histor
ical Account of Hydraulic and other Machines,
Ancient and Modern ; including the Progres
sive Development of the Steam Engine," of
which the 15th edition was published in 1870.
In 1845- 6 he made a visit to Brazil, recording
his observations in a work entitled "Life in
Brazil," with an appendix descriptive of a col
lection of American antiquities, New York
(1850). From 1849 to 1852 he was United
States commissioner of patents. He also wrote
" The World a AVorkshop, or the Physical
Relation of Man to the Earth" (1855);
"Thoughts on Matter and Force" (1858);
"Reminiscences in the Patent Office" (1859);
and a variety of miscellaneous essays on the
philosophy and history of inventions, which
appeared chiefiy in the " Transactions of the
Franklin Institute." His " Experiments on
Marine Propulsion, or the Virtue of Form in
Propelling Blades," was reprinted in Europe.
As a member of the commission to examine
and report upon the strength of the marbles
offered for the extension of the national capi-
tol, he made some suggestions which led to the
discovery of a means of greatly increasing the
power of resistance to pressure in building
stones. He was one of the founders of the
American ethnological society.

EWELL, Richard Stoddard, a general of the
Confederate States of America, born in. the
District of Columbia in 1820, died at Spring
Hill, Tenn., Jan. 25, 1872. He graduated at
AVest Point in 1840, and became lieutenant of
dragoons. He served in the Mexican war from
1846 to 1848, and was breveted as captain
for gallant and meritorious conduct in the bat
tles of Contreras and Churubusco. In 1859 he
was wounded in a skirmish with the Apaches.
In May, 1861, he entered the confederate ser
vice, and commanded a brigade at the battle
of Bull Run. Early in 1862 he was promoted
to major general, and commanded a division in
Jackson s campaign in the Shenandoah valley.
He was conspicuous in the battles of Gaines s
Mill, Malvern Hill, and Cedar Mountain, was
worsted by Hooker at Bristoe Station, and lost
a leg at the second battle of Bull Run. He
was made a lieutenant general in May, 1863,
and succeeded to the command of Jackson s
corps, with which he was present at Gettys
burg, the AVilderness, and Spottsylvania Court
House. During the siege of Petersburg, be
ing disabled from active service in the field,
he had command of the garrison of Rich
mond. At Sailor s creek, during the con
federate retreat, he was cut off by Sheridan,
and surrendered, with 6,000 or 7,000 men,
three days before the surrender of Lee at
Appomattpx. Toward the close of the war he
had married a daughter of Judge Campbell .

| of Tennessee, and subsequently took up his
residence in that state, and engaged in stock
raising, in which he was very successful.

EWING, Joliu, an American clergyman, born
in Nottingham, Md., June 22, 1732, died in
Philadelphia, Sept. 8, 1802. He was educated
in the college of New Jersey, was tutor in that
college and instructor of the philosophical
classes in the college of Philadelphia, and in
1759 became pastor of the first Presbyterian
church in Philadelphia. In 1773 he visited
England, and had interviews with Dr. Robert
son, Lord North, and Dr. Johnson ; the last of
whom, affirming that the Americans were as
ignorant as rebellious, said to Dr. Ewing, " You
never read. You have no books there." "Par
don me," was the reply, " we have read the
Rambler. " AVhen the college of Philadel
phia was changed in 1779 to the university of
Pennsylvania, Dr. Ewing was placed at its
head as provost, and remained in this station
together with his pastorate till his death. He
was vice president of the American philosoph
ical society, and made several contributions to
its " Transactions." His collegiate lectures on
natural philosophy (2 vols., 1809) and a volume
of sermons were published after his death.

EWING, Thomas, an American statesman,
born in Ohio co., Va., Dec. 28, 1789, died at
Lancaster, Ohio, Oct. 26, 1871. In his 20th
year he left home and worked in the Kanawha
salt establishments, until he had laid up money
enough to pay for the farm which his father
had purchased in 1792, in what is now Athens
co., Ohio, and enabled himself to enter the
Ohio university at Athens, where he graduated
in 1815. He studied law in Lancaster, Ohio,
was admitted to the bar in 1816, and practised
with great success in the state courts and the
supreme court of the United States. In March,
1831, he took his seat in the United States
senate. He spoke against confirming the nom
ination of Van Buren as minister to Great
Britain, supported the protective tariff" sys
tem of Clay, and advocated a reduction of the
rates of postage, a recharter of the United
States bank, and the revenue collection bill
known as the " force bill." In 1834, and again
in 1835, as a member of the committee on post
offices and post roads, he presented a majority
report on abuses in the post office which re
sulted in the reorganization of that depart
ment. He opposed the removal of the depos
its from the United States bank, and on Dec.
21, 1835, introduced a bill for the settlement
of the Ohio boundary question, which was
passed March 11 and June 15, 1836. During
the same session he brought forward a bill,
which became a law, for the reorganization of
the general land office ; and on several occa
sions he opposed the policy of granting pre
emption rights to settlers on the public lands.
He spoke against the admission of Michigan,
and presented a memorial for the abolition of
slavery and the slave trade in the District of
Columbia, which he insisted ought to be re-

EWIXG

EXCHANGE

ferred, though he was opposed to granting th
prayer of the memorialists. In July, 1830,
the secretary of the treasury issued what was
known as the " specie circular," directing re
ceivers in land offices to accept payments only
in gold, silver, or treasury certificates, except
from certain classes of persons for a limited j
time. In December Mr. Ewing brought in a j
bill to annul this circular, and another declar
ing it unlawful for the secretary to make such
discrimination, but the bills were not carried.
His term expired in March, 1837, and he re
sumed the practice of his profession. In 1841
he was appointed secretary of the treasury by
President Harrison, and retained that office
under President Tyler. His first official report
proposed the imposition of 20 per cent, ad va
lorem duties on certain articles for the relief
of the national debt, disapproved the indepen
dent treasury act passed the preceding year,
and urged the establishment of a national bank.
He was requested to prepare a bill for the
last purpose, which was passed with some al
teration, but was vetoed by the president. Mr.
Tyler thereupon indicated a plan for a bank
of moderate capital for the regulation of ex
changes, and at his request Mr. Ewing helped
to frame a charter, which was immediately
passed and in turn vetoed. Mr. Ewing, with
all the other members of the cabinet except
Mr. Webster, consequently resigned (Septem
ber, 1841). On the accession of Gen. Taylor ;
to the presidency in 1849, he took office as j
secretary of the newly created department |
of the interior, which he organized. Among
the measures recommended in his first report,
Dec. 3, 1849, were the extension of the public
land la\vs to California, New Mexico, and Ore
gon, the establishment of a mint near the Cal
ifornia gold mines, and the construction of a
road to the Pacific. On the death of Taylor j
and the accession of Fillmore, in 1850, Mr. j
Corwin became secretary of the treasury, and !
Mr. Ewing was appointed by the governor of j
Ohio to serve during Corwin s nnexpired term j
in the senate. In this body he refused to i
vote for the fugitive slave law, opposed Clay s ;
compromise bill, reported from the commit- j
tee on finance a bill for the establishment
of a branch mint in California, and advo
cated a reduction of postage, river and harbor
appropriations, and the abolition of slavery in |
the District of Columbia. In 1851 he retired
from public life. Among the most elaborate |
of his written professional arguments are those
in the cases of Oliver v. Piatt et al., involving
the title to a large part of Toledo, Ohio ; the
Methodist church division ; the Mclntire pool-
school v. Zanesville ; and the McMicken will,
involving large bequests for education. In
February, 1861, he was a delegate from Ohio
to the peace conference in Washington.
THOMAS, his son, born at Lancaster, Ohio, |
Aug. 7, 1829, was chief justice of Kansas in |
18U1, served in the civil war, and received the ;
brevet of major general of volunteers in 18G4. I

EXARCH (Gr. Zi;apx o fi leader), in the eastern
Roman empire, an ecclesiastical or civil dig
nitary invested with extraordinary authority.
At first exarchs were officers delegated by the
patriarch or synod to visit a diocese for the
purpose of restoring discipline. The exarch
was also the superior of several monasteries,
in distinction from the archimandrite, who
was the superior of one, and was of a rank
inferior to that of patriarch and superior to
that of metropolitan. In the modern Greek
church the exarch is a legate a latere of the
patriarch. He visits the provinces to investi
gate ecclesiastical cases, the differences be
tween prelates and people, the monastic dis
cipline, the administration of the sacraments,
and the observance of the canons; and he usu
ally succeeds to the patriarchate. As a civil
officer, the exarch was a viceroy intrusted with
the administration of one or more provinces.
This title was given to the prefects who from
the middle of the 6th century to the middle
of the 8th governed that part of Italy which
was subject to the Byzantine empire. They
were instituted after the reconquest of Italy
from the Ostrogoths by Xarses, to oppose the
progress of the Lombards, then threatening to
occupy that country. They held their court at
Ravenna, and combined civil, military, judicial,
and often ecclesiastical authority. They ap
pointed dukes as vice governors for several
parts of Italy. The exarchate was destroyed
by the Lombards in 752. When Pepin of
France conquered Ravenna, it was ceded to
the pope. The title of exarch for high civil
and military officers remained in the West till
the 12th century.

EXCELLENCY, a title borne originally by the
Lombard kings, and then by the emperors of
the West from Charlemagne to Henry VII. It
was adopted in the 15th century by the Italian
princes, who exchanged it for that of highness
(altesza) after the French and other ambas
sadors had been permitted to assume it. In
France it became about the middle of the 17th
century a common title for the highest civil
and military officers ; and in Germany it was
given also to doctors and professors in univer
sities. It is the title of every nobleman in
Italy ; in France, a duke is addressed as ex
cellence, and a prince as altcsse. It is the usual
address of foreign ministers and of the govern
ors of British colonies. The president of the
United States is sometimes called his excel
lency the president, but there is no legal sanc
tion for this, the founders of the government
having decided after discussion to bestow no
title upon the president. A committee of the
senate reported in favor of the style ik his high
ness," but the house opposed any title besides
those expressed in the constitution. Massa
chusetts is the only state whose constitution
grants the title of excellency to its governor.

EXCELMAXS. See EXELMAXS.

EXCHANGE, a gathering place for the transac
tion of business. In Venice, Genoa, and other

EXCHANGE

EXCHANGE (BILL OF)

Italian cities, regular commercial gathering
places existed at an early day. The modern
institution of exchanges, however, dates more
particularly from the 16th century. In conti
nental Europe the name Burse in German, bourse
in French, and lirzhfi in Russian, originated
from the belief that the first gathering of the
kind took place in the early part of the 16th cen
tury at Bruges, in Flanders, in the house of a
family of the name of Van der Bourse. Accord
ing to another tradition, the first exchange was
held at Amsterdam in a house which had three
purses hewn in stone over the gates, thus ac
counting for the use of the word bourse. Pre
vious to the latter part of the 16th century the
London merchants used to meet without shelter
in Lombard street. Sir Richard Gresham, hav
ing seen the covered walks used for exchanges
abroad, contemplated erecting a similar build
ing in London. The scheme was carried into
effect by his son Sir Thomas Gresham, who
offered to erect a building if the citizens would
provide a plot of ground. The site north of
Cornhill, in the city of London, was accordingly
purchased in 1566"for about 3,600. On Jan.
23, 1570, Queen Elizabeth caused it to be pro
claimed the "Royal Exchange." This structure
was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. The
new exchange was commenced at the end of
1667, and publicly opened for business Sept.
28, 1669. This building, which was 210 ft. by
175, cost nearly 60,000, and was destroyed
by fire Jan. 10, 1838. The corner stone of the
present royal exchange was laid in 1842, and
the building was opened Oct. 28, 1844, by
Queen Victoria. It is an imposing edifice, em
bellished with many statues, and cost 180,000.
The area appropriated to the meetings of the
merchants is 170 ft. by 112, of which 111 ft.
by 53 is uncovered. Here the English, Ger
man. Greek, Mediterranean, and other foreign
merchants, all have their appropriate places
and corners, and meet daily for the transaction
of business. The busiest hour is from 3J- to 4
P. M. The two great days on change are Tues
day and Friday, when an extra meeting for
transactions in foreign bills of exchange takes
place previous to the regular meeting, which
is attended by the principal bankers and mer
chants of London, and which derives great im
portance from the immense business transacted
within about half an hour. The whole foreign
commerce which centres in London is here
concentrated in a handful of bills of exchange.
There is much less excitement than at the gen
eral exchange. A few brokers pass between
the bankers and merchants, and the bills are
bought and sold almost in a whisper. The most
celebrated continental exchange is the bourse
of Paris, which was inaugurated in 1824. The
building has the shape of an ancient peripteral
temple, and is calculated to hold more than
2,000 persons. The Paris exchange is a com
bination of a stock and bill exchange, and con
fines itself chiefly to these branches of business.
The St. Petersburg exchange, built between

1804 and 1810, approaches the Paris bourse in
splendor. The Hamburg exchange resembles
it both in shape and grandeur. The exchange
of Amsterdam was finished in 1613, and is an
edifice of great magnitude. The bourse of
Antwerp, one of the oldest and most remark
able of Europe, which was chosen by Sir
Thomas Gresham as a model for the first royal
exchange in London, was totally destroyed by
fire, Aug. 2, 1858, and has since been rebuilt
in the rue de la Bourse. A large portion of the
commerce of the world was transacted in it
for a considerable time. At Amsterdam, Ham
burg, Vienna, Constantinople, St. Petersburg,
Berlin, Frankfort, &c., the exchanges are nu
merously attended, but the exchange of London
stands unrivalled in Europe for the magnitude
of its transactions. The merchants 1 exchange
in New York was founded in 1817. Its first
building, in Wall street, between "William and
Pearl streets, was built of Westchester marble,
three stories in height, with the city post office
in the basement, and insurance and other offices
on the third floor. It was opened in 1827, and
was destroyed by the great fire of Dec. 16,
1835. The second exchange, on the same site,
was built of Quincy granite, at a cost, including
the value of the ground, of $1,800,000. It was
subsequently sold to the general government
to be used as a custom house. The present
exchange has an imposing marble front in
Broad street, near Wall street, with entrances
also in Wall and New streets. Buildings for
similar purposes, and generally of large size
and great cost, exist in all the principal cities
of the Linked States.

EXCHANGE, Bill of, in commercial transactions,
a written instrument designed to secure the
payment of a distant debt without the trans
mission of money, being in effect a setting off
or exchange of one debt against another.. This
important instrument is of modern origin. It
was not because its use was not perceived that
it was unemployed in ancient commerce, but
because its basis is mercantile integrity, which
never existed till a recent period in trading
communities to a sufficient extent to warrant
putting money or other valuable commodities
at risk upon so frail a security. Thus we
have evidence in the case of the Athenian
banker/ which is the subject of one of the dis
courses of Isocrates, that the convenience of
such an exchange as is now usual among mer
chants was well enough understood then, but
it was deemed necessary to take security for
the payment of the bill.. Transactions of the
same kind have doubtless occurred at all pe
riods where parties have had sufficient con
fidence in each other ; but that they were nit-
frequent is manifest from the silence of the
Roman law in respect thereto. It is said that
the Jews of the middle ages first introduced
bills of exchange into ordinary use, and this is
entitled to credit, inasmuch as the frequent
migrations and spoliations to which they were
subjected in those times of persecution made

EXCHANGE (BILL OF)

an easy transmission of wealth and its safe
keeping in foreign countries almost a necessity.
Of course the bills drawn by them were upon
persons of their own race. The negotiation of
bills of exchange by law can be traced back
about 4 centuries, the earliest being an or
dinance of the city of Barcelona in 1394 re
specting the acceptance of bills of exchange.
An edict of Louis XI. in 1462 is the first notice
of the subject in the laws of France. (See
Kent s " Commentaries," vol. iii., p. 72, note.)
In form, a bill of exchange is an order or re
quest addressed by one person to another di
recting the payment of money to a third person.
The first is called the drawer ; the second is
the drawee until the bill has been presented
and accepted, and then he is called the ac
ceptor ; r the third is the payee. But some
times the bill passes through several hands,
which may be either by successive indorse
ments specifying to whom payment is to be
made r or by what is called an indorsement in
blank, by which is meant that the payee, or the
subsequent holder to whom the bill has been
indorsed, merely writes his own name on the
bill, which is equivalent to making it payable
to bearer.*. The most important incident of a
bill of exchange is its negotiability, that is to
say, facility of transfer from one person to
another.* For this purpose it is essential that
the engagement of the several parties, whether
drawer, acceptor, or indorser, should be dis
entangled from all matters not appearing upon
the face of the bill. This, therefore, is the
general rule, subject to some exceptions which
will be presently mentioned. Equally neces
sary is it that the bill itself should by its terms
involve no uncertain contingency, as to depend
upon an event that may not happen, or upon
some condition which may be the subject of
controversy. Hence it has been uniformly
held that it must be payable at a fixed time,
that is to say, at some period which is certain ;
but it may be so far contingent as to depend
upon an event which must inevitably happen,
though the precise time cannot be specified.
Thus a bill may be payable a certain time after
the death of a particular person ; but it would
not be a good bill if made payable after the
arrival of a certain vessel. The one event is
certain to happen at some period, though it
may be remote ; the other may not happen at
all. Again, a bill of exchange must be ex
pressed to be for the payment of money only,
and would not lie good if payable in cattle or
other species of property, nor even if made
payable in bank bills, though it is held in some
cases that if payable in currency it is a good
bill, as this implies specie or its equivalent.
"When it is said that a bill is not good if sub
ject to any contingency or payable otherwise
than in money, it is intended merely that it is
not negotiable with the legal effect which ap
pertains to a bill drawn in the prescribed form.
It may nevertheless constitute a valid contract
between the original parties, and may even be

transferred so as to vest in the assignee the
same right which the payee would have had
against the drawer or acceptor. The transfer
in such case will, however, be subject to the
same rules that apply to other personal con
tracts usually denominated cJwses in action.
In other words, the transfer is itself a contract ;
and although it is not necessary that it should
be in writing, yet it derives no aid from mer
cantile usage respecting the indorsement of
bills. . The delivery of a note not negotiable
may give an ownership if so designed, and this
is so in respect to a bond or other contract.
But by the common law there was this limita
tion, that the right of the holder could be en
forced only in the name of the original obligee,
it being a rule that a chose in action was not
assignable. In equity, however, the right of
the assignee was recognized, and so to a certain
extent it came to be in the common law courts,
the formality of using the name of the assignor
in a suit brought upon such chose in action be
ing all that is retained of the old strictness.
In most of the states even this has been abro
gated, and the real party in interest, by which is
meant whoever has the actual ownership, may
be the party to the action. Again, such trans
fer confers no greater right than the original
payee or obligee had, and is subject to any de
fence, legal or equitable, which the other par
ties had against such payee or obligee prior to
actual notice of the assignment, or what in
law would be tantamount thereto. The bill,
or rather contract, as it should be termed in
the case supposed, is itself also subject to one
important rule distinguishing it from a proper
bill of exchange, viz., that it does not import a
consideration unless expressed. If, therefore, no
consideration is specified, parol evidence there
of will be necessary, as the rule of the common
law is that a consideration is an essential requi
site of a contract ; but parol evidence will be
inadmissible in all those cases in which by
statute it is required that the contract should
be in writing, as when the contract is not to
be performed within one year, or when it is to
answer for the debt of another person, &lt;fcc.
It will now be understood what is the negotia
bility above referred to as being the peculiar
incident of a bill of exchange. The bill, in
the first place, imports per se to have been
given for value, even if it does not contain the
usual clause "for value received," which,
though generally inserted, is mere surplusage ;
and every successive holder who has received
it before it was due, in the regular course of
business, for a valuable consideration, is enti
tled to enforce it according to the terms of the
obligation expressed therein, without regard to
any transactions between the original parties.
To this rule there are some exceptions, as
when the bill was given for a gaming debt or
when usury is involved, in which cases the
bill is declared to be absolutely void by stat
utes in England, which have been generally
reehacted in the United States. "When there

EXCISE

has been fraud in the transaction to which the
bill relates, which would have been a defence
as between the original parties, the rule is that
a fiona Jide holder for value is not affected
thereby ; with however this limitation, that the
bill has been received not only without knowl
edge of the fraud, but without such notice of
the circumstances as should have induced sus
picion and inquiry. If the bill at the time of
transfer has become due, this is in law deemed
sufficient to call for inquiry, and the indorsee
in such case takes the bill subject to whatever
defence there would have been against the
party from whom he received it. When a bill
has been stolen or lost, and has been put into
circulation again, a lonajide purchaser is en
titled to enforce it against all previous parties,
provided there were no circumstances that
should have led him in the exercise of ordinary
prudence to inquire into the title of the party
from whom he received it. It will in such a
case be a question of fact whether due dili
gence has been used by the holder, and the
burden of proof is imposed upon him, upon its
being shown that the bill had been stolen or
lost. The question in such case would be be
tween the person who had lost the bill or from
whom it had been stolen, and the person who
had received it after the theft or loss. The
liability of the original parties is not affected.
Bills of exchange are of two sorts, foreign
and inland ; the former being drawn by a mer
chant in this country upon another residing
abroad, or by a foreign merchant upon one re
siding here ; the latter when both drawer and
drawee reside in the same country. The prin
cipal rules relating to bills of exchange grow
out of mercantile usage respecting foreign
bills; but by statute in England and the
United States both are now put upon the same
footing, with the exception only that damages
are allowed upon foreign bills which come
back protested for non-acceptance or non-pay
ment. By statute in England and the United
States, promissory notes are made negotiable
in like manner as inland bills of exchange.
The same principles therefore, in respect to
negotiability and the legal incidents thereof,
apply to both.

EXCISE, a term employed to designate a par
ticular form of taxation. Excise taxes or du
ties are distinguished from customs in being
such as are imposed upon domestic commodi
ties, chiefly manufactures, such as glass, paper,
spirits, &c., while customs are duties levied
upon merchandise imported or exported. Both
kinds are included under the common term
imposts. Excise duties were first imposed in
Great Britain by the long parliament in 1043,
but a number of articles of foreign production
were included in the act, as tobacco, wine,
sugar, &c., which were charged with a duty in
the hands of the retailer in addition to what
had been paid on importation. Since that
time they have been regularly continued, but
with modifications from time to time as to the

j articles subject to the duty and the rate of
I charge. The articles of foreign growth and
; manufacture are now transferred to the de-
j partment of customs. At the present time
excise duties are nearly all collected on fer
mented and distilled liquors and chiccory,
though license duties are also classed with the
excise taxes. For the year ending March 31,
1872, the excise duties collected in the United
Kingdom amounted to 23,386,064, of which
6,670,955 were collected on malt, 12,274,-
596 on spirits, and 3,781,979 for licenses.
Excise duties have not been generally levied in
the United States, but the national government
has relied upon customs as its principal source
of revenue. An excise duty on the manufac
ture of spirits during Washington s administra
tion led to what was called the whiskey insur
rection in Pennsylvania, which was soon sup
pressed, but the tax was not continued. Oth
ers were imposed in 1813, but repealed in
1817. After the breaking out of the civil war
in 1861 it became necessary to resort to every
available source of income, and an elaborate
system of excise duties was established, de
signed in some form to reach nearly every spe
cies of manufacture. The most of these du
ties have successively been abolished, but those
on spirits and tobacco are retained. For the
purposes of comparison with the excise duties
| collected in Great Britain in 1872, the follow-
; ing figures are given. The duties collected
on the manufacture and sale of distilled spir-
i its for the year ending June 30, 1872, were
$49,475,516 6 ; on fermented liquors, $8,009,-
j 969 72; on tobacco, $18,674,569 26. The rela
tive advantage of excise duties and customs has
; been much debated. The latter are evaded to
1 a large extent by smugglers, but the excise du-
. ties are also evaded, particularly in respect to
spirits. This was strikingly illustrated in the
United States, where it was found that a tax
of $2 a gallon on the manufacture of whiskey
; produced less revenue than one of 50 cents.
Excise duties are also objected to on the same
ground with an income tax, namely, that they
expose the manufacturer s private operations.
Another objection that has tended to make
i them more obnoxious than any other is the ar
bitrary manner of enforcing them, which is felt
to be an interference with private liberty and
independence, which the common law has sed
ulously protected. It is supposed that in this
matter of collecting its revenue the government
considers itself entitled to dispense with all the
ordinary protections to individual right arid
t liberty, and to provide the most unjust and
arbitrary proceedings at discretion. This was
illustrated in a very remarkable manner in the
recent case of Henderson, in which it was held
; by the majority of the United States supreme
court that a bona fide purchaser of liquors
stored in a government warehouse, who had
paid in full all dues, might afterward have the
liquors seized in his hands and forfeited to the
government because a former owner had at

EXCOMMUNICATION

one time had a design to evade payment of
the duties upon them ; a purpose of which the
purchaser was wholly ignorant. (14 Wallace s
Reports, 44, 64.)

EXCOMMIXU ATION (Lat. ex, out of, and com-
municatio, intercourse), the cutting off a mem
ber of a religious society from intercourse
with the other members in things spiritual.
This penalty was familiar to the pagan nations
of antiquity, as well as to the Jews ; and from
them it passed into use among Christians. In
Greece, persons guilty of enormous crimes were
given over to the Furies with certain terrible
forms of imprecation. There were three kinds
of excommunication among the Greeks. By
the first, the criminal was excluded from all
intercourse with his own family ; by the sec
ond, he was forbidden to approach any temple,
or to assist at any sacrifice or public rite ; by
the third, it was forbidden to give him shelter,
food, or drink. The Romans borrowed the
rite from the Greeks, and the formulas sacris
interdicere, to forbid the use of sacred things,
diris derovere, to devote one to the Furies,
execrari, to curse, &c., have much the above
meaning. According to Caesar, the highest
punishment infiicted by the druids, among Cel
tic nations, was to exclude an offender from
all their religious rites. Such a man was con
sidered by all as wicked and an enemy of the
gods ; he was shunned even by his own kindred,
denied all justice and hospitality, and lived and
died in infamy. The Semitic races, in ancient
and modern times, have practised excommuni
cation, and it is now in use wherever Moham
medanism extends. We have the testimony
of Josephus that excommunication was prac
tised among the Jews, and he notes the ex
treme rigor with which the Essenes applied it.
Among them, the criminal who was thus put
out of the society of his brethren not only
could hold no communication with them even
for the necessaries of life, but was bound by
vow not to ask food or shelter from strangers.
Thus driven to subsist on herbs and hide in
caves, they eked out a miserable life, which
often ended in a tragic death. There were
three kinds of excommunication among the
Jews. The mildest form consisted in a tempo
rary exclusion from religious and social inter
course for 30 days. If during this interval i
the culprit did not repent, another term of 30 !
days was added, which was lengthened to 90 j
days if he still remained obdurate. If he per- j
sisted at the end of that time, he was visited j
with the more severe and solemn form of ex
communication, that is, publicly cast out of the
synagogue, with awful execrations taken from
the law of Moses. When this penalty and all
other human means had been tried inVain, he \
was given over to the divine judgment as an ]
irreclaimable sinner. In the early Christian ;
church we find excommunication practised by !
St. Paul, and enjoined both by him and by St. i
John. In the post-apostolic ages it was the !
universal custom both in the East and West,

modified only from the Jewish practice in ac
cordance with the requirements of Christian
belief and worship. The lowest degree con
sisted in the refusal of eucharistic communion ;
the next in exclusion from the church and the
liturgical service ; the third in total exclusion,
by solemn denunciation, from membership with
the church, and from all intercourse, social or
religious, with Christians. This highest degree
of excommunication was accompanied in some
instances by an awful form which explains the
anathema maranatlia of St. Paul. When the
person excommunicated was not only guilty of
apostasy or heresy, but one who sought to draw
the multitude after him, a prayer Avas made
by some churches that God should come down
in judgment and cut the seducer off, as in the
cases of Julian the Apostate and Arius. In
the Latin church, since the publication of Gra-
tian s Decretum, and the regular adoption of
canon law, two kinds of excommunications
have been described by canonists, the minor
and the major. The former excluded the
offender from the use of the sacrament and
the benefit of certain ecclesiastical privileges
and immunities. It was incurred for sins that
were not public, or for communicating with
persons under the solemn ban. The major ex
communication cut the offender off not only
from church membership, but from social inter
course with Christians. He was solemnly and
by name called vitandiis, "to be shunned by all."
As heresy, public apostasy, and great crimes
by which excommunication was incurred, came
early to be recognized as state offences and
misdemeanors punishable by the laws of the
empire, so it was soon decreed by statute that
the excommunicated should incur privation of
office and rank, loss of civil rights, and forfeit
ure of property. These dispositions became
more or less a part of the common law of
western as well as of eastern Christendom.
When the Roman empire was restored in
Charlemagne, and the German emperors were
wont to receive the imperial crown from the
pope, public excommunication pronounced
against them was held to involve a forfeiture
of their crown. This was also held to be the
case with sovereigns whose kingdoms were
fiefs of the see of Rome. It was against such
high offenders that the major excommunication
was fulminated, with the awful ceremonies
mentioned in history. In the present discipline
of the Roman Catholic church the excommuni
cation of sovereigns is reserved to the pope,
and has been very rarely practised since the
16th century. In 1570 Pope Pius V. excom
municated Queen Elizabeth of England, and
formally absolved her subjects from their al
legiance. In the modern Greek church ex
communication cuts off the offender not only
from the u communion of saints," but from all
intercourse, religious or social, and consigns
him, living and dead, to the evil one. The
power of excommunication was maintained by
the reformers, who claimed it as a prerogative

EXCRETION

EXECUTION

of the Christian community, while the Roman
Catholic and eastern churches vested it in the
episcopal order. In the church of England
the vigorous provisions of the old canon law
were for the most part kept in force after the
reformation, and were a part of the law of the
land until the reign of George III., when (52
George III., c. 127) excommunications and the
consequent civil effects were done away with,
except for certain specified cases. When the
person excommunicated for the offences men
tioned in the act allows six months to pass
without submitting to correction, the bishop
certifies this contumacy to the court of chan
cery, which issues its writ to the sheriff. The
severest penalty enforced is six months im
prisonment. In Scotland, when the lesser
excommunication has failed, the delinquent is
subjected to the greater, and the faithful are
warned to avoid all unnecessary intercourse
with him. In the Protestant Episcopal church
certain offences entail the privation of holy
communion, while "great heinousness of of
fence " is followed by loss " of all privileges
of church membership." The Methodist Epis
copal church vests the power of excommuni
cation in the minister, after a trial before a
jury of peers of the accused. Excommunica
tion is infiicted among the Presbyterians, Con-
gregationalists, and Baptists by the church, ac
cording to the view of the early reformers.

EXCRETION (Lat, exccrnere, excretum, to
purge), the elimination of waste or effete
matters from the living body. There is evi
dence that during the vital processes every
exertion of activity by a living tissue or or
gan is necessarily accompanied by a molecular
change in its chemical constitution. So inti
mate is this connection between the alteration
of substance in a living organ and its physiolo
gical action, that it is impossible to say with
certainty which of these two is the cause and
which the effect. The fact is however that,
as \ve have said above, every manifestation of
vital activity involves a change in the immedi
ate constitution of the active organ. The con
sequence of this is that, in the living body,
new substances, the result of its internal dis
integration, are constantly making their ap
pearance. These substances, termed excre
mentitious matters, must not be allowed to re
main and accumulate; for in that case the
constitution of the organs would become so
changed from their original condition that
they would be no longer capable of performing
their proper functions. These matters must
therefore be gotten rid of, or eliminated from
the body, as fast as they are produced; and
the process by which this is accomplished is
called excretion. The mechanism of this pro
cess is as follows : The excrementitious mat
ters produced in the solid tissues are absorbed
from them by the blood, carried by the circu
lation to some organ adapted to the purpose,
exhaled or exuded in the gaseous, fluid, or
semi-fluid form, and thus discharged from the

J body. The two principal excretory organs are
; the lungs and the kidneys. The venous blood
in passing through the lungs discbarges the
carbonic acid which it has absorbed from all
; the vascular parts of the body, and returns to
the left side of the heart purified and renovated.
The blood which passes through the circulation
! of tbe kidneys exhales, together with its watery
\ parts, urea, creatine, creatinine, and the com-
I pounds of uric acid ; nitrogenous crystallizable
matters produced in various parts of the sys-
j tern, and which form the important ingredients
j of the urine. Thus the blood constantly re-
! lieves the solid tissues of the excrementitious
matters produced in their substance, and is it
self relieved of them by passing through the
excretory organs. Should this process from
! any cause be suspended or retarded, the ac
cumulation of excrementitious matters in the
body would soon make itself felt by a derange
ment of the health, and especially by its inju-
| rious effects upon the nervous system. Pain,
loss of appetite, confusion of mind, disturbance
of the special senses, and in extreme cases con
vulsions, coma, and death, result from the ar-
! rest of excretion, which is therefore no less
important to life than nutrition.

EXECUTION , in law, the final process to en-
i force the judgment of a court, according to the
I old maxim, executio est fructus et Jinis legis.
In its larger application it includes the process
of sequestration formerly used by the court of
chancery to carry into effect its decrees, at
tachments for contempt of court, and process
in summary proceedings, as upon mandamus
I and the like; but in its ordinary acceptation
j it is a writ issued to enforce a judgment in a
I suit or action in a court of common law. It
is unnecessary to speak of the execution in
the various real actions which have become
obsolete. In England the actions for recovery
\ of real estate, whether corporeal or incor-
! poreal, are, by statute 3 and 4 William IV., c.
1 27, now limited to ejectment, cjitare impedit,
and actions for dower. The first is the ordi-
; nary mode of trying a title to lands, and the
i execution upon a judgment of recovery is a
writ of possession, which in form is directed
i to the sheriff , commanding him to deliver to
the plaintiff" the possession of the lands so re-
| covered. Qnarc impcdit is an action by which
the right to a benefice is determined, and takes
its name from a clause in the old Latin form
of the writ by which the defendant was com
manded to appear in court and show the reason
why he hindered the plaintiff from presenting
a proper person to a vacant office in a church.
Upon judgment in favor of the claim, the exe
cution is a writ directed to the bishop com
manding him to admit the person nominated
by the prevailing party. The action also lies
for an office in eleemosynary institutions, as
hospitals and colleges, which are endowed for
the support of their inmates ; and the execu
tion in such cases is the same, except that it
will be directed to the corporate officers or

EXECUTION"

persons who Lave the control of the institu
tion. In respect to lay officers, as they, are
called in distinction from ecclesiastical and
eleemosynary, the mode of proceeding is hy
quo warranto or mandamus. The former was
strictly a proceeding in hehalf of the crown
against any one who had intruded into an
office, but is now allowed by statute in Eng
land (9 Anne, c. 20) to determine disputes be
tween private parties claiming an office ad
versely to each other. The proceeding in that
case, although in form in behalf of the crown,
yet is stated to be on the relation of the per
son prosecuting, and upon judgment in his fa
vor execution issues to remove the intruder.
Mandamus is a remedy where there is a re
fusal to admit the claimant to an office, or
where he has been wrongfully removed. If
the claim be established, a peremptory man
damus issues, directed to the defendant, com
manding him to admit or restore the claimant,
who is in this case, as well as in the proceeding
by quo warranto, called the relator. This is,
however, not strictly an execution, as if not
obeyed it must be enforced by another process
called an attachment. In other actions, where
the subject is an injury to real estate, usually
the remedy is a recovery of damages ; but
in some instances specific relief is given, as in
an action for a nuisance there may be a judg
ment that it be abated, and the execution in
such case follows the judgment. So in some
personal actions, formerly, there might be
judgment for the delivery of the specific thing,
as in detinue, which was brought to recover
possession of chattels, and the judgment was
enforced by an execution called a distringas,
which commanded the sheriff to make distress
of any goods of the defendant until he com
plied with the judgment ; but if he still re
fused, there could only be an assessment of the
value of the thing recovered, and a sale of de
fendants property to pay the same. In the
action of replevin, which was originally limited
to the recovery of property which had been
wrongfully distrained for rent, the writ by i
which the action was commenced directed the
sheriff to replevy, that is, take the property
in question, and deliver it to the plaintiff upon
pledges to prosecute. If the defendant suc
ceed in the action, the judgment is that he }
have return of the property, or if he elects, he
may have an assessment of the value, and re
cover that amount as damages. In the former
case the execution is for redelivery of the
property, in the latter merely for the damages.
Before proceeding to the consideration of
other actions, it will be proper to state the
modifications which have been made in the
United States in respect to those already no
ticed. All the common-law real actions are
generally abolished except ejectment, which,
in a simplified form, is used for the trial of
title to land in all cases. Quare impedit is not
retained, nor is there any action for the re- ;
co very of an office except the proceedings by \

quo warranto or mandamus. The action of
detinue has been generally abolished, and the
action of replevin has been extended to all
cases of the wrongful taking or wrongful de
tention of personal property. In the latter ac
tion the plaintiff, instead of an actual replevy
of the goods, may arrest the defendant and
compel him to give bail, and the final judgment
in such case will be for damages ; and so the
defendant, if he succeeds in a case where the
goods have been replevied, may take judgment
for the value, the execution being in either
of these cases merely for damages. We now
come to the ordinary actions in which there is
judgment for a money demand. At common
law there are three forms of execution upon
such a judgment : 1, a fieri facias, so called
from the terms of the writ by which the
sheriff is commanded that of the goods and
chattels of defendant he cause to be made the
amount of the debt or damages recovered ; 2,
elegitj which is a writ given by an ancient
statute (13 Edward I., c. 18), whereby, if the
plaintiff elected, possession of the goods and
chattels of defendant was delivered to plaintiff
under an appraisement of the value thereof,
which to that extent was to be a satisfaction
of the judgment ; but if not sufficient, then
possession of one half of the freehold lands of
defendant was also to be delivered until from
the rents and profits thereof the judgment
should be paid ; 3, a capias ad satufaciendum,
which is a writ directed to the sheriff com
manding him to take the body of the de
fendant, and keep the same until satisfaction
of the debt. The course of proceeding upon
this writ was to imprison the defendant in the
debtors jail, of which the sheriff had in law
the charge. (See DEBTOR AND CREDITOR.)
Having traced the origin of the terms applied
to executions, we shall limit ourselves to a
brief explanation of the legal incidents as now
prescribed by statute in the United States.
The two forms of execution are t\\s fieri facias
and the capias ad satisfaciendum, which have
been already explained, and which are desig
nated by the abbreviated termsjtf. fa. and ca.
sa. The^./tf. is a writ directed to the sheriff
by which he is commanded to make the
amount of the judgment by sale of the defen
dant s goods and chattels, or if these should
not be sufficient, then of the lands of which he
was seized on the day when the judgment was
docketed. An exemption is made of certain
property from levy under execution, viz. :
household furniture, necessary provisions and
fuel for the use of the family for a specified
time, stock in trade, necessary wearing ap
parel, bedding, &c., tools and implements to
an amount named, a family Bible, family pic
tures, school books, the family library, etc.,
and in addition, a lot and building occupied as
a residence by the debtor, being a householder
and having a family, to a value named, which
in most states is $1,500 or upward. (See
FIERI FACIAS.) The ca. sa. is the old form of

EXECUTOR

EXETER

execution against the person of the defendant,
and since the abolition of imprisonment for
debt can be issued in a few cases only. (See
BANKRUPT, and DEBTOR AND CREDITOR.)

EXEITTOR, the person appointed to carry
into effect the directions contained in a last
will and testament. By the common law of
England, or rather by the law as administered
in the ecclesiastical courts, an infant of the age
of IT was qualified to act as executor. Prior
to that age, letters of administration were
granted to some other person durante minore
(vtate; but by statute 38 George III., c. 87,
such administration must now continue until
the person named as executor has reached the
age of 21. A married woman cannot act as
an executrix without the assent of her hus
band, inasmuch as he is responsible for her acts.
When executors are not named in a will, or
are incompetent, or refuse to act, letters of
administration with the will annexed may be
issued, under which the same powers may be
exercised that could have been by competent
executors duly appointed. An executor de son
tort, as he was formerly called, i. e., one who
intermeddled with the estate without having
lawful authority, was liable to the extent of
any assets which he might have appropriated
to be sued as an executor of his o\vn wrong,
but was not entitled to institute a suit as exe
cutor. The doctrine of executor de son tort
can scarcely be said to be recognized in Amer
ica, but summary remedies are given against
intermeddlers. (See WILL.)

EXELMAXS, or Exeelraans, Remy Joseph Isidore,
count, a French general, born in Bar-le-Duc,
Xov. 13, 1775, killed by a fall from his horse in
July, 1852. He served first in Italy, became an
aide-de-camp of Murat, went with him to Ger
many, and was made colonel after the battle
of Austerlitz, and brigadier general in 1807,
after that of Eylau. He accompanied Murat
in 1808 to Spain, where he was made prisoner
and carried to England. He made his escape
in 1811 and rejoined Murat, then king of
Naples. When disagreement arose between
Murat and Xapoleon, Exelmans returned to
France, and served in the Russian campaign
with the rank of general of division. He re
tained his position in the military service after
the first restoration, but resumed his duties in
the army of Xapoleon upon his return from
Elba, and was raised to the peerage. He did
not take part in the battle of Waterloo, being
under the command of Grouchy. Under the
second restoration he was in exile till 1819.
Ho was restored by Louis Philippe to the
chamber of peers, and denounced in that body
the execution of Xey as an " abominable assas
sination." Under the presidency of Louis Xa
poleon he was made grand chancellor of the
legion of honor, marshal of France, and senator.

EXETER, a town and one of the county seats
of Rockingham co., Xew Hampshire, situated
on Exeter river, a branch of the Piscatnqua,
and on the Boston and Maine railroad, 12 m.

S. W. of Portsmouth; pop. in 1870, 3,437.
The falls at this point, which furnish good wa
ter power, are the head of tide water and the
limit of navigation for small vessels. The prin
cipal village, built around the falls on both
banks of the river, occupies a plain, and is laid
out with wide streets shaded with elms. Be
sides the state courts for the county, sessions
of the United States circuit and district courts
are held here. The Exeter manufacturing com
pany, incorporated in 1829, has more than 10,000
spindles in operation, and produces about 2,000,-
000 yards of sheetings annually. It has just
erected another mill of equal capacity. The
wool business is one of the principal branches
of industry and trade in the place, being carried
on by several large establishments. There are
also several manufactories of carriages, 1 of
drain pipe, 3 of harnesses, 3 grist mills, 1 iron
foundery, 1 planing mill, 1 saw mill, 1 machine
shop, a national bank, and 2 saving institutions.
The town is chiefly noted as the seat of Phil
lips academy, founded in 1781 by John Phillips,
LL. D., who bequeathed to it a large portion
of his estate. It is one of the most celebrated
schools for preparing boys for college in the
country, and in 1872 had 4 instructors and 162
students. The original building, in which some
of the most famous men of the country were
educated, was burned in 1870 ; a new one was
completed in 1872. The Robinson female sem
inary, organized in 1869 with an endowment
of $300,000, has a collegiate department, and
in 1872 had 9 instructors and 252 students.
Exeter contains several public schools, a town
library of 3,428 volumes, a weekly newspaper,
and 7 churches. It was settled in 1638, and
suffered severely during the Indian Avars from
1690 to about 1710. During the revolutionary
period it was the capital of the state and the
headquarters of its military operations.

EXETER, a city, port, and parliamentary
borough of England, capital of Devonshire, and
a county in itself, on the Exe, 10 m. from its
mouth in the English channel, and 159 m. W.
S. W. of London ; pop. in 1871, 34,646. It
is 194 m. from London by the Great Western
railway, and is the point at which railways
centre from South Devon, Xorth Devon, Salis
bury, and Exmouth. The Exe is here crossed
by a handsome stone bridge leading to the sub
urb of St. Thomas. The city, standing on a steep
acclivity, has two wide principal streets, which
cross each other at right angles near its centre.
It is generally well built, has many fine squares
and terraces and ancient houses, and in its sub
urbs and environs are numerous elegant villas.
It was formerly strongly fortified, but its exte
rior wall is now in a ruinous state, and a part
of the rampart has been converted into a prom
enade. On an eminence X. E. of the town is
Rouiremont castle, anciently the residence of
the West Saxon kings, repaired by William the
Conqueror. Exeter is the seat of a bishopric
founded about 1050. Its cathedral, a magnifi
cent building of cruciform shape, was begun

EXHAUSTION

EXMOUTII

about the year 1100. Its entire length is 408 ft. ;
it has t\vo Xorman towers 130 ft. in height, ten
chapels or oratories, and a chapter house. One
of the towers contains an immense hell weigh
ing 12,500 Ibs., and the other has a chime of
11 bells. Among the numerous schools is a
free grammar school founded by the citizens
in the reign of Charles I., in which the sons
of freemen are instructed gratuitously, and
which has 18 exhibitions to either of the uni
versities. Exeter has a theatre and various
literary and charitable institutions. Its com
merce is much less now than formerly, but it
has some internal trade, and is an important
corn and provision market. The river Exe is
navigable for vessels of large burden to Top-
sham, 4 m. below Exeter ; and by means of a

] canal built in 1563, subsequently much en
larged, and one of the oldest in England, ves
sels of 400 tons burden can come up to the
quay near the walls of the town. Serges and
other woollen goods were formerly manufac
tured in this city and the neighboring towns
to a large extent, and shipped to the continent
and the East Indies ; but the introduction of
machinery and the lower price of 1 fuel in the
north of England have very much diminished
this trade. This city is of unknown antiquity,
and is supposed to be the Caer-Isc of the Brit
ons, and the Isca Damnoniorum of the Romans.
It was the capital of the AVest Saxons, and in
the reign of Alfred in 876 it was surprised by
the Danes. It was besieged and taken by Wil
liam the Conqueror. In the civil war it es-

Exeter Cathedral.

poused the royal cause, was taken by the par
liamentarians, was retaken by Prince Maurice,
became the headquarters of the royalists in
the west and the residence of Charles s queen,
and in 1646 surrendered after a blockade to
Fairfax.

EXHAUSTION (Lat. exTiaurire, to draw out),
a method of the ancient geometry, applied with
success by Archimedes and Euclid, by which
the value of an incommensurable quantity was
sought by obtaining approximations alternately
greater and less than the truth, until two ap
proximations differed so little from each other
that either might be taken as the exact state
ment. Thus the length of a circumference was
sought by calculating the length of inscribed
and circumscribed polygons, and increasing the
number of sides until the lengths of the outer
and inner polygon were sensibly the same, when
that of the circumference could not differ sen
sibly from either. By this method the space
between the polygons and the curve was ex

hausted, as it were, and hence the term. Ex
haustion is now interesting chiefly because it
was one of the methods which led, in the 17th
century, to the invention of the differential
calculus.

EXMOITH, a town of Devonshire, England,
10 m. S. E. of Exeter; pop. about 6,000. It is
a celebrated sea-bathing place, and is beauti
fully situated on the E. side of the entrance to
the estuary of the Exe, in an opening of the cliffs
which surround the shore. The modern part
of the town consists of detached villas and ter
races surmounted by neat houses, and there
are many pleasant promenades. A gradually
sloping sandy beach below the town is the
principal resort of bathers. There is a hand
some parish church with a tower more than
100 ft. high. Fisheries constitute the princi
pal occupation ; and many of the women are
engaged in lace making.

EXMOUTH, Edward Pellew, viscount, an Eng
lish admiral, born at Dover, April 19, 1757,

EXODUS

died at Teignmouth, Jan. 23, 1833. He en- j
tered the navy at the age of 13, and first dis- i
tinguished himself in the battle of Lake Chain- I
plain, Oct. 11, 17TG. In 1782 lie became a post !
captain, and from 1786 to 1789 he was stationed
off Newfoundland. In 1793, commanding the
frigate Xymphe, of 36 guns, he captured the
French frigate La Cleopatre, of equal metal,
after a desperate battle. This was the first
prize taken in the war, and Pellew was
knighted. He was then employed in block
ading the French coast. At Plymouth in 1796,
by great bravery and presence of mind, he
saved the lives of all on board a wrecked
transport, leaving the ship himself just before
it went to pieces. For this he was made a
baronet, and received other honors. Mean
while, in command of the Arethusa, 44 guns,
he had fought a number of engagements with
French vessels, being always victorious. He
also commanded successively the Indefatigable,
49 guns, and the Impetueux, 78 guns. In 1802
he was elected to parliament, but in 1804 was
again called to the naval service, promoted to
rear admiral, and made commander-in-chief in
the East Indies. In 1808 he was made vice
admiral, and in 1810 was sent to command in
the Mediterranean. In 1814 he was created
Baron Exmouth of Canonteign, with a pension
of 2,000, and in the same year was made a
full admiral. During his command in the Med
iterranean he concluded treaties with Algiers,
Tunis, and Tripoli, for the abolition of Chris
tian slavery. The dey of Algiers having vio
lated his treaty, Exmouth sailed into the har
bor of Algiers, Aug. 26, 1816, with 19 vessels,
accompanied by a Dutch fleet of 6, and en
gaged the Algerine fleet and batteries at close
quarters. After an action of seven hours, j
every Algerine ship and the arsenal and sev-
eral other buildings were on fire. The dey 1
conceded everything that was demanded, and j
signed a new treaty. In this affair Lord Ex- j
mouth received two slight wounds and had his j
clothes torn to shreds by the shot. About
1,200 Christian slaves were liberated, and on
his return the admiral was made a viscount.
He retired from public service in 1821.

EXODUS (Gr. efodof, departure), a book of
the Bible, the second of the Pentateuch. It !
derives its name from the principal event re- ;
corded in it, the departure of the Hebrews ;
from Egypt, and contains the history of that j
people from the death of Joseph until the
building of the tabernacle. The researches
of modern Egyptologists have thrown much ;
light on the Biblical narrative. The land \
of Goshen, where the Hebrews had been per- |
mitted to settle, was east of the delta of the
Xile, on the borders of Syria, and the places :
mentioned in connection with the exodus have |
been identified as follows: Rameses as the
town Xashuta, in the E. part of the wady
Tumilat ; Succoth, the Thaubasium of the Ro
mans. X. E. of Lake Timsah ; Ethani, the forti
fied wall on the Syrian frontier; Pi-hahiroth, \

the modern Kalat Agrud, X. TV. of Suez ;
Migdol, the place formerly called Kambysu,
where the Persian monument stands ; and Baal-
zephon as the Atakah mountains. The hiero
glyphic inscriptions render it probable that the
oppressors of the Hebrews were Seti I. and his
son Rameses II., and that Merneptah was the
Pharaoh of the exodus. (See EGYPT, vol. vi.,
pp. 461- 2.) They show also that the He
brews had been employed to build temples,
fortresses, and granaries ; and several monu
ments depict them at work making bricks,
with overseers standing by and sometimes
beating them with rods. This does not ne
cessarily lead to the conclusion that the Pha
raohs of the period were reckless tyrants.
They were severe military rulers, who fore
saw that the Hebrews would make common
cause with their kindred in Syria in case of
an invasion. They strengthened accordingly
the fortified wall on the borders, which the
Pharaohs of the 12th dynasty had erected,
and built new fortresses in Goshen, partly
for protection against invasion and partly for
keeping watcli over the Hebrews. According
to the monuments, the troops stationed here
were chiefly Libyans, who were not likely
to sympathize with the Hebrews. A treaty
made by Rameses II. with the chief of the
Khitas in Syria, found on a stele in the temple
district of Karnak, provides for the extradition
of fugitives escaping over the border. Mer-
neptah s policy was to prevent the Hebrews
from gathering into bodies too large to be con
trolled, which he eifected by compelling them
to labor in small detachments on the public
works. His refusal to allow them to assemble
for the purpose of worshipping their God in
the wilderness was prompted by fear of some
hostile movement on their part, and nothing
but the dread of greater disasters than those
which would naturally follow their departure
induced him to permit Moses to lead them
away. Xor are monumental indications want
ing for establishing the historical character
of Moses. His interview with Merneptah is
supposed to have taken place at Tanis, the
temporary residence of the last three Pharaohs.
He and his people marched first to Takusa, a
city south of Tanis, and thence to Shekh Musa,
in the neighborhood of Pithom. The route
touched the most important Hebrew towns
and enabled their inhabitants to join the emi
grants. Moses marched them in an easterly
direction through the wady Tumilat, which
Hebrew labor had supplied with a canal. The
Hebrew population was especially dense in
this fertile oasis. The Hebrews rendezvoused
at Rameses, a central point in Goshen. A
journey northeastward of about 150 m. would
have taken them to the borders of Canaan, but
would have brought them into conflict with the
warlike Philistines. Moses led them in almost
the contrary direction ; " For God said, Lest
perad venture the people repent when they see
war, and they return to Egypt. 1 The general

EXODUS

EXOGEXS

route of the exodus is now fairly established.
The Hebrews marched S. E. for three days,
then turned S. W., and finally E., their fourth
encampment being at Pi-hahiroth, a few miles
S. of the present Suez, near a point where the
gulf of Suez suddenly narrows to a quarter of
its former width. They were on a narrow tri
angular plain bounded N. by a range of cliffs
and S. E. by the expansion of the sea. The
Egyptian king had meanwhile gathered a con
siderable force, especially of chariots, the cav
alry of the time, and was following hard upon
the fugitives, who, hemmed in between the
cliffs and the water, had no apparent way of
escape. At the point here assumed as that of
the passage there is still a shallow, stretching
from shore to shore, almost fordable at low
tide. "The Lord caused the sea to go by a
strong east wind all that night, and made the
sea dry land, and the waters were divided."
That is, the east (or more strictly easterly)
wind piled up the waters toward the head of
the gulf, leaving the shallow dry. The idea
which painters have popularized, that the
waters stood up as a solid wall on each side, is
wholly without warrant in the sacred text ; all
that is implied is that there w r as deep water on
each side of the passage. The crossing was
apparently made during the day. At night
fall the Egyptians came up, and seeing the pas
sage still dry attempted to follow. It is ap
parently implied in the text, though not directly
stated, that the wind now r shifted; for an east
erly wind would have carried the bodies of
the Egyptians to the west side, whereas the
Hebrews beheld them thrown on the eastern
shore, upon which they were. All the impli
cations of the narrative are that the reflux of
the waters was gradual ; for AVO are told that
"the Lord took off [or rather clogged up] their
chariot wheels, and made them go heavily ;"
that is, probably, the returning waters slowly
filtered into the sand, making it difficult for
the chariots to move. The Egyptians, seeing
the waters rising, endeavored to retreat; but
in the darkness, their returning van encounter
ing their advancing rear, they could go neither
way, and were swallowed up by the rising tide.
That this passage was really miraculous is
everywhere asserted or implied by all the
sacred writers who speak of it. Their route
at first lay parallel with the eastern shore of
the gulf of Suez, which they apparently
touched at one point, the halting places being
specified, and several of them are identified
with reasonable certainty. At one of these,
Eephidim, they were attacked by a body of
Amalekites, who were defeated by the Israel
ites under the command of Joshua. After
three months they reached the region of Sinai,
in the heart of the Arabian peninsula, where
they remained until 14 months after their de
parture from Egypt, and then set off upon their
long wanderings toward the promised land.
During this interval the law was given, and
those religious and civil institutions were

framed which in the course of a generation
transformed the Hebrews into a military peo
ple, able to cope with the enemies whom they
were about to encounter. The history, as re
lated in the book of Exodus, properly closes
with the encampment around Sinai, and is con
tinued in the book of Numbers. (See SINAI.)
The best works on the historical narrative are
Ebers s Acgypten und die Bi tcJier Moseys (Leip-
sic, 1868 et seq.) and Durcli Gosen zum Sinai
(Leipsic, 1872), and Palmer s " The Desert of
the Exodus " (London, 1872).

EXOGE1VS (Gr. fw, outward, and -yevvav, to
generate), a class of plants so called because
their woody matter is increased by additions to
the outside of that which first surrounds the
central pith. As there are no specific limits
to the age of exogenous trees, their diameter
indefinitely increases by this annual process, a
distinct external layer being added by each
year s growth. The stem of an exogen con
sists of a central column of pith or medulla,
woody zones, and bark. Processes from the
central medulla called medullary rays cross the
zones transversely. The bark of an exogen
parts readily from the underlying wood at a
particular season of the year, when a viscid
secretion called cambium is produced between
the wood and the inner surface of the bark.
It is at this period that the leaves expand and
the trunk lengthens. The woody fibres in the
leaves are prolonged into the stem or trunk,
passing down among the cambium, and adher
ing partly to the wood and partly to the bark
of the previous year. By this means new
living matter is continually deposited upon the
outer portion of the woody stem and the inner
portions of the bark. It is in this part of the
stem that the intensest vitality exists, the outer
and older layers of the bark and the inner and
older concentric rings of the wood becoming
inert and falling off or decaying without in
jury to the vegetative parts. The office of the
medullary processes is very important as means
of communication between the centre of the
stem and the outside layers or rings ; and they
are conduits, so to speak, by which the fluid
matter passing down the bark can reach the
wood next the medulla or pith. These pro
cesses, which resemble thin plates, are of a
spongy nature similar to that of the pith from
which they originated. They sometimes as
sume sinuosities and undergo partial oblitera
tion ; and sometimes the wood itself assumes
, an excessive irregularity. As these circum-
stances are to be found mostly in tropical ex-
! ogenous trees, vines, and climbers, difficulty
I is sometimes experienced in perceiving from
transverse sections their claims to be consid
ered as exogens. This natural character of
an outward growth in the exogens is asso
ciated with other peculiarities of development
of other organs. Thus, the leaves have veins
ramifying from the midrib outwardly to the
circumference ; or if there are several ribs,
the veins are still of the same quality, so as to

EXORCISM

EXOSTOSIS

form an irregular network. These veins never
run parallel to each other without ramifica
tions, and even some which appear to do so
will be found to possess secondary veins. The
leaves also fall away from the branches, being
disarticulated from their places of insertion,
leaving a clear scar behind. Certain foliolate
organs, called stipules, are also frequently at
tached to the leaves, which is very unusual in
endogens. The flowers are mostly quinary,
that is, they have five sepals, five petals, and
five stamens, or some multiple of that number.
The tall and feathery outline of the palms is
never seen in the exogens, as none of them de
pend on a single terminal bud for their develop
ing growth. From the very germination of the
seed the difference is apparent in the form of
the embryo and in the dicotyledonous char
acteristics of the young plant.

EXORCISM (Gr. eopKta[j.6e, adjuration), a rite
having for its object to cast out evil spirits, or
to withdraw irrational things from their influ
ence. As the natural attendants of a belief
in demoniacal possession, exorcisms have been
practised in every age and country. The pa
gans of old, like those of to-day, were firm
believers in the malignant influence of spirits,
genii, or demons. Mysterious diseases and
other incomprehensible calamities were at
tributed to such influences. The "medicine
dances " in use among the American Indians
are found to spring from the same belief which
gave rise to the fumigations of the Greeks,
Romans, Arabs, and Persians. Among the
Greeks exorcising was a profession. ^Eschines
and Epicurus were the sons of women who
lived by exorcism, and when young practised
the art with their mothers. Besides incanta
tions, the burning of certain herbs and drugs,
the use of magic ointments, the wearing of
amulets, &c., human sacrifices w r ere exception
ally also resorted to ; and they are still in use
among the tribes of south Africa. The Semitic
nations, who kept alive the belief in the one
God, form no exception. Among the Hebrews
we read of David playing on a harp to procure
the departure of the evil spirit which troubled
Saul, and that Tobit, by command of an an
gel, burned the liver of a fish to expel the evil
spirit which followed his betrothed wife ; and
Solomon, according to Josephus, was a mighty
exorcist, and left several formulas to be em
ployed in the rite. Christ, who drove out
devils himself, bears testimony to the fact that
the Jews did so in his day. This power he
also committed to his 70 disciples when he
sent them on their first mission, and promised
that it should be exercised in the church after
him. All early Christian writers bear testi
mony to the fact that exorcisms were practised
universally in the churches. This was done
more particularly for catechumens, who were
adults converted from paganism, and defiled
by the unclean initiations and practices of
demon worship. The great number of those
considered really possessed in these ages, and
VOL. vii. 3

the frequent exorcisms performed on catechu
mens during their long probation, caused the
creation of the order of exorcists, which still
exists both in the Greek and Roman Catholic
churches. In both also the rituals prescribe
exorcisms not only for adult, but even for in
fant baptism, on the ground that by the fall
the entire human race has come under the
power of Satan. And as the power of the
evil one extends to the whole inferior creation,
both churches exorcise water, salt, oil, &c.,
before blessing them and using them as sym
bols and instruments of Christ s redeeming
grace. As the earth was cursed after the fall,
so now the church extends Christ s blessing to
it and all it contains. Hence the prayers and
exorcisms prescribed in the ritual for allaying
storms, checking the ravages of hurtful insects,
and putting an end to droughts. From the
same principle proceeds the custom of blessing
habitations, fields, cattle, food, &c. Extraor
dinary exorcisms, in the present discipline of
the Roman Catholic Church, are such as are
used in cases of attested demoniacal possession.
These are only performed with the permission
of the bishop, in rare instances, and with un
usual solemnity. The only forms of exorcism
i recognized by that church are those contained
I in the Roman ritual and missal. Luther, in his
Taufbuchl&in, preserved partly the form of
renunciation of the devil ; he considered it as
useful to remind the people of the power of
sin. These views were adopted in the Lu
theran parts of Germany. In the Swedish
church, when the Augsburg Confession was
again proclaimed at the council of L psal in
1593, exorcism was retained as a free cere
mony in baptism, and on account of its utility.
Calvin andZwingli rejected it, and it became a
sort of test between Calvinists and Lutherans.
It had become gradually obsolete among the
German Lutherans when an attempt was made
in 1822 to revive its use. In the first liturgy
of Edward VI. a form of exorcism at baptism
was retained, which was omitted in the sub
sequent revision of the prayer book. Canon 72
of the church of England reserves to the bish
op the power of granting a license to exorcise.
The only remnant of the old baptismal exor
cisms to be found in the rituals of the church
of England, and the Protestant Episcopal and
Methodist Episcopal churches, is the question:
"Dost thou renounce the devil and all his
works?" See 13 i n gh am , Orig in es Ecc les ia sti-
CCB ; Stolle, De Origine Exorcismi inBaptismo;
Ferraris, Prompta Bibliotheca ; and Thesau
rus Exorcismorum ct Conjurationum (Cologne,
1608).

EXOSMOSE. See EXDOSMOSE.
EXOSTOSIS (Gr. k=, oat of, and boreov, bone),
an osseous tumor developed on the surface of
a bone, originally or eventually continuous with
its substance, circumscribed, without interior
cavity, having the same structure and life as
the bone on which it is found. There are two
varieties of this growth: in one the bone, like

EXOSTOSIS

EXPANSION

fill other tissues of the system, takes on a mor- j
bid development, an eccentric hypertrophy of j
its substance, forming a well defined tumor on |
its surface by the mere excess of interstitial
osseous deposit ; in the other the new ossific
matter is deposited originally on the surface,
under or between the humme of the periosteum,
separated from the bone at first by cartilage,
but afterward becoming consolidated to it in
the usual manner of bony processes. The first
variety may affect the greater part of a bpne,
and deserves rather the name of hyperostosis ;
and the second, by the process of ossification,
may be converted into the first ; this distinc
tion is of considerable importance in the prog
nosis and treatment of the affection. The
muscles and soft parts over an exostosis are
generally not changed, unless the tumor be of
considerable size and in the neighborhood of
large nerves and vessels ; but the periosteum
is almost always thickened, and less adherent
to the bone than usual. In the first variety the
form is regular, and the bony fibres diverge
from the natural direction to enter the tumor,
as in other forms of eccentric hypertrophy ; in
the second variety the form is irregular, of
ten fantastic and rough, and there is an evi
dent base by which it is as it were immovably
articulated to the supporting bone, except in
very old growths ; this base in recent cases is
cartilaginous and readily separated, and shows
that this kind of exostosis originates from and
is nourished by the investing periosteum; it
indicates also a method of treatment which
has been found successful, by denuding them
of their periosteum and causing their necrosis
and separation from want of nutrition. If
the cartilaginous base rests upon the bone, un
der the periosteum, the removal of this mem
brane will cause an exfoliation of the subjacent
bone; but if between the laminae of this enve
lope, a similar operation will effect the fall of
the tumor without injury to the surface of the
bone ; the cartilage soon becomes ossified, and
the exostosis forms one body with the bone,
resembling the first variety in having no basal
line of separation. In course of time the ex
cessive deposit of phosphate of lime in these
growths may convert them into a substance
having the appearance, consistence, weight,
and polish of ivory. Among the constitutional
causes of exostosis are syphilitic poisoning, the
scrofulous diathesis, and the gouty and rheu
matic conditions ; the immediate cause is in
flammation, produced by mechanical or other
means, leading to a deposit first of plastic and
then of osseous matter, the development being
similar to that of normal bone. In some con
stitutions there is such a disposition to the de
posit of ossific matter, that the slightest con
tusion is sufficient to cause the development
of these bony growths, not only on bones but
in the substance of tendons and ligaments ; j
and the affection is often hereditary. When I
the growth takes place in the cavity of a bone, j
as in the cranial cavity, it has been called en- !

ostosis, but with doubtful propriety, because in
this case the growth is upon the bone and out
side of its structure. The prognosis varies,
principally in proportion to the rapidity of the
growth, which when very slow may not be
much regarded, except when interfering with
the functions of some important organ, as a
joint, or into the cranial cavity. The treat
ment also varies with the prognosis. Often
the removal is not a matter of moment, as ex-
ostoses may be carried through life without
much inconvenience ; and the removal may be
a hazardous undertaking, as when the tumor
encroaches upon a joint whose cavity would
become opened by the operation. If the cir
culation in an important artery is impeded, re
moval becomes desirable, and should be under
taken when there is reasonable hope of a suc
cessful result. Topical applications are often
beneficial, and in tiie earlier stages, in the form
of blisters and strong counter-irritants, often
effect the removal by absorption. A strong
tincture of iodine, or a solution of iodine in
iodide of potassium, is often very serviceable.
The constitutional treatment, particularly when
syphilis has preceded the affection, should not
be neglected. Preparations of mercury may
be cautiously administered, particularly the
iodide, and iodine may be given in combination
with potash or soda salts. AYhen much pain is
experienced, anodynes may be administered,
either by the mouth or topically.

EXPANSION, the property displayed by mat
ter of enlarging in bulk by diminution of pres
sure, increase of heat, or in a few instances by
increase of cold, and also of moisture. It is
seen in solids in the common operation of set
ting the tire of a wheel ; the iron ring, being
heated in the circle of burning chips and coals,
enlarges in bulk so as easily to slip over the fel
ly, which it compresses tightly as it grows cool
on the application of cold water. It is seen in
liquids in the rise of mercury in the thermome
ter ; and in aeriform bodies in the ascending cur
rents of heated air, or more plainly in the burst
ing of a tight bladder a.s the air it encloses
swells by exposure to heat. The amount of
expansion exhibited by different bodies by any
given increase of heat is very various. Those
only which exist in the aeriform state, or as
vapors, can be classed together in this respect,
They all expand very nearly if not exactly alike
by the same increase of temperature. Like air
they increase in bulk from the freezing to the
boiling point, so that, according to Gay-Lus-
sac, 100 measures at the lower degree fill 137i
at the higher. For each degree of Fahrenheit
the expansion of air, according to the accurate
determinations of Regnault, is, under a con
stant volume, tplo- of its volume ; for the less
condensable gases it is perceptibly larger.
Each solid body has its own rate of expansion,
which however is not uniform for equal incre
ments of temperature, but increases at high
degrees in a foster ratio. This, unless special
allowance is made for it in the graduation, in-

EXPANSION

troduces error in thermometers, those marked
off in equal divisions for the high degrees evi
dently not being correct. Another source of
error in these instruments is the unequal ex
pansion of the different materials. The mer
cury from the freezing to the boiling point of
water expands, according to Regnault, in vol
ume 1 part in 55-08 ; between the latter and
392, 1 in 54*01 ; and between this and
572, 1 in 54-01. Glass expands in the same
range of temperature, in the first division,
y^Sj-.y ; in the second, ^Vs I an d m the third,
yyV-y * n a mercurial thermometer it is the
difference of expansion between the mercury
and the glass that is indicated, and the tem
perature indicated by 586 would correspond
to 667 determined by the expansion of glass
alone, or to 572 by the air thermometer.
Various instruments called pyrometers have
been devised to determine high degrees of tem
perature by the amount of expansion of bars
of different metals. They are all approximate
only in their results, unless the rate of expan
sion of the metal bars has been accurately in
vestigated by the help of the air thermometer ;
and the labor attending such a study has rarely
been bestowed upon these instruments, which
in every form are now generally superseded
by the air thermometer itself or by the electric
pyrometer of Siemens. (See PYROMETER, and
THERMOMETER.) The expansions of various
solids from 32 to 212 are presented in the
following table :

Temperature,
Centigrade.

Density.

] Temperature,
; Centigrade.

Density.

90
6
3

0-993,371
0-999,082

0-999.577
0-999,873

+ 3

{

0-999,999

1-000,000

0-999,999
0-999,969

NAMES.

Expansion
in length.

Expansion
in bulk.

Authorities.

Zinc, cast
" sheet. . .
Lead
Tin ..

1 in 336
i 1 " 340
1 " 351
1 " 516

1 in 112

1 " 118
1 " 117
1 " 172

Daniell.

Sineaton.

Silver
Brass

Copper

; 1 " 524
1 " 536

1 " 532

1 " 175
1 " 179
1 " 194

I Lavoisier and La
place.

Gold.

1 " 682

1 " 227

Bismuth. . . .
Iron
Antimony . . .
Untempered
steel
Palladium
Platinum
Glass without
lead
Flint glass

1 " 712
1 " 846

( 1 " 923

1 1 " 926
1 "1,000
1 "1,131

1 " 1,148
1 " 1,248

1 " 239

1 " 2S2
1 " 307

1 " 309
1 " 333 .
1 " 377

1 " 832

1 " 416 ,

Sinoaton.
Duloug and Petit.
Smeaton.

Lavoisier and Laplace.
Wollaston.

V Dulong and Petit.
Lavoisier and Laplace.

The expansion in bulk is found by measurement
to be about three times the linear expansion,
as it should be on geometrical principles of the
relations between the side and the volume of
a cube. When metals become liquid by fusion,
a change takes place in their density; their
specific gravity increases in the cases of iron,
bismuth, and antimony, as is shown by solid
pieces floating upon the surface of a melted
mass of the same metal. Thus it is that in
castings the mould is entirely filled in its mi
nutest parts. On the other hand, phosphorus,
mercury, gold, silver, copper, and many other
substances contract as they become solid ;
and this is the reason why coins of the last

three metals cannot be cast, but require to be
stamped. A great difference is shown in the
amount of expansion of different liquids ; thus
water gains | in bulk when its temperature is
raised from 32 to 312, oil of turpentine y^,
and mercury in a glass tube -g 1 -. A remarka
ble exception to the general law of expansion
of liquids in proportion as they are heated is
shown in the case of pure water. When this
is cooled from the temperature of 60 it con
tinues to contract until it reaches 39 2. From
this point it expands until it freezes at 32, its
rate of expansion being about the same from
39 whether it is heated or cooled; but if
kept perfectly quiescent, Despretz found that
below 32 water retains its liquidity and con
tinues to contract. He gives the following de
terminations :

An important beneficial effect of this peculiar
ity in the expansion of water is seen in the pro
tection it affords to the natural bodies of this
fluid, as lakes and ponds, against being frozen
throughout. For, as the surface of the water
is cooled below 39 by the cold air above, this
portion by its expansion becomes specifically
lighter than the water below, and consequently
remains at the top. At 32 a covering of ice
forms over the water, which being a poor con
ductor of heat preserves the great body of
water from falling to a lower temperature than
39, the point of its greatest density. The pas
sage from the liquid to the solid state on the
abstraction of heat is determined to a very con
siderable extent by the superficial tension of
the liquid ; thus Despretz finds that in fine ca
pillary tubes water may be cooled to 20 C.
( 4 F.) without solidification. So great a
power is exerted by the contraction of metals
on cooling after being expanded by heating,
that this has been applied as a mechanical
force, as in the bringing together of heavy
walls of buildings which had separated by un
equal settling. Strong iron bars are passed
horizontally through the opposite walls, and
being heated throughout their length are close
ly keyed up and then allowed to cool ; and the
process is repeated until the desired effect is
obtained. This suggests the danger of insert
ing bars of metal closely in walls of masonry,
as the force exerted by their expansion tends
to thrust portions of the wall out of place.
The expansion of water has been practically
applied to the rending of rocks, the fluid being
poured into the fissures and allowed to freeze.
This is one of the most efficient agents employed
by nature for the disintegration of rocky cliffs.
The expansion by access of moisture inexhib-
ited in the swelling of the fibre of wood or of

EXPLOSIVES

ropes. Tliis, too, is sometimes employed as a
powerful mechanical force, as by inserting
wedges of wood into cracks, or into holes
drilled for the purpose in rocks, and then cov
ering the wood with water. As this is absorbed,
the wood slowly expands, exerting a steady
pressure of surprising force. The presence of
moisture in the atmosphere is ascertained by
instruments based on this principle. (See HY
GROMETER.) For the effect of expansion of
steam, see STEAM.

EXPLOSIVES. An explosion may be occasioned
by the sudden removal of resistance to an ex
panding force, as in the case of steam boilers;
but it is more frequently the result of a sudden
generation of energy by chemical reactions.
Most explosions of this kind are instances of
rapid combustion ; and an explosive compound,
as distinguished from a merely inflammable
one, may be defined as one which contains with
in itself the elements of combustion or other
chemical change, liberating mechanical energy.
Thus the fire damp of coal mines, when pure,
is inflammable ; but mixed with a certain pro
portion of atmospheric oxygen, it becomes ex
plosive. The ingredients of an explosive com
pound remain inert unless the condition of
chemical reaction is supplied. This is usually
heat, produced by the direct contact of a heated
body, or by pressure or percussion. In some
instances, however, the introduction of a new
substance, or the change of aggregate condi
tion in one or more of the ingredients, may
occasion explosion. The number of explosives
known to chemists is considerable. Chiefly
those which are employed in the arts will be
considered in this article. Gunpowder. Of
these, gunpowder is the most widely employed,
partly because the longest known, but mainly
because it is not liable to spontaneous change,
or explosion from other causes than a very
high temperature (that of a spark or flame, for
example), and because the manufacture can be
cheaply carried on to any required extent, and
can be so varied as to control the qualities of
the product according to the proposed use.
Gunpowder presents to the eye a mass of
grains, usually angular and of uniform size,
dark color, and polished surface. The different
varieties range from 0*5 to 4*5 mm. in diameter
of grain. Its specific gravity is 1*8 to 2 0. It
explodes when rapidly heated above 300 C.
It is composed of charcoal, sulphur, and nitre,
the two former being the combustible ingre
dients, and the latter, by the surrender of its
oxygen, supporting their combustion. Ac-
cording to the theory formerly held, the nitre
is reduced during the combustion of rifle
powder to nitrogen and potassium, the latter
forming with sulphur potassium sulphide, while
all the oxygen combines with the carbon of
the charcoal to form carbon dioxide (carbonic
acid). The formula expressing this reaction
would be 2KX

I coal, 13*32. From blasting powder, on the
\ other hand, carbonic oxide as well as carbonic
acid is formed, and the theoretical reaction is
1 shown in the equation KNOs-f S + 2C=KS +
N + CO 2 + CO, requiring the proportions : nitre,
64*4; sulphur, 20*4; carbon, 15 2. How near
ly these formulas are adhered to will appear
from the following tables of analyses :

I. MILITARY POWDER.

VARIETIES.

Char
coal.

Sul
phur.

Nitre.

Authority.

Theoretical proportions
Austrian

13-32
13-1
15-0

13-42
14-22
13-7
15-0
12-5
12-5
13-5
17-7
14 (or
15)

OR SP

14-4
12-5
17-0
14-0
12-0
13-5
15-5

11-27
18-2
12-0

5LASTIJ

15-2
21-30
18-00
15-00
13-00
20-48
21-37
19-43
12-00
20-95
10-70
15-S3

11-84
11-3

10-0

12-80
8-63
10-1

10-0

12-5
12-5
11-5
11-7

10-0

ORTING

9-9

7-S
8-0
8-0

10-0

9-0

10-5

9-84
8-6

8-0

"G P&lt;Tfl

20-4
18-45
20-00
20-00
13-40
20 44
10-50
10-24
18-00
11-75

10-00

l.Vs!

74-84
75-6 Linck.
75 t Lottner.
73-78 Karolfi.
77-15
702 Ure.
75-0 Otto.
75-0 Combes.
75 Magnus.
75-0 Gottlieb.
70-6 Meyer.
70 (or Ordnance MY.n-
75) ual.

POWDER.

75-7 !
79-7 Otto.
75-0
7s-0
78-0 Combes.
709 Otto.
74 . Revue de 1 Ar-
tillerie.
78-99 Bunsen.
73-2 i Prechtl.
80-0 ; Eziha.

*DER.

64-4 !
60-19 Eziha.
02-00 k -
05-00 Combes.
73-60 Eziha.
C3-12 Lottner.
01-?4
64- 32

70-00 :

07-20 Dingier.
60-70 Eziha.
68-34

" ordnance . .
" small arms
English

French

Prussian

Eussian

United States

II. ElFLE

American

English

French

" "B"
German

Italian
Russian

III. 1

Theoretical proportions
Austrian

French "round"
French " ordinary ". .

Freiberg " double " . . .
Uartz, coarse, strong. .
u medium
" weak, fine
Italian

Mansfeld

Eussian
Westphalian

and tlifi proportions of ingredients in 100 parts
would be: nitre. 74*84; sulphur, 11-84; char-

These variations are due partly to the variable
quality of the ingredients, particularly the
charcoal, which always contains water and
ash. The best coal (from light non-resinous
wood, like poplar, black alder, or willow)
rarely contains over 83 per cent, of carbon.

; The composition of powder has been also
varied from the theoretical formulas to ob
tain a variety in its effects, and the researches

| of Bunsen, Shishkoff, Karolyi, Craig, and Fe-
dorow have shown that the simple reactions

I upon which the formulas were based do not
take place ; that the products of combustion,
which vary somewhat with the pressure under
which ignition takes place, comprise, among
the gases, small quantities of carbonic oxide,
hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and free ox
ygen, and, in the smoke and residue, chiefly
the sulphate and carbonate, not the sulphide,
of potassium. Bunsen found the gases from
rifle powder to be but 31 -4 per cent, of the
wejght. The pressure generated by the com-

EXPLOSIVES

bustiou of gunpowder has been variously esti
mated. Gatzschmann gives the following ta
ble, compiled from different authorities :

Authority. Estimate in atmospheres.

Eobin 1.000

Ilutton 1.700 to 2.SOO

Myer S.sOO to 4,000

Briancon 4.000

Prechtl 4.400

Kannarsch and Ileeren 5.000

Gurlt 3.930 to S,G40

Piobert 7.500

Bernoulli 10.000

Rumfiml 29,178 to 54,740

The usual estimate at present is for rifle pow
der 4,000, and for blasting powder 2,000 at
mospheres. It is believed that in practice
half these figures are realized. The latest re
searches upon the heat set free by the com
bustion of powder, those of Roux and Sarran

(Lomptes Menuus, iuiy, IOM;, give me 101-
lowing results:

VARIETIES.

COMPOSITION.

C.ilork s
per kilo
gramme.

Weight of !
gases per
kilo
gramme.

Nitre.

Sul
phur.

Char-
coal.

Fine sporting

78
75
74
72
62

10
12-5
10-5
13

12-5
15-5
15
18

607-3
752-9
730-8
694-2
570-2

0-397
0-412
0-414
0-440 i
0-499

B musket

Blastin-

The time within which this pressure is devel
oped is an important element in the practical
effect. The particles of the powder are suc
cessively ignited and combustion becomes gen
eral. The rate of ignition is more rapid, and
that of combustion is slower, the larger the
grain of the powder. The finest-grained pow
der, when pressed closely together, behaves
like a single mass, burning with comparative
slowness, and hence showing less explosive
power. It is employed in rockets and fire
works. For rifled guns, a coarse grain is now
preferred, since its quick ignition gives the
force required to press the projectile into the
grooves, while its prolonged combustion aug
ments the pressure until the projectile leaves the
gun with maximum velocity. Blasting pow
der, which is required to lift and split, rather
than to throw, is usually coarse-grained, though
modern practice is tending to the employment
of "quicker" powders; a change due to the
observed effectiveness of the nitre-glycerine
compounds. The composition of ordinary
blasting powder, as above shown, effects a
slow combustion. A blasting powder now
used to a considerable extent in this country
contains Chili saltpetre (nitrate of soda) in
stead of nitre. It is unsuitable for sporting
or military purposes. Another valuation from
the usual formula is Oliver s powder, made in
Pennsylvania, in which peat is substituted for
charcoal, with increased safety of manufacture
and cheapness of product. The Yrest Virginia
mineral grahamite, a hydrocarbon, has also
been experimented upon as a substitute for

I charcoal, with favorable results. Common
j powder soaked at the moment of using in
i nitro-glycerine has been used in Swedish quar-
i ries, with trebled effectiveness. Dynamite is
safer and better. Pyroneue is a cheap, infe-
, rior blasting powder, made of 52 5 parts nitrate
j of soda, 20 parts sulphur, and 27 5 parts spent
i tan. In Davey s powder a part of the char-
| coal is replaced by flour, starch, &c., for safety
in preparation. Slow-burning powders used
in Germany (Xeumeyers, Kiip s, &c.) contain
less sulphur and more coal than the ordinary
i kind. They are recommended for safety and
I small amount of smoke. An intimate mixture
I of 3 parts nitre, 2 parts dry carbonate of
! potassa, and 1 part sulphur will when slow-
j ly heated (e.g., in an iron spoon) first melt, and
soon after explode with deafening noise. The
| sulphur acts upon the carbonate of potassa,
producing " liver of sulphur," a mixture of the
sulphide with the sulphate of potassa; this is
suddenly oxidized by the decomposition of
j the nitric acid, and nitrogen gas is liberated.
The experiment should be tried with a small
quantity only, say as much as will cover
the tip of a knife blade. (See GUNPOWDER.)
Pyroxyline. In the explosives classed above
under gunpowder, the sulphur plays the part
of a stimulant of chemical action, by its supe
rior readiness to ignite. It is the nitric acid
and the carbon which, forming voluminous
gases, generate the explosive force; and these
substances can be brought together in such
ways as to form explosive compounds which
have the advantage of leaving no solid residues
| or smoke. Pyroxyline is the name given to
the class of detonating substances produced by
the action of concentrated nitric acid upon the
cellulose of cotton, hemp, paper, sawdust, &c.
Gun cotton was discovered in 184G by Schon-
bein, and also by Bottger. The conversion of
cotton into gun cotton by the action of nitric
acid scarcely changes its outward appearance.
Chemically, it contains much hyponitric acid.
It will ignite at 50 to 150 C., and leaves no
residue after explosion. Its effectiveness is
variously estimated at from two to six (prob
ably four) times that of gunpowder. Accord
ing to the best modern formula, gun cotton is
trinitro-cellulose, C 8 H7(NOa)aO6. . The pro
ducts of combination are entirely gaseous.
Karolyi gives the following, in 100 parts:

CON RTITCENTS.

By volume.

By weight.

2^-55

93-92

Carbonic acid .

19-11

80-43

11-17

6-47

Binoxide of nitrogen

8-83

9-59

Nitropcn

8-56

8 71

Carbon ...

1-85

1-60

21 93

14-28

100-00

, THien burned under pressure, the nitric oxide
; reacts more completely with the carburetted
, hydrogen, and the result of this and other

EXPLOSIVES

causes is a greater volume of evolved gases.
The actual product of heat units as compared
with the combustion of gunpowder is propor
tional, according to Dr. Craig, to the respective
amounts of oxygen concerned in the two cases;
but the greater volume of the gases from gun
cotton renders their temperature lower and
their mechanical effect greater. This material
burns without explosion when ignited in the
open air. Ordinary percussion sometimes ig
nites it a source of peril in packing bore holes.
The acid and aqueous gases which it evolves
have prevented its use in ordnance ; moreover,
it is very hygroscopic and liable to spontaneous
decomposition, sometimes leading to explosion,
rendering its storage perilous. Many of these
objections, together with that of bulk, have
been removed by Abel s process of manufac
turing gun cotton in compressed solid cylinders,
which burn harmlessly, can be stored and trans
ported with safety, and explode with great
power when ignited under confinement by
means of a detonating powder. The experi
ments of Gen. Lenk, in Austria, led to this im
provement. The compressed gun-cotton is
adopted in that country for artillery. Gun
cotton is used as a filter for strong acids, and
also (dissolved in ether) as a varnish. (See
COLLODION, and GUN COTTON.) Xyloidine is
the white, pulverulent, and very explosive sub
stance obtained by Braconnet in 1833, by
treating starch with concentrated nitric acid.
Lithofracteur is the name originally given to a
white blasting powder, consisting of coarsely
ground saltpetre and sulphur, with a third
substance, supposed to be sawdust or bran,
treated with nitric acid. The improved litho-
fracteur described below is a different sub
stance. Schultze s chemical powder, some
times called wood gunpowder (introduced in
1864), contains no sulphur; and the charcoal
is replaced with wood which has been tritu
rated, deprived of its acids, soluble salts, pro-
teine, and albumen, and treated with concen
trated sulphuric and nitric acid. These grains |
of wood are subsequently saturated with nitrate
of potash or baryta, or both, and dried. The
powder can be wet and dried again without
weakening it; hence it may be kept or trans
ported in a damp state with perfect safety. It
is about one third as dense as gunpowder, is
more powerful, and leaves but a trifling residue.
But it seems to have been superseded by nitro
glycerine compounds. Some inexplicable ex
plosions have occurred with it. The gases
produced from it in mining have been com
plained of, possibly without good reason.
Haloxyline is a powder tried in Austria, which
contains no sulphur, and in which the char
coal is apparently represented by woody fibre.
Like the slow-burning Neumeyer powder, it
gives comparatively little noxious gas, is hygro
scopic, and works better in solid than in fis
sured rocks. It is asserted to burn harmlessly
in the air; but like many other "harmless"
powders, it has given rise to some strange and

disastrous explosions. The above account of
its composition follows the Oesterreichische
Zeitschrift (1866 and 1867); Wagner s " Tech
nology " (1870) says it contains charcoal, nitre,
and yellow prussiate of potassa. Nitro-glyce
rine. This substance, known also as fulmina
ting oil, nitroleum, trinitrine, glyceryl nitrate,
and glonoine, and undoubtedly the most impor
tant explosive since gunpowder, was discovered
in 1847 by Sombrero, then a student with Pe-
louze in Paris. It is formed by treating gly
cerine with concentrated sulphuric and nitric
acid. (See GLYCERINE.) Until 1864 it found
no practical application, except as a homoeo
pathic remedy for headaches similar to those
which it causes. In that year Alfred Nobel,
a Swede of Hamburg, began its manufacture
on a large scale, and, though he sacrificed
a brother to the terrible agent he had created,
has persevered until in its later and safer forms
nitro-glycerine has come into wide use and
popularity. It is a clear, oily, colorless, odor
less, and slightly sweet liquid, heavier than
water and insoluble in it, but soluble in ether
and methyl alcohol ; crystallizes in long needles
at 4 to 11 C. At 15 C. it becomes after
a while thick ; prolonged exposure to 2 C.
solidifies it. It detonates in the open air, under
a strong blow or shock ; ignites with difficulty
when poured out in a thin sheet, and even then
burns incompletely without explosion. It can
be evaporated at 100 C., if boiling is avoided ;
but boiling, or the temperature of 180 C.,
causes an explosion. Confined or frozen, so as
to permit the instantaneous transmission of an
impulse through the mass, it will explode,
sometimes under a very slight shock. It is usu
ally exploded with a detonating fuse. W^hen
badly prepared or preserved, it is liable to de
composition, yielding gases which exert a pres
sure w r ithin the containing vessel and create a
condition of perilous sensitiveness to external
shocks. The modern formula is Cs^NaOg, or

CsIIs / r\ i . ij. _ ..i ?_ CsHe

(N0 2 )s

O s ; hence it is glycerine,

in which 3 atoms of II have been replaced by
3 atoms of NO 2 . Its specific gravity is 1-6;
and 100 parts yield on combustion:

COKSTITUENTS.

By weight.

By volume.

55400

4fi 900

3-5

3.900

Nitrogen

18-5

23,600

100-0

129,800

According to L Hote, the oxygen is united
with part of the nitrogen as protoxide. The
heat liberated by the combustion is estimated
to be twice as much as that of gunpowder;
hence, while one volume of the latter yields
in practice 200 volumes of cold gases, expanded
by heat to 800 volumes, an equal weight of
nitro-glycerine yields 1,298 volumes of gas, ex
panded to 10,384 volumes, giving 13 times the
force of gunpowder. But the explosion takes

EXPLOSIVES

place much more suddenly than that of gnnpow- I
der; hence the practical gain in effect is greater
than the above figures show. The suddenness ;
with which the force is developed renders j
nitro-glycerme unsuitable for ordnance. The |
very dangerous character of this material has
led to various restrictions upon its transporta
tion. It continues to be used in many places,
and is prepared on the spot as it is required.
In the Hoosac tunnel, Massachusetts, the Uni
ted States works at Ilallett s Point, New York,
and at San Francisco, it was employed. Its
insolubility in water and its liquid form and
high gravity render it very convenient for sub
marine operations and blasting in wet ground.
But its form brings a danger that portions of
it, unexploded even in bore holes, may be scat
tered in rock fissures, or portions may be split
accidentally, or may remain in vessels once
filled, and afterward be exploded by accident.
The proper way to get rid of it is to pour it
into a running stream. To remove the great
dangers connected with the preparation and
transportation of this material, many proposi
tions have been made, principally for mixing
the oil with some substance (wood spirit, sul
phate of zinc, lime or magnesia, &c.) which
would render it inexplosive, and which could
afterward be removed by simple means (e. g.,
by water) when the oil was to be used. None
of these have come into use. When congealed
it has been thought more dangerous than when
fluid ; but this view is now contradicted by
many practical authorities. Certainly careless
handling and thawing of frozen nitro-glycerme
has caused much loss of life and property.
Through the pores or in the stomach, even in
small quantities, this oil causes a terrible head
ache and colic. Headache likewise results from
inhaling the gases of its combustion; but all
persons are not alike affected by these ; and it
is probable that most persons suffer little in
convenience from this cause when they have
become accustomed to it. Nobel introduced
in Swedish quarries the practice of soaking
common gunpowder with nitro-glycerme be
fore blasting. The effect produced was very
great; but this method was soon superseded
by the invention of dynamite or giant powder,
also introduced by Nobel. Dynamite is finely
pulverized silex, or silicious ashes, or infusorial
earth (most frequently the last), saturated with
about three times its weight of nitro-glycerine,
and constituting a mass resembling damp Gra
ham flour. The pulverulent form prevents the
transmission of ordinary sudden shocks, except
under pressure in a confined space. The pres
sure of the inert mineral constituents serves
also to absorb heat, so that a high temperature
cannot be so easily imparted to the whole ; but
when imparted, this temperature effects a great
expansion of the gases and increased effective
ness of explosion. Ignited in the open air, dyna
mite burns quietly with nitrous fumes. Exploded
(usually by means of a fulminating fuse or cap),
it gives carbonic acid, nitrogen, and hydrogen,

and leaves a white ash, with little or no smoke.
Under favorable circumstances, the effective
ness of dynamite is equal or superior to that
of nitro-glycerine ; a fact not surprising, if it
be remembered that the latter is liable to scat
ter unexploded drops, by reason of the maxi
mum rapidity of its ignition. Dynamite is now
generally recognized as the safest of all explo
sives. It is not affected by a prolonged tem
perature of 100 0., nor is it as dangerous as
nitro-glycerine when it solidifies (at 8 C.).
Neither light nor electricity nor ordinary shocks
cause it to decompose or explode. The prin
cipal dangers connected with its use are those
of the strong fulminating powders used in the
percussion fuses to explode it. It is also pos
sible that if dynamite is carelessly made, it may
contain an excess of nitro-glycerine, which,
overcoming the capillary force of the mineral
particles, may collect in drops and settle from
the mass, becoming a source of serious accidents.
Moreover, it may be that freezing, or thawing
after freezing, has a tendency to segregate the
oil. Dualline, introduced in 1869 by Lieut.
Dittmar, is another nitro-glycerine powder,
consisting probably (the exact composition is
a secret) of Sclmltze s wood gunpowder, sat
urated with this oil. Another formula is, in
100 parts, 50 of nitro-glycerine, 30 of fine saw
dust, and 20 of nitre. It has been considera
bly used in Germany and the United States.
As compared with dynamite (which it resem
bles in many respects), it has the advantage
that it can be exploded under confinement with
an ordinary blasting fuse; that it does not
congeal so easily as dynamite ; and that it is
cheaper. As a disadvantage, Serlo mentions,
that under some conditions it partially ex
plodes, partially burns, and in this case pro
duces noxious gases. Improved lithofracteur,
or lithofracteur-dynamite, manufactured by
Krebs at Deutz near Cologne, is supposed to
be the former lithofracteur saturated with ni
tro-glycerine. Another formula is, in 100
parts, 52 of nitro-glycerine, 30 of silex, 12 of
stone coal, 4 of nitrate of soda, and 2 of sul
phur. This would be a mixture of dynamite
with a very bad gunpowder. The safety and
effectiveness of dynamite are claimed for this
powder, with an additional advantage that
it can bo exploded at much lower temperature
as low, according to some experiments, as
12 C. Nobel has recently patented new
nitro-glycerine powders, of different degrees
of strength. The strongest consists of 68 parts
nitrate of baryta and 12 parts rich bituminous
coal, saturated with 12 parts nitro-glycerine.
Nearly as powerful is a mixture of 70 parts
nitrate of baryta, 10 parts resin, and 12 parts
nitro-glycerine. The effect of each may be in
creased by adding 5 to 6 parts sulphur. They
are exploded with percussion fuses. Dr. Jus
tus Fuchs, formerly in Nobel s employ, has
proposed as an improvement on dynamite a
compound containing 85 instead of V5 per cent,
of nitro-glycerine, and instead of infusorial

EXPLOSIVES

earth a chemically prepared substance, possess- j
ing greater absorbing power, and capable of j
complete combustion with almost no solid resi
due. The Colonia powder, manufactured in I
Cologne, is said to be a black gunpowder, with I
SO to 35 per cent, of nitro-glyeerine. It is ex- |
ploded by artificial means only. Chlorate of
Potassa Powders. The property of acids con
taining large proportions of oxygen to part with
it readily is strongly shown by chloric acid,
HC10 3 , in which the oxygen is very loosely held.
The anhydric acid cannot be isolated ; but the
salts (particularly of potassa and baryta) have
been extensively employed in the manufacture
of explosives, by mixing with combustible ma
terials. Even the heat of percussion or friction
causes them when so mixed to detonate. A
few centigrammes of chlorate of potassa rubbed
in a mortar with sulphur or sulphide of anti
mony, will explode loudly and perhaps shatter
the mortar. A chlorate should never be mixed
by rubbing with a combustible substance. A
mixture of chlorate of potassa with sugar, sul
phur, sulphide of antimony, or similar substan
ces, may be ignited by sunlight alone, or by a
drop of sulphuric acid. On this principle were
based the matches (now out of fashion) which
were tipped with a mixture of chlorate of po
tassa and sugar, and were ignited by pressing
them upon asbestus, saturated with sulphuric
acid. During the French revolution, it was
attempted to replace nitre in gunpowder with
chlorate of potassa ; but the mixture was too
explosive for artillery purposes. Berthollet s
experiments at Essonne, in 1792, were stopped
by a terrible explosion ; he had a narrow es
cape, and several were killed. A cane, striking
powder on the floor, was the cause. Percus
sion caps were formerly filled with gunpowder
out of which the nitre had been leached, and
to which this chlorate had then been added.
Sir William Armstrong uses a mixture of amor
phous phosphorus and chlorate of potassa as a
percussion powder for discharging ordnance.
A mixture of equal weights of black sulphide
of antimony and chlorate of potassa is general
ly employed for this purpose. White gunpow
der, introduced in 1849 by Augendre, for bronze
ordnance and shells, is composed of 28 parts
yellow prussiate of potassa, 23 parts loaf sugar,
and 49 parts chlorate of potassa. According
to Wagner, the gaseous products of complete
combustion should be 47 4 per cent., and the
solid residue (cyanide and chloride of potassium
and carburet of iron) 52 6 per cent. The gases
from 100 grammes would amount, at C. and
709 mm. barometric pressure, to 40,080 cubic
centimetres ; and at 2604-5 C., the estimated
temperature of combustion, to 431,102 cubic
centimetres. The cost and corrosiveness of
this powder have prevented its adoption.
Blake s "safety explosive," patented in Eng
land, consists of one part sulphur and two of
chlorate of potash. These substances are kept
dry and separate, and mixed when required.
The powder burns slowly when ignited, but its

explosion is effected by means of a detonating
tube, containing the compound itself, fulmina
ting mercury, and ordinary powder. The last
is ignited. A blasting powder is made at
Plymouth, England, consisting of tan bark
soaked in chlorate of potash and covered with
powdered sulphur. It is said to burn slowly
in the open air, but to explode with great en
ergy when confined. Explosive paper is pre
pared by impregnating paper with a mixture
of 9 parts chlorate of potassa, 4 of nitre, 3*
of ferrocyanide of potassium, 3-| of powdered
charcoal, T |-o of starch, T ^ of chromate of po
tassa, and 80 of water which has been boiled
about an hour. The paper, when dry, cannot
be exploded by jar or percussion, or by a tem
perature less than that of its combustion. Ex
periments with it in Austria have given good
results. Chloride of nitrogen is perhaps the
most terrible explosive known to chemists.
Dulong, who discovered it in 1812, and lost an
eye and several fingers on the occasion, kept
the discovery a secret, lest other chemists
should repeat his perilous experiments. The
unfortunate result was that Davy, who subse
quently made the same discovery, was also in
jured. It is sometimes unintentionally pro
duced in the treatment of ammoniacal solutions
with chlorine. In such cases the chemist, hav
ing discovered its presence, quietly retires,
locks the laboratory, and leaves the dreadful
intruder to spontaneous and harmless decom
position, which takes place in the course of
a day or two. Hypochloric acid, in gas or
liquid form, is scarcely less dangerous. Picrate
of Potash Powders. Picric acid, obtained by
the action of nitric acid upon carbolic acid,
is a compound of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
and oxygen, the formula, as given in Wag
ner s " Technology," being C 6 H3(NO 2 ) 3 0. Its
salts are explosive per se, and have been used
in torpedoes. Their preparation has given
rise to some frightful explosions; one at the
Sorbonne, in 1869, killed five persons, and
wounded many more. Dessignolle s powder
for blasting is a mixture of picrate and nitrate
of potassa, to which for a gunpowder charcoal
is added. Sulphur is unnecessary. The ad
vantages claimed for it are the harmless charac
ter of the products of combustion (nitrogen,
aqueous vapor, and carbonate of potash), and
the control of its power by variation of the per
centage of the picrate. Ten grades are manu
factured, containing from 8 to 20 per cent, of
this substance, the lowest being equal in effec
tiveness to common powder. Ammoniakrut
is a new powder invented by the Swedish
chemist Norrbin, and believed to resemble the
foregoing, but to contain picrate of ammonia
instead of potassa. It is black, doughy, and
damp ; is ignited with difficulty by flame ; ex
plodes under percussion ; does not congeal at
ordinary temperatures ; has an explosive ener
gy exceeding even that of dynamite ; but is
said to be liable to decomposition, to attract
moisture and lose power when stored, and to

EXPLOSIVES

be useless if once frozen. It leaves no solid |
residue. Fulminates. The compounds of cy- !
anogen comprise many highly explosive sub- i
stances, among which the fulminates, or salts of
fulminic acid, are the most important. Fulminic
acid (Lat. fubnen, a thunderbolt) is, according
to the most modern formula (Ivekule s), a nitro-
compound of the group C-JIsX (acetonitril),
and hence called nitro-acetonitril. One of the
hydrogen atoms is replaced with an atom of
XO 4 , giving for the acid C^XO^HaX. In the
salts the hydrogen is replaced with a metal ;
thus the fulminate of silver is C4(XO 4 )Ag 2 X.
This hypothesis explains the fact that the ful
minates react very differently from the cya-
nates (mono-,di-, and tribasic), all of which have
the same proportions of C, X, and metallic
base, but doubtless different atomic arrange
ments. Mercury fulminate (empirical formula,
CiNaC^Hga) is prepared by dissolving at a
moderate heat, in 12 parts of nitric acid of the
specific gravity of 1*35, 1 part of mercury, and
adding 11 parts of 90 to 92 per cent, alcohol.
Liebig recommends a glass flask, the capacity
of which is 18 times the volume of the mixture.
In this the mercury is dissolved in cold acid,
the nitrous fumes being retained in the flask.
The solution is poured into a second vessel,
containing one half the alcohol; and the mix
ture is then returned into the first flask, where
it reabsorbs the nitrous fumes. In a few mo
ments bubbles rise from the bottom, where a
heavy liquid begins to be segregated. By gentle
shaking this is mixed with the supernatant
liquid, and a tempestuous ebullition takes place,
with evolution of white fumes, and some ni
trous acid, the mass becoming black from segre
gated metal. The remainder of the alcohol is
gradually added; the black color disappears,
and the fulminate is deposited in sparkling
brownish gray crystals. The vapors are chiefly
carbonic acid and nitrous ether. Mercury ful
minate is scarcely soluble in cold water, but
dissolves in 180 parts of boiling water, which
gives a means of refining it by recrystallization.
It explodes at 180 C., or under friction or
percussion between hard substances. When
moistened with 5 per cent, of water, only the
portion actually struck explodes. In contact
with a tightly packed explosive mixture, its
detonation explodes the mixture more rapidly
and completely than any other method of
firing. Hence its universal employment in the
manufacture of percussion caps and detonating
fusees. According to the French method, one
kilo of mercury gives 1J kilo of fulminate,
sufficient for 40,000 caps. It is ground with
30 per cent, of water under a wooden muller
on a marble bed, and parts gunpowder are
added for every 10 of fulminate. The mixture
is dried, granulated, and sized. A drop of gum
is introduced into each cap, and the fulminate
powder is dropped upon it. Some caps are
varnished, to make them water-proof. English
fulminating powder consists of 3 parts mercury
fulminate, 5 parts chlorate of potassa, 1 part

sulphur, and 1 part powdered glass. Gum is
sometimes added in the mixture. Nitre is also
recommended. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett s
Harbor, X. Y., whose extensive and perilous
experiments are described in the " American
Journal of Science" for January, 1832, found
that 1 part oxide of tin with 3 parts mercury
fulminate, ground together with a stiff solution
of starch, made a very effective compound.
During these experiments Mr. Guthrie dis
covered chloroform, as did French and German
investigators at about the same time. Silver
fulminate is more explosive and dangerous than
the mercury salt. It may be made like the
latter, using fine silver instead of mercury ; or
by introducing finely pulverized nitrate of
silver into concentrated alcohol, shaking it
well, and adding an equal amount of fuming
nitric acid ; or by treating freshly precipitated
oxide of silver with ammonia. It is employed
in the manufacture of explosive toys. Gold
and platinum fulminates are similar compounds
to the foregoing, but they are not employed in
the arts. Fulminating aniline, or chromate of
diazobenzole, obtained by the action of ni
trous acid upon aniline, and the precipitation
of the product by the aid of a hydrochloric
acid solution of bichromate of potassa, is,
according to Caro and Griess, an efficient sub
stitute for fulminating mercury. General The
ory of Explosives. Explosive substances are
said to " possess potential energy by virtue of
certain unsatisfied affinities between the ele
ments of which they are compounded." In
the act of explosion these affinities are satis
fied, and the potential energy becomes kinetic,
taking first the form of heat, which is par
tially expended in giving elastic force to the
new gaseous compounds generated. Perhaps
this statement does not exactly cover cases
like the chloride of nitrogen, which explodes
by dissociation, leaving free chlorine and ni
trogen. The elastic force at any instant of an
explosion and the total energy developed are
two different things. The intensity of the
force depends upon : 1, the amount of actual
heat developed ; 2, the volume which a unit
of the mass of the products occupies at the
instant ; 3, the specific heat of these products ;
or, in other words, upon : 1, the volume of the
products; 2, their temperature. The total
energy is dependent upon: 1, the ratio be
tween final volume of products and original
volume of explosive; 2, the total actual heat
of the explosion. The maximum intensity de
pends chiefly upon the rapidity with which the
conversion of the explosive into gas takes place,
| and this depends on varying conditions, no ex-
j plosion being absolutely instantaneous. The
| primary condition is the rapidity with which
j the chemical reaction among the constituents
takes place. Some, as nitrate and chlorate
of potassa, require heat for their decomposi
tion; others are probably dissociated by the
i vibrations produced by percussion or the ex
ploding spark, as nitro-glycerine and chloride

EXPONENT

EXPRESS

of nitrogen. Some have so little stability that
sound alone is sufficient to precipitate the ex
plosion, as iodide of nitrogen, which may be
exploded by sounding a timing fork of the
proper pitch in its vicinity. When heat is re
quired, the rapidity of decomposition will de
pend also upon the rate of ignition throughout
the mass. Thus in a charge of granular gun
powder, the flame from the vent passes be
tween the grains, progressively enveloping their
surfaces, and through the pores of each into
the mass, its progress being much hastened by
the enormous tension produced when the ex
plosion is confined. Hence the rate of igni
tion (and consequently the intensity of the
force at a given instant) may be varied by
varying the size of pores and interstices in the
mass ; a fruitful field of experiment and im
provement, particularly in gunpowder. It is
evident also that the tension is dependent upon
the resistance to the expansion of the gases,
and will rapidly increase unless the restraint
is withdrawn in proportion to their progressive
development. The increase of tension brings
with it increased rapidity of ignition and
decomposition, and this in turn augments
the tension, which is thus a self-multiplying
quantity. Restraint may be offered by an en
closing solid material, or by the inertia of
the gases themselves, and the surrounding air.
If a block of compressed gun cotton is ignited
in the open air by a flame of moderate tem
perature, it will often consume away very
gradually ; but if ignited by an electric spark,
or the impact of a bullet, it will explode with
great violence ; the probable explanation being
that in the former case the first ignition at
lower temperature permitted the gases to ex
pand without producing a very high tension,
this relation continuing to the end, while in
the latter case the first ignition was violent,
and the relief too slow to prevent a self-mul
tiplying tension.

EXPONENT (Lat. exponere, to manifest), in
arithmetic and algebra, a small figure or letter,
written to the right of and above a quantity or
algebraic term, to show how often the quantity
or term must be taken as a factor. Thus, 3 4
(which is read " the fourth power of 3,"
or " 3, fourth power ") signifies that 3 is to be
taken as a factor four times, or multiplied into
itself three times, as follows: 3x3 9; 3x9
=27 ; 3 x 27=81. In like manner (a + !&gt;} e sig
nifies that the sum of the numbers represented
by a and & must be multiplied consecutively
into itself as many times less one as there are
units in c. (See ALGEBRA.) Exponential equa
tions and functions are those in which the ex
ponents contain unknown or variable quanti
ties; such as y=a x , in which a is the only
known quantity. Exponential equations are
usually reduced to logarithmic, and thus solved.

EXPRESS, a messenger or conveyance sent
on any special errand, particularly a courier
despatched with important communications.
In the United States the word is applied to a

system organized for the transportation of mer
chandise or parcels of any kind. This system
was originated March 4, 1839, when, agreeably
to announcement published for several days
in the newspapers, Mr. William F. Ilarn-
den of Boston made a trip from that city to
New York as a public messenger. His route
was by the Boston and Providence railroad and
the Long Island sound steamboat, which con
nected with that line. He had in charge a few
booksellers bundles and* orders, and some bro
kers parcels of New York and southern and
western bank notes to deliver or exchange a
service for which he charged an adequate com
pensation. Mr. Harnden proposed also to take
the charge of freight, and attend to its early
delivery, for which purpose he had made a
contract with the above named railroad and
steamboat companies, and was to make four
trips per week. The project recommended it
self to business men, especially those whose
communications between the two cities were
frequent. It was particularly acceptable to
the press, to which Mr. Harnden made himself
very useful in the voluntary transmission of
the latest intelligence, in advance of the mail.
A year later (1840) a competing express was
started by P. B. Burke and Alvan Adams, the
ownership and sole operation of which soon
devolved upon the latter. In 1841 Mr. Adams
associated with himself William B. Dinsmore
of Boston as his partner, and gave him the
charge of their New York office. Adams and
co. s express was carried by the Norwich and
Worcester route. In 1840 D. Brigham, jr.,
IIarnden ? s New York agent, became his part
ner, and soon after went to England, where he
laid the foundation of Harnden and co. s foreign
business. He returned in 1841, and in that
year their line was extended as far south as
Philadelphia, and west to Albany. A year or
two later Adams and co. established E. S.
Sandford as their agent in Philadelphia, and
he became a partner in their business there.
He also became associated with S. M. Shoema
ker of Baltimore in an express from Philadel
phia to Washington, D. C. About the same
time Harnden and co. s Boston, Springfield,
and Albany express was purchased by Thomp
son and co., who gave it their name, which it
still bears. About the same period Gay and
co., afterward Gay and Kinsley, commenced
what is now known as Kinsley and co. s ex
press, running between New York and Boston,
via Newport and Fall River. The express
lines from Albany to Buffalo, and thence to the
remoter west, were established by Henry Wells.
The first express west of Buffalo was com
menced in April, 1845, by Messrs. Wells, Far
go, and Dunning, under the style of Wells and
co. It was disposed of two years afterward to
William G. Fargo and William A. Livingston,
who continued it, under the style of Living
ston and Fargo, till March 18, 1850, when it
was consolidated with the expresses of Wells
and co., and Butterfield, Wasson, and co. The

EXPRESS

EXTRADITION

express line last named had been created about
a year previous by John Butterfield. These
three concerns, when united, were called the
"American Express Company." William F.
Harnden, the founder of the express business,
died in 1848, leaving little or no property. In
the mean time numerous short express routes
and local expresses had come into successful
operation throughout New England. Messrs.
Pullen, Virgil, and Sjtone, who by their effi
cient services had contributed largely to the
success of Harnden s business in its infancy,
now started an express between New York
and Montreal, and laid the foundation of the
"National Express Company." Wells, Fargo,
and co. s California express was created in the
city of New York in 1852. Adams and co. s
California express, established in 1849, was
succeeded in 1855 by that of Freeman and co.
In 1854 Adams and co., the Harnden express
(then owned by Thompson and Livingston),
Kinsley and co., and Hoey and co. were con
solidated in a joint stock institution, now fa
mous as the " Adams Express Company." The
" United States Express Company " was com
menced in 1853. It runs a through express
twice a day to Buffalo, over the New York
and Erie railway, and thence to numerous
western cities, towns, and stations. Between
New York and Dunkirk, and at all the stations
upon its route, the New York and Erie rail
way company does an express business whi^h
was first established by the regular express
company last mentioned. The " Hope Express
Company," the "New Jersey Express Com
pany," and the "Howard Express Company,"
established as joint-stock concerns since 1854,
were founded upon successful individual enter-

S rises of some years 1 standing prior to that
ate. They serve every part of New Jersey
and Pennsylvania. The " Eastern Express Com
pany" also is a union of several individual en
terprises, consolidated Jan. 1, 1857. Its prin
cipal office is in Boston, whence its lines diverge
by various railroad and steamboat routes into
Maine and New Hampshire. Fiske and co.,
and Cheney, Fiske, and co., are proprietors of
expresses which have been very useful in Massa
chusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Mas
sachusetts is remarkable for the number of its
expresses, the most of which have short routes,
and are operated by individual enterprise ;
238 run from the city of Boston alone. The
" American-European Express and Exchange
Company, "created in New York, July 1, 1855,
was founded upon the business of Livingston
and Wells, and Edwards, Sandford, and co.
It sends and receives an express by every regu
lar line of foreign steamships, and transacts
business in London, Paris, and all the European
cities. The principal companies which are at
present (1874) doing business in the United
States are the Adams express company, the
American, the United States, Wells, Fargo,
and co., the southern express company, the
national express company, the New Jersey, the

1 eastern, the United States and Canada, and the
Texas. The railroads covered by the expresses
are about 60,000 miles in length, but as they
are traversed in both directions and often sev
eral times each day, it is estimated that the
express messengers travel more than 300,000
miles daily. The whole number of men em
ployed in the United States by all the expresses
is over 18,000, the number of horses is about
3,500, and the number of offices about 8,000.
The amount of capital employed in the business
is estimated as being not less than $25,000,000.
The whole of this amount is not needed for the
purpose of supplying material or for carrying
on the business, and the larger part is held by
the companies as a provision against any losses
that may be sustained. The public in its deal
ings with the companies has therefore the pro
tection of a large guarantee capital in addition
to the individual liability of the shareholders.
Confidence is reposed in express companies to
such an extent that in times of financial panic,
when merchants and others have for the time
lost confidence in their banks and bankers, they
trust the express companies in their fiduciary
capacity and make use of them for the purpose
of making their remittances and collections.
A peculiar feature in trade has grown out of
express facilities, called the " Collect on deliv
ery business." Merchants whose wares are ad
vertised or known now receive orders from
strange firms in distant parts of the country to
send goods to them by express, to be paid for
on delivery. The merchant fills the order and
sends the goods with his bill addressed to the
consignee, marked C. O. D., and the amount
to be collected, on the outside of the package.
This is sent to its destination by the express
company and tendered to the consignee, with
the bill. Upon payment of the latter the goods
are delivered to the new owner, and the money
received is carried back to the consignor, who
pays for the collection, while the consignee
pays the freight on the package. The amount
of business transacted in this way is very large
and rapidly increasing.

EXTRADITION, the delivering up of fugitives
from justice by the authorities of one country
or state to those of another. This subject may
be considered under two heads, as it relates to
the surrender of offenders to each other by the
several states of the American Union, or to
the like mutual surrender between sovereign
nations. I. BETWEEX TIIE STATES OF THE
UXION. This is provided for by the constitu
tion, art. IV. 2 of which declares that a person
charged in any state with treason, felony, or
other crime, who shall flee from justice and be
found in another state, shall, on demand of the
j executive authority of the state from which he
i fled, be delivered up to be removed to the state
| having jurisdiction of the same. An act was
I passed by congress in 1793 to carry this provi-
! sion into effect, and to establish the like regula-
! tion for the territories ; and the several states
I have also statutes on the same subject. The

EXTRADITION

general course under these statutes is the fol
lowing : The accused is either indicted in the
state where the crime is alleged to have been
committed, or he is charged with the offence
before a magistrate, who, after examining into
the case, and being satisfied by evidence that
the charge is well founded, issues his warrant
for the arrest. A copy of the indictment or
warrant is then presented to the executive of
that state, who will give a formal requisition
upon the executive of the state to which the
accused has fled for his surrender. The execu
tive upon whom the requisition is made, if the
papers appear to be regular and sufficient, is
sues his warrant in compliance, directed to
an officer or to the agent of the state making
the requisition, which will be authority for
the apprehension and removal of the accused.
Some statutes authorize the supposed fugitive
to be first complained of, examined, and com
mitted where he is found, to await a requisition
from the proper executive. It is settled under
the constitutional provision cited above that
persons are liable to extradition under it who
having committed offences in one state are
found afterward in another, whether their go
ing to such other state was for the purpose
of avoiding punishment or not ; but it is also
settled that one cannot be extradited to a state
where he is not alleged to have been when the
crime was committed. Thus, when Smith, the
Mormon prophet, was charged with having in
Illinois been accessory to the attempt upon the
life of Gov. Bogy in Missouri, it was decided
that he could not be regarded as a fugitive, and
consequently could not be surrendered. The
most important controversy under this provi
sion has been as to the offences covered by it.
It has been sometimes insisted that only those
acts were to be considered crimes within its
intent which were such at the common law,
or at least which were punishable as crimes in
the state upon which the demand was made ;
and cases occurred in which governors in the
free states refused to surrender persons who
were accused in the slave states of offences
against the slave code. The last of these cases
arose in 1859- 60, when a demand was made
upon the governor of Ohio by the governor of
Kentucky for the surrender of one Lago, who
was accused of the crime of seducing a slave
to escape from her master. The demand was
refused, on the ground that the act was not an
offence known to the laws of Ohio. Applica
tion was then made to the supreme court of
the United States for a mandamus to compel a
surrender ; but that court, while declaring its
opinion that the words "treason, felony, or
other crime, 1 as employed in the constitution,
include every offence forbidden and made
punishable by the laws of the state where the
offence was committed, at the same time de
cided that the court had no power to compel
the performance of executive duties by the
governor of a state. Since the abolition of
slavery, no similar controversy is likely to arise.

II. EXTEADITIOX BETWEEN SOVEEEIGN NATIONS.

As a general rule, one nation does not under
take to punish offences not committed within its
territories, though the offender may be found
there. Many publicists, however, have ex
pressed the view that nations owe to each
other the obligation to surrender offenders who
might have lied to them for an asylum ; but
this obligation, if it exists, must be regarded
as imperfect, and as requiring stipulations to
determine the occasions in which it may arise,
and the manner of its exercise. Accordingly,
though the extradition of offenders has been
practised by some countries on grounds of
comity only, it is now customary to make the
obligation one of compact, in which the respec
tive parties stipulate to what offences it shall
apply, and what exceptions, if any, shall be
made. There are two methods of making such
compacts : one by legislation, where a country
provides by its own laws that persons accused
of offences abroad shall be subject to extradi
tion on condition of reciprocity ; the other by
convention or treaty. The latter is the method
usually adopted. In making such treaties it is
customary to provide that they shall not apply
to offences previously committed, or to those
of a political character ; though independent
of any such express stipulation such cases, we
think, must be considered impliedly excepted.
It is sometimes provided, also, that the con
tracting nations shall not be bound to surrender
their own subjects, though this exception would
not be likely to be insisted upon unless un
der very peculiar circumstances. The United
States has taken the lead in diplomatic negotia
tions on this subject, and we now have treaties
for the mutual rendition of persons accused of
offences as follows : With Great Britain (in
cluding all its possessions) : murder ; assault
with intent to commit murder ; piracy ; arson ;
robbery; forgery or the utterance of forged
paper. (Treaty of Aug. 9, 1842. This was an
enlargement of Jay s treaty of 1794, which
provided for the mutual rendition of persons
accused of murder and forgery.) "With the
Hawaiian Islands : the same offences specified
in the treaty of 1842 with Great Britain.
(Treaty of Dec. 29, 1849.) With France:
murder, comprehending the crimes designated
in the French penal code by the terms assas
sination, parricide, infanticide, and poisoning;
attempt to commit murder; rape; forgery;
arson ; embezzlement by public officers, when
the same is punishable with infamous punish
ment ; but this not to apply to offences pre
viously committed, nor to those of .a purely
political character. (Treaty of Nov. 9, 1843.)
To the above have been added robbery and
burglary (treaty of Feb. 25, 1845) ; forging or
knowingly passing or putting in circulation
counterfeit coin cr bank notes or other paper
current as money with intent to defraud ;
embezzlement when subject to infamous pun
ishment; and the case of accessories and ac
complices, as well as principals, is included

EXTRADITION

(treaty of Feb. 10, 1858). With Prussia and
the other states of the late North German
Confederation : murder ; assault with intent to
murder ; piracy ; arson ; robbery ; forgery or
the utterance of forged papers ; the fabrica
tion or circulation of counterfeit money, or the
embezzlement of public moneys. (Treaty with
Prussia of June 1G, 1852, extended to all the
states of the North German Confederation,
Feb. 22, 1868. Similar treaties were made
with Bavaria, Sept. 12, 1853; with Hanover,
Jan. 18, 1855; and with Baden, Jan. 30, 1857.)
With the Swiss Confederation : murder, in
cluding assassination, parricide, infanticide,
and poisoning; attempt to commit murder;
rape ; forgery or the emission of forged papers ;
arson ; robbery with violence, intimidation, or
forcible entry of an inhabited house ; piracy ;
embezzlement by public officers, or by persons
hired or salaried, to the detriment of their
employers, where these crimes are subject to
infamous punishment. This not to apply to
offences previously committed, or to those of a
political character. (Treaty of Nov. 25, 1850.)
With Venezuela : the offences specified in the
treaty with the Swiss Confederation, with the
addition of the counterfeiting of money, and
with the like exception. (Treaty of Sept. 25,
1861.) With the Dominican liepublic : the
offences specified in the treaty with Venezuela.
(Treaty of Feb. 8, 1867.) With Sweden and
Norway : murder, including assassination, par
ricide, infanticide, and poisoning; attempt to
commit murder; rape; piracy, including mu
tiny on board a ship whenever the crew or
part thereof, by fraud or violence against the
commander, have taken possession of the ves
sel ; arson ; robbery ; burglary ; forgery, and
the fabrication or circulation of counterfeit
money, whether coin or paper money ; em
bezzlement by public officers, including ap
propriation of public funds. This not to apply
to offences of a political character, or to any
person who by its laws is a citizen or subject
of the country on which the demand is made;
and where the person demanded is charged
with a new offence in the country in which
he has sought an asylum, he is not to be de
livered up until tried and acquitted or punished.
(Treaty of March 21, 1860.) With Italy : mur
der, including parricide, assassination, poison
ing, and infanticide ; attempt to commit murder ;
rape ; arson ; piracy, and mutiny on board a
ship, whenever the crew or a part thereof, by
fraud or violence against the commander, have
taken possession of the vessel ; burglary ; rob
bery ; forgery and counterfeiting, and the ut
tering of forged or counterfeit papers, coin, or
paper money ; embezzlement of public moneys
by public officers or depositaries, and embezzle
ment by persons hired or salaried to the detri
ment of their employers when subject to in
famous punishment according to the laws of
the United States, and to criminal punishment
according to the laws of Italy. (Treaties of
March 23, 1868, and Jan. 21, 1869.) With

Nicaragua : the same offences specified in the
treaties with Italy. (Treaty of June 25, 1870.)
With Austria : murder, assault with intent to
murder ; piracy ; arson ; robbery ; forgery ;
fabrication or circulation of counterfeit money,
whether coin or paper money ; embezzlement
of the public moneys. This not to apply to
offences previously committed, or to offences
of a political character, and neither to be
bound to surrender its own citizens or subjects ;
and one accused of a new offence in the coun
try to which he has fled, not to be surrendered
until tried therefor and acquitted or punished.
(Treaty of July 3, 1856.) With Mexico : mur
der, including assassination, parricide, infanti
cide, and poisoning; assault with intent to
murder; mutilation; piracy; arson; rape;
kidnapping, defining the same to be the taking
and carrying away of a free person by force or
deception ; forgery, including the forging or
making or knowingly passing or putting in
circulation of counterfeit coin, or bank notes
or other paper current as money ; embezzle
ment of public moneys ; robbery ; burglary and
larceny of cattle or other goods or chattels
of the value of $25 or more, when committed
in the frontier states or territories of the re
spective countries. This not to apply to offen
ces of a political character, or to persons held
as slaves when the offence is charged to have
been committed, or to crimes previously com
mitted; and neither party to be obliged to
deliver up its own citizens. (Treaty of Dec.
11, 1861.) With Hayti: murder, "including
assassination, parricide, infanticide, and poison
ing ; attempt to commit murder ; piracy ; rape ;
forging and the counterfeiting of money, and
the utterance of forged paper ; arson ; rob
bery; embezzlement by public officers or by
persons hired or salaried, to the detriment of
their employers, when these crimes are subject
to infamous punishment. This not to apply to
previous offences, or to citizens of the country
on which the demand is made. (Treaty of
Nov. 3, 1864.) Besides these, there are con
ventions for the mutual return of deserters
from ships, and treaties under which various
Indian tribes bind themselves to surrender of
fenders to the United States ; and the Creeks
and Seminoles and the United States agree to
a mutual surrender of offenders against their
respective laws. The several treaties with
foreign countries require that, when requisi
tion is made for an offender, before the sur
render for extradition a judicial examination
should be had, and that the surrender should
only be made on such evidence of criminality
as would justify the apprehension of the per
son and his commitment for trial where he
is found if the offence had been there commit
ted. By acts of congress passed to give effect
to the treaties, the hearing is to be had before
a federal judge or commissioner, or before a
judge of a state court, who, if he finds the
proper case established, will certify the fact
with the evidence to the secretary of state,

EXTRADITION

EYCK

that an executive warrant may issue for the
surrender to the authorized agent of the foreign
government. The surrender cannot be made
until the judicial determination shall be had.
In the well known case of Jonathan Bobbins,
arising under Jay s treaty, the president, while
the case was pending before a judge, interfered
with his advice and request that the accused
should be delivered up, which was done ac
cordingly ; but this raised in the country such
an outcry, and tended so strongly to the pre
judice of the administration, that the like
interference with judicial action is not likely
again to occur. Nevertheless, the action of
the judge is not conclusive on the executive ;
the one acting for the protection of individual
right, while the other is to judge of the inter
national obligation. While the executive can
not order the extradition until it is judicially
determined that a prima facie case of guilt is
shown, he is not, on the other hand, compelled
to issue the warrant of extradition in com
pliance with the finding of the judge, if in his
opinion the case is not within the treaty under
which the proceeding is assumed to be taken.
Thus, in the noted case of Karl Voght (1873),
who was first demanded by Belgium for an
offence committed in that kingdom, but whose
extradition was refused on the ground that we
had no treaty on the subject with that country,
and who was subsequently demanded for the
same offence by Prussia on the ground of being
amenable to its laws as a Prussian subject, the
president, on the opinion of the attorney gen
eral that the case was not covered by treaty,
refused to issue his warrant of extradition, not
withstanding that the district judge before whom
he had been brought had determined that a
case was made out, and had given the proper
certificate. In this the president followed the
judicial decisions in England. The several
states, not being at liberty under the constitu
tion to form treaties or conventions with for
eign powers, cannot surrender accused persons
to foreign powers. Great Britain has treaties
of extradition, besides that with the United
States, with France, Denmark, Germany, Bel
gium, Italy, and Austria (1 874). The first, dated
Feb. 3, 1843, only embraces murder (including
assassination, parricide, infanticide, and poison
ing), attempt to murder, forgery, and fraud
ulent bankruptcy. That first made with Den
mark included only the same four offences, but
is now greatly enlarged, and, like those with
Italy and Belgium, corresponds in comprehen
siveness to the treaty with Germany of 1872.
The offences specified in that are : murder ;
attempt to murder; manslaughter; counterfeit
ing or altering money, or uttering the same ;
forgery or the uttering of forged papers, bank
notes, or paper money ; embezzlement ; lar
ceny ; obtaining money or goods by false pre
tences; crimes against the bankrupt laws;
fraud by a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trus
tee, director, member, or public officer of any
company when made criminal ; rape ; abduc

tion ; child stealing ; burglary or housebreak-
ing ; arson ; robbery ; threats by letter or
otherwise with intent to extort; sinking or
destroying a vessel at sea, or attempting to do
so ; assaults on board a ship on the high seas,
with intent to destroy life or to do grievous
bodily harm ; revolt or conspiracy to revolt
on board a ship on the high seas against
the authority of the master. Extradition
may take place for participation in any of the
crimes specified, provided such participation be
punishable by the law of both countries. By
statute 33 and 34 Victoria, c. 52, contempla
ting further treaties of the snme nature, it is
provided that effect may be given to any such
treaty by mere order in council, and without
special parliamentary sanction, which other
wise would have been necessary. Most of the
European treaties of extradition are very re
cent, and they are likely soon to be adopted
among all Christian nations.

EXTREME UNCTION, a sacrament of the Ro
man Catholic church, and of the Greek and
other eastern churches, administered for the
spiritual and bodily relief of the sick. The
Greeks call it the " oil of prayer." The Scrip
tural authority on which this rite is founded is
taken from St. James v. 14, 15. In the Latin
church it is called extreme or "last " unction,
because, unlike the unctions of baptism, con
firmation, and holy orders, this is reserved for
the last hour. The effects of this sacrament
are held to be the following : spiritual strength
to overcome the enemies of salvation in the
final struggle of the dying hour, and patience
to support the pains and discomforts of illness ;
the indirect forgiveness of all mortal sins of
which the sufferer may be unconscious, and
the direct remission of venial sins ; the removal
of the weakness of the spiritual faculties caused
by the habits of sin ; and restoration to health
when it is for the welfare of the patient. The
sacrament is administered by the priest, who
anoints with consecrated oil the eyes, ears,
nostrils, mouth, hands, and feet of the sick
person, praying at each unction that the Lord
by his mercy and through that unction will
remit the sins committed through each sense.
The various eastern churches, Greek, Ar
menian, Coptic, and Nestorian, agree with the
Latins in regarding this as one of the seven
sacraments instituted by Christ ; but they differ
in that they do not reserve its use for the sick
in danger of death. Moreover, in the Greek
church it is sometimes administered by as
many as seven priests at the same time, but
ordinarily by two. The Greek form of words
does not substantially differ from that employed
by the Latins.

E1ALET. See VILAYET.

EYCK, Van, the name of three painters, two
brothers and a sister, regarded as the founders
of the Flemish school, probably the children
of Josse van Eyck, a painter, and born at Eyck
(now Alden Eyck), a village in the bishopric
| of Liege, near Maaseyck, on the Maus. I.

EYCK

EYE

nobert Tan, born in I860, died in Ghent, Sept.
18, 1426. After having resided for some time
in Bruges, he removed with his brother to
Ghent, where he was employed with him upon
an altarpiece for the church of St. Bavon. He
died before its completion, and was buried in
that church. lit Jan van (often called Jan van
Brugge), born about 1390, died in Bruges in
1440 or 1441. Much difference of opinion has
prevailed in regard to the precise date of his
birth, and as to which of the two brothers
was the greater painter ; but it would seem to
be sufficiently well established that Jan was
much younger than Hubert, and was instructed
by him. Their most celebrated work was the
altarpiece in the church of St. Bavon. It was
about 14 ft. wide and 12 ft. high, and con
tained 12 pictures, painted upon folding doors
or screens, representing the adoration of the
mystical lamb, other pictures being painted
upon the reverse of some of the doors. When
the French obtained possession of Belgium,
Napoleon caused the doors to be carried to
Paris, whence they were removed in 1815.
The four central divisions were restored to
Ghent, and are now in the church of St. Ba
von ; the six most important of the doors were
taken to Berlin, and form one of the finest or
naments of the royal museum ; and two of the
doors are in the museum at Brussels. A fine
copy of the whole altarpiece was made by
Michael Coxcie for Philip II. of Spain, part of
which is in the Berlin museum, part in the
Pinakothek at Munich, and part in the church
of St. Bavon at Ghent. The brothers made
such great improvements in the art of oil
painting that its invention has been often,
though erroneously, ascribed to them. The
mixture of oils and gums which they used as
the vehicle for their pigments was so excellent i
that the colors of their great work still retain j
a wonderful freshness. They discarded the ]
artificial style of their predecessors, and en- |
deavored to reproduce the outlines and hues i
of nature. Although Jan adhered in his early |
efforts to the fiat gold background which had ;
before been customary, he afterward adopted j
a more natural grouping for his figures and i
natural scenes for a background. The exam- |
pie of the brothers exerted a great influence j
upon the painters of Germany, Italy, and
Spain, and contributed to the emancipation of
art from conventional traditions. Jan was the
court painter of Philip the Good, duke of Bur
gundy, and in 1428, while the painting of the i
altarpiece was in progress, accompanied the \
embassy which was sent by him to Lisbon to :
sue for the hand of the daughter of King John !
I. of Portugal. After the completion of the
altarpiece in 1432, he returned to Bruges, and
little is known of his subsequent life. III.
Margaret van, died about 1430. She remained
unmarried in order that she might devote her
self to painting in connection with her broth
ers. There is in London a fine picture by
her, in three parts, of the Madonna and child.

See Waagen, Ueber II Libert und Jan ran Eyclc
(Breslau, 1822), and "Early Flemish Painters,"
by Crowe and Cavalcaselle (London, 1856).

EYE, the organ of the special sense of vision,
lodged in man in a cavity on each side of the
upper portion of the face, called the orbit.
The orbits have the form of a quadrangular
pyramid of which the base is in front and the
summit behind ; their direction is horizontal,
and their axes, directed backward and inward,
would cross at or near the sella tursica of the
sphenoid bone in the cranial cavity. They
have four triangular surfaces, the upper formed
by the orbital plate of the frontal and the
lesser wing of the sphenoid bone; the lower
by the palate behind, the upper maxillary in
the middle, and the malar in front; the ex
ternal by the sphenoid behind and the malar
in front ; the internal by the sphenoid behind,
the ethmoid in the middle, and the lachrymal
bone in front. The cavity has at its upper ex
ternal portion a depression for the gland which
secretes the tears, at its inner portion the
commencement of the bony passage to the
nose ; at the summit is the round opening for
the entrance of the optic nerve, the union of
the sphenoidal, spheno-maxillary, and pterygo-
maxillary fissures, and the commencement of
the suborbital canal. Besides these bony en
closing cavities, the eyes are protected from
dust and foreign bodies by the hairs of the eye
brows above, and in front by the movable lids,

Scl.

C/i.

Ml.

FIG. 1. Horizontal Section of the Eyeball.
Scl., sclerotic coat ; Cn., cornea: 7?.. attachments of the ten
dons of the recti muscles ; Ch., choroid ; C.p.. ciliarv pro
cesses; C.m.. ciliary muscle; Jr., iris; Ag., aqueous hu
mor; Cry., crystalline lens; Vt.. vitreous humor; Rt.,
retina ; Op., optic nerve ; J/./., the yellow spot. The sec
tion has passed through a ciliary process on the left side,
and between two ciliary processes on the right.

fringed with the eyelashes. The globe of the
eye is of a generally spherical shape, the ante
rior fifth being the segment of a circle smaller
than that of the rest of the organ ; the antero-
posterior diameter, greater than the transverse,
is 10 or 11 lines; differing from the axes of the

EYE

orbits, the axes of the eyes are parallel. In
front, the globe of tho eye is in relation with the
reflection of the mucous membrane of the lids;
behind and all around, with the muscles, vessels,
nerves, and a cushion of soft fat. The eye is com
posed of membranes and humors. Of the mem
branes of the eye, the cornea has already been
described under its own title; the others are
the sclerotic, choroid, ciliary processes, iris,
and retina. The sclerotic is the external mem
brane, forming; the posterior four fifths, the an
terior fifth being formed by the cornea; it is
white, firm, and resisting, opaque, thick, and
composed of interlaced fibres. Beneath the
sclerotic is the choroid, composed of small ar
teries and veins united by delicate areolar tis
sue ; it extends from the entrance of the optic
nerve forward to the ciliary circle; both its
surfaces are covered with a dark pigment, which
gives the deep color seen in the interior of the
eye. The ciliary circle or ligament is a grayish
ring, a line or two wide, united by its larger
circumference to the choroid, and by its lesser
to the iris ; the ciliary processes are membra
nous folds, 60 to 80 in number, extending from
the choroid to the neighborhood of the opening
of the pupil ; they form by their union a ring
behind the iris and in front of the vitreous hu
mor, surrounding the crystalline lens like a
crown. At a short distance behind the cornea
is the circular, vertical, membranous curtain,
the iris, pierced in the middle by the pupil ;
this curtain hangs in the aqueous humor, sepa
rating it into the anterior and posterior cham
bers of the eye; it presents anteriorly a great
number of radiations converging toward the
pupil, the muscular fibres for the dilatation of
this opening, and is variously colored in ditfer-
ent individuals ; the posterior surface has a
number of circular fibres for contracting the
pupil, and is covered with a thick dark pig
ment layer called uvea ; both surfaces are lined
with the delicate membrane of the aqueous hu
mor; the greater circumference is connected
with the ciliary ligament and processes ; its
movements are doubtless partly owing to its
erectile and vascular tissue. Beneath the cho
roid is the retina, a thin soft expansion of the
optic nerve, surrounding the vitreous humor
and extending forward as far as the ciliary pro
cesses and crystalline lens ; about two lines to
the outside of the tubercle of the nerve it pre
sents a circular dark spot and a small perfora
tion discovered by Sommering. . The retina is
the immediate organ of vision, which receives
the rays of light and transmits the visual im
pressions by the optic nerve to the sensorium.
Of the humors of the eye, the crystalline lens
has been described under that head ; the others
are the aqueous and vitreous humors. The
aqueous humor is a limpid transparent fluid,
varying in quantity from four to six grains, oc
cupying the space in front, of the lens which
is divided into anterior and posterior chambers
by the iris ; it contains in solution a little albu
men and the salts usually found in such secre-

I tions ; when lost by accident or in the opera
tion for cataract by extraction, it is speedily
formed again. The vitreous humor occupies
the posterior three fourths of the globe of the
eye, having the lens encased in its anterior
portion ; it consists of a transparent, gelatinous
fluid enclosed in a great number of cells formed
by the partitions of the hyaloid membrane,
communicating with each other; in the ope
ration for cataract by depression the lens is
pushed backward and downward into this hu
mor. The optic nerves are the second pair of
cerebral nerves. The globe of the eye is moved
by six muscles arising from the contour of the
optic foramen and its vicinity, and attached to
the sclerotic coat; of these muscles four are
straight, called the external, internal, superior,
and inferior recti muscles, moving the eye re
spectively outward, inward, upward, and down-

FIG. 2. Muscles of the Eyeball viewed from above and from
the inner side.

S. R., superior rectus; Inf. R., inferior rectus; E. R.. exter
nal rectus; In. R., internal rectus; S. ob., superior oblique;
Inf. ob., inferior oblique; Ch.. chiasma of the optic nerves
(77.) ; ///., the third nerve, which supplies all the muscles
except the superior oblique and the external rectus.

ward. The first two muscles are often perma
nently contracted, producing divergent or con
vergent strabismus, a deformity curable by the
division of the contracted muscles, a simple
and comparatively painless and bloodless op
eration; the superior oblique muscle passes
through a pulley in the inner portion of the
orbital process of the frontal bone, from which
it extends to the posterior and external part
of the globe, rotating the organ inward and
forward ; the inferior oblique passes from the
internal and anterior part of the floor of the
orbit to the external and posterior surface of
the globe, rotating the eye outward and up
ward. The conjunctiva, the mucous mem
brane of the eye, is reflected from the lids and
covers the anterior portion of the globe ; it is
in this membrane that the redness and swelling
of ordinary ophthalmia have their seat. The eye
is frequently destroyed by accident or disease ;
in cases of removal of the organ artificial eyes
are used to remedy the deformity ; these are
made of glass and enamel, and when having
the natural size, shape, coloration of iris, form
of pupil, projection of cornea, tint of sclerotic,
and vascularity, it is often very difficult to de
tect the real from the artificial organ, especially

EYE

when the accurate fitting of the latter allows
it to be moved by the muscles acting in sym
pathy with the sound eye. Without here treat
ing of the laws of refraction, of the aberration
of sphericity, and of other optical principles
involved in vision, it will be sufficient to say
that the rays from an object are first modified
by the convex cornea, pass across the aqueous
humor through the pupil-opening of the iris,
thence through the dense crystalline lens and
the vitreous humor, and are by these media of
different densities and shapes converged at the
proper focal distance on the retina. All rays
beyond those necessary for perfect vision are
absorbed by the pigment layer of the choroid,
which answers the purpose of the black inte
rior of optical instruments ; the iris, like the
telescopic diaphragm, shuts off the rays from
the circumference of the lens, thus correcting
the aberration of sphericity, contracting or
dilating the pupil according to the brilliancy or
dimness of the illumination of the object, or its
distance from the eye ; it is well known that
the pupil of a cat in a bright light becomes
diminished to a vertical slit. As the rays are
crossed in the lens, an inverted image is formed
on the retina, though the mental perception is
of an erect image. Xot only spherical but

FIG. 3. Illustration of the change in the form of the lens
when adjusted a to distant, b to near objects.

chromatic aberration is corrected sufficiently
for all practical purposes in healthy eyes by the
different refractive powers of the media and
by the different curves of their surfaces, so that
the image on the retina is well defined and free
from false colors. The power by which the
eye adapts itself instantly to variations in the
distance of objects depends upon a change in
the curvatures of the crystalline lens, this body
becoming more convex, and consequently more
highly refractive, in vision for near objects, less
so in vision for remote objects. The physiolo
gy and defects of vision will be more properly
treated in the article VISION"; for recent obser
vations by Kolliker on the structure of the dif
ferent layers of the retina, the reader is re
ferred to the works of Dr. Carpenter on the
principles of human and comparative physiol
ogy. The pupil is diminished by the action
of muscles deriving their nervous influence
from the third pair, but is dilated through the
influence of the cervical portion of the sympa
thetic nerve. The movements of the eyeballs,
whenever voluntary, are always harmonious,
but not necessarily symmetrical ; though one
cannot be elevated and the other depressed at
the same time, one may be turned outward

VOL. VII. i

and the other inward when the axes of the
| eyes are turned toward an object on either side
of the head. The muscles of the eyeball are
moved principally through the third pair of
nerves, the tiiotores oculorum, but the superior
j oblique has a special nerve, the fourth pair,
and the external recti the sixth pair ; the sen-
j sibility of the eye is derived from the ophthal
mic branch of the fifth pair ; by the ophthal
mic or ciliary ganglion the sensory branches
of the fifth pair, the motor branches of the
third pair, and the sympathetic filaments are
! united together. The vascular supply of the
! globe of the eye is derived from the ophthalmic
| branch of the internal carotid artery. The
complicated eye of the mammal and bird be
comes more simple in reptiles and fishes, losing
the eyelids, and in the articulates generally
losing all that is anterior to the vertebrate
crystalline lens, as well as mobility, the latter
loss being supplied by the multiplication of the
organs or facets. The mammalian eye is con
structed to suit the circumstances of the life
| of the animal ; of large size in ruminants and
| rodents, it is small in moles, bats, and ceta
ceans, and in the latter flattened anteriorly as
in fishes. The eyes are generally placed later
ally, but in the nocturnal species they are di
rected forward as in man ; the lachrymal ca
runcle at the inner angle has in man only a
rudiment of a nictitating membrane, which is
more developed in some mammals, but re
markably in birds; the sclerotic is thicker in
animals whose eyes vary much from a sphere,
especially posteriorly, this membrane in a
whale with an eye of the size of an orange
being an inch thick behind ; the choroid, dark
in man, in the carnivora, ruminants, and other
orders, reflects vivid metallic colors, remark
ably brilliant at night, from the depth of the
organ. In animals and man destitute of the
usual coloring matter of the surface, or in albi
nos, the iris is pink, from the color of the blood
! circulating in its vessels; during foetal life,
i until the end of the seventh month, the pupil
| is closed by a membrane. The foramen of
! Sommering is said not to exist in any mam-
I mals below the quadrumana; the tear gland
is found in all except cetacea. In birds the
sclerotic becomes more or less strengthened
by cartilage, and in the neighborhood of the
cornea is provided with a series of bony plates,
arranged in a circle, and overlapping each
other ; but the cliief peculiarity consists in the
pecten, folded like a comb or fan, and projected
forward toward the lens ; it is vascular like
the choroid, though not connected with it, and
is dark with pigment ; its use is not satisfac
torily ascertained. Many species of reptiles
have osseous pieces in the sclerotic ; snakes
have no movable lids; the chameleon has a
single circular lid. In fishes the eyes are gen
erally large, the sclerotic thick, and in some
(as the tunny) osseous anteriorly ; they have
neither lids, except the most rudimentary, nor
lachrymal glands ; the cornea is very flat, and

EYE

EYLAU

the lens dense ; around the entrance of the
optic nerve there is a very vascular, horse
shoe-shaped organ, between the layers of the
choroid, called the choroid gland or muscle.
The organs of vision in insects consist of sim
ple or of compound eyes, the former occurring
chiefly in larvso, the latter in perfect insects ;
they are wholly absent in some larvre, and
both forms coexist in the perfect state of many.
The simple eyes (ocelli or stemmata) consist
of a convex cornea, behind which is a lens,
lodged in an expansion of the optic nerve, and
surrounded by a variously colored pigment
layer ; they vary in number from two to more
than 100, and are situated on the head. The
compound eyes are made up of simple eyes so
closely placed that their facets or corneas are
contiguous; behind each cornea is a transpa
rent pyramid whose interior apex is received
into a kind of vitreous body, surrounded by the
nerve and the choroid; there are sometimes
many thousand facets in these eyes, which
may cover nearly the whole head, and hairs
may project at their angles. In the arachnids
the eyes are simple, and the orders have been
characterized by their number, situation, and
direction ; they are most numerous in the
scorpions. The sense of sight is present in
almost all Crustacea ; their simple eyes consist
of a cornea with a lens and pigment layer ; a
usual form is that of many simple eyes, placed
close together, and covered by a common cor
nea; sometimes there is a faceted cornea un
der the simple one ; the highest forms have
compound faceted eyes, in many situated at
or near the end of two peduncles movably ar
ticulated to the cephalo-thorax and concealed
in special fossae ; these facets are very numer
ous, and behind each is the usual lens and pig
ment. The eyes of cephalopods are very large
and highly developed, resembling in some re
spects the vertebrate organ ; there is generally
an ocular bulb, and a capsule constituted by a
cartilaginous orbit and a fibrous continuation
of the cutaneous envelope, which takes the
place of a cornea ; semi-lunar folds containing
muscular fibres cover the eye like lids ; in
front of the globe is a space analogous to an
anterior chamber, containing a serous fluid,
and in the octopods communicating external
ly ; internally this chamber is closed by a kind
of pupil ; its serous membrane has a silvery
lustre ; in some species the lens is in direct
contact with the water in which they swim ;
there is an iris, sclerotic, vitreous liquid, a
spherical brownish lens formed of concentric
layers, a ciliary body, and pigment layer ; in
the nautilus the eyes are placed on a project
ing stalk, but in others are generally deeply
sunk in the head. In the cephalophora (in
cluding pteropoda, heteropoda, and gasteropo-
dous mollusks) eyes are generally present,
never more than two in number and compara
tively small ; they are almost always connected
with the tentacles, either at their base, sides,
or extremities. In acephalous mollusks eyes

are very common and numerous, occupying
the borders of the mantle or confined to the
orifices of the tubes, and are either peduncu-
lated or sessile. In the annelids the eyes are
generally either wanting entirely, or are mere
ly able to distinguish light from darkness ; but
the leeches have from two to ten undoubted
eyes. In the helminths there appear to be no
eyes, only pigment spots containing no light-
refracting body. Below these -are found in
the radiata various eye specks and pigment dots
which doubtless in some cases are true eyes,
but authors are not yet agreed as to the light-
refracting powers of most of these organs.
The eye of the blind fish of the Mammoth
cave, Kentucky, though unable to form a dis
tinct image, can doubtless distinguish light
from darkness through the areolar tissue and
skin which cover it ; Prof. J. Wyman has
found in it a lens, sclerotic, choroid, retina,
and optic nerve, and it is therefore constructed
on the vertebrate plan, rather than the inverte
brate to which it has generally been compared ;
the parts in connection with the nervous sys
tem are developed, while those which are
formed by inversion of the integuments are
mostly absent ; some authors are of opinion
that the stimulus of light for several genera
tions w r ould retransform this eye into an or
dinary organ of vision.

EYE STONE, the operculum or calcareous
mouthpiece of certain species of small univalve
shells. The stony-like substance, one third of
an inch or less in its largest dimensions, pre
sents a form like that of a turtle, a convex sur
face upon a plane base ; and being placed on a
smooth plate in a weak acid, as lemon juice,
the evolution of carbonic acid gas from the
carbonate of lime of which it is composed
lifts it up and causes the stone to move about
as if alive. A similar effect resulting from
chemical decomposition is sometimes observed
in animal bodies ; and loaves of bread, Ilum-
boldt remarks, have been observed to move in
like manner in the oven, whence the ovens
have been called enchanted. He found the
little opercula, called piedras de los ojos, or
eye stones, regarded as great mysteries by the
inhabitants of the coast of Venezuela near Cu-
manu. They collected them in great quanti
ties on the beach at Cape Araya, and made
use of them to extract dust or any foreign
substance from the eye, a purpose for which
they are still collected and exported, and are
kept by druggists. Being introduced under
the lid of the eye, the stone moves about by
the motion of the organ, and any little parti
cles it comes in contact with adhere to it and
are finally removed with it.

EYLAU, or Eilan, a town of Prussia, province
of East Prussia, in the district and 22 m. S. S. E.
of the city of Konigsberg ; pop. in 1871, 3,723.
It is situated on the Pasmar, a small tributary
of the Alle, contains an old castle, and has
manufactories of cloth, hats, and leather. Here
on Feb. 7 and 8, 1807, was fought a battle

EZEKIEL

EZZELINO

between the French under Napoleon, 85,000
strong with 350 guns, and the Russians and
Prussians, 75,000 strong with 460 guns. The
total number of killed and wounded was near
ly 40,000, and both sides claimed the victory.
In this battle Napoleon was nearly made pris
oner, but was saved by his own presence of
mind and the heroism of his little body guard
of 100 men. This town is called Preussisch
Eylau, to distinguish it from Deutsch Eylau, a
small town of West Prussia, in the district of
Marienwerder, 70 m. S. S. W. of the former, at
the S. extremity of Lake Geserich.

EZEKIEL, the third of the great Hebrew
prophets, and contemporary with Jeremiah
and Daniel, lived in the 7th and 6th centuries
B. C. He was still young when he went into
captivity, following King Jehoiachin to Baby
lon. There, on the banks of the Chebar, sup
posed to be the Chaboras in Mesopotamia, in
the fifth year of his exile, he began his pro
phetic career, declaring to his fellow exiles the
misfortunes which were besetting and threat
ening Jerusalem and the country of Judah.
In the 25th year of his exile he described the
new temple which was to rise in Jerusalem
after the redemption of his people. This is
one of the last prophecies remaining from him,
and there is no account of him beyond the 27th
year of the captivity of Jehoiachin. Accord
ing to a doubtful tradition, he was assassinated
by one of the exiled princes, and during the
middle ages his tomb was pointed out between
the Euphrates and the Chebar. His book,
which abounds in visions, poetical images, and
allegories, is divided into three parts : the first
(ch. i. to ^xxiv.) was written before the de
struction of Jerusalem ; the second (ch. xxv. to
xxxii.) contains prophecies against foreign na
tions ; the third (xxxii. to xfviii.) foretells the
resurrection of Israel and the erection of the
new temple. The genuineness of the book has
never been doubted ; but our present Hebrew
text is among the most corrupt of the books of
the Old Testament. The best commentaries
are those of Umbreit (1843), Havernick (1843),
Hitzig (1847), and Ewald (2d ed., 1868).

EZRA, a Jewish scribe and priest, accord
ing to Josephus, high priest of the Jews in
Babylon. Under his guidance, the second ex
pedition of the Jews proceeded from Babylon
to Palestine, under the reign of Artaxerxes
I., about 458 B. C. The important services
rendered by Ezra to his countrymen on that
occasion, and also in arranging and settling the
canon of Scripture, are specially acknowledged
by the Jews, so that he is even regarded as the
second founder of the nation. Josephus says
that Ezra died at Jerusalem, and was buried
there with great magnificence ; according to
others, he returned to Babylon and died there,
at the age of 120. Ezra is said by some of the
rabbis to have introduced the present square
Hebrew characters, and, in conjunction with
some of the elders, to have made the Masora,
the punctuation and accentuation of the Bible.

Besides the book of Ezra, he was supposed to
be the author of the two books of Chronicles,
and some writers attribute to him also the
books of Nehemiah and Esther, though they
differ in style from his acknowledged writings.
The book of Ezra contains an account of the
favors bestowed upon the Jews by the Persian
kings, the rebuilding of the temple, the mission
of Ezra to Jerusalem, and the various regula
tions and reforms introduced by him. The the
ologians of the liberal school generally attribute
the last revision of the book to a later hand
than that of Ezra. Bertheau (in SchenkeFs
Bibellexicon, 1868) puts the date of the last re
vision about 300 B. C. ; others, after the exam
ple of Spinoza, in the time of the Maccabees.
Parts of the book are written in Chaldee (iv.
8 to vi. 18, and vii. 12 to 26). For a full dis
cussion of the questions relating to the book of
Ezra, see the introductions of Berthold, De
Wette, Keil, and Havernick, and the commen
tary of Bertheau (1862). In ancient manu-

j scripts there are four books of Ezra, viz., the
one just spoken of, the book of Nehemiah, and
the two books which in the English version
are called 1st and 2d Esdras, and placed among
the apocryphal books. (See ESDEAS.)

EZZELLVO (or Emlino) DA ROMANO, a leader
of the Ghibellines in Italy, born at Onaro, April
26, 1194, died at Soncino, Sept. 26, 1259. He
belonged to a German family which in the llth
century had acquired large feudal possessions
in Lombardy, and whose principal seat was
the castle of Romano near Padua. He was the
fourth of his name, and is known in history as
Ezzelino the Tyrant. From his youth he en
tered into the quarrels of the time, and war
having become general in Lombardy, he re
mained faithful to the emperor Frederick II.
His lands being ravaged by the Guelphs, he in
vited the help of the emperor, who relieved
him and gained noteworthy advantages. In
1236 Ezzelino, with his brother Alberic, gained
possession of Yerona and Yicenza, and he be
came podesta of Verona, and his brother of Vi-
cenza. In February, 1237, after the return of
the emperor to Germany, he took Padua. He
subsequently captured Treviso, and imprisoned
many eminent people on suspicion of disaffec-

| tion to him ; and from this time his oppression
and cruelty became conspicuous. The ein-

! peror returned with reinforcements, and they
gained the victory of Cortenuova, Nov. 27,

| 1237. The following spring he married a

| natural daughter of Frederick. In 1239 he
was excommunicated by the pope. In 1240
he was intrusted with the conduct of the war

I in Lombardy, and lost Ferrara ; but in 1246 he

i repulsed the marquis of Este, and subsequent
ly he took Verona, Feltre, Belluno, and even
Este. By 1250, when the emperor died, he
had extended his control from the Adriatic to

; the suburbs of Milan. A league was formed
acrainst him in 1252 by most of the Lombard

i cities, the marquis of Este, and others, inclu
ding his own brother Alberic, and in 1256 a

FABER

crusade was proclaimed against him ; but he
still successfully resisted all combinations, and
in the latter year he besieged Mantua. A new
league being formed against him, which was
joined by Venice, the allies invested and cap
tured Padua, which was held by his nephew
Ansedisio. But Ezzelino defeated the army of
the league near Brescia, and captured that city

Sept. 1, 1258. In 1259 he threatened Milan,
but it was saved by Martin della Torre ; and
Ezzelino s retreat being cut oft , he was forced
into a battle near Soncino, in which he was
severely wounded and captured (Sept. 16), and
his army dispersed, lie refused food, tore the
bandages from his wounds, and died without
reconciliation to the church.

THE 6th letter of the English and Latin,
the 20th of the Arabic, and the 23d of
the Persian alphabet, indicates a labio-dental
sound, produced by the passage of the expired
air between the lower lip and the upper in
cisive teeth, while the glottis and larynx are
almost at rest. Quintilian calls this sound
" scarcely human," since it is a mere afflatus,
and is wrongly placed among the semi-vocals.
Its sonorous parallel is the softer sound of V
(as in English), in producing which the glottis
and larynx are engaged. F is represented in
ancient Greek both by the (pK) and the di-
gamma, in corresponding words ; but the sound
of the former was less harsh and rather as
pirated than blowing (efflatus), and the latter
sounded almost like our V. The figure of the
Latin F arose from the doubling of the Greek
T. The emperor Claudius is reported to have
used it inverted (J) to represent V. As a
numeral sign for 6, the stigma was employed
by the Alexandrines, as one of the three eiriav/ua,
instead of this digamma, which is named (3av
or vau. The shape of the stigma (-) is an in
verted Oscic and Umbric F (I]). We find the
prototype of our cursive f on ancient Hebrew
coins; but in the present so-called Hebrew, as
in the Syriac, Sabasic, Palmyrenic, and some
other kindred writings, the va u takes the place
of F, and indicates the sounds of v and v. F
occurs in the same place also on the Idalian
tablet of Cyprus, in Lycian, also in Tuarik
(Berber), and in some other writings. In the
Cyrillic alphabet the phert and phie (0) corre
spond to it as the 27th letter, in Glagolitic as
the 23d, and in Russian as the 27th. F is the
first rune, and it is represented hieroglyph-
ically by a horned snake. It is often vica
riously converted into other letters or sounds,
especially into labials, as in the following exam
ples : Lat. f rater, frango, fagus, Eng. brother,
break, beech ; Lat. pes, pugnare, porculus, Eng.
foot, fight, Ger. Ferkel ; Lat. ferrum, fili
us, folium,, fugere, formosus, falmlari, fames,
furari, Span, (since the 14th century) hierro,
hijo, hoja, huir, hermoso, hablar, hambre, hur-
tar. The Greek the Italians, Spaniards,
and Portuguese uniformly replace by /. F
sometimes also interchanges with gutturals, as
Germ. Schacht, Eng. shaft; Dutch achter, Eng.
after ; Germ, kriechen, Eng. creep and crafty.
In English and French it alternates with v

in grammatical forms, as wife, wives ; natif,
native. The Greek 6 sometimes becomes /,
as Theodores, Russ. Fedor ; 6vpa, 6tpa, Lat.
fores, fera. Very peculiar are the transforma
tions of the Latin fl (also pT) into Spanish II
and Portuguese ch ; as jtamma, Span, llama,
Port, chamma, &c. The Devanagari, and
most graphic systems of eastern Asia derived
from it, have no F. The sound exists in the
Chinese and Japanese languages. Most Amer
ican languages are guttural, and lack among
others the sound of f. As a numeral in the
middle ages, F was equivalent to 40, and F to
40,000. It signifies 80 in Arabic, and 10,000
in Armenian. Its substitute ph stands for 500
in Russian and Georgian ; while the Phrenician,
Chaldaic, and Syriac van designated 6. As an
abbreviation, F stands for filius, fecit, Flavius,
Fahrenheit; for forte in music, and ff for
fortissimo. F is marked on the French coins
of Angers, on the Prussian of Magdeburg, and
on the Austrian of Hall in the Tyrol. In music,
it denotes the fourth diatonic interval, or the
sixth string on the piano in the chromatic
scale, and is called fa in the solfeggio.
FIBER, Frederick William, an English clergy-

| man and author, born June 28, 1815, died Sept.

! 26, 1863. He was educated at Oxford, and

became rector of Elton in Northamptonshire,

i which office he filled until his conversion to
the Roman Catholic faith, which was formally
consummated Nov. 17, 1845. His published
writings up to that time were as follows :
" Tracts on the Church and the Prayer Book "

| (1839); "A Sermon on Education " (1840);
" The Cherwell Water Lily and other Poems"
(1840) ; " The Styrian Lake and other Poems "
(1842); "Sights and Thoughts in Foreign
Churches" (1842); " Sir Lancelot, a Poem"

j (1844) ; " The Rosary and other Poems " (1845) ;

I and several papers in the " Lives of the English

i Saints," edited by the Rev. Dr. Newman. Dr.

I Faber was ordained priest in 1847, joined Dr.

! Newman, who had just transplanted the Ora
tory of St. Philip Neri to England, in 1848
received the habit of that congregation, and
became distinguished as an earnest and eloquent
preacher. His published writings after his
conversion are as follows : " Catholic Hymns."
and an " Essay on Beatification and Canoniza
tion " (1848) ; " The Spirit and Genius of St.

! Philip Neri" (1850); Catholic Home Mis-

FABER

FABIUS

sions" (1851); "All for Jesus" (1854);
"Growth in Holiness" (1855); "The Blessed
Sacrament" (1850); "The Creator and the
Creature " (1857) ; " The Foot of the Cross, or
the Sorrows of Mary," "Sir Lancelot" (being
his former poem rewritten), and " Ethel s Story
Book" (1858); and " Spiritual Conferences "
(1859). Several years before his death he be
came superior of the Oratory at Brompton.
See Bowden s " Life of F. W. Faber " (1869).

FIBER, George Stanley, an English theological
writer, uncle of the preceding, born Oct. 25,
1773, died near Durham, Jan. 27, 1854. He
studied at the university of Oxford, where he
became a fellow and tutor of Lincoln college,
was appointed Bampton lecturer in 1801, and
in the same year published his discourses under
the title of Hone Mosaicce (2d ed. enlarged,
1818). lie took the degree of B. D. in 1803,
married, gave up his fellowship, and for two
years assisted his father, the rector of Carver-
ley in York, as curate. He subsequently oc
cupied various vicarages, in 1831 wa-s made
prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1832 appoint
ed master of Sherburn hospital. He wrote a
large number of works, most of which, par
ticularly those on prophecy, in which he holds
that the inspired predictions apply not to in
dividuals but to governments and nations, have
had a wide popularity. Among the most im
portant are: "Dissertation on the Mysteries
of the Cabiri, or the Great Gods of Phoenicia "
(2 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1803) ; " The Origin of
Pagan Idolatry" (3 vols. 8vo, 1816); "Diffi
culties of Romanism" (8vo, 1826); "The
Sacred Calendar of Prophecy " (3 vols.. 1828);
" Papal Infallibility " (8vo, 1851); and "The
Revival of the French Emperorship antici
pated from the Necessity of Prophecy " (12mo,
1853; New York, 1859).

FABIl S, the name of an ancient Roman gens,
which claimed to be descended from Hercules
and the daughter of the Arcadian Evander.
Of the various families which belonged to the
gens Fabia, the most ancient was that of the
Vibulani, three brothers of which were consuls
for seven years in succession (485-479 B. C.).
These brothers rendered themselves odious
to the common soldiers by refusing to divide
among them the booty gained in war, and by
their opposition to the agrarian law, but after
ward became popular by their courage in a
battle fought with the Veientes in the consul
ship of Marcus Fabius, in 480. In this bat
tle Quintus Fabius was killed, and his brothers
Marcus the consul and Crcso were foremost in
the fight. The soldiers bravely supported them,
and after the battle the Fabii espoused the
cause of the plebeians and were regarded by
the patricians as apostates. They gained high
honor by offering to undertake alone the war
against the Veientes. The whole family, with
the exception of a single member, to the num
ber of more than 300, left Rome with their
followers, fortified themselves upon the banks
of the Cremera, and prosecuted the war with

great energy. But in the consulship of Kera
tins (477) Pulvillus and T. Menenius Lanatus
they were all, after heroic resistance, over
whelmed and destroyed. The only member of
the family who survived was Quintus, son
of Marcus, who had remained at Rome*, and
from him were descended the Fabii who after
ward became famous in Roman history. Among
them, Quintus Fabius Rullianus is commonly
considered the first who had the cognomen
Maximus. In 325, as master of the horse,
he gave battle to the Samnites, contrary to
the express orders of the dictator L. Papirius
Cursor, and obtained a signal victory. After
other brilliant victories, in 296, being consul
for the sixth time, he was in command at
the great battle of Sentinuin, and defeated
the combined armies of the Samnites, Gauls,
Etruscans, and Umbrians. He is reputed
among the most eminent of the Roman gen
erals, but the principal authorities in regard
to this period belonged to the Fabian house,
and it is probable that his military achieve
ments have been much exaggerated. Accord
ing to Polybius, it was not Q. Fabius Rul
lianus upon whom the cognomen of Maximus
was originally conferred, but his great-grand
son, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, who
by his prudent generalship in the second Punic
war saved the Roman commonwealth from
impending ruin. Having been appointed pro-
dictator after the defeat of Lake Thrasyme-
nus, in 217, he perceived that it was impos
sible with raw and disheartened troops to
oppose successfully a veteran army flushed
with victory. He therefore avoided pitched
battles and moved his camp from highland to
highland, where Hannibal s Numidian horse
and Spanish infantry could not follow him. He
thus tired them out with marches and counter
marches. This policy gained for him the title
of Cunctator, delayer. It was admirably suited
to the position of affairs, but the Roman senate
and people were impatient under it, and divided
the command between Fabius and Minucius, his
master of the horse. Minucius made a rash
advance, was surrounded by the enemy, and
would have been destroyed had he not been
rescued by Fabius. Varro, one of the consuls
who assumed the command after the expiration
of Fabius s dictatorship, disregarded his coun
sels and suffered a severe defeat at Canna3 (216).
After this Fabius suggested the measures of
defence which were adopted by the senate.
He was made consul for the fifth time in 209,
and became priticeps scnatus. During this year
he inflicted a severe blow upon the Carthagin
ians by the recapture of Tarenturn. Toward
the end of the war the more energetic plan of
action proposed by Scipio prevailed over the
advice of Fabius. He died at an advanced age
in 203, when Hannibal was about leaving Italy.
Gains Fabius Pictor painted a battle piece
for the temple of Salus which was dedicated in
302 B, C., the earliest Roman painting of which
there is any record. It was preserved till the

FABRE

FABRICIUS

time of the emperor Claudius, when the temple
was destroyed by fire. His son Numerius Fa-
bius Pictor is mentioned by Cicero as an au
thor of Greek annals, but was possibly mista
ken for his nephew (a grandson of the painter),
Quintus Fabius Pictor, the first prose writer of
Rome, who served in the Gallic war, 225 B. C.,
and in the second Punic war. He was the au
thor of a history of Rome from its foundation
to his own time. Of this work, probably writ
ten in Greek, which was highly valued by later
writers, no fragments remain.

FIBRE, Frau?ois Xavier Pascal, a French
painter, born in Montpellier, April 1, 1766,
died March 12, 1837. He was a pupil of Da
vid, and produced in 1787 a painting repre
senting the " Execution of the Children of
Zedekiah by order of Nebuchadnezzar," for
which he received the great prize of the acad
emy, and was sent as a pensionary to Rome.
He was believed, though perhaps erroneously,
to have been secretly married to the countess
of Albany, who on her death in 1824 made
him her sole heir, and bequeathed to him valu
able MSS. which had been left to her by Alfi-
eri. Fabre gave them to the city of Florence.

FABRE, Jean, surnamed "the honest crimi
nal," a Protestant hero, born in Nimes in 1727,
died in Cette, May 31, 1797. He was a manu
facturer and a member of the small Protestant
community at Nimes. He and his coreligion
ists celebrated the new year of 1756 in a seclu
ded locality, where they were surprised by the
soldiery, but he escaped. His father, however,
having been arrested, Jean took his place as a
prisoner in the galleys of Toulon, and was sub
jected to great hardships. His release in 1762,
and his full pardon in 1768, were mainly due
to a play by Fenouillot de Falbaire, L honntte
criminel, of which he is the hero. His auto
biography, completed by his son, was pub
lished with a biographical notice by Athanase
Coquereljtffo in the Bulletin de la societe de
TMstoire du protestantisme fran^ais (Paris,
January to April, 1865).

FABRE D EGLAtfTIJVE, Philippe Francois IVazaire,
a French revolutionist and author, born in
Languedoc, Dec. 28, 1755, guillotined in Paris,
April 5, 1794. In gratitude for a wild rose
(eglantine} of gold awarded to him in early life
at the floral games at Toulouse, he adopted
that name. He wrote a variety of plays for
the theatres of Paris, a few of which, as Le
PJiilintede Moliere, ISintrigue epistolaire, &c.,
were favorably received. On the outbreak of
the revolution he associated himself with Dan-
ton, whose secretary he became in 1792. He
was a member of the convention, where he ad
vocated the most violent measures, but played
only a secondary part. He was accused of ve
nality, and doomed to share the fate of Dan-
ton. While ascending the guillotine he dis
tributed some of his writings among the popu
lace. One of his comedies, Les precepteiirs,
was produced for the first time five years after
his death, and received with great applause.

Two volumes of his writings were published in
18.01 as Q&uvres posthumes et melees.

FABRETTI, Raffaello, an Italian antiquary,
born in Urbino in 1618, died in Rome in 1700.
At the age of 18 he went to Rome, where he
made himself profoundly acquainted with the
literature and art of the ancients. After filling
a diplomatic mission in Spain, he became
treasurer of Pope Alexander VII., and under
the three succeeding popes held various offices
at Rome, Madrid, and Urbino. During his
13 years residence in Spain he explored nearly
all the antiquities of that kingdom. His first
archaeological works, De Aquaductibus Veteris
Command. De Columna Trajani, excited a gen
eral interest. His interpretation of certain pas
sages of Livy involved him in a violent dis
cussion with Gronovius. In a learned work
upon ancient inscriptions he made known the
treasures discovered by him in the catacombs
of Rome. His rich collection of antiquities is
still in the ducal palace of Urbino.

FABRIAtfO, a town of central Italy, in the
province and 34 m. S. W. of the city of An-
cona, at the foot of the Apennines; pop. about
6,000. It is the seat of a bishop, has a cathe
dral and several convents, and is celebrated
chiefly for its paper and parchment. It is be
lieved to be one of the first places at which
paper from linen rags was manufactured. The
town also contains tanneries and powder mills,
and manufactures cloth and hats.

FABRIANO, Gentile da, an Italian painter of
the Roman school, horn at Fabriano about
1370, died in Rome in 1450. Michel Angelo
said that his name Gentile, the noble or deli
cate, was in harmony with the character of his
works. About 1418 he painted in the cathe
dral of Orvieto a Madonna, which still exists,
and w T hich was so much admired that the ar
tist received the title of magistcr magistrorum.
He then went to Venice, where he obtained
great success, and was invited to Rome, where
his paintings in the church of St. John Late-
ran, which his infirmities did not permit him
to finish, made him esteemed the first painter
of Italy. His manner resembles that of Fra
Angelico.

FABRICIUS (Cains Fabrieins Lnscinns), a Roman
statesman, celebrated for his virtue and integ
rity. While consul in 282 B. C. he defeated
the Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, and
enriched the public treasury with more than
400 talents from the spoils of the enemy, re
maining poor himself. In 280 he served as
legate in the campaign against Pyrrhus, king
of Epirus, to whom he was sent at its close
with an embassy, to ask the ransom or ex
change of some Roman prisoners of war. The
meeting of the envoy and the king at Taren-
tum has perhaps been embellished by the Ro
man historians. Fabricius is represented to
have withstood not only the most splendid
offers of Pyrrhus, who knowing his poverty
tried to bribe him into his service, but also the
threatening aspect of an elephant seemingly

FABRICIUS

FABYAN

let loose upon him. In reward of his integrity
the king allowed the captives to go to Rome
for the celebration of the Saturnalia, on prom
ise of returning after the festival. In 279 Fa-
bricius fought in the battle of Asculum, which,
though nominally a victory for Pyrrhus, was
regarded by him almost as a defeat. In the
next year he commanded again as consul, and
exposed to his enemy the treachery of his
physician, who offered to poison him; upon
which Pyrrhus is said to have exclaimed, " It
is easier to turn the sun from its career than
Fabricius from his honesty," and to have freed
all his captives without ransom; When Pyr
rhus evacuated Italy, Fabricius was engaged in
subduing his allies. As censor in 275 he de
prived P. Cornelius Rufinus of his seat in the
senate, for having in his household 10 pounds
of silver plate. Like Curius Dentatus, he
spurned the presents of the Samnite ambas
sadors, and died so poor that the senate had to
provide marriage portions for his daughters.
He was buried within the walls of Rome, the
prohibitory law of the twelve tables having
been suspended in his honor.

FABRUirS, Georg, a German scholar, born in
Chemnitz, Saxony, April 24, 1516, died in
Meissen, July 13, 1571. He was director of
the college of Meissen. His edition of Horace
(2 vols., Basel, 1555) is still esteemed. He
wrote Latin poetry with great purity, and in
his sacred poems he would employ no words
which had the slightest flavor of paganism.
Baumgarten-Crusius wrote a sketch of his life
and writings (Meissen, 1839).

FABRICItS, or Fabrizio, Girolamo, surnamed
from his birthplace AB AQUAPEXDENTE, an
Italian anatomist and surgeon, born at Ac-
quapendente, in the Papal States, in 1537, died
in Padua, May 21, 1619.. A pupil of Fallopius,
he succeeded him as professor of anatomy and
surgery at the university of Padua, which posi
tion he held for 50 years. Fabricius was the
first to demonstrate in 1574 the presence of
valvular folds in all the veins of the extremi
ties. William Harvey, who was his pupil, ac
knowledged himself indebted to his teachings
for the discovery of the circulation of the
blood. His writings comprise dissertations on
the formation of the foetus, the structure of the
oesophagus, stomach, and body, and the pecu
liarities of the eye, ear, and larynx ; treatises
on the egg and on veins, &c. Great honors
were bestowed on him by the Venetian gov
ernment, and a large anatomical theatre was
constructed for his accommodation. The first
edition of his surgical works appeared at Padua
in 1617. An edition of his anatomical and
physiological works was published by Bohn in
Leipsic in 1687, followed in 1737 by the more
complete one of Albinus of Leyden.

FABRICIUS, Johann Albert, a German bibli
ographer, born in Leipsic, Nov. 11, 1668, died
in Hamburg, April 30, 1736. He studied phi
losophy, medicine, and theology, and in 1699
was appointed professor of rhetoric and moral

philosophy in the gymnasium of Hamburg.
The extent of his learning in almost every de
partment of knowledge, especially in philology,
was remarkable. His most celebrated works
are: Biblioiheca Latino, (Hamburg, 1697; 5th
ed., 3 vols., 1721 ; new ed. by Ernesti, 3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1773- 4) ; Biblioiheca Grceca (14 vols.,
Hamburg, l705- 28 ; continuation and new edi
tion by Harless, 12 vols., Hamburg, 1790-1809,
provided with an index in 1838) ; E iblio-
graphia Antiquaria (Hamburg, 171 3 ; new ed.
by Schafshausen, 1760) ; Bibliotneca Ecclesi-
astica (Hamburg, 1718) ; and Bibliotheca Jfe-
dm et InfimcR ^Etatis (5 vols., Hamburg, 1734 ;
supplementary vol. by Schottgen, 1746; new
ed. by Mansi, Padua, 1754).

FABRICItS, Johann Christian, a Danish ento
mologist, born in Tondern, Schleswig, Jan. 7,
1743, died in Kiel in 1807 or 1808. His aca
demic studies were pursued at Copenhagen,
Leyden, Edinburgh, and finally at L T psal, under
Linnaeus. He was much attached to the great
Swede, and has preserved many interesting
details of his private life. He adopted Lin-
nseus s method, and introduced a system of
classifying insects by the parts which consti
tute the mouth. He took the degree of doc
tor of medicine about 1767, and was afterward
appointed professor of natural history in the
university of Kiel, where he wrote his Sy sterna,
Entomologies (1775), subsequently enlarged
into Entomologia Systematica (4 vols. 8vo,
Copenhagen, 1792- 4). He employed the re
mainder of his life in developing and perfect
ing it, and for this purpose made tours over
different parts of Europe. His Genera In-
sectorum (8vo, Kiel, 1777), PTiilosophia Ento-
mologica (Hamburg, 1778), Species Insectorum
(2 vols., 1781), Mantissa Insectorum (2 vols.,
Copenhagen, 1787), and other works show
how complete and extended were his investi
gations in this branch of science. He also
published essays on botany and natural history,
accounts of travels in Korway, Russia, and
England, and a variety of treatises, historical,
political, and economical, relating to Denmark,
the latter being prepared by him in his capacity
of councillor of state and professor of rural
and political economy at Kiel. He died of
grief, it is supposed, occasioned by the bom
bardment of Copenhagen, and the political
misfortunes of Denmark.

FABIAN, or Fabian, Robert, an ancient Eng
lish chronicler, born in London about 1450,
died in 1512. He was a merchant, became an
alderman and sheriff of London, and wrote a
general chronicle of English history, which he
called the "Concordance of Histories," from
the fabulous exploits of Brutus in Great Britain
I to the reign of Henry VII. It was first pub-
lished after the author s death (folio, 1516), and
reappeared in numerous editions, the last of
which is that by Sir Henry Ellis, accompanied
by notes and a learned introduction (" Chron
icles of England and France," royal 4to, Lon
don, 1811). On account of its free animad-

FACCIOLATO

FACTOR

versions on the Catholic clergy, Cardinal Wol- |
sey is said to have caused the destruction of a
portion of the first edition, perfect copies of
which are now rare.

FACCIOLATO, or Faedolati, Jaopo, an Italian
philologist, horn in Torreglia, near Padua, Jan.
4, 1082, died Aug. 26, 1769. Cardinal Bar-
bariii o sent him to the ecclesiastical seminary
of Padua, where he took orders and rose to he
professor of philosophy, and finally head of
the institution. He afterward filled the chair
of logic in the university of the same city, and
was charged with continuing the history of
that establishment which Papadopoli had be
gun. Besides several good editions of the
classics and various works on grammar, ethics,
theology, and some poetry, he published re
visions of the Lexicon of Schrevelius, the The
saurus Ciceroniamis of Nizolius, and an edition
in seven languages of Calepino s dictionary (2
vols. fol., 1731), in which he received much as
sistance from his pupil Forcellini and others.
It was on the conclusion of the last named
work that Facciolato and Forcellini began to
compose the great Latin dictionary published
after the death of both, under their joint names,
but which was almost entirely the work of the
latter. (See FORCELLINI.)

FACTOR (Lat., from facer e, to do or make),
one who conducts business for another. The
word originally had almost the same meaning
as agent (Lat. agere, to act). But while agent
was used to represent every one who acted in
any way in the stead of another, factor became
limited to those who so act in mercantile trans
actions. Factor is then a mercantile agent,
herein being like a broker ; but the difference
between them is principally this : a broker acts
for his principal in reference to mercantile
property which the principal retains in his
hands; w T hile the factor has possession of the
goods sent to him for sale, or takes possession
of those which he buys for his principal. From
this difference others have grown; and the
most important of these is, that the broker
buys and sells as agent, while the factor may
buy and sell in his own name, the person deal
ing with him not always knowing whether the
factor or some one else owns the goods. In
the United States, among merchants, the phrase
commission merchant has taken the place of
factor, and means much the same thing; but
the word factor is retained as a law term, and
the law of factors is the law of commission
merchants. Besides regular commission mer
chants, any one intrusted with the possession
of property belonging to another, and author
ized by the owner to dispose of it, may be a
factor, as a supercargo. So a common carrier
may be a factor ; and while he acts as such, he
is responsible only as a factor, that is, only for
injuries or losses caused by want of due care ;
but when he has sold goods as factor, and has
received the money which it is his duty to bring
home as carrier, his obligations as carrier re
vive, and he is now liable for any loss not

caused by the act of God or the public enemy.
A factor is a general agent, and as such binds
his principal. The most general duty of a fac
tor, as of every agent, is to obey the instruc
tions he receives. But he is considered by the
law merchant as an agent having much discre
tion, and an equal responsibility ; while there
fore he is bound to obey definite and positive
instructions, he is not bound to pay such regard
to mere intimations or wishes, because he may
well believe that, whatever his principal might
desire or consider expedient, if he did not give
positive directions it was because he preferred
leaving the decision to the discretion of his
factor. And even if he have positive and pre
cise instructions, his departure from them will
be justified if it was caused by an unforeseen
emergency, and if he acted in good faith, and
certainly for the actual advantage of his prin
cipal. If, however, a factor buys goods for his
principal and sends them to him in distinct
violation, of an order, his principal may reject
the same, and may return them to his factor ;
or, if the nature of the goods and the circum
stances of the case render it certainly expedient,
he may sell the goods for his factor, and remit
to him or credit him with the proceeds. A
factor generally acquires no right to his com
missions until the service by which he is to
earn them is wholly rendered, unless prevented
without his fault from completing his service,
in which case he may have a reasonable com
pensation. Nor has he any claim for compen
sation unless he conducts his business with
proper care and skill, and he is liable in dam
ages for any loss his principal sustains by his
want of care and skill ; nor can he claim any
compensation for any illegal or immoral service.
A factor cannot delegate his power and right,
except so far as he is authorized to do so, either
expressly, or by the established usage, or by
the peculiar circumstances of the case. In the
absence of positive instructions, it is the duty
of the factor to obey and conform to the com
mon usage of that business, and he can, in
general, bind his principal only within that
usage. He has a considerable discretion, but
is bound to use it with reasonable care, and
with perfect good faith. Thus, if he hastens a
sale improperly, and without reasonable cause
or excuse, as, for example, if he hurries a sale,
clearly against the interest of the principal, for
the purpose of realizing at once his own ad
vances, such a sale would be considered a
fraudulent sacrifice of his principal s property,
and w r ould render him liable in damages. The
factor is bound to insure the property of his
principal when instructed to do so, and also if
a general, well established, and well known
usage requires it of him, and particularly if
there have been antecedent acts or usages be
tween him and his principal, from which Iris
principal might reasonably have expected that
he would effect insurance, and therefore omit
doing this himself. In general, the principal
has the right of revoking the authority he has

FACTOR

given to his factor at any time before the fac
tor has made any advances upon the goods;
and may then demand them, paying of course
whatever legal claims the factor may have, not
for his commissions, but for expenses properly
incurred about the goods, and for any special
services he has been called upon to render.
But it is a question whether, if a commission
merchant has made advances upon goods, he
has not now acquired an interest in them and
an authority over them, which his principal
cannot defeat by revocation. The prevailing
doctrine in the United States is that a factor
by advances upon goods acquires an interest in
the goods themselves, and that his authority
over them is therefore irrevocable. In Eng
land the courts hold otherwise, and a factor
who has made advances upon goods is denied
the power to sell them or any part of them if
positively prohibited by his principal ; while
in the United States he may sell so much as
will cover his advances and charges, the prin
cipal having power over only the surplus or
residue after the factor s advances are repaid.
The factor is not obliged to sell, but after de
mand and reasonable delay may have his action
against his principal for his advances. The
question what power a factor has to pledge the
goods consigned to him has been much agi
tated. By placing the goods in his possession,
the principal may be said to give to his factor
the power of acting as an owner, to the injury
of others. It is on this ground that in England
and in many of the United States such a fac
tor, whether called commission merchant, con
signee, agent, or otherwise, is deemed to be the
true owner, so far as to render valid a sale,
pledge, or other disposition of the property,
while the party with whom he deals acts in
good faith. A factor may make a special con
tract with his principal, to guarantee all sales
made for him. In continental Europe, some
times in England, more rarely here, such a
factor is *aid to act under a del credere com
mission. With us he is commonly, and per
haps universally, said to act under a guaran
tee commission. The meaning of this is, that
in addition to the usual commission (or that
agreed upon) for the sale of the goods, he
receives a further commission, in considera
tion of which lie guarantees the payment by
the purchaser of the price of the goods, and
agrees to pay if the purchaser does not. A
guarantee commission merchant has the same
claim on his principal for his advances as if
he made no guarantee. If he takes a note
from the purchaser of the goods, this note is
the property of his principal, and he guaran
tees the note ; and if he takes payment in de
preciated paper, he must make it good. If
money be paid, and he remits it in some cus
tomary and proper way, or in such way as may
be specially directed by the owner, he is not
responsible for its safe arrival, unless he under
takes to guarantee the remittance ; in which
case he may charge a commission for his guaran-

! tee. Without any guarantee commission a
! factor is liable to his principal, not only for his
j neglect or default, but for certain acts which
j seem to assume this liability ; as if he sells
j the goods of several principals to one pur-
j chaser, on credit, and takes a note payable or
! indorsed to himself, and gets it discounted.
j It has already been remarked that a factor
i may buy, sell, sue and be sued, demand, col-
I lect, receive, and receipt for money, all in his
| own name, and as a principal, while a broker
i can do all this only in his o\vn name and as an
| agent. This difference between them springs
from the possession of the goods by the factor
(for possession is one of the principal ittdicia
of ownership) and the non-possession of them
by the broker. There is a more important dif-
j ference between them, founded on the same
i circumstance; this is, that the factor has a
j lien on the goods for his advances, charges,
I and commissions, and a broker has not. But
if a factor voluntarily transfers the goods to
the owner, or to the owner s order, he cannot
reclaim them as his security, but retains only
his personal right to demand his advances and
charges from the owner. If the owner is in
solvent, the factor takes then only his dividend ;
whereas if he still holds the possession, the
other creditors can have the goods only by dis
charging the factor s claims in full. Therefore
the factor and his principal may have claims
against a purchaser which may seem to conflict ;
for the principal may demand his price, while
| the factor claims his advances and charges. In
general, it may be said that if a purchaser pays
in good faith to either, without notice of the
other s claim, he will be protected against the
i other. But if the owner demands his price,
i the purchaser cannot set off against this, or
i claim to deduct, a general debt to the pur-
I chaser from the factor, unless the factor sold
the goods as his own, under circumstances
which gave him a right so to sell them, and the
buyer believed they were his own ; in which
case the buyer may charge against the price,
j or indeed pay the whole price, by the indebted-
: ness of the factor to him. On the other hand,
, if the factor has a lien on the goods, and has not
I lost his lien by parting with the possession of
| the goods, the buyer cannot set off against this
: lien any debt due to him from the principal,
although the principal be named at the sale as
j the owner of the goods. An important dis-
I tinction is made between a foreign factor, or
i one who transacts business for his principal in
a country in which the latter does not reside,
and a domestic factor, or one who acts in the
i same country in which the principal resides.
; Although every factor may act in his own name,
I yet in the case of a foreign factor the law goes
j much further, and considers the factor as in
almost all respects a principal. The reason of
j this is obvious. A person dealing at home
: with a factor whose principal resides abroad,
j has no means of knowing who the principal is,
i or what goods are his, or by what title they

FAED

FAHLCRANTZ

are his, or for what purpose they are in the
factor s hands, excepting as the factor may
choose to tell him. He can have no access, or
certainly no easy access, to the foreign prin
cipal, for the purpose of remedy or enforce
ment ; and, on the other hand, cannot be pre
sumed to have bought or sold on the credit of
a person thus unknown and inaccessible. It is
but fair, therefore, that the factor should be, as
to the purchaser, the principal ; and it is
equally fair that the factor should be in such
case the only principal. These, however, are
but presumptions of law. The factor and
purchaser may make what agreement they
please, and the law will carry it into effect.
In the absence of special agreement, that is,
in the case of an ordinary transaction with a
foreign factor, the buyer may sue the factor,
and cannot sue the principal, although the
principal may recover from a buyer a price not
yet paid to the factor. The rule that the party
dealing with the factor looks to him only,
seems to be well settled, if he knew that he
was dealing with the factor of a foreign prin
cipal, and reserved no right or claim against
that principal. Whether he could sue the
principal, if he did not know him at the time
of the transaction, but discovered him after
ward, is not so certain; for there are authori
ties which limit the rule to the former cases,
and in the latter give the party a concurrent
remedy against the factor and the principal.
It seems now settled that, for the purpose of
this distinction, the states of the Union are
foreign to each other. It is a general rule
that a principal does not lose his property by
any wrongful act of his factor, as long as he
can trace and identify his goods, either in the
factors hands, or into the hands of any per
son who holds by representation of or deriva
tion from the factor, without being purchaser,
pledgee, or otherwise a transferee in good faith
and for value. And when a principal finds his
property encumbered by an act of the factor,
as a pledge, or the like, he may always recover
his property by paying the amount of encum
brance. In some of the United States a fraud
ulent disposition by a factor of the property of
his principal is an indictable offence, and is
punished with severity.

FAED, Thomas, a Scottish artist, born at Bur-
ley Mill, in the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, in
1826. In 1843 he went to Edinburgh, where
his elder brother, John, was painting with suc
cess, and for some years was a pupil in the
school of design of that city. After executing
the well known group of " Scott and his
Friends at Abbotsford " and other works, he
went in 1852 to London, where he has since
resided. In 1855 his " Mitherless Bairn " was
exhibited at the royal academy, his "Home
and the Homeless" in 1856, and the "First
Break in the Family" in 1857. In 1864 he
was made a member of the royal academy,
and several of his paintings were exhibited at
the Paris universal exposition of 1867.

FAENZA (anc. Faventia), a fortified city of
central Italy, in the province and 18 m. S. W.
of the city of Ravenna, on the Lamone, at its
junction with the canal of Zanelli ; pop. in
1871, 36,299. It is the seat of a bishopric, and
has a fine cathedral, theatre, several churches
and convents which contain valuable paintings,
a lunatic asylum, a city hall, several splendid
private palaces, a royal lyceum with a picture
gallery, a communal gymnasium, and a techni
cal school. The beauty of the city and its
suburbs has gained for it the name of the Flor
ence of Romagna. Its formerly celebrated
manufactures of a peculiar earthenware, called
from this place faience, have declined in im
portance, and its chief industry at present con
sists in manufactures of paper, linen, and silk,
and in an active commerce in the products of
the territory, which are taken by canal from
Faenza to the Po. A few miles from the town
are ferruginous and saline springs and baths,
which are much resorted to. This city was
the scene of the defeat of Carbo and Nor-
banus by Metellus, 82 B. C. It was taken by
the Goths in the 6th century, and by the em
peror Frederick II. in 1241. Sir John Hawk-
wood, in the service of Gregory XL, captured
it in 1376, and put to death, it is said, about
4,000 persons. It was successively subject to
Bologna and Venice, and in 1509 was taken
by Pope Julius II.

EESULE. See FIESOLE.

FAGNANI, Joseph, an American artist, born in
Naples, Italy, Dec, 24, 1819, died in New York,
May 22, 1873. He made crayon portraits be
fore completing his 13th year, left the royal
academy at 18, and removed to Vienna, where
he painted a portrait of the archduke Charles.
In 1842 in Paris he met Maria Christina of
Spain, who invited him to Madrid. There he
secured the friendship of Sir Llenry Bulwer,
and accompanied* him to Washington in 1849.
In 1851 he removed to New York, and married
an American lady. From 1858 till 1865 he was
in Europe, and executed portraits of Garibaldi,
Victor Emanuel, the empress Eugenie, Abdul
Aziz, Ali Pasha, Cialdini, Rattazzi, and others.
After his return to New York he painted a
series of pictures called the "Nine Muses."
Among his other works are portraits of Queens
Christina and Isabella of Spain, the duchess of
Alba, the duke d Aumale, the countess Guic-
cioli, Lord Byron from a miniature, Sir Robert
Peel, Alexis de Tocqueville, John Bright, Rich
ard Cobden, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, Gen.
Taylor, and Gen. Sheridan. He received the
only gold medal ever given for a portrait by the
royal Bourbonic academy of Naples, and was
decorated by a number of European sovereigns.

FAHLCRANTZ, Karl Johan, a Swedish painter,
born in Dalecarlia, Nov. 29. 1774, died Jan. 1,
1861. He was the son of a clergyman, and, al
though self-taught, his delineations of Scandi
navian scenery won for him the reputation of
the best Swedish landscape painter of his day.
His most finished paintings belong to the Swe-

FAIILUX

FAIR

dish royal family, and a number of them were
purchased by Frederick VI. of Denmark.

FAHLO, or Falnn (Sw. Falilu), the capital of
the Swedish Ian of the same name or Koppar-
berg, on the W. shore of Lake Runn, 130 m. N.
N. W. of Stockholm ; pop. in 1868, 5,891. The
houses are low and almost entirely of wood. The
copper mines W. of this town are among the
oldest and most celebrated in Europe. They
produced in former times upward of 3,000 tons,
but now about 700 tons annually. The exter
nal opening, made by the falling in of ancient
galleries, is about 300 ft. deep, and 1,200 ft.
long by 600 wide. The descent to the bottom
of this is by easy stairs, whence steep ladders
lead to the pits, the lowest of which are about
1,300 ft. from the surface. The excavations
extend many miles under ground, forming
several magnificent chambers, where banquets
were given to Bernadotte and his queen, and
Prince Oscar, on which occasions the mines
were brilliantly illuminated. The mines are
owned by a company of 1,200 shares, which
has the monopoly of iron and other works in
the vicinity. Besides copper, small quantities
of gold, silver, and lead are obtained from the
ore. Connected with the mines are a school
of practical mining, a model room, a large
scientific library, and a geological museum.
(For the Ian see KOPPARBEEG.)

FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, a German phy
sicist and mechanician, born in Dantzic about
1690, died in Amsterdam, Sept. 16, 1736. His
predilection for the natural sciences led him to
abandon mercantile life and travel in pursuit
of knowledge. After visiting various parts of
Germany, France, and England, he settled at
Amsterdam as a maker of philosophical instru
ments. Here some of the most eminent natu
ral philosophers of the day became his friends
and instructors. Fahrenheit improved the
areometer, and made some* progress with the
design of a hydraulic machine for the draining
of marshes, which he left unfinisbed ; but he is
chiefly distinguished for the changes which he
made in the thermometer, which were first car
ried out in 1720, and have added much to the
accuracy and value of that instrument. (See
THERMOMETER.) His thermometer since its
first introduction has been in general use in
Holland, Great Britain, and the United States.
Its constructor was elected a member of the
royal society of London in 1724, in whose
44 Philosophical Transactions" for that year
are papers by him.

F1IDHERBE, Lonis Leon Cesar, a French sol
dier, born in Lille, June 3, 1818. He studied
at Paris and Metz, served in Algeria and
Guadeloupe, and became in 1854 governor of
Senegal, where he distinguished himself and
considerably extended the French possessions.
After a brief command in Algeria he was
sent again to Senegambia, and remained there
as governor till 1865, when he became com
mander of the military division of Bona in
Algeria. After the capture of the citadel

of Amiens by the Germans, at the end of
November, 1870, he was appointed by Gam-
betta commander-in-chief of the northern
army and of the third military division. With
about 50,000 men he took the offensive near
Amiens, and after various unfortunate engage
ments was thoroughly defeated at Bapaume,
Jan. 3, 1871, Peronne capitulating Jan. 10,
after three weeks resistance; and he was
overwhelmed at St. Quentin, Jan. 19. His
forces were completely disorganized and re
treated toward Lille, and the northern army
was disbanded in March. In June he was
elected by Lille to the national assembly, and
in 1872 he resigned his commission in the army.
He has written Chapitre de geographie sur
le nord-ouest de VAfrique (1864) ; Collection
complete des inscriptions numidiques (1870);
and Campagne de Varmee du nord (1871, sev
eral times reprinted).

FAILLON, Michel Etienne, a French theological
and historical writer, born at Tarascon in 1799,
died in Paris, Oct. 25, 1870. He was a Sul-
pician of Paris, and came to Montreal in 1854 as
visitor of the houses of that congregation in
America. His contributions to the history of
Canada are numerous and valuable, embracing
a life of the Yen. Mr. Olier (1853) ; of Margaret
Bourgeoys, foundress of the congregation sis
ters (1852) ; of Mile. Maure, foundress of the
Hotel Dieu (1854); of Madame d Youville,
foundress of the gray sisters (1852) ; of Mile,
le Ber, the recluse (1 860) ; and a very extended
history of the French colony in Canada, of
w^hich 3 vols. 4to (1865- 6) appeared before his
death, embracing only a small portion of his
plan.

FA ILLY, Pierre Lonis Charles Achille de, a French
soldier, born at Rozoy-sur-Serre, department
of Aisne, about 1810. He went to Algeria as
sub-lieutenant in 1828, was afterward orderly
officer of King Louis Philippe and director
of the military school at Toulouse, became
brigadier general in 1852, and for his services
in the Crimean war was made general of di
vision, Sept. 22, 1855. He was aide-de-camp
of Xapoleon III., commanded a division in
the war of 1859, and especially distinguished
himself at Solferino. In 1867 he was sent
with an expeditionary corps to Rome. On
the outbreak of the Franco-German war in
1870 he was placed in command of the fifth
corps, with his headquarters at Bitsch. After
the disastrous battle of Worth he retired with
the remnant of MacMahon s army to Chalons.
Cooperating with the forces of the latter during
their passage of the Ardennes for the relief
of Bazaine at Metz, he was surprised and de
feated at Beaumont, Aug. 30. MacMnhon was
paralyzed, and the capitulation of Sedan ter
minated the career of Failly. While a prisoner
of war he attempted in his Marches et opera
tions du 5"" corps (Brussels, 1871) to refute the
charges brought against him.

FAIR (L&t.feria, a day of rest, a holiday), a
gathering for the purchase and sale of goods,

FAIR

or the hiring of servants, occasionally associ
ated with religious festivals and popular enter
tainments. The ancient Greeks held fairs in
conjunction with popular assemblies for politi
cal purposes. The Roman fora, though prop
erly permanent market places, attracted great
multitudes at times of festivity and important
judicial and political gatherings, and on such
occasions the special facilities for selling goods,
as well as the special provisions for popular
entertainment, must have given them some
what of the character of fairs. In the 5th cen
tury fairs were established in several French
and Italian cities. The fair of St. Denis was
instituted by Dagobert in 629, and the fair of
St. Lazare by Louis VI. Aix-la-Chapelle and
Troyes trace their fairs to about the year 800.
Alfred the Great introduced them into Eng
land in 886, and in 960 they were established
in Flanders. Fairs for the sale of slaves were
common throughout Germany and the north
of Europe about the year 1000; and in 1071
they were encouraged in England by William
the Conqueror. Slaves were sold also at St.
Denis, and French children were taken in re
turn to be bartered away in foreign countries ;
this trade was prohibited through the efforts
of Bathilda, a wealthy freedwoman. These
institutions were of great value during the mid
dle ages, and especially serviceable in rude and
inland countries. The number of shops and
the objects offered for sale in them were very
limited, and consequently little frequented by
dealers. These fairs had numerous privileges
annexed to them, and they afforded special
facilities for the disposal of goods. While com
merce w r as burdened with every possible kind
of taxes and tolls, and travel was not only diffi
cult but frequently unsafe, the fairs had gen
erally the advantage of being free from imposts,
and the merchants who wished to be present
at them enjoyed the protection of the govern
ment for their goods and persons. Many fairs
were associated with religious festivals, perhaps
to insure a large concourse of people. In many
places they are still held on the same day with
the vigil or feast of the saint to whom the prin
cipal church of the town is dedicated. It was
even customary in England and Germany to
hold the fairs in the churches and churchyards.
Fairs for cattle, agricultural products, and sta
ple manufactures have been found entirely un
necessary in countries enjoying a free and flour
ishing trade, and they dwindle accordingly into
insignificance. On the other hand, fairs offer
special opportunities for comparing different
qualities of home manufactures and produce,
and thus are valuable as a means of instruction.
Another advantage attached to them is that
they bring communities which are but slowly
reached by the progress of civilization into
regular contact with it. The most celebrated
fairs of large cities in former times accordingly
manifest the greatest decrease of attendance,
while the genuine country fairs still retain
much of their importance, To the priory of

St. Bartholomew in London, founded early in
the 12th century, Henry I. granted in 113&lt;Ahe
privilege of holding a fair on St. Bartholomew s
day. The original grant was for three days,
but it w r as gradually extended to fifteen. An
order of the common council in 1708 limited
its duration again to three days. It was at
first a great place of resort for traders and
pleasure seekers, but it declined in importance
until it was only attended by itinerant show
men and the owners of a few stalls. In 1850
the lord mayor made proclamation of the fair
for the last time, and it has not been held since
1855. (See Morley s "Memoirs of Bartholo
mew s Fair," London, 1859.) Weyhill fair in
Hampshire (Oct. 10) has probably the greatest
display of sheep of any fair in Great Britain.
St. Faith s, near Norwich (Oct. 17), is the prin
cipal English fair for Scotch cattle, but large
numbers are also disposed of at Market liar-
borough, Carlisle, and Ormskirk. Ipswich has
two considerable fairs, one in August for lambs,
of which about 100,000 are sold, and one in
September for butter and cheese. The August
fair of Ilorncastle, Lincolnshire, is the largest
horse fair, and is resorted to by dealers not
only from Great Britain, but also from the
continent and the United States. Ilowden in
Yorkshire has also a large horse fair., particu
larly for Yorkshire hunters. Suffolk horses
are exhibited at the celebrated Woodbridge
Lady-day fair. Bristol, Exeter, and many
other English cities, towns, and hamlets, have
their fairs. A great cheese fair is held in April
at Gloucester. Fairs w r ere held at Greenwich
at Easter and Whitsuntide, which attracted
large crowds of visitors from London to partake
in the many amusements, as well as to enjoy
the fresh air and the fine scenery from the park
and its neighborhood; but Greenwich fair was
suppressed in 1857 by the police, the inhabi
tants having complained of it as a nuisance.
Walworth, Camberwell, and Peckham fairs
have also been suppressed. The most impor
tant mart in Scotland for cattle and sheep is
Falkirk fair or tryst. The largest fair in Ire
land for the sale of cattle and sheep is held
from Oct. 5 to 9 at Ballinasloe, in the counties
of Galway and Roscommon. About 25,000
head of cattle and 75,000 sheep, most of which
are raised in Connaught, are annually brought
to this fair. Donnybrook fair, celebrated for
its noisy mirth and pugnacity, is now abolished.
In France the St. Denis fair, near Paris, both
commercial and religious, was continued till
1789. It was customary to exhibit there a
piece of wood alleged to have belonged to the
cross on which Jesus was crucified, and the
whole of Paris w r ent to see it. The St. Lazare,
St. Laurent, St. Germain, and St. Ovid fairs
in Paris were also suppressed in 1789. Per
manent markets have taken their place as far
as the sale of goods is concerned, and the popu
lar shows and entertainments that used to at
tend them are now confined to the celebration
of - national holidavs .and church festivals. In

FAIR

the departments a few fairs are still in exist
ence and enjoy a pood trade. The most im
portant is the fair of Beaucaire, which is held
July 22-28, and rivals the great fairs of Ger
many and Russia. The counts of Toulouse
granted this fair some privileges in the 13th
century, and Charles VIII. decreed its time
and duration. In the very heart of the town
mi extensive square is appropriated for it, and
while it lasts thousands of stalls are erected on
it, in which is offered for sale everything that
forms an article of commerce. It is believed
that often as many as 200,000 traders from
all parts of the world assemble here. After
dark the whole town is given up to gayety, and
the numerous show and concert and dancing
saloons turn it into a pandemonium. A tribunal
of commerce, consisting of 12 members, exer
cises during this season absolute judicial power
over all mercantile differences. It is estimated
that the trade of the week of the fair amounts
to $4,000,000 or $5,000,000. Equally large are
the transactions made at the fair of Guibray,
a small suburb of the town of Falaise, held
from Aug. 10 to 15. It was instituted in the
llth century by the dukes of Normandy, and
is the principal market for wool and woollen
goods, and for valuable horses. The annual
fairs in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and other
cities in Holland, are scenes of great popular
rejoicings. For several days and nights the
streets are paraded by joyous crowds, and the
usual sobriety of the Dutch yields to boisterous
demonstrations. Theatres and shows of all
kinds form the staple amusements, and among
the refreshments are wafer cakes, a sort of
thin cake baked in an iron mould, of which the
consumption is enormous. The principal fair
of Italy is that of St. Mary Magdalen in Siniga-
glia, which is annually held in July and Au
gust, and attended by traders from all parts of
central and northern Europe, north Africa, and
the Levant. Among the various products of
Italian industry which change hands here, silk
is the most important. Fairs of less conse
quence are held in other parts of Italy, as well
as in Spain and Portugal. The most famous
fair of Madrid is annually held on May 15, at
the hermitage of San Isidro del Campo, when
the grand pilgrimage and festival of San Isidro
draws thither crowds of the population. The
great Hungarian fairs are held chiefly at Pesth.
Four times a year, in March, May, August, and
November, the industrial products of Hungary
are brought here for sale. Scarcely less im
portant for the commerce of eastern Europe,
and more interesting for the traveller and ob
server of national customs, are the fairs of De-
breczin. The fairs of the greatest European
importance, however, are those of Germany.
They originated there, as in many other coun
tries, through religious festivals. Hence fairs
were called KircJimessen, church fairs, the
German word Mcsse (fair) being derived from
mass. The most prominent fairs are those of
Leipsic. Frankfort-on-the-Main, Frankfort-on-

the-Oder, and Brunswick. The Leipsic fairs
date from the 12th century, and are the most
1 frequented. Of the aggregate value of goods
! sold at German fairs Leipsic has 46 per cent.,
Frankfort-on-the-Oder 30, Frankfort-on-the-
Main 15, and Brunswick 5. Leipsic holds three
fairs : the Easter fair, beginning on the second
Sunday after Easter, the Michaelmas fair, begin
ning with the week of Michaelmas ; and the New
Year s fair, beginning on Dec. 27. The Easter
fair is the most important, and the New Year s
fair the least. The imports of goods in 1870
for New Year s amounted to 187,930 cwt. ; for
Easter to 313,300 cwt. ; for Michaelmas to
| 296,870 cwt. ; total, 798,100 cwt. The prin-
j cip al articles of trade carried to the fairs are
furs, yarn, silk, cloth, cotton goods, ribbons,
1 hardware, toys, china, glass, and earthenware,
; drugs, grain, hides, leather, dye stuffs, colors,
oils, alcohol, coal, and paper. Easter is the
! customary season among booksellers for set-
! tling their accounts, and for the principal trade
I sale, but the exhibition of books formerly con-
1 nected with this fair has gone into disuse.
The most celebrated fairs of Russia are held in
! Nizhni-Novgorod. The January fair is special
ly for timber and articles in wood, and takes
place on the frozen river; the July fair is de-
i voted to the sale of horses ; but the Peter Paul
fair, beginning Aug. 5 and lasting until the
! end of September, embraces every known pro-
| duct of Asia and Europe, and exceeds in mag-
! nitude all other fairs in the world. The tra-
J ders present during this season often number
I 200,000, and comprise representatives of every
I race and nation. The principal articles of
trade are tea, grain, cotton, wool, horse and
camel hair, hides, iron, copper, jewels, and
furs; but every kind of manufacturing and
agricultural produce is brought to this market.
The sales amount to nearly $100,000,000. The
Russian government erected a bazaar for sto
ring furs, shawls, and tea, and drew from each
fair a rent of $200,000. This enormous build
ing was destroyed by fire in 1804. The fair of
| Kiakhta on the Russian-Chinese frontier, held
| every December since 1727, and formerly of
j great magnitude, as it was the only legal tra-
ding post between the two countries, has dwin-
j died to comparative insignificance since the
opening for traffic in 1800 of the whole fron-
! tier, and the decree of 1861 permitting the
| importation of tea from the countries W. of
Russia, and the ports on the Baltic sea. The
chief fairs of Turkey are those of Yenidje Var-
dar and Serres, the former commencing on
Dec. 3 and continuing for about three weeks,
and the latter on March 21, for three or four
weeks ; of Okhrida (May 3), Varna (May 23),
Filibe (Aug. 27), and Eski Saghra (Nov. 10),
j each of which lasts a fortnight ; and those
of Yatar Bazari (Sept. 15) and Tchaltadeh
i (Nov. 6), which last 10 days. Conspicuous
\ among the various traders assembled there aro
| the Greeks and Armenians. But the greatest
i fair in the East is held at Mecca during the

FAIR

FAIRFAX

time of the annual pilgrimages. Although it
has declined from its ancient magnitude, the
average concourse still amounts to 100,000.
The largest fair in India is held at the vernal
equinox at Ilurdwar, on the upper Ganges. It
is the season of the yearly pilgrimage, and from
200,000 to 300,000 strangers are then assenihled
in the town ; every 12th year, which is ac
counted peculiarly holy, nearly 2,000,000 pil
grims and dealers visit the place. This fair is
supplied with every article of home produce,
and not only elephanta but tigers and other
wild beasts are offered for sale. Previous to
the British occupation, the fairs usually ended
in bloodshed; but owing to the precautions
adopted, perfect order is now preserved. Ac
cording to Prescott s "History of the Conquest
of Mexico," fairs were held in the principal
cities of ancient Mexico every fifth day (there
having been no shops), and were thronged.
"A particular quarter was allotted to each
kind of article. The transactions were con
ducted under the inspection of magistrates ap
pointed for the purpose. The traffic was car
ried on partly by barter, and partly by means
of a regulated currency of different values.
This consisted of transparent quills of gold
dust ; of bits of tin, cut in the form of a T I
and of bags of cacao, containing a specific num
ber of grains." Fairs were regularly held at
Azcapozalco, not far from the capital, for the
sale of slaves. The gatherings in the market
of Tlascala were a sort of fairs, where pottery
which was considered equal to the best in Eu
rope formed one of the principal articles of
trade, and every description of domestic pro
duce and manufacture was brought there for
sale. But the greatest fair was held in the
city of Mexico. The visitors there were esti
mated at from 40,000 to 50,000, but the most
perfect -order reigned throughout. A court of
12 judges sat in one part of the tianguez, clothed
with absolute power, which they exercised
with great rigor. In Prescott s " History of the
Conquest of Peru " it is said that the incas in
stituted fairs for the facilitation of agricultural
exchanges. They took place three times a
month in some of the most populous places,
where, as money was unknown, a rude kind
of commerce was carried on by barter. The
only fairs in the United States, properly so
called, are assemblages for the sale and pur
chase of goods, generally contributed gratui
tously, for the benefit of some particular ob
ject, as the building or furnishing of a church,
or the promotion of some charitable enterprise.
During the civil war very large sums were
raised by the so-called sanitary fairs, for the
benefit of the sick and wounded. The word
fair is also applied to exhibitions of articles
not specially intended for sale, and sometimes
strictly prohibited from sale at the place of ex
hibition. The state and county fairs in the
United States are for competitive exhibition
rather than general traffic. (See INDUSTRIAL
ExniBiTioxs.)

FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, a British civil en
gineer and machinist, born in Kelso on the
Tweed, Feb. 19, 1789. He learned engineer
ing at the Percy main colliery, Newcastle,
where he remained seven years. In 1817 he
commenced business in Manchester as a ma
chine maker, and for upward of 20 years his
firm was the most important of the kind in
that town. Among the improvements he in
troduced may be mentioned simpler contri
vances for driving the machinery of factories,
modifications in the valves of steam engines,
the double-flued boiler, the use of ventilated
buckets in water wheels, and the invention of
the riveting machine. In 1830- 31, his atten
tion having been drawn to the advantage of
iron as a material for building ships, he con
structed a small iron vessel, which was success
fully launched, and was one of the first of its
class in England. He afterward constructed
at Millwall many large vessels of the same ma
terial. He was also one of the first to attempt
buildings of iron. His experience in the iron
manufacture caused him to be consulted with
regard to the construction of the tubular
bridge over the Menai strait ; and in connection
with Mr. Ilodgkinson he engaged in a number
of experiments, the result of which has been
to introduce into general use wrought-iron
plate girders in ordinary building operations,
as well as in railway engineering. lie de
livered lectures in 1858 on the " Resistance of
Tubes to Collapse," on the "Floating Corn
Mill for the Navy," on the "Progress of Me
chanical Science," &c. He has published
" Cast and Wrought Iron for Building Pur
poses" (London, 1852; New York, 1854);
"Useful Information for Engineers" (1850);
"Iron, its History and Manufacture" (Edin
burgh, 1863) ; " Mills and Mill Work " (2 vols.,
London, 1864- 5); and " Iron Ship Building "
(1865). He was made a baronet in 1869. See
Smiles s "Lives of Engineers."

FAIRFAX, a N. E. county of Virginia, sepa
rated from Maryland and the District of Co
lumbia by the Potomac river ; area, 430 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 12,952, of whom 4,284 were
colored. The Occoquan river touches it on
the S. W. The Orange, Alexandria, and Ma-
nassas, and the Washington and Ohio railroads
pass through it. On the bank of the Potomac,
in this county, and 15 m. below Washington
city, stands Mount Vernon, the residence of
George Washington. The surface is generally
hilly. The soil in some places is sandy, and in
others is nearly worn out; but there are many
fertile and well cultivated districts. The chief
productions in 1870 were 59,982 bushels of
wheat, 295,330 of Indian corn, 120,072 of
oats, 71,227 of potatoes, 8,097 tons of hay,
and 178,845 Ibs. of butter. There were 2,811
horses, 3,907 milch cows, 3,325 other cattle,
2,414 sheep, and 7,152 swine; 4 flour and 6
saw mills, 12 manufactories of carriages and
wagons, and 2 of bricks. Capital, Fairfax
Court House.

FAIRFAX

FAIRFAX, Edward, an English poet, born at
Denton, Yorkshire, died in the parish of Fay-
stone about 1G33. The translation of Tasso s
"Jerusalem Delivered," by which alone his
name is remembered, \vas made in his youth,
and dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and was
long enthusiastically admired. The first edi
tion was dated 1600. Its popularity has re
vived in the present century, and several edi
tions have appeared in England and the United
States. The last American edition was in
1855. He also wrote a few eclogues, a prose
work on demonology, and a "History of Ed
ward the Black Prince," the manuscript of
which was destroyed by fire at Whitehall.

FAIRFAX, Thomas, third Baron Fairfax of
Cameron, in the Scottish peerage, grand-nephew
of the preceding, a parliamentary general in
the civil wars of Charles I., born at Denton,
Yorkshire, in January, 1611, died at Bilburgh,
near York, Nov. 12, 1671. He studied at St.
John s college, Cambridge, served as a volun
teer in Holland, under the command of Lord
Vere, whose daughter he afterward married,
returned to England in 1634 or 1635, and lived
in retirement till the breaking out of the war
in 1642. When the king set about raising a
guard for his person at York, Fairfax presented
himself at the head of a multitude of 100,000,
praying that he would return and hearken to
his parliament. The first hostilities occurring
in Yorkshire, Fairfax s father, Ferdinando,
second Lord Fairfax, was made general of the
parliamentary forces in the north, with himself
(then Sir Thomas Fairfax) as his general of the
horse. They were denounced as traitors by
the earl of Newcastle, the royal commander
in those parts, who in turn was proclaimed a
traitor by the parliament. The Fairfaxes were
defeated in several encounters, and completely
routed in an attack upon the royalist forces
under the earl of Newcastle at Atherton Moor.
The first parliamentary success of 1644 was
that of Nantwich, in Cheshire, where Sir
Thomas Fairfax defeated Byron with great loss,
and Monk, the future restorer of the monarchy,
was taken prisoner. Fairfax then joined the
Scotch army, which to the number of 20,000,
under the command of Lord Leven, had crossed
the Tyne, and united with the earl of Manches
ter s army, in which Cromwell was major
general. At Marston Moor, near York, on
July 2, Fairfax gained a temporary success;
but the victory was decided only by the steady
valor of the republicans under Cromwell.
York was immediately forced to surrender,
and Sir Thomas quickly reduced the remaining
royalist fortresses north of the Trent, and after
the passage of the self-denying ordinance in
1645 received from parliament the appointment
of commander-in-chiof. On April 3 he de
parted for Windsor, where with the assistance
of Cromwell, who was his lieutenant, he set
about remodelling the army. On June 14 the
hostile forces met at Naseby, where Fairfax
and Cromwell pierced the royalist ranks in all

directions. The personal valor of Fairfax was
especially signalized in this battle. He was
I constantly in the thickest of the fight, and
rode about bareheaded after his helmet was
beaten to pieces, lie now quickly recovered
Leicester, Langport, Bridgewater, and Bath.
Bristol soon surrendered, and the speedy re
duction of the kingdom followed, Fairfax and
Cromwell having to this end divided their
forces. In the politics of the dominant party
Fairfax had now to play the difficult part of
a sincere advocate of monarchical power. He
seems to have been led on by Cromwell, and
to have been the instrument of projects whose
depth he could not fathom. In 1648 he anni
hilated the last remains of the royalist party
at Colchester. His own influence declined as
that of Cromwell and the Independents in
creased ; and though his loyal instincts re
coiled from the judicial trial of the king, he
was unable to prevent it. He accepted the
command of all the- forces of England and Ire
land under the new government, put down the
Levellers in Oxfordshire, and composed the
troubles in Hampshire. When in 1650 the
Scots declared for Charles II., he refused to
march against them, and laid down his com
mission. When Monk entered England, Fair
fax took possession of York, Jan. 1, 1660. He
gave his consent to the restoration of the mon
archy, and presented to King Charles the horse
on which he rode to his coronation, after which
he went into retirement. Lord Fairfax was a
friend of learning, and in his youth devoted
much attention to antiquarian studies. During
the siege of York, when a tower containing
many ancient documents was blown up, he re
warded the soldiers for bringing him as many
as could be found, and employed Roger Dods-
worth to copy them ; they now make a part
of the Monasticon Anglicanum. When he
took possession of Oxford, June 24, 1646, he
set a guard over the Bodleian library, which
otherwise might have been destroyed. He
wrote a narrative of his career from the com
mencement of the war, not intended for the
public eye, but which was published in 1699
under the title of " Short Memorials of Thomas,
Lord Fairfax." See " The Fairfax Correspon
dence," edited from the family manuscripts by
Robert Bell (4 vols., London, 1849) ; and "Life
of the Great Lord Fairfax," by C. R. Mark-
ham (1870).

FAIRFAX, Thomas, sixth Baron Fairfax of
Cameron, a British nobleman, born about
1690, died at Green way Court, near Winches
ter, Ya., in 1782. He was educated at Ox
ford, enjoyed a reputation as a wit and man of
letters, and contributed some papers to the
"Spectator." He visited Virginia in 1739 to
look after the large estates he had inherited
from his mother, the daughter of Lord Cul-
peper, governor of the province between
1680 and 1683. They comprised upward of
5,700,000 acres lying between the Potomac
and Rappahannock rivers, on both sides of the

FAIRFTELD

Bine Ridge, including a great portion of tlie
Shenandoah valley. lie resided afterward
at Belvoir, near Mount Vcrnon, on the Poto
mac. In 1748 lie made the acquaintance of
George Washington, then a youth of 16, and,
impressed with his energy and talents, em
ployed him to survey his lands lying west of the
Blue Ridge. This was the commencement of
an intimacy between Fairfax and Washington,
which survived all differences of opinion en
political subjects, and terminated only with
the death of the former. So favorable was the
report of Washington, that his employer soon
after took up his residence at Greenway Court,
in the midst of a manor of 10,000 acres, about
12 miles from Winchester, where during the
remainder of his life he lived in a state of ba
ronial hospitality. During the panic on the
Virginian frontier after the defeat of Braddock,
Fairfax organized a troop of horse, and, as
lord lieutenant of Frederick county, called out
the local militia. During the revolutionary
war he adhered to the royal cause. The sur
render at Yorktown deeply wounded his na
tional pride, and, according to tradition, was
the immediate cause of his death, which hap
pened soon after. The generosity of Lord
Fairfax is exemplified in the surrender of his
large estates in England to his brother, and in
his frequent gifts of lands to his poor neighbors
in Virginia. The title is still vested in his
descendants, the present and llth baron (1874)
being John Coutee Fairfax, M. D., of Bladens-
burg, Md.

FAIRFIELD. I. A S. W. county of Connecti
cut, bordering on Long Island sound and the
state of New York, and bounded N. E. by the
Housatonic river ; area, 64Y sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 95,276. It has excellent harbors all
along the coast, and contains several important
commercial ports. The Housatonic is naviga
ble by steamboats, and supplies valuable water
power. The surface of the county is consider
ably diversified, and the soil is good. It is
traversed by numerous railroads connecting
with New York, New Haven, Albany, &c. The
chief productions in 1870 were 13,312 bushels
of wheat, 46,457 of rye, 285,683 of Indian
corn, 172,482 of oats, 515,128 of potatoes, 78,-
950 tons of hay, 880,261 Ibs. of butter, and
190.047 of tobacco. There were 5,652 horses,
14,214 milch cows, 15,263 other cattle, 6,082
sheep, and 8,200 swine. There were 754
manufacturing establishments, with an aggre
gate capital of $12,145,097. The most impor
tant were 2 of ammunition. 12 of boots and
shoes, 7 of buttons, 24 of carriages and wagons,
32 of clothing, 3 of cotton goods, 3 of drugs
and chemicals, 1 of small arms, 7 of furniture,
4 of gas, 14 of hardware, 6 of hat materials,
27 of hats and caps, 1 of rubber goods, 2 of
patent and enamelled leather, 4 of engines and
boilers, 5 of tombstones, 18 of saddlery and
harness, 7 of sashes, doors, and blinds, 1 of
sewing-machine fixtures, 3 of sewing machines,
1 of steel, 3 of steel springs, 1 of straw goods,

23 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware, 1 of
wire work, 9 of woollen goods, 1 planing mill,
23 flour mills, 13 iron works, and 4 brass
founderies. Capitals, Bridgeport and Danbury.
II. A N. central county of South Carolina,
bounded S. W. by Broad river, and N. E. by
the Wateree ; area, 680 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
19,888, of whom 14,101 were colored. It has
an uneven surface and a fertile soil. It is
! traversed by the Charlotte, Columbia, and
Augusta, the Spartanburg and Union, and the
Greenfield and Columbia railroads. The chief
productions in 1870 were 28,005 bushels of
wheat, 218,054 of Indian corn, 16,269 of oats,
and 14,024 bales of cotton. There were 1,142
horses, 2,556 mules and asses, 2,891 milch
cows, 3,900 other cattle, and 6,044 swine.
Capital, Winnsborough. III. A central coun
ty of Ohio, with a surface diversified by hills,
plains, and rolling lands, and a soil of great
fertility; area, 490 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 81,-
138. It is intersected by the Ohio and Hock
ing canals, and the Cincinnati and Muskingum
Valley and the Hocking Valley railroads ; and
! is drained by the head stream of Hocking river,
&lt; and by several small creeks. Limestone and
i freestone are abundant. The chief productions
in 1870 were 553,924 bushels of wheat, 1,706,-
j 216 of Indian corn, 24,238 of oats, 24,431 of
! barley, 116,231 of potatoes, 25,107 tons of hay,
\ 609,348 Ibs. of butter, and 175,239 of wool.
There were 8,728 horses, 7,956 milch cows,
13,204 other cattle, 40,138 sheep, and 35,995
swine ; 4 manufactories of agricultural imple
ments, 12 of carriages and wagons, 9 of clothing,
4 of iron castings, 12 of saddlery and harness,
4 of woollen goods, 2 planing and 9 saw mills,
8 tanneries, 8 currying establishments, 4 brew
eries, and 13 flour mills. Capital, Lancaster.

FAIRFIELD, a town, port of entry, and for
merly capital of Fairfield co,, Connecticut, on
Long Island sound, and on the New York and
New Haven railroad, 20 m. W. S. W. of New
Haven; pop. in 1870, 5,645. The village is
1 half a mile from the sound, principally on one
i broad street, and in the vicinity is a spacious
hotel for summer visitors. The village of
Greenfield Hill, in which Dr. Timothy Dwight
resided, is in this town. About 1 m. E. of Fair-
field village is Black Rock, one of the finest
harbors in Connecticut, accessible for large
vessels at all times of the tide. About 2 m.
W. of Fairfield, at the mouth of Mile river, is
the village of Southport, the principal business
centre of the town. The value of the foreign
i commerce for the year ending June 30, 1873,
I was $29,410. There were registered, enrolled,
and licensed 184 vessels of 11,507 tons, of
which 175 of 8,918 tons were sailing vessels, 7
steamers, and 2 barges ; built during the year,
19 vessels of 210 tons. The town contains 2
carriage factories, a harness factory, a national
bank, a savings institution, an insurance agen
cy, 16 public schools, and 7 churches. Fair-
field was settled in 1639, and incorporated in
1616. In 1779 it was burned by the British

FAIRIES

under Gov. Tryon. Since the census of 1870
a portion containing about 1,900 inhabitants
has been annexed to Bridgeport.

FAIRIES, supernatural beings, generally hu
man in appearance, but endowed with super
human power, who have played an important
part in the popular superstition of nearly all
nations, and are still believed to exist by the
common people of many countries. The origin
of the wol d is obscure, but it is probably related
to the Latin fata (pi. of fatuni), which is the
Italian (sing.) for fairy. The difference between
a fairy and a god or goddess of ancient Greece
and other polytheistic lands is very small in re
gard to the superhuman power which they are
believed to possess* but fairies are never objects
of worship, or of religious sentiment and cere
mony, though occasionally invoked for aid, or
propitiated. Fairies are believed to suffer death
after a more or less extended period. They
are either benevolent or malicious, and accord
ingly either the protectors or persecutors of
human beings. Some seem to have no other
purpose than that of enticing young mortals
into their habitations, and treating them for a
season to all manner of sensual pleasure. Their
nature varies, however, with every nation.
The acvins of the Hindoo Yedas are the general
helpers of favorite individuals ; they assist in
love intrigues, remove bodily infirmities, supply
riches, succor in danger, and ride in chariots of
gold. But numerous similar beings are spoken
of in the Vedas, and it may be that the adityas,
also commonly mentioned with the epithet asu-
ra, belong to the same class. The peris of the
Persian legends are delicate creatures of won
drous beauty, and either male or female. They
protect mortals against the power of the devs,
who strive to drag them into sin and eternal
destruction. Though not immortal, they en
joy great longevity ; and though possessed of
superhuman power, they are quite human in
sentiment and passion. The Arabs believe in
jinns, who take the place of the Persian peris,
and fight against the devs. They are said to
have lived on earth several thousand years
before Adam, and a tradition from the pro
phet says they were formed of smokeless fire.
They are to die before the general resurrection,
but many of them have already been slain by
shooting stars hurled at them from heaven.
Not all are obedient to the will of God ; some
become ghouls and side with the devs. They
are said to dwell with the peris in the moun
tains of Kaf, or Jinnestan, which is the boun
dary region of the flat circular earth. They
propagate their species, and unite sometimes
with human beings. They can render them
selves visible and invisible, and assume the
form of animals. The Jews believed in beings
like the Arabian jinns, whom they called she-
dim, sehirim, or mazzikim. According to Tal-
mudical legends, the shedim were offspring of
Adam, who after having eaten from the tree of
life was under excommunication for 130 years,
and begat during that time spirits, demons,
VOL. TII. 5

and spectres of the night. They are said to re
semble angels in being able to see without being
seen, in having wings, and in knowing the
future ; and to resemble man in eating and
drinking, marrying, and bearing children, and
in being subject to death. They have the
power of assuming any form they please. The
Grecian mythology abounds in personifications,
and the beings who presided over the various
parts of external nature were mostly con
ceived to be females, and were denominated
nymphs, which originally signified newly mar
ried women. They were always represented in
the perfection of beauty, and dwelt, under the
various names of oreads, dryads, naiads, lim-
niads, and nereids, in mountains, trees, springs,
lakes, the sea, caverns, and grottoes. Their
life resembled that of women, and they oc
casionally bestowed their love on mortals.
They possessed power to reward and punish,
and to protect and persecute. The fairies of
the Romans were like those of Greece, and
were generally supposed to lead a solitary life
in fountains, streams, and lakes. Of these Ege-
ria, Anna Perenna, and Juturna were the most
famous. The rural lares resembled the Gothic
dwarfs in size, and were regarded as being the
souls of dead men who lingered near their
earthly habitations. The lares formed part of
the Etrurian religion, and differed from the
penates, who were not fairy-like beings, but
gods, or personifications of natural powers.
The old Italians believed in a being, called an
incubo, that had the power of revealing hidden
treasures. A being very much resembling it
occurs still in the popular tales of modern Na
ples. He is a stout little man with a broad-
brimmed hat and a long coat, and leads people
to places where treasures are concealed. His
name is Monacello, which is given also to other
diminutive beings resembling the house spirit
of the Germanic nations. The most prominent
figures in ancient and modern Italian legends
are the fate. These beings are ruled by I)emo-
gorgon, who resides in the Himalaya moun
tains, and are summoned to him every fifth
year. One of them, the Fata Morgana, was
the personification of Fortune, and plays an
important role in the Orlando innamorato.
In that poem Boiardo introduces the Fata Sil-
vanella, who raised a tomb over Narcissus,
and then dissolved away in a fountain; and
when Brandamarte opens the tomb and kisses
the hideous serpent that thrusts out its head,
it becomes a beautiful maiden. Other fate are
Nera, Bianca, Alcina, Dragontina, and Falerina.
The fairies of Spain are not very numerous,
and Spanish fairy lore is very scanty. There
is a tale of a girl seized by demons who re
side at the bottom of a lake; another of a
nobleman who married a woman that flew into
the air at hearing the name of the Virgin
Mary ; and another of a hunchback musician,
who was one night surrounded by little beings,
whom he so pleased with his art that they
removed his hunch. The greatest reputation

64:

FAIRIES

is enjoyed by the dnendes and trasgos, who re
semble the house spirits. The dracs of southern
France assume the human form, reside in the
caverns of rivers, and entice bathing women
and boys. The toilets inhabit the houses of
simple country people, and are invisible, though
their voices are heard ; their chief employ
ment seems to be pelting people with stones j
and household utensils. There are also ac
counts of spirits who suddenly enter a house, j
ransack and upset everything, and torment j
those who are sleeping in it. The fadas were }
fairy ladies who became the spouses of men,
and lived with them in great felicity ; but when
a husband discovered the secret of their nature,
or became unfaithful, he either died instantly
or led a wretched life for the remainder of his
days. The fees, lutins, or gobelins of the north
of France are similar to the kobolds and nisses
of other nations; The fees are small and
handsome, dance in circles or fairy rings by
night, haunt Solitary springs and grottoes,
mount and gallop strange horses, sitting upon
the neck and tying together locks of the mane
to form stirrups, always bring luck by their
presence, and, like the fairies of most coun
tries, were believed to preside at births, to j
love young children, to give them presents, j
and to steal them away, leaving instead their
own fairy offspring, which were called change
lings, and were unusually beautiful in counte
nance but evil in propensities. In the 12th and
13th centuries the forest of Brezeliande, near
Quentin in Brittany, was thought to contain the
tomb of Merlin, and to be a chief seat of the
fairies. The white ladies were Norman fairies,
and often malignant. They were supposed to
be attached to certain great families, in whose
affairs they interfered, sometimes for good,
sometimes for evil. The white lady of Avenel
in Scott s romance of " The Monastery " is an
instance of this kind. The lutins or goblins
were playful and malicious elves, pinching
children and maidens, twisting their hair into
inexplicable knots when they were asleep, and
delighting to perplex peasants and to bring
them into difficulty. One of the chief articles
of accusation against the maid of Orleans was
that she resorted to a fountain of the fairies to
see her visions ; and in Brittany there are
fountains still regarded by the natives as sacred
to the fairies, and believed to sometimes change
into gold or diamond the hand that is inserted
into them. The Eddas of the Scandinavians
tell of alfs that are either whiter than the sun
and live on earth, or blacker than pitch, and
live under ground ; and of dvergar, who are I
diminutive beings dwelling in rocks and hills, I
and skilful workmen in gold, silver, and iron. J
The alfs live still in the imagination of the
peasantry of Scandinavia, and are distinguish
ed as either white or black. The white alfs
are the good elves, who dwell in the air, dance
on the grass, and have when they show them
selves a handsome human form. The black
alfs are the evil elves, who frequently inflict

injury on mankind. The elves are believed to
have kings, and to celebrate weddings and en
joy banqueting, and singing. The Norwegians
call the elves huldrafolk, and their music hul-
clraslaat. There is also a tune called the elf
king s tune, which is well known, but not
sung or played ; for as soon as it begins both
old and young, and even inanimate objects,
are impelled to dance, find the player cannot
stop unless he manages to play the tune back
ward. The Danes call the elves ellefolk, and
believe that they live in elle moors. An elf
man is an old man with a low-crowned hat.
The elf woman is young and fair in front,
but behind she is hollow like a dough trough ;
and she has an instrument which when she
plays on it ravishes the hearts of young men.
The more usual appellation of the dwarfs is troll
or trohl, and they are represented as living
either in single families or in large communities
inside of hills and mounds, their character
seems to have gradually sunk down to the
level of the peasantry. They are regarded as
rich, obliging, and neighborly, but they have
a sad propensity for stealing. The nisses are
domestic fairies of Norway, and are fond of
frolicking by moonlight and of driving in
sledges in the winter. Every church had its
niss, who was then called a kirl-egrim ; it
looked after propriety of manners and pun
ished misconduct. The rivers and lakes are
inhabited by necks, stromkarls, and other beings
similar to mermen and mermaids. They are
wonderful musicians, and when they play on
their harps all nature has to dance. The
Germans believed in dwarfs and elves, wild
women, kobolds, and nixes or water spirits.
The dwarfs were also known as the still
people and the little people, and had their
abodes underground and in the clefts of
mountains. They visited the surface of the
earth only by night, and could render them
selves invisible and pass through rocks and
walls. They were generally benevolent. The
beings called "little wights" inhabited south
ern Germany. They are only a few inches in
stature, and look like old men with long beards,
dressed like miners, with lanterns and tools.
They announce a death in a family by knock
ing three times. The wild women are beauti
ful, and live in the mountain Wunderberg, on
the moor near Salzburg. Kobolds assist in the
household, and love to play tricks on the ser
vants. The miner s kobold reveals valuable
veins and protects the virtuous. The nixes
inhabit lakes and rivers ; the male is like a man,
old and long-bearded, has green teeth, and
always wears a green hat; the female appears
sometimes as a beautiful maiden, but often in
a body terminating in the form of a fish or
of a horse. They have magnificent dwellings
under the water, to which they love to en
tice handsome mortals. They comb their
golden locks on sunny days, sitting on rocks
and trees. In Ireland and Scotland fairies
were believed to shoot at cattle with arrows

FAIRIES

FAKIR

headed with flint, and thus to bewitch them ;
these small arrowheads are known to the
country people and antiquaries as elf arrows.
The elf tire was the ignis fatuus, and other
luminous points on moors and heaths were
called fairy sparks. A mole or defect on a
person was a fairy nip or an elvish mark, and
a matted lock of hair in the neck an elf lock.
The Gaelic fairies are very handsome, are usu
ally attired in green, and dance, lend and bor
row, and make shoes very rapidly. The Gaels
call them daoine shi or men of peace, and their
habitations shians or tomhams, which are like
turrets, and consist of masses of stone. Some
mortals have been among them, and after
banqueting with them they fell asleep and
awoke after a hundred years. The brownie and
kelpie of the Highlands seek to decoy unwary
people to ride on them when they appear in
the form of horses, and plunge with them into
the neighboring loch or river. The fairies of
England correspond with those of the Scan
dinavians and Germans, but the fairies of the
English people are somewhat different from
those of the poets. The popular fairies were
either rural elves, inhabiting woods, fields,
mountains, and caverns; or house spirits, usu
ally called hobgoblins or Robin Goodfellows.
The fairies of the "Faerie Queen" of Spen
ser and those of the " Midsummer Night s
Dream " are not the same. The former are
stately beings, typical of the moral virtues,
with traits borrowed from the Italian fairy
mythology, dwelling in enchanted castles, sur
rounded by courts of knights and ladies, and
ruling over extensive kingdoms. Shakespeare
adopted the elves and pixies of popular super-
sition, with their diminutive stature, fondness
for dancing, love of cleanliness, and child-
stealing propensities, formed them into a com
munity ruled over by Oberon and Titania or
Queen Mab, and gave immortality to " that
merry wanderer of the night," Puck, alias
Robin Goodfellow, alias Hobgoblin. The
" Mad Pranks and Merry Jests of Robin Good-
fellow " (printed by the Percy society, 1811)
was originally published in the age of Shake
speare, and furnishes the first records of this
mischievous son of a fairy, who "from hag-
bred Merlin s time " had been famous for his
pranks. Corresponding to him are the Rii-
bezahl or Number Nip of German fairy lore,
the Cluricaune of Ireland, the Eulenspiegel of
Germany, and the Howleglass or Owlespiegle of
Scotland. The North American Indians have
many quaint fairy legends, which have been
collected and narrated by Schoolcraft; and it
appears from Mitford s "Tales of Old Japan"
that the Japanese have numerous books of
fairy stories, in which the fox plays an impor
tant part. These stories are mostly for children.
The earliest collection of European fairy
stories in prose was the Italian Notti piaceroli
of Straparola (Venice, 1550). The best Ital
ian collection is the Pcntamerone of Giambat-
tista Basile (Naples, 1037 ; translated from

the Neapolitan by W. E. Taylor, London,
1856) ; it is full of learned allusions and keen
satire, and designed for the amusement only
of grown persons. Near the end of the 17th
century the Contes des fees of Perrault and
Madame d Aulnoy, and their successors, gave
vogue to fairy stories throughout Europe, writ
ten chiefly for the instruction and amusement
of children. The " Arabian Nights Entertain
ments," introduced into Europe by Galland
about the beginning of the 18th century, con
tributed much to their popularity, and was
quickly followed by various imitations of the
Arabian, Persian, Turkish, and Mongol tales.
The "Tales of the Genii" by James Ridley,
the Fal&gt;les et contes indiens of Langles, and
the later Contes chinois of Remusat, are ex
amples. The best later imitations are some of
the tales of Tieck, Musaus, and Novalis, and
especially of La Motte Fouque, and the ro
mance of the caliph " Vathek," by Beckford.
Hans Christian Andersen s fairy tales hold a
high rank in this species of literature. The
best works on the subject are Keightley s
" Fairy Mythology " (enlarged ed., 1850) ;
Scott s "Essay on the Fairy Superstition," in
the "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border;"
Croker s " Fairy Legends and Traditions of
the South of Ireland "(1825); Dalyell s "Dark
er Superstitions of Scotland" (1838); "Rus
sian Popular Tales," translated from the Ger
man of Dietrich, with an introduction by
Grimm (London, 1857) ; Dasenfs " Popular
Tales from the Norse" (1859); Strahlheim s
Sagenschatz aller Volker der alten Welt (Frank
fort, 1862) ; Braun s NaturgescliicJite der Sage
(2 vols., Munich, 1864- 5); and Kremer s
Ueber die siidaraliiscJie Sage (Leips ic, 1866).

FAIR OARS, Battle of. See CHICKAHOMINY.

FAITHORXE. I. William, an English engraver,
born in London about 1625, died there in May,
1691. He was a pupil of Sir Robert Peake,
served under him in the royal army, was cap
tured at Basinghouse and confined in Alders-
gate, and engraved several plates while in
prison. He was at length released and went
to France, where he received instruction from
Robert Nanteuil. In 1650 he was permitted to
return, and set up a shop near Temple Bar,
where he did a large business in Italian,
Dutch, and English prints, and also continued
his professional work. He is mcfet famous for
his portraits, of which he produced a large
number, including Cromwell, Prince Rupert,
Milton, Sir Thomas Fairfax, Thomas Hobbes,
and Robert Boyle. In 1662 he published a
treatise on engraving and etching. II. William,
son of the preceding, born in 1656, died in
1686. Like his father, his best works were
portraits ; but he confined himself mainly to
the mezzotint process. He became dissipated,
and died early. Among his portraits are those
of Mary, princess of Orange, Queen Anne
when princess of Denmark, and Dryden.

FAKIR (an Arabic word meaning a poor
man), the name of a mendicant order in the

FAKIR

FALASHAS

East Indies, like the dervishes of Persia and
Turkey. The first condition of an Indian men
dicant monk is poverty. He wears a rent robe,
such as the Mussulmans pretend the ancient
prophlts wore. In 10 things, according to
Hassan al-Bassri, he is like a dog: he is al
ways hungry; he has no sure abiding place ;
he watches by night ; he never abandons his
master, even when maltreated ; he is satisfied

Fakirs performing Penance.

with the lowest place ; he yields his place to
whoever wishes it; he loves whoever beats
him; keeps quiet while others eat; accom
panies his master without ever thinking of re
turning to the place he has left ; and leaves
no heritage after death. The number of Mus- j
sulman and Hindoo fakirs in India is estimated
at more than 1,000,000 ; besides whom there
are many other religious ascetics. Some fa
kirs remain isolated, go entirely naked, and
sleep on the ground with no covering. They
never use wood for making fire, but employ the !
dried dung of cows ; regarding this as an act
of devotion, since the cow is a sacred animal
in India. They carry a cudgel, a battle axe, or
spear, on which are hung rags of various col
ors, and they traverse the country begging and
instructing credulous people in religion. It is
dangerous both to his money and life for an
unprotected person to meet them. Another
class of fakirs unite into companies, and wear
fantastic and many-colored robes. They choose
a chief, who is distinguished by having a
poorer dress than the others, and who has a
long chain attached to one of his legs. When
he prays he shakes his chain, and the multi
tude press around him, embrace his feet, and
receive his counsel and precepts. He has
formulas for the cure of the paralytic, and es
pecially of sterile women. One class of fakirs

is highly honored. They are the children of
poor parents, who live in retirement in mosques,
devoted to the reading of the Koran and the
study of the laws, till they become qualified for
the duties of mollaJia or doctors of theology.
The fakirs often inflict upon themselves very
severe penances. Some remain bent forward
in the form of a right angle until they grow
permanently into that shape. Others lay fire
on their heads till their scalps are burned to
the bone. Sometimes a fakir ties his wrists
to his ankles, has his back plastered with filth,
and then makes a journey of hundreds of
miles, rolling along like a cart wheel, and
stopping at the villages for rest and food.

FALAISE (Lat. Fcdesia), a town of Norman
dy, France, in the department of Calvados,
22 in. S. S. E. of Caen, on the river Ante, and
on a branch of the Western railway; pop. in
1866, 8,621. It is built upon cliffs, command
ed by an old Norman castle and surrounded by
a picturesque country. It has a communal
college, a public library, several ancient
churches, and an equestrian statue of William
the Conqueror, who was born here, erected in

Castle of Falaise.

1851, The celebrated fair of Guibray, insti
tuted in the llth century, is annually held
here in August in a suburb of that name. The
toAvn has manufactures of cotton and hosiery.

FALASHAS, the Jewish population of Abys
sinia, numbering about 250,000, who have in
habited that country from time immemorial.
Their name signifies exiles or wanderers, and
they profess to have come originally from Pal-

FALCON

estine and to have belonged to the tribe of
Levi. They are Jewish in their modes of life,
though not in their appearance, and differ from
their co-religionists in regarding commerce as
incompatible with the Mosaic law. They cul
tivate the soil, and excel in various trades, es
pecially as architects. They are laborious and
well behaved, but unable or unwilling to per
form military duty, from which they are con
sequently exempt. They are so rigid in the
observance of the sabbath that they abstain
even from dressing themselves on that day.
They constituted in the higher regions of
the country an independent tribe under the
rule of their own kings and queens until
the beginning of the 17th century, when they
were driven from their mountain homes and
compelled to reside among their enemies the
Amharas. They live at present in the prov
inces of Dembea, Godjam, Quara, Tchelga. and
AVoggera ; and their villages are easily recog
nized by the red clay pots at the top of their
synagogues. They have the Old Testament in
the Geez language, and the apocryphal books
which are accepted by the Abyssinian church.
See articles by Joseph Halevy in the Bul
letin of the French geographical society, March
and April, 1869.

FALOi\, a bird of prey, belonging to the or
der raptores, family falconidce, subfamily/a-
conina, and to the typical genus falco (Linn.).
This subfamily contains the following genera,
in addition to falco, of which about a dozen
species are described: Jiypotriorchis (Boie),
with as many species; ieracidea (Gould), with
two species, found in Australia; tinnunculus
(Vieill.), with a dozen species; ierax (Vigors),
with six species, in India and its islands ; and
Jiarpagm (Vigors), in South America, with a
single species, characterized by having the
lateral margin of the bill armed with two dis
tinct teeth on each side. The birds of these
genera may all be called falcons, from the
common characters of a short bill, much curved
from the base to the tip, with its sides more or
less furnished with serrations called teeth; the
cere covering the nostrils, which are rounded
or linear ; the wings lengthened and pointed,
the second and third quills generally the long
est; the tail lengthened and rounded; the toes
long and slender, and claws curved and acute.
The birds of the genus falco, which only will
be treated in this article, are called noble birds
of prey, because in proportion to their size
they are the most courageous and powerful ;
they are also more docile, and were formerly
much used in the sport of falconry to pursue
and kill game, returning to their masters when
called. The pigeon hawk (//. columltarim\
and the sparrou* hawk (T. sparverius), though
both falcons, will be described under these
names. The falcons are found throughout the
world, regardless of climate ; they are power
ful and rapid fliers, hovering over their prey
and darting perpendicularly upon it ; they
pursue birds chiefly, but attack also the smaller

! quadrupeds. The common or peregrine falcon
(F. peregrinus, Linn.) has a large and round

head, a short thin neck, a robust body broad
in front, stout short tarsi, covered with imbri-

; cated scales largest in front, the tibial feathers

1 covering the knee, long and strong toes and

Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrin us).

sharp claws. The plumage is compact and
imbricated, the feathers rounded on the back,
broad on the breast, long and pointed on the
sides; between the eye and bill and on the
forehead they are bristly. The bill is blackish
blue at the tip and pale green at the base, the
iris hazel, the feet bright yellow, and the claws
black. The head and hind neck in the adult
male are grayish black tinged with blue, the
rest of the upper parts dark bluish gray with
indistinct dark brown bars ; the quills dark
brown, with transverse reddish white spots on
the inner webs; the grayish brown tail has
about 12 blackish bars, diminishing in breadth
and intensity from the tip; the throat and
front of neck white; a broad triangular mark
of blackish blue extends downward on the
white of the cheeks from the corner of the
mouth ; the sides, breast, and thighs are red
dish white, with transverse dark brown spots ;
the under wing feathers are whitish, with
transverse darker bars. The length is about
16 in., the extent of wings 30, bill 1^-, tarsus
1-J-, and middle toe 2^. In old males the tints
of the back become lighter, sometimes ash-
gray; the young males are darker, with rufous
tips and edges to the featliers, and the tail is
blacker, with reddish white tips and bars ;
there is considerable variety at the different
ages in the birds of the United States and of
Europe. Bonaparte calls the American bird
F. anatum. The adult female, as in birds of
prey generally, is nearly one third larger than
the male, being about 20 in. in length, 36 in
extent of wings, with the beak, tarsus, and
toes longer; the color of the upper parts is
deeper brown, with the tips of the secondaries
and tail whitish ; the transverse markings run
higher up on the breast, and are broader and

FALCON

of deeper hue on the other parts; the color
below is more yellowish, and the vent feathers
are reddish. This falcon, which is also called
the great-footed and the duck hawk, according
to Audubon, was formerly rare in the United
States, which it now can hardly be said to be.
It flies with astonishing rapidity, turning in its
course in the most surprising manner. A fa
vorite prey is the duck, which it seizes on the
wing, on the surface of the water, or on land ;
when within a few feet of its victim, it stretches
out the legs and claws and drops upon the
trembling bird almost perpendicularly ; if the
victim is light, it flies off with it immediately
to some quiet place ; if too heavy, it kills and
devours it in the nearest convenient place.
It has been known to attack a mallard on
the wing, and even to pounce upon a wound
ed teal within a few yards of the sportsman.
Pigeons, blackbirds, water fowl, and beach
birds, and even dead fish, are eaten by this
falcon. Turning the bird it lias caught belly
upward, it clears off the feathers from the
breast and tears the flesh to pieces with great
avidity. This species is solitary, except during
the pairing of the breeding season, which is in
very early spring; it is found in all parts of
the United States and in Cuba, coming to the
south in the winter months. The nest is made
of coarse sticks, generally on the shelf of some
precipitous rock ; Audubon is of opinion that
they breed in the United States ; they are
common on the shores of Hudson bay and
arctic America in summer, according to Rich
ardson ; the eggs are rounded, reddish brown,
with irregular markings of a darker tint. The
peregrine falcon is distributed over temperate
Europe, where the country is mountainous and
the seacoast precipitous. When in full plu
mage and good condition, for its compact mus
cular form, great strength, boldness, and fero
city, it may be taken as the very type of a bird
of prey ; it is among birds what the lion and
tiger are among mammals ; fearless in attack,
swift in pursuit, strong and fierce, it justly
claims the first rank among the noble birds of
prey. Before the invention of gunpowder, fal
cons were very frequently trained to pursue
herons and various kinds of game, and falconry
was a favorite sport of kings and nobles ; even
now r falcons are occasionally used for this purpose
in Great Britain. Birds of prey have been
trained to the chase from remote antiquity ;
the custom is mentioned by early writers, but
it was not till the time of Huber, in 1784, that
the distinction between birds of high and low
flight, which had long been understood in prac
tice, was shown to exist in the anatomical
structure of the wings and talons. The fal
cons belong to the former division ; from their
long and slender and entire wings, when they
wish to rise in the air vertically they are
obliged to fly against the wind, though ob
liquely they easily mount to great elevations,
where they sport rapidly in all directions ; they
carry the head straight ; their claws are long,

supple, and sharp, and their grasp is firm ; they
seize their prey at once if small and slow, but
strike repeatedly with their talons to weaken
and arrest the flight of heavier and swifter
birds, and with great precision attack the vital
part at the hollow of the back of the head or
between the shoulders and ribs. These birds
have been called rowers from their mode of
flight. The ignoble birds of prey, as the gos
hawk and other hawks, are called sailers; their
wings are shorter and thicker, with their sur
face interrupted by the unequal lengths of the
quills, and they fly to best advantage with the
wind, sailing with the wings extended and
motionless, allowing themselves to be carried
along by the wind ; their talons being shorter,
less powerful, and straighter than in the falcon,
they strike with less force and precision, and
when they have seized a bird or a quadruped
compress it to death or strangle it with their
claws ; their beaks are not toothed, and they
can seldom penetrate the skulls of the larger
birds ; they prefer to hunt in thick woods, while
the falcons pursue their prey high in the air.
Falcons and hawks are best trained from the
nest ; they have bells attached to their feet,
jesses of soft leather to the tarsi, and hoods
on the head which prevent them from seeing
while they allow them to eat; birds taken after
they have left the nest, or which have been
caught in snares, are the most difficult to train,
and confinement, hunger, fatigue, and purga
tives are employed to subdue them to a point
necessary for lessons; they are taught to leap
upon the hand of their master to receive food,
which is placed on a rude representation of the
bird or animal which they are to be taught to
pursue ; from an effigy they are advanced to
living animals, with more or less length of
tether, until left at perfect liberty. The larger
and older the bird, the more difficult the train
ing, and the most ignoble are generally the
most rebellious ; in the order of docility these
birds are the merlin, the hobby, the common
falcon, and the gerfalcon (all noble birds) ; and
the ignoble hawks are the least docile, though
the goshawk is said to be very easily trained.
They are fed with beef and mutton, deprived
of all fat and tendon, and scrupulously cleaned
of all dirt ; they are taught to pursue other
birds of prey, the heron, the crow, the pie,
larks, quails, partridges, the hare, and other
game. Descriptions of the lordly sport of fal
conry can be found in the romances of Walter
Scott and other delineators of the days of chiv
alry. (See FALCONRY.) The falcon is a very
long-lived bird ; there is a tale that one which
belonged to James I. in 1610, with a gold collar
bearing that date, was found at the Cape of
Good Hope in 1793, and, though more than
180 years old, was said to be possessed of con
siderable vigor; but the natural term of life of
tliis species must be much less. The falcon of
Henry IV. of France flew r from Fontainebleau
| to Malta, 1,000 miles, in a day ; and many sim-
| ilar instances of their speed are on record.

FALCON

The lanncr (F. lanarius, Linn.) seems to be
an undoubted species of northern Europe and
Asia, and intermediate between the gerfalcon
and the peregrine; it is about 1^ ft. long, with
wings two thirds as long as the tail ; its colors
resemble those of the young peregrine, and the

Lanner Falcon (F. lanarius).

name has even been applied to immature birds
of this species; but Mr. Gould, in his "Birds
of Europe," figures and describes it as distinct.
It has not the black spots on the cheeks, and
the markings of the breast are longitudinal
instead of transverse. The Iceland falcon or
gerfalcon (F. gyrfaUo, Linn.) is the largest of
the genus, .and varies much in its appearance at
different ages. In the adult the head is nearly
white, the feathers of the crown having hair-
brown shafts, those of the nape having the
brown more extensive ; the under parts are
white, the breast, thighs, and tail coverts pure
white, but the sides and abdomen are often

Gerfalcon (Falco gyrfalco).

spotted and lined with brown ; the upper parts
have the centre of the feathers hair-brown,
with a white margin ; the greater coverts, sec
ondaries, and quills are barred with brown and
edged with white, and the two central feath- i

ers of the otherwise white tail are barred with
brown; the bill is pale bluish gray, with the
upper tooth and the lower notch strongly de
veloped ; the legs and feet are colored like the
bill. Some specimens are almost entirely white.
The length is from 20 to 24 in., the extent of
wings a little over 4 ft., the bill 1 and the
tarsus 2 in. ; according to Audubon, in the im
mature state, as observed by him in Labrador,
the female, though the larger and heavier bird,
has the extent of wings less by an inch than
the male; the weight of the male is a few
ounces less, and that of the female a few ounces
more than 3 Ibs. The form is that of a very
powerful bird, the tail being longer in propor
tion than that of the peregrine, and the tarsi
feathered If in. downward. It ranges over
the northern regions of Europe and America ;
Iceland is one of its favorite resorts, so much so
that the bird has received one of its most com
mon names from this island ; it is found along
the precipitous shores of Norway and Sweden,
and in Greenland, the arctic regions, and the
Hudson bay district, extending as far south as
Labrador, where Audubon found it breeding;
it is rare in Great Britain, and is a northern
and maritime species, especially frequent near
the breeding places of sea fowl. In manner,
flight, and cry it resembles the peregrine, be
ing if possible more daring. In falconry this
species was highly prized, and extraordinary
prices were formerly paid for individuals; they
were brought chiefly from Iceland and Nor
way. There is still much uncertainty about
the varieties of this bird ; naturalists generally
make but one species, but falconers are of
opinion that the Iceland and the Norway birds
are distinct species ; if the latter be true, the
American bird may also prove different from
any of the European species. The American
bird is sometimes called F. Islandicus (Gmel.).
Audubon describes and figures a pair of im
mature birds which he obtained in Labrador
in August. The general color of the plumage
in this condition is brownish gray above, the
feathers having a narrow paler margin ; the
upper tail coverts, quills, and tail are tipped,
spotted, and barred with brownish white ; the
throat is brownish white, with five streaks of
brown, and the lower parts generally are of
the former color, longitudinally patched with
dark brown ; the under tail coverts are striped
alternately brown and white. The female has
the same colors, except in having the two mid
dle tail feathers spotted with white like the
others, these in the male being without the
spots. The nest found by Audubon was about
2 ft. in diameter, flat, made of sticks, sea
weed, and mosses. The eggs, according to
Mr. Yarrell, are dull white, mottled all over
with pale reddish brown. They feed in Lab
rador on puffins, grouse, partridges, ducks,
hares, and other animals of this size, and
also on fish. Mr. Hancock (" Annals and Mag
azine of Natural History," vol. xiii., 1854, p.
110), who described the Greenland falcon (F.

FALCONE

FALCONRY

Groenlandicus, Ilanc.) as a distinct species,
says it is never dark-colored like the young of
the Iceland falcon, its plumage from the nest
being whiter than the mature livery of the lat
ter, and not unfrequently as white as that of the
adults of its own species. The mature Green
land bird is distinguished from the young by
the cordate and arrow-head markings of the
back and scapulars ; the young have above
large oblong spots, with long narrow dashes on
the head and lower parts, the marking from
dark gray becoming with age almost black ; the
cere, feet, and toes also change from light livid
blue to pale yellow. Like other falcons, it gets
the mature plumage at the first moult. In fact,
the Greenland falcon may be said to have a
white plumage with dark markings, and the
Iceland bird dark plumage with white mark
ings; whether they are distinct species will be
determined by the definition of what consti
tutes specific characters. Both species occur
in America; the Greenland bird probably does
not breed in Iceland, and is only occasional
ly seen there, driven from its more northern
haunts by severe weather ; the Iceland bird
sometimes breeds in Greenland. The weight
of evidence seems to be in favor of these birds
being distinct species. Other falcons, which
have been trained to pursue game, are the H.
sMuteo, H. asalon, and T. alaudarius, which
will be described respectively under the popu
lar names of HOBBY, MERLIX, and KESTREL.

FALCONE, Anicllo, an Italian painter, born in
Naples in 1GOO, died in France in 1605. lie
was a pupil of Spagnoletto, and set up an acad
emy of his own. At the time of Masaniello s
revolt he formed his pupils into a secret band
for retaliation upon the Spaniards. When the
insurrection was ended he fled to France,
where he was employed by Colbert. He is
especially famous for his battle pieces. They
are not numerous, and command great prices.
Their excellence is in their extreme fidelity to
nature, and their brilliant coloring. Salvator
Rosa was one of his numerous pupils.

FALCONER, Hugh, a British palaeontologist,
born at Forres, Scotland, Feb. 29, 1808, died
in England, Jan. 31, 18(55. He studied at the
universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh, re
ceived his diploma as physician in 1829, was
employed as surgeon by the East India com
pany, and in 1832 as director of a botanical
garden in one of the Anglo-Indian towns,
whence he explored the Himalaya. He pub
lished " Selections from the Bostan of Saadi "
(London, 1838), and (jointly with T. Proby
Cautley) Fauna Antiqua Sivalemis (1846), a
laborious work, with descriptions of numerous
fossils in the Sivalik hills. The " Palseontolo-
gical Memoirs of Hugh Falconer " (2 vols., 18G8)
include a sketch of his life.

FALCONER, William, a British poet, born in
Edinburgh about 1730, lost at sea in 1769. He
was the son of a barber, whose other children
were all deaf and dumb. At the age of 18,
being second mate of the Britannia, he was

shipwrecked off Cape Colonna, on the coast
of Greece, and was one of the three who sur
vived the wreck, which afterward became the
subject of his principal poem, " The Ship
wreck." This was published in 1762. He
compiled a " Universal Marine Dictionary "
(republished in 1815, enlarged and modernized
by W. Burney, LL. D.), and wrote several
poems, including a political satire directed
against Lord Chatham, Wilkes, and Churchill.
In 1769 he sailed for India in the frigate Au
rora, which, after touching at the Cape of
Good Hope, was never heard from again.

FALCONET, Etiemie Manrice, a French sculptor,
born in Paris in 1716, died in 1791. He was a
pupil of Lemoine, and early gained distinction
by a statue of Milo of Crotona. Many of his
works were destroyed at the time of the revolu
tion. None of them were equal in merit to the
immense bronze equestrian statue of Peter the
Great, which he executed at St. Petersburg,
by order of Catharine II., in 1776- 8.

FALCONRY, the art of training falcons or
other birds of prey for the chase, the sport it
self being called in English hawking, in French
le vol. A falconry is also the place where such
birds are kept. The practice is very ancient
in Europe, and yet more so in Asia. We have
no mention of it among the Romans till after
the time of Vespasian. It was certainly in
existence in the 4th and 5th centuries. In
Britain it appears to have been a favorite rec
reation in the reign of Ethelbert II. of Kent,
A. D. 760. King Alfred had his falconers, and a
book on falconry is still extant attributed to Ed
ward the Confessor. Harold II. is represented
in the Bayeux tapestry as visiting the court
of Duke William of Normandy with a hawk on
his fist. The Domesday book makes frequent
mention of falconries and eyries for breeding.
In the time of Henry II., William Knot, the
king s tenant, paid his rent at the exchequer in
three hawks and three gerfalcons. King John
was devoted to the sport. Nicholas, a Dane,
was to give the king a hawk every time he
came trading to England. The sport died out
in England in the time of the Stuarts. In
France falconry was most practised in the time
of Francis I. (1515- 47). His grand falconer
had an annual revenue of 4,000 florins, and had
under him 50 gentlemen and 50 falconers, the
whole establishment costing annually 40,000
florins. Under Louis XIV. the institution was
yet more expensive. Louis XVI. tried in vain
to reduce the expense of the royal falconry ;
but finally the revolution swept it away. In
Germany the sport was honored in the reign
of Frederick II., and in the 14th century fiefs
called IlalicJitdelien, or hawk tenures, were
granted on condition of payment in trained
hawks. The sport retained its existence in
Germany till toward the close of the 18th cen
tury. In Italy falconry was a favorite pastime.
In the East, the Persians are skilful in training
falcons to hunt all manner of birds, and even
gazelles. The vocabulary of hawking in Eng-

FALEPJI

FALIERI

land was as extensive as its ordinances, and
several of its terms have been adopted into the
language. Hawks legs were their arms; their
talons, pounces; wings, sails; the long feathers
of the- wings, beams ; tail, the train ; breast
feathers, the mails; crop, the gorge. A cover
for the bird s head was the hood. When the
hawk fluttered to escape, it bated ; to sleep
was to jouk ; to stretch one wing back was to
mantle ; to shake itself was to rouse; to recross
its wings again was to warble; to tear the
feathers from its prey was to plume ; to raise
its prey aloft before descending was to truss ;
to descend on its prey was to stoop ; to fly olf
after crows was to check. A living prey was
quarry ; when dead, pelt. Taming a bird was
called reclaiming, by the French ajfaitage ;
and an old, stanch, pattern hawk was called a
make-hawk. Xo rank was excluded from the
enjoyment of hawking, but each condition of
men must confine themselves to their peculiar
grade of hawk and quarry. The sinecure office
of grand falconer of England is hereditary in
the family of the duke of St. Albans. Among
the most noted treatises on falconry is one
written by Frederick II. of Germany (died in
1250), annotated by his son Manfred, and re-
published with several other treatises by J. G.
Schneider in 1788 (2 vols., Leipsic). Others
are : the famous " Boke of St. Albans," by
Lady Juliana Berners (fol., 1481), containing
the " Treatyses perteynyng to Ilawkynge,
Iluntynge, and Fysshynge with an Angle ;"
Hieracosophion, vel de Re Accipitraria, a poem
in three books, by De Thou (1584); La fau-
connerie, by Charles d Esperon (Paris, 1605);
Latham on Falconry" (1G15- 18). Among
the more recent works on the subject are " Fal
conry in the British Isles," by Salvin and Brod-
rick (London, 1855), and "Falconry, its Claims,
History, and Practice," by G. E. Freeman
(London, 1859).

FALERII (also called ^Equum Faliscum orFa-
lisca), an ancient city of Italy, one of the 12
Etruscan cities, a few miles \V. of the Tiber, and
N. W. of Mount Soracte, near Civita Castellana.
It was the capital and perhaps the only city of
the Falisci, a people of Pelasgic origin, whose
territory extended from the Tiber to Lake Vico,
and who in the early ages of Rome were reck
oned among the most dangerous enemies of the
republic. It is first mentioned in 437 B. C.,
when the Falisci lent their support to the Fi-
denates, who had revolted against Rome. It
was besieged and taken by Camillus about 394.
The inhabitants again joined the enemies of
Rome in 356 ; made a treaty in 352 ; revolted
anew about 312, and were subjugated; rose in
rebellion again in 293, and again in 241, when
they were punished by the destruction of their
town. They were removed to a less defensible
site, where a colony was established named
Junonia Faliscorum, from a famous temple of
Juno. The latter site is now occupied only by
a farm house and a ruined church, known as
Sta. Maria di Falari, but a large portion of the

ancient walls, with their gates and towers,
I still exists.

FALERMS AGER, a district in the northern
part of ancient Campania, extending from the
i Massican hills to the bank of the Vulturnus,
j from which the ancient Romans obtained one
; of their choicest wines. The Falernian wino
, was red, very spirituous, and most powerful
| when from 15 to 20 years old. Its excellence
; is celebrated by the Roman poets, particularly
j by Horace. It was declining in quality in the
time of Pliny, from want of care in the culti
vation, and the vineyards disappeared in the
6th century.

FALIERI, Marino, doge of Venice, the most
celebrated of the several doges of the same
family, born about 1275, beheaded April 17,
1355. In 1346 he rendered eminent services
to the republic as commander-in-chief at the
i siege of Zara in Dalmatia, which was taken
after a splendid victory over Louis the Great
of Hungary. Subsequently he was Venetian
ambassador at Genoa and Rome. In 1354 he
was summoned home from Rome, and elected
doge although nearly an octogenarian. With
in a month the entire Venetian fleet of 61
vessels was captured by the Genoese, with
a loss to the former of 4,000 men killed and
nearly 6,000 prisoners. Hardly had the new
doge succeeded, Jan. 5, 1355, in concluding a
four months truce with Genoa, when a con
test broke out in his own palace, which proved
fatal to himself. A young nobleman of Venice,
Michele Steno, enamored of one of the dogessa s
maids of honor, on occasion of one of the balls
given during carnival, took liberties with her
which, although excusable under the excite
ment of the season, gave umbrage to the doge,
who ordered Steno to leave the palace. The
young man, exasperated by this treatment,
avenged it by writing upon the chair of the
doge the following words : Marino Falicri dal-
la Ijella moglie, altri la gode ed egli la man-
tiene (" Marino Falieri s beautiful wife is sup
ported by him, but enjoyed by others v ). The
doge s wrath knew no bounds, and as the senate
and the councils refused to treat the affair as a
question of state, and the criminal court sen
tenced Steno to only a brief term of imprison
ment and a year s exile, Falieri determined to
wreak vengeance by exterminating the whole
body of the nobility, who were hated by the
populace as tyrants. The day fixed for the
consummation of this design was April 15,
1355, but the conspiracy was discovered on the
evening previous; the doge was arrested, and
after a full confession of his guilt, he was sen
tenced to death and beheaded. In the council
hall of the palace, where the portraits of the
doges of Venice are religiously preserved, a
black drapery covers the spot intended for that
of Falieri, bearing the inscription : Spazio di
Marino Falicri, dccapitato. The fate of the
doge has been a favorite theme with poets.
Byron made it the subject of a tragedy, giving
in the notes a full account of Falieri s life.

FALK

FALKLAND

FALK, Johnnn Daniel, a German philanthro- I of a single street, and many of the houses Lave

pist and author, horn in Dantzic in 1768, died
Feb. 14, 1820. He entered the university of
Halle, where he produced several satirical po
ems, which attracted the notice of Wieland,
who introduced him into the literary circles
of Weimar. He wrote
an account of his per
sonal intercourse with
Goethe, which appeared
after the death of both
{Goethe cms nciherem
jiersonlichem Umgange
dargestellt, 2d ed., Leip-
sic, 1836). A selection
of Talk s writings ap
peared in 1818, and a
new collection of his
satirical works in 1826.
He wrote for the Ta-
schenlmch, of which he
was the editor (1797-
1803), an article on the
condition of hospitals in
Berlin, which induced
the government to re
form them. In 1813 he
founded at Weimar an
institution for the edu
cation of poor children,
which bears the name of FalTcisches Institiit.

FALKIKK, a municipal and parliamentary
burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland, on a com
manding eminence, 24 m. W. of Edinburgh ;
pop. in 1871, 9,547. Its name, Fallow Kirk, is
a translation of the obsolete English ~breck,
both signifying speckled church. It has a fine
parish church, several churches of dissenting
congregations, a school of art, and a horticul
tural society. There are in Falkirk, and in
the connected villages of Grahamston, Bains-
ford, and Carron, printing establishments, tan
neries, breweries, a manufactory of pyrolig-
neous acid, the immense iron works of Carron,
a foundery employing 500 men, and branches
of the banks of Scotland and England. Its
chief celebrity is due to its cattle fairs, the
most important in Scotland, which take place
annually in August, September, and October,
each lasting from two days to a week. The i

an antique appearance. The chief object of
interest is the ancient palace, now in ruins,
begun about 1500 and completed by James V.,
who died in it in 1542. It ceased to be a royal
residence on the accession of James VI. to the

Palace at Falkland.

English throne, but was visited by both Charles
I. and Charles II. No traces now exist of the
more ancient castle in which David, duke of
Rothesay, was starved to death in 1402. The
English family of Gary derive from this place
the title of viscount.

FALKLAND, Lucius Cary, viscount, an English
politician and man of letters, born at Burford,
Oxfordshire, in 1610, killed Sept. 20, 1643.
His father. Sir Henry Cary, who was made
Viscount Falkland in the peerage of Scotland
in 1620, held various offices under James I.
Lucius was educated at Trinity college, Dub
lin, and at St. John s college, Cambridge, and
at the age of 19 inherited the estate of his
grandmother, wife of Chief Baron Tanfield,
worth more than 2,000 per annum. He
afterward married and settled at Great Tew,
near Oxford, and in 1633 became Lord Falk
land bv the death of his father. In his country

last is the largest. These trysts, as the Scots j life he had for his associates learned men from

call the fairs, have flourished more than 200
years. Falkirk was a place of note in the
llth century. The ancient parish church,
built by Malcolm Canmore in 1057, was de
molished in 1810 to give place to the present
one. Here Edward I. in 1298 conquered Wil
liam Wallace, and in 1746 the young pretend
er, Charles Edward, defeated the English army
under Gen. Ilawley.

FALK LAM), a royal burgh of Fifeshire, Scot
land, at the base of the Lomond hills, 22 m. N.
of Edinburgh; pop. in 1871, 1,144. The E.
Lomond hill rises so abruptly behind it as to in
tercept the rays of the sun during several weeks
in the winter. The town consists principally

Oxford and London, and was distinguished for
hospitality and considerate benevolence. Falk
land wrote both in prose and verse. He studied
theology deeply, published a u Discourse of
the Infallibility of the Church of Rome," and
was the author of other works, now little
known. He was chosen a member of the
short parliament in April, 1640, for Xewport,
Isle of Wight, and afterward of the long par
liament, and shared deeply in the determina
tion to establish the government on a con
stitutional basis. He was a strenuous advo
cate of the hill of attainder, even when it was
opposed by Pym and Hampden. who preferred
proceeding by impeachment. He moved the im-

FALKLAND ISLANDS

peachment of tlie lord keeper Finch. lie dis
tinguished himself in the attacks that were made
on ship money, and on the judges who had pro
nounced the levying of it legal, and in those
which were directed against the church. But
suddenly, without apparent cause, he left the
reform party, and he who had said the bishops
were stark mad, and therefore should be sent
to Bedlam, was soon heard to complain that
they who hated the bishops hated them worse
than the devil, and they who loved them did
not love them so well as their dinners. In
the memorable debate on the grand remon
strance, Falkland was the second speaker, fol
lowing Hyde, and against the remonstrance.
His course on this occasion, with his earlier
opposition to the abolition of the church, led
the king to make him the offer, of the post of |
secretary of state, which he accepted. Of ;
.the exact part which Falkland had in the gov- |
ernment scarcely anything is known, but he
and his two associates in the administration,
Colepeper and Hyde, received marks of hos
tility in the commons. He wrote the royal
answer to the parliament s 19 propositions,
then joined the king at York, and signed his
declaration that he did not mean to make war
on the parliament. Shortly afterward Falk
land was removed from the commons, and
placed on the list of those whom the parlia
mentary commander was ordered to exclude
from mercy. He behaved with gallantry at
the battle of Edgehill, and had his advice
been taken the king would have won a com
plete victory. In some negotiations that fol
lowed, he labored earnestly for peace. The
campaign of 1013 was for a long time favor
able to the king, and Falkland accompanied
him to Bristol, and thence to the siege of |
Gloucester. The advance of the parliamentary j
army compelled the king to raise the siege. |
In the first battle of Xewbury Falkland placed j
himself at the head of Sir John Byron s regi
ment. Receiving an order to charge a body
of foot, he advanced between hedges lined j
with musketeers, and received a ball in the i
stomach, from which he died instantly. The I
body was found the next day, and buried in !
Great Tew church. He left a wife and three |
sons. Among the best works which treat of
him is Forster s "Historical and Biographical
Essays" (London, 1858).

FALKLAND ISLANDS (Fr. Malouincs ; Sp.
Mahinas), a group in the S. Atlantic, belong- j
ing to Great Britain, and consisting of about j
200 islands, 300 m. E. of the entrance to the I
strait of Magellan, between lat. 51 and 52 45 j
S., and Ion. 57 and 62 TV. ; area, about !
7,600 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 812. All but two
are very small. East Falkland is about 90 m. ;
long, 40 m. broad, and 3,000 sq. m. in area ; ;
West Falkland, separated from the former by
a channel from 2 to 18 m. wide, called Falk- \
land sound, is 80 m. long, 25 m. broad, and
about 2,300 sq. m. in area. The other princi
pal islands are Great Swan, Saunders, Pebble,

! Iveppel, Eagle, TVeddell, and Lively. The
i coasts are very irregular, in some places rocky
; and precipitous, in others low. Bays and in-
; lets are numerous, and East and West Falk
land are nearly divided by several deep inden-
tations. There are few rivers, the San Carlos,
30 m. long, which flows into the sea on the
X. TV. coast of East Falkland, being the largest.
There are many fresh- water ponds and brooks.
The surface is broken by ridges of bleak hills,
i the highest of which are in East Falkland,
I though the average elevation of TVest Falk-
| land is the greater. Mt. Usborne, one of the
i Wickham hills, in the E. island, is 2,300 ft.
i above the sea ; the other summits are from
i 800 to 2,000 ft. high. The country south
i of the Wickham hills is a level plain. The
| whole aspect of the group is dreary and un
inviting. The commonest geological formation
is quartz, which in some places is seen cov
ering the bottoms of the valleys, broken into
sharp fragments, and disposed in level sheets
or streams like rivers of stone. Sandstone and
clay slate also occur. The soil of such por
tions as have been explored is mostly peat or
sandy clay covered thinly with vegetable mould.
The valleys of the streams are exceedingly
rich. The climate is like that of England,
but more equable. The temperature of sum
mer ranges from 45 to 70 F., and that of
winter from 30 to 50 ; mean temperature of
the year, 47. Severe and destructive snow
storms occasionally occur. There are no trees
on the islands. The most important production
is grass, which grows to a great length and pos
sesses remarkably nutritious properties. Three
or four kinds of bushes arc found ; the com
mon garden vegetables of England thrive ;
barley and oats are cultivated, but wheat is
raised with difficulty. The only quadruped
indigenous to the islands is the warrah or
wolf fox, which is peculiar to this archipelago.
Other animals have been left here by Euro
peans, and in East Falkland there are many
thousand wild cattle sprung from stock thus
introduced. Horses, sheep, wild hogs, rabbits,
seals, and wild fowl are found, and many French
and American vessels hunt the black whale
off the TV. coast of West Falkland. In 1871
the value of imports was 23,715, of exports
24,692; the revenue was 6,940 (about half
of which is a parliamentary grant), the expen
ditures 6,324. The fisheries and the guano
deposits on West Falkland are considerable
sources of wealth. A British colony called
Stanley, at the head of Port William inlet on
the X. E. coast of East Falkland, has an ex
cellent harbor, and is the only settlement in the
whole group. Since 1869 the Falkland islands
have been the seat of an Anglican bishop.
The main object of the British government in
keeping up the establishment here is to afford
ships a place of call for water and fresh pro
visions. The total tonnage of vessels entered
and cleared in 1871 was 59,979 tons. The isl
ands were discovered by John Davis, in August,

FALKXER

FALLOUX

1592, and were visited a century later by Strong,
who called the sound Falkland, and the islands
afterward took the same name. The French
planted a colony on Berkeley sound, East Falk
land, in 1703, and the English established
themselves at Port Egmont, West Falkland,
about two years later. The French in 1767
ceded their settlement to the Spaniards, who
drove away the English in 1770. They after
ward restored Port Egmont to the British, and
some time later the islands were abandoned
by both parties. Buenos Ayres took posses
sion of East Falkland in 1820, and founded a
colony there in 1823, which in consequence
of a dispute was destroyed in 1831 by a United
States man-of-war. It was shortly after given
up to the British.

FALK\ER, Thomas, an English missionary,
born in Manchester about 1731, died at Plow-
den Hall, Jan. 30, 1784. He was the son of a
surgeon, and followed the same profession in
South America and other countries. While ill
at Buenos Ayres he was attended by members
of the society of Jesus. He abjured the Pres
byterian faith to join that order, in which he dis
tinguished himself by missionary labors during
40 years, and he was also employed by the
Spanish authorities in surveying part of the
South American coast. On the dissolution of
the order he went to Spain, where he became
chaplain to one of his countrymen, whom he
accompanied to the vicinity of Worcester,
England. He wrote a number of works in
different languages, chiefly relating to the Amer
ican continent. His principal publication, " A
Description of Patagonia and the adjoining
Parts of South America, and some Particulars
relating to Falkland Islands," &c. (Hereford
and London, 1774; abridged, "A Treatise of
the Patagonians," &c., Darlington, 1788), was
translated into German and French.

FALLING STARS. See METEORS.

FALLMERAYER, Philipp Jakob, a German his
torian and traveller, born at Tschotsch, near
Brixen, in the Tyrol, Dec. 10, 1791, died in
Munich, April 26, 1862. He served as a sub
lieutenant in the campaigns of 18 13- 15, and
subsequently became a professor in the college
of Augsburg and in the lyceum at Landshut.
He travelled in the East from 1831 to 1836,
spent several years in southern France, Italy,
and Geneva, made a second tour through Asia
Minor in 1840, published the results of his
ethnological and historical researches in Frag-
mente aus dem Orient (2 vols., Stuttgart,
1845), visited Palestine and Syria in 1847, was
a member of the German parliament in 1848,
and became a professor in the university of
Munich, but was dismissed in 1849 on account
of his liberal views. The most important of
his historical writings are Geschiclite des Kai-
sertJiums Trapezunt (Munich, 1831), and Ge-
schiclite der Ilatttinsel Morea im Hittelalter
(2 vols., Stuttgart, 1830- 3G). In the latter
work lie maintains that the present inhabi
tants of Greece have little or no affinity of race

with the ancient Hellenes, and may be con
sidered, notwithstanding their language, a
branch of the Slavic family. Many of his es
says published in the Augsburg Allgerneine
Zeitung belong to the best writings of their
kind. His Gesammelte Werke, published after
his death by Thomas, contains the Neue Frag-
mente aus dem Orient, and a large number
of political, historical, and critical essays. His
works exhibit a rare combination of profound
scholarship and philosophical depth with the
faculty of presenting the results of scientific
researches in a perspicuous and graceful form.

FALLOPPIO, or Fallopius, Gabriello, an Italian
anatomist, born inModena about 1523, died in
1562. He was one of the three naturalists
who, according to Cuvier, contributed to the
revival of the study of anatomy in the 16th
century, the other two being Vesalius and
Eustachi. He was a pupil of Vesalius, and.
after travelling through Europe was for a time
professor of anatomy at Ferrara, and afterward
for several years at Pisa. In 1551 he was
appointed professor of anatomy and surgery
at Padua, where he also devoted himself to
the study of botany, and became director of
the botanical garden. He published in 1561
his principal work, Observationes Anatomic,
which was one of the best anatomical treatises
of his century, and has been several times
reprinted. He gave an exact description of
the structure of the ear, one of the canals of
which still bears his name. He also first indica
ted the use of the two ducts extending from
the ovaria to the womb on each side of the
fundus, which are called from him Fallopian
tubes. After a short but brilliant career, in
which he became distinguished as a professor,
botanist, and surgeon, as well as anatomist, he
died and left his chair to Fabricius, his pupil.

FALLOIX, Frederic Alfred Pierre, viscount de, a
French author and statesman, born in Angers,
May 7, 1811. He first made himself known
by a history of Louis XVI. (Paris, 1840; 2d
ed., 1843), and by his Histoire de St. Pie V. (2
vols., 1844; 3d ed., 1859), the former of which
showed his legitimist, the latter his Catholic
sentiments. In 1846 he was elected a member
of the chamber of deputies, where he took his
seat among the legitimists. After the revolu
tion of February, 1848, Falloux was returned
to the constituent assembly, where he boldly
displayed his anti-revolutionary views. Ap
pointed reporter in the question of national
workshops, he moved the dissolution of the
chamber, which was the signal for the uprising
of the red republicans in June. On Dec. 20,
1848, he was made by Louis Napoleon minister
of worship and public instruction, which post
he resigned in October, 1849, in consequence
of having been censured for submitting to the
legislative assembly an organic measure rela
ting to education without having brought it
before the notice of the council of state. He
then took his place in the legislative assembly.
After the coup d etat of Dec. 2, 1851, he re-

FALLOW DER

FALL RIVER

tired from public life. In 1853 he became as
sistant editor of the Correspondant, the lead
ing Catholic review, and took an active part
in the violent controversy which that journal,
in the name of the moderate section of the
Catholic party, sustained against the Univers
newspaper. Falloux published on behalf of
Lis friends the pamphlet Le parti catholique.
He also took an active part in the Catholic
congress held at Mechlin in 1867, and with
Mgr. Dupanloup supported the doctrines of the
syllabus. Among his later publications are :
Mine. Sicetchine, sa vie et ses wuvres (2 vols.,
185U) ; La convention du 15 septemlre (1864) ;
and Lettres inedites de Mme. Sicetchine (1866).
FALLOW DEER (dama vulgar is), a cervine
animal, distinguished from the stag or red deer
by its smaller size, spotted coat, and palmated
horns. There are two varieties, the one spot
ted, said to be descended from the spotted axis
of India, the other deep brown, said to have
been introduced into England from Norway by

Fallow Deer (Darna vulgaris).

James I. It is remarkable that where fallow
and red deer are kept together in the same
parks, as often in Great Britain, they never as
sociate in companies, much less are ever known
to breed in common, but carefully avoid each
other, even so far as to shun the places which
either species may have chanced to frequent.
The bucks of the fallow deer are much smaller
than the harts of the red deer, and are easily
distinguished by their horns or antlers, which,
instead of being round and pointed at the upper
extremity, with several forward tines or branch
es, are round only at the base near the head,
having a single pair of brow antlers, and a sin
gle pair of anterior points a little higher up the
stem, above which the horns spread out into
flat palmated surfaces, projecting a little forward
at the top, and having several posterior sharp
snags or processes. The buck during his first
year is called a fawn; the second, a pricket;
the third, a sorrel ; the fourth, a sore ; the fifth,
a buck of the first head ; the sixth, a great

buck. The fallow deer breed at two years
old, and bring forth one, two, or three fawns;
they come to their maturity at three years, and
live to about 20. The rutting time of the buck
commences about the middle of September, af
ter which he is out of season, his tlesh being
no longer eatable. He sheds his horns in April
or May, and his new ones are fully grown
about the end of August. He is in height of
season in July. The doe comes into season
when the buck goes out, and continues until
twelfthtide. She begins to fawn in May, and
continues until midsummer. The bucks herd
together, and are easy to be tamed, when they
become impudently familiar and intimate. The
cry of the buck is called braying or grunting,
sometimes growling, as that of the hart is
termed belling. The fallow deer are kept in
England merely as ornaments to park scenery
and for supplying venison to the table ; never
any longer, as of old, for sporting purposes.
The venison is more succulent, tender, and juicy
than that of the red deer, and it is not unusual
to find the buck, in high season, with three and
four inches of fat on the brisket. Various pas
tures produce various degrees of excellence in
the venison. Where the wild thyme is abun
dant, the flesh is noted for its delicious aromatic
flavor ; and it is remarked that the more level
and luxuriantly pastured parks of the south
of England produce the fattest venison, while
those of the north, abounding in broken ground,
glens, and knolls, covered with broom and fern,
yield it of the highest flavor. So late as the
reigns of the Stuart monarch s, shooting the
fallow deer with the crossbow, coursing it with
greyhounds in the royal parks and chases, and
turning it out to hunt with the buckhounds,
were royal amusements. The buckhounds are
still kept up, and the "master of the buck-
hounds" is a high, honorary court office, held
by some sporting nobleman ; but they no longer
hunt the buck, the hart or stag of the red deer
having been for many years substituted for the
fallow buck, as being far more cunning, strong
er, fleeter, and capable of supporting longer
chases. In many parts of Germany, in Den
mark, Norway, and Sweden, the fallow deer
runs wild in the forests, and is strictly preserved
for the use of royalty and the territorial nobles.
It is usually driven with hounds or beaters, and
killed with fowling pieces and buckshot. The
height at the shoulders is about 3 ft. The skin
affords a valuable leather, and the horns are
used for knife handles and similar purposes.

FALL RIVER, a city and port of entry of
Bristol co., Massachusetts, on Mount Hope bay,
an arm of Xarragansett bay, at the mouth of
Taunton river, 45 m. S. by W. of Boston ; pop.
in 1850, 11,524; in 1860, 14,026; in 1870, 26,-
766, of whom 11,478 were foreigners. It is
on high ground, with well shaded streets, hand
some churches, and many granite edifices, the
stone being obtained from large quarries in
the vicinity. It contains two handsome parks,
and includes the localities popularly known as

FALL RIVER

FALMOUTII

Copicut, Globe village, Mechanicsville, Mount
Hope village, New Boston, and Steep Brook.
The Old Colony and Newport railroad furnishes
communication with Boston, and the Provi
dence, Warren, and Bristol line connects the
city with Providence; while daily lines of
steamers run to Providence, Newport, and
New York. The harbor is safe, commodious,
easy of access, and deep enough for the largest
vessels. The value of the foreign commerce
for the year ending June 30, 1873, was $217,-
028 ; 53 vessels of 11,833 tons entered from,
and 27 of 4,542 tons cleared for foreign ports;
entered in the coastwise trade, 413 steamers
of 870,592 tons, and 47 sailing vessels of 8,208
tons; cleared, 315 steamers of 828,081 tons,
and 25 sailing vessels of 6,075 tons ; employed
in the cod and mackerel fishery, 37 vessels of
554 tons; belonging to the port, 14 steamers
of 2,311 tons, and 127 sailing vessels of 11,411
tons. Fall river, from which the city derives
its name, is a small stream emptying into the
Taunton near its mouth. It rises in a chain of
ponds connected by a narrow channel and cov
ering an area of 5,000 acres, which lie about
2 m. from the bay and receive the outlets of
saveral other sheets of water embracing an
area of 2,000 acres more. The river, having
a descent of 130 ft. in less than half a mile,
and furnished with an unfailing supply of wa
ter, possesses remarkable advantages as a mill
stream, which have been improved by the
erection of a dam at the outlet of the ponds.
The lower banks are entirely built up with
manufactories, which are now, however, most
ly run by steam. The manufacture of cotton
goods, which has increased with remarkable
rapidity within the last 10 years, is the chief
industry, Fall River containing more spindles
than any other city in the United States. Print
cloths are the principal item of production.
The number of corporations is 34, of which 16
have been formed since 1870, having a capital
of $14,870,000, and owning 41 mills with
29,521 looms and 1,269,788 spindles; hands
employed, 15,145; monthly wages, $492,250;
bales of cotton consumed annually, 132,775 ;
production, 331,875,000 yards. The city also
contains a woollen mill, two print works, a
bleachery, a brass founding and finishing es
tablishment, several iron works and machine
shops, producing steam engines, cotton ma
chinery, turbine water wheels, &c., 4 manu
factories of cotton thread, 2 of twine and wick-
ing, 2 of files, 6 of carriages, 4 of soap, 1 of
soda, 5 of oil, 3 of weavers reeds and harness,
a ship-building establishment, and several pla
ning mills. There are seven national banks,
with an aggregate capital of $2,250,000, and
four savings banks, having in October, 1873,
21,190 depositors and deposits to the amount
of $8,891,002 95. The Fall River savings bank,
incorporated in 1828, had 11,128 depositors
and deposits to the amount of $5,274,998 09.
Fall River is divided into six wards, and is
governed by a mayor, a board of aldermen of

one member, and a common council of three
members, from each ward. There is a police
court, and a police force of about 30 men under
the city marshal. In 1872 there were a high
school, 29 grammar, 29 primary, and 3 evening
schools, having 99 teachers and an average at
tendance of 4,277 pupils. The total expendi
ture for school purposes was $145,477 80, of
which $44,412 46 was for teachers wages.
The public library contains 10,078 volumes.
Two daily and two weekly newspapers are
published. There are 24 churches, viz. : 3
Baptist, 3 Congregational, 2 Christian, 1 Epis
copal, 1" Friends , 5 Methodist, 1 New Jerusa
lem, 1 Presbyterian, 6 Roman Catholic, and 1
Unitarian. Fall River, formerly a part of
Freetown, was incorporated as a separate town
in 1803. Its name was soon after changed to
Troy, but in 1834 the old appellation was re
stored. It received a city charter in 1854, and
in 1862 the town of Fall River, Newport co.,
R. I., with 3,377 inhabitants, was annexed to it.

FALLS, a central county of Texas, intersected
by Brazos river; area, 795 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 9,851, of whom 4,681 were colored.
Most of the surface is occupied by rolling
prairies, the soil of which is a rich black loam.
The river bottoms are still more fertile, and
produce good crops of Indian corn and cotton,
with plenty of oak, pecan, cedar, cottonwood,
and other timber. Limestone underlies a large
part of the county, and a vast ledge of it cross
ing the bed of Brazos river causes the falls
from which the county derives its name. The
chief productions in 1870 were 403,094 bushels
of Indian corn, 31,424 of sweet potatoes, and
14,126 bales of cotton. There were 5,269
horses, 2,405 milch cow r s, 17,602 other cattle,
and 7,406 swine. Capital, Marlin.

FALMOITH, a parliamentary borough and
seaport of Cornwall, England, beautifully sit
uated on the S. W. side of a harbor on the
channel, at the mouth of the river Fal, 45 m.
S. W. of Plymouth; pop. in 1871, 5,294. It
is on a steep acclivity, reaching to the water s
edge, and consists mainly of one long narrow
street. It has many good stone houses, and a
plentiful supply of water in the N. and S.
quarters, where the ground is arranged in ter
races. The harbor, one of the finest in Great
Britain, is formed by the estuary of the Fal. It
is 12 to 18 fathoms deep, and can contain 500
vessels. It is defended on the w r est by Pen-
dennis castle, and on the east by St. Mawes
castle, both built by Henry VIII. and im
proved by Elizabeth. Pendennis castle under
went a long siege by Cromwell, traces of whose
encampment near by are still visible. It now
contains barracks, storehouses, magazines, &c.
Sir Walter Raleigh visited the harbor on his
return from the coast of Guiana, and first called
attention to its great advantages, which had
till then been altogether overlooked. The en
trance is about 1 m. wide, and the bay, which
runs 6 or 7 m. inland, is a favorite resort of
British vessels in time of war. Before the in-

FALSE IMPRISONMENT

FALSEN

troduction of mail steamers it was the principal
station for the Spanish, Portuguese, and Amer
ican packet service, and carried on an exten
sive trade with those countries. It exports
pilchards, which are taken off its coast, tin,
and copper, and imports timber, hemp, tallow,
rum, sugar, grain, wine, and fruits. It has
large ship-building yards, roperies, breweries,
and a flourishing trade in maritime supplies.
The number of vessels registered as belonging
to the port is 150. The royal Cornwall poly
technic society, the first institution of the kind
established in England, founded in 1833 for the
encouragement of the sciences, art, and indus
try, meets annually at Falmouth.

FALSE IMPRISONMENT. The jealous watch
fulness of the common law of England for the
protection and preservation of personal liberty
is nowhere proved more distinctly than in the
provisions of the law respecting what is techni
cally called false imprisonment. In their ex
tent and fulness they are quite peculiar to that
la\v ; and while the principles on which they
rest, and some of the rules derived from them,
may be discerned even in Saxon times, they
have certainly been developed and systematized
in later ages, as the worth of personal liber
ty became more accurately estimated and the
means of preserving it better understood. False
imprisonment, in the law of England and the
United States, may now be defined as any in
tentional and unlawful restraint of a person.
It may be: 1, the restraint or arrest of a per
son under color of law, by means of an illegal
or insufficient process; 2, such restraint or
arrest by means of a legal instrument, but at
an illegal time, as on Sunday or any other day
generally prohibited, or at any time which is
illegal and unauthorized in respect to the per
son restrained ; 3, without color or pretence
of law, as when one confines another to his
room or house without legal authority to do
so. False imprisonment may be with force or
wholly without force ; as if one, without touch
ing another, by words only, or even by gestures
only, compels him by fear to abstain from go
ing where he has a right to go, or to go where
he wishes not to go and is under no obligation
to go. It is false imprisonment to confront a
man in the street, and, without touching him,
constrain him to arrest his course or change it
against his will. The remedies for false impris
onment are threefold : 1, an action for trespass
vi et armis, when the party imprisoned may
recover not only such damages as are capable
of being estimated on the evidence, but such
further sum as the jury, in cases where the party
had no reason to believe his conduct lawful,
may consider proportioned to the character of
the wrong; 2, the writ of habeas corpus for
immediate relief from the restraint ; 3, indict
ment at common law for false imprisonment
of any kind, for which the guilty party may be
severely punished. In some of the United
States there are various statutory provisions
respecting certain kinds of false imprisonment.

FALSE PRETEXCES. Any one who acquires
property by means of false pretences has no
legal title to it, and it may be recovered by
the party from whom it was thus obtained,
and who is still the legal owner. (See FRAUD.)
But besides this civil remedy, the statutes of
England and of the United States make the ob
taining of property by false pretences an in
dictable offence. The expressions in our state
statutes are various ; but in general, any one
who by means of false pretences, and with a
fraudulent design, obtains possession of money,
merchandise, goods, or wares of any descrip
tion, or obtains the signature of another to a
deed, note, or other contract or writing for the
transfer of property or the payment of money,
becomes liable under the statute. It is impos
sible to define precisely the fiilse pretences
which expose one to this punishment. It is
obvious that they cannot be slight suggestions
which are without foundation, or open and ob
vious falsehoods by which no man in his senses
would be deceived. In the first place, they
must be intended to produce an injurious
effect ; and in the next place, they must be
such as would be likely to deceive a person of
ordinary discretion, who is to a reasonable ex
tent on his guard. They must relate to exist
ing facts, and not be mere promises of some
thing to be done in the future. If the pretences
or misrepresentations are numerous, and most
of them are honest, but some one of them is at
once material, false, and fraudulent, the offence
is committed; and this is so, although the
statements which were true exercised the prin
cipal influence in obtaining the property for the
guilty party, provided it would not have been
given him but for the statement also which was
false. It may be remarked that no false pre
tences made after the contract was completed
will constitute the offence, even if they were
made before the property was delivered, unless
the delivery or execution was at first withheld,
and then brought about by the false pretences.
At common law the nearest provision to this
of the modern statutes was one which exposed
to indictment and punishment as a cheat a
person who obtained possession of money or
goods by means of what were called false
tokens, by which was meant forged papers, or
other counterfeit symbols or evidence of own
ership or authority. Language similar to this
ancient rule is used in some of our statutes,
a"s in those of Pennsylvania. The first statute
agamst false pretences in England was 30
George II., c. 24; and this has been followed
by the different states of the Union, more or
less exactly. The most common instances of
indictments under these statutes are for the
obtaining of goods by buyers under false pre-
tences as to their responsibility or resources;
and it was mainly to suppress these that the
statutes were intended.

FALSEX, Kuutsen Mairnns. a Norwegian his
torian, born at Opslo, Sept. IT, 1782, died in
Christiauia, Jan. 13, 1830. He was a son of

FALSTER

FAN

the poet Enevold von Falsen, was educated in I
Copenhagen, became a lawyer and judge in |
Norway, and was a member of the constituent
diet of Eidsvold (1814), and deputy to the
storthing (181o- 22). He voluntarily gave up
his title of nobility, but became unpopular in
1822, when, as attorney general, he defended
such measures of the government as conflict
ed with his formerly enunciated views. The
storthing in 1824 withdrew the appropriation
for his office, upon which the king appointed
him governor of Bergen, and in 1827 he re
moved to Christiania as justice of the supreme
court. His principal work is Noryes Historic
(4 vols., Christiania, 1823- 4).

FALSTER, an island of Denmark, in the Bal
tic, S. of See land, separated from the island
of Moen on the northeast by Gron sound, and
from that of Laaland on the west by Guld-
borg sound, and forming part of the bailiwick
of Maribo ; area, including the little island of
Hasselo, 181 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 25,000. In
the northeast it is mountainous, and elsewhere
entirely Hat. On account of its abundant fruits,
it is called the orchard of Denmark. Grain,
flax, hemp, hops, honey, and wax are the princi
pal products. Cattle, hogs, and poultry abound,
and peat, chalk, and building stone are found.
The chief town, Nykiobing, contains a castle
and cathedral, and has an active Irade ; pop.
in 1870, 3,645. Originally in possession of
Danish nobles, the island passed into that of the
royal .family, and a number of Danish queens
resided in its capital in the 16th and in the
early part of the 17th century.

FAMAGOSTA, or Famagnsta (anc. Arsinoe ;
Turk. Mausa), a seaport town of the island
of Cyprus, on the E. coast, about 12 m. N. W.
of Cape Grego ; pop. about 800. It is about
two miles in circumference, and is little more
than a confused mass of ruins, the ancient
streets being choked up and the buildings
fallen into decay ; but the fortifications erected
by the Genoese and Venetians are in a good
state of preservation, and the cannon mounted
by the latter still defend its walls. Of the 200
churches which it formerly contained, but a
few ruined ones remain. The Latin cathedral
of St. Nicholas, now a mosque, is a fine speci
men of mediaeval architecture. In it the Lu-
signans were crowned kings of Jerusalem, and
many interesting monuments are still to be
seen in its interior. On the N. side of the
town are bomb-proofs and cannon founderies.
There are but two gates, one on the south and
one opening toward the port. The harbor is i
narrow and its entrance is shallow, but there |
is good anchorage before the town in eight !
fathoms of water. Without the walls is the
suburb of Varoskia, which contains most of
the population. The surrounding country is
bleak and barren. About 5 m. to the north
are the ruins of ancient Salamis. The original
city was one of those built by Ptolemy Phila-
delphus in honor of his sister Arsinoe. After
the battle of Actium it was called by Augustus |

Fama Augusta. It was of great importance du
ring the crusades, and it was there that Guy de
Lusignan received the crown of Cyprus in 1191
from Richard I. of England. It was taken by
the Genoese in 1373, and in 1489 by the Vene
tians, under whom it became a rich and pow
erful city. In 1571 it fell into the hands of
the Turks, after a siege of four months, in
which it was nearly destroyed ; and in 1735 an
earthquake completed its ruin.

FAN, an implement used to produce coolness
by agitating the air. Its origin is traced to re
mote antiquity, and is ascribed by some histo
rians to Kan-si, daughter of a Chinese mandarin.
On the walls of the tombs at Thebes, the king
is represented surrounded by his fan-bearers,
who bore the instruments as standards in war,
while in times of peace they waited upon the
monarch in the temple, refreshing him with
the fans, and at the same time driving away
insects from the sacred offerings. The fashion
spread from Persia to Asia Minor, and in
Greece we find traces of fans as early as 500
B. C. The wings of a bird joined laterally and
fastened to a delicate handle constituted a most
beautiful fan. The fan of the priest of Isis,
when the worship of that divinity began to
prevail in Greece, was semicircular, made of
feathers of different lengths, pointed at the
top, and waved by a female slave. In one of
the tragedies of Euripides a eunuch is intro
duced, who says that, in accordance with
Phrygian custom, he had used his fan to pro
tect Helen against the effects of the heat. In
Rome fans became popular among the ladies,
and at dinner parties slaves with fans stood
behind the guests. The Roman poets, Ovid,
Terence, and Propertius, frequently allude to
their use, and the pictures on the ancient vases
also indicate the wide prevalence of the fash
ion. In the middle ages fans made of eagle or
peacock feathers, in various forms, and fastened
with a handle of gold, silver, or ivory, were a
lucrative article of trade in the Levantine mar
kets, whence they were exported to Venice
and other Italian cities. Catharine de Medici
introduced into France fans which could be
folded in the manner of those of the present
day. Having been favorably received by the
court of Henry II., they became objects of
great luxury during the reigns of Louis XIV.
and Louis XV. No toilet was considered
complete without a fan, the cost of which fre
quently exceeded $70. Picturesque landscapes,
the most exquisite paper of China, the most
elegant taffeta of Florence, precious stones and
diamonds, all in turn were put in requisition to
enhance the appearance and the value of the
fan. Manufacturers of fans soon became nu
merous in Paris; and previous to 1673, when
a charter was granted to them by Louis XIV.,
they had organized themselves into a corpora
tion. In England, fans were in fashion in the
time of Henry VIII. In Shakespeare s " Mer
ry Wives of Windsor" an allusion to fans is
made by Falstaff to Pistol. A superb fan set

FAX

FANEUIL

with diamonds was presented to Queen Eliza
beth on New Year s day. Among the articles
received by Cortes from Montezuma were five
fans of variegated feathers, four of them with
10 and one with 13 rods embossed with gold,
and one fan, also with variegated featherwork,
with 37 rods plated \vith gold. In Spain at
an early day fans were special favorites with
ladies, and the Spanish lady, as well as the
ladies of Spanish extraction in the new world,
are, inimitable in their management (manejo)
of the fan (abanico.) They carry on conversa
tions with it, and a book might be written to
explain the complicated code of signals by which
they express their feelings with the fan. The
best and cheapest lacquered fans are produced
in China. Those made of ivory, bone, and feath
ers are destined chiefly for the European and
American markets. The fans which the Chinese
use are of polished or japanned bamboo, cov
ered with paper, and vary in price from 20 to
30 cents a dozen. The state fan which is used
on great occasions in China and India is pre
cisely of the same semicircular form and point
ed top which was in fashion among the ancient
Greeks. In Japan the fan is to be seen on
all occasions, among all classes of society, and
in the hands of men, women, and children.
AVhere the European takes off his hat in token
of politeness, the Japanese performs the same
courtesy by waving his fan. In the schools dili
gent scholars receive fans in reward for their
zeal. A gentleman, in giving alms to a beggar,
puts the money upon his fan. When a criminal
of rank is sentenced to death, his doom is pro
claimed to him by presenting him with a fan,
and his head is taken off while he bows and
stretches out his hand to receive the fatal gift.
Japanese fans, generally ornamented with gro
tesque pictures, are exported in large quanti
ties to the United States, where they are as
popular as those of China for their cheapness
and neatness. Fans were used for allegorical
purposes in the mythology of Greece, and the
Egyptian custom of employing them in temples
and for religious purposes has also been per
petuated in the ritual of the modern Greek
church, which places a fan in the hands of its
deacons. They are used to this day in Rome
on public occasions, especially at the festa di
cattedra, when the pope is escorted by two men
who carry feather fans with ivory handles, but
do not use them. Next to China and Japan,
France is most celebrated for the manufacture
of fans, but beautiful fans are also made in the
United States, in England, at Brussels, Geneva,
Vienna, and at various other places. The manu
facture in France presents an interesting in
stance of the subdivision of labor, 20 different
processes being required to produce a fan which
sells for less than three cents, as well as one
worth several thousand francs. This industry
gives employment to thousands of persons, and
its aggregate value for Paris alone is estimated
at 7,000,000 francs annually. In France, the
fan is occasionally used by gentlemen at the

VOL. VII. G

theatres, having first appeared on a warm sum
mer evening of 1828, during the representa
tion of Corisandre at the comic opera. Hence
the name of corisandre applied in France to
fans used by gentlemen.

FANARIOTES, or Phanariotes, the Greeks who
reside in the Fanar or Phanar district of Con
stantinople, whose ancestors had escaped the
fury of the Turkish conquerors after the capture
of that city by Mohammed II. (1453). Origi
nally employed as translators of public docu
ments and as secretaries and stewards of distin
guished personages, they gradually acquired by
their wealth, as well as by their abilities and
intrigues, great political, financial, and social
importance in Turkey. The office of dragoman
of the divan was for the first time intrusted to
a Greek in the 17th century, under Mohammed
IV., and has since been uniformly conferred
upon Fanariotes. Most of the hospodars of
Moldavia and Walluchia from the latter part
of the 17th century to the beginning of the
19th were also members of Fanariote families
(Callimachi, Cantacuzene, Cantemir, Ducas,
Karadja, Musuri, Sutzo, Ypsilanti, &c.). The
Fanariotes were the principal bankers of Con
stantinople, and as such dispensers of an exten
sive patronage in the bestowal of public offices.
FANDANGO, the oldest national dance of
Spain, especially of Andalusia. Some suppose
it to have been introduced by the Moors ; others
say the Moors found the dance already estab
lished, and trace its origin to the most an
cient times. It is danced in three-four time by
one couple only, usually to the accompaniment
of the guitar, and occasionally also of the
tambourine, the dancers beating time with cas
tanets and the spectators by clapping their
hands. The Andalusian villagers dance it al
most every evening, and always on Sunday.
The dancers and their friends sing improvised
couplets ; and the lady offers her cheek to the
men present after each dance, and allows her
self to be embraced by all of them. The fan
dango is described as vivacious, graceful, and
voluptuous. Repeated efforts of the clergy to
suppress the dance have proved inadequate to
overcome its popularity among the peasantry.

FANEIIL, Peter, the founder of Faneuil hall
in Boston, born of a French Huguenot family
in New Rochelle, N. Y., in 1700, died in Bos
ton, March 3, 1743. He became a merchant in
Boston, and in 1740, after the project of erect
ing a public market house in Boston had been
discussed for some years, he offered at a public
meeting to build a suitable edifice at his own
cost as a gift to the town ; but so strong was
the opposition to market houses that, although
a vote of thanks was passed unanimously, the
offer was accepted by a majority of only seven.
The building was commenced in Dock square in

j September of the same year, and finished in
two years. It comprised a market house on

j the ground floor, and a town hall with other

I rooms fan addition to the original plan) over it.

, In 1761 it was destroyed by fire; in 17G3 it

FANFANI

FANNING

was rebuilt by the town; and in 1775, during
the British occupation of Boston, it was used
for a theatre. In 1805 it was enlarged by the
addition of another story, and was increased in
width. During the revolutionary period it was
the usual place of meeting of the patriots, from
which it gained the name of the cradle of
American liberty.

FANTANI, Pietro, an Italian philologist and
novelist, born at Pistoja, Tuscany, in 1817.
He studied medicine, but gave his attention
chiefly to philology, and in 1847 founded at
Pistoja a magazine relating to that science
(Ricordi filologici). The next year he enlisted
in the war against the Austrians, and fell into
their hands. After his release he published
(1849) critical comments on the dictionary of
the academy della Crusca, which involved him
in an acrimonious and successful controversy
with that institution. Gioberti obtained em
ployment for him in the ministry of education
at Turin. Subsequently he held an office under
the Tuscan government at Florence, where in
1859 he became director of the famous Maru-
cellian library, which post he still held in 1873.
He has published Etruria, studi di filologia,
di Ictteratura, di pubblica istruzione e di belle
arti (2 vols., Florence, 1851- 2); 11 BorgJiini,
giornale di filologia e di lettere italiane (3
vols., 18G3- 5) ; Vocctbolario deW uso toscano
(2 vols., 1863) ; Commento alia Divina Corn-
media tfAnonimo Fiorentino del secolo XIV.
(3 vols., Bologna, I860) ; and Lettere precettive
di eccellenti scrittori (2d ed., 1871). Among
his other writings are : La Paolina, a novel in
the Florentine dialect (2d ed., 1868) ; Una lam-
bola, a story for children (1869); and Cecco d&gt;
Ascoli, a historical narrative of the 14th cen
tury (1870 ; Leipsic, 1871).

FANNIERE, Francois Anguste and Francois Jo
seph, French engravers and carvers, brothers,
the former born at Longwy in 1818, and the
latter in 1822. Adopting the profession of
their father, they received with the assistance
of their grandfather, M. Fauconnier, an ex
cellent training, and reached by their joint
labors a greater eminence in carving and em
bossing on metals than any artist since Ben-
venuto Cellini. They were rewarded with
prizes at the exposition of 1849, and the elder
brother, who produced large works in gold
with bass reliefs at that of 1855, was made
chevalier of the legion of honor. Their sub
sequent joint masterpieces are two shields rep
resenting incidents from Orlando furioso, exe
cuted for the duke de Luynes.

FANNIN. I. A X. W. county of Georgia,
bordering on Tennessee and North Carolina;
area, 425 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 5,429, of whom
114 were colored. The surface is mountain
ous. The chief productions in 1870 were 3,947
bushels of wheat, 7,027 of rye, 113,754 of In
dian corn, and 6.210 of oats. There were
3,472 cattle, 5,123 sheep, and 7,571 swine.
Capital, Morgantown. II. A N. E. county
of Texas, separated from the Indian territory

by Pied river, and drained by Sulphur fork of
that stream, and by Bois d Arc creek ; area,
about 800 sq. m.;"pop. in 1870, 13,207, of
whom 2,484 were colored. It consists princi
pally of highly fertile prairie lands. The chief
productions in 1870 were 17,648 bushels of
wheat, 476,563 of Indian corn, 53,472 of oats,
23,193 of sweet potatoes, 123,835 Ibs. of butter,
and 5,699 bales of cotton. There were 7,041
horses, 20,436 cattle, 5,681 sheep, and 18,345
swine. Capital, Bonham.

FANNIN, James W., an officer of the Texan
revolution, born in North Carolina, killed at
Goliad, Texas, March 27, 1836. lie was a
captain in the Texan service in 1835, and on
Oct. 28, at the head of 90 men, with Capt.
Bowie, defeated a superior Mexican force near
Bexar. Gen. Houston soon afterward made
him colonel of artillery and inspector general.
In January, 1836, he set out to reenforce Dr.
James Grant, commanding an unauthorized ex
pedition to Matnmoros. At Pwefugio he learn
ed the destruction of Grant s party and fell
back to Goliad, which he put in a state of
defence. But by Houston s order he marched
tow T ard Victoria, and on March 19 was attacked
at the Coleta river by a Mexican force under
Gen. Urrea. Throwing up a breastwork of
wagons, baggage, and earth, the Texans de
fended themselves with spirit until night inter
rupted the fighting, Col. Fannin being among
the wounded. The battle was renewed on
the 20th, but the Mexicans having received
a reenforcement of 500 men, with artillery,
a capitulation was signed, by which it was
agreed that the Texans should be treated as
prisoners of war, and as soon as possible sent
to the United States. Having surrendered
their arms, they were taken to Goliad, where
on the 26th an order was received from Santa
Anna requiring them to be shot. At daybreak
the next morning the prisoners, 857 in number
(the four physicians and their four assistants
being spared), were marched out under various
pretexts, and fired upon in divisions. Fannin
was killed last. Many attempted -to escape,
and were cut down by the cavalry, but 27 are
believed to have eluded pursuit.

FANNING, David, a tory and freebooter of
North Carolina during the war of the revolu
tion, born of low parentage in Wake co., N. C.,
about 1756, died in Digby, Nova Scotia, in
1825. He seems to have been a carpenter, but
led a vagabond life, trafficking with the Indians,
and being connected for some time with the
notorious Col. McGirth on the Pedee. When
Wilmington was occupied by the British in
1781, Fanning, having been robbed by a party
of men who called themselves whigs, attached
himself to the tories, collected a small band of
desperadoes, and scoured the country, com
mitting frightful atrocities, but doing such good
service to the British that Major Craig rewarded
him with the royal uniform, and gave him a
commission as lieutenant colonel in the militia.
He captured many prominent whigs, hanging

FANO

FANTEE

those who had incurred his personal resent
ment upon the nearest tree. His name was a
terror to the whole country ; he was excepted
in every treaty and enactment made in favor of
the royalists, and was one of the three persons
excluded by name from the benefits of the
general " act of pardon and oblivion of of
fences committed during the revolution. On
the other hand, his romantic mode of life and
personal daring, displayed many times in battle,
drew around him numerous followers, whom
he disciplined with great strictness. He is said
to have commanded at one time 200 or 300
men. When the whigs began to gain the
ascendancy in North Carolina, he went to
Florida, and afterward to St. John s, N. B.,
where he assumed a respectable deportment,
and became member of the assembly. About
1800 he was sentenced to be hanged for rape,
but escaped, and was afterward pardoned.

FAXO, a seaport of central Italy, in the prov
ince of Pesaro, on the Adriatic, near the
mouth of the Metauro, 30 m. X. W. of Ancona;
pop. about 20,000. It is surrounded by old
walls, built by the emperor Augustus, in whose
honor was erected here a triumphal arch of
white marble, which is still standing. Few
cities of central Italy surpass it in artistic trea
sures or richness of the surrounding soil and
scenery. The cathedral is adorned with 16
frescoes by Domenichino, representing events
in the life of the Virgin. Many of the 13
other churches, and several public buildings
and private mansions, contain paintings by the
great Italian masters, marbles, statues, and
fine monuments. It is the seat of a bishop, and
has a lyceum, a gymnasium, a technical school,
a public library, and a theatre considered one
of the finest in Italy. The manufactures are
chiefly of silk stuffs and twist, and the trade
is in corn, oil, &c. The port was once much
frequented, but is now choked up with sand,
and visited only by small coasting vessels.
Fano occupies the site of the ancient Fanum
Fortunre, so called from a temple of Fortune
built by the Romans, and commemorative of
their victory over Hasdrubal on the river Me-
taurus, in the second Punic war. It was the
scene of a victory by Narses over the Goths
under Totila. In 1511 Pope Julius II. establish
ed here the first printing press in Europe with
movable Arabic types.

FAXSHAWE, Si/Kiehard, an English poet and
diplomatist, born at Ware Park, Hertfordshire,
in June, 1608, died in Madrid, June 16, 1666.
lie studied in Jesus college, Cambridge, and in
the Inner Temple. He then went abroad to
study manners and languages, and on his re
turn home became secretary to the embassy at
Madrid, where he remained till 1638. On the
outbreak of the civil war he declared for the
crown, and was made secretary to the prince
of Wales. In 1648 he was appointed treasurer
to the navy under Prince Rupert, and two
years later he was made a baronet, and sent
to Madrid to implore the assistance of Spain.

He was taken prisoner at the battle of Worces
ter, but being released passed several years in
retirement, translating the "Lusiad" of Ca-
moens, and upon the death of Cromwell joined
Charles II. at Breda. He was appointed mas
ter of requests and Latin secretary to the ex
iled monarch, and after the restoration was
elected to parliament, and was sent upon diplo
matic missions to Madrid and Lisbon, negotia
ting the marriage of Charles with the infanta
Catharine of Portugal. Besides his version of
the "Lusiad" (1655), he translated the Pastor
Jido of Guarini and the odes of Horace, and
wrote a few short original poems. The "Origi
nal Letters and Negotiations of Sir Richard
Fanshawe, the Earl of Sandwich, the Earl of
Sunderland, and Sir William Godolphin" (8vo,
London, 1724) is a valuable contribution to
history. The "Memoirs of Lady Fanshawe, 1
written by herself, with extracts from the cor
respondence of her husband, edited by Sir N.
H. Nicolas, was published in London in 1830.

FAXTEE, a country of the Gold Coast, W.
Africa, bounded N. W. and N. by Assin and
Dubbin, E. by Aquapim, S. by the gulf of Guinea,
and W. by Wassaw, lying near lat. 5 30 N.,
Ion. 1 W. Capital, Mankasim. It is watered
by several rivers, is said to be fertile and popu
lous, and has several important trading stations
along its coast. The inhabitants are remark
ably cleanly, are more muscular than the Ash-
antees, and may be distinguished from other

A Fantoc Woman.

| African tribes by small scarifications on the

1 back of the neck and the upper part of the

j cheek bones. Their heads are high and round,

and their color is a dull brownish black. They

have long faces with jaws protruding to an

j unusual extent, flat noses, thick lips, and very

! large ears. The dress of both sexes consists

FASTI

FARADAY

of a single piece of cloth wrapped loosely
around the body. They pay a nominal obedi
ence to chiefs called caboceers, besides whom
every village has its local magistrate. They
formerly governed or influenced a seaboard
district extending about 100 m. along the coast.
About 1807, becoming involved in a war with
the king of Asbantee, they obtained the active
interference of the English, who had a small
fort in Anamboe, one of their towns ; but this
alliance, while it plunged the British into a
disastrous quarrel, proved of no benefit to the
Fantees, whose territory after a long struggle
was occupied by the victorious Ashantees. In
3823 the Fantees, encouraged by the British,
rebelled, but were again subdued, the British
being defeated by the Ashantees, and their
commander, Sir Charles McCarthy, captured
and put to death. In 1826, however, the Brit
ish defeated the Ashantees and compelled them
to retire to their own territories. From that
time for nearly half a century the Fantees
were unmolested tinder British protection.
But in 1872 the Dutch possessions on the Gold
Coast were transferred by treaty to Great
Britain, and in 1873 Koffee Calcalli, king of
Ashantee, complaining that some of the stipula
tions of his treaties with the Dutch had been
violated by the British, declared war against
them, overran and ravaged the Fantee terri
tories, and in September was threatening Cape
Coast Castle with a numerous army. The
British government, holding itself bound to
protect its allies, the Fantees, sent a powerful
force to the Gold Coast under command of
Gen. Wolseley, who in November was advan
cing toward Coomassie, the Ashantee capital,
driving before him the army of Koffee Calcalli,
which was estimated to be about 40,000 strong.
(See GOLD COAST.)

FMTI, Manfredo, an Italian general, born in
Carpi, Modena, about 1810, died April 5, 1865.
He took part in 1831 in the unsuccessful insur
rection against the Austrians, served afterward
in the French army, passed into the royal ser
vice of Spain in 1835, and returned at the out
break of the revolution of 1848 to Italy, where
he became a major general in the Sardinian
army. In 1855 he commanded one of the four
brigades sent to the Crimea, and in the war
of 1859 took part as lieutenant general in the
battles of Magenta and Solferino. In January,
1860, he accepted the portfolios of war and of
marine in the cabinet of Count Cavour, in Feb
ruary became senator, and in September com
manded the expedition against the Papal States.
He left the cabinet in 1861, and in 1862 be
came commandant general of the military de
partment of Florence.

FARADAY, Michael, an English chemist and
natural philosopher, born at Newington, Sur.-
rey, Sept. 22, 1791, died at Hampton Court,
Aug. 25, 1867. His father was a blacksmith,
of feeble health, and very poor. A short dis
tance from their home in London was a book
seller s and bookbinder s shop kept by George

I Riebau, and there Faraday went, when 13 years
of age, as an errand boy, on trial, for one year.
It was a part of his duty at first to carry round
the newspapers that were lent out by his mas
ter. At the end of a year he became an ap
prentice to Riebau, the indentures to continue
seven years. " In consideration of his faithful
service," no premium was given to the master.
Faraday says of himself: " While an apprentice
I loved to read the scientific books which were
under my hands, and among them delighted in
Marcet s Conversations on Chemistry and
the electrical treatises in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. I made such simple experiments
as could be defrayed in their expense by a few
pence per week, and also constructed an elec
trical machine, first with a glass vial, and after
ward with a real cylinder, as well as-other
electrical apparatus of a corresponding kind."
" My master," he says, " allowed me to go occa
sionally of an evening to hear the lectures de
livered by Mr. Tatum on natural philosophy at
his house, 53 Dorset street. The charge was
one shilling per lecture, and my brother Robert
(who was a blacksmith) made me a present
of the money for several." That he might be
able to illustrate scientific lectures, he took
lessons in drawing of a Mr. Masquirier, who
also lent him Taylor s "Perspective," "which
I studied closely," he says, " copied all tho
drawings, and made some other simple ones."
Among the notes Faraday has left of his own
life occurs the following: "During my ap
prenticeship I had the good fortune, through
the kindness of Mr. Dance, who was a cus
tomer of my master s shop, and also a member
of the royal institution, to hear four of the last
lectures of Sir Humphry Davy in that locality.
Of these I made notes, and then wrote out
the lectures in a fuller form, interspersing
them with such drawings as 1 could make. I
wrote to Sir Humphry Davy, sending as a
proof of my earnestness the notes I had taken."
lie was invited by Davy to call upon him,
which resulted in his appointment as assistant in
the laboratory of the royal institution, whither
he went in March, 1813. In October of the
same year he went with Davy abroad, as amanu
ensis and assistant in experiments. The tour
lasted only a year and a half, but was full of
the most vivid interest to young Faraday. In
the latter part of April, 1815, they returned to
England, and Faraday, now 23 years of age,
resumed his place as assistant in the labora
tory, and was also made assistant in the mine-
ralogical collection, and superintendent of the
apparatus, at a salary of 30 shillings per week.
During the year 1816 he gave seven lectures
before the "City Philosophical Society:" 1, on
the general properties of matter; 2, on the at
traction of cohesion; 3. on chemical affinity;
4, on radiant matter ; 5, 6, and 7, on oxygen,
chlorine, iodine, fluorine, hydrogen, and nitro
gen. His first paper appeared in the " Quar
terly Journal of Sciences," and was an analy
sis of some caastic lime from Tuscany, which

FARADAY

had been sent to Davy by the duchess of
Montrose. In 1817 he gave a second course
of lectures before the city philosophical so
ciety, at the tenth of which, on carbon, he
used notes for the first time, instead of read
ing his lectures. In 1818 he investigated the
subject of sounding flames, showing that they
were not dependent, as De la Rive had sup
posed, upon the sudden expansion and con
densation of vapor, but that they were con
nected with musical vibrations produced in a
manner similar to the tones of a flute or of
an organ pipe. lie obtained the sounds as
well when using a flame of carbonic oxide gas
as when using one of hydrogen. In 1819 he
made a tour on foot through Wales, and kept a
journal in which there are many passages man
ifesting his intense love of nature and his vivid
powers of description. In 1820 he published
a paper on two new compounds of chlorine
and carbon, and on a compound of iodine,
carbon, and hydrogen. It was read before
the royal society, and was the first which was
published in the " Philosophical Transactions."
On June 12, 1821, he was married to Miss Sa
rah Barnard, a daughter of an elder in tfie
Sandemanian church, and, having obtained
leave, took his wife to reside at the royal in
stitution, where they remained until they
moved to the house assigned them in Hampton
Court by the queen in 1858. A month after
his marriage he became a member of the San
demanian church. His ideas of religion are
indicated by the following quotation from a
lecture delivered on medical education in 1854 :
" High as man is placed above the creatures
around him, there is a higher and far more
exalted position within his view ; and the ways
are infinite in which he occupies his thoughts
about his fears, or hopes, or expectations of a
future life. I believe that the truth of the fu
ture cannot be brought to his knowledge by
any exertion of his mental powers, however
exalted they may be; that it is made known
to him by other teaching than his own, and is
received through simple belief of the testimony
given. Let no one suppose for a moment that
the self-education I am about to commend, in
respect to the things of this life, extends to any
consideration of the hope set before us, as if
man by reasoning could find out God." In
1821 there occurred the only unpleasant cir
cumstance that seems ever to have been con
nected with his life. Dr. Wollaston was the
first person to entertain the idea of causing a
wire to revolve around a magnet, or upon its
own axis, and in a visit to Davy at the royal
institution made some experiments and con
versed upon the subject, during a part of
which time Faraday was present. It greatly
excited his interest, and he could not refrain
from making experiments, the result of which
was that in the months of July, August, and
September he wrote a history of the progress
of electro-magnetism, which was published in
the "Annals of Philosophy." In the latter

month he made the discovery of the rotation
of a wire in a voltaic circuit round a magnet,
and of a magnet round a wire. He says: "I
did not realize Dr. Wollaston s expectation
of the rotation of the electro-magnetic wire
round its axis; that fact was discovered by
Ampere at a later date." These experiments
and publications of Faraday created consider
able feeling, so much that the matter was dis
cussed two years afterward, when he was pro
posed as a member of the royal society. He
was charged with trespassing upon the prov
ince of another, and with using another s im
plements in cultivating the field: but his un
blemished character in all other relations, and
the great discoveries which he made in this
abstruse department of electro-chemistry and
electro-magnetism, at last removed all tinge
of imputation of wrong intention ; and long
before he closml his labors all men of science
were heartily glad that Faraday had followed
his inclinations. About the year 1822 and for
some time after he investigated the subject of
the liquefaction of vapors and gases, and in
1823 examined a substance which had been
regarded as pure chlorine, but which Davy in
1810 had proved to be a hydrate. Faraday
first analyzed this hydrate, and then at the
instance of Davy subjected it to the action of
its own pressure on being heated in a strong
sealed tube, by which means he obtained liquid
chlorine. Extending his experiments to other
gases, he succeeded in reducing a number of
them to a liquid state. His first memoir was
read before the royal society April 10, 1823,
and the second on Dec. 19, 1844. Prof. Tyn-
dall says that while making his first series of
experiments an explosion occurred by which
13 pieces of glass were driven into his eyes.
In 1825 he published a paper in the "Philo
sophical Transactions" on new compounds of
carbon and hydrogen, in which he announced
the discovery of benzole. But his mind contin
ually reverted from chemistry to physics, and
in 1826 he was again engaged upon the subject
of vaporization, in which he came to the con
clusion that a limit exists, and that our atmos
phere does not contain the vapors of what are
usually denominated the fixed constituents of
the earth s crust. During the year he had ten
papers in the "Quarterly Journal," one of the
principal being on pure caoutchouc, his analy
sis of which is given in the article on that
substance in this work. In 1825 Faraday was
appointed with Sir John Herschel and Mr.
Dolland on a committee to examine the manu
facture of glass for optical purposes. Their
experiments continued for four years, when
Faraday delivered his first Bakerian lecture
"On the Manufacture of Glass for Optical
Purposes." This paper required three succes
sive sittings of the royal society, and although
the investigation had not much immediate
practical use, it led to other and very impor
tant discoveries. In 1831 he published a paper
on vibrating surfaces, in which he solved the

84:

FARADAY

problem of the cause of the collection of lyco-
podium seeds and other light bodies upon the
vibrating parts of sounding plates, instead of
upon the nodal lines where sand is collected, by
showing that the light bodies are prevented
from settling on the nodal lines by minute
whirlwinds formed in the air over the vibrating
parts. In 1827 he published his "Chemical
Manipulations" (1 vol. 8vo; 2d ed., 1830; 3d
ed., 1842). In April of this year he gave his
first course of six lectures before the royal
institution upon the atmosphere, gases, vapor,
chemical affinity, definite proportions, flame,
galvanism, and magnetism as evolved by elec
tricity. Between February and May he de
livered twelve lectures at the London institution
on the subject of chemical manipulation. In
December he commenced a course of lectures
on chemistry to juvenile audiences. His power
of imparting the elementary principles of science
to youthful minds was wonderful, owing not
only to the logical simplicity of his mind, but
to his happy choice of and manner of making
experiments. These courses of lectures suc
ceeded each other from year to year, and it
was also his habit to deliver popular lectures
on Friday evenings at the royal institution
throughout nearly his whole scientific career.
In 1829 he was appointed lecturer on chemis
try in the royal academy at Woolwich. In
1831 he commenced his celebrated series of
electrical researches, which were continued
through a great number of years. He investi
gated the induction of electric currents and the
evolution of electricity from magnetism ; and
although Oersted was the discoverer of electro-
[/ magnetism, and Ampere its expounder, Faraday
made the science of magneto-electricity sub
stantially what it is at the present day. In
this year he also began to develop his theory
of lines of magnetic force. In 1833 he was
appointed the first Fullerian professor of chem
istry at the royal institution, and during the
same and the succeeding year he studied the
laws of electro-chemical decomposition, and
applied the word electrode in place of pole to
the conductors connected w r ith a decomposing
cell, the fluid in which he called an electrolyte,
and the act of its decomposition electrolysis.
The positive electrode he called the anode, and
the negative the cathode, and also applied the
terms anions and cations to the chemical ele
ments of the electrolytes which pass respec
tively to the anode and cathode. He now
applied himself to the determination of elec
tric quantity, and for this purpose devised
his voltameter, by which he showed that the
amount of electricity generated in a voltaic
battery depends upon the amount of chemical
decomposition, thus establishing the doctrine of
" definite electro-chemical decomposition." He
investigated -the contact theory of Volta, and
in doing so developed the ideas which he al
ways afterward entertained on the conservation
of force, illustrating the fallacy of the contact
theory of galvanism by showing that if true a

force could be produced without drawing its
supply from any consuming source. His first
great paper on frictional electricity was sent to
the royal society Nov. 30, 1837. In his inves
tigation of this subject he developed his induc
tive theory of electricity, and by numerous
memorable experiments illustrated the " specific
inductive capacity" of dielectrics, in which he
supposed the molecules of the dielectric to form
a chain of communication between the inducing
and the induced body. He also, during the
years 1836- 8, made experiments for the Trinity
house on electric light for lighthouses, a subject
which again in the latter part of his life en
gaged much of his attention. In 1840 he was
elected an elder in the Sandemanian church,
but held the office only for 3 years, during
which period, when in London, he preached on
alternate Sundays. His great labors had im
paired his health, and in 1841 he went with
his wife to Switzerland, spending much of the
time at Interlaken and at the falls of Giessbach,
returning at the end of September in the same
year. In 1842 he made experiments upon the
generation of electricity by steam, prompted
thereto by the invention of the celebrated
hydro-electric machine of Sir William Arm
strong, and showed that it was caused by fric
tion, and not by vaporization, as had been
supposed. He performed very little laboratory
work till the end of 1844, indulging in the
mean time in needful rest. In the beginning
of 1845 he made a second series of experiments
on the condensation of gases, and about the
first of September began the investigation of
the magnetic relations of light, which led him
to the discovery of the peculiar phenomena of
magnecrystallic action. In November he an
nounced his discovery of the "Magnetization
of Light and the Illumination of the Lines of
Magnetic Force." Whatever doubt there may
be as to the soundness of his theory in every
particular, his paper is full of the profoundest
thought. "I have long," he says, "held an
opinion almost amounting to a conviction, in
common I believe with many other lovers of
natural knowledge, that the various forms
under which the forces of matter are made
manifest have one common origin ; in other
words, are so directly related and mutually
dependent, that they are convertible, as it were,
into one another, and possess equivalents of
power in their action." He always held that
the theory of gravitation, not as it existed in
the mind of Newton, but as commonly under
stood, embraced an absurdity, by supposing
that when the manifestation of attraction be-

! tween two bodies decreased in proportion to
the square of their distance from each other,
an equivalent of energy was lost ; thus denying
the doctrine of " conservation of force," which

j he considered as established. In December
of the same year he published a memoir ad-

i dressed to the royal society on the u Mag
netic Condition of all Matter," in which he
discussed the phenomena presented by diamag-

FARADAY

FAEEHAM

netic bodies, or such as are repelled by the
poles of a magnet instead of being attracted,
like iron or other paramagnetic bodies, as he
termed them. Between this time and 1851
he was much occupied with the magnetic
condition of gases, finding, among other facts,
oxygen to be powerfully paramagnetic. Among
the papers published is one on the diamag-
netic condition of tlame and gases in the " Phi
losophical Magazine " for December, 1847, and
two elaborate memoirs on atmospheric mag
netism sent to the royal society on Oct. 9 and
Nov. 19, 1850. He applies his theory of the
lines of magnetic force to the solution of the
cause of the distribution of magnetism in the
earth s atmosphere, and of annual and diurnal
variations ; and although it has been found that
the variation in the declination of the magnetic
needle is connected with solar spots, it can
scarcely be doubted, as Tyndall remarks, "that
a body so magnetic as oxygen, swathing the
earth and subject to variations of temperature,
diurnal and annual, must affect the manifesta
tions of terrestrial magnetism." Faraday was
opposed to the atomic theory, and it is very
difficult, perhaps impossible, to comprehend
his idea of the subject. In the place of an
atom as a particle of matter he substituted a
point or centre of force, and connected points
of force with lines of force. He says: "This
view of the constitution of matter would seem
to involve necessarily the conclusion that mat
ter fills all space, or at least all space to which
gravitation extends ; for gravitation is a prop
erty of matter dependent on a certain force,
and it is this force which constitutes the mat
ter. In that view matter is not mutually
penetrable ; but each atom extends, so to say,
throughout the whole of the solar system, yet
always retaining its own centre of force." In
1853, at the request of many friends, he was
induced to investigate the phenomena of "ta
ble-turning," and he prepared apparatus with
which to test the reality of the phenomena in
question. The investigations were conducted
with great care, but he discovered no manifes
tations of any of the forces, natural or super
natural, which had been suggested as possibly
concerned in the phenomena. In 1854 he made
a series of experiments connected with subma
rine telegraphy, which were of great value. In
1855 he brought his experimental researches
on electricity to a close, having followed them,
along with his other investigations, during a
quarter of a century. "The record of this
work which he has left in his manuscripts and
republished in his three volumes of Electrical
Researches will ever remain," says his biog
rapher, Dr. Bence Jones, " as his noblest monu
ment : full of genius in the conception ; full of
finished and most accurate work in the execu
tion ; in quantity so vast that it seems impos
sible that one man could have done so much.
Lastly, the circumstances under which this
work was done were those of penury. During
a great part of these 20 years the royal institu

tion was kept alive by the lectures which Fara
day gave for it. He had no grant from the
royal society, and throughout almost the whole
of this time the fixed income which the insti
tution could afford to give him was 100 a
year, to which the Fullerian professorship
added nearly 100 more." In 1856 he was
again engaged in experimenting for the Trinity
house with electric light for lighthouses, and it
is thought that his frequent journeys and night
excursions in the channel during the winter,
when he was 70 years of age, were the remote
causes of his last illness. In 1858 the queen
assigned him a house in Hampton Court. In
1860 he resumed his eldership in the Sande-
manian church, and held it for the same period
as before, resigning in consequence of not be
ing able conscientiously to perform the duties
of the office. On June 20, 1862, he gave his
last Friday evening lecture, which was on the
subject of gas furnaces ; in the notes for the lec
ture he mentions his loss of memory. He was
the "prince of popular lecturers," and drew
crowds from the theatres to the lecture room
of the royal institution on Friday evenings. It
was here that he appeared in his glory, absorbed
and earnest as a child over his toys, repeating
his experiments, in which none were more in
terested than the lecturer himself. His facility
in experimenting was a gift of genius, and
his lectures to children are said to have been
the most perfect examples of extemporaneous
speaking. He was an honorary member of 72
J societies, in almost every part of the world.
I Besides his voluminous manuscripts, papers in
the "Philosophical Transactions," and jour-
i nals, the following works have been pub-
lished : " Chemical Manipulations " (1827) ;
"Researches in Electricity " (1831- 55) ; " Lec
tures on Xon-Metallic Elements " (1853) ; " Re
searches in Chemistry and Physics" (1859);
. Lectures on the Forces of Matter" (I860);
and "Lectures on the Chemical History of a
| Candle" (1861). The chief biographies of
j Faraday are : a small memoir by Dr. J. H.
1 Gladstone ; " Faraday as a Discoverer," by
| Prof. Tyndall (1868) ; and "Life and Letters of
j Faraday," by Dr. Bence Jones (1869).

FARADIZATION, a term applied to the pro-
| duction of induced currents of electricity, and
particularly their employment in electro-thera
peutics. The generation of this form of elec-
I tricity was discovered by Faraday in 1831, and
is produced by suddenly magnetizing and de-
| magnetizing a soft bar of iron, or interrupting
i the flow of the galvanic current through a
I helix, around which bar or helix a secondary
j coil of wire is placed. Secondary currents are
i induced in the latter at every interruption of
j the galvanic or magnetic force. (See GALVAN-
! ISM, and MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY.)

FAREHAM, a market town of Hampshire,

England, a station on the Southwestern rail-

i way, on slightly elevated ground, at the head

I of a short arm of the sea, 5 in. N. "W. of Ports-

: mouth ; pop. in 1871, 7.023. It contains a

FAREL

FARINELLI

handsome parish church, and Independent and
Wesleyan Methodist churches, free schools, and
a hall for a philosophical institution. Ship
building was once actively carried on, hut has
declined. Earthenware, hricks, and terra cotta
are manufactured in large quantities, and the
latter is largely exported. There is also a
considerable trade in grain, canvas, rope, and
timber. Fareham is a resort for sea bathing.

FAREL, Gnillauinc, a French reformer, born
near Gap, in Dauphiny, in 1489, died in Neuf-
chatel, Sept. 13, 1565. While studying At Paris
he embraced the new doctrines, and went
with his friend Lefevre d fitaples to Meaux,
where he began to preach, lie returned to
Paris in 1523, went to Basel the next year, be
came intimate with Zwingli, Haller, Grebel,
and other reformers, quarrelled with Erasmus,
and was banished from Basel, all within a few
weeks, and then retired to Strasburg, where
he was intimate with Bucer. Preaching after
ward at Montbeliard and other places, his in
temperate zeal drew him into many troubles.
One day he interrupted a procession in honor
of St. Anthony by snatching the statue of the
saint and throwing it into the river. To es
cape the consequences he fled, and travelled in
Alsace and Switzerland. In 1527 he went to
Aigle and taught school under an assumed
name. In 1532, with Antoine Saunier, he rep
resented the reformed churches in the synod
convened by the Vaudois of Piedmont at Chan-
forans, and on his return was invited to a con
ference with the Catholics at Geneva, where
the controversy became stormy, blows were
exchanged, and the magistrates had to inter
fere. He was ordered to leave the city, re
turned in 1533, was again banished, came back
in 1534 with letters from the Seigniory of Bern,
and in 1536 persuaded Calvin to aid him in
the organization of the reformed church at
Geneva. The party of "Libertines" gaining
the upper hand in the election of 1538, Fare!
and Calvin were banished. Farel went to
Strasburg, and organized the Protestants there
amid much opposition. In March, 1543, a
body of troops under Claude de Guise fell upon
a congregation gathered around him at Gorze
in France. Farel was wounded, and narrowly
escaped with his life. lie then settled as
pastor at Neufchatel. In 1557 he was sent to
the Protestant princes of Germany to ask
their assistance for the Vaudois, and soon after
he incurred the displeasure of Calvin and others
by marrying a young girl. In 1561 he preached
at Gap with all the violence of his youth, and
w r as thrown into prison, from which his follow
ers released him, letting him down from the
rampart in a basket. Farel was a fine scholar
and excited great admiration by the brilliancy
of his oratory. His writings were numerous,
but mostly of temporary interest.

FARIA Y SOl SA, Manocl de, a Portuguese and
Spanish historian and poet, born in Portiiff.il,
March 18, 1590, died in Madrid, June 3, 1649.
He was a son of Amador Perez de Erro, and

assumed the name of his mother, who belonged
to the ancient Portuguese Faria family. He
was incited to poetical composition by his ad
miration for Albania, as he called Catharina
Machado, who became his wife. After his
marriage he settled in Madrid, and from 1630
to 1634 he was special envoy to Rome. On
his return he was placed for some time under
arrest, the pagan allusions and inferences in
his Comentarios sobre la Lusiada (2 vols.,
Madrid, 1639) having given offence to the in
quisition, though he regarded himself as a de
vout Roman Catholic. His subsequent effu
sions, collected under the title of Fuente de
Aganipe (4 vols., Madrid, 1644- 6), are in
Spanish, excepting 200 sonnets and a few other
pieces in Portuguese. His Discursos morales y
politicos, published under the title of Noches
claras, consist of dialogues, divided into seven
nights. His principal historical works are :
Epitome de las Mstorias portuguesas (Madrid,
1628; enlarged ed., Brussels, 1730); Aia
Portugueses (3 vols., Lisbon, 1666- 75); Euro-
pea Portuguesa (3 vols., Lisbon, 1667- 78);
and Africa Portuguesa (1681). He was among
the first trustworthy writers on China, and his
Imperio de China, edited by Father Semmedo
(Madrid, 1842), has been translated into French
and Italian. Lope de Vega called him the
prince of critics.

FARIBAULT, a S. county of Minnesota, bor
dering on Iowa, and drained by Blue Earth
river and its branches ; area, 720 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1870, 9,940. The surface is mostly prairie;
the soil is fertile. The Minnesota and North
western and the Southern Minnesota railroads
pass through the county. The chief produc
tions in 1870 were 552,940 bushels of wheat,
137,496 of Indian corn, 394,992 of oats, 25,786
of barley, 29,321 of potatoes, 15,398 tons of
hay, and 259,645 Ibs. of butter. There were
2,995 horses, 3,235 milch cows, 4,864 other
cattle, 4,127 sheep, and 3,394 swine. Capital,
Blue Earth City.

FARIBAULT, a town and the capital of Rice
co., Minnesota, at the confluence of the Can
non and Straight rivers, and on the Iowa and
Minnesota division of the Chicago, Milwau
kee, and St. Paul railroad, 46 m. S. of St.
Paul; pop. in 1870, 3,045. It is the scat of
the state asylum for the deaf, dumb, and blind,
and of an Episcopal academy, and contains sev
eral other schools, six or eight churches, two
weekly newspapers, two national banks, and
several flour mills, saw mills, founderies, &c.

FAR1NELLI (originally BROSCIII), Carlo, an
Italian singer, born in Naples or in Andria,
Jan. 24, 1705, died in Bologna, July 15, 1782.
The extraordinary beauty of his soprano voice
was attributed to his having been emasculated.
He was a favorite pupil of Porpora, and met
with brilliant success at the principal theatres
of Italy. In 1734 he went to London, where
he soon created an excitement. He performed
three years in England, and netted every year
5,000. In France his success was equally

FARMER

FARNESE

great. In Madrid lie dissipated the melancholy
of Philip V., became the king s chief favorite, |
and after his death was similarly honored by i
Ferdinand VI., receiving an animal salary of
$10,000, on condition that he should sing only
for the royal ears. lie prevailed upon Ferdi
nand to organize a theatre in the palace, for
which he engaged eminent artists from Italy,
and of which he became the director. For
20 years he ruled the court of Spain, not
only by the charms of his voice, but gradu- !
ally by his influence in political affairs. In
1759, on the accession of Charles III., Farinelli
fell into disgrace, and three years later was
ordered to leave the kingdom. He then took
up his abode at Bologna, and built a splendid
palace in the vicinity of the town, in which lie
passed the rest of his life.

FARMER, Hngh, an English theologian, born
in Shropshire in 1714, died in London, Feb. 5,
1787. He was educated at the academy in
Northampton under Dr. Doddridge, and be
came pastor of a dissenting congregation at
Walthamstow, Essex, where he wrote several
theological treatises. lie removed to London in
1761, and became afterward preacher to the con
gregation of Sailers hall, and one of the Tuesday
lecturers at the same place. He published an
" Inquiry into the Nature and Design of our
Lord s Temptation in the Wilderness " (1761),
a "Dissertation on the Miracles" (1771), an
"Essay on the Demoniacs of the New Testa
ment " (1775), and a work entitled " The Gen
eral Prevalence of the Worship of Human Spir
its in the ancient Heathen Nations" (1783).
He considered miracles to. be absolute proofs
of a divine mission.

FIRMER, John, an American genealogist,
born in Chelmsford, Mass., June 12, 1789, died
in Concord, N. II., Aug. 13, 1838. After teach
ing school for ten years, he studied the early
settlement of New England, and his " Gene
alogical Register," published in 1829, is thought
to contain the names of nearly all the first
European settlers in that region. A new and
enlarged edition of this work, by James Sav
age of Boston, was published in 1860- 62. Mr.
Farmer superintended an edition of Belknap s
" History of New Hampshire," to which he
added many valuable notes; and he con
tributed various papers to historical and anti- [
quarian societies, and to periodicals.

FARMERS GENERAL, in France, financial and
privileged associations which before the revo
lution of 1789 took upon lease various branches
of the public revenue. This system origina
ted in the 13th century, when Philip the Fair,
in consideration of certain sums paid to him,
several times permitted Lombard bankers and
Jews to collect the taxes. The consequent
exactions, cruelties, imprisonments, and even
executions, often caused popular rebellions ;
yet in the reign of Louis XIIL the lessees had
become a power in the state, and often trans
ferred their leases to still more unscrupulous
subordinates. In 1720, under the regency, the

individual leases were united in a ferine generale,
which was let to a company, whose members
were called form iers gemraux. Their number
was originally 40, afterward increased to GO.
In consideration of an annual payment of 55,-
000,000 livres, they had the privilege of levying
the taxes on articles of consumption ; and on
the renewal of this privilege in 1726, 80,000,-
000 livres annually were paid. In 1774 the
farmers paid 135,000,000 francs for this right,
and in 1789, 180,000,000, and yet made im
mense fortunes. In 1759 the contracts of the
farmers general were quashed by Silhouette,
but the system soon revived, as it was favor
able to the court and ministers. The constitu
ent assembly in 1790 suppressed the associa
tion. In 1794 all the farmers general then liv
ing were brought before the revolutionary tri
bunal, and condemned ; 28, including Lavoisier
the chemist, were executed May 8, 1794, and
the remaining three some days afterward.

FARNE, Fearne, or Fern Islands, several small
islands and rocks in the North sea, from 2 to 5
m. from the English coast, and nearly oppo
site Bamborough. Two lighthouses have been
erected on the largest. In rough weather the
passage between the isles is very dangerous,
and several disastrous shipwrecks, attended
with great loss of life, have occurred here.

FAMESE, a family of Italian princes, who
derived their name from their ancestral castle
of Farneto near Orvieto, and whose genealogy
is traced to the middle of the 13th century.
Prominent as a soldier among the early mem
bers of the family was PIETRO, who commanded
the Florentine army in their victorious battle
against the Pisans at San Piero, in May, 1363,
and died of the plague within a few weeks.
The historical celebrity of the house dates
from 1534, when Cardinal Alessandro Farnese
became pope under the name of Paul III. In
1545 he erected Parma and Piacenza into a
duchy for the benefit of his natural son, PIE
TRO LUIGI, a dissolute and cruel ruler, against
whom many nobles revolted in concert with
Gonzaga, the imperial governor of Milan, at
whose instigation he was assassinated Sept. 10,
1547. His son OTTAVIO (1520- 80) was recon
ciled with Austria through his wife, the famous
Margaret of Parma, natural daughter of Charles
V., and his reign of over 30 years was peace
ful and happy. He was succeeded by his son
ALESSAXDRO (1546- 92). He was educated by
his mother, and enlisted in the service of Spain
in early youth. He fought in the naval battle
of Lepanto in 1571, and was sent in 1577 to the
Netherlands, where in the following year he
took part in the victory of Gembloux, won by
Don John of Austria over the Dutch. He suc
ceeded Don John as governor of the Low
Countries, and forced the Belgian provinces
into submission, successively taking Maestricht,
Breda, Tournay, Dunkirk, Bruges, Ypres,
Ghent, and Antwerp (1579- 8o), the latter city
after one of the most memorable sieges re
corded in history. On his father s death in

FAKNESE

FARNIIAM

1586 he inherited the duchy, but did not even
visit his dominions. In 1588 he was put in
command of the armada which Philip II. of
Spain sent against England ; but being shut up
with his army in Antwerp by the Dutch flo
tilla, he was only a spectator of its disastrous
failure. In 151)0 he invaded France at the
head of the Spanish army and relieved Paris,
which was then besieged by Henry IV. In
1592 he marched into Normandy, and obliged
Biron to raise the siege of Rouen, one of the
principal cities held by the leaguers; but he
received here a wound which afterward proved
fatal. Being attacked by Henry IV., who
hemmed in his army between the Seine and
the English channel, he foiled the efforts of his
opponent, and succeeded in landing his troops
on the opposite bank of the river, when they
returned to the Netherlands. As for himself,
he was unable to proceed further than Arras,
where he breathed his last. He was a man
of consummate military and diplomatic genius.
A bronze equestrian statue of him by John of
Bologna adorns the principal public square at
Piacenza. His successor was his son by the
princess Mary of Portugal, RAXUZIO I. (1569-
1622). He was a lover of science and art, but
notorious for his ferocity against noble families,
a number of whom he had executed, confis
cating their property for alleged conspiracy.
He married a niece of Pope Clement VIII.
His son and successor ODOAEDO (1 612-*46) was
fond of magnificence and lavish in the expen
diture of money, and possessed various accom
plishments. But, insatiable in his ambition,
he entered into an alliance with France against
Spain and Austria in 1633, by which he nearly
lost his duchies. In 1039 Pope Urban VIII.
deprived him of the duchy of Castro, upon
which Odoardo had raised money which he
was unable to pay. After five years of wran
gling Castro was restored to him through the
intervention of France and Venice. RAXUZIO
II. , his son and successor, was the fattest of a
family noted for obesity. He died in 1694, and
was succeeded by his son FRAXCESCO, who died
in 1727, and was followed on the throne by
his brother ANTONIO. This prince, born in
1670, was likewise exceedingly corpulent, and
cared for little besides eating and sleeping.
Leaving no issue, he designated as his succes
sor Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain and
of his niece Elizabeth Farnese. The Farnese
family became extinct with him in 1731, and
the rule of Parma and Piacenza passed into
the hands of the infante of Spain, consequent
upon a convention signed in Vienna in the
same year. The Farnese palace in Rome,
now belonging by inheritance to the deposed
king of Naples, was finished under the di
rection of Michel Angelo, who designed the
whole upper part of the building with its
imposing entablature. It is regarded as the
finest piece of architecture in Rome, and was
constructed of blocks of travertine which were
taken by the nephews of Pope Paul III. from

the theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum.
The grounds are adorned by two fountains,
whose granite basins, 17 ft. long and 4 ft.
wide, were taken from the baths of Caracalla.
The most celebrated statuary has been removed
to the museum of Naples, including the torso
Farnese, or Farnese bull, and the Farnese
Hercules, or the Hercules of Glycon. Among
the few monuments which remain in the pal
ace is a colossal one representing Alessandro
Farnese crowned by Victory, sculptured out
of a column taken from the basilica of Con-
stantine. The most exquisite paintings are
the frescoes of Annibale Carracci and his
pupils in the gallery on the upper floor.
The villa Farnesina, in the Lungara of the
Trastevere, opposite the Corsini palace, was
designed by Baldassare Peruzzi for Agosti-
no Chigi (1506), who gave here in 1518 an
extravagant entertainment in honor of Leo
X. ; the plate, on being removed from the
table, was thrown into the Tiber. This palace,
mainly celebrated for its frescoes by Raphael
and his pupils, became the property of the
Farnese family, and passed with its other
possessions to the Neapolitan Bourbons. The
kings of Naples supported here an academy of
painting, and eventually sold the palace to the
Spanish duke Ripalda, who still owns it. The
Farnese gardens (Orti Farnesiani) occupy the
whole northwestern summit of the Palatine
hill, and contain interesting ruins of the pal
aces of the Ca?sars. Napoleon III. purchased
these grounds in 1861 from the king of Naples
for 250,000 francs, and spent 750,000 francs on
the excavations alone, designed to aid in his
work on Julius Caesar. In 1870 he sold them
for 650,000 francs to the city authorities of
Rome, on condition of their continuing the
excavations under the direction of Pietro Rosa.
FARNHAM, Eliza W., an American philanthro
pist and author, born at Rensselaerville, Al
bany co., N. Y., Nov. 17, 1815, died in New
York, Dec. 15, 1864. Her maiden name was
Burhans. In 1835 she went to Illinois, and
in 1836 married Thomas J. Farnham. In 1841
she returned to New York, where she visited
prisons and lectured to women till the spring
of 1844, when she became matron of the fe
male department of the state prison at Sing
Sing, hoping to govern such an institution by
kindness alone. She remained four years, and
while there published "Life in Prairie Land,"
and edited an edition of Sampson s "Criminal
Jurisprudence." In 1848 she removed to Bos
ton, and was connected for some time with
the institution for the blind in that city. In
1849 she went to California, and in 1856 re
turned to New York, and published " Califor
nia Indoors and Out." For the next two
years she studied medicine. In 1859 she or
ganized a society to aid and protect destitute
women in emigrating to the west, and went
at diiferent times to the western states with
large numbers of such persons. The same
y&lt;3ar she published "My Early Days." She

FAENIIAM

FARO

again visited California, and in 1864 published I
"Woman and her Era" (2 vols. 12mo, New j
York), a work on the position and rights of j
woman. In 1805 appeared a posthumous
work, " The Ideal Attained." .

FARMIAH, Thomas Jefferson, an American
traveller, husband of the preceding, born in
Vermont in 1804, died in California in Sep
tember, 1848. In 1839 he organized and head
ed a small expedition across the continent to
Oregon. He went to California the same year,
and took an active part in procuring the
release of a large number of Americans and
English who had been imprisoned by the Mex
ican government. In 1842 he published " Trav
els in Oregon Territory ;" in 1845, " Travels
in California and Scenes in the Pacific, and
u A Memoir of the Northwest Boundary Line ;"
and in 1848, "Mexico, its Geography, People,
and Institutions."

FARO, or Pharo, a game of chance at cards,
said to derive its name from the figure of an
Egyptian Pharaoh which was formerly placed
on one of the cards. It may be played by any
number of persons, who sit at a table gene
rally covered with green cloth. The keeper of
the table is called the banker. The player,
called the punter (from Ital. puntare, to point),
receives a livret or small book from which to
choose his cards, upon which he may at his
option set any number of stakes, which are
limited in amount in accordance with the capi
tal of the banker. The banker turns up the
cards from a complete pack, one by one, lay
ing them first to his right for the bank and
then to his left for the player, till all the cards
are dealt out. The first card is considered
blank. The banker wins when the card equal
in points to that on which the stake is set
turns up on his right hand, but loses when it
is dealt to the left. The drawing of each two j
cards is called a "turn." The player loses
half the stake when his card comes out twice
in the same turn. This is called a "split."
The last card but one, the chance of which the
banker claims, but which is now frequently
given up, is called hocly (a certainty). The
last card neither wins nor loses. Where a
punter gains, he may either take his money or
paroli ; that is to say, double his chance by
venturing both his stake and gains, which he
intimates by bending a corner of his card up
ward. If he wins again, he may play sept et
le ra, which means that after having gained a
paroli he tries to win seven fold, bending his
card a second time. Should he again be suc
cessful, lie can paroli for quinze et le ra, for
t rente ct le va, and finally for soixante et le
r, which is the highest chance in the game.
Faro was formerly in vogue in France, Eng
land, and Europe generally, and still retains
its popularity in various parts of the world.
The method of play in the United States is as
follows : The dealer, with a large array of I
checks at his right hand, representing 81, $5,
$20, and upward, takes his seat at a table. In

the centre of the table is a suit of cards, called
k&gt; the lay-out," arranged in the following order :

King. Queen. Knave. 10-spot 9-spot. S-spot.

Ace. ; Deuce. Trey. 4-spot. , 5-spot. 6-spot. !

The king, queen, and knave are called " the
big figure ;" the ace, deuce, and trey, "the little
figure;" and the 6, 7, and 8, "the pot." On
these cards the player places the sums he
wishes to bet. The dealer shuffles a pack of
cards (the option of shuffling resting also with
any of the players who call for it), has them
cut, and then places them in a box, from which
he deliberately slides them one by one. The
first is called the " soda card," and is set aside ;
the next is the banker s card, and wins for
him all sums bet upon it ; the next is the
player s card, and so on alternately. It is in
the power of the player, by placing a small
copper on the amount he places on the card,
to reverse the chance. This, which is called
" coppering," enables the player to bet on or
against whichever card he pleases. The dealer
stops between each two cards while new bets
are being made as checks change from one
card to another, and thus the game proceeds
to the close of the pack, when a fresh deal is
made, and the process is repeated. The bank
wins on "splits," which is supposed to be the
only odds in its favor ; but it possesses others
in its superior amount of capital, and in the
inclination of most players to stake heavier
in the effort to recover than to support good
luck. When but two cards are left in the box,
the player has the privilege of " calling the
last turn," that is, guessing in which order
they will appear ; if correct, he wins four times
the amount of his stake. In Germany the
cards are not dealt from a box, but nailed to
a pine board and torn off one by one by the
dealer. Here the dealer is generally assisted
also by one or two croupiers, who attend to
the playing and receiving, guarding against
errors, and shuffling the pack.

FARO, a city of Portugal, capital of the
province of Algarve, near the mouth of the
Valfermoso, 02 in. E. of Cape St. Vincent,
and 140 m. S. E.of Lisbon; pop. about 8,500.
It was destroyed by the English in 1596, and
by earthquakes in 1722 and 1755, and now
presents a modern appearance, though, with
the exception of the principal square and of a
fortress, the houses are generally poor. The
town has a cathedral, a theological seminary,
and a mathematical school for the army. The
cathedral, said to have been a mosque, is a
time-worn building. In the E. and highest
part of the city is an ancient and imposing
castle surrounded by Moorish walls, and in
the same direction is an arch with a statue
of St. Thomas Aquinas. Blindness prevails to

FAROCIION

FAREAGUT

a great extent, owing to the light sandy soil.
Sand bars render the port, which is defended
by a small citadel, almost inaccessible ; but
tolerable anchorage is obtained in the road
stead formed by three small islands at the
mouth of the river. The coasting trade is
active, especially in southern fruit. Figs and
oramres are the most important products.

FAROCHON, Jcau Baptiste Eugene, a French
medallist and sculptor, born in Paris in 1807.
He studied under David, early executed busts,
small statues, and medallions, received a prize
in 1835, studied in Italy as a pensioner of the
academy, and on his return to Paris gained
reputation by his medallions. Devoting him
self to statuary, he produced in 1859 his mas
terpiece, "The Mother," which was again ex
hibited in 1807. Since 1863 he has been pro
fessor at the school of fine arts.

FAROE, or Faro Isles (Dan. Fdroerne), a group
belonging to Denmark, in tbe Atlantic ocean,
N. of Scotland, between lat. 61 20 and 62 25
N., and Ion. 6 10 and 7 35 W. ; area, 510
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,992. They are 22 in
number, 17 of the larger ones being inhabited.
The largest of them are Stromo, the central
island, 27 m. long and 7 m. broad, with about
2,600 inhabitants, and Ostero, 20 m. long and 10
m. broad, with a population of about 2,100.
Next in size are Sydero, Sando, and Vaago. The
interior of the islands is generally hilly, the
mountains varying in height from 1,000 to 2,800
ft. The valleys are narrow, and the rivulets
flowing through them are so swollen during the
rainy season as to render travelling impossible.
The prevailing rocks are greenstone and clay-
stone of various kinds. Some of the islands
contain coal mines, and fine opal and traces of
iron, copper, and other metals are found. The
soil seldom exceeds a foot in depth, though in
.some places it is 4 ft. deep. Turnips, potatoes,
and a few other vegetables flourish, but barley
is the only cereal that matures, and even that
often fails in consequence of the sudden changes
of temperature. There is no timber ; coal and
turf are used for fuel. The pasture lands are
luxuriant, and the wealth of the islanders con
sists chiefly in sheep, which yield a very fine
wool. The horses are small, but hardy, active,
and sure-footed. The cows are also small. Sea
fowl valuable for their flesh and feathers abound
on the coasts. Ship building is carried on with
success. There are cloth and stocking manu
factories and a few tanneries. Fisheries of the
whale, seal, cod, and herring, and the collect
ing of cider down, constitute a large part of
the resources of the country. Bread and salt
are luxuries. The population, descendants of
the old Northmen, are vigorous and laborious,
and of loyal and religious character. The
common language is a dialect of the Norse,
but the official language is Danish. The long
est day of summer, including the long twi
light, is 24 hours, and the shortest of winter
4 hours. Monks from the Scottish isles first
founded in the Faroe group a few hermitages.

In the 9th century fugitive Norwegian pirates
established themselves under Grimr Kamban.
The islands became Danish when Norway was
united with Denmark in 1380. During the
18th century they were notorious as the seat
of smugglers. They were occupied by the
English from 1807 to 1814. The administra
tion is composed of a Danish amtmand or bai
liff, who is commander of the armed force,
ajad a landfoged, who is director of the police;
and they are represented in the legislature of
Denmark by a deputy appointed by the king.
Commerce with tbe Faroe islands is a monopoly
of government, and Danish ships are permitted
to approach them only between May and Sep
tember. Capital, Thorshavn, on the S. E. side
of Stromo ; pop. about 800.

FARQl IIAR, George, a British comic drama
tist, born in Londonderry, Ireland, in 1678, died
in London in April, 1707. After a brief career
at Trinity college, Dublin, he appeared in his
17th year as a comedian upon the Dublin stage.
While performing in the "Indian Emperor"
of Dryden, he accidentally inflicted a serious
wound upon his antagonist in fencing, which
caused him to renounce the boards for ever,
lie went to London in 1696, obtained a com
mission in the army, and applied himself to
dramatic composition. He lived gayly and
licentiously, and during the ten years before
he sank a victim to anxiety and ill health he
produced seven comedies, superior in vivacity
and ease of style, and in clear and rapid de
velopment of intrigue, to any that had before
appeared in England. The last and best of
these was the "Beaux Stratagem" (1707),
which still keeps the stage. He also left a
volume of "Miscellanies," consisting of poems,
essays, and letters. His works have much of
the smartness and indelicacy fashionable in
his time, but are written in better language
and are less designedly vicious than the plays
which preceded the revolution of 1688. He
passed a troubled though merry life, and left
two daughters in indigence, whom in a brief
and touching note he recommended to the
kindness of his friend the actor Wilks. A com
plete edition of his works appeared in 2 vols.
12mo in 1772.

FARRAGDT, David Glaseoe, an American ad
miral, born at Campbell s station, near Knox-
ville, Tenn., July 5, 1801, died in Portsmouth,
N. II., Aug. 14, 1870. He entered the navy
as midshipman at the age o f 11, and his first
service was on board the famous Essex, in
which he participated in the engagement that
resulted in the capture of the British ship Alert,
and also in the three hours fight in the bay of
Valparaiso, March 28, 1814, before the Essex
surrendered to the Phoebe and Cherub. In
his report of the battle Commodore Porter
commended "the lad Farragut," and regretted
that he was too young for promotion. Under
the same commander Farragut took part in the
attack on the rendezvous of pirates at Cape
Cruz on the southern coast of Cuba in 1823.

FARRAGUT

Tho fight lasted 12 hours, and resulted in the
defeat of the pirates and the destruction of
their boats and village. From this time for
nearly 40 years he was sailing about the world
or quietly serving at naval stations, rising j
slowly by seniority. lie was commissioned I
lieutenant in 1825, commander in 1841, and
captain in 1855; and his most important com
mand in all that time was that of the Mare .
Island navy yard, California, 1854 8. "\Vhen !
the civil war began, Farragut was 60 years of !
age, and had been in the service more than 48
years. lie was living at Norfolk, Va.," waiting ;
orders," on the day when intelligence was re
ceived that Virginia had seceded. He hastily
collected a few valuables, put his loaded pistols
in his pocket, and within two hours was with I
his family on board a steamer bound north. I
Leaving his family at Hastings-on-the-IIudson,
he reported at Washington, where he remained
nine months in comparative inactivity. His j
first orders for active duty appointed him com
mander of the expedition for the capture of New
Orleans and opening of the Mississippi river.
These orders reached him Jan. 20, 1802, and
in two weeks he was under way in his flagship
the Hartford. On reaching the gulf of Mexico
he first arranged the blockade of the whole
coast, and then with the more formidable por
tion of his fleet entered the Mississippi. A
mortar flotilla was attached to the expedition,
but Farragut placed no reliance upon it. The
bombardment of the forts a little above the
mouths of the river was kept up continuously !
for six days and nights; but the enemy daily I
added to their defences, and beyond the burn- j
ing of the barracks within Fort Jackson the I
works, mounting 120 guns, were as formidable I
as at the commencement of the bombardment.
Without further delay, Farragut in the night
of April 24 signalled his squadron to get under j
way, and, delivering broadsides of grape, ran
past the forts "under such a fire from them,"
.he wrote, "as I imagine the world has never
seen." Beyond the forts he encountered and
destroyed a fleet of 20 armed steamers, 4 iron
clad rams (one of 4,000 tons), and a multitude
of fire rafts. Next he silenced the two formi
dable Chalmette batteries, on either side of
the river three miles below New Orleans, and j
at noon the second day anchored with the city I
beneath his guns. In the passage of the forts
his fleet received 105 shots, 37 men were killed
and 147 wounded, and one vessel, the Varuna, I
was sunk. Farragut next proceeded to Yicks- i
burg (attacking Grand Gulf in passing), for the
purpose of reducing that stronghold, and, run
ning his vessels safely past the powerful bat
teries, communicated withthe squadron brought !
down from the upper Mississippi ; but not with- j
standing all his exertions, the attack failed from i
the lack of a cooperating land force. He then {
repassed the batteries and withdrew his fleet [
to Pensacola for repairs. On July 11, on the
recommendation of the president, "he received ;
the thanks of congress, and on the reorganiza

tion of the navy in the same month was placed
first on the list of rear admirals. In the fol
lowing autumn the capture of Corpus Christi,
Sabine pass, and Galveston was effected by
his squadron. In March, 1803, Farragut again
advanced against Yicksburg, but encountered
so tremendous a fire at Port Hudson that but
two vessels, the Hartford and the Albatross,
succeeded in passing the batteries. All the
vessels of his squadron were terribly cut up,
and the fine frigate Mississippi was destroyed.
With his flag ship and her small consort he
kept on to Vicksburg, and established commu
nication with the upper Mississippi fleet and
with the army under Gen. Grant. By this ex
ploit he obtained control of the river between
Port Hudson and Yicksburg, established a
blockade of the Red river, and thus intercepted
the supplies from Texas destined for the con
federate armies. About the last of May he
returned and engaged the batteries at Port
Hudson, and from that time till July 9, when
the garrison surrendered, efficiently cooperated
with the army in its investment of the place.
The following summer Farragut summoned his
squadron to the attack of Mobile, and on the
morning of Aug. 5, 1804, conducted his force
past Forts Morgan and Gaines guarding the en
trance, and further on in the bay engaged and
vanquished the confederate fleet of iron-clads,
winning, after a desperate fight of several hours,
a victory next in lustre and consequence only
to that of New Orleans. In this battle, just
as the iron-clad Tecumseh was opposite Fort
Morgan, a torpedo was exploded under her, and
in three minutes she had sunk, carrying down
her commander, T. A. Craven, and more than
100 of her crew. The Brooklyn, the leading
ship of the line, thereupon commenced backing,
throwing the whole line into confusion, and
her commander signalled, " We have lost our
best monitor: what shall I do?" Farragut,
who had had himself lashed to the Hartford s
rigging, saw the signal and the confusion into
which the line had been thrown, and with
his own vessel broke from his place in the line
and hurried to take the lead, signalling " Go
ahead!" The coolness and determination of
this movement, executed under a terrific fire
from the forts and in the face of the great
est danger, inspired the whole fleet with confi
dence, overcame the temporary demoralization,
and saved the day. Again congress expressed
to Farragut the gratitude of the country, and
created for him the grade of vice admiral,
in which office he was confirmed Dec. 21,
1804; and on July 25, 1800, congress again
created a higher office, that of admiral, and
conferred it upon him. In 1807 Farragut sailed
from Brooklyn in the frigate Franklin, and
commanded the European squadron until 1868.
Wherever he touched during that cruise he re
ceived most distinguished honors alike from
sovereigns and people. While on a journey
undertaken for the improvement of his failing
health, he died at the Portsmouth navv yard.

FARRAR

FAST

A mural tablet in his honor was placed in the
church of the Incarnation, New York, Nov. 10,
1873. See " Life and Naval Career of D. G.
Farragut," by P. 0. Ileadley (New York, 1865).

FARKAR. I. John, an American mathema
tician, born in Lincoln, Mass., July 1, 1779,
died in Cambridge, May 8, 1853. lie gradu
ated at Harvard college in 1803, and studied
divinity at Andover, but accepted the appoint
ment of Greek tutor at Harvard in 1805. In
1807 he was chosen Hollis professor of mathe
matics and natural philosophy, and set himself
the task of raising the standard of mathematical
education to the European level. In 1818 he
published for the use of his pupils a translation
of Lacroix s "Elements of Algebra," followed
by selections from Legendre, Biot, Bezout, and
others. These works were at once adopted
as text books by Harvard college, and by
the United States military academy. He also
contributed to the scientific periodicals, to the
"North American Review," and to the "Me
moirs" of the American academy. In 1836
he resigned his chair in consequence of a pain
ful illness which eventually caused his death.
II. Eliza Kotcli, an American authoress, second
wife of the preceding, born at New Bedford,
Mass., in 1792, died at Springfield, April 22,
1870. She married Prof. Farrar in 1828.
Among her earliest publications are " The Chil
dren s Robinson Crusoe," "Life of Lafayette,"
" Howard," and " Youth s Letter Writer." Her
most popular work, "Young Lady s Friend"
(1837), passed through many editions in the
United States and in England. In 1865 she
published "Recollections of Seventy Years."

FARREN, Eliza, countess of Derby, an English
actress, born in Liverpool in 1759, died April
23, 1829. Her father, a native of Cork, who
was successively a surgeon, an apothecary, and
an actor, left his family in great indigence.
Eliza made her debut in Liverpool in 1773, and
in London in 1777, where she played succes
sively at the Haymarket, Covent Garden, and
Drury Lane. Although a very graceful and
lively actress, she owed her reputation chiefly
to her remarkable beauty, which received the
homage of the most illustrious men of the time.
She was esteemed as much for her virtues as
her beauty, and on May 1, 1797, became the
wife of the 12th earl of Derby, then a widower.

FARS, or Farsistan (Pers., land of the Per
sians ; anc. Persia), a S. W. province of Persia,
bounded N. W. by Khuzistan, N. by Irak-Ajemi
and Khorasan, E. by Kerman, S. by Laristan
and the Persian gulf, and AV. by the Persian
gulf; area estimated at about 50,000 sq. m. ;
pop. between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000, inclu
ding Turkomans, Banians, and a small num
ber of Jews. It is divided into the Ger-
masir and Sirhud, or warm and cold regions.
The former extends inland from the coast, its
surface being a sandy plain, wholly dependent
for vegetation on the periodical rains. The
latter comprises the more elevated region be
longing to the great range of mountains which

extend from the Caucasus to the gulf, and which
in this part are exceedingly steep toward the
sea. This portion of the province consists of
fertile valleys. A few of them, as Shiraz, Ka-
zerun, and Merdusht, are cultivated, but many
are wooded and uninhabited. The southern
part of the coast E. of Ras Berdistan is occu
pied by Arabs, who acknowledge the authority
of the sultan of Muscat, and in the northern
districts there are some tribes of Kurds. East
ward the country is more open, sandy, and ill
supplied with water. The chief rivers are
the Sitaregyan, flowing into the Persian gulf,
and the Bendemir, falling into the salt lake
Bakhtegan. Another salt lake, near Shiraz,
supplies the province with salt. The general
products of the country are tobacco in large
quantity, wine, rice, dates, opium, linen, cotton,
silk, cochineal, and roses for the manufacture of
attar. Iron and lead mines exist, as also quar
ries of marble and alabaster. Borax and naph
tha are among the chemical products. Atten
tion is given to the raising of horses, camels,
and asses, for use and export. The inhabitants
of this province are considered the most indus
trious in Persia. They manufacture woollen,
silk, and cotton stuffs, and carry on an extensive
trade with India. The government is vested
in a prince of the sovereign s family, under
whom are governors of districts. There are
many interesting remains of antiquity. The
tomb of Cyrus is at Murgab, the ancient Pa-
sargada ; the ruins of Persepolis are between
that town and Shiraz. Inoculation is said to
have been known among the tribes of Fars
for centuries. Among the principal towns are
Shiraz, the capital; Kazerun, with excellent
opium produced in the vicinity; Darab or Da-
rabgerd, famous for its date trees ; and Bushire,
the chief port in the Persian gulf. (See PEESIS.)
FARTHINGALE (Fr. rertvgadin, It. guardin-
fante, Sp. vertugado, guardian of virtue), a pet
ticoat spread to a wide circumference by hoops
of willow, whalebone, or iron, introduced into
England under this name in the reign of Eliza
beth. In the reign of Anne it was called a tub
petticoat. It appeared in France early in the
reign of Louis XV. under the name of vertu-
gadin and panier, or basket petticoat, its great
est diameter being made equal to the height
of the lady. Its abandonment was effected
near the close of the same reign by Mile. Clai-
ron, who appeared on the stage without it ; but
it again became fashionable under Marie Antoi
nette. In England the hoop, the successor of
the farthingale, went out of fashion in the reign
of George IV., who forbade it at court.

FAST (Sax. fcestan, to keep), abstinence from
food, especially as a religious observance ; ap
plied also to the period of such abstinence.
Fasting was practised in all the old religions
known to history, with the single exception
of that of Zoroaster. It appears to have been
also in use among the semi-civilized and savage
tribes in both hemispheres. The Mohamme-
I dans observe strictly the fast of the month of

FASTI

Ramadan, abstaining from all food daily from
sunrise until sunset. On the Hebrews the law
of Moses enjoined one annual fast on the day
of atonement ; others were observed by the
nation in course of time in memory of great
calamities. The modern Hebrews observe six
fasts of obligation ; the most fervent keep many
more. The fast consists in abstaining from
all food and drink from sunrise till nightfall,
the fast of atonement alone from sunset until
nightfall the next day. Both the eastern and
western churches from the earliest times ob
served the Lenten fast of 40 days in memory
of Christ s fasting. The Greek church enjoins
fasts on all Wednesdays and Fridays, on the 40
days before Christmas, and the 40 days before
Easter, the period extending from the week
after Pentecost until June 29, and from Aug. 1
to Aug. 14, besides numerous other fasts as a
preparation to ecclesiastical festivals; in all 130
fast days in the year. There is a legal dis
tinction made by both the Latin and eastern
churches between fasting," which implies the
refraining from all food, and "abstinence,"
which is the refraining from flesh meat, eggs,
milk, butter, and cheese. Thus, Roman Cath
olics abstain from flesh meat on all Fridays ex
cept Christmas day, and on the rogation days,
or three days before Ascension Thursday.
The fasts universally observed in the Catholic
church are those of Lent, of the ember days,
and of the vigils of Christmas, Pentecost, the
Assumption (Aug. 15), and All Saints (Nov. 1).
Protestants generally admit the utility of
fasting, while denying its necessity. They do
not admit the legal distinction between fasting
and abstinence. The English church and the
Protestant Episcopal church of America main
tain on their ecclesiastical calendar, under the
name of fasts, both the "days of abstinence"
and the "fast days" of the Catholic church.
The Presbyterian church in the United States
follows the doctrine of the Westminster Con
fession, tli at "solemn fastings" are "in their
times and seasons" to be used in a holy and
religious manner. The Methodist Episcopal
church enjoins fasting or abstinence on the
people, and advises weekly fasts to be kept by
her clergy. The New England Puritans, while
rejecting ecclesiastical fasts, observed them
selves "seasons of fasting and prayer," and ad
mitted both the right and duty of the civil ruler
to set apart days for such purpose. In New
England it is still customary for the governors
of states to appoint in the spring "a day of
fasting, humiliation, and prayer," which is gen
erally observed in the churches. During the
civil war the president of the United States
recommended by proclamation such days to be
observed by the nation.

FASTI, in Roman antiquity, registers of the
days, months, and other divisions of the year,
corresponding to modern calendars. The term
is variously derived from fas, divine law, and
fari, to speak, as it properly designated those
days of the year on which legal business could

without impiety be transacted, or legal judg
ment be given by the magistrates. The fasti
calendares or sacri, the chief division of these
registers, contained the enumeration of all the
days, divided into months and weeks of eight
days according to the nundinal (the days of
each of the latter being designated by the first
eight letters of the alphabet), the calends, nones,
and ides. Days on which legal business could
be transacted were marked by F. us fasti;
those from which judicial transactions were ex
cluded by N. as nefasti ; the days on which
justice could only be administered at certain
hours were called ex parte fasti, also intercisi,
and were marked in the calendar, when justice
could be demanded during the early part of
the day, by F. P.,fasto prime ; and days on
which the assemblies of the comitia were held
by C. Primarily these registers are said to
have been intrusted by Numa as sacred books
to the care of the pontifex maximus, and for
nearly four centuries the knowledge of the
calendar continued to be in exclusive posses
sion of the priests, one of whom regularly an
nounced the new moon, and the period inter-
tervening between the calends and the nones.
On the nones the rex sacrorum proclaimed the
various festivals to be observed in the course
of the month, and the days on which they
would fall. This knowledge, previously jeal
ously kept to themselves by the priests and. pa
tricians, was first made public in 304 B. C. by
Cneius Flavins, by some believed to have been
a scribe to Claudius Cascus. Besides the above
mentioned divisions of time, with their nota
tion, they generally contained the enumeration
of festivals and games, which were fixed on
certain days, astronomical observations on the
rising and setting of the stars and on the sea
sons, and sometimes brief notices about reli
gious rites, as well as of remarkable events. In
later times flattery inserted the exploits and
honors of the rulers of Rome and their families.
The rural fasti (rustici, distinguished from the
urbani) also contained several directions for
rustic labors to be performed each month. A
different kind of fasti were those called an-
nales or Tiistorici, also magistracies or consu
lar es, a sort of chronicles, containing the names
of the chief magistrates for each year, and short
accounts of remarkable events noted opposite
to the days on which they occurred. Hence
the meaning of historical records in general
attached to the term fasti in poets, while it is
used in prose writers of the registers of consuls,
dictators, censors, and other magistrates, be
longing to the public archives. Several speci
mens of fasti of different kinds have been dis
covered in the last three centuries, none of
which, however, are older than the age of Au
gustus. The/^sfi Maffeard, the complete mar
ble original of which was long preserved in the
Maffei palace at Rome, but finally disappeared,
are now known by a copy prepared by Pighius ;
the Verriani, known as the Praenestine calen
dar, comprising only five months, are histor-

FAT

FAUCIIER

ically no less remarkable. The latter appear
to have contained ample information about fes
tivals, and details of the honors bestowed upon
and the triumphs achieved by Caesar, Octavia-
nus, and Tiberius. A most remarkable speci
men of the second class was discovered in 15-40
in the for ton Romanum, in large fragments,
giving the list of consuls from the 250th to the
765th year of Koine, and is known under the
name of fasti Capitolini. New fragments of
the same tablets were found in 1817 and in
1818. Originally they contained the records
of Rome from the expulsion of the kings to the
death of Augustus. Labbe has given fasti con-
sularcs out of a MS. of the college of Clermont
in his Bibliotheca Nova. Several modern wri
ters, as Sigonius, Reland, and Baiter, have pub
lished chronological tables of Roman magis
trates under the title of fasti.

FAT. See ADIPOSE SUBSTANCES, ALIMENT,
and COKPULEXCE.

FATA MORGANA, or castles of the fairy Mor
gana, a mirage occasionally seen from emi
nences on the Calabrian shore, looking west
ward upon the strait of Messina. It occurs in
still mornings, when the waters are unruffled
by breeze or current, and the sun, rising above
the mountains of Calabria, strikes down upon
the smooth surface at an angle of 45. The
heat then acts rapidly upon the stagnant air,
the strata of which but slowly intermingling
present a series of mirrors which variously re
flect the objects upon the surface. The tides
must have operated to raise the surface into a
convex form, as sometimes occurs at this lo
cality. Objects on the Sicilian shore opposite,
beneath the dark background of the mountains
of Messina, are refracted and reflected upon
the water in mid channel, presenting enlarged
and duplicated images. Gigantic figures of
men and horses move over the picture, as sim
ilar images in miniature are seen flitting across
the white sheet of the camera obscura. Some
times the sky above the water is so impreg
nated with vapor that it surrounds these ob
jects with a colored hue. The wonderful ex
hibition is but of short duration. The phe
nomenon is not peculiar to this locality, though
the configuration of the coast and the meteoro
logical conditions of the region concur to ren
der its exhibition more frequent and more beau
tiful here than elsewhere.

FATES. See PAKCVE.

FATIMITES, or Fatimides, the descendants of
Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed, a power
ful Arab dynasty which for 2-t centuries ruled
Egypt and Syria, while the Abbasside caliphs
reigned at Bagdad. They claimed as their
founder Ismael, the Ctli of the 12 imams who
were descended from Ali and Fatima ; but this
claim was disputed, and they were variously
said to have first appeared in Persia, in Egypt,
and at Fez, and to have been descendants of a
Jew, a locksmith, and an eastern sage. They
first attained to empire under Abu Obeidallah,
who in A. 1). 909 announced himself in Svria as

the maJuli, or director of the faithful, foretold
by the Koran, and expected as the Messiah by a
class of heterodox Mussulmans. Denounced by
the caliph, he fled to Egypt, was imprisoned for
a time in north Africa, but was afterward rec
ognized as a messenger from heaven, and made
himself caliph of the whole country from the
straits of Gibraltar to the border of Egypt. His
successor conquered the island of Sicily. Mocz,
the 4th caliph, wrested Egypt from the Ab-
bassides in 970, founded Cairo, fixing his resi
dence in its present suburb of Fostat, and con
quered Palestine and a large part of Syria.
Aziz, his successor (975-990), consolidated and
extended his conquests, and embellished Cairo
with many monuments. His son Hakem (996-
1021) w r as preeminently distinguished for fanat
icism and cruelty, persecuting alike Christians,
Jews, and orthodox Mohammedans. Declaring
himself a manifestation of God, he became near
the close of his reign the founder of a new re
ligion, now represented by the Druses of Syria,
who expect his reappearance as their Messiah.
From his time the power of the Fatimites
declined. On the death of Adhed, the 14th
caliph, in 1171, the dynasty, was extinguished,
and a new one established by Saladin. (See
CALIPH.)

FAl-CIIE, Hippolyte, a French orientalist, born
at Auxerre in 1797, died at Juilly, department
of Seine-et-Marne, in 1809. His fortune enabled
him to devote his whole life to Hindoo litera
ture, and he translated into French many cele
brated Sanskrit poems and other works. His
labors were repeatedly rewarded by academical
prizes. His most extensive translations are the
Rdmdyana (9 vols., 1854- 8) and the Malia
Bharata (7 vols., 1863- 7), which latter was
interrupted by his death. lie also published
poetry and a novel.

FAHHER, Leon, a French political econo
mist, born in Limoges, Sept. 8, 1803, died in
Marseilles, Dec. 14, 1854. "When a boy he sup
ported himself and his mother by making de
signs for embroidery, and afterward became a
teacher in Paris. After the revolution of 1830
he was successively editor of the Temjjs, the
Constitutionnel, and the Courrier Fran fa is.
lie was chosen to the chamber of deputies for
Rheims in 1840, and, joining the opposition
party, was prominent in the debates on ques
tions touching political economy. He was
elected by the department of Marne to the con
stituent assembly of 1848. In December of
that year, and again in April, 1851, he was ap
pointed by Louis Napoleon minister of the in
terior, serving each time but a few months.
He was instrumental in preparing the law of
May 31, 1850, restricting the limits of suffrage;
but he declined to accept office under Louis
Napoleon after the coup d etat. He now de
voted himself chiefly to the interests of the
credit fondc",\ having previously become known

I by his advocacy of a gradual reduction of duties,
and of a commercial league between France,

! Belgium, Spain, and Switzerland, as a coun-

FAULK

FAURIEL

terpoise to the German Zollverein. Among j
liis remarkable earlier efforts were an essay j
in the Revue dcs Deux Mondes on the relations
of property in France, and a pamphlet in 1838
on prison reform. His principal work, Etudes I
snr VAngleterre, a description of the social,
industrial, and political institutions of England,
appeared in 1845.

FAULK, a S. E. central county of Dakota ter
ritory, recently formed, and not included in
the census of 1870; area, about 900 sq. m. It
is drained by the North fork of Dakota or
James river, and consists largely of table land.

FAILVS, in Roman mythology, rural divinities,
descended from Faunus, king of Latium, who
introduced into that country the worship of
the gods and the labors of agriculture. The
poets ascribed to them horns, and the figure
of a goat below their waist, but made them
gayer and less hideous than the satyrs. Fauns,
like satyrs, were introduced upon the ancient
stage in comic scenes. The cabalistic mythol
ogy also admits the existence of fauns, whom
it regards as imperfect creatures. It supposes !
that God had created their souls, but, sur
prised by the sabbath, had not time to finish
their bodies. Hence these unfinished beings I
seek to shun the sabbath, on which day they I
retire to the deepest solitudes of the forests.

FAUNTLEROY, Henry, an English forger, born
in London about 1784, executed there, Nov.
30, 1824. He early joined the London bank
ing house of Marsh, Stracey, and co., and about
1814 began a system of forgeries involving
about 400, 000, "though the bank of England
prosecuted him only for 170,000. Among
his papers was a most business-like statement,
drawn up by his own hand as a private mem
orandum, containing a list of transactions to
the amount of 120,000, with the names of
the persons whom he had defrauded by selling
the stocks they had deposited with him, through
forged powers of attorney ; and the conclu
sive plainness of this statement led to his con
viction. The interval of ten years between
the beginning and the detection of his crime
has been ascribed to his presumed integrity,
and to the fact of his forgeries having been
committed upon funded property and not upon
bills of exchange, including an amount of
200,000 that belonged to his own wards,
which he drew by means of forged documents.
Besides, he had no accomplices,, and all the
transactions were confined to England, and
chiefly to London. Fauntleroy was the last
forger hanged in England, capital punishment
for forgery having been finally abolished in 1 832.

FAUQU1ER, a N. E. county of Virginia, bound
ed N. W. by the Blue Ridge, and S. W. by
the Rappahannock river and one of its branch
es; area, 080 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 19,9(50, of
whom 7,856 were colored, ft has a diversified
surface, a productive soil, and is rich in minerals.
There are several gold mines which have been
worked with profit, and beds of magnesia and
soapstone have been discovered. It is traversed
VOL. vii. 7

by the Orange, Alexandria, and Manassas rail
road and branches. The chief productions in
1870 were 209,952 bushels of wheat, 824,947
of Indian corn, 180,591 of oats, 37,010 of po
tatoes, (5,011 tons of hay, 194,980 Ibs. of but
ter, and 39,493 of wool. There were 5,811
horses, 5,325 milch cows, 15,208 other cattle,
12,137 sheep, and 14,289 swine; 19 Hour and
2 saw mills, 6 tanneries, and (5 currying estab
lishments. Capital, Warrenton.

FAl RE, Jean Baptiste, a French vocalist, born
at Moulins, Jan. 15, 1830. lie first appeared
at the Opera Comique in 1852, and in 1857
became professor at the conservatory, where
he had been educated. In 1801 he made his
first appearance at the Grand Opera, and he
has since acquired great reputation as a bari
tone singer, his voice being both powerful and
sweet. He is most admired in Mozart s Don
Juan, Meyerbeer s Africaine, Thomas s Ham
let, and as Mephistopheles in Gounod s Faust,
in which he excels as a basso. He married in
1800 CONSTANCE CAROLINE LEFEBVRE, born in
Paris, Dec. 21, 1828. Having at an early age
become acquainted with Auber, she was induced
by him to cultivate her voice at the conserva
tory, where she gained a prize in 1842. She
first performed at the Opera Comique in 1852,
gradually rising to distinction by her pleasant
and well trained voice and sprightly acting.
Her best parts were in the Vftl d^ An dorr e,
the Etoile du Nord, and kindred operas. In
1803 she performed in Mendelssohn s Lisleth
at the Theatre Lyrique, but has since retired
from the stage.

FAURIEL, Clande !iarles a French historian
and critic, born in St. "Etienne, Oct. 21, 1772,
died in Paris, July 15, 1844. After receiving
a good education he entered the army in 1793,
served under La Tour d Ativergne, and became
secretary to Gen. Dugommier ; but after a
year s service he returned to St. fitienne, where
he received a civil appointment. Subsequently
he was private secretary to Fouche, minister
of police, but resigned in 1802 when he saw
Napoleon about to be made consul for life.
He had in the mean while contracted literary
tastes and friendships. lie studied Arabic
with De Sacy, and was one of the first Euro
peans to learn Sanskrit; gathered a multitude
of facts as to the less known tongues, as the
Basque, Gallic, and Old German ; wrote trans
lations from the Danish poet Baggesen, and
the Italian poets Manzoni and Berchet ; collect
ed materials for a history of stoicism, which
he never finished ; and translated many Greek
songs. From 1824 to 1820 he resided in Italy,
studying oriental languages, and soon after
ward founded, in connection with other orien
talists, the Asiatic society. In 1830 he was
appointed professor of foreign literature in the
faculty of letters at Paris. This chair, which
was created for him by the duke de Broglie,
he filled for nearly 14 years, lecturing on com
parative philology, the origin of the French and
Italian languages, ancient and mediaeval poetry,

FAUST

and the drama. His principal works are : Chants
populaires de la Grece moderne, with trans
lations and notes (1824- 5); Jlistoire de la
Gaule meridionale sous la domination des con-
guerants germains (4 vols., 1830) ; Histoire de la
croisade centre les heretiques alligeois, trans
lated from the Provencal verse of a contempo
rary (1837) ; Histoire de la poesie provenpale
(3 vols., 1846); and Dante et les origines de la
langue et de la litterature italiennes (2 vols.,
1854) ; besides some literary collections, and
important articles in the Revue des Deux
Mondes (1832- 43), and in the Bibliotheque de
Vficole des Chartes. A portion of the " His
tory of Provencal Poetry " was translated into
English by G. J. Adler (New York, 1860).

FAUST, or Fanstns, Dr. Johaim, a prominent
character of the national and popular poetry
of Germany. According to tradition, he was a
celebrated necromancer, born about 1480 at
Knittlingen in Wiirtemberg, or, as others have
it, at Roda, near Weimar, or Anhalt. lie is said
to have studied magic at Cracow. Having mas
tered all the secret sciences, and being dissatis
fied at the shallowness of human knowledge,
he made an agreement with the Evil One, ac
cording to which the devil was to serve Faust
for full 24 years, after which Faust s soul was
to be delivered to eternal damnation. The
contract, signed by Faust with his own blood,
contained the following conditions : " 1, he
shall renounce God and all celestial hosts ; 2,
he shall be an enemy of all mankind; 3, he
shall not obey priests; 4, he shall not go to
church nor partake of the holy sacraments ;
5, he shall hate and shun wedlock." Faust
having signed these conditions, Satan sent him
as a familiar spirit Mephistopheles, a devil
" who likes to live among men." Faust now
began a brilliant worldly career. He revelled
in all manner of sensual enjoyment, of which
his attentive devil servant, with an inexhausti
ble fertility of imagination, was always invent
ing new and more attractive forms. When
remorse tormented Faust and surfeit led him
to sober reflection, Mephistopheles diverted
him with all kinds of curious devilries. Dis
gusted at last with his life of dissipation, Faust
yearned for matrimony ; but Satan appeared in
all the terrors of fire and brimstone, frightened
him out of this purpose, and then sent him
from the lower regions the beautiful Greek
Helena as a concubine, who bore him a son,
Justus Faustua. As the term of 24 years
draws to its close, he seeks relief and salvation
from priests, but nothing avails him. All fiee
from the doomed man. Midnight approaches ;
an unearthly noise is heard from Faust s room,
the howling of a storm which shakes the house
to^ its very foundation, demoniacal laughter,
cries of pain and anguish, a piercing, heart
rending call for help, followed by the stillness
of death. Next morning they find Faust s
room empty, hut on the floor and walls evi
dence of a violent struggle, pools of blood and
shattered brains; the corpse, mangled in a

most horrible manner, they find upon a dung
hill. The beautiful Helena and her son have
disappeared for ever. That some such person
as Faust has existed is asserted in the most
direct manner by writers who profess to have
conversed with him. Among these eye wit
nesses are Philip Melanchthon, the great re
former, and Conrad Gesner ; and even in Lu
ther s " Table Talk " mention is made of Dr.
Faustus as a man irretrievably lost. But it is
not certain that the real name of this man was
Faust. Joseph Gorres maintains that a cer
tain George Sabellicus is the only historical
person in whom the original of Faust can be
recognized. Faust s death is presumed to have
taken place in 1538. Tradition has connected
with his name a great number of biographical
traits and magical feats formerly ascribed to
other reputed conjurers. The tragical fate of
Faust is represented as resulting from an ir
reconcilable conflict of faith and knowledge.
Goethe, in his grand drama, has attempted a
poetical solution of the legend. The moral of
his Faust is, that man s longing after knowl
edge may lead him into extraordinary errors
and failings, but cannot destroy his better na
ture. The first printed biography of Faust ap
peared in 1587, at Frankfort : Historia von I).
Johann Fausten, den weitbeschreyten Zaulterer
iind SchwarzMnstler. In 1588 appeared a
rhymed edition and a translation into low Ger
man ; in 1589, a translation into French, Uis-
toire prodigieuse et lamentable de Jean Faust ;
about the same time an English version, "A
Ballad of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus,
the great Conjurer;" and shortly after, "The
History of the Damnable Life and Deserved
Death of Dr. John Faustus." The latter ver
sion seems to have been the basis of Christopher
Marlowe s drama, " Life and Death of Dr. Faus
tus," which in its turn was transformed into a
German puppet play, from which Goethe drew
the first conception of his tragedy. In 1599
G. R.Widmann published Warhaftige Historien
von den greiclichen vnd abschewlichen Siinden
imd La stern, auch von vielen wunderbarlichen
vnd seltzamen alentheuren so D. Johannes
Faustus hat getrieben (3 vols., Hamburg). A
new version appeared in 1674, which was
often republished, but replaced at last by an
abridged edition of Widmann s work (1728).
A great number of books on necromancy also
pretend to give, from original manuscripts of
Faust, his cabalistic formulas, charms, talis
mans, &c. All of these publications, and also
all important monographs bearing upon this
subject, have been reprinted in the valuable
collection of J. Scheible, Das Klostcr wcltlich
und geistlicJi (Stuttgart, 1847). More than 250
different works on the legend of Faust are
enumerated in Peter s Literatur der Famtsage
(2 vols.,. Halle, 1849).

FAUST, or Fnst, Johaim, an associate of Gu-

tenberg and Schofter in the first development

, of the art of printing, born in Mentz, died in

! Paris about 1466. lie was a wealthy gold-

FAUSTIN I.

FAVART

smith, and probably had no share in the inven
tion of the art. His connection with it com
menced in 1-450, when Gutenberg induced him
to enter into partnership with him, and ad
vance funds to establish the business of print
ing at Mentz, Faust having a lien on the mate
rials as security. The only known productions
of the press of Faust and Gutenberg are an in
dulgence granted by Pope Nicholas V. to Pau-
linus Chappe, ambassador of the king of Cy
prus, of which 13 copies on vellum printed in
1454 remain, and two copies of a second edi
tion printed in 1455, and an "Appeal to Chris
tendom against the Turks," supposed to belong
to the former year. The celebrated folio Latin
Bible of the Mazarin library is also attrib
uted to this period. This is a close imitation
of the best writing, the rubricated capitals
being written in by hand. A copy of it, the
only complete one in America, is in the library
of Mr. James Lenox of New York; it cost
$2,600. In 1455 Faust put an end to the part
nership by suing Gutenberg for his advances,
and taking possession of the greater part of
the stock in satisfaction of the debt. Faust
then associated with himself Peter Schotfer,
his son-in-law, who had been in their employ
ment, and had perfected the process of making
movable metallic types by the invention of the
punch. The first complete result of this new
invention was the Rationale Divinorum Offici-
orum of Durandus (large folio, 1459). Two
editions of a psalter, beautifully executed, had
previously appeared with the imprint of Faust
and Schotfer (1457 and 1459), but in these the
large capitals were cut on wood. Copies of
nine other works from their press with date
and imprint still exist, including a Latin Vul
gate Bible (2 vols. .large fol., 1462), and the
De Otficiis and Paradoxa of Cicero (small fol.,
1466 ; a copy of this, the first printed classic
author, is in the Astor library, New York). At
the sacking of Mentz in 1462 by one of the two
rival archbishops, Adolph of Nassau, Faust s
workmen were scattered, and the printing pro
cess, which had been kept as a secret in Mentz,
was divulged by them in other countries. A
short time afterward, however, Faust was en
abled to resume his operations. He made sev
eral journeys to Paris, where he is supposed to
have died of the plague.

FAISTLV I. See SOULOUQUE.

FAISTIXA. I. Anuia Galeria, commonly distin
guished as Faustina Senior, daughter of Annius
Verus, prefect of Rome, and wife of the em
peror Antoninus Pius, born about A. D. 104, died
in 141. She ascended the throne with Antoni
nus in 138, receiving the title of Augusta ; and
though the emperor grieved at her profligacy,
his affection for her made him place her after
death among the goddesses, raise temples and
altars to her, and have medals struck in her
honor, exceeding in number and variety those
in honor of any other Roman empress. II.
Annia, called Faustina Junior, younger daugh
ter of the preceding, wife of her cousin the em-

; peror Marcus Aurelius, born about A. D. 125,
; died in 175. She surpassed even the dissolute
manners of her mother. The emperor was
, aware of her disorderly life, but loved her
! notwithstanding the railleries and raurmurings
i of the people and the advice of his friends.
She accompanied him in an expedition to the
I East, and suddenly died at a village near the
j foot of Mt. Taurus. Aurelius mourned for her,
i ranked her among the goddesses, caused med-
i als to be struck in her honor inscribed Pudi-
\ citia, and exalted the place where she died into
| a city named Faustinopolis.

FAlVEAl, Felific de, a French sculptress, born
in Florence in 1803. She belongs to an old
legitimist family of Brittany, and was patron
ized by Louis XVIII. and Charles X. She
partook in 1832 in the royalist movement in
La Vend6e, and on the arrest of the duchess
i de Berri escaped to Brussels, and then to Flor-
! ence. Her group of The Abbot" (1827) illus
trates one of Walter Scott s romances, and
her most successful work represents Christina
I and Monaldeschi (1829). In 1842 she exhib-
I ited in Paris various works, including " Judith
showing the Head of Holophernes to the Peo-
I pie." Prominent among her later works are
i the Dante monument (1852), representing the
tragic death of Paolo Malatesta and Fraucesca
da Rimini, and the mausoleum of a young
Florentine girl (1860).

FAITELET, Jean Baptiste, a French painter,
born in Bordeaux in 1822. lie is a disciple
of Meissonnier s style of genre painting. His
earliest pictures, "A Young Man Reading "
(1845), "The Two Roses," and "The Concert"
(1847), were succeeded in 1848- 9 by "Non
chalance" and "The Carver." The govern
ment purchased in 1855 his " Two Musicians"
for the Luxembourg. Among his later paint
ings is " The Prodigal Son " (1869).

FAVARA, a town of Sicily, in the province
and 3 m. S. E. of the city of Girgenti,- on an
eminence; pop. about 13,500. It has a beau
tiful castle, built in the 14th century, and in
the neighborhood are many sulphur pits.

FAVAKT, Marie Justine Benoite, a French ac
tress, born in Avignon in 1727, died in 1772.
She was a (laughter of M. du Ronceray, a mu
sician, and first appeared as a vocalist at the
Opera Comique, Paris, in 1744, under the
name of Mile, de Chantilly. Next year she
married the dramatist and inventor of the
vaudeville, CHARLES SIMON FAVART, who, by
following soon after the camp of Marshal Saxe
with a dramatic troupe, subjected himself and
his wife to severe persecutions on account of
her rejecting the marshal s addresses. After
the marshal s death in 1750 she resumed acting
in Paris, chiefly in her husband s plays. She
excelled equally as actress, singer, and dancer,
and introduced many excellent innovations in
costume and other accessories. The plays of
her husband, who survived her 20 years, fill
10 volumes, and some of her own are included
in (Euvres choisies de J/. et Mine. Favart (Paris,

FAVART

FAYRE

1860). Their son. CHARLES XICOLAS JOSEPH
JUSTIN (1 749-1 800). became also an actor and
playwright.

FAVART, Pierrette I&lt;*naee, popularly known
as Marie Favart, a French actress, born at
Beaune, Feb. 10, 1833. Her family name was
Pinigaud, but she assumed the name of M.
Favart, who adopted her as a daughter. She
was educated at the conservatory, and be
came a most popular actress and a member
of the Theatre Francais. She belongs to the
classical school, and is singularly elegant and
impressive in her appearance and most ex
quisite in her elocution. She was greatly
admired in 1804 as Esther, and among her
most brilliant impersonations is Dona Sol in
HernanL

FAYERSHAM, or Feversham, a market town,
borough, and parish of Kent, England, and a
member of the cinque port of Dover, on a
branch of the Swale, 45 m. E. S. E. of London ;
pop. in 1871, 7,189. It contains a handsome
church, several chapels, schools, and assembly
rooms, a theatre, and the remains of an ab
bey founded by King Stephen. The town has
long been famous for the manufacture of gun
powder, and has also some factories of Roman
cement. Its chief trade is in oysters. It is ac
cessible to vessels of 150 tons.

FAY1GNA&gt;A (anc. sEgitsa or ^Ethiisa, an im
portant Roman naval station), an island of the
^Egades group in the Mediterranean, 8 m. from
the N. W. coast of Sicily; pop. 4,000. It is
about 5 m. long and from 2 to 3 m. broad. The
surface is low, with the exception of a range
of hills running through the centre, on the cul
minating summit of which is the castle of San
ta Catarina. There is a good harbor on the
E. side, on which stand the town and fortress
of San Leonardo. San Giacomo, the principal
place, is on the X. coast. The island produces
good wine and fruits, and has several quarries
and extensive tunny and anchovy fisheries, in
the produce of which, and in sheep, goats,
poultry, vtc., it has a nourishing export trade.

FAYOSITES, a family of fossil corals belong
ing to the hydroid acalephs. Their cells are
divided by horizontal
partitions, like those of

H.nni^^^gsr^alV the millepores, which,
fe^nnnn^n?^ according to Agassiz,
are true acalephs : but
the species are so polyp-
like that until recently
they were classed with
the polyps. According
to Dana, they are a com-
Fuvosite s Niairurii tiMs. preheiisivc type, inter
mediate between the

polyps and the higher acalephs, and having some
of^the characters of both. They are all palaeo
zoic, especially Devonian and upper Silurian.

FAYRAS. Thomas Main, marquis de, a French
conspirator, born in Blois in 1745, hanged in
Paris.. Feb. 1 9. 1 7UO. 1 laving entered the army
and served in several campaigns, he was made

^S&BU*e*
Bjja^otaaeiRri^Q

llplijjlfi

first lieutenant in the Swiss guards of the
count de Provence (afterward Louis XVIII.),
and in 1787 commanded a legion in Holland
during the insurrection against the stadtholder.
In December, 1789, he was apprehended as the
ringleader of a plot to introduce an army of
30,000 men, Swiss and Germans, into Paris by
night, which was to murder Bailly, Lafayette,
and Xecker, and to carry off the royal family
and the seals of state to Peronne. He was
supposed to be a secret agent of the highest
personages, and suspicion was directed to the
count de Provence, who exculpated himself by
a speech at the hotel de ville. Favras was sum
moned before the Chatelet, where he defended
himself with great calmness. His witnesses
were refused a hearing, and the whole trial
was conducted in the most irregular manner.
The populace shouted " Favras to the lamp
post," and he was condemned to be hanged.
He met his fate with unshaken fortitude.
When told that no revelations would save his
ow r n life, he answered, "Then my secret shall
die with me." His execution took place at
night, by the light of porches, amid the jests
of the crowd.

FAYRE, Jules Clande Gabriel, a French states
man and advocate, born in Lyons, March 21,
1809. His ancestors came from Piedmont,
and his father was a merchant. He studied
law in Paris, early acquired eminence by de
fending (1834-5) persons implicated in social
istic and revolutionary proceedings, and after
the revolution of Feb. 24, 1848, was succes
sively chief secretary in the ministry of the
interior, member of the constituent assembly,
and under secretary for foreign affairs. Elected
to the legislative assembly, he was one of the
leaders of the opposition during the presi
dency of Louis Napoleon, and after the coup
d etat of Dec. 2, 1851, declined to recognize
the new constitution. Defeated as a candidate
for the corps legislatif in Lyons in 1857, he
Avas returned in 1858 by a district of Paris, and
won additional fame by his brilliant though un
availing defence 1 of Orsini, who had attempted
to assassinate the emperor. He was the most
eloquent of the five so-called irreconcilable op
ponents of the second empire. Being chosen
in 1863 as representative both in Paris and
Lyons, he took his seat for the latter city, and
made powerful speeches against the Mexican
expedition and against the imperial policy in
regard to the Roman question, and denounced
the convention of Gastein as favoring the unity
of Germany at the expense of France. Though
persevering in his hostility to Xapoleon III.,
he was defeated by the socialist Raspail at the
election of 1809, and only secured his reelec
tion in Paris, where he was opposed by Roche-
fort and Cantagrel, by the latter s withdrawal.
His vehement opposition to the policy of the
emperor, continued during the Ollivier ministry
and the plebiscite movement in the earlier part
of 1870, contributed much to increase public
excitement; and he also joined Thiers in con-

FAYRE

FAAVKES

demning the warlike preparations against Prus
sia, which ended in the declaration of war on
July 19. But from the moment he saw the
country irretrievably committed to the contest,
he accepted the situation and insisted upon im
mediately arming the national guard. In the
session of the corps legislatif held the day
after the surrender of Sedan, Favre denounced
Xapoleon and his regime as responsible for
the national disasters, and the next day (Sept.
4) urged his deposition and that of his dynasty,
and proposed the appointment of an executive
committee for resisting to the last the invasion
of French territory. The republic being pro
claimed, he became vice president of the pro
visional government of national defence, and
minister of foreign affairs. In his diplomatic
circular he declared that France would not
cede an inch of her soil nor a stone of her
fortresses, and held Prussia responsible for the
continuation of the war, since the ruler who
had begun it was supplanted by a new gov
ernment which had nothing to do with the
opening of hostilities. He met Bismarck at
the castle of Ferrieres, Sept. 19, and under
took to pay any amount of indemnity, but re
jected any cession of territory as humiliating
and dishonorable. The conditions imposed by
Bismarck in a subsequent interview for an ar
mistice pending the elections were not accept
ed. A state paper issued by Favre on the sub
ject of these negotiations led to a counter-
statement from Bismarck, Sept. 27, and the
war went on. In October, after Gambetta s
departure for Tours, Favre became ad interim
minister of the interior, and attempted to put
down the seditious movements in the besieged
capital. On Oct. 31 he shared the captivity of
Gen. Trochu in the invasion of the hotel de
ville. After the conclusion of a three weeks
truce with the Germans on Jan. 28, he in
sisted upon respecting it, and Gambetta s con
trary decrees were declared null and void.
Favre continued to be minister of foreign
affairs after the election of Thiers as pro
visional president in February, 1871, and he
went to Frankfort with the minister of finance,
Pouyer-Quertier, to sign with Bismarck the
definitive treaty of peace (May 10). He re
signed his post at the end of July, the osten
sible cause being his disagreement with Thiers
and the majority of the assembly in regard to
the petitions in favor of the restoration of
the temporal power of the pope ; but the in
creasing influence of the conservative party
had rendered his position untenable for some
time, although his personal relations with Thiers
never ceased to be cordial. His reputed wife
had died June 12, 1870; and one Laluye hav
ing asserted that she had been only his mis
tress, Favre prosecuted him and others for
defamation, and though Laluye was fined and
imprisoned for one year, the mortifying pub
licity given to the affair confirmed him in his
desire to withdraw from politics for a time,
and devote himself exclusively to the law. He

has published Rome c.t la rcpiiblique franffttse
(Paris, 1871), and Lc yourernenteut du 4 scp-
toiiln e (2 vols., lS71- 2;, which have been trans
lated into English.

1 AUCKTT, Henry, an English political writer
and statesman, born in Salisbury in 1833. He
graduated at Trinity hall, Cambridge, in 185(5,
and was. elected a fellow in the same year. In
1857 he unsuccessfully contested Southwark, on
liberal principles, for parliament. In Septem
ber, 1858, while out shooting, he met with an
accident by which he lost the sight of both eyes ;
but he nevertheless became an extensive con
tributor to the reviews of articles on political
science and economy, and has published sev
eral works, among which are*" A Manual of Po
litical Economy " (1803) and " The Economic
Position of the British Laborer" (1866). He
contested the borough of Cambridge unsuccess
fully in 1862, and in 1863 was elected professor
of political economy in the university of Cam
bridge. In 1864 he ran for Brighton, and was
again defeated, but was returned for that place
in 1865, and reflected in 1868. In parliament
he has distinguished himself as an advocate
of republican principles, in conjunction with
Sir Charles Dilke and Auberon Herbert. In
1869 he published a revised edition of his
" Manual of Political Economy," with two new
chapters on " National Education " and " The
Poor Laws and their Influence on Pauperism,"
and in 1871 a work entitled "Pauperism, its
Causes and Remedies." A collection of his
"Speeches" was published in 1873. Prof.
Fawcett was married, April 23, 1867, to Milli-
cent Garrett, who published in 1870 a " Political
Economy for Beginners ;" and in 1872 appeared
a joint work entitled "Essays and Lectures, by
Henry and Millicent Garrett Fawcett."

FAWKES, Gny, an English conspirator, born
in Yorkshire, executed in London, Jan. 30,
1606. He was a soldier of fortune in the Span
ish army in the Netherlands, when in 1604 the
scheme of blowing up the parliament house,
with the king, lords, and commons, was con
ceived by Robert Catesby, in revenge for the
penal laws against Roman Catholics. Fawkes
was admitted into the conspiracy, and return
ed to England in May of that year. Thomas
Percy, one of the confederates, rented a house
adjoining that in which parliament was to as
semble, of which Fawkes, who was unknown
in London, took possession as his servant, un
der the assumed name of Johnson. Parliament
was soon after adjourned till Feb. 7, 1605, and
on Dec. 11 preceding the conspirators met in
the hired house of Percy, and began to exca
vate a mine. Seven men were thus occupied
until Christmas eve, never appearing in the
upper part of the house, while Fawkes kept
constant watch above. Parliament was again
prorogued from Feb. 7 to Oct. 3, and the con
spirators therefore dispersed for a time, but
completed their arrangements between Feb
ruary and May. They hired a vault imme
diately below the house of lords, "which had

100

FAXARDO

FAYETTE

jnst been vacated by a dealer in coal, into
which they conveyed by night 36 barrels of
powder, and covered them with fagots. They
again dispersed, Fawkes proceeding to Flanders
to secure foreign cooperation. As money was
needed, three wealthy gentlemen, Sir Everard
Digby, Ambrose Rookwood, and Francis Tresh-
am, were made privy to the plot. The meet
ing of parliament was again deferred to Nov.
5, and Fawkes was appointed to tire the mine.
The conspiracy was detected by an anonymous
letter entreating Lord Monteagle, a Roman
Catholic peer, to absent himself from the par
liament, and intimating a terrible danger. The
letter resulted in a search on the night of Nov.

4, when Fawkes was seized just after issuing
from the cellar, in which the powder was dis
covered. Matches and touchwood were found
in his pockets. Brought before the king and
council, he boldly avowed his purpose, but not
even the rack could extort the names of his as
sociates till they had appeared in arms. The
failure of the plot was complete. Fawkes was
arraigned, condemned, and executed, as were
seven of his confederates, while others were
tried separately. This conspiracy led to ad
ditional penal statutes against the Roman
Catholics. The anniversary of the plot, Nov.

5, was long celebrated in England and New
England by the boys carrying about an effigy
of Guy Fawkes, which was finally burned. It
was till recently a legal holiday in England.

FAXARDO, IMfgo Sanvedra, a Spanish author
and statesman, born in Algezares, in the prov
ince of Murcia, in 1584, died in Madrid, Aug.
24, 1648. Having graduated as a doctor of
law at the university of Salamanca, he accom
panied as secretary Cardinal Borgia, appointed
ambassador to Rome, and afterward succeeded
him. His talents and ability in his negotia
tions gained for him the favor of his sovereign,
and during 36 years he was constantly em
ployed on important diplomatic missions in
Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. His last mis
sion was at the congress of Minister from 1643
to 1 646, as representative of Philip IV. The first
edition of his most successful work, Empresaa
potiticas, 6 idea de un pr mcipe politico cris-
tiano, &c., intended to instruct the infante of
Spain, to whom it was dedicated, in the duties
of government, appeared at Miinster in 1646.
lie wrote the first two volumes of the " History
of the Goths in Spain." His complete works
were published at Antwerp in 1688, and a new
edition at Madrid in 1789- 90.

FAY, Andras, a Hungarian poet, born at Ko-
hany, in the- county of Zemplen, May 30, 1786,
died July 26, 1864. lie studied law, became
an advocate, and subsequently officiated as an
administrative officer of the county of Pesth,
and in 1 835 as its deputy at the diet. His fee
ble health obliged him to retire, and he thence
forth devoted himself to literature. He was ,
one of the founders of the national theatre of I
Buda, and was an active member of the in- |
dustrial society, of the society of arts, of the !

academy, &c. Among his poetical writings
the most noted is his Mesele (" Fables," Vienna,
1820; 2&lt;1 ed., 1824; German translation by
Petz, Vienna, 1821). He wrote two works
treating on female education and the social
and economical development of Hungary, N6-
nevelcs, &c. (Pesth, 1840), and Kelet nepe nyu-
goton (Pesth, 1841). A collection of his works
appeared at Pesth in 1843- 4 (8 vols.).

FAY, Theodore Sedpvk-k, an American author,
born in New York, Feb. 10, 1807. He received
a liberal education, and was admitted to the
bar in 1828, but became soon after one of the
editors of the "New York Mirror," and de
voted himself to literature. He has published
the following works : " Dreams and Reveries
of a Quiet Man " (1832) ; " The Minute Book,"
a journal of foreign travel ; " Norman Les
lie, " a romance (1835); "Sydney Clifton"
(1839); "The Countess Ida" (1840); " Ho-
boken, a Romance of New York" (1843);
"Robert Rueful" (1844); "Ulric, or the
Voices," a poem (1851); "Views of Chris
tianity" (1856); "Great Outlines of Geogra
phy" (1867); "First Steps in Geography"
(1873) ; and a series of papers on Shakespeare.
He was secretary of the American legation in
Berlin from 1837 to 1853, and minister resi
dent in Bern, Switzerland, from 1853 to 1861.

FAYAL, one of the Azores or Western Islands,
belonging to Portugal, in lat. 38 30 N., Ion.
28 40 W. ; area about 40 sq. m. ; pop. about
27,000. The surface is rugged, and in some
parts mountainous. The climate is mild and
healthful. The soil is in general very fertile.
The principal vegetable productions are firs,
palms, vines, pineapples, oranges, potatoes, cab
bages, maize, and wheat. The chief object of
commerce is wine, of which the annual produce
is about 200 pipes; and in good seasons from
8,000 to 10,000 pipes, the product of all the
islands, have been exported from Fayal. The
other most important exports are fruit, espe
cially oranges, and corn. The imports are
manufactured goods, cotton twist, flax, coffee,
sugar, tea, tobacco, and soap. In 1859 the
island was visited by a severe famine, occa
sioned by the failure of three successive crops.
Fayal lias the best harbor of all the Azorean
group, and a considerable transit trade. Many
American whalers touch here and land the oil
of such fish as they have caught in their out
ward voyage, whence it is shipped for its des
tination. Capital, Horta, or Villa Orta (some
times improperly called Fayal), a handsome
town on the S. E. side of the island, adjoining
the harbor before mentioned ; pop. 5,000 or
6,000. The steam packets of the British West
India mail company regularly call at Horta.

FAYETTE, the name of 11 counties in the
United States. I. A S. W. county of Pennsyl
vania, bordering on Maryland and West Vir
ginia, and bounded W. by the Monongahela
river; area, about 800 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
43,284. There are two mountain ridges: one
called Laurel hill, stretching along the E.

FAYETTE

101

boundary, and the other known as Chestnut
ridge, a branch of the Alleghanies, traversing
the central part. The rest of the surface is
mostly undulating. The soil is fertile in the
N. W. part, but elsewhere is better adapted to
pasturage than to tillage. Iron and bituminous
coal are abundant. It is intersected by the
national road, and accessible by steamboats on
the Mongngahela. The Pittsburgh and Con-
nellsville railroad passes through it. The chief
productions in 1870 were 302,53(5 bushels of
wheat, 22,768 of rye, 824,268 of Indian corn,
633,897 of oats, 79,665 of potatoes, 35,725 tons
of hay, 691,623 Ibs. of butter, and 287,752 of
wool. There were 8,318 horses, 8,404 milch
cows, 15,799 other cattle, 65,261 sheep, and
15,852 swine; 20 manufactories of carriages
and wagons, 1 of cars, 1 of cement, 4 of bricks,
13 of clothing, 7 of coke, 13 of barrels and
casks, 4 of window glass, 9 of iron and products
of the same, 3 of machinery, 12 of saddlery and
harness, 4 of woollen goods, 1 ship building and
repairing establishment, 3 planing mills, 13 saw
mills, 7 distilleries, 13 tanneries, 4 currying
establishments, and 21 flour mills. Capital,
Uniontown. II. A S. central county of West
Virginia, bounded N. by the Gauley river, and
N. E. by Meadow river ; area, 770 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1870, 6,647, of whom 118 were colored. It
has a mountainous surface, with several con
siderable elevations, the highest of which are
Gauley and Sewell mountains. Near the Ka-
nawha or New river, which intersects the
county, is a remarkable cliff, 1,000 ft. high,
called Marshall s pillar. The scenery of the
county is exceedingly picturesque ; the soil is
generally good, and among the highlands par
ticularly there are many open tracts of remark
able fertility. Iron ore is the principal mineral.
The chief productions in 1870 were 13,317
bushels of wheat, 123,220 of Indian corn,
41,991 of oats, 72,188 Ibs. of butter, 16,331
of wool, and 188,165 of tobacco. There were
1,317 horses, 2,267 milch cows, 3,036 other
cattle, 8,709 sheep, and 6,892 swine. Capital,
Fayetteville. III. A W. county of Georgia,
bounded S. and E. by Flint river; area, 300
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 7,983, of whom 1,121
were colored. The surface is mostly level, and
the soil, formed by the disintegration of primary
rocks, is unproductive. Granite and iron are
the principal minerals. The Atlanta and West
Point and the Savannah, Griffin, and Xorth
Alabama railroads traverse it. The chief pro
ductions in 1870 Avere 25,646 bushels of wheat,
104,486 of Indian corn, 11,91.6 of oats, and
2,951 bales of cotton. There were 3,587 cattle,
2,241 sheep, and 5,779 swine. Capital, Fay
etteville. IV. A X. W. county of Alabama;
area, about 550 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 7,136, of
whom 1,077 were colored. It has a moderately
uneven surface, drained by numerous streams,
and a productive soil. The chief productions
in 1870 were 14,266 bushels of wheat, 201,228
of Indian corn, 13,283 of oats, 27,702 of sweet
potatoes, 13,194 Ibs. of wool, 97,350 of butter,

and 1,909 bales of cotton. There were 1,450
horses, 2,534 milch cows, 5,107 other cattle,
6,354 sheep, and 10,983 swine. Capital, Fay-
ette Court House. V. A S. E. -county of Texas,
intersected by the Colorado river, which is
navigable during half the year to this point;
area, 1,025 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 16,863, of
whom 5,901 were colored. The surface is un
dulating, and the soil, consisting of a black
sandy loam, is highly productive. Coal is the
most important mineral production. The chief
productions in 1870 were 459,392 bushels of
Indian corn, 34,206 of sweet potatoes, 144,196
Ibs. of butter, 16,280 of wool, and 10,653 bales
of cotton. There were 6,650 horses, 10,836
milch cows, 44,5.93 other cattle, 10,006 sheep,
and 17,293 swine; 12 sawmills and 4 manu
factories of saddlery and harness. Capital, La
Grange. VI. A S. W. county of Tennessee,
bordering on Mississippi, and watered by Loo-
sahatchie and Wolf rivers; area, about 550- sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 26,145, of whom 16,987 were
colored. It has a fertile, well cultivated soil.
It is traversed by the Memphis and Charleston,
and its Somerville branch, and the Memphis
and Louisville railroads. The chief produc
tions in 1870 were 11,786 bushels of wheat,
627,271 of Indian corn, 26,077 of sweet pota
toes, and 20,131 bales of cotton. There were
2,839 horses, 4,073 mules and asses, 4,534 milch
cows, 5,277 other cattle, 3,828 sheep, and 30,-
762 swine ; 1 saw mill and 4 flour mills, and 5
manufactories of carriages and wagons. Capi
tal, Somerville. VII. A central county of Ken
tucky, bounded S. by Kentucky river, and
drained by some of its affluents ; area, about
300 sq. m."; pop. in 1870, 26,656, of whom 12,-
513 were colored. It has a rolling surface, and
a fertile and well tilled soil, underlying which
is an excellent species of building stone called
blue or Trenton limestone. The Kentucky
Central and the Louisville, Cincinnati, and
Lexington railroads pass through it. The chief
productions in 1870 were 76,362 bushels of
wheat, 42,628 of rye, 1,117,190 of Indian corn,
176,276 of oats, 25,267 of barley, 49,432 of
potatoes, 4,399 tons of hay, 157,742 Ibs. of
butter, and 28,421 of wool. There were 5,522
horses, 2,354 mules and asses, 3,753 milch
cows, 12,501 other cattle, 7,477 sheep, and
20,676 swine; 4 manufactories of agricultural
| implements, 8 of bagging, 3 of boots and shoes,
, 20 of carriages and wagons, 3 of confectionery,
1 of cotton goods, 2 of furniture, 1 of gas, 1 of
malt, 5 of saddlery and harness, 5 of tin, cop-,
per, and sheet-iron ware, 2 planing mills, 8
! distilleries, and 7 flour mills. Capital, Lexing-
j ton. VIII. A S. W. county of Ohio; area, 414
! sq. m. ; pop. in ]870, 17,170. It has a level^or
undulating surface, and a fertile soil, consisting
of deep black loam. It is intersected by the
Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley railroad.
! The chief productions in 1870 were 160,510
i bushels of wheat, 2,055,926 of Indian corn,
! 66,841 of oats, 50,929 of potatoes, 12,015 tons
i of hay, 361,725 Ibs. of butter, and 154,739 of

102

FAYETTEVILLE

FAYOOM

wool. There were 7,235 horses, 4,889 milch
cows, 12,277 other cattle, 34,394 sheep, and
51,955 swine; 2 manufactories of boots and
shoes, 10 of bricks, 7 of carriages and wagons,
5 of saddlery and harness, 1 of sashes, doors,
arid blinds, 1 of woollen goods, 2 flour mills,
and 4 saw mills. Capital, Washington. IX.
A S. E. county of Indiana; area, about 200
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 10,476. The surface is
level or undulating, and the soil fertile. Lime
stone is the principal rock. The Fort Wayne,
Muncie, and Cincinnati, the Cincinnati and
Indianapolis Junction, the White Water Val
ley, and the Columbus, Shelby, and Cambridge
City branch of the Jeffersonville, Madison, and
Indianapolis railroads intersect it. The chief
productions in 1870 were 271,150 bushels of
wheat, 035,454 of Indian corn, 56,348 of oats,
26,118 of potatoes, 5.524 tons of hay, 93,874
Ibs. of butter, and 31,208 of wool. There were
3,601 horses, 2,631 milch cows, 5,167 other
cattle, 8,105 sheep, and 20,879 swine; 2 manu
factories of boots and shoes, 11 of carriages
and wagons, 3 of furniture, 1 of iron castings,
1 of machinery, 1 of printing paper, 7 of sad
dlery and harness, 1 of woollen goods, 4 flour
mills, and 3 saw mills. Capital, Connersville.
X. A S. central county of Illinois, intersected
by Kaskaskia river ; area, 640 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 19,638. The surface is level, and occu
pied by alternate tracts of fertile prairie and
good timber land. A number of small streams
supply it with water power. The Illinois
Central and the St. Louis, Vandalia, Terre
Haute, and Indianapolis railroads pass through
it. The chief productions in 1870 were 351,310
bushels of wheat, 962,525 of Indian corn, 497,-
395 of oats, 73,845 of potatoes, 20,844 tons of
hay, 393,710 Ibs. of butter, 54,446 of wool, and
38,155 of tobacco. There were 8,898 horses,
6,261 milch cows, 7,928 other cattle, 21,234
sheep, and 23,817 swine; 11 manufactories of
carriages and wagons, 10 flour mills, and 20
saw mills. Capital, Yandalia. XI. A N. E.
county of Iowa; area, 720 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
1 6,973. It is drained by the head branches of
Turkey river, is well supplied with water power,
and has a healthy climate. The surface is un
dulating, and occupied partly by fertile prairies
and partly by forests. The chief productions
in 1870 were 478,538 bushels of wheat, 448,028
of Indian corn, 395,075 of oats, 29,553 of bar
ley, 58,652 of potatoes, 27,327 tons of hay,
454,868 Ibs. of butter, and 38,290 of wool.
There were 4,901 horses, 5.527 milch cows,
7,646 other cattle, 11,771 sheep, and 14,160
swine ; 4 manufactories of carriages and wag
ons, 2 of barrels and casks, 5 of saddlery and
harness, 1 brewery, 10 flour mills, and 13 saw
mills. Capital, West Union.

FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the capital of
Cumberland co., Xorth Carolina, on the AV.
bank of Cape Fear river, at the head of natu
ral navigation, 100 m. above Wilmington, and
at the terminus of the Western railroad of North
Carolina, 55 m. S. of Raleigh; pop. in 1870,

4,660, of whom 2,318 were colored. Itisthe cen
tre of an active trade, and the seat of manufac
tures of some importance. The Cape Fear river
lias been rendered navigable by means of locks
and dams as far as the coal mines of Chatham
co., and plank roads have been constructed lead
ing to various parts of the interior. The neigh
boring pine forests furnish large quantities of
lumber, tar, and turpentine for exportation.
The city contains 10 turpentine distilleries, two
manufactories of cotton sheetings, and two na
tional banks. It is governed by a mayor and
a board of seven commissioners. It has an
academy, a female high school, a colored pri
mary school, two private schools, a semi-week
ly and two weekly newspapers, and 25 church
es, viz. : 5 Baptist, 3 Episcopal, 8 Methodist,
8 Presbyterian, and 1 Roman Catholic. Fay-
etteville was settled in 1762, and before re
ceiving its present name in 1784 was known
successively as Campbelltown and Cross Creek.
In 1831 it was partly destroyed by fire. The
United States arsenal at this point, containing
35,000 small arms besides a number of cannon
and a considerable quantity of ammunition,
was taken possession of by the confederates,
April 22, 1861. The city was occupied by
Gen. Sherman, March 11-14, 1865, when the
arsenal with the machinery which had been
brought from Harper s Ferry was destroyed.

FAYOOM, or Faynm (Copt. Phioitm, the wa
ters), a valley of central Egypt, anciently the
Arsinoite nome, about 40 in. S. W. of Cairo,
on the W. side of the Nile ; length from
E. to W. about 40 m., breadth about 30 m. ;
pop. nearly 150,000. It is of an almost oval
form, enclosed by a chain of the Libyan hills,
which here bend round to the west and north.
It forms in fact a basin with only one opening
toward the Kile on the east, and gradually
sloping toward the north and south, the north
ern depression being occupied by the Birket-
el-Keroon, long supposed to be identical with
Lake Mceris. It is supplied with water from
the Bahar Yusef (canal of Joseph), which is
divided into numerous branches to irrigate the
country. The parts thus watered are remark
ably fertile, producing grain, cotton, olives,
figs, apricots, and other tropical fruits. Roses
are abundant, and the natives produce large
quantities of rose water, which is sold all
over Egypt. The principal town is Medinet
el-Fayoom (anc. Crocodilopol ts and Arsinoe),
near which are several broken columns of red
granite, carved in old Egyptian style with
lotus-bud capitals, supposed to mark the site
of the famous labyrinth described by Herodo
tus. 1ST. of the town Belzoni found two im
mense stone pedestals, called by the natives
Pharaoh s feet, various granite statues, some
wrought iron, and a quantity of half melted
glass. At some distance stands a syenite
obelisk, 43 ft. high and covered with sculptures.
About 3 m. from the lake stands a temple

! known as Kasr K croon, 94 ft. long, 63 ft.

; broad, and 40 ft. high, with 14 chambers,

FAZY

FEATHERS

103

which appears to be of the Roman period. On
the S. W. bank of the lake are what are sup
posed to be the remains of Bacchis. The di
rection of the principal streets and the ground
plans of houses may still be traced.

FAZY, Jean James, a Swiss politician, born in
Geneva, May 12, 1790. He completed his edu
cation in France, wrote several treatises on
political economy, and was extensively con
nected with journalism in Paris (where his
radical opinions involved him in difficulties
with the French government) and in Switzer
land. After his return to Geneva he took an
active part in the establishment of a new con
stitution, and distinguished himself as the prin
cipal champion of the introduction of trial by
jury, which institution was adopted, Jan. 12,
1 844. In 1 846 the radicals became exasperated
at the neutrality observed by the Genevese
government in the conflict between the Cath
olic and Protestant cantons. A revolution
broke out on Oct. 5, a provisional government
was established on the 9th, and Fazy, who
placed himself at its head, became the ruling
spirit of the new grand council of Geneva.
The city was embellished under his direction,
and he also gave a powerful impulse to the
construction of railways and telegraphs. As a
delegate of Geneva in 1847 he exerted himself
in behalf of the new federal constitution, which
was adopted Sept. 12, 1848. From February
to December, 1848, he was out of office, owing
to disagreement with some of his colleagues ;
but with this exception he was uninterrupted
ly at the head of the Genevese government un
til Nov. 14, 1853. In 1853 he was vice presi
dent of the federal council of states, and in
1854 president ; and in 1855 he was reinstated
in his former position of president of the gov
ernment of Geneva, but had to resign in No
vember, 1864. Having been indicted as the
leader of the riots which took place in August,
he fled to France, but returned when the case
was abandoned, and obtained once more a
seat in the grand council, which he gave up
again in 1865, and accepted anew in 1868. He
has written Essai (Tun precis de Vhiatoire de la
republique de Genfoe (Geneva, 1838).

FEATHER GRASS (stipa pennata, Willd.), a
grass readily distinguishable by its elegant and
feather-like awns. It grows in close, matted
tufts, having very long, fine, wiry, dark green
leaves, numerous tall flower stalks with small
florets, succeeded by an abundance of sharp-
pointed elliptical grains, each of which is sur
mounted by the feathered awn or bristle, a
foot or more in length. This is of a rich bird-
of-paradise color, and gives a remarkable beau
ty to the plant. Gerarde, a famous herbalist
in 1597, informs us that these awned seeds
were worn in his time by "sundry ladies in
stead of feathers." It is this species which is
the principal grass in those portions of the
steppes of Asia called the truva or pasturing
grounds, growing in immense quantities, and
developing its woody root stocks above the

soil, much to the annoyance of the mower.
The seeds of this beautiful grass are frequently

Feather Grass (Stipa pennata).

imported from abroad and sold in our seed
shops, but they seldom vegetate.

FEATHER RIVER, a stream rising in the
X. E. part of Plumas co., California, which
flows S. W. and S. through a rich gold region,
and empties into the Sacramento, 30 m. above
Sacramento City ; length about 180 m. It is
navigable as far as Marysville, to which point
steamboats ascend from San Francisco. The
North and Middle forks, and Yuba river, are
its principal tributaries.

FEATHERS, a complicated modification of the
tegumentary system, forming the external cov
ering or plumage of birds. Though chemical
ly similar to and homologous with the hair of
mammals, their anatomical structure is in some
respects different. An ordinary feather is
composed of a quill or barrel, a shaft, and a
vane or beard consisting of barbs and barbules.
The quill, the part attached to the skin, is a
hollow cylinder, semi-transparent, composed
of coagulated albumen, resembling horn both
in appearance and chemical constitution. It
is light, but strong, terminated below by an
obtuse extremity pierced by an opening, the
lower umbilicus, through which the primary
nutritive vessels enter ; above, it is continuous
with the shaft, with which it communicates
internally by an opening, the upper umbilicus ;
the cavity contains a series of conical shrivelled
membranes, fitting one upon the other, that
have formerly been subservient to the growth
of the feather. The shaft is more or less
quadrilateral, gradually diminishing in size to
the tip ; it is always slightly curved, convex
above, and the concave lower surface, divided
longitudinally by a groove, presents two in
clined planes meeting at an obtuse angle ; it is
covered by a thin horny layer, and contains
in its interior a white, soft, elastic substance,

104

FEATHERS

called the pith, which supplies strength and
nourishment to the feather. The vane consists
of two webs, one on each side of the shaft,
each Avcb being formed of a series of lamina) or
barbs, of varying thickness, width, and length,
arranged obliquely on the shaft, and composed
of the same material ; their
flat sides are placed close to
each other, enabling them to
resist any ordinary force act
ing in the direction of their
plane, as the impulse of the
air in the act of flight, though
yielding readily to any force
applied in the line of the
shaft. The barbs taper to a
point, but are broad near the
shaft, and in the large wing
feathers the convexity of one
is received into a concavity
of another; but the barbs
are kept in place chiefly by
barbules, minute curved fila
ments arising from the upper
edge of the barb, as the lat
ter does from the shaft ; there
are two sets, one curved up-

FIG. l.-Parts of tho war( J and th / other down-
Feather. ward, those of one barb hook-

1. The quill. 2. The ing so firmly into those of

. The vane tne next as to f orm a close
or beard. 4. I he ac- , .

cessory plume. 5. and compact surface ; in the
The lower umbiii- ostrich the barbules are well
bUicus Upper Um ~ developed, but are long, loose,
and separate, giving that soft
character conveyed by the term plume. The
barbules are sometimes provided with a similar
apparatus on their sides called barbicels, as in
the quills of the golden eagle and albatross;
these serve to keep the barbnles in position,
but are less numerous than the latter. In most
feathers there is an appendage near the upper
umbilicus of a downy character, called the ac
cessory plume ; small in the quills of the wings
and tail, in some body feathers of hawks,
ducks, and gulls it is of large size, in some spe
cies as large as the feather which supports it ;
in the emu two plumy feathers arise from one
quill, and sometimes three in the cassowary,
the additional plumes being these accessory
feathers ; in the ostrich there is no such addi
tional tuft. There is, therefore, every grada
tion from ft simple barrel and shaft, as in the
cassowary s quills, to the feather, with barbs,
barbules, and barbicels. Some feathers are all
downy, like the abdominal ones of the eagle-
owl ; others have very little down, as the
harsh plumage of the penguin ; in the eider
duck, and other arctic species, there is at the
base of the common feathers a soft downy
covering, securing warmth without weight,
like the soft fur at the base of the hair of arc
tic mammals; young birds are covered with
down before the development of feathers, the
latter being guided through the skin by the
In the chick the formation of down

former.

begins on the eighth day of incubation, and is
continued until the hatching; 10 to 12 radia
ting filaments are formed at the same time in an
epidermic sheath, which soon after birth dries
and sets free the plumes, allowing them to
spread out as a pencil of down ; a stem is de
veloped, and the downy filaments become the
primary web of the feather. Feathers in some
cases resemble stiff bristly hairs, as about the
bill in most birds, and the tuft on the breast
of the wild turkey. In the genus dasylophus,
peculiar to the Philippine islands, we have re
markable instances of the modifications of the
epidermic covering of birds. In D. Cumingii
(Fras.), the feathers of the crest, breast, and
throat are changed at their extremities into
ovoid horny lamellas, looking like shining black
spangles, expansions of the true horny structure
of the shaft ; something of the kind is seen in
the Bohemian chatterer or wax-wing (amjyelis
garrulus, Linn.), in which some of the secon
dary and tertial quill feathers end in small,
oblong, flat appendages, in color and consis
tence resembling red sealing wax, which are
also expanded horny prolongations of the shafts
of the ordinary feathers. In D. superciliosus
(Cuv.), the only other species of the genus,
the feathers over each eye are changed for
three fourths of their length . into red silky
hairs or bristles, the base of the feather having
the usual appearance ; each
shaft seems to divide into
several of these hair-like fila
ments, which are finer and
more silky than the append
age on the breast of the tur
key, and directly continuous
with ordinary feather struc
ture, while in the turkey
there is a complete transfor
mation of feathers into hairs
in the whole extent. In most
birds there will be found a
number of simple hair-like
feathers scattered over the
skin after they have been
plucked ; they arise from
short bulbs or slender round
ed shafts. Feathers are de
veloped in depressions in the
skin lined by an inversion
of the epidermis which sur
rounds the bulb ; they grow
by the addition of new cells
from the bulb, which become
modified into the horny and
fibrous stem, and by the elon
gation and extension of pre
viously formed cells; like the
hair, they originate in fol
licles producing epidermic
cells, though when fully formed the cellular
structure is widely departed from except in
the medullary portion. They are, when first
formed, living organized parts, developed from
a matrix connected with the vascular laver

FJG. 2. Matrix of a
prowing Feather,
laid open.

1, 1. Capsule of the
matrix. 2. 2. Ex
ternal membrane.
8, 3. Matter of
the vane. 4. Inter
nal membrane. 5.
Bulb, or medulla.

FEATHERS

105

of the skin, and growing by nutrient vessels;
when fully developed, the vessels hecome atro
phied, and the feathers dry and gradually die
from the summit to the base, so that at last
they become dead foreign bodies, as completely
incapable of vital modifications as the perfect

FIGS. 3 and 4. Structure of the Bulb.
FIG. 3. 1, 1, 1. Bulb. 2. Part FIG. 4. 1. The medulla or
of the bulb in process of dry- bulb. 2 2, 3 3. 4 4, 5 5.
ing up as the shaft form s. Membranous cones, indi-
3. Part of the completed eating stages of growth of
shaft. 4, 4. Growing barbs. the medullary matter.

horns of the deer. The matrix which pro
duces the feather, according to Owen, has the
form of an elongated cylindrical cone, and con
sists of a capsule, a bulb, and intermediate
membranes which give proper form to the se
cretion of the bulb ; as the conical matrix sinks
into and becomes more intimately connected
with the true skin,
its apex protrudes
above the surface,
and the investing
capsule drops off to
give passage to the
feather which has
been growing du
ring this period ;
the capsule is made
up of several lay
ers, the outermost
consisting of epi
dermic cells, and
its centre is oc
cupied by a soft
fibrous bulb freely
supplied with blood
vessels from below and a nerve ; between the
bulb and the capsule are two parallel mem
branes, in whose oblique septa or partitions the
barbs and barbules are developed, nearly in the
same wav that the enamel of the teeth is formed

FIG. 5. Section of the Shaft and
Yane magnified.

1. The pith. 2. Horny external
surface of shaft. 3". Concave
internal surface. 4. Flat side
of shaft. 5. 5. Bases of barbs.
6, 6. Barbules.

between the membrane of the pulp and that of
the capsule. The part to which the barbs are
attached and the pith of the shaft are formed
respectively from the outer and inner surfaces
of the membranes of the compound capsule;
the shaft and barbs at the apex of the cylinder
become hardened first, and arc softer the nearer
the base of the matrix ; the first formed parts
are pushed forward by the cell growth at the
base, the products of the bulb being moulded
into shape by the membranes exterior to it ;
the successive stages of the growth of the med
ullary matter are indicated by a series of mem
branous cones or caps, the last formed of which
cannot escape from the hardened and closed
shaft, and constitute the light dry pith seen in
the interior of the quill ; these cones are origi
nally connected together by a central tube, and
the last remains of the bulb are seen in the lig
ament which passes from the pith through the
lower umbilicus, attaching the quill to the skin.
Feathers grow with great rapidity, and in some
birds to a length of more than two feet ; they are
almost always renewed annually, and in many
species twice a year ; this amount of formative
power demands a considerable increase of the
cutaneous circulation, making the season of
moulting always a critical period in the life of
a bird. The plumage is generally changed sev
eral times before the bird is adult; but some
of the falcons are said to assume the mature
plumage after the first moult, as the Greenland
and Iceland falcons. Feathers serve to protect
birds from injurious external influences, such
as extremes of cold and heat, rain, etc., for
which their texture and imbricated arrange
ment admirably adapt them ; and they also
furnish their principal means of locomotion, in
the latter case being stronger, more compact,
and longer than those which cover the body.
They generally increase in size from the head
backward, and have received special names ac
cording to the region of the body, which are
important aids in describing and recognizing
species. Some of these names, constantly used
in the ornithological articles of this Cyclope
dia, not readily understood from the words
themselves, are as follows : the scapulars, above
the shoulder blade and humerus, apparently
on the back when the wing is closed ; axillaries,
long and straight feathers at the tipper end of
the humerus, under the wing ; tibials, covering
the leg ; lesser wing coverts, the small feathers
in rows upon the forearm ; under coverts, lining
the lower side of the wings; the longest quill
feathers, arising from the bones of the hand,
are the primaries; the secondaries arise from
| the outer portion of the ulna, and the tertiaries
from its inner portion and the humerus; the
bastard wing consists of the quills growing
from the rudimentary thumb; greater wing
coverts, the feathers over the quills ; tail coverts,
upper and under, those above and below the
base of the tail feathers. The relative size of
the quills on the hand and forearm, and the con
sequent form of the wings, are characteristic of

100

FEATHERS

the families of birds, and modify essentially
their powers of flight. The breadth of the
wing depends principally on the length of the I
secondary quills, and its length on that of the
primaries. Leaving out of view the proportions
of the bones and the force of the muscles of the
wings, when the primaries are longest at the j
extremity of the pinion, as in the falcons and
swallows, causing an acuminate form of wing,
we may know that the powers of flight are
great, requiring comparatively little exertion in
the bird; but when the longest primaries are in
the middle of the series, giving rise to a short,
broad wing, as in the partridge and grouse, the
bird can tiy only a short distance at a time, with
great effort, and a whir well known to the
sportsman. Xot only the shape of the wing,
but the close texture of its feathers, must be
taken into account in the rapid strong flight of
the falcon; the loose soft feathers of the wings
in the owls, and the serrated outer edge of the
primaries, while they prevent rapid flight, en
able them to pounce noiselessly upon their vigi
lant prey. Most birds, and especially the aqua
tic families, are provided with an oil gland at
the base of the tail, whose unctuous secretion is
distributed over the feathers by means of the
bill, protecting their surface against moisture ;
the shedding of the water is not owing entirely
to the oily covering, but also to a thin plate of
air entangled by the feathers, and probably also
to an actual repulsion of the particles of water
by the feathers, as is seen in the leaves of many
aquatic plants; the arranging of the plumes by
the bill of the bird being rather to enable them
to take down a large quantity of air, than to
apply any repellent oily covering. The plumage
of birds has an infinite variety of colors, from
the sombre tints of the raven to the pure white
of the egrets, and the gorgeous hues of the lory,
toucan, trogon, and humming birds; the females
have generally less lively colors, and the sum
mer livery of both sexes is often different from
that of winter. One of the most curious phe
nomena connected with feathers is the annual
moult, and the change of color during that and
the breeding season; moulting usually takes
place after the young have been hatched, the
whole plumage becoming dull and rough, and
the bird more or less indisposed, with a tem
porary loss of voice in the singing species. Ac
cording to Mr. Yarrell, the plumage of birds is
changed by the mere alteration of the color of
the feathers ; by the growth of new feathers
without the loss of any old ones; by the pro
duction of new feathers in the place of old ones
thrown off, wholly or in part; and by the wear
ing oft of the light tips as the breeding season
approaches, exposing the brighter tints under
neath. The first two of these changes occur in
adults at the end of spring, the third being par
tial in spring and complete in autumn. Though
the perfect plumage is non-vascular and epi
dermic, the colors change, probably by some j
vital process, without the loss of a feather; i
when the winter livery succeeding the autum- ]

nal moult begins to assume its bright characters,
the new color generally commences at the part
of the web nearest the body, and gradually ex
tends to the tip. Until within the last few
years the changes of color in the fur of mam
mals (as in the ermine in winter), and in the
plumage of birds in the season of reproduction,
were supposed to be effected by the simple
reproduction of the hairs and feathers ; but this
cannot be the case, as many facts go to prove
that these changes occur at other times than
the period of moulting, and without the loss of
a hair or feather. It is well known that vivid
emotions of fear or grief may turn the human
hair gray or white in so short a period that
there could be no change in the hair itself to
account for it ; and a case is on record of a
starling which became white after being rescued
from a cat. It has been maintained by Schlegel
and Martin that many birds always get their
wedding plumage without moulting. The fact
being admitted, how can the change of color
be explained in the mature feather, which has
no vascular or nervous communication with
the skin ? The wearing away of the light tips,
mentioned by Mr. Yarrell, is not only unphysi-
ological, but in most cases does not happen.
Dr. Weinland, from the examination of bleached
specimens in museums, and of recent birds, ex
presses the belief that the brightness and fading
of the colors are owing to the increase or dim
inution of an oily matter in the feathers ; the
microscopic examination of the web of feathers
from the breast of a fresh merganser (mergvs
serrator, Linn.) showed numerous lacuna of a
reddish oil-like fluid; some weeks after, the
same feathers, having become nearly white
from exposure to light, disclosed air bubbles
instead of the reddish fluid ; from this he con
cludes that the evaporation of the oily fluid,
and the filling of the spaces with air as in the
case of the white water lily, produces the
changes of color. If this fluid be oily, as there
is good reason to believe, mere physical imbi
bition would be sufficient to introduce it into
the dead feathers, as it is well known that fat
passes through all tissues very readily, even
through compact horn. In the season of re
production, the nutritive and organic functions
are performed with their utmost vigor, and the
supply of fatty coloring matter would flow free
ly to the feathers; under the opposite condi
tions of debility, cold, or insufficient food, the
oily matter would be withdrawn and the feath
ers would fade. In regard to the value of
feathers to man, it will be sufficient to enume
rate the ornamental employment of the plumes
of the ostrich, egrets, cranes, and peacock; the
economical uses of the down of the eider duck
and the plumage of the goose ; the importance
of the goose quill before the introduction of
steel and gold pens, and the adherence of many
at the present day to the more perishable,
less convenient, but softer-moving quill ; not
to more than allude to the consumption of the
plumage of the gorgeous tropical birds in the

FEBRUARY

FEDCIIEXKO

107

manufacture of feather flowers, and the utility
of the downy arctic skins as articles of dress in
the regions of perpetual snow.

FEBRl ARY (Lat. Februariu*, from februare,
to purify ; so called from februa, the festival
of expiation and lustration, which was held on
the 15th of this month), the second month in
our present calendar, containing 28 days ordi
narily, and 29 days in leap year. It was not
in the calendar of Romulus. Numa added two
months to the year, January at the beginning
and February at the end. It was first placed
after January by the decemvirs about 450 B. C.

FECAMP (formerly Fescan or Fescamp ; Lat,
Fiscamum or Fiscamnum}, a seaport town of
France, in the department of Seine-Inferieure,
22 m. N. X. E. of Havre, on a branch railway
from Rouen, and at the entrance of the river
Fecamp into the channel ; pop. in 1866, 12,-
832. The town has two remarkable churches,
a hydrographical school, a library, a theatre,
a commercial court, a chamber of commerce,
and extensive sea-bathing establishments. The
chief occupations of the inhabitants are fishing,
ship building, and commerce, but its manufac
tures are also becoming important. The town
is believed to owe its origin to a celebrated
female convent which was founded about 662.
It has repeatedly been destroyed in times of
war. As early as the 13th century it was
famous for its herring fisheries.

FECHXER, Gnstav Theodor, a German natural
ist, born at Gross-Sahrchen, Lusatia, April 19,
1801. He studied at the university of Leipsic,
and was professor of physics there from 1834
to 1839, when a disease of the eyes disabled
him from teaching, and he devoted himself
especially to anthropology and natural phi
losophy. He had early attracted attention by
researches in galvanism, by translations of
French scientific works, by papers relating to
chemistry and pharmacy, and by humorous
writings, Stapelia mixta, which he published
in 1824 under the name of Dr. Mises. In his
Beiceis, dass der Moiul a us Jodine bestehe (2d
ed., 1832) he deals with scientific problems in a
humorous vein. His BticJilein rom Leben nach
dem Tode (1836), Gedichte (1842), and RiitJi-
selbachlein (3d ed., 1865) contain admirable spe
cimens of poetry. His other principal works
are : Nanna, oder i l.ljer das Seelen leben der Pfian-
zen (1848) ; Zend-Avesta, oder i llier die Dinge
des Himmeh und des Jenseits (3 vols., 1851);
Elemente der Psyeliophysik, his most im
portant scientific work (2 vols., I860) ; and
Physikalische und philosophische AtomenleJire
(2d ed., 1864).

FECHTER, Charles Albert, a French actor,
born in London, Oct. 23, 1824. The son of a
German father and a French mother, he was
reared principally in England and France, and
after a good education he began in Paris the
study of sculpture. Manifesting a strong in
clination for the stage, he made his first ap
pearance while still very young at the Salle
Moliere in Lc mari de la ceuve. After some

weeks at the conservatory, he joined a com-
| pany of French comedians for a year s tour
through Italy. Returning to Paris, he again
applied himself to sculpture, at the same time
playing minor characters in the Theatre Fran-
cais. His first great success was in 1846 in
the French theatre at Berlin, where he ap-
; peared as the original Duval in La dame aux
; camelias of Dumas the younger. In 1847 he
i played for a few weeks with a French company
I in London, and afterward till 1 853 at different
j times he was prominent on the boards of the
theatres Ambigu, Varietes, Historique, Porte
Saint-Martin, and Vaudeville in Paris. From
March, 1857, to the end of 1858, he was joint
manager with M. de la Ronnat of the Odeon.
j Two years afterward he. was induced to un
dertake characters in English on the London
I stage, and on Oct. 27, I860, he opened at the
| Princess s theatre as Ruy Bias in his own ver-
| sion of Victor Hugo s play. On March 19,
; 1861, he appeared as Hamlet, playing the part
in a flaxen wig and making other marked in
novations upon the costume and conventionali
ties of the character. lie played the part 70
successive nights, and excited an animated dis
cussion among the London critics. He followed
with Othello, lago, Macbeth, Coriolanus, the
"Corsican Brothers," Claude Melnotte, and
other characters, in nearly all of which he
achieved a remarkable success, in spite of his
disregard of the traditions and conventionalities
of the English stage. He leased the Lyceum,
Jan. 1, 1863, opening as Legadere in u The
1 Duke s Motto," and continued his manage-
j ment of that theatre for some years. He
made his first appearence in America as Ruy
Bias, in Niblo s theatre in New York, Jan. 10,
1870. In October following he opened the
Globe theatre in Boston as manager, but soon
returned to New York, and after a brief en
gagement at the French theatre, where he
, played several characters in English, he went
j back to London. Returning to Xew York in
1872, he leased the French theatre, and re
modelled it; but failing to secure possession
j of the property, he made his first reappearance
j in New York. April 28, 1873, at the Grand
i Opera House, as Edmond Dantes in his own
version of u Monte Cristo."

FEDCIIEXKO, Alexei, a Russian naturalist, born
about 1830, died near the summit of the Col
du Geant, Switzerland, Aug. 14, 1873. He
resided at Moscow, and was a high authority
on the geography of central Asia. lie went
to Switzerland to compare the glaciers of Mont
Blanc and the Col du Geant with those which
he had discovered in the mountains of Khokan.
He left Montreux on foot for Chamouni Aug.
12, and on the 14th proceeded to the Col du
Geant with two guides. lie had gone within
about two hours walk of the summit when a
violent storm and avalanches of snow forced
him to retrace his steps, and he fell from
exhaustion and perished. He left unfinished
an important work, which his wife, who ac-

108

FEDERALISTS

FEE

companied him in all his journeys, though not
in this ascent, designs publishing.

FEDERALISTS, a political party in the United
States who claimed to be the peculiar friends
of the constitution and of the federal govern
ment. Their opponents, the republicans, they
called anti-federalists, and charged them to a
certain extent with hostility to or distrust of
the United States constitution and the general
government. The republicans, however, stren
uously denied the truth of these charges. The
federalist party was formed in 1788. Its most
distinguished leaders were Washington, Adams,
Hamilton, Jay, and Marshall ; and the leading
federalist states were Massachusetts and Con
necticut, supported generally, though not uni
formly, by the rest of New England; while
Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Burr, George Clin
ton, and Gallatin led the opposition. In the
contests of the French revolution the federalists
leaned to the side of England, the republicans
to that of France. The former were defeated
in the presidential election of 1800, when the
republican candidates were elected, Jefferson
president, and Burr vice president. Their op
position to the war of 1812, and above all the
calling of the Hartford convention, completed
their destruction as a national party. In 1816
Monroe, the republican candidate for president,
received the electoral votes of all the states
with the exception of Massachusetts, Connec
ticut, and Delaware, which gave 34 votes
against him, while from the other states he re
ceived 183. At the next election in 1820 the
federalist party was disbanded, Monroe receiv
ing every electoral vote except one.

FEDOR. See FEODOR.

FEE, a law term, derived probably from Sax.
feh, or more accurately feoli, compensation or
payment. As landed estates were given by
the northern conquerors of the Roman prov
inces to their nobles and soldiers as compen
sation or wages for military service, fee came
to mean the estate itself. It was Latinized
into feudum or feodum, from which the word
feudal arose, because it was this tenure of land
which characterized what is called the feudal
system. The derivation and original meaning
of this word are not certainly known, but what
we have given is, we think, supported by the
best reasons. In law, estate does not mean
the land, but the title which a man has in the
land ; so the word fee is now used to signify,
not the land, but the kind of estate or tenure by
which it is held. The word fee alone means
an estate without qualification or limitation;
hence the phrase fee simple means the highest
estate held of any superior or lord, or by any
tenure or service, or strictly speaking, by any
tenure whatever; and the word simple means
only that nothing is added to limit or condition
the word fee. Hence an estate in fee and an
estate in tee simple are the same thing. This
is an absolute estate of inheritance ; or an
estate which a man holds, descendible to his
heirs for ever. There is no event by which it

must be terminated or defeated, and no limita
tion or restriction by force of which it must
descend to a certain heir or heirs, in exclusion
of the rest. A fee simple may be acquired by
descent or by purchase. In law, purchase
means every mode of acquiring land except
descent ; hence if land be given to a man, or
devised to him, and he takes by gift or by
devise, still he is said in law to take by pur
chase. The essential words in any instrument
by which a man should take land in fee,
whether by will or deed, are, to the grantee,
or devisee, and " his heirs." For if land be
given to a man without the word "heirs," he
takes only an estate for his own life, and at his
death (if there be no remainder over) it reverts
to the grantor or his heirs; and at common
law there are no words which could supply
the want of these "words of inheritance," as
they are called, where there could be heirs.
Thus, if land were conveyed or devised to a
man "and his successors," he took only an
estate for life ; but if these words were used in
a deed or devise to a corporation, they were
the proper words to create a fee simple, be
cause a corporation should have perpetual suc
cession, but cannot have heirs. If land be
granted or devised to A, B, and C, as trustees,
then also the word successors would in general
carry a fee. The ancient severity of the rule
requiring words of inheritance is now relaxed
somewhat in England, and more in the United
States (in some of the states by statute), es
pecially in respect to wills and trusts. In wills,
any words distinctly indicating the purpose of
the testator to devise all his estate and interest
in a piece of land, are always held now to carry
a fee simple ; and in trusts, if one has land
given to him with power to sell, this is held to
be a power to convey in fee simple. In deeds
it is always better to add the words of inheri
tance, but the word " assigns " is not necessary
to give the power of transfer, although usually
added. There may be a fee simple not only in
lands, but in franchises and liberties ; and in
England, in dignities and the rights and priv
ileges attached to them ; and even in personal
property, as in an annuity. Fees may be less
than fee simple, and they are so whenever not
simple ; that is, whenever the fee is in any
way restrained or diminished. A qualified fee,
technically so called, is one in which, by an
original limitation, the land goes to a man and
his heirs general, and yet is not confined to the
issue of his own body ; as if it be given him
and to his heirs on the part of his father or a
certain ancestor. A determinable fee is a fee
which may continue for ever, but which may
be determined by the happening of some event
which is uncertain. Instances usually given
of this are lands conveyed or devised to a man
and his heirs until an infant shall attain a cer
tain age, or until such a person shall be mar
ried, or shall have children. A conditional
fee means either a fee to winch at its origin
some condition was annexed, which being

FEEJEE ISLANDS

109

performed will defeat the estate, or the per
formance of which is necessary to preserve
the estate, or the performance or occurrence
of which is necessary to vest estate. But these
three phrases are not definable with exact ac
curacy, and are sometimes used one for the
other. Fee tail is a law term of more precise
meaning. It is derived from the Norman
French word tailler, to cut, because it is a
lesser estate of inheritance cut or carved out
of the fee simple ; and it exists where a con
veyance or devise is made to a person named
and the heirs of his body or some specified
class of the heirs of his body, as for instance
the heirs male or heirs female of his body, or
the heirs of his body begotten of his then wife.
The difference between this and a fee simple is
at once perceived , for while the latter on the
owner s death will pass by descent to his heirs
general, who may be collateral relatives, the
former will descend only in the line indicated
by the instrument creating the estate. For
merly the understanding was that the grantee
of an estate tail had only a life interest, and
could convey no more ; but afterward means
were devised by which he might convey a fee,
and this in the hands of his grantee would
necessarily be a fee simple. The usual mode of
doing this was the process of suffering a com
mon recovery, but by statute 3 and 4 William
IV., c. 74, the same result may be accomplished
by an ordinary deed of conveyance duly en
rolled. Legislation of a similar nature has also
been adopted for Ireland and Scotland. In the
United States estates tail have had no practical
existence since the revolution. In some of the
states they are wholly unknown. In others
they become at once, by force of statutory
provisions, estates in fee simple. In others a
tenant in fee tail bars the entail by a simple
conveyance in fee simple. In yet others, and
they are numerous, they are simply abolished
by statute, without any reservation whatever.
FEEJEE (Fiji, or Viti) ISLANDS, a group in
the South Pacific ocean, between lat. 15 BO
and 20 30 S., and Ion. 176 50 E. and 178 20
W. Feejee is the name in the windward, and
Viti in the leeward part of the group. There
are some 225 islands, of which about 140 are
inhabited. The population is estimated at
250,000, of whom 4,000 are whites. Viti Levu,
or Xaviti Levu, is the largest and most popu
lous of the group ; it is about 64 m. from X.
to S. and 97 from E. to W. Suva harbor is
free from shoals, well sheltered, and of easy
ingress and egress. The best known towns on
this island are Xamena, Xdawasamu, Tova,
Xakorotubu, Rakiraki, Tavua, Mba, Xamoli,
Nandy, Vunda, Vitogo or Veitiri, Mbetarau-
rau, Xandroga, Xdeumba, and Suva. Vauua
Levu (Great island), generally called Vuya by
its inhabitants, ranks next to Viti Levu, and is
69 m. X. of Bau, a small island on the E. side
of the latter, from which distances in the group
are reckoned; it is 115 m. lon^ from E. X. E.
to W. S. W., and on an average 25 m. broad.

The principal towns of Vanua Levu are Mbua,
Xdama, Xavave, Solevi, Xavatu, Xasavusavu,
Undu, Xamuka, Mathuata, Kaviravi, and
Wailea. The bay of Nasavusavu, 10 m. long
I by 5 broad, is surrounded by very high and
j broken land, rising in many places into lofty
! needle-shaped peaks; behind them several
I other high peaks reach to about 4,000 ft. A
! considerable stream of fresh water enters the
| bay, and a mile below on the beach are hot
springs, which are continually steaming. The
rock in the neighborhood is compact coral and
volcanic breccia. The water has a faint smell
of sulphur and a strong saline taste. The na
tives use the springs to boil their food, which
is done by covering them with leaves and
grass, when rapid ebullition ensues in the pre
viously quiescent water. Taviuni, commonly
but erroneously called by the white residents
Vuna or Somosomo, is the third island in size
and importance ; it is about 24 m. long and 9
m. broad, and 5 m. S. E. of Vanua Levu. The
whole island is one vast mountain, 2,052 ft.
high, and very fertile. On the top is a lake
containing an abundance of large eels. The
principal towns on it are Somosomo, Vuna,
\Veilangi, AVainikeli, and Mbouma. Kadavu
or Kandavu is a large, populous, and well
wooded island, 69 m. S. S. W. of Ban and 48 m.
from the nearest point of Viti Levu ; it is 32
m. long, and averages 4 m. in breadth. On
the west is a small bay, Malatta, which offers
temporary anchorage, but it is difficult to
enter on account of reefs. Westward of Ma-
j latta is Tavutha bay, frequented by whalers. E.
! of Kadavu, and between it and the island of
j Ono, is a well protected harbor. The Mbuki-
leru mountain is very high. Another popu
lous island is Gau or Xgau, 13 m. long and 4
broad, 38 m. E. of Bau. The reef extends a
mile and a half off the X. E. point, and several
miles off the S. side, but is close to the island
on the east, where there are several openings,
but none fit for anchorage. There is good
holding ground in the bay opposite the town
of Lakemba. Other towns on this island are
Sawayake (the chief town), Xakumbuna, Xa-.
waikama (at which there are hot springs),
Xakorowaro, Levuka, Ourata, Xathavanandi,
Lekanai, Xggarani, and Vioni. Koro (mean
ing " a town ") is a very fine island, IH m. long
by 4 wide, 59 m. X. E. of Bau. with an
anchorage on the X. W. side. The chief towns
are Wailevu or Sithila, Tangandrenga, Thawa-
levu, Xasau, Waitaya, and Korolailai. Mo-
ala, a high volcanic island, about 4 in. wide by
8 long, 86 m. E. S. E. of Bau, has several
towns, among them Xavathunirnasi and Tha-
kova. The reef on the X. side of Moala is a
collection of sunken and detached patches ; that
j on the X. E. extends 2-^ m. ; to the westward
j are several passages through the reef, quite safe
j with a favorable wind. Ovalau, a mountain-
i ous island about 20 m. from Bau, 8 m. long X.
1 and S., and 7 m. broad, is of volcanic forma-
\ tion, and its rocks are composed of a conglom-

110

FEEJEE ISLANDS

erate or pudding stone. The valleys extend
only a short distance into the interior and
have little level ground ; they are exceedingly
fertile, with a dee]), rich soil, and well culti
vated. Its harbors are all formed by the reefs.
Levilka, a town on the E. side of the island, is
chiefly inhabited by foreigners. It is the seat
of the Feejeean government, the residence of
foreign consuls, the principal shipping port, and
has several hotels, churches, and stores. The
metropolis of Feejee, containing upward of
1,000 inhabitants, is Ban, or Mbau, on the
small island of the same name, which is con
nected with the large island Viti Levu by a
long flat of coral, fordable at high water, and
in places bare at low water. Lakemba, or
Lakeba, is the principal island on the wind
ward side of the group, 160 m. E. S. E. of
Ban ; the chief town is Tumbou. Other in
habited islands are Batiki or Mbatiki, Beqa or
Mbeng-ga, Cakaudrove-i-wai or Thakaundrove,
Cikobia or Thikombia, Kabara or Kambara,
Korno, Macuata or Mathuata, Malolo, Nairai,
Nayau, Ogea or Ongea, Oneata, Eewa, Vanua
Balavu or Mbalavu, Vulaga or Vulanga, often
called Fulanga, and Yacata or Yathata.
From the meteorological register kept at Le-
vuka by Col. W. J. Smythe, from January to
the end of April, it appears that the maximum
heat amounted on the 1st of January to 91 9 ,
and that the minimum temperature on the 8th
of April was 72. The average rain during
these four months w T as 17*29 in. ; thunder was
heard almost daily, while the wind was gener
ally very light. Thomas Williams places the
mean temperature of the group at 80. There
is a large number of rainy days, but uninter
rupted dry weather often continues for two or
three months. Among the botanical produc
tions are numerous varieties of the dioscorea or
yam, called uvi; the balabala, a kind of palm
or tree fern, of which the heart is eaten in
times of scarcity; the ban, with an edible
fruit and a beautiful brown or red wood, used
for canoes and boxes ; the bele, of which the
leaves are cooked and eaten ; the bokoi, which
.has a fruit scarcely distinguishable from the
kavika, a kind of Malay apple tree with a
quince-like fruit; the bovu-dama, w r hich fur
nishes a heavy timber of a light color ; and the
bulou, with a root resembling in taste an old
potato. There is an elegant variety of fern
called conini. The dalici bears spike-shaped
flowers, and yields a hard and useful timber ;
but the most useful tree for canoe building,
masts, and all kinds of carpentry, is the
damanu. A fruit somewhat like a plum is
borne by the da\va and the dawamoli. Bread
is made from the fruit of the dogo and the
dogokana. The wood of the duva, pounded
into fibres and fastened to a line, poisons or
stupefies fish, which turn on their back as if
they were dead, but soon recover when left to
themselves. The fruit of the ivi is either
baked or boiled, or grated and made into bread
or pudding. The loaves of the danidani and

the kura are used medicinally. The smaller
branches of the loselose are used by the natives
as torches. But the most important of all the
botanical productions is the cocoanut tree,
here called niu, almost every part of which is
put to some use. Drums are made of the wood
of the tavola ; fans and umbrellas from the
leaves of the viu, a kind of palm. A fruit very
much like the raspberry is obtained from the
wagadrogadro. The root of the lagona (piper
mytMsticum) is chewed and mixed with water
and drunk as a beverage. The bitu and the
bituvatu are kinds of bamboo which grow ex
tensively. Cotton has succeeded admirably,
and can be harvested within six months. Many
of the colonists are planting coftee. Fishes are
plentiful, including the porpoise, sole, mullet,
and many other edible kinds ; also a large shark,
called mego, and a still more dangerous fish
called ogo. A kind of sea worm called lakolo,
found on some reefs toward the latter part of the
year, is much esteemed by the natives as food.
A maggot called yarato, which bores into
wood, is much eaten on the poor islands. There
are several kinds of oyster (em/), of which the
large pearl shell is ground and used for orna
ments. The coqe, a sacred bird, has a singular
cry, much like a dog s or the human voice.
There is a small bird somewhat like a corn
crake, called bid; a vampire bat, called leka ;
a large sea gull, called fatsaqa ; the kitu, a bird
destructive to the sugar cane ; the kulu, a spe
cies of red parrot, whose feathers are much
valued for fringes of mats and personal orna
ments; the sacred lawedua, a sea bird with
two long feathers in its tail; owls, hawks,
pigeons, &c. From a pair of horses introduced
in 1851 all the mission stations have been sup
plied. Some islands of the group are much
troubled with mosquitoes. The natives are
above the middle height, sleek and portly, with
stout limbs and short necks. They are of
darker complexion than the copper-colored and
lighter than the black races. Their hair is
black, long, frizzled, and bush} 7 , sometimes en
croaching on the forehead and" joined by whis
kers to a thick round or pointed beard, to
which moustaches are often added. They are
almost free from tattooing; only the women
are tattooed, and that on the parts of the body
which are covered. The men dress in a sort
of sash of white, brown, or figured maxi, using
generally about six yards, though a wealthy
man will wear one sometimes nearly 300 ft.
long. The women wear a liku or fringed band,
made of the bark of a tree, the fibre of a wild
root, and some kinds of grass ; the fringe is
from 3 to 10 inches deep. The turban, worn
only by the men of the respectable classes, is a
fine masi of one thickness, and has a gauze-like
appearance. They bore the lobe of the ear
and distend the hole, and wear enormous ear
ornaments. Both sexes paint their bodies, and
seem to prefer red ; they also besmear them
selves with oil. The hair is the most impor
tant part of the toilet, and is dressed in gro-

FEEJEE ISLANDS

111

tesque forms, sometimes attaining a diameter
of 5 ft. The chief s barber is held in high re
spect, and his hands are not allowed to touch
food. The hair is colored sometimes with t\vo
or more dyes. They are fond of music, and
have invented the nose mite, the conch shell,
the pandean pipes, a jewsharp made of a strip
of bamboo, and several sorts of drums. The
singing is invariably in a major key. The mu
sicians perform on one note, the base alternating
with the air; they then sound one of the com
mon chords in the base cleff without the alter
nation. The natives love to dance and are fond
of poetry. Their verses occasionally rhyme,
but seldom preserve a uniform measure. In
chanting the chorus is repeated at the end of
each line. Girls are betrothed at a very early
age, and often to old men. Brothers and sis
ters, first cousins, fathers and sons-in-la\v,

A Feejeean.

mothers and daughters-in-law are forbidden to
speak to each other -or to eat from the same
dish. The latter prohibition extends to hus
bands and wives. The common people usually
take two meals a day, the chief three or more.
As they abhor drinking after each other from
the same cup, they hold the vessel about ten
inches above the mouth, and pour the stream
down the throat. They eat with their fingers.
Rheumatism is common ; they relieve the pa
tient by making deep incisions over the part
affected. The law of descent is curious. The
successor of a chief is his next brother, failing
whom, his own eldest son or the eldest son of
his eldest brother fills his place ; but the rank
of the mother often causes an infraction of this
rule. The person of a pagan high chief is tn b oo
or sacred. In some cases they claim a divine
origin. Everything becomes consecrated which

VOL. VII. 8

! the supreme chief touches. He works some
times at agricultural labor or plaits sinnet.
, Ho has always several attendants about his
person, who feed him and perform the most
servile offices, lie has no throne, but squats
on the ground like his subjects. A peculiar
language is used when speaking of the chief.
All his actions and the members of his body
, are hyperbolized. Respect is indicated by the
; utterance of a peculiar shout or chant called
| tama ; this is uttered by inferiors on approach-
: ing a chief or chief town. It is necessary to
crouch when a chief passes by. Standing in
the presence of the chief is not allowed, and
all who move about the house in which he is
creep, or, if on their feet, advance bent, as in
j act of obeisance. No one may cross a chief
I behind his back; the inferior must pass in
I front of the superior, and when at sea must not
pass the canoe of a chief on the outrigger side.
If a chief stumbles or falls, his subjects must do
the same. The best produce of the gardens,
the best animals, and the best fish are present
ed to the chiefs. Pay day of taxea is regarded
as a high festival. Whale s teeth, women, and
canoes are prominent articles of tribute. The
criminality of an act is in inverse proportion to-
the rank of the offender. Murder by a chief
is less heinous than petty larceny by a man of
low rank. The most serious offences are theft r
adultery, abduction, witchcraft, infringement
of a taboo, disrespect to a chief, incendiarism,
and treason. Theft is punished by a fine, re
payment in kind, loss of a finger, or clubbing.
The contumacious are punished by a fine, or
loss of a finger, ear, or nose. The other crimes
are punished by death, the instrument being the
club, noose, or musket. Adultery is the crime
most severely visited. The adulterer may be
put to death, or he may be compelled to give
up his own wife to the aggrieved man, or his
property may be destroyed or taken away from
him. The principle of vicarious atonement is
acknowledged. A man sentenced to death will
often surrender his father to suffer in his stead.
There is also a species of pecuniary atonement
called soro, of which there are five varieties; the
soro with a whale s tooth, a mat, club, musket,
or other valuable, is the most common. Society
is divided into six recognized classes : 1, kings
and queens ; 2, chiefs of large districts or isl
ands ; 3, chiefs of towns, priests, and ambassa
dors; 4, distinguished warriors of low birth,
chiefs of the carpenters, and chiefs of the turtle
catchers; 5, common people ; 6, slaves by war.
Rank is hereditary through the female line.
The dignity of a pagan chief is estimated by
the number of his wives. The rights of the
rasti^ or sister s son, constitute one of the pecu
liar institutions of Feejee. A vasu of rank can
claim anything in his mother s land, excepting
the wives, home, and land of a chief. In the
moral and intellectual state of the Feejeeans
there is a wide distinction between the pagan
and Christian natives. As the majority are
pagans, their customs, laws, and religion may

112

FEEJEE ISLANDS

still be regarded as the national standards of |
Feeiee. Capt. Wilkes says of them: "They
are truly wretches in the strongest sense of
the term, and degraded beyond the conception
of civilized people." Strangulation of women,
especially widows, infanticide, and other enor
mities prevail to a frightful extent. Fore
most among their describable vices stands can
nibalism; not only are prisoners taken in war
consumed, but persons of the same tribe and i
village fall victims to the greed of their neigh
bors. The cooked human body is termed in
the Feejee language Itakolo or "long pig."
As an English gentleman may send a choice
haunch of venison as a present to another, so
one Feejee chief will send a stalwart subject
roasted entire like an ox, carefully trussed,
and escorted by a procession to the residence
of an ally. The epicures of Feejee prefer the
flesh of women to that of men, and deem the
thick of the arm and the thigh the tit-bits of
the ftaJwlo. The women are seldom allowed to
taste it. The flesh of white men is held in low
repute ; it is said to be comparatively insipid
or tainted with tobacco. A Feejeean is always
armed, and war is the normal condition. The
mountain fastnesses are well fortified with
strong palisades and stone breastworks, pierced
with loopholes. The arms chiefly used are
clubs, spears, battle axes, the bow, the sling,
and the musket. A peculiar weapon is the
missile club, which is worn in the girdle, some
times in pairs. It is a short stick, with a knob
at one end, is hurled with great precision, and
is a favorite weapon with assassins. The sick
and aged request their sons to strangle them,
or, if they are too slow to make this request,
their sons suggest to them that they have lived
long enough. To be strangled or buried alive
by one s children is considered a most honor
able death. They expect to be in the next
world exactly as they were here, and affection
ate children are unwilling to have their parents
pass into the next world in an infirm state, and
therefore strangle or bury them alive out of
kindness. The relatives hold a wake over the
intended victim while living and anointed for
the sepulchre, and go into mourning after the
entombment. The signs of mourning are the
cropping of the hair and the joints of the
small toe or little finger. Another remarkable
custom is the loloku or strangling of the wives
and next friends of the deceased. Abortion is
practised to a great extent by medicated waters
or mechanical means. Boys are circumcised
when from seven to twelve years old. The
native religions are local ; each island has its
own gods, traditions, and superstitions. All
the^ systems belong to the lowest types of poly
theism, and all are impregnated with the filth
and savageness which characterize the actual
existence of the people. The mythologies have
some features in common ; they retain the dis
tinction between dii m in ores and dii mnjores,
between gods and demigods. The latter class
is made up chiefly of deceased chiefs and re

spected ancestors. Monsters and other objects
of wonder are admissible to this class. Most
of the gods are supposed to have jurisdiction
only over the tribes, islands, or districts where
they are worshipped. Each trade has its tu
telary deities. The Feejeeans have no idols,
but reverence certain stones as shrines of the
god, and hold certain birds and fishes as sacred.
Every Feejeean considers himself under the
protection of some special god, and refrains
from eating the animal which is his symbol.
Each chief has his ambati, or priest, who acts
in concert with him, and helps him govern his
clansmen. The priests are known by an oval
frontlet of scarlet feathers, and a long-toothed
comb made of several pieces of wood fastened
together with much ingenuity. There are
priestesses, but few of sufficient importance to
have a temple. The priests are consulted as
oracles ; the responses are given after convul
sions, supposed to be caused by the presence
of the god. There are various modes of divina
tion, all of the most childish character, such
as by biting a leaf or pouring water down the
arm. They have a strong belief in all sorts of
apparitions, witches, ghosts, wizards, and the
evil eye. They believe in a sort of fairies who
dance on the hills by moonlight and sing songs.
The future world in their opinion is much the
same as the present. But concerning the doc
trines of the Feejeean religion it is scarcely
possible to learn anything. The people know
nothing, and the priests dislike to communicate
their knowledge. Burotu is the name of their
place of departed spirits, and is said to be a
most delightful abode ; but the Feejeeans be
lieve that, except for great chiefs, it is very
difficult to pass into it. The only way by
which an inferior man can hope to gain admis
sion is by telling a lie to the god, and proclaim
ing himself a chief with so much apparent
truthfulness that he is allowed to enter. In a
large number of the islands, a particular town
in Vanua Levu is thought to be the entrance
to the spirit world. The houses in this town
are built with their doors opposite to each
other, so that the shade may pass through
without interruption. The inhabitants speak
in low tones, and if at a little distance commu
nicate their thoughts by signs. Sneezing is
ominous, and varies in its luck, according as it
proceeds from the right or left nostril. The
temples, Inire, or fully lure kaloo (anything
wonderful, whether good or bad, is denoted
by kaloo), are built on a mound of earth, and
found in every village, and some of the villages
have many of them. No labor is thought too
great for the decoration of a bure. Their
marvellous skill in plaiting sinnet is best shown
in such a building; every beam, post, and pil
lar is entirely covered with the most beautiful
patterns, chiefly in black and red ; even large
cords are made of sinnet and hung in festoons
from the eaves. But these bures, though con
sidered temples, are mostly used for secular
purposes. Visitors are generally quartered in

FEEJEE ISLANDS

FEITII

113

them, and the principal men of the village
often make the bure their sleeping place.
When a chief wishes to propitiate a deity he
offers a great quantity of food in his temple,
and inviting his friends consumes it in a gen
eral feast. The Feejeean language belongs to
the Oceanic or Malayo-Polynesian type. The
letters may be easily represented with the Eng
lish alphabet, omitting h, .r, and z. It has the
same nine parts of speech as the English. The
articles are Tco or o, fcoi or oi, a or na, and ai
or nui. All adjectives are used as abstract
nouns, as vinafca, good, and also goodness; but
the verbs are the most fruitful source of nouns.
All nouns used without tagcume, a male, or
alewa, a female, are of common gender; also
nouns of relationship, as luvena, a son or
daughter, watina, a husband or wife. The num
ber of nouns is shown by prefixing numerals,
or by the personal pronoun used in relation to
them. There are some nouns to express cer
tain things by tens, hundreds, and thousands
only. Case is shown by particles preceding
the nouns. Vaka is a particle much used ; it
changes nouns into adjectives, as wiravura,
the world, vakavuraxiura, like the world; it
changes adjectives into adverbs, as vinaka,
good, vafaina ka, well ; with nouns it ex
presses the possession of the thing, as vale,
a house, vahaxale, having a house ; and it
changes adjectives into verbs, and intransitive
into transitive verbs. Some verbs have differ
ent terminations when affecting different ob
jects, as sokota na vanua, to sail to land, soTco-
talca na waga, to sail the canoe. There are
many reduplicated forms of verbs. Repetition
of words is used to a great extent, and implies
either frequency or intensity : sa vosa vosa vosa,
talk, talk, talk, means always talking. Prepo
sitions and conjunctions are few, but interjec
tions are very numerous. Expletives, or orna
mental particles, abound. Feejeean syntax is
extremely simple. A proper accentuation is
also very easily obtained. The accent is in
variably on the last syllable, or last but one.
A different quantity often alters the sense of a
Feejeean word. The Feejee group, which now
contains, exclusive of coral islets, an area of
about 5,500 square miles of dry land, is be
lieved to have spread at the period when the
corals began to grow over at least 15,000 square
miles. Viti Levu and Yanua Levu are sup
posed to have formed a single island, which
subsidence has separated by inundating the
low intermediate area. The natives present a
mixture of Papuan and Polynesian characters.
Ethnology offers nothing of importance con
cerning them, for the Papuan race is one of
the least known sections of mankind. The na
tives know nothing of former immigrations ;
they had no intercourse with other nations,
except on casual visits, and they believe that
they never occupied any country but the one
where they now dwell. Even among the many
independent states in the group there is little
social and commercial communication, and no

! political connection. Intestine quarrels and
wars make up the history of the Feejees. The
Dutch navigator Tasman saw the group on
: Feb. (5, 1043, and called it Prince William s
islands, but effected no landing. On May 4,
1789, they were seen by Lieut. William Bligh,
, in his long and perilous boat voyage after being
I turned adrift from the Bounty, who gave them
! his own name. The first settlement by Euro-
i peans was made by a party of escaped convicts
i from New South "Wales in 1804. The Amer-
! ican exploring expedition under Lieut. Wilkes,
; 1838- 42, first excited the interest of civilized
| nations in the Feejee islands . The first British
consul was appointed in 1858, and since then
negotiations have been pending to put the
group under the English government, on the
suggestion of King Thakombau. But he was
never king of Feejee, and he has long since lost
j the hold he formerly had upon the people and
land. His reason for desiring to place the isl
ands under British rule seems to have been
i merely to escape a claim on the part of an
American citizen named Williams, whose house
was accidentally burned, and who demanded
an enormous sum for " destruction and spolia
tion of property." In 1809, 70 white residents
j petitioned the United States government to as-
I sume the dominion or protectorate of the isl-
! ands. The white population having increased,
a regular government was established in 1871,
and a constitution adopted. This was subse
quently abolished, and the government relapsed
into barbarism. In 1874, partly owing to the
j wretched state of the finances, the sovereignty
; of Feejee was tendered to Great Britain. In
1835 two Wesleyan missionaries made the first
attempt to introduce Christianity in Feejee;
missionaries of other sects followed ; and after
the usual history of massacres and persecutions,
the churches report a most wonderful suc
cess. There are said to be more than 900
chapels and preaching places, 1,500 day schools,
a theological institute, and more than 100,000
attendants on public worship. See Wilkes s
"United States Exploring Expedition around
the World" (New York, 1850); Williams and
Calvert s "Fiji and the Fijians" (London,
1858; revised ed., 1870); Mrs. Smythe s "Ten
Months in the Fiji Islands" (London, 1804);
the Ptev. J. E. Wood s " Uncivilized Peaces of
the World" (Hartford, 1870) ; and David Ha-
zlewood s "Fijian and English Dictionary,"
containing brief hints on native customs, &c.
(London, 1872).
FEH3IARX. See FEMEBX.
FEHMGERHHTE. See VEIIMIC COFBTS.
FEITH, Rliijnvis, a Dutch poet, born at
Zwolle, Feb. 7, 1753, died there, Feb. 8, 1824.
lie completed his studies at Leyden in 1770,
when he returned to his native town, where
he spent the rest o f his life in literary pursuits,
holding at the same time an office in connec
tion with the admiralty and that of burgo
master. His best lyrical productions are his
Oden en gedichten (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1790-

FELAXITX

FELDSPAR

1810). One of his finest tragedies is Lies de
Castro (1793), and his most finished prose
writings areltrieren orer verscheiden onderwer-
pen.(b vols., 1784- 94). A complete _ edition
of his works was published soon after his death
(11 vols., Rotterdam, 1824).

FELAMTX, or Felauiclie, a town of Spain, on
the island of Majorca, 25 m. E. S. E. of Palma;
pop. about 8,000. It is in a fertile valley sur
rounded by mountains, and contains spacious
streets and six squares. There is an ancient
Moorish castle, with a subterranean vault, on
the adjoining mountain of San Salvador de
Felanitx. An active trade is carried on in
cattle, wine, fruit, and colonial produce. Linen
and woollen goods and other articles are manu
factured. The place is of great antiquity. The
neighboring mountains abound with Moorish
remains.

FELDRIRCH, a town of Austria, in Vorarl-
berg, on the 111, and on the railway leading
from the Tyrol into Switzerland, 20 m. S. S.
W. of Bregenz ; pop. 3,000. It is the seat of a
vicar general who has jurisdiction over all the
churches of Vorarlberg, and of a Jesuit college
which has a large number of pupils from Aus
tria, Germany, and other countries. It has
cotton mills, machine and fire engine facto
ries, a bell foundery, tile works, manufactories
of articles of Avood, distilleries of Eirschwasser,
and an extensive trade.

FELDSPAR (Ger. Feldspath, from Feld, field,
and Spath, spar), a species of aluminous mine
rals very abundantly distributed, principally in
plutonic and volcanic rocks, as granite, gneiss,
greenstone, and trachyte. The different spe
cies were formerly confounded, but they are
now distinctly classified, not only by the differ
ent crystalline forms which they present, but,
when these are the same, by distinct chemical
composition. The feldspars are in all cases
anhydrous double silicates, consisting of a sili
cate of alumina combined with a silicate of
some one or more of the protoxides of potash,
soda, lithia, baryta, or lime. The proportion
between the aluminous or sesquioxide base
and the protoxide bases is constant, being one
equivalent of each, making the oxygen ratio
1 to 3 ; but the proportion of silica varies,
causing considerable variation in the density
and hardness. The amount of silica corre
sponds much to that in the rock in which the
feldspar is found, and to the minerals asso
ciated with it, the more highly silicated kinds
occurring in granite, and the less silicated in
basalts. When a granite has large crystals
of feldspar disseminated through it, it is called
porphyritic granite, and sometimes porphyry,
particularly when the proportion of feldspar is
large. The various species of feldspar are
given in the following table, as classified by
Prof. Dana, with their systems of crystalliza
tion, and also their composition as indicated by
the oxygen ratios of constituents; the first col
umn of figures showing the protoxide, and the
second the aluminous base, while the last col-

umn gives the proportion of silica according to
the same ratio :

NAME OF FELDSPAR.

System of
Crystallization.

Proportion of
Constituents.

Anorthite lime feldspar

Triclinic....

Monoclinic .
Triclinic....

Monoclinic .

1:3:4
1:3:0
1:3:8
1:3:8
1:3:9
1:3:12
1:3:1-2

Labradorite, lime-soda feldspar
Hyalophane, baryta-soda ...
Andesite, soda-lime " ...
Olig-oelase, " " "...
Albite, soda feldspar
Orthoclase, potash feldspar

All the feldspars may be fused before the blow
pipe, with more or less difficulty, to a vitreous
enamel, and this property causes them to be
extensively used for. glazing porcelain. The
crystals of the several varieties range in hard
ness from 6 to 7 upon a scale of 10, being
harder than glass, but less so than quartz.
Their specific gravity varies from 2*5 in ortho-
clase to 2-7 in labradorite. The crystals of
some species exhibit a beautiful play of colors ;
labradorite, the lime-soda feldspar, first dis
covered by the Moravian missionaries on the
shores of St. Paul s isle off the coast of Labra
dor, being the most beautiful. The splendid
opalescent and chatoyant reflections of this
mineral have made it much prized as an article
of jewelry. The cause of the play of colors
has been satisfactorily explained by Reusch,
who finds a cleavage structure of extreme del
icacy transverse to the median section. He
therefore regards the color as that of thin
plates, produced by the interference of the
rays of light. The more common feldspars are
orthoclase, or common, potash feldspar, and
albite, or soda feldspar. The potash species is
the one most frequently met with, and is the
usual associate of mica and quartz in ordinary
granite, and of hornblende and quartz in sy-
enitic granite. Fine crystals of orthoclase are
found at Carlsbad and Elnbogen in Bohemia ;
at St. Agnes in Cornwall; in the Mourne
mountains in Ireland, associated with beryl
and topaz ; in great abundance in trachyte at
Drachenfels, on the Rhine ; and also, in the
lavas of Vesuvius, in the valley called Fossa
Grande. In the United States, it is found at
Mt. Desert on the coast of Maine, of a fine
green ; in Massachusetts, at South Royalton
and Barre, in large crystals; in Connecticut,
in the gneiss quarries at Haddam, and the
feldspar quarries at Middletown, in crystals a
foot long and from 6 to 8 in. thick ; in Kew
York, at Potsdam, St. Lawrence co., in crystals
a foot thick, at Warwick, Orange co., asso
ciated with tourmaline and zircon, and in many
other places. The formula of orthoclase is
KaO, Al 4 0s, GSiO 2 . The old formula, regard
ing silica as SiO 3 and using the small atomic
weight of oxygen, is KOSi0 3 , Al 2 O 3 3SiO s .
Albite, or cleavelandite, the soda feldspar,
often replaces orthoclase as a constituent of
granite, and in some instances is associated
with it, as in Pompey s pillar, when it gene
rally has a whiter color. Veins of albite

FfiLEGYIlAZA

FELIX

115

granite often contain the rarer granite mine
rals, such as beryl and tourmaline. In its
compact state as felsite, it is the base of albite
porphyry. It is found in Maine, at Paris, with
red and blue tourmalines ; in Massachusetts, at
Chesterfield ; in Connecticut, at lladdam, with
beryl, columbite, and black tourmaline, and in
other localities; in Xew York, at Granville,
Washington co., in white transparent crystals;
in Pennsylvania, at Unionville, Delaware co.,
where a granular variety is a matrix for corun
dum ; and in Calaveras co., California, with na
tive gold and auriferous pyrites. Albite has
the same composition as that of orthoclase or
potash feldspar, substituting soda in place of
potash. Soda feldspars yield more rapidly
than potash feldspars to the decomposing ac
tion of water and carbonic acid ; and accord
ingly Prof. T. Sterry Hunt finds in the more
recent crystalline rocks of Canada a less devel
opment of soda feldspar than of any other kinds,
and conceives the carbonate of sodium result
ing from the decomposition of the albite and
similar minerals of the older rocks to have re
acted with the chloride of calcium of the palae
ozoic ocean, producing deposits of carbonate
of calcium and the chloride of sodium which is
held in solution. In general, the decomposi
tion of the feldspathic rocks has furnished the
principal mass of the various clays, those con
taining the largest proportion of feldspar af
fording the finest deposits, such as kaolin, of
which porcelain is made. The soil derived
from them, particularly the common potash
species, is noted for its fertility when under
good cultivation, on account of their furnish
ing a large supply of potash, an important con
stituent of plants. The application of caustic
lime to such soils, when they are worn, has
the effect of liberating a portion of the potash,
with the formation of silicate of lime ; this ac
counts for the great difference often noticed in
the fertilizing effects of the application of lime,
depending upon the mineral character of the
soil and upon the condition of the lime.

FELEGYHAZA, or Felejrylmza, a town of Hun
gary, in the district of Little Cumania, 65 m. j
S. E. of Pesth ; pop. in 1870, 21,313. It is situ
ated in an exceedingly fertile region, and con- !
tains a large Roman Catholic parish church, a !
gymnasium, and a tine town hall. The princi
pal products of the vicinity are grain, fruit, to
bacco, and wine, which is made in great quan
tities. There are four annual cattle fairs, which j
are much frequented.

FELICE, Fortnnato Bartolommco, an Italian an- i
thor, born in Rome about 1725, died at Yverdun, j
Switzerland, Feb. 7, 1789. He studied under the j
direction of the Jesuits, and became a teacher of i
various sciences in Rome and in Xaples. His
abduction of a nun from a convent in the lat- i
ter city obliged him to seek refuge elsewhere,
and about 1756 he settled at Bern, where he

became a Protestant. At a later period he
founded a printing establishment and a board- i
ing school at Yverdun. He translated into ;

Italian the works of Descartes, D Alembert,
and Xewton, and edited with Tscharner (1758-
07) ISestato della letteratura and other peri
odicals. He edited Burlamaqui s Principe du
droit naturel ct des gens, and published an
abridgment of the same under the title of
Lecom du droit de la nature et des gens (4
vols., Yverdun, 1769), and many other works.
His most extensive production is the Encyclo
pedic, OIL Dictionnaire unhersel des connois-
sances humaines (48 vols. 4to, and 10 vols. of
illustrations, 1770- 80). It was based on Dide
rot s cyclopaedia, and he was assisted by Euler,
Haller, and other eminent scholars. From this
he compiled a Dictionnaire de la justice natu-
relle et civile (13 vols., 1778).

FELIX, called FELIX OF VALOIS, a saint of
the Roman Catholic church, and founder (with
John of Matha) of the order of Trinitarians,
born in the district of Yalois, France, April
19, 1127, died in the monastery of Cerfroi,
Xov. 4, 1212. He was a man of considerable
wealth, which he renounced to become a her
mit in the forest of Galeresse, diocese of Meaux,
where he dwelt until his 60th year. About
that time John of Matha became his disciple,
and inspired him with the idea of devoting
his remaining years to the labor of redeeming
the Christians held in bondage by the Mo
hammedans. For this purpose they both went
to Rome in 1197 and submitted their design
to Pope Innocent IIL He approved it, and
in furtherance of it a new religious order was
established, styled the " order of the Trinity,"
or u for the redemption of captives," John of
Matha being appointed its "minister general."
Returning to France, they established a mon
astery in Cerfroi, which became the cradle
of the order of Trinitarians. While John of
Matha journeyed to Italy and Africa, Felix
governed and propagated the new order. He
obtained for it an establishment in Paris, near
a chapel dedicated to St. Mathurin, and from
this circumstance his monks were there called
les Mathurins. The order established by him
is called indiscriminately Trinitarians or Re-
demptionists. See for his biography Baillet,
Vies des saints, under date of Nov. 20, and
Richard and Giraud, Bibliotfieque mcree.

FELIX, Celestin Joseph, a French preacher,
born at Xeuville-sur-rEscaut, near Valencien
nes, June 28, 1810. He studied at Cambrai,
and after his ordination was employed there
in pastoral duties. He entered the novitiate
of the Jesuits in 1837, and was appointed pro
fessor of rhetoric in the college of Bruge-
lette. While there a discourse delivered by
him at an academic celebration caused his su
periors to employ him exclusively in the min
istry of preaching. He went to Paris, heard
the best speakers of the bar, the pulpit, and
the legislature, preached his first course of
Advent sermons in the church of St. Thomas
d Aquin in 1851, and the Lenten course in St.
Germain des Pres in 1852. In 1853 he suc
ceeded Lacordaire and Ravignan in the pulpit

116

FELLAHS

FELLENBEEG

of Notre Dame ; and from that year until 1869
lie held that post. He was superior of his
order in Nancy, when in June, 1871, he was
appointed superior of the Jesuit residence in
the rue de Sevres, Paris, in place of Pere
Ollivaint, killed during the commune. His
sermons have been published under the title
of Le progres pur le Christianisme: Confe
rences de Kotre-Dame (13 vols. 8vo, Paris,
1856- 69).

FELLAHS (Aral), fallali^ a cultivator), a
term applied without distinction to all the
peasantry in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. Of
the various races which exist in Egypt the
Fellahs are the most ancient, and are probably
mainly the descendants of the old Egyptians.
They still present a physiognomy resembling
that which is found upon ancient Egyptian
sculptures. A patient and laborious popula
tion, they have held for ages the soil which

Fellahs.

the Nile fertilizes. They are generally of large
stature, with broad chests, muscular limbs, and
black and piercing eyes. The conformation
of the brain indicates an intelligent race, the
facial angle being usually almost a right angle,
though within the Delta the Arab type of
countenance predominates. The antique Egyp
tian type reappears most strikingly in the wo
men, who, though slender and graceful, are
remarkably strong. The dress of the Fellahs
indicates misery and privation, being rarely
more than a shirt, leaving bare the arms, legs,
and breast. Their ordinary nourishment is
coarse bread, water, and onions, to which they
are sometimes able to add cheese, dates, beans,
or rice. They live in huts about four feet
high, the only furniture of which is a mat on
which to sleep, a water jug, and a few kitchen
utensils. They remain attached to the rudest

agricultural methods, and use almost the same
implements as their remote ancestors ; yet the
fruitfulness of the soil compensates for their
lack of skill. Mehemet Ali failed in his efforts
to introduce among them the implements of
modern invention. They are able to endure
the greatest fatigue, and to work through the
whole day in a burning climate with very little
food, accompanying their labors with songs.
The women share the heaviest labors of the
men. The Fellahs in Palestine are addicted to
theft and robbery, and are averse to work un
less compelled by necessity. This arises partly
from their natural indolence, and partly from
the exactions of an arbitrary government,
which views with distrust any acquisition of
wealth. They are generally in debt to usurers,
who lend them money at a ruinous rate of
interest.

FELLATAHS. See FOOLAHS.

FELLEOERG, Pliilipp Emanncl TOD, a Swiss
educator and philanthropist, founder of the in
stitutions at Hofwyl, born in Bern, June 27,
1771, died there, Nov. 21, 1844. His father
was a member of the government and a friend
of Pestalozzi. His mother was a descendant
of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. He studied
at Colmar and Tubingen, and travelled ex
tensively with a view of familiarizing himself
with the condition of the working and suffer
ing classes. He was at Paris shortly after the
fall of Robespierre, and there his early convic
tions became strengthened that improved sys
tems of education alone can protect society
against revolutions. Returning to Switzerland
after taking part against the French, he was
exiled when they had succeeded in taking
Bern, and went to Germany, where he resided
some time. After his return to Switzerland he
was employed by the government in a mission
to Paris, and in high military and political
functions at home. Finding that nothing would
be done by the government for the accomplish
ment of his favorite educational projects, he
resolved to devote his large fortune to the pur
chase of the estate of Hofwyl near Bern, and to
the establishment of model institutions in ac
cordance with the views of Pestalozzi. Fellen-
berg s aim was to elevate all classes by opening
an institution alike to the poor and the rich,
and by not only making agriculture the basis
of his instruction, but also elevating that pro
fession to the dignity of a science. Apart
from the agricultural school, he founded an
establishment for the manufacture of improved
agricultural implements. At the same time he
laid the foundation of a scientific institution,
for which the first building was erected in 1807.
The agricultural institution was opened in
1808, and he established in the same year a
normal school, which became popular among
the teachers of Switzerland, and grew in im
portance as its advantages became known
abroad. The institution was gradually enlarged,
and comprised altogether seven distinct schools,
to which a primary school was added in 1830,

FELLER

FELO L&gt;E SE

117

and still another school for children at a sub-
sequent period. By these schools, and by his
writings on the subject of agriculture and edu
cation, Fellenberg exerted a remarkable influ
ence in Europe; and although the institutions
which he founded were dissolved after his
death, after having been conducted for several
years by one of his sons, kindred institutions :
have sprung up in Switzerland and Germa- !
ny, and the celebrated pauper colony of the
Netherlands at Frederiksoord, province of
Drenthe, was founded in 1818 by a pupil of :
Ilofwyl. Fellenberg was assisted in his be- \
nevolent labors by his wife, and by the great- |
er number of their nine children. See Hamm, j
Felleiiberrfa Leben und Wirken (Bern, 1845).
Robert Dale Owen was a pupil at Hofwyl, |
and in his autobiography (" Threading his I
Way," 1874) has given an interesting account j
of the school.

FELLER, Francois Xavier de, a Belgian author, |
born in Brussels, Aug. 18, 1735, died in Ratis- j
bon, May 21, 1802. lie was educated in the i
Jesuits colleges at Luxemburg and Rheinis, |
and after becoming a member of their order \
was employed as professor at Luxemburg and
Liege. He went afterward to Tyrnau in Hun
gary, and after passing some time there, he
travelled extensively in Hungary, Austria, Bo
hemia, Poland, and Italy. He was preacher in i
the college of Liege when the order of Jesuits !
was suppressed in Belgium in 1773, and after-
ward devoted himself to literature. Being
compelled to leave Belgium at the occupation !
of that country by France in 1794, he spent ,
two years at Paderborn, and subsequently re- i
tired to Ratisbon. Among his works are Ob- \
servations philosophiques sur le systeme de New- \
ton (3d and enlarged ed., Liege, 1778), and ;
Catechisme pliilosophique (4th ed., 1805 ; new
ed., from the author s annotations, Lyons,
1819). He left many other writings, chiefly on
religious subjects; but his principal work is j
his Biographic unixersclle, ou Dictionnaire his-
toripue, &c., which passed through many edi
tions, and after his death was revised and con
tinued under the direction of M. Charles Weiss
and the abbe Busson, and brought dow r n to i
1848 (9 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1847-56).

FELLOWES, Robert, an English author, born j
in Norfolk in 1770, died in 1847. He gradu- i
ated at St. Mary s hall, Oxford, and in 1795 j
took holy orders, but subsequently rejected the j
doctrines of the established church, and adopt
ed the opinions which are given at length in
his "Religion of the Universe," published in ;
London in 1836. He had previously published ;
"A Picture of Christian Philosophy" (8vo, |
London, 1800); "Religion without Cant"
(1801); "The Guide to Immortality" (3 vols.,
1804); "A Manual of Piety, adapted to the :
Wants and calculated for the Improvement of ;
all Sects of Christians" (1807); "A Body of !
Theology, principally practical, in a Series of
Lectures" (2 vols., 1807), &c. Mr. Fellowes
was an intimate friend of Dr. Parr and Baron

Maseres, the latter of whom left him the greater
part of his large fortune, to be dispensed in
literary and benevolent enterprises, lie was
one of the earliest advocates of the establish
ment of the university of London, of which
he was a frequent and liberal benefactor.

FELLOWS, Sir Charles, an English traveller
and archaeologist, born in Nottingham in 1799,
died Nov. 8, 18(50. lie published a "Journal
written during an Excursion in Asia Minor "
(8vo, London, 1839), in which he gave descrip
tions of the superb architectural and sculptural
remains of the cities of Xantlms and Tlos. The
interest excited by the work induced the gov
ernment to apply to the Porte for a firman,
authorizing the removal of specimens of the
ancient works of art described by Mr. Fellows,
who departed on a second tour through Lycia,
in the course of which he discovered 13 other
ruined cities, Having learned that the Porte
declined to grant the firman, he returned to
England, and published "An Account of Dis
coveries in Lycia, being a Journal kept during
a Second Excursion in Asia Minor " (8vo, 1841).
The government were at last successful in pro
curing the desired firman, and a new expe
dition succeeded in transporting to England
a number of cases of sculptures, which are
now deposited in the " Lycian Saloon " of
the British museum. Another expedition, also
under the direction of Mr. Fellows, brought
a number of additional marbles to England
in 1844. For these services he received in
1845 the honor of knighthood. His remain
ing publications are: "Account of the Xan-
thian Marbles in the British Museum" (1843),
a pamphlet written to correct some misstate-
ments ; " Account of the Trophy Monument
at Xanthus" (1848); and "Coins of Ancient
Lycia" (1855).

FELO DE SE, one who commits felony against
or upon himself. As felony is, in common-
law language, any capital offence, and mur
der is the only capital offence which a man
can commit against himself, a felo de se is a
self-murderer, or one who kills himself with
malice aforethought. Indeed, the legal defini
tion of a felony de se (or suicide) is said to in
clude the doing of any unlawful and malicious
act, although aimed primarily against another,
whereby death ensues to the guilty person. In
England this crime was punished not only with
forfeiture of goods and chattels, like other felo
nies, but, to mark the detestation of the law,
and to deter others from a similar crime, the
body was treated ignominiously, and buried in
the open highway with a stake thrust through
it. This very ancient rule fell into general if
not entire disuse in England many years ago,
but it was not repealed until the statute 4
George IV., c. 51 ; and even then, to manifest
the horror of the law at the act of suicide, it
was ordered that the body (which might be
placed in a churchyard or other consecrated
ground) should be buried at night, and with
out the performance of religious rites. (See

FELONY

FELT

Blackst one s Commentaries, vol. iv., p. 190.)
Suicide does not seem ever to have been made
punishable as a crime by any statutory provi
sions of the United States; nor are we aware
that the barbarous usages of England in rela
tion to the burial of the corpse were ever prac
tised here. It is held at the common law that
if one encourage and assist another in the com
mission of suicide, he is guilty of murder as a
principal.

FELOM. The origin and the exact meaning
of this common-law term are both uncertain.
There is about equally good authority for de
riving it from the Saxon words feh, fee, and
Ion, price or pay, when its primary sense would
be forfeiture or loss of fee ; or from a single
word felen, to fall or fail, when its meaning
might be the falling of the guilty party into
crime, or the falling of his land into the hands
of his lord by forfeiture. It seems quite cer
tain that in England, from the earliest times,
felony was always attended by absolute for
feiture of land or of goods, or of both ; and
the definition of Blackstone (4 Bl. Com. 95) is,
in accordance with this principle : "An offence
which occasions a total forfeiture of lands or
goods, or both, at the common law, and to
which capital or other punishment may be
superadded, according to the degree of guilt."
But we understand Blackstone to mean, gen
erally, by felony, all capital crimes below trea
son (p. 98) ; and Coke says (3 Inst. 15) that
treason itself was anciently included within
the meaning of felony. In those distant ages
a felon was to be punished : 1, by loss of life ;
2, by loss of land; 3, by loss of goods; 4, by
loss of blood, or attainder, under which he
could have no heir, and none could ever
claim through him. In more recent times
felony meant in practice any crime punishable
with death ; and therefore when a statute de
clared any offence to be felony, it became at
once punishable with death ; and vice versa, a
crime which is made punishable with death
becomes thereby a felony. Even in early times
felony was sometimes defined as any capital
crime ; although it is said that before the reign
of Henry I. felonies were punished only by
pecuniary mulct or fine, and that sovereign
having about 1108 ordered those guilty of
felony to be hanged, this has since been the
law of England. (Tomlin s "Law Diction
ary," word " Felony.") It cannot be doubt
ed, however, that at common law the forfeit
ure incurred by the crime was the essence
and the test of felony. In the United States
there is little or no forfeiture for crime (see
FORFEITURE) ; and in England capital offences
are far less numerous than formerly. It may
be said that in the United States "the word,
so far as it has any definite meaning, signifies
a crime punishable with death or imprison
ment The statutes of some of the states de
fine it as any offence punishable to a certain
extent, as by death or confinement in the state
prison or penitentiary.

FELS1XG, Jakob, a German engraver, born in
Darmstadt in 1802. He received his first in
struction from his father, studied at the acade
my of Milan, and acquired reputation by his
faithful reproduction of the manner of the
painters whose works he engraved. After re
siding in Italy, and visiting Munich and Paris,
he returned "to Darmstadt in 1839. His- best
engravings are from Carlo Dolce s " Christ on
the Mount of Olives," Andrea del Sarto s "Ma
donna on the Throne," Raphael s " Violin Play
er," Bendemann s "Young Girl at the Foun
tain," Overbeck s "Holy Family," Crespi s
"Christ with the Cross," Correggio s "Mar
riage of St. Catharine," and Steinbruck s "St.
Gene vie ve," and other paintings of the Diis-
seldorf school.

FELT, a fabric of wool or fur, separate or
mixed, manufactured by matting the fibres to
gether without spinning or weaving. The fur
of the beaver, hare, rabbit, and seal, camel s
and goat s hair, and the wool of the sheep, arc
well adapted for this process. Felt is an an
cient manufacture, supposed by Pliny to have
been produced before woven cloth. It is prob
ably the same as the lana coacta anciently
used for the cloaks of soldiers, and by the La-
ceda?monians for hats. Early in the present
century a piece of ancient felt was discovered
with some other stuffs in a tomb at St. Germain
des Pres, and a paper relating to them was pre
sented by Desmarest in 1800 to the academy
of sciences. The production of a fabric from
the loose fibres results from the tendency these
have from their barbed structure to work to
gether when rubbed, each fibre moving for
ward in the direction of its larger end without
a possibility of moving in the other direction.
This peculiar structure of the animal fibre, so dif
ferent from that of the smooth vegetable fibres,
is readily perceived on drawing a filament of
wool through the fingers, holding it first by
one end and then by the other. Examined
through a powerful microscope, the short fibre
exhibits the appearance of a continuous vege
table growth with numerous sprouts, all point
ing toward the smaller end. In a filament of
merino wool as many as 2,400 of these projec
tions or teeth have been found in a single inch ;
and in one of Saxon wool of superior felting
quality there were 2,700 serrations in the same
space. Southdown wool, which is not so much
esteemed for this use, contained only 2,080 ser
rations in one inch ; and Leicester wool, which
is not at all adapted for felting, only 1 ,860. The
short curly fibres of wool, freed from grease
and brought together, intertwine at once very
closely and form a compact mat. By rubbing
this with the hands, and moistening it with
some soapy liquid, the matter is made more
dense according to the pressure with which it
is rubbed. At last the fibres can go no further
without danger of fracture, and the fabric be
comes hard and stiff. It may, however, be
made thicker to any desired extent by adding
more fibres and rubbing these in by separate

FELTHAM

FELTRE

119

layers. Drugget is a variety of felt in which !
machinery is made to agitate and work the i
fibres of wool together. A coarse variety of I
felt cloth has of late years been introduced, in ;
the manufacture of which, improvements have
been made greatly facilitating the process.
The method of making felt will be more partic- j
ularly noticed in the article HAT.

FELTHAM, or Felltham, Owen, an English au
thor, died about 1680. No event of his life is
known except that he resided for many years
in the house of the earl of Thomond. lie
wrote " Resolves, Divine, Political, and Moral "
(3d, and 1st complete ed., 1628 ; 10th ed.,
1677), which has been highly admired for its
exuberance of wit and fancy, fervent piety,
and occasional subtlety of thought. Feltham
is the author also of a few minor pieces in
prose and verse.

FELTON, Cornelius Conway, an American scho
lar and writer, born at Newbury, Mass., Nov.
6, 1807, died at Chester, Pa., Feb. 26, 1862.
He graduated at Harvard college in 1827.
While in college he was distinguished for his
literary tastes, and the wide range of his stud
ies. He supported himself to some extent by
teaching in Concord and Boston, and in the
Round Hill school at Northampton, Mass. In
his senior year he was one of the conductors
of the " Harvard Register," a students periodi
cal. After leaving college he was engaged for
two years, in conjunction with two of his
classmates, in the charge of the Livingston
high school in Geneseo, N. Y. He was ap
pointed Latin tutor in Harvard college in 1829,
Greek tutor in the following year, college pro
fessor of Greek in 1832, and Eliot professor of
Greek literature in 1834. In addition to the
duties of this professorship he filled for many
years the office of regent of the college. In
1833 he published an edition of Homer, with
English notes and Flaxman s illustrations,
which has since passed through several edi- |
tions, with revisions and emendations. In 1 840
a translation by him of MenzeFs work on
"German Literature," in three volumes, was
published among Ripley s " Specimens of For- j
eign Literature." In the same year appeared !
his " Greek Reader," containing selections in
prose and verse from Greek authors, with Eng
lish notes and a vocabulary ; this has since
been frequently reprinted. In 1841 he pub- j
lished an edition of the "Clouds" of Aristo- j
phanes, with an introduction and notes ; since
revised and republished in England. In 1843 j
he aided Professors Sears and Edwards in the i
preparation of a work on classical studies, con- j
taining essays on classical subjects, mostly
translated from the German. He assisted |
Longfellow in the preparation of the " Poets
and Poetry of Europe," which appeared in
1845. In 1847 editions of the Panegyrists of ,
Isocrates and of the "Agamemnon" of ^Eschy-
lus, with introductions and English notes, were j
published by him ; a second edition of the for-
mer appeared in 1854, and of the latter in ;

1850. In 1849 he translated from the French
the work of Prof. Guyot on physical geogra
phy, called "The Earth and Man;" and in
the same year he published an edition of the
"Birds" of Aristophanes, with an introduc
tion and English notes, which was republished
in England. In 1852 he edited a selection
from the writings of Prof. Popkin, his prede
cessor in the Eliot professorship, with an in
troductory biographical notice. In the same
year he published a volume of selections from
the Greek historians, arranged in the order of
events. The period from April, 1853, to May,
1854, was spent by him in a European tour,
in the course of which he visited Great Brit
ain, France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and
Greece ; giving about five months to the last
named country, visiting its most interesting lo
calities, and carefully studying its architectu
ral remains. In 1855 he revised for publica
tion in the United States Smith s " History of
Greece," adding a preface, notes, and a con
tinuation from the Roman conquest to the
present time. In the same year an edition
of Lord Carlisle s " Diary in Turkish and
Greek Waters" was prepared by him for the
American press, with notes, illustrations, and
a preface. In 1856 he published a selection
from modern Greek writers in prose and
verse. Besides the above, he compiled an ele
mentary work on Greek and Roman metres,
and wrote a life of Gen. Eaton for Sparks s
" American Biography," and also various occa
sional addresses, and numerous contributions
to the " North American Review," " Chris
tian Examiner," and other periodical publica
tions. He delivered four courses of lectures
before the Lowell institute in Boston, on sub
jects connected with the history and litera
ture of Greece. He wrote the articles on Agas-
siz, Athens, Attica, Demosthenes, Euripides,
Greece, and Homer for the first edition of this
Cyclopaedia. He was a member of the Mas
sachusetts board of education, and one of the
regents of the Smithsonian institution. In the
summer of 1858 he made a second visit to Eu
rope, partly on account of impaired health,
and partly to complete some investigations into
the language, topography, education, &c., of
Greece. An account of this visit was given in
his "Familiar Letters from Europe," published
after his death (Boston, 1864). In 1860, on
the resignation of President Walker, he was
elected president of Harvard college. His
most important work, "Greece, Ancient and
Modern," was published posthumously in 1867
(2 vols. 8vo) ; it was made up chiefly from his
lectures before the Lowell institute.

FEF/TRE, a town of Italy, in the province
and 18 m. S. W. of the city of Belluno, on the
border of Tyrol, at the confluence of two small
affluents of the Piave, at the foot of the last
slopes of the Rhretian Alps; pop. about 5,500.
Remains of the mediaeval fortifications are still
visible in the upper town. The cathedral con
tains fine pictures. The monte di pietd, found-

120

FEMERN

ed in the 15th century by Father Bernardi-
ni, is regarded as the oldest establishment of
the kind in Europe. Wax bleaching and silk |
weaving are the principal branches of industry,
and there is a brisk trade in wine, silk, and
oil. The former see of Feltre has been united
with that of Belhmo, but the town is still the
seat of a vicar apostolic. Marshal Clarke, one
of Napoleon s generals, derived his ducal title
from this place.

FFJIEKN, Felimcrn, or Felmmrn, an island of
Prussia, in the province of Schleswig-Holstein,-
separated from Holstein by the Fehmarn sound,
and from the Danish island of Laaland by the
Fehmarn belt, 37 in. E. N. E. of Kiel ; area,
about 70 sq. m. ; pop. about 10,000. It is
accessible only to small boats, owing to the
shallowness of the sea. The principal pro
ducts are grain and peas. There is an active
trade in woollen hosiery, and a number of the
inhabitants are also engaged in fishing. Capi
tal, Burg or Borg. Femern Avas taken in
1420 by King Eric of Denmark, who had all
the young women slain on the so-called Maiden
mountain, near the village of Petersdorf. It
was recovered by the duke of Holstein in 1426.
The treaty of Flensburg, 1580, gave the island
to the Gottorp line of dukes, with whom it
passed to Denmark two centuries afterward.
Femern was taken by Prussia in March, 1864,
during the war with Denmark.

FENCING, the art of attack and defence with
any weapon but such as cut or break by sheer
force. The word is, however, understood to
allude especially to the management of the
small sword or rapier, and when any other
arm, such as broadsword, bayonet, or stick,
is used, the kind of weapon is specified. Fen
cing was cultivated by the ancients, as shown
by the Roman gladiators. During the period
when suits of armor were worn by combatants,
battle axes and other ponderous weapons were
much adopted, and fencing fell into disuse.
When, however, metal casing was abandoned,
it came again into vogue. The peculiar state
of society existing in Italy in the 16th century
made such knowledge more needed there than
elsewhere; consequently the Italians became
the most expert fencers of that epoch, and were
the teachers of the art to other nations. The
next country which found the art to be a ne
cessity was Spain, whither it was imported
from Italy. There the art was improved, and
the amendments were accepted by the Italians.
From Italy fencing was also imported into
France, where the court and gentry favored it
so much that it quickly took a fresh develop
ment, and a new school was established.
Though the principal object in studying the
art of fencing is to enable men to wield arms
with advantage, it is also pursued by many as |
a recreation and an exercise. While it demands
no violent straining of the muscles, it develops
in an extraordinary degree the whole physique,
and imparts the most perfect delicacy of touch,
with steadiness and lightness of hand. The

FENCING

fundamental principle upon which is based the
defence of the person by means of the small
sword is a peculiar application of the power
of the lever, whereby the fencer who parries
an attack causes the point of his adversary s
blade to deviate from the direct course, and
throws it aside from his body through pressing
or striking the faible (part near the point) of
his adversary s weapon by t\\Q forte (part near
the handle) of his own. The surface of the
front of the body is, in fencing language, di
vided by an imaginary line, horizontal, and
just below the breast, separating the upper
from the lower portion ; the upper part is again
subdivided by a perpendicular line, the right
of which is termed the outside, the left the in
side. There were in the old school eight
parries, distinguished by the Italian numerals
prime, secondo, terzo, quarto, &c., from which
are taken the modern terms prime, seconde,
tierce, carte, &c. The instrument adopted for
exercise is called a foil ; it has a handle similar
to the small sword, which it is intended to
represent ; it has a guard of metal or leather
between the handle and the blade, which blade
is of pliant steel, having at the end a button in
place of a point. The parries are made with
the weapon itself; the upper part of the body
to the right is defended by the parry termed
tierce, the upper part to the left by that termed
carte, and the lower line by seconde. Of the
old parries these are the chief; indeed the
others are nearly obsolete, or used only in cer
tain exceptional cases. \Yhen the fencer is
left-handed, the left of his person instead of
the right is most exposed to his adversary, and
the parries of carte and tierce are reversed.
The fencer is expected to depend upon his
sword hand for protection, rather than upon
his agility of leg; nevertheless he must be
quick and active on his legs to be able to ad
vance, retreat, or lunge. Thrusts are directed
solely at the body ; a hit upon a limb can only
be accidental, and in a fencing school will not
be counted as a hit. An attack or a riposte
may be made by the mere extension of the
arm, or accompanied by a lunge, that is, by
advancing the body, stepping forward with the
right foot without moving the left one. An
engagement means the crossing of the blades.
A riposte means the attack without pause by
the fencer who has parried. The early Italian
and Spanish schools taught the management
of the sword aided generally by the dagger or
the mantlet ; the shifting of the position of the
fencer to the right or left was also called into
requisition in avoiding an attack. But since
the habit of wearing the dagger and mantlet
has been abandoned, and the velocity of attack
and riposte has become so great that the dag
ger and mantlet would be an encumbrance,
and the shifting of the position would be fatal
to him who relied upon it, the instruction in
defence has been confined solely to the foil.
The Italian foil is long, some 38 to 40 in, ; the
ancient was longer than the more modern.

FENCING

121

The Italian is also much heavier and less pli- I
ant than the French foil, which is only 34 in. i
in length. The handle has just beneath the
guard a ring in which the fencer inserts his fore* j
and middle fingers to grasp firmly the weapon, I
which is further secured to the hand by a ,
bandage ; whereas the French use neither the j
ring nor the bandage. The guard to protect !
the hand is of metal in the Italian foil, and j
very large ; in the French foil it is much small
er and lighter. The pure Italian school is in
vogue only in lower Italy and Sicily, and the
Neapolitan masters are justly celebrated for
their adroitness in this particular method. The
characteristic of the Neapolitan school (which
more than any other partakes of the old Italian
and 8panish)"is to extend the arm so as con
stantly to present the point direct to the ad
versary s breast ; the hand is kept in the centre
of the person at nearly the elevation of the
shoulder ; the large guard between the handle
and the blade serves somewhat the purpose of
a little shield by causing the attacking point to
glance off the hand of the fencer on the defen
sive, slightly bearing to the left or right (carte
or tierce), according as he finds himself men
aced. The arm being already fully extended
has the tendency to keep an adversary at a
distance, and also facilitates the lunge of the
attacker. The fencer can also defend himself
by a circle parry, which the Neapolitan makes
by describing with the point a small circle 8
to 12 in. in diameter, for the purpose of catch
ing up an adversary s point which may glide
away from the engagement under the blade,
menacing the lower line, or the upper one if it
complete the disengagement. The Venetian
school, of those of upper Italy, resembles most
the Neapolitan ; the Piedmontese is mixed, par
taking of the old French and the Neapolitan.
The Spanish school is a modification of the
Neapolitan, in which the attack is assisted by
extraordinary gymnastics of the leg, the fencer
at times throwing himself nearly on the ground
and attacking much in the lower line. This,
like every other peculiarity, when well execu
ted, is very embarrassing to one not accustomed
to it. When the French established a method
of their own, the deviation from the Italian
model consisted in the fencer having a less ex
tended sword arm, the hand (medium guard) at
the height of the breast, the elbow slightly bent,
and the point of the sword at about the height
of the eye. The knees were a little more bent,
but the body was kept back as if to get out of
reach of attack. Among the additions to the
defence may be especially noted the half circle
(old style), having the hand about level with
the shoulder and the point depressed to the
height of the waist, protecting the lower line
to the left (carte), and being consequently the
opposite of seconcle, which bore the adversary s j
blade to the right. A new mode of attack was
also introduced, termed coupe, or the cutting
over the point instead of disengaging under .
the blade. Here were also introduced the bat-

tement or sharp tap preceding an attack, the
effect of which is to make the person thus at
tacked grasp his foil nervously and thus render
his hand for the moment rigid and unsuited to
parry with rapidity. The change of engage
ment has much the same effect. Some disarms
were introduced, but they are practically use
less except when the hit is given by the same
blow, for an adversary who is seen to be dis
armed cannot be touched. Lafaugere intro
duced the couronnement, which was made by
raising the hand instantly after the parry (carte
or tierce), and with the forte of one s own blade
mastering the faible of the adversary s, then
(as the latter in this situation tries to close
the line of the riposte) turning or sliding the
blade round it without quitting it, and deliver
ing the riposte in the opposite line to that of
the parry. The half-circle parry of Bertrand is
made with the nails upward, the hand at the
height and to the right of the forehead, the arm
more than half extended, the point very slight
ly depressed and projecting leftward about as
far as the line of the left shoulder, rather but
not completely in the direction of the adver
sary. The blade in this parry catches up the
attacking foil and exposes the entire body of
the attacker to a riposte, which comes with
incredible velocity, the point after the half,
circle parry being very near to the breast of
the opponent. The instruction for the small
sword is the basis of the attack and defence
with every other weapon ; nevertheless almost
every attack and parry with the broadsword
is the reverse of those with the small sword.
Instead of having the point further out than
the hand on the side of the guard, the blade
is kept across the body ; instead of the touch
being the guide, the eye principally directs the
movements; instead of piercing with the point,
the hit consists of a cut with the blade. The
cut can be given as a blow, or with a light hand,
which makes it razor fashion. There are also
circle parries called moulinets, whereby the
man who parries swings round his sword, de
scribing a complete circle with the point, and
having his own wrist as the pivot for the
movement. The use of the broadsword on
horseback is but a variation of its application
by a combatant on foot; the horseman is
obliged to protect his horse as well as himself.
Heavy cavalry are armed with long heavy
swords, and hit heavily. The Turks have
curved scymitars and adopt the razor cut ; they
also use swords weighted at the extremity,
whereby they combine together the blow and
the razor cut. The Germans have a long sword
which they (students especially) manoeuvre
with an extended arm ; it may be regarded
as the Neapolitan school applied to the broad
sword. The bayonet at the end of the musket
is, when employed by a line of soldiers, a very
formidable weapon; but on account 6f the
leverage it offers it is of little use to an isolated
man, unless to defend Himself against a mount
ed dragoon. The motion of the bavonets in

122

FXELOX

line (the stock of the musket grasped by the
right hand and the barrel steadied by the left)
should be straight forward ; any attempt to
parry by leverage right or left would only
cause a point to glance from one man into
some other. The foot soldier isolated can parry
head or body cuts and thrusts from sabre or
lance, and can riposte by jerking forward or
right or left the point, striking the horse if he
mi^s the rider. Certain modern bayonets used
for the rifle corps are very long, with a view
to compensate in a measure for the short
ness of the firearms at the end of which they
are fixed. Such bayonets have besides their
point an edge wherewith to cut. The lance is
utterly worthless, except for cavalry, by whom
it can be most efficiently employed in pursuing
a routed foe ; its use as a fencing weapon,
therefore, requires little explanation. The
knife or dagger requires quickness of hand and
eye. The blow can be given by striking down
ward, straight forward, or upward ; in the two
latter cases the weapon is shifted from the
ordinary grasp of the handle, so that the pom
mel rests in the palm of the hand and the stab
is given with ease and force. The Spanish
colonists employ their hats held in their left
hands as shields, and also to mask the attack,
concealing the knife behind the hat. The stick
is a formidable weapon used to inflict blows, as
wjth the broadsword ; the ferrule end can as
a point be most effectually driven into the face
of an adversary. The quarterstaff is out of
use ; it was held in the middle and used not
only in striking but in thrusting, when one end
was suddenly driven forward like a bayonet.
In 1536 Marozzo of Venice published the first
work on the subject. Other works are : Thi-
bault, Academie de Vepee (Paris, 1628) ; Meyer,
Kumt dcs Fechtens (1670) ; La Boissiere V Art
des armes (Paris, 1815) ; Otto, System der
Fechikumt (Olmtitz 1852); Linsingen, Hand-
Inch dcs Bajonnetfechtew (Hanover, 1854);
J. Hewitt, " Ancient Armors and Weapons in
Europe" (Oxford, 1855); G. B. McClellan,
" Manual of Bayonet Exercise " (Philadelphia,
1856); G. Patten, "Infantry Drill and Sabre
Exercise " (New York, 1861).

FENELON, Bertrand de Salignac, marquis de
la Mothe, a French diplomatist, died in 1589.
After having served with distinction in the
army, he was ambassador to England at the
time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and
was charged by Charles IX. to endeavor to ap
pease the resentment of Elizabeth. The most
important of his numerous writings are : Me-

dc Maumssiere, en Angleterre, containing some
curious correspondence between Catharine de
Medici and her son Charles IX. relating to
Queen Elizabeth, Mary queen of Scots, and
the massacre of St. Bartholomew ; and Depeches
de M. de la Mothe Fenelon. These were pub
lished in theMemoires of Castelnau.

FENELON. I. Francois dc Sali:nac de la Mothe,

or Lamotte, a French prelate and author, born
at the chateau of Fenelon, in Perigord, Aug. 6,
1651, died in Cambrai, Jan. 7, 1715. lie was
the son of Pons de Salignac, count de la Mothe
Fenelon, and a nephew of the marquis de
Fenelon, under whose care he received much of
his education. At the age of 12 he was sent to
the university of Cahors, and a few years later
he removed to Paris in order to complete his
course of philosophy in the college of Plessis.
He next entered the theological seminary of
St. Sulpice, under the direction of the abb6
Tronson, and about 1675 received holy orders.
He wished at first to devote himself to foreign
missions, but this design was overruled ; and
after three years passed as a preacher and cate-
chist at the church of St. Sulpice, he was ap
pointed by the archbishop of Paris superior
of the society of Nourelles Catholiques, estab
lished for the instruction of female converts.
Meanwhile he cultivated the friendship of the
abbe Fleury and of Bossuet, bishop of Meaux,
and was a frequent guest at the brilliant re
unions which took place at the bishop s coun
try seat. The distinguished society into which
he was thus thrown, the charm of his manners,
and his eloquence in the pulpit, soon drew him
into public notice. To enable him to meet his
expenses, one of his uncles, the bishop of Sar-
lat, gave him a small living at which he was
not required to reside permanently. It yielded
him 3,000 francs a year, much of which he
spent upon the poor, and this until 1694 was
his only income. His first public service was
in the capacity of missionary to the Protestants
in Saintonge and Poitou, after the revocation
of the edict of Xantes. He was presented to
Louis XIV. by Bossuet, and the only favor he
asked of the king in accepting the office was
that no violence should be used within the field
of his mission. Aided by the abbes de Lan-
geron and Fleury, but still more by his own
mild and amiable character, he succeeded in
winning over large numbers of the Protestants,
and soon tranquillized a population whom per
secution had roused to a dangerous excitement.
After his return to Paris in 1 689 Louis appointed
him preceptor to his grandsons, the dukes of
Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry. For their use
Fenelon composed "Dialogues of the Dead,"
"Directions for the Conscience of a King,"
" Abridgment of the Lives of Ancient Philoso
phers," and the "Adventures of Telemachus."
The success with which he discharged his im
portant and delicate trust gained him for some
time neither praise nor pecuniary reward.
Louis, though not blind to his merit, was never
his friend ; but Mme. de Maintenon had long
been one of his warmest admirers, and it was
probably through her influence that he received
in 1694 the rich abbacy of St. Yalery. Toward
the close of this year he drafted the famous
anonymous letter to the king, setting forth the
disorders and abuses of his reign, which was
first published by D Alembert, and whose au-

FEXELOX

123

thenticity, after much dispute, was settled by
the discovery of the original MS. jn 1825. It
is not probable that Louis suspected the au
thor, for in the following February he nomina
ted Fnelon to the archbishopric of Cambrai.
The ceremony of consecration was performed
in the chapel of St. Cyr, July 10, 1695, but the
new prelate retained his connection with his
pupils, with whom it was arranged that he
should pass three months of every year. Hon
ored by the king, beloved by the young princes,
esteemed and consulted by the most influential
person of the court, and holding high stations
in the church and the palace, he was now at
the height of his prosperity ; but his disgrace
was already preparing. With a natural ten
dency to all that is mild and spiritual in reli
gion, he had long felt a sympathy for the doc
trines of Mme. Guyon, whose system of " qui
etism " was attracting a large share of attention
at court, and had gained proselytes in the king s
household. She was charged with heresy, and
demanded a commission to inquire into the
matter. Bossuet, the bishop of Chalons, and
Tronsonwere appointed. Besides the writings
of Mine. Guyon, the commission was obliged to
investigate what Fenelon was daily writing and
preaching on the subject, perhaps with the in
tention of turning upon himself the condem
nation that was threatening his friend. Fene
lon was so humble in his intercourse with the
commission, that his judges, though startled at
his errors, would urge nothing against him.
These conferences had lasted nearly a year, and
it was necessary to put an end to them. Bos-
suet and his two colleagues agreed upon a se
ries of articles which should settle the matter ;
and making a sort of formulary, they invited
Fenelon to subscribe to it. He hesitated for a
long time, but at last acceded to the demands
of the prelates. During the interval of editing
and signing the formulary, Fe*nelon was called
to the archbishopric of Cambrai, and after his
consecration occurred between him and Bos-
suet that celebrated controversy which forms
almost an epoch in French literature. As
Archbishop Fenelon assumed a more decided
tone, Bossuet explained the articles of the
formulary in an abridged report of the previous
conferences, and asked Fenelon to give this
book, entitled Instructions sur les ctats cVorai-
son, his ecclesiastical approbation, as the other
two prelates of the commission had done.
Fenelon refused; he would not even read the
book ; and from this refusal dates the literary
war between these two great prelates. Fene
lon published his famous book, Maximes des
saints. Bossuet denounced him to the court
as a fanatic ; the king struck his name from the
list of preceptors to the royal family, and or
dered him to retire to his " diocese ;" Mme. de
Maintenon withdrew her favor, and his friend
ship for Mme. Guyon was even made a theme
for the grossest calumnies. He sent the ob
noxious book to Rome, where Louis used all
his influence to obtain its condemnation. Af

ter a delay of nine months Innocent XII. pro
nounced u mild censure of the Maximes des
saints, but addressed at the same time to cer
tain prelates who had been most severe in their
attacks on the author the following caustic re
buke: Pecc&lt;ivit excessu amor is divini, sed vos
peccastiz defectu amoris i&gt;roximi (" He has
sinned through excess of love of God, but you
have sinned through lack of love for your
neighbor "). Immediately on receiving the
sentence, in March, 1090, Fenelon hastened to
declare his submission, and to publish the con
demnation of his own book in a mandatory
letter. In the following month his Aventures
de Telemaque, which had hitherto remained in
manuscript, was given to the world by the dis
honesty of a servant who had been employed
to have the work copied, but who sold it to a
bookseller without disclosing the author s name.
The king having been told that it was from the
pen of the archbishop of Cambrai, and probably
sharing a suspicion then current that the book
was designed as a satire on the court, took
measures to suppress it. A few copies escaped
seizure, and an imperfect edition was printed
in Holland in 1699, and others followed rapidly.
This event destroyed all hope of restoration to
royal favor, and for the rest of his life Fenelon
devoted himself exclusively to the affairs of his
diocese and to literary pursuits. It was now
that his character was seen in its brightest light.
He visited the peasants in their cottages, shared
their humble fare, heard their complaints, re
lieved their wants, and made his palace an
asylum for the unfortunate. His charities were
enormous. When his diocese was traversed by
hostile armies during the war of the Spanish
succession, he was allowed to pass unhindered
through the ranks of the enemy on his errands
of benevolence. He founded the theological
seminary of Cambrai, and devoted himself to
the instruction of the clergy. When his pupil
the duke of Burgundy became dauphin by the
death of his father, he addressed to him a
"Plan of Government," proposing the estab
lishment of states general and provincial, with
many reforms in public administration ; and
had the prince lived to reign, it is thought that
Fenelon would have been his prime minister.
The archbishop did not long survive his pupil.
Of the excellence of Fenelon s best work,
the "-Adventures of Telemachus," no better
proof could he given than its general and last
ing popularity. Hallam denies it the high char
acter of an epic, but gives it the first place
among classical romances. It has been trans
lated into nearly all European languages, and
has been turned into verse in English, Latin.
Greek, &c. His controversial writings, which
comprise works against the Jansenists and Gal-
licans, on quietism, &c., are distinguished by
an unwonted preference of individual Christian
experience to the testimony of the traditions
of the church, and Catholic critics stigmatize
them as chimerical. His spiritual works, a
collection of which ((Euvres spirituelles, 5 vols.

12-i

FENELON

FENIANS

12mo) appeared at Amsterdam in 1731, are
used by persons of all denominations. His ser
mons (12mo, 1744), written during his youth,
hold no very high place among productions of
their kind, though not without eloquent pas
sages. Among his other works are : Traite
de V education dcsfilles (12mo, 1687), written
at the request of the duchess de Beauvilliers ;
Traite du minister e des pasteurs (1688) ; De
monstration de I 1 existence de Dieu (1713), after
" Telemachus " his longest and most important
work ; and Dialogues sur V eloquence en general,
et sur celle de la chair e en particulier, with a
Lettresurla rJietorique et la poesie, addressed
to the French, academy (1718). An edition
appeared at Paris in 1787- 92 (9 vols. 4to), at
the cost of the assembly of the clergy of France,
but does not contain the Maximes des saints,
the Man dements, nor the writings on Jansen
ism and quietism. The best editions of Fe"ne-
lon s complete works are those by Gosselin and
Caron (3-4 vols., Versailles and Paris, 1820- 30),
Adrien Leclere (38 vols., Paris, 1827- 30), and
the abbe Gosselin (10 vols. large 8vo, Lille,
1852). The best editions of his literary works
are Didier s (Paris, 1861) and Ducrocq s (1862) ;
of his philosophical works, Charpentier s (Paris,
1843) and Hachette s (1860); and that of his
educational works, Didot s (Paris, 1850). Of the
English translations of u Telemachus," the most
esteemed is that of John Hawkesworth, LL. D.
(4to, London, 1768, and 12mo, New York, 1859).
His life has been written by the chevalier
Ramsay (the Hague, 1723), his grand-nephew
Francois Louis, marquis de la Mothe-Fenelon
(1747), Y. M. de Querbeuf (published with the
Paris edition of 1787- 92), Cardinal Bausset (3
vols. 8vo, Paris, 1808- 9 ; translated into Eng
lish by Mudford, London, 1810, and abridged
by Charles Butler, 1810), Lemaire (Paris, 1826),
Celarier (Paris, 1844), Villemain, Lamartine,
&c. The Histoire litteraire de Fenelon, on
Revue Jiistorique et analytique de ses ceitvres, by
the abbe Gosselin, appeared in 1843. II. Fran-
?ois de Salignac de la Mothe, a French missionary,
half brother of the preceding, born in 1641, died
in 1679. He entered the congregation of St. Sul-
pice, and was sent to Canada in 1667. He was
soon after missionary to some Cayuga Indians
who had settled on Quinte" bay, Canada, and
founded an establishment for Indian children.
During the collision between church and state
he preached a sermon at Montreal in 1674, for
which the count de Frontenac arrested him and
brought him to Quebec. Fenelon refused to
recognize the governor s authority or to remove
his hat, on which Frontenac sent him out of the
colony to France. The identity of names and
profession led Hennepin to confound the two
brothers, and some American writers have thus
been led to believe that the author of " Tele-
machus " was a missionary in New York.

FENELON, Gabriel Jacques de Sali^nae, marquis
de la Mothe, a French soldier and diplomatist,
nephew of the preceding, born in 1688, killed
in battle, Oct. 11, 1746.^ In 1724 he was ap

pointed ambassador to Holland, and in 1728
represented France at the congress of Soissons.
In 1733 he negotiated a treaty of neutrality
with the states of Holland. In 1738 he was
made lieutenant general, and served under
Marshal Saxe. He was mortally wounded at
the battle of Raucoux. He wrote Memoires
diplomatiques, and published the first complete
edition of Les aventures de Telemaque, with a
dedicatory epistle (2 vols., 1717).

FEMAJNS, a political association having for
its aim the independence of Ireland. The
name is derived from the Fionna or Fianna,
an Irish militia or home guard organized in the
3d century, and commanded by Fionn or Finn,
who is said to be the Fingal of Ossian. He
was slain in battle in 283, and the Fianna
under his grandson Osgar were practically an
nihilated during a civil strife in 296. We
shall here treat of the acts of the various or
ganizations in Great Britain and the United
States, designated under the local names of
the " Phoenix Society," " Irish Revolutionary
Brotherhood" (I. R. B.), u Fenian Brother
hood," and " Nationalists," but better known as
Fenians. The Fenian brotherhood was found
ed in New York in 1857 by Michael Doheny,
John O Mahony, and Michael Corcoran, subse
quently a brigadier general in the Union army.
At the same time a kindred organization al
ready existing in Ireland, under the name of
the Phoenix society, was developed into large
proportions by James Stephens, the funds for
its maintenance being sent over from New
York. Stephens came to America in 1858,
reported the existence of 35,000 enrolled and
disciplined followers, and solicited further aid.
At a meeting of the " friends of Ireland,"
called in New York, a fund was raised, and
the Fenian brotherhood was formally organ
ized under John O Mahony as president. Just
then several members of Phoenix clubs were
arrested in Ireland ; and this incident, reveal
ing to Stephens the existence of traitors in his
own ranks and the watchfulness of the British
government, compelled him to adopt a course
of caution and temporary inaction. But the
occurrence gave a great impulse to the Fenian
cause in America ; one of its consequences being
the organization of the first " Phcenix " regi
ment in the United States, Col. Corcoran s
69th New York national guard, which refused
to parade at the visit of the prince of Wales in
1860. Stephens, who had taken up his abode
in Paris, with large funds at his disposal, was
buoyed up by the certainty that his supporters
in America were hourly increasing. In Ire
land his subordinates covered the provinces
with a network of clubs, which met secretly
to drill. In 1860 O Mahony visited Ireland,
inspected the most important districts, and
held a meeting of the Fenian leaders in Dublin,
at which definite plans of action were agreed
upon. Stephens forthwith returned to Ireland,
and O Mahony to the United States, the or
ganization receiving from their presence a new

FENIANS

125

impulse in both countries. The Fenian broth
erhood, when O Mahony was first placed at its
head, numbered 40 members, all in New York
city ; it now extended its ramifications all over
the United States, and even into British America
and Australia, while in Great Britain it estab
lished " circles " wherever Irishmen were to
be found. Stephens divided his followers into
four classes : A, colonels, in command of battal
ions ; B, captains, commanding companies of
100 men ; C, sergeants, at the head of 20 men ;
D, privates. " Unreserved obedience to orders,
absolute discretion in communicating with out
siders, and active zeal in extending the organ
ization," were the main principles inculcated
on all. Catholics in Ireland were prohibited
by law from possessing firearms ; hence one of
the great difficulties of carrying out any ag
gressive movement. But smithies for the man
ufacture of pikes were stealthily established in
many places. This deficiency of firearms, and
the want of preconcerted action among the
leaders, combined with other reasons, caused
"the failure of the enterprise in Ireland. In
the United States up to 1863 the Fenian or
ganization was but little known and less un
derstood. Americans saw men assembling by
night, and quietly drilling ; but they were con
founded with the military organizations every
where existing, and were supposed to be made
up of working men who could meet for drill
at no other time. The " circles " established
in all American cities furnished not a few regi
ments at the commencement of the civil war.
After the first battle of Bull Run, and the re
turn to New York of the 69th regiment, the
u Irish Brigade " under Thomas Francis Meagher
was formed ; the movement was imitated else
where, even in the south, and the Fenian ele
ment was active in filling up the ranks of
volunteer regiments. When in 1862 Michael
Corcoran was liberated from a southern prison,
his prominent position as a Fenian leader served
not a little to draw the organization into the
Union ranks, with the ulterior hope of using
the military experience thus acquired in the
cause of Ireland. This raised the hopes of
Stephens and his confederates in Ireland. Early
in 1863, T. C. Luby, one of the Irish leaders,
came to America, and not only visited in com
pany with O Mahony the principal Fenian cen
tres in the United States, but was allowed to
penetrate the lines of the Union army, and to
hold meetings at the headquarters of Irish regi
ments. This tour raised on both sides of the
Atlantic expectations of speedy success. On
Nov. 3, 18(33, the American organization, or
Fenian brotherhood, held its first "national
congress " in Chicago, the delegates represent
ing 15,000 enrolled Fenians, one half of whom
were in the Union army. This assembly pro
claimed the Fenian brotherhood to be strictly
in accordance with the laws of the United
States, ignored partisan politics and differences
in religion, and declared the Irish people to be
a distinct nationality, with James Stephens as

its head, to whom, with central officers elected
by an annual congress, state officers elected by
state organizations, and "centres" elected by
circles, the direction of affairs should be in
trusted. A grand fair, ostensibly for the re
lief of Irish sufferers, but in reality to aid the
Fenian brotherhood, was held in Chicago at
the close of this congress, and contributed a
large amount to the treasury. The cause had
hitherto had no official organ in Ireland. Im
mediately on his return to that country, how
ever, was published the first number of the
" Irish People " in Dublin, Nov. 28, 18f&gt;3. The
bold utterances of this sheet caused the police
to watch every movement at the various cen
tres of Fenian activity. On Feb. 23, 1864, a
riot occurred at a public meeting in the Rotun
da, Dublin, in which Mr. A. M. Sullivan, who
had openly attacked the "I. R. B.," was, to
gether with his adherents, " the national party,"
ejected by the Fenians. The numbers of the
latter, and the perfect discipline with which
they acted in their attack on the opposing fac
tion, were a revelation to the authorities, while
the victory itself was to the friends of Ireland
prophetic of the dissensions destined to mar
every attempt at revolution. Stephens again
returned to the United States in March, 1864,
and visited the different corps of the Union
armies, under the pseudonyme of Captain Daly.
The prudence and secrecy which always char
acterized the movements of this leader found
but few imitators among his followers. The
bravado with which the Irish press in America
and the " Irish People " in Dublin spoke of
the near liberation of Ireland, and the enthu
siasm expressed by the Irish masses at home
and abroad, served the British government
effectively. Stephens left New York at the
end of July, his presence having given an
extraordinary impulse to the spread of the
brotherhood. When the second Fenian con
gress assembled in Cincinnati, Jan. 17, 1865,
the circles had increased five fold, and the
financial receipts exceeded the total of the
seven previous years. A report from an agent
sent to Ireland stated that the masses were desi
rous of revolution, and that the middle classes,
though hesitating, would in extremity act with
the patriots. The surrender of the confeder
ate armies and the disbandment of the Union
forces left free those Irish officers and soldiers
on whom were centred mainly the expectations
of the revolutionists. Many of these officers
now went to Great Britain ; and about this
time disaffection began to spread among the
Irish troops in the British service. It was no
longer a secret that the " Fenian conspiracy "
had its ramifications all over Great Britain as
well as Ireland. On Sept. 8 a proclamation
from Stephens was circulated among the circles
in Ireland, announcing that the time for action
had come. " I speak with a knowledge and
authority to which no other man could pre
tend," he says, in concluding; "the flag of
Ireland, of the Irish republic, must this year

126

FENIANS

be raised ! " But every purpose and act of
Stephens was made known to the British gov
ernment. On the night of Sept. 15 a squad
of the Dublin police suddenly seized the of
fice of the "Irish People," taking into custo
dy Jeremiah O Donovan-Rossa, the registered
proprietor, and several of the editorial staff
and other employees, among whom was Pierce
Nagle, who turned crown witness at the sub
sequent trial. Another squad arrested Thomas
C. Luby, the chief editor, at his residence, cap
turing among other documents a letter ad
dressed to " Miss Frazer," but which in reality
was an official document signed by James
Stephens appointing a committee of three to
govern "the home organization," with the
same supreme authority hitherto exercised by
himself. There were resolutions also from the
brotherhood in America, signed by O Mahony,
formally recognizing Stephens as the chief
executive and head of the Irish republic. The
next day appeared two proclamations from
the viceroy, Lord Wodehouse. The first an
nounced the existence of "the Fenian con
spiracy," and offered a reward of 200 for the
apprehension of James Stephens ; the second
declared military law in the city and county
of Cork, and offered another reward of 200
for the apprehension of one Geary. Simul
taneously with the arrests in Dublin, which
continued daily for several weeks, others were
made in different parts of Ireland. In England,
at the same time, several leading Fenians were
arrested in Liverpool, Manchester, and other
cities. On an American steamer landing at
Qucenstown, C. IT. O Connell, an aide-de-camp
of O Mahony, was taken into custody, and upon
him were found papers incriminating many
persons. The utmost energy was displayed by
the British authorities ; vessels of war were
despatched to the principal seaports, and a
cordon of gunboats surrounded the Irish
coasts. Stephens, under the name of James
Herbert, had occupied a villa near Dublin,
where on the night of Nov. 11 he with three
others was arrested by the police. He was
committed to prison, whence he escaped on
the 24th of the same month, and finally
reached France. Bills of exchange in large
amounts from the Fenian treasury in New
York to the Irish leaders had fallen into the
hands of the government. No sooner had
tidings of this reached the United States than
the " central council of the Fenian brother
hood," sitting in New York, summoned the
third congress, which assembled in Phila
delphia, Oct. 18. During its sitting, P. J.
Median, editor of the "Irish American," and
accredited agent to the brotherhood in Ire
land, returned, and reported the home organi
zation as " powerful, the management master
ly, and the position solid," and this at the
very moment when the Irish revolutionists
were utterly helpless. To this congress 350
circles, representing 30 states, sent deputies,
and among the circles those stvled "army and

navy " had 14,620 members. This session of
the third congress authorized the establish
ment of a "Fenian sisterhood," which spread
rapidly, and proved a successful auxiliary in
raising funds. It also adopted a new constitu
tion, creating a president, secretaries of depart
ments, a senate and house of representatives,
and authorized the issue of bonds of the Irish
republic. A deputation from this "conven
tion of Irish-American citizens " obtained from
President Johnson the release from Fortress
Monroe of John Mitchel, who had been con
fined as a prisoner of state. lie was des
patched to Europe as the accredited agent of
the brotherhood, and bore with him a large
sum of money in aid of the struggle in Ireland.
After the adjournment of this congress public
offices were opened in New York, and the
issue and sale of bonds were actively carried
on for some time. But a fatal dissension now
manifested itself between O Mahony and the
newly created senate. Meanwhile events in
Ireland were hurrying onward. The special
commission to try the Fenian prisoners com-"
menced in Dublin Nov. 27. O Donovan-Rossa
was sentenced to penal servitude for life, and
Luby and O Leary for 20 years. The judges
then proceeded to Cork, where similar punish
ments were dealt out. In the mean time the
rupture in New York between O Mahony, who
had been created president of the whole broth
erhood, and the majority of the senate, had been
gradually widening. He and his friends wished
to operate in Ireland, while the senate favored
the scheme of an armed expedition into Cana
da, and henceforth were designated by their op
ponents as the Canada party. On Jan. 2, 1866,
the fourth Fenian congress assembled in New
York. More than 400 delegates attended from
Canada, Australia, and all parts of the United
States. The old constitution was restored and
O Mahony reinstated as head centre. These
proceedings were accepted by a military con
vention held in New York, Feb. 22 ; but the
hope of a permanent reconciliation soon ended
in a worse misunderstanding. The sentences
pronounced in Ireland on the prisoners did not
seem to damp the courage of the Fenians. On
Feb. 24 Lord Wodehouse wrote to the Eng
lish home secretary that as many as 500 Irish
men from America, " thoroughly reckless, and
possessed of considerable military experience,"
were known to be engaged in swearing in
members throughout the country; adding:
"The disaffection of the population is alarm
ing, and is day by day spreading more and
more through every part of the country."
Parliament on Feb. 17 suspended the habeas
corpus act. A large number of arrests were
made in Dublin, and before the end of March
670 persons had been taken into custody, the
number reaching 756 at the accession of the
Derby ministry in July. The excitement of
the Irish element in America became uncon
trollable. Meetings were held in the chief
cities, and the central office in New York was

FENIANS

127

urged to immediate action. O Mahony was at
length formally impeached and deposed by the
senate, and Col. William It. Roberts was elected
in his stead. While Roberts was preparing
to move on Canada, O Mahony was induced
to consent to an attempt to occupy the island
of Campo Bello, New Brunswick. A steamer
was purchased in New York early in April
for the purpose of carrying arms to Eastport,
Maine, a few miles from Campo Bello. The
command of the expedition was assumed by
Major B. Doran Killian. Five hundred men
quietly gathered at Eastport, and awaited the
arrival of the steamer with the arms. But
O Mahony, who was still recognized as presi
dent by a portion of the Fenians, had counter
manded the sailing of the steamer, and order
ed the New York Fenians at Boston to return
home. From Portland was now sent a schooner
with 750 stand of arms, the offering of Fenian
sympathizers ; but the arms were seized by the
United States authorities, and Gen. Meade hav
ing arrived and telegraphed for troops, the Fe
nians dispersed and made their way home as
best they could. On May 10 Stephens arrived
in New York, apparently confident that both
parties would yield to his leadership. O Ma
hony, in order to facilitate a reunion, gave in
his resignation, which was accepted, and Major
Killian was removed from his command. The
Roberts party immediately came to an issue
with Stephens on the proposed invasion of
Canada. This Stephens decidedly opposed,
urging that all present efforts should be to raise
money for the purpose of helping "the men in
the gap" in Ireland. These men, he said,
numbering hundreds of thousands, needed only
money to win their independence. All this
while both factions continued bitterly to assail
each other s motives and acts. Under the mil
itary direction of Gen. Thomas W. Sweeny,
an officer of the American army, the Roberts
party began to act about the middle of May.
On the 19th 1,200 stand of arms were seized
at Rouse s Point, near the Canadian frontier,
by the United States custom-house officers.
From the 29th to the 31st bodies of Fenians
from various points of the west and southwest
moved toward Canada, and a new seizure of
arms was made at St. Albans on the 30th by
the United States authorities. The Canadian
government put the entire militia of the west
ern provinces under arms, and they took the
field under Sir John Mitchell, while companies
of volunteers and regulars were sent to the
various threatened points. On June 1, 1,200
or 1,500 Fenians under Col. O Neil crossed the
Niagara river at Buffalo and took possession of
an unoccupied work called Fort Erie. On the
2d they were attacked at a place called Lime
stone Ridge, and held their position, losing
several killed and wounded and many prison
ers. They withdrew the same night, and 700
were intercepted by the United States gunboat
Michigan. Subsequently Gen. Barry, in com
mand of the frontier, paroled 1,500 upon their
VOL. TIL 9

promising to return to their homes, and to de
sist in future from any violation of the neutral-
! ity laws; the officers being required to give
bail to appear and answer when required for
an infraction of the laws. The Fenians con
tinued to pour into Buffalo, but were ordered
| back by their commanding officers. Along the
frontier of Vermont Gen. Meade concentrated
| a large force of United States troops. The
: president issued a proclamation of neutrality,
and gave orders for the arrest of the Fenian
I leaders. On June 7 Gen. Sweeny and his staff
; were arrested in St. Albans, Roberts in New
York, and several others in Buffalo. Roberts
having refused to give parole or bail, was de
tained in jail for several days, and then released.
I During this period large sums of money were
contributed ; and the proposed rising in Ireland
I was made the occasion of a " final call " for
| funds, issued Aug. 25, 1865. From that date
up to April, 1806, the sum of $250,000 was
contributed by the Fenian brotherhood, of
w T hich the British government intercepted
! $42,000, and $3.500 were lost by an agent in
| Ireland. To counteract the effect of these
i disasters Stephens pledged his word that there
j should be a fight in Ireland within the coming
year. In September Roberts summoned a
congress in Troy, which was numerously at
tended. The case of Col. R. B. Lynch and a
priest named McMahon, who had been taken
prisoners at Limestone Ridge, tried, and con
demned to death, served for a time to keep alive
public attention in the United States; but
through the good offices of the American gov
ernment, these sentences were commuted. In
December Stephens called a meeting of Fenian
centres in New York, in which future plans of
action in Ireland were discussed. He was op
posed to any overt attempt under present cir
cumstances ; and to convince his followers that
his advice was not the result of personal fear,
he professed his readiness to go at once to Eng
land and allow the British authorities to do
their worst upon him. But while rejecting
this offer, the party of action would not accede
to their chiefs prudent counsels. About 50
persons were sent, in conformity with the
promise of another rising wrung from Stephens,
as "commissaries" to Great Britain; among
them were the two "centres" Kelly and Dea-
! sy, and Godfrey Massey. The invasion of Can-
! ada, the publicity given in America to the de-
i signs of the Fenian leaders, the agitation fos-
! tered on both sides of the Atlantic on the occa-
| sion of the condemnation to death of Lynch
and McMahon, and above all the exact infor
mation obtained by the British authorities from
agents in the Fenian ranks;, caused a second
suspension of the habeas corpus act, Aug. 10.
A reward of 2,000 was offered in November
i for the apprehension of Stephens, said to be on
! his way to Ireland ; fresh regiments were sent
| to the latter country ; and 97 leading emissa-
! ries of the brotherhood were arrested and im
prisoned under the viceroy s warrant. It there-

FENIANS

fore behooved Massey and his confederates to
be wary. Having resolved to make England
the principal field of action, they established a
" central directory " of 15 members in" London,
while subordinate directories were formed in
Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds,
and Glasgow. Massey, after making a tour of
inspection in Ireland, reported the organization
there to be so numerous and well appointed
that a rising was forthwith resolved upon, and
a plan of campaign adopted. The castle of
Chester was garrisoned by a company belong
ing to an Irish regiment, and in it was stored a
considerable quantity of arms and ammunition.
A plan was formed to seize these, and the llth
of February was fixed upon for its execution.
On the 10th the directory met in Liverpool to
arrange the last details for the morrow s opera
tions. At midnight the magistrates of Liver
pool were fully informed of everything by one
Congdon, who exhibited a commission in the
Union army and another in the Fenian service.
In less than half an hour the mayor of Chester
was warned of his danger, and he hastened to
post a strong body of men in the castle. From
24 A. M. every train arriving in Chester brought
many Fenians, until their number reached some
1,200 at 4 P. M. At that hour a company of
regular troops arrived from Manchester, and a
regiment of the guards was promised from Lon
don. Numbers of special constables had mean
while been sworn in and armed. The Fenians
saw they had been betrayed, and after some fu
tile demonstrations dispersed under cover of
night. It was now impossible for the directory
to countermand in time the simultaneous rising
in Ireland, where the government had also been
informed of everything, and had taken pre
cautionary measures. Killarney had been cho
sen as the centre of Fenian operations in the
south, and Capt. O Connor was intrusted with
the command. But at noon on Feb. 12 the
frigate Gladiator, at anchor in Valentia bay,
landed her marines to protect and assist the
coast guard. At the same hour Capt. Moriarty
was taken prisoner, and a body of 800 Fenians
were dispersed without any serious resistance.
Another large body withdrew into the Toomies
mountains, but fled before the advance of the
military. The attack on Chester castle and
this rising in the south of Ireland were, in the
conception of the directory, only preliminaries
to a general insurrectionary movement through
out Ireland, which was to take place on March
5. This, it was commonly believed, was the
day fixed in Canada for the execution of
Fenian prisoners. But on March 3 Godfrey
Massey, who had come over from England
with final instructions, was taken prisoner at
Limerick station. lie divulged to the British
government everything pertaining to the pres
ent plans and organization of the Fenian body,
and its history. However, on the 5th the ri
sing took place in Dublin, in accordance with
the orders issued by the leaders. After dark,
along every road which led from the capital

1 and the neighboring towns to Tullaght hill,
: numerous bodies of men were seen advancing
| in silence, and arming themselves at certain
j places on their way. A band of mounted po-
I licemen attacked and drove back a column of
j several hundred Fenians, who in the darkness,
unaware of the extent of the attacking force,
were stricken with a panic which became
general. About the same hour a body of
1,000 partly armed men took possession of
the police barracks and the city hall of Drog-
heda, and held them throughout the 6th ; but
finding no sympathy among the citizens, they
disappeared during the night. In Munster
the insurrection was pretty general; but be
yond tearing up railway tracks, destroying
telegraphic lines, and attacking isolated posts
of constabulary and coast guards, nothing came
of the movement in the south of Ireland. A
considerable force of insurgents took refuge in
the Galtee hills, whence they were soon driven
by a heavy fall of snow. The special commis
sion appointed to try the Fenian prisoners be
gan its session in Dublin on April 8. In the
subsequent trials T. F. Burke was condemned
to death in Dublin, and John McCafferty in
Cork, but their sentences were afterward com
muted to penal servitude for life. Stephens had
meanwhile been relieved of the management
of the Fenian organization, and the direction
was vested in a committee until the fifth con
gress met in New York, Feb. 27, 1807. It
elected as central executive A. A. Griffin;
much money was raised and many measures
were projected to aid "the men in the gap."
The president of the United States was vainly
appealed to for the purpose of obtaining belli
gerent rights for the Fenians. Toward the end
of May a second invasion of Canada began to be
talked of. Large bodies of men were seen drill
ing in Detroit and Buifalo, and recruiting of
fices were kept open by the Fenians; and St.
Albans and Ogdensburgh were spoken of as de
pots of military stores and points of departure
for a new expedition. But the L T nited States
authorities exerted the utmost vigilance, and
orders were issued on July 30 for the arrest
of all who should attempt any violation of the
neutrality laws. The parent organization of
the Fenian brotherhood had, however, des
patched in April an expedition to Ireland. On
April 13 the brig Erin s Hope sailed from New
York with 5,500 stand of arms, 3 batteries of
artillery, 1,000 sabres, 5,000,000 rounds of
small ammunition, a large supply of artillery
ammunition, equipments for a brigade, and 39
officers of every grade of infantry, cavalry, ar
tillery, and engineers. On May 18 she made
Black Rock, 12 miles from the mouth of Done-
J gal bay, and in a week got into communication
with parties on shore. She remained 20 days
I on the coast of Ireland and four on that of
| England, and made three landings on the
| former and one on the latter. Several of the
officers set ashore were captured ; but the
military stores were brought back to New

FEXIAXS

129

York. The return of the Erin s Hope pro-
vented the sailing of a second vessel already
half fitted up. Meanwhile a " provisional gov
ernment" had been directing the movements
of the home organization. In June, 1807,
three of the directors brought against the
fourth charges which compelled the dissolution
of that body in July. Toward the end of that
mouth a convention of delegates in Manchester
elected Thomas J. Kelly central executive of
the Irish republic. This did not meet the ap
proval of the revolutionists, and another con
vention in the following winter appointed a
supreme council of the I. R. B., consisting of
seven members. Thus arose in the home or
ganization a division similar to that which
paralyzed the Fenian brotherhood in America.
The sixth national congress of the Fenian bro
therhood, embracing delegates from 18 states
and the British provinces, assembled in Xew
York Aug. 21. The object of this convoca
tion was to reconstruct the brotherhood to
meet the altered aspect of affairs in Ireland.
The constitution was slightly amended, and
John Savage was made chief executive. lie
found the treasury not only empty but sev
eral thousand dollars in debt, and saw that
neither the time nor the means warranted
armed collision. He therefore proclaimed a
new era, to be based on discipline, obedience,
and intelligence. The directory in England
now set about "organizing militarily" the
Irish population throughout Great Britain, in
order to keep the government in constant
alarm. During the night of Sept. 13-14 the
police of Manchester attempted to arrest four
men of suspicious appearance; two of them
escaped, and the others proved to be Col.
T. J. Kelly and his aid, Capt. Deasy. On
the 18th the van in which they were con
ducted to prison was attacked, the prisoners
were rescued, and Sergeant Brett, in charge
of the van, was killed. Subsequently five
persons, Allen, O Brien, Larkin, Maguire, and
Condon, were arrested, tried in Manchester,
and condemned to death (Xov. 13), though
protesting their innocence. From the moment
of Brett s assassination every city in Great
Britain was kept in a state of excitement and
alarm, and several depots of arms and ammu
nition belonging to volunteer regiments were
seized by the Fenians. This excitement cul
minated with the condemnation of the Man
chester prisoners. Efforts were made to ob
tain a commutation of the sentence of the chief
offenders ; but neither the home secretary nor
the queen would receive the deputations sent
to them, nor were the attempts made to carry
an appeal to a higher court more successful.
Allen, O Brien, and Larkin were executed Xov.
23, Maguire and Condon having been reprieved.
On Nov. 24 the Irish population of Manchester
and London turned out en masse to march in
funeral procession in honor of the dead. A
week later Dublin witnessed a similar and
more imposing pageant. The 3d of December

had been appointed for like demonstrations
in Liverpool, Leeds, Glasgow, Cork, and Wa-
terford ; but the authorities forbade them.
On Xov. 23 Col. Burke, a well known Fenian
leader, was arrested by the London police,
and with him one Casey, who had made a
most determined effort to rescue him. They
were both lodged in Clerkenwell bridewell.
On Dec. 13, between 2 and 3 o clock P. M., a
barrel of powder which had been brought
through the narrow and populous Corporation
lane to the foot of the high wall enclosing the
prison exploded, blowing down the wall, shat
tering all the neighboring houses, killing 6
persons on the spot, and wounding 120 others,
11 of whom subsequently died; but the es
cape of Burke, the supposed object of the ex
plosion, was not effected. Amid the universal
alarm and indignation, incendiary fires broke
out in various parts of London. Thousands
of special constables were sworn in daily in
London for several weeks, until the number
amounted to 50,000. The other cities contain
ing any considerable Irish population followed
this example. Five men and one woman w T ere
subsequently arrested for complicity in this
outrage, one of whom, Michael Barrett, was
found guilty of murder. The Fenians did not
abate their activity in Ireland after the execu
tions in Manchester and the Clerkenwell ex
plosion. A large number of revolvers had found
their way into the hands of the initiated. On
Feb. 7, 1868, Capt. Mackay (Lomasney), who
had been the foremost leader in the March in
surrection of the last year, was arrested in Cork
with several others. The arrest led to riotous
assemblages, in which firearms were used, and
which were speedily suppressed. The Irish
residents of London on Feb. 11 presented
an address to the queen expressive of their
loyalty, and repudiating the acts of the Fe
nians; it was signed by nearly 23,000 persons.
Two events also occurred in the following
months which alienated much sympathy from
the Fenian cause. On March 11 the duke
of Edinburgh was dangerously wounded by a
man named OTarrel in Port Jackson, Australia.
The assassin, though accused of being a Fenian,
protested with his dying breath that he was
not. On April 7 Thomas Darcy McGee, a
member of the Canadian ministry, was killed
on the steps of his own door ; his opposition to
Fenianism was alleged as the motive for the
deed. These events so wrought on the public
mind in England, that every effort made to
obtain a commutation of the death penalty in
the case of Michael Barrett utterly failed, and
he was executed, May 20. They had also an
effect on the trials of Burke and Mackay, who
were sentenced to 15 and 12 years penal servi
tude. The conviction had now r become general
that Fenianism was crushed. On July 31 the
queen in closing the session of parliament de
clared that "the cessation of the long con
tinued efforts to promote rebellion in Ireland
has for some time rendered unnecessarv the

130

FENIANS

FENNEO

exercise by the executive of exceptional powers.
I rejoice to learn that no person is now detained
under the provisions of the act for the sus
pension of the habeas corpus, and that no
prisoner awaits trial in Ireland for an offence
connected with the Fenian conspiracy." The
seventh Fenian congress assembled in New
York, Aug. 24, 1868, and on the next day a
" union convention of independent circles and
clubs " met in the same city to devise means
of ending the division in the Fenian ranks.
Both bodies agreed in creating a commission
to proceed to Europe, and endeavor to har
monize the conflicting claims for the control
of the " home organization," and to secure a
governing body on the American elective prin
ciple, which would represent officially all the
"nationalists" in Great Britain and Ireland.
Mr. Savage was chosen for this mission, and
proceeded at once to Paris, where in a con
ference held in January, 1809, the project was
successfully carried out. It now became the
purpose of the Fenian leaders in America
and Ireland to obtain the release of their im
prisoned friends, and to induce the United
States government to interfere in favor of sev
eral of them who were naturalized citizens.
The corporation of Dublin proceeded to Lon
don in a body, and appeared, with the lord
mayor at its head, at the bar of the house of
commons, with a petition of amnesty for the
prisoners. The English government, yielding
to these solicitations, granted a free pardon to
several. The combined and persistent efforts
made in favor of amnesty for the prisoners
were coupled everywhere with a demand for
tenant right. This double agitation assumed
such proportions that in the autumn the gov
ernment sent additional regiments to Ireland.
In the United States the Fenian brotherhood
was legally chartered in August, under the act
incorporating benevolent societies. The eighth
congress assembled in New York, Aug. 25, 1869.
Mr. Savage reported the union effected be
tween the branches of the brotherhood in
Great Britain and Ireland, and the progress
both in numbers and character made by it in
the United States. He also denied officially
a report that Fenianism had entered into a
league with European socialism. This year
1869 was rendered memorable by the disestab
lishment of the Irish church, and this measure
was followed up by the passage in 1870 of an
Irish land bill. The Fenians claim both these
measures as the legitimate offspring of their
efforts; and some English statesmen avowed
that they were the necessary consequences of
the Fenian agitation. The rigors to which the
Fenian prisoners were subjected furnished a
fertile topic for continued agitation. The sub
ject had been brought before congress in De
cember, 1869 ; and on Feb. 10, 1870, the house of
representatives by resolution condemned such
cruelty, and urged the president to interfere in
behalf of the victims. In Ireland J. O Dono-
van-Rossa, while a prisoner, had been elect

ed to parliament for the county of Tipperary ;
the election was declared void, and Mr. C. J.
Kickham, a recently released Fenian convict,
was proposed for the vacancy, but failed of
election. Thus was the popular sentiment
kept in continual effervescence among the Irish
in Great Britain, while in the United States
the senate party on May 24 assembled another
expedition on the Canadian frontier. President
Grant lost no time in issuing a proclamation
against the raiders, and Gen. Meade hastened
to the border to enforce it. Col. O Neill and
several of his officers were imprisoned, and the
men and arms were seized by the United States
authorities. The ninth congress of the Fenian
brotherhood assembled in New York on Aug.
30. O Neill, in his prison in Windsor, Vt.,
signed an agreement on Sept. 7, in the name
of his adherents, by which they were reunited
to the parent society. The British govern
ment, after witnessing this last impotent effort
at invasion, and passing the Irish land bill,
granted in December a partial amnesty to
the political prisoners, on condition that they
should quit British soil for ever. In February,

1871, Mr. Savage insisted on laying down his
charge in the brotherhood ; his resignation was
accepted by the tenth congress on March 21,
and the office was abolished, and the direction
vested in an executive council. A committee
appointed to investigate the past financial
affairs of the brotherhood reported that the
total amount received in a little more than 12
years was $626,043, of which $425,254 were
" expended for Irish revolutionary purposes di
rect," and $197,669 were " expended in Amer
ica." The report states that of the amount
expended in America, at least two thirds were
not for organizing purposes and office salaries,
but "for objects indirectly connected with the
cause of the revolution in the British islands,
such as the purchase of arms and vessels, the
pay of armorers, the rent of armories, the sup
port of men sent here on duty from Ireland,
the relief of refugees (a vast sum), and the sup
port of the families of some of the officers and
men sent on duty to Ireland and England."
The llth Fenian congress, which met Aug. 20,

1872, reduced the number of the executive
council to 10, to be elected by congress, inclu
ding a chief secretary who is the executive
officer of the organization, a position at pres
ent (November, 1873) held by John O Mahony.

FEMEC, an African canine animal, resem
bling a diminutive fox, belonging to the genus
megalotis (Illiger). So vulpine is its look, that
Mr. Gray, in his catalogue of the British mu
seum, calls it milpes Zaarensis (Skiold.). When
first described by Bruce the traveller, its zo
ological position was so ill determined that
Buffon, who gives a good figure of the animal,
called it Vanonyme ; it was referred to rodents
and quadrumana by others ; Zimmermann,
from the examination of the teeth, seems first
to have detected its dog-like affinities, and
placed it in the genus canis ; but whoever dis-

FEXXEL

FENTOX

131

covered its true position, there can be no doubt
that it belongs at the end of the canine family
of digitigrade carnivora. From the enormous
comparative size of the ears Illiger established
the genus megalotis, which does not appear to
differ much from vulpes ; taking this well se
lected name of the genus, and the name of its
first scientific describer for the species, it may
properly be called J/". Brucei (Griff.). Accord
ing to Bruce, the animal is 9 or 10 in. long,
with a foxy snout, ears half as long as the body
and broad in proportion; the color white,
mixed with gray and fawn color ; the tail yel
low, dark at the end, long, with soft and bushy
hair like that of a fox ; the ears thin, and mar
gined with white hairs. The dentition, general
appearance, and habits are canine ; the feet
are four-toed, with the rudiment of a fifth,
and the nails are not retractile as Desmaresl
at first supposed. It inhabits northern Afri
ca, particularly Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt.
There seems to be a second species, nearly
allied to but different from Bruce s fennec, the
3L Lalandii (H. Smith) ; this is gray, with

Fennec (Megalotia Brucei).

the hairs of the dorsal line longer and blacker
than the rest, and the tufted tail black with a
gray base. Ruppell gives the discovery of the
first species to Skioldebrand, a Swede, whom
Bruce accuses of supplanting him by an un
worthy artifice ; he calls the fennec canis zerda
(Zimm.), and makes it 23 in. long, including the
tail, which is 8 in. It lives in holes which it
digs in the sands of the desert, and not in
trees as is supposed by Bruce ; it is shy, very
quick in its motions, and solitary ; its food
consists mainly of insects, especially locusts,
eggs, dates, and other sweet fruits, and proba
bly small animals; its bark resembles that of
a dog, but is more shrill ; the internal orifice
of the ear is said to be very small. It is
sometimes called zerda.

FENNEL (Jwniculum, Koel.), a genus of um
belliferous plants, to which the British species
(F. -vulgare, TTilld.), found on chalky cliffs in
the southern parts of England, belongs. It is
cultivated for the sake of the pleasant aromat
ic qualities of its leaves. It is frequently met
with both wild and in gardens in the United
States. Its leaves are singularly spread out

into finely cut and almost hair-like teguments;
its flowers are yellow, and the stalks of the
plant are glaucous. Once introduced into the
garden, it propagates itself for years. A more
attractive kind is tlicjinochio or Azorean fen
nel (F. dulce), an annual cultivated in Italy as

Fennel (Faeniculum vulgare).

celery is with us. Several other species of fen
nel are known, some of which are admired
for their pungency. Two kinds of fennel seed
are found in the shops, one being sweeter than
the other. It contains a volatile oil of agreea
ble odor, and is used in medicine as an aromatic.
It yields its virtue to hot water and alcohol.
The seeds of the shops are obtained partly
from this country, but mostly from Germany.
The odor of the seed and of the plant is fra
grant, and its taste agreeable to most people.
The infusion, prepared by adding two or three
drams of the seeds to boiling water, is the best
form for administering it. It lessens the dis
agreeable taste of senna and rhubarb, and acts
generally as a carminative.

FENTOX. I. Edward, an English navigator,
born in Nottinghamshire about 1550, died at
Deptford in 1603. He served for some time in
the English army in Ireland, but joined in 1577
one of Frobisher s expeditions for the discov
ery of a northwest passage to Asia. The fleet
being scattered by storms, Fenton returned to
Bristol. Another expedition in which he took
part ended disastrously. Early in 1582 he was
placed in command of an expedition of four
armed vessels, and sailed for Brazil with the
ostensible purpose of passing the strait of Ma
gellan, lie however put in at St. Vincent,
where he destroyed the flag ship of a Spanish
squadron. In 1588 he gained much credit as
commander of a vessel against the Spanish ar
mada. II. Sir Geoffrey, an English author and
statesman, elder brother of the preceding, died
in Dublin, Oct. 19, 1008. He received a good
education, and acquired literary distinction,
especially by translating from the Italian Guic-

132

FENTRESS

FERDINAND (GERMANY)

ciardini s " ITistory of the Wars of Italy." which
he dedicated to Queen Elizabeth (1579). lie
afterward became the principal secretary of
state for Ireland, and exerted great influence
in restoring there loyalty and tranquillity. His
daughter became in 1603 the second wife of
Richard Boyle, the great earl of Cork. lie
published a "number of other works, the best
known of which are " Golden Epistles," gath
ered from the works of Guevara and other
foreign authors. III. Elijah, an English poet,
of the same family with the preceding, born
in Shelton, Staffordshire, May 20, 1083, died in
East Ilampstead, Berkshire, July 13, 1730. _ He
studied at Cambridge, but becoming a nonjuror
he was obliged to leave the university, after
which he accompanied the earl of Orrery to
Flanders as private secretary. On his return
to England in 1705, he was employed in school
teaching. Afterward the earl of Orrery con
fided to him the education of his son, and six
years later Fenton became associated with
Pope in a version of the Odyssey. According
to Dr. Johnson, Fenton translated the 1st, 4th,
19th, and 20th books. In 1723 a tragedy en
titled "Mariamne" gained him more than
1,000. In 1727 he published a new edition
of Milton s works, with a brief life of the au
thor, and in 1729 a fine annotated edition of
Waller s poems.

FEXTRESS, a N. E. county of Tennessee,
bordering on Kentucky, and drained by sev
eral affluents of Cumberland river; area, 570
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,717, of whom 170 were
colored. The surface consists principally of
high table lands of the Cumberland mountains,
affording excellent pastures. Timber is abun
dant, and coal is found in various places. The
chief productions in 1870 were 10,339 bushels of
wheat, 109,084 of Indian corn, 24,067 of oats,
and 11,713 of potatoes. There were 942
horses, 4,624 cattle, 5,021 sheep, and 12,017
swine. Capital, Jamestown.

FENVTICK, George, proprietor of part of Con
necticut, died in 1657. He came to America
in 1636 to take charge of the plantation
of Saybrook, so called after Lords Say and
Brook, who with others had in 1632 procured
a patent for the territory from Robert, earl
of Warwick. Returning to England, he came
back again in 1639, and from that time, as
one of the patentees and agent for the oth
ers, superintended and governed the settlement
Saybrook till 1644, when he sold its juris
diction and territory to the Connecticut col
ony, as his associates had given up their con
templated removal to America. He after
ward returned to England, where he became
a colonel in the parliamentary army, and was
appointed one of the judges of Charles I.

FEODOR, or Fedor (Theodore), the name
of three emperors of Russia. Feodor I., born
about 1557, died in January, 1598. He was a
son of Ivan IV., the Terrible, and succeeded
him in March, 1584. Noted for his incapacity,
his brother-in-law, Boris Feodorovitch Godu-

noff, became the virtual ruler of the empire,
and succeeded to the throne after having caused
the assassination of Feodor s brother Deme
trius. Feodor himself, the last of the house of
Rurik, was believed to have been poisoned.
Feodor II., son of Boris Godunoff, was dethroned
and murdered in June, 1605, after a reign of
two months, by the partisans of the first pseu
do-Demetrius. Feodor III. (also designated II.),
elder son of the czar Alexis, born in May,
1661, died May 8, 1682. He succeeded his
father in 1676, was engaged in warfare with
Poland and Turkey, curbed the power of the
nobility, established in 1680 the first Russian
school in Moscow, and introduced other re
forms. He excluded from the succession his
imbecile brother Ivan, and bequeathed the
throne to his half brother Peter the Great.

FEODOSIA. See KAFFA.

FERDINAND, the name of several European
sovereigns, arranged below under the heads of
Germany, Naples, Spain, and Tuscany ; Austria
being included under Germany, Sicily under
Naples, and Aragon and Castile under Spain.

I. GERMANY.

FERDINAND I., emperor of Germany, son
of Philip I. of Spain and younger brother
of Charles V., born at Alcala, Spain, in 1503,
died July 25, 1564. After the death of his
grandfather, the emperor Maximilian I., he
received as his share of the dominions of the
house of Hapsburg the duchy of Austria and
other German possessions. In 1521 he married
Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Hungary and
Bohemia, who in 1526 fell at the battle of
Mohacs and left no issue. Ferdinand claimed
the right of succession in the name of his wife,
and by right of previous family compacts.
The states of Bohemia acknowledged him, but
in Hungary a strong party declared for John
Zapolya, waywode of Transylvania. Ferdi
nand marched against Zapolya, and his gen
eral Nicholas von Salm defeated him near
Tokay ; but the latter soliciting the aid of the
Turks, Sultan Solyman espoused his cause.
Ferdinand was forced to retreat to Vienna,
where he was besieged by the Turks in 1529.
After a long and bloody war a treaty was con
cluded, by which it was agreed that Zapolya
should preserve the title of king of Hungary
during his life, together with the districts then
in his possession, after which they were to pass
to Ferdinand. This treaty, however, owing to
the prevailing influence of the Turks in Hun
gary, was not carried into effect, and the east
ern parts of the country remained in possession
of Zapolya s successor, as prince of Transylva
nia. In 1531 Ferdinand was elected king of
the Romans ; and on the abdication of Charles
V. in 1556, he succeeded him in the empire.
Pope Paul IV, refused to acknowledge him,
on the ground that Charles V. had not ob
tained his permission to abdicate. Paul died
before serious consequences had resulted from
his refusal, and his successor, Pius IV., rec-

FERDINAND (GERMANY)

FERDINAND (NAPLES)

133

ognizcd Ferdinand. The electors, both Prot
estants and Catholics, met and decided that
thereafter it should no longer he required
of the emperors of Germany to receive the
crown from the pope, thus putting an end to
the many controversies and wars of which the
dependence of the German emperor on the see
of Rome had been the cause. In Bohemia Fer
dinand arbitrarily declared the crown heredi
tary in his family without the sanction of the
states. A portion of the population opposed
him by force of arms, but the insurrection
was suppressed. He was tolerant to the Prot
estants, and tried to effect a union between
them and the Catholics by inducing them to
send deputies to the council of Trent. He also
endeavored to obtain from the pope the use of
the cup for the laity in the communion, and the
liberty of marriage for the priests. He was
succeeded in the empire, as well as in Hungary
and Bohemia, by his son Maximilian II.

FERDINAND II., emperor of Germany and king
of Hungary and Bohemia, born July 9, 1578,
died in Vienna, Feb. 15, 1637. He was the son
of Charles, duke of Styria, third son of Ferdi
nand I. He was a zealous Catholic, and is said
to have made a vow at Loretto that he would
exterminate Protestantism. His cousin Mat
thias, emperor of Germany and king of Hun
gary and Bohemia, abdicated in his favor the
crown of the latter country in 1617, and pro
cured his election as king of the Romans and
as his successor in Hungary. The states of Bo
hemia refused to acknowledge Ferdinand, and
a powerful Protestant rising was organized, at
the head of which was Count Thurn. Short
ly after the death of Matthias (March, 1619),
Ferdinand was besieged in Vienna, the insur
gents threatening to shut him up in a monas
tery, and cause his children to be educated as
Protestants. He however remained firm, and
being relieved by the timely arrival of loyal
troops, repaired to Frankfort and claimed the
imperial crown. He received the votes of all
the Catholic electors, and was crowned em
peror. The states of Bohemia now offered the
royal crown to the elector palatine, Frederick
V., son-in-law of James I. of England. Hun
gary united with Bohemia against Ferdinand,
and Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania joined his
enemies. This was properly the beginning
of the thirty years war. Ferdinand was sup
ported by Spain, and Frederick was totally de
feated at the battle of Prague in 1620, and
driven into exile. Ferdinand was now ac
knowledged as emperor of Germany and king
of Bohemia. He abolished the constitutional
charter of Bohemia, and undertook most vio
lent measures against the Protestants; but the
latter strengthened their league in Germany
by placing Christian IV. of Denmark at its
head (1625). The imperialists, under Tilly and
AVallenstein, were victorious in several cam
paigns ; and the war was temporarily closed in
1629 by the peace of Lubeck. Ferdinand now
redoubled the severity of his measures against

the Protestants, when he received a formidable
check by the intervention of Gustavus Adolphus
of Sweden in 1630. The Protestants were upon
the whole successful until the death of Gustavus
at the battle of Lutzen, Nov. 6, 1632. The vic
tory at Nordlingen in 163-4 was the last great
success of Ferdinand s army.

FERDINAND III., emperor of Germany and
king of Hungary and Bohemia, son of the pre-
| ceding, born at Gratz in Styria, July 20, 1608,
| died at Vienna, April 2, 1657. He succeeded
I his father in 1637. From him he alse received
i the inheritance of the thirty years war, which
! soon took the aspect of a political rather than
! a religious conflict, Spain taking part with
Ferdinand and France with the allied Protes
tants. The war was closed, as far as Germany
was concerned, by the treaty of Westphalia,
Oct. 24, 1648, although hostilities were still
carried on between France and Spain. By
this treaty Ferdinand gave up most of Alsace
to France and a part of Pomerania to Sweden,
recognized the independence of the Swiss con
federation, restored to the son of the elector
palatine Frederick V. a portion of his father s
possessions, and acknowledged the rights of his
Protestant subjects. He was succeeded by his
second son, Leopold I. ; the elder, crowned in
1653 king of the Romans as Ferdinand IV.,
having died in 1654.

FERDINAND I., emperor of Austria and king
of Hungary and Bohemia (as such Ferdinand
V.), born April 19, 1793. His father was
Francis I. (II.), who in 1806 resigned the title of
emperor of Germany, having already assumed
that of hereditary emperor of Austria. Fer
dinand was crowned as future king of Hungary
in 1830, in 1835 succeeded his father, and in
1836 was crowned in Bohemia. His character
was w r eak, and he was a mere tool in the hands
of his minister, Prince Metternich. Disheart
ened by the troubles of 1848, he resigned the
crown in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph
(Dec. 2), and took up his residence at Prague.

II. XAPLES.

FERDINAND I., king of Naples, illegitimate
son of Alfonso the Magnanimous, born about
1424, died Jan. 25, 1494. His father, who had
ruled both Naples and Sicily, as well as Ara-
gon and Sardinia, bequeathed to him at his
death in 1458 the throne of Naples. His reign
was troubled, and the nobles conspired to aid
John of Anjou in a descent upon the country.
Ferdinand lost the battle of Nola in 1460,
escaped to Naples with but 20 followers, and
was reduced to the last extremity. lie was,
however, favored by Pope Pius II. and by
Francesco i?forza, duke of Milan ; and his
partisans were greatly strengthened by the
alliance of the Albanian chieftain Scanderbeg,
who put himself at the head of the army of
Ferdinand, defeated John of Anjou at Troja in
1462, and forced him to leave Italy. Ferdinand
was cruel and revengeful. Count Piccinino
was one of his illustrious victims. In this reign

FERDINAND (NAPLES)

the Turks made a descent upon Italy and cap
tured Otranto in 1480, but Ferdinand recov
ered this city from them in 1481. Five years
later the nobles revolted, and Ferdinand, after
yielding to their demands, refused to fulfil his
promises, and put the leader of the revolt to
death. He was excommunicated by Pope In
nocent VIII. in 1489, but regained his favor
in 1492, and died while the formidable expe
dition of Charles VIII. of France was preparing
to set out toward Italy.

FERDINAND II., king of Naples, grandson
of the preceding, and son of Alfonso II., born
about 1468, died in 1496. His father, feeling
himself universally detested, abdicated in his
favor in 1495; but the people had conceived
such a dislike for the house of Aragon, that
Ferdinand s kindness toward them was treated
only with derision. Many of his cities hav
ing sent ambassadors to the invading enemy,
Charles VIII. of France, he renounced his
throne, and took refuge in Ischia. But as
soon as Charles left Naples the people recalled
Ferdinand, who obtained money and soldiers
from Venice in exchange for several Adriatic
towns, and reconquered his kingdom. With
the permission of Pope Alexander VI. he mar
ried his father s sister.

FERDINAND III. See FEEDIXAXD V. of Spain.

FERDINAND IV., king of Naples (afterward
king of the Two Sicilies as Ferdinand I.), born
in Naples, Jan. 12, 1751, died there, elan. 4,
1825. When in 1759 his father, King Charles, |
became king of Spain, he succeeded him upon
the throne of Naples, in accordance with the
recent treaties of Utrecht, Madrid, and Vienna,
which prohibited the reunion of the two crowns
in any one prince of the house of Bourbon.
Ferdinand being only eight years old, Mar
quis Tanucci was appointed regent. In 1768 he
married Carolina Maria, daughter of the em
press Maria Theresa, and left the affairs of
government to his imperious wife and her
favorite minister Acton. The cabinet of Ma
drid lost all influence over the court of Naples,
which closely allied itself with the cabinets
of Vienna and London, and joined the first
coalition against France. Though forced in
1796 to make peace with France, Ferdinand
renewed the war after the departure of Na
poleon to Egypt. Austria, Sardinia, Tuscany,
and Naples formed a league, and Ferdinand j
hurried to occupy Rome (November, 1798) ;
but not receiving much aid from his allies, he
withdrew before the arms of the French, who
in 1799 entered Naples soon after Ferdinand j
with his family had escaped in an English fleet
to Palermo. The Parthenopean republic was J
established in Naples, but after a few months
Ferdinand was restored to his capital by a
Calabrian army under Cardinal Ruffo. A ter
rible inquisition now began against the repub
licans, the city was abandoned to the lazzaroni, \
and Ferdinand seemed to have returned only
to shed the blood of his subjects. The success- I
es of the French in Germany and Italy obliged \

him in 1801 to sign a treaty surrendering a
portion of his territory, and to support French
troops in the remainder, thus putting Naples
under the domination of France. War break
ing out in 1805 between France and Austria,
Queen Caroline thought it a favorable oppor
tunity for throwing oft* the French yoke, and
prompted Ferdinand to violate the treaty and
to receive the support of an Anglo-Russian
army. Hardly had he done this when Austria,
conquered at Austerlitz, assented to the treaty
of Presburg. Before its conclusion Napoleon
sent an army against Naples, which obliged
Ferdinand and his queen again to take refuge
in Sicily, refused offers of negotiation, and
on Dec. 25, 1805, declared that the house of
Bourbon had ceased to reign over that king
dom, and gave the throne first to his brother
Joseph, and in 1808 to his brother-in-law Mu-
rat. Ferdinand, protected by England, was
able to save Sicily from French conquest ; but
the queen, as little willing to bear English as
French supremacy, embroiled herself with the
English ambassador, Lord William Bentinck,
was obliged to leave the island in 1811, and
died in Vienna in 1814. Ferdinand w y as in 1812
forced to proclaim a constitution, and finally
to resign his government to his son Francis.
After Murat was dethroned by Austria in 1815,
Ferdinand was restored to his former throne,
and on Dec. 12, 1816, united Sicily and Naples
into a single state, under the title of the Two
Sicilies. He abolished the constitution which
he had granted while in Sicily, but was forced
to proclaim the democratic Spanish constitu
tion of 1812 by a rising of the carbonari in
1820. He was soon after reestablished in ab
solute power by the Austrians.

FERDINAND II., king of the Two Sicilies,
grandson of the preceding, born in Palermo,
Jan. 12, 1810, died in Naples, May 22, 1859.
He succeeded his father Francis I. in 1830, and
at once excited the most lively hopes by par
doning several political offenders and introdu
cing economical reforms and liberal measures.
Having thus lulled the revolutionary party, he
changed his policy, adopting the principles of
absolutism ; and the history of the kingdom
from that time is a history of conspiracies and
rebellions, followed by trials, imprisonments,
and executions. After many revolts and at
tempts at revolt in various parts, all Sicily rose
in insurrection in January, 1848, and armed
bands marched upon Naples to demand a lib
eral government. A constitution was granted
them, modelled after the French charter of
1830; but the double dealing of the court and
the impatience of the democrats led to a bloody
collision at Naples, May 15, after which Fer
dinand dissolved the chambers, annihilated the
constitution, and restored the ancient order of
things. Toward the close of the year Pope
Pius IX. took refuge at Gaeta under his pro
tection, and in 1849 received the assistance of
Neapolitan troops against the Mazzini govern
ment at Rome ; for which service he bestowed

FERDINAND (SPAIN)

135

upon Ferdinand the title of rex piissim m. The
reconquest of Sicily, which had proclaimed its
independence, was completed after a protracted
struggle. In the contests with the insurgents
Ferdinand had ordered the bombardment of
his principal cities, and thus obtained the epi
thet of bombardatore, abbreviated into "Bom-
ba," by which he has often been designated.
The harshest treatment was exercised toward
the political prisoners in Naples, who were
estimated by Mr. Gladstone in 1851 to number
at least 13,000. At the Paris congress of 1856
Ferdinand was advised to pursue a milder
system of government, and to grant a general
amnesty, which he declined to do. On Dec. 8
of that year a private soldier attempted to as
sassinate him. In 1857 the seizure and confis
cation of the Cagliari, a Sardinian merchant
steamer in which revolutionists had been con
veyed to Naples, led to a diplomatic rupture
between Naples and Sardinia, France, and
England. A few months before his death he
proclaimed an amnesty, but with such limita
tions that only TO bagnio convicts would profit
by it ; they were banished for life, and re
stricted to reside in America.

III. SPAIN.

FERDINAND L, the Great, king of Castile,
Leon, and Galicia, born about 1000, died in
Leon, Dec. 27, 1065. He was the second son
of Sancho el Mayor, king of Navarre. In 1033
he received the hand of Sancha, sister of Ber-
mudo III. of Leon, and the title of king of Cas
tile, which was henceforth recognized as an in
dependent sovereignty. On the death of San
cho in 1035, Bermudo attempted to reannex !
the new state to his dominions ; but he wasde- i
feated and slain by Ferdinand in 1037. The !
young king of Castile forthwith claimed and ;
received the crown of Leon, in right of his l
queen ; and by able management and forbear- !
ance he reconciled to his cause many lords j
who at first had opposed his accession to the j
throne. He soon gained popularity by his
respect for the laws of the country, his main- i
tenance of the ancient fueros, and his strict j
administration of justice. He invaded Portu- :
gal and acquired in 1045 a considerable portion |
of it. From 1046 to 1049 he was engaged in i
wars against the Moors, and reduced the kings
of Saragossa and Toledo to tributaries. His i
elder brother, Garcia III., king of Navarre,
having attacked him in 1054, lost his life in
a battle fought near Burgos, in the plains of
Atapuerca. By this victory Ferdinand gained
several districts which formerly belonged to
Navarre, and became the most powerful among
the Christian princes in the peninsula. In 1056
he took the title of emperor, to indicate his
supremacy in Spain. Toward the centre of
the peninsula, he extended the boundary of
Castile to the gates of Alcala de Henares, and
carried hostilities into Valencia and Andalusia,
compelling the emir of Seville to swear alle
giance and to restore to him the relics of St.

Isidro (1063). His last days were spent in
extraordinary devotional exercises. Attacked
by a sickness which he knew would be fatal,
he returned to Leon, and divided his realms
between his three sons.

FERDINAND II., king of Leon, Asturias, and
Galicia, son of Alfonso VIII., died in 1188.
lie succeeded his father in 1157, the king
dom of Castile being given to his brother San
cho III. lie carried on several successful
wars against Portugal and the Moors, and in
stituted the order of the Christian knights of
St. James.

FERDINAND III., saint, king of Castile and
Leon, born in 1199, died in Seville, May 30,
1252. The son of Alfonso IX. of Leon by
Berengaria, queen of Castile, he was indebted
to his mother for the latter kingdom, of which
he was placed in possession in 1-217. His power
being firmly established, he commenced in 1225
against the Mohammedans a career of conquest
which effectually broke the Moorish power in
Spain. In concert with several other princes
he first carried his arms through Murcia and
Andalusia. Alfonso, dying in 1230, declared
his marriage with Berengaria void, and des
ignated his two daughters by his first mar
riage as his successors. Ferdinand interrupted
his progress for a while to secure the inherit
ance, which he soon accomplished, and thus
permanently united the kingdoms of Castile
and Leon. Being now sovereign of Spain from
the bay of Biscay to the banks of the Guadal
quivir, and from the confines of Portugal to
those of Aragon and Valencia, he was enabled
to push his conquests with renewed energy.
In 1233 he triumphed over Aben Hud, king
of Murcia ; he then successively obtained pos
session of Toledo, Cordova, Ubeda, Trujillo,
Jaen, and finally Seville, which surrendered
Nov. 23, 1248, after a siege of a year and a
half. Ferdinand was an unsparing enemy of
the Jews and Albigenses who had sought a
refuge within his dominions. He founded the
university of Salamanca, and was canonized
by Pope Clement X. in 1671.

FERDINAND IV., king of Castile and Leon,
son of Sancho IV., born in Seville in 1285,
died in 1312. He was only ten years old when
his father died, and he saw himself assailed at
once by his uncle Enrique, who coveted the
regency, by Don Juan Nufiez de Lara, who
wanted to increase his estates, and by the in
fantes of La Cerda, who claimed the crown,
and who, respectively aided by the kings of
Portugal and Aragon, aimed at a partition of
the kingdom. In these difficult circumstances
the young king was sustained by the ability
of his mother, Maria de Molina. She suc
ceeded in dividing his enemies, conciliated the
king of Portugal, whose daughter Constanza
was married to Ferdinand, and also made an
alliance with the king of Aragon. Ferdinand
in 1305 made war upon the Mohammedans,
gained advantages over them, and took Gibral
tar (1309). The order of templars having been

130

FERDINAND (SPAIN)

abolished by Clement V., be confiscated their
property and shared their spoils with the other
orders of chivalry. There is a legend that in
an expedition against the Moors, having or
dered the two brothers Carvajal to be put to
death upon mere suspicion, they cited him to
appear with them in 30 days before the judg
ment seat of God ; and within the prescribed
time he was found dead on his couch, on which
he had been taking his siesta.

FER1)L\A\D V. of Castile, II. of Aragon,
III. of Naples, and II. of Sicily, surnamed
the Catholic, born at Sos, Aragon, March 10,
1452, died at Madrigalejo, Jan. 23, 1516. The
son of John II. , king of Navarre and Aragon,
and of his second wife Juana Henriquez, he
was as early as 1408, through the influence of
his mother, declared by his father king of
Sicily and associate in the crown of Aragon.
On Oct. 19, 1409, he married at Valladolid Isa
bella, princess of Asturias, the sister and law
ful heiress of King Henry IV. of Castile. On
the demise of the latter, Dec. 12, 1474, Ferdi
nand and Isabella were proclaimed joint sov
ereigns of Castile. Several powerful nobles,
among whom were the marquis of Villena, the
archbishop of Toledo, and the grand master of
Calatrava, aided by the king of Portugal, rose
in arms in the name of Jnana (called Beltra-
neja, from her supposed father, Beltran de la
Cueva), whom the late king had recognized as
his daughter, but who had been set aside by
the cortes on a charge of illegitimacy, which
was never legally proved. Ferdinand s army
gained a decisive victory over them at Toro,
and in 1479 a treaty put an end to the civil
war, and Juana, deserted by all her partisans,
took the veil. John II. having died at the be
ginning of the same year, Ferdinand inherited
Aragon, and thus became the undisputed mas
ter of the peninsula, with the exception of
Portugal, Navarre (which was given to John s
daughter Eleanor), and Granada. His chief
policy was to fortify the power of the crown,
and he reached his aim principally by reorgan
izing and increasing the hermaiulad or brother
hood for the suppression of disorder and bri
gandage, by improving the administration of
justice, by acquiring the mastership of the
several orders of knighthood, and obtaining the
power of appointing the bishops, but above all
by means of the inquisition, which served not
only as a guard against heresy, but also as a
political institution to keep the nobility and
clergy in check. The intolerance was perhaps
still greater against the Jews than the relapsed
heretics. On March 31, 1492, an edict for
their expulsion was issued by the sovereigns at
Granada. The number thus driven forth is
estimated by some as high as 800,000, but by
others, according to Prescott with more proba
bility, at 100,000. They sought refuge in Por
tugal, France, Italy, Africn, and the Levant.
Before this, however, Ferdinand and Isabella I
had succeeded in accomplishing their long |
cherished design of destroying the last vestige j

of Moorish power in Spain. The kingdom of
Granada, all that remained of the once power-
| ful empire of the Moors, succumbed to the
i assaults of the Christian warriors ; the city
! itself, the siege of which was conducted by the
j king and queen in person, surrendered Jan. 2,
I 1492, after a heroic resistance ; and the last
of its sovereigns, Abdallah or Boabdil, retired
to Africa. AVhen the Moors attempted a re
volt in 1501, Ferdinand ordered them to be
come converted or to leave the kingdom, and
it is said that from then till the time of Philip
about 3,000,000 Moors left the country. In
the discovery of America by Columbus Ferdi
nand had little if any share; he evinced no
disposition to assist the discoverer, and the
glory of having aided him belongs exclusively
to Isabella. Charles VIII. of France having
conquered the kingdom of Naples in 1494, Fer
dinand sent thither in the following year his
great general Gonsalvo de Cordova, and with
in a few months the French were expelled and
the Spaniards got a foothold in Italy, which
advantage they afterward improved. In 1500
he concluded a treaty of alliance with Louis
XII. of France, by which the two monarchs
divided between themselves beforehand the
kingdom, which was to be conquered by their
united forces ; but scarcely was this accom
plished when the allies quarrelled, and Gon
salvo de Cordova for the second time drove
the French out of southern Italy (1503- 4),
which thenceforth remained in the hands of
Ferdinand, as king of Naples and Sicily.
Family difficulties interfered for a while with
his power and the progress of his conquests.
Juana, the only daughter left to him (Isabella
having been married to Emanuel of Portugal,
and Catharine to Prince Arthur and afterward
to Henry VIII. of England), had been married
in 1496 to the archduke Philip, son of the em
peror Maximilian ; and on the death of Isabella
in 1504, this young prince claimed the regency
of Castile in the name of his wife. This brought
on a contest between him and his father-in-law,
which terminated in favor of Ferdinand, who
was appointed regent in place of the young
heir Charles on account of the premature death
of Philip in 1506 and the insanity of his wife
Juana. The king now found himself at lib
erty to give undivided attention to the affairs
of Italy, and exercised there a paramount in
fluence, not by his arms only, but by his su
perior political talents. He took part in the
league of Cambrai against Venice in 1508 ; then
in the holy league in 1511 against the French,
whom the princes of Italy desired to expel
from the peninsula ; and in all these transac
tions he was generally the gainer. Besides
the kingdom of Naples, he added to his do
minions several towns and fortresses on the
coast of Africa, which were conquered by Car
dinal Ximenes and Count Navarro in 1509 and
1510, and the kingdom of Navarre, which he
wrested from Catherine de Foix and her hus
band Jean d Albret in 1512. By a singular

FERDINAND (SPAIN)

137

whim, or perhaps through the troubles cre
ated by the archduke Philip, Ferdinand had
been estranged from his grandson Charles,
afterward emperor under the title of Charles
V. ; and he thought of depriving him of part
at least of his inheritance. He had conse
quently married in 1505 Germaine de Foix,
a niece of Louis XII. of France ; but the child
he had by her died, and he was thus disap
pointed in his hopes. In 1513 he took a phil
tre for the purpose of restoring his exhausted
vigor ; .but the potion produced a lingering ill
ness which ended in death. Ferdinand was
the founder of the greatness of Spain; he con
solidated the whole peninsula, with the excep
tion of Portugal, into a single political body ;
gained for the crown a power which it had
never possessed before ; extended its influence
beyond the peninsula, and gave it weight in
the general affairs of Europe. To reach the
aim of his ambition he was far from being over
scrupulous in his means; a crafty politician and
avaricious in every respect, he did not hesitate
to break his word, or even his oath, when in
terest or bigotry commanded. But notwith
standing his perfidy and treachery, his memory
has been held in great reverence in Spain ; and
the severity shown toward him by some his
torians cannot prevent posterity from regard
ing him as one of the ablest princes of his age.
A just appreciation of his life and times may
be found in Prescott s " History of Ferdinand
and Isabella." (See ISABELLA.)

FERDINAND VI., surnamed the Wise, king of
Spain, born Sept. 23, 1713, died Aug. 10, 1759.
He was the son of Philip V. and Louisa Maria
of Savoy, and ascended the throne in 1746.
His government was one of justice, prudence,
and peace. He encouraged manufactures, arts,
and literature. He was one of the signers of
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). He was
succeeded by his half brother Charles III.

FERDINAND VII., king of Spain, born in San
Ildefonso, Oct. 13, 1784, died in Madrid, Sept.
29, 1833. He was the eldest son of Charles IV.
and Louisa Maria of Parma. In 1789 he was
declared prince of Asturias and heir apparent
to the crown. Under the influence of his pre
ceptor, the canon Escoiquiz, he early felt a
strong aversion to Godoy, prince of the peace,
the favorite of both his parents. This was ag
gravated by Maria Antonietta of Naples, whom
he married in 1802, and kindled into hatred in
1806 upon the sudden death of his wife, whom
he asserted without sufficient proofs to have
been poisoned. Henceforth two hostile fac
tions openly divided the court : that of Godoy,
supported by the king and queen, and that of
the prince of Asturias, comprising the great
majority of the nation, who shared in his hatred
of the favorite. The dissensions between the
son and the father, who was but a tool in the
hands of his queen and Godoy, grew into
scandalous quarrels. The crown prince, at the
instigation of Escoiquiz and others, addressed
a letter to Napoleon, complaining of Godoy s

| conduct, and proposing to place himself under
his protection, and to marry a member of his
family. He also copied a memorial to the king
against Godoy, which he was to have read to
him in person ; but Charles had him arrest-

| ed and kept in close confinement. A royal

i proclamation issued Oct. 30, 1807, denounced
Ferdinand as having laid a plot against the
power and even the life of his father. In a
vague but humble letter, Ferdinand confessed
that he had sinned against his father and king,
implored forgiveness, and was publicly par
doned. These transactions were soon followed
by more serious events. The royal family, who
acted under the advice of Godoy, having at
tempted to leave Aranjuez with the ultimate
view of embarking for America, a sedition
broke out, March 18, 1808; the departure was
prevented, and the people, infuriated against
Godoy, stormed his palace, seized, wounded,
and would have murdered him, had not the
prince of Asturias, moved by the tears of his
mother, used his influence over the crowd to
save his life. The king was so much frighten
ed that he abdicated the next day in favor of
his son. Two days later he attempted a re
traction, maintaining that his abdication had
been forced; but the prince, who had been
active in all these transactions, assumed the
title of king, and made his solemn entry into

I Madrid, March 24. The peninsula was already
invaded by French troops, and Murat soon
marched into the capital. Ferdinand hoped
to conciliate Napoleon by submission; he went
as far as Bayonne to meet him ; here, notwith
standing the empty honors which were paid
to him, he found himself a prisoner, and was
made to understand that he must restore the
crown to his father. The old king, his queen,
her favorite,. and the infantes had also been
brought to Bayonne ; and yielding to a pres
sure which he was unable to resist, Ferdinand
assented to the surrender of his royal title.
But this title, and all the rights it conferred,
had already been resigned (May 5) by Charles
into the hands of Napoleon. The emperor de
clared that "the house of Bourbon had ceased
to reign in Spain," and placed his brother
Joseph on the vacant throne. Ferdinand was
immediately transferred to the castle of Va-
lencay, where he remained nearly six years.
At length Napoleon, in the hope of diverting
Spain, which Joseph had lost, from the co
alition against him, liberated his captive; by
the treaty of Dec. 11, 1813, he restored to him
the Spanish crown, on condition that he would
make the English evacuate the peninsula, se
cure a large income to his parents, and keep in

1 their offices and immunities all the Spaniards

! who had been in the service of King Joseph.

I On March 10, 1814, Ferdinand left Valencay ;

i and on his arrival in Spain he was welcomed

\ by popular acclamations. He did not abide by
the terms of the treaty with Napoleon, but
expelled at once the afrancesados (supporters

| of the French government), annulled the pro-

138

FERDINAND (SPAIN)

FERDINAND (TUSCANY)

ceedine;s of the cortes, and abolished the con
stitution. All the members of the cortes or
the regencies who had participated in the
framing of the constitution of 1812, or had
faithfully adhered to it, were arraigned before
courts martial, tried, and sentenced. A number
perished on the scaffold ; hundreds of the most !
illustrious were sent to dungeons in Africa or
imprisoned at home ; the most fortunate were
exiled. For six years Spain was given up to
the unrelenting cruelty of a revengeful tyrant,
whose gross personal appearance and habits
but added to the disgust of the people. At
last discontent ripened into insurrection, the
signal for which was given by the army.
Troops assembled at the Isla de Leon to sail
for South America revolted under Col. Riego,
Jan. 1, 1820, and proclaimed the constitution
of 1812, and the whole army followed their
example. Ferdinand convoked the cortes and
swore (March 9) faithfully to observe the in
strument he had formerly annulled. Under
the influence of a provisional junta who as
sumed the direction of affairs, he abolished the
inquisition, banished the Jesuits, and reestab
lished the freedom of the press. On the open
ing of the cortes, July 9, he renewed his oath
to the constitution, and appeared to act in per
fect accord with that assembly, while at the
same time he was intriguing to defeat the plans
of his own cabinet and to encourage the plots
of the opposite party. This double dealing
soon brought about bloody riots and finally
civil war in the capital and nearly all the prov
inces. The liberals or constitutionalists, who
formed a large majority of the nation, were
strenuously opposed by the serviles or ultra
royalists. The latter, pretending that the king
was a prisoner in the hands of the cortes, or
ganized an apostolic junta, and raised bands of
insurgents in Navarre and Catalonia, under the
name of u army of the faith." Monks and friars,
among whom Merino was conspicuous, were at
the head of these bands. At Madrid, the royal
guards, secretly incited by their own master,
attempted in July, 1822, to reestablish by force
his absolute power ; but after a violent struggle
they were put down. Henceforth the constitu
tionalists held Ferdinand in a kind of imprison
ment scarcely disguised under court ceremonial.
A liberal ministry was appointed ; energetic
measures were resorted to; the " army of the
faith" was totally defeated; its chiefs and sol
diers, as well as the ultra-royalist committee
known as the regency of Urge!, fled to France.
The revolution was thus triumphant; but the
" holy alliance " were preparing for its over
throw. France, which had assembled an army of
observation near the Pyrenees, received orders
from the congress of Verona to march into
Spain for the purpose of restoring Ferdinand s
authority. On the news of the threatened in
vasion, the king was removed to Seville, March
20, 1823 ; and on the rapid advance of the
French under the command of the duke d An-
gouleme through the peninsula, he was declared

to be insane, suspended from his power, super
seded by a regency, and taken to Cadiz, where
the constitutionalists intended to make a stand.
But this project was baffled by the French
army, which stormed the Trocadero, Aug. 31.
The cortes then decided on declaring King
Ferdinand reestablished; and the monarch at
once published (Sept. 30) a proclamation grant
ing a general amnesty, and securing the en
gagements entered into by the constitutional
government. But having left Cadiz the next
day, he revoked the proclamation and all his
acts since March 7, 1820. He made his solemn
entrance into Madrid, with the applause of the
ultra royalists, Nov. 13, and the work of ven
geance commenced, and was continued for
years. The noblest victims fell under the
sword of the executioner, and terror reigned
throughout Spain. Ferdinand did not even
evince the least forbearance toward those who
had served him most faithfully, but used his
power against his friends as well as his foes.
The most important Spanish colonies in Ameri
ca gained their independence during his reign.
He had already been married three times and
had no children, and took as his fourth wife,
Dec. 11, 1829, Maria Christina, daughter of
King Francis of Naples. This queen, much
younger than her husband, gave him two
daughters, and procured from him the publi
cation of a decree abrogating the Salic law.
This excited the anger of the partisans of Don
Carlos, the king s brother ; and insurrectionary
movements broke out in the provinces, while
intrigues were set on foot at the court for the
recall of the decree. During a temporary ill
ness the king was prevailed upon to abrogate
it ; but Christina, resuming her sway over her
husband s mind, had it confirmed, and re
ceived herself the title of regent, while Carlos
and many of his adherents were ordered out
of the kingdom. This rekindled civil war,
which broke out with great violence soon after
the death of Ferdinand. His daughter Isa
bella, a child of three years, inherited the
crown ; but it was not secured to her till after
a protracted and bloody contest.

IV. TUSCANY.

FERDINAND HI., grand duke of Tuscany and
archduke of Austria, born in Florence, May
6, 1769, died there, June 18, 1824. He came
into possession of Tuscany in 1790, when his
father Leopold II. was called to the imperial
throne of Germany. The French invaded his
dominions in 1790, under Bonaparte, and con
quered them in 1799. Ferdinand became dis
possessed by the treaty of Luneville in 1801,
but in 1803 obtained as indemnity the arch
bishopric of Salzburg, with the title of elector
of the empire. This electorate he exchanged
in 1805 for Wiirzburg, and in 1806 was ad
mitted into the confederation of the Rhine.
After Napoleon s abdication in 1814 Ferdinand
was restored to the grand duchy of Tuscany,
but was again obliged to abandon his capital

FERDINAND (TUSCANY)

FERGUSON

139

for a short time in 1815, when Murat pro
claimed the independence of Italy. The battle
of Waterloo restored him.

FERI)L\A\D IV., grand duke of Tuscany and
archduke of Austria, grandson of the prece
ding, born June 10, 18:35. He married Anna
Maria, daughter of the king of Saxony, in 1856,
and began to reign in 1859, after the abdica
tion of his father Leopold II. ; but a few
months later the Tuscan constituent assembly
declared in favor of annexation to Sardinia,
which was consummated March 22, 1860, and
which involved the forfeiture of the grand-
ducal crown of Tuscany.

FERDINAND (Augustus Francis Anthony), titular
king of Portugal, born Oct. 29, 1816. He is a
son of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
In 183(3 he became the second husband of
Queen Maria II. of Portugal, and the title of
king was conferred on him, Sept. 16, 1837.
After the death of the queen (Nov. 15, 1853)
he was regent during the minority of his son,
the late Pedro V., which ended Sept. 16, 1855.
In 1870 he declined the Spanish crown offered
to him by Prim and Serrano. He excels as a
painter and engraver, and possesses many other
accomplishments. He married on June 10,
1869. Eliza Hensler, born in Boston, Mass., in
1810. She is the daughter of a German
shoemaker. Possessing remarkable beauty of
person and voice, she was educated for the
opera, and first appeared in New York in her
16th year. She afterward studied in Paris,
sang at the Grand Opera with little success,
and went to Lisbon, where she became a favor
ite. Ferdinand procured for her the title of
countess of Edla previous to marrying her.

FERENTINO (anc. Ferentinuni), a town of
Italy, in the province and 40 m. S. E. of the
city of Rome ; pop. about 8,000. It is situated
nearly 1,600 ft. above the sea, and is sur
rounded by ancient walls built of hewn stone
without mortar. The cathedral is paved with
ancient marbles and mosaics. Ferentino is cel
ebrated for its splendid view over the Volscian
mountains, for its mineral springs, and for its
antiquities. Besides large portions of the
walls built in the Cyclopean style of large ir
regular and polygonal blocks, there are many
other interesting remains of Roman structures
and numerous inscriptions. The ancient Fe-
rentinum seems, judging from the remains, to \
have been an important place, although little j
mention is made of it in history beyond the j
fact that Hannibal devastated it in 211 B. C. j
Horace alludes to Ferentinum as a remote !
country town, but he is supposed to refer to !
another place of the same name in Tuscany.

FERGUSON, Adam, a Scottish philosopher and |
historian, born at Logierait, Perthshire, in 1724,
died in St. Andrews, Feb. 22, 1816. He was
educated in Perth and in the university of St.
Andrews, and studied theology in Edinburgh, j
where he became associated with Robertson, |
Blair, and Home. In 1745, though he had stu- i

died but half the required term, he was ordained,
in consequence of having been selected for his
knowledge of the Gaelic language to act as
chaplain of one of the highland regiments,
which he accompanied to Flanders, lie re
mained in this situation till 1757, when he be
came conspicuous by his defence of the moral
ity of stage plays, written upon occasion of
the success of his friend Home s tragedy of
Douglas/ In 1759 he was elected professor
of natural philosophy in the university of Ed
inburgh, and in 1764 of moral philosophy. In
1778 he came to America as secretary of the
commission appointed to negotiate with the
revolted colonies, his place in the university
being supplied during his year s absence by
Dugald Stewart, \vho in 1785 became his suc
cessor. In his 70th year he paid a visit to
the principal cities of the continent, and was
elected a member of several learned societies.
The last years of his life were passed in St.
Andrews, where he observed a strictly Pytha
gorean diet. His " History of the Progress and
Termination of the Roman Republic " (1783)
is valuable for its philosophical reflections,
clearness of style, and masterly portraitures
of character. His u Essay on the History of
Civil Society" (1767) discusses the origin, end,
and form of government, affirms the natural
sociability of men, in opposition to the hy
pothesis of Hobbcs of their natural hostility,
and defends civilization against the charges of
Rousseau. His philosophical views are con
tained in his " Institutes of Moral Philosophy "
(1769), and in his "Principles of Moral and
Political Science " (1792). He belongs by his
general method to the school of Bacon, recom
mending everywhere experience and the study
of facts as the condition of successful research.
FERGUSON, James, a Scottish experimental
philosopher and astronomer, born near Keith,
Banffshire, in 1710, died in London, Nov. 16,
1776. His father, a day laborer, taught him
to read and write, which was the only educa
tion he was able to bestow on his children.
When seven or eight years of age his attention
was attracted to mechanics by observing his
father raise a heavy weight with a lever. He
investigated the principle and made several
machines combining the lever and the pulley,
which he described in a treatise with draw
ings. On showing this to a gentleman, he was
surprised to find that those things had been
treated of before, but was equally pleased that
he had discovered the true principle. While
tending sheep he made models of mills, spinning
wheels, and other machines, acquired the rudi
ments of astronomy, taught himself to draw,
made maps, and learned the principles of ge
ography. By the aid of patrons he afterward
studied portrait painting in Edinburgh, and
next medicine, but finally devoted himself to
astronomy. In 1743 he removed to London,
where he attracted attention by a publication
of astronomical tables. In 1747 he published
"A Dissertation on the Phenomena of the

140

FERGUSON

FEPJSIITAII

Harvest Moon," and afterward lectured in
many places on experimental philosophy and
astronomy. George III. settled on him a pen
sion of 50. His latter years were mostly de
voted to the delivery of his lectures, which
had become very popular. The most important
of his works are: " Astronomy Explained on
Sir Isaac Newton s Principles " (4to, London,
1750); "Lectures on Mechanics," &c. (8vo,
1704) ; "An Easy Introduction to Astronomy "
(1709); "An Introduction to Electricity"
(1770); and "Art of Drawing in Perspective"
(1775). Sir David Brewster published cor
rected editions of his "Lectures" and "As
tronomy " in 1805 and 1811.

FERGTSON, Robert, an English physician,
born in India in 1799, died June 25, 1805. He
studied medicine at the universities of Heidel
berg and Edinburgh, took the degree of M. D.
in 1825, and settled in London, where he rap
idly acquired a large and lucrative practice.
He became physician to the general lying-in
hospital, professor of midwifery at King s col
lege, and physician-accoucheur to King s col
lege hospital. He was also physician extraor
dinary to the queen, whom he attended in all
her confinements. His chief publications are
an "Essay on Puerperal Fever" and an edi
tion of Gooch s works.

FERGl SSON, James, a British writer on archi
tecture, born at Ayr, Scotland, in 1808. He
was educated at the high school of Edinburgh,
and after several years experience in a count
ing house in Holland and England, went in
1829 to India, where for ten years he was en
gaged in mercantile pursuits. Returning to
England, he devoted himself to art and litera
ture. During his residence in India he had
taken great interest in the ancient architectu
ral remains, and among the fruits of his ob
servations was a description of the rock-cut
temples with illustrations by himself (1845),
and "Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient
Architecture in Hindostan " (184V - 8). In
1847 he published "Ancient Topography of
Jerusalem," in which he undertook to show
that the building known as the mosque of
Omar is the church of the Holy Sepulchre. In
1849 appeared the first volume of his "His
torical Inquiry into the True Principles of
Beauty in Art, more especially with reference
to Architecture," which was succeeded by
the " Illustrated Handbook of Architecture "
(1855), in the preparation of which he used
the materials already collected for the succeed
ing volumes of the former work. In these
works he gives a complete survey of the archi
tectural monuments of the chief nations of
ancient^ and modern times, and offers many
suggestions of great practical value. His

1 Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored "
(1851), published while Mr. Layard s excava
tions were proceeding, exhibits a profound
knowledge of the architecture of the Assyrians

and Persians ; and upon the subsequent estab
lishment of the crystal palace at Sydenham,

of which he was the general manager for some
time after its opening, he personally superin
tended the arrangement of the Nineveh court.
His attention had been drawn in India to the
use and application of earthworks in modern
fortifications, and he proposed the substitution
of circular forms for angles and bastions, and
of earthworks for masonry. On this subject
he published " The Peril of Portsmouth " and
"Portsmouth Protected," and "Essay on a
proposed New System of Fortification " (1849).
His system was put in practice in the Russian
defence of Sebastopol, and frequently employed
in the civil war in the United States. In 1859
he became one of the royal commissioners for
the defences of the United Kingdom. In 1871
he received the royal gold medal of the insti
tute of British architects. Besides the works
mentioned, he has published "A History of
Architecture in all Countries," a reconstruction
of his "Handbook" (3 vols., 18G2- 7), "Rude
Stone Monuments of all Ages " (1872), and " Tree
and Serpent Worship " (new ed., 1874).

FERGISSON, Sir William, a Scottish surgeon,
born at Prestonpans, East Lothian, March 20,
1808. He early became confidential assistant
to the celebrated anatomists Dr. Knox and
John Turner, "and in 1828 licentiate of the col
lege of surgeons. He began to lecture on
surgery in 1831, and in 1840 was called to
London as professor of surgery in King s col
lege. He was surgeon in ordinary to the prince
consort Albert, and was created a baronet
in 1865. He was elected president of the roy
al college of surgeons July 11, 1870. Besides
special papers on cleft palate, lithotomy, litho-
trity, aneurism, and others, he has published
"A System of Practical Surgery" (London,
1848), and " Progress of Anatomy and Surgery
in the 19th Century" (1867). He is also the
inventor of numerous surgical instruments.

FERISHTAH, Mohammed Rasim, a Persian his
torian, born in Astrabad about 1560, died prob
ably about 1611. His father left his native
country to travel in India, where he settled in
the Deccan as instructor to the son of one
of the reigning princes. The young Ferish-
tah was advanced to honors at court, but
subsequently, induced by civil commotions and
changes of government, repaired to the court
of Ibrahim Adil Shah in Bejaporc, where he
passed the remainder of his life, and wrote his
history of India, This work, which was first
published in 1606, is one of the most authorita
tive oriental histories ; it contains all the facts
which the author deemed worthy to extract
from more than 30 older histories, and is still
in India the most popular history of the coun
try. The introduction gives a brief account
of India prior to the Mohammedan conquest,
and then follows in 12 books a history of the
kings of the different provinces, and of the
European settlers. At the conclusion there is
! a short account of the geography, climate, and
other physical circumstances of the country.
j It was several times partially translated into

FERLAND

FERMENTATION

English, and the whole work, with the excep- j
tion of some passages which have been since !
discovered, was published in London in 1829 i
by Col. John Brings, under the title of u The
History of the Rise and Progress of the Mo- !
hammedan Power in India, from its commence- i
rnent in 1000 to 1620." Col. Briggs also pub- !
lished an edition in Persian at Bombay in 1831.

FERLAM), Jean Baptiste Antoiue, a Canadian his
torian, born in Montreal, Dec. 25, 1805, died in
Quebec, Jan. 8, 1864. He was ordained priest
in 1828, and afterward appointed professor of
history in Laval university. I le published a re
view of Brasseur de Bourbourg s "History of
Canada ;" " Notes on the first Register of
Quebec;" "Journal of a Voyage on the Coast
of Gaspesie;" "Labrador;" and a "Life of
Bishop Plessis." At the time of his death he
was engaged on a " Course of Canadian His
tory ;" the first volume had appeared, and the
second was in the press.

FERMANAGH, an inland county of Ireland,
province of Ulster, bordering on the counties
Donegal, Tyrone, Monaghan, Cavan, and Lei-
trim; area, 714 sq. in. ; pop. in 1871, 92,688.
It lies almost wholly in the basin of Lough
Erne, which divides it lengthwise into two
nearly equal portions. Its S. W. part is moun
tainous, and the N. E. part rises into steep
hills. The soil is as varied as the surface, but
except a wide belt in the south is not remark
ably fertile. The productions are oats, barley,
wheat, flax, potatoes, turnips, and hay. Cattle
are bred on the high grounds, and butter, eggs,
&c., are exported. Limestone, marl, potter s
clay, and small quantities of coal and iron, are
the chief mineral products. Timber is more
abundant than in most Irish counties, but is
grown principally on the large estates, many
parts of the county having a desolate appear
ance. There are no important manufactures,
and few large towns ; those worthy of notice
are Enniskillen, Lisnaskea, and Lowtherstown.

FERMAT, Pierre de, a French mathematician,
born in southern France in August, 1601, died
in Toulouse, Jan. 12, 1665. He studied law, and
became in 1631 councillor at the parliament
of Toulouse, devoting his leisure to mathemati
cal studies. D Alembert, Lagrange, and other
French authorities claim for him the honor of
having been the principal inventor of the differ
ential calculus ; and Laplace states that it was
due to Fermat and his colaborer, Pascal. His
theories are chiefly contained in his treatise De
Maximis et Minimis, republished in 1679 with
his miscellaneous scientific writings. Descartes
combated his propositions concerning the cal
culus, and Fermat opposed Descartes s views
in respect to geometry and optics.

FERMENTATION (Lat, fermentum, leaven, a
contraction of fervimentum, from fervere, to
boil), the conversion of an organic substance
into one or more new compounds, under the
influence of a body which is called a ferment.
It is a process which with more or less skill
has been employed from the earliest times in

the manufacture of alcoholic beverages, but its
philosophy has been but imperfectly understood
until recent times, and several questions still
remain involved in doubt, and are matters of
warm controversy. Formerly chemists recog
nized four kinds of fermentation, the vinous,
the panary, the acetous, and the putrefactive;
but now the panary is included in the vinous,
while other kinds have been added, the number
not being definitely settled. The following list
may be given as the one usually recognized,
although it will be seen that some of them are
probably parts of the processes of others: 1,
saccharine; 2, alcoholic or vinous; 3, acetic;
4, lactic ; 5, butyric ; 6, mucous or viscous ; 7,
putrefactive. To these there might be added
without impropriety the benzoic, in which the
amygdaline of the bitter almond, under the
influence of emulsine, forms prussic acid and
other bodies; and the sinapic, in which oil of
mustard is produced during fermentation of the
flour of black mustard. The act of digestion
may also not improperly be regarded as a
species of fermentation, because it involves,
under the influence of minute organic cells,
furnished by the mucous coat of the stomach,
a transformation of proteine compounds into
albuminose, which is just as truly a change by
the influence of a ferment as the formation of
lactic acid from lactic sugar, or of glucose from
dextrine. 1. Saccharine Fermentation. In the
article BREWING is described the process for
the malting of barley, in which the produc
tion of diastase from albuminous matter accom
panies the evolution of the grain into plumula
and radicle. This diastase is the ferment of
saccharine fermentation, by whose influence the
starch of the grain is converted into sugar ; the
steps in the process being, first, the formation
of soluble starch, then dextrine or gum, which
next passes into glucose or grape sugar. Starch,
soluble starch, and dextrine have the same
chemical constitution, or more strictly speaking
have the same proportion of elements, and may
therefore be considered as allotropic conditions
of each other. The transformation of dextrine
into glucose consists in the assimilation of the
elements of water, and may be represented in
the following equation :

CJI 10 5

Dextrine.

II 2 = CJTjoOg
Water. Glucose.

There is usually at the same time produced a
small quantity of lactic acid, in consequence of
a catalytic action, probably of the diastase, by
which the glucose, having the same proportion
of elements as lactic sugar, but differently
grouped, takes on the functions of the latter sub
stance and splits up into lactic acid. The sac
charine fermentation, which takes place in malt
ing, is promoted by the action of heat, which
should commence at about 85 and terminate
at about 135 F. ; but in a decoction of malt, as
in the mash tun of the brewer, it is conducted at
a higher temperature, from 158 to 167. The
drving of the malt in kilns at this stao;e arrests

FERMENTATION

the conversion of the sugar into lactic acid,
which is evolved in considerable quantity if
the malt is allowed to cool in a moist state.
The action of dilute acids, assisted by heat,
also has the power of converting starch into
dextrine and grape sugar. (See DEXTRINE.)
2. Alcoholic or Vinous Fermentation. If a
decoction of malt is allowed to stand for a
time in the open air at a temperature varying
from 40 to 85 F., a change takes place, in
which bubbles of carbonic acid gas may be
seen to rise from the mass ; and upon exami
nation it will be found that portions of the
sugar and gluten have disappeared, and in their
place will be found alcohol, lactic, acetic, and
succinic acids, and some glycerine, in varying
proportions, depending upon the temperature
and the amount of saccharification that had
taken place in the malt. There will also be
found more or less of a viscous substance con
taining yeast cells and germs and other micro
scopic organisms, and some mannite. If, how
ever, instead of allowing the decoction of malt
to ferment spontaneously, it be kept at a tem
perature of 158 to 167 F. until most of the
dextrine has been converted into glucose, and
then filtered and cooled to 70 or 85 with suffi
cient rapidity to prevent the commencement
of premature fermentation, and then a quantity
of brewer s yeast which has been kept in a
warm place until it begins to decay be stirred
in the mass, brisk fermentation will soon be
induced, by which nearly all the glucose will
be transformed into alcohol and carbonic acid,
as represented in the following equation :

C 6 II I2 0, = 2C 2 II 6

2C0

Glucose.

Alcohol. Carbonic acid.

Under the most favorable circumstances not
more than 95 per cent, of the sugar passes into
alcohol and carbonic acid, the remainder being
converted into succinic acid and glycerine.
Both these bodies are formed, according to
Pasteur, as follows :

49C fl II 12 6 + 30H 2 O = 12C 4 II,.O 4 + 72C 3 n g O 3 + 30C0 2
Glucose. Water. Succinic acid. Glycerine. Carb. acid.

The production of succinic acid in alcoholic
fermentation was discovered by C. Schmidt in
1847. Pasteur discovered a few years ago that
glycerine was also one of the products. Amylic
alcohol or fusel oil is also frequently produced
in alcoholic fermentation. Cane sugar, Ci 2 H 22
On, does not pass into alcohol and carbonic
acid directly, but is first converted into glucose
by assimilating one equivalent of water, thus :

C,oTT 22 O n
Cane sugar.

II 2 O

Water.

2CJI ]2 6
Glucose.

It then passes into alcohol and canbonic acid as
before represented. Milk sugar, C 12 II 24 O 12 ,
which has the same proportion of elements as
grape sugar, but with a different molecular ar
rangement, is also transformed into alcohol and
carbonic acid under the influence of cheese or
other proteine bodies in a state of decay ; first

passing, according to some observers, into glu
cose. Must of grape or juice of fruit, if boiled
and suspended in a bladder in the midst of
fermenting must or wort, will not ferment;
and it has been stated that if yeast cells bo
prevented from coming in contact with the
fermentable liquid, fermentation will not take
place, although the soluble contents of the
cells may pass through the membrane. Should
this statement be substantiated by further ob
servation, it would go to show that the exceed
ingly minute germs of yeast cannot penetrate
through the coats of animal membranes, al
though so small as to be scarcely visible under
a magnifying power of 2,800 diameters, and
would also show that fermentation, whatever
may be the question as to its being itself a vital
process or a chemical one, cannot take place
without the influence of these vitalized germs.
Yeast, torula ceremsim or mycoderma vini, is a
fungoid vegetable organism, composed of mi
croscopic globules which attain a maximum
diameter of about ^-^ of an inch. Each
globule is composed of a thin membranous cell
wall having the composition of cellulose, Ce
IIioO 5 , and is filled with a gelatinous proteine
compound, principally consisting of exceeding
ly minute germinal granules. There are two
varieties of yeast, depending upon the mode
of propagation. When fermentation is con
ducted below 45 F., the propagation is carried
on by an increase of the germinal granules
within the cells by assimilation of nutriment
from the fermenting liquid, until the cell wall
bursts and the partially organized granules
which are liberated proceed in their develop
ment, forming in turn parent cells. Yeast
formed in this manner is called by the German
brewers bottom yeast {Unterhef e), and is the
kind used in the fermentation of Bavarian beer.
It is deposited during the process at the bot
tom of the fermenting tun in the form of a
grayish viscid or gelatinous mass, the yeast
being more or less mixed with other sedimen
tary matter. When, however, the temperature
at which the fermentation is conducted is much
above 45, say from 70 to 85, the develop
ment of germinal matter becomes much more
rapid, and it passes, according to Dr. Lionel
Beale, through pores of the parent cell wall, per
haps carrying a thin pellicle with it, and makes
its appearance upon the outside in the form of
what have been called buds, first discovered by
Cagniard de la Tour. (See fig. 1.) These buds,
which for a time remain attached by pedicles to
the parent cells, then go on developing, and in
time become detached and assume the functions
of parent cells; or buds may spring from them
before their separation, and thus branches ex
tending to some distance may be formed, as in
fig. 2. Fig. 3 exhibits an appearance often
noticed : several buds growing from one parent
cell, each filled with granular matter, and
presenting an irregular outline. On account
of its branching structure, yeast which grows
in this way becomes buoyant from the collec-

FERMENTATION

143

tion of bubbles of carbonic acid gas between
the branches, and rises to the top of the liquid,
and therefore is called top yeast (Obcrhefe). It
is the kind used in the fermentation of the wort
of ale and strong spirituous liquors. It would
appear, however, that the mode of propagation

Fro. 1. Growing 1 yeast
cells and most minute
germs, magnified 2,000
diameters (Beale).

FIG. 2. Yeast cells, grow
ing during 48 hours,
magnified 250 diame
ters (Beale).

cells, showing diverti-
cula. or buds, mag
nified 1,300 diameters
(Beale).

does not instantly change in either variety
upon a change of temperature. Thus top yeast
placed in a fermentable liquid having a tem
perature of 45 is said not to pass into bottom
yeast at once, as though a habit had been ac
quired ; and conversely,
bottom yeast will not de
velop as top yeast under
a certain length of time.
Yeast globules do not in
crease in number in pure
sugar solutions, but the
older globules waste away
while the new buds grow
at the expense of their FlG ;J- ~^^l n ^. 3*
contents. To effect the
fermentation of 100 parts
of sugar requires about
one part of yeast, weighed when dry. When
the proportion of sugar is greater the excess
remains unaltered, the cells will be ruptured,
and the solution will be found to contain a
certain quantity of lactate and acetate of am
monia, and other ammoniacal salts. When,
however, instead of a pure sugar solution, a
saccharine vegetable infusion, as sweet wort,
is employed as the fermentable liquid, the yeast
cells rapidly increase at the expense of the
azotized matters which are present and which
are essential as their nutriment. During the j
fermentation of beer they often increase to eight i
or ten times their original quantity. The fol-
lowing table, according to Mitscherlich, gives i
the composition of yeast in its active and in its |
exhausted state, the amount of ash being de- |
ducted :

j yeast, and is composed, according to Mulder,
j entirely of phosphates of potash, soda, lime,
1 and magnesia. 3. Acetic Fermentation. Liebig
regarded the conversion of alcohol into acetic
i acid rather as a process of eremacausis, or slow
] oxidation, by which hydrogen was removed and
i oxygon substituted ; but as the process is facili-
: tated by ferments, particularly by the mycodcr-
ma aceti, it is generally regarded as a species
i of fermentation. Alcohol is readily oxidized
by the influence of finely divided platinum into
acetic acid, and also by binoxide of manganese
j and bichromate of potash. It is supposed that
the reaction includes two stages : first the for
mation of aldehyde by the abstraction of two
equivalents of hydrogen, water being at the
same time formed ; and subsequently the ad
dition of one equivalent of oxygen, as repre
sented by the following equations :

C 2 II B + O = C. 2 H 4 + HoO
Alcohol. Aldehyde. Water.

C 2 TI 4

Aldehyde.

O = C 2 TI 4 2
Acetic acid.

CONSTITUENTS.

Active cells.

Spent cells.

Carbon

47-0

47 6

Hydrogen

7-2

Nitrogen

5-0

Oxygen

35 3

Sulphur

The inorganic matter represented by the ash
amounts to about 7*5 per cent, of the dried ,

VOL. VII. 10

If the supply of oxygen be insufficient, much
of the aldehyde remains unconverted into acetic
acid, and on account of its great volatility may
pass away in vapor. Pure diluted alcohol does
not absorb oxygen from the air, but requires
the presence of some inducing body which
shall modify the atomic character of the oxy
gen, and also perhaps of that of the alcohol,
so that the affinity of the constituent hydrogen
and the atmospheric oxygen shall be increased.
4. Lactic Fermentation. When milk is left
to stand for a time, the lactic sugar (CizH^Oia)
which it contains decomposes into lactic acid.
The transformation is exceedingly simple, con
sisting merely in the splitting up of the mole
cules of sugar into a less complex arrangement,
Ci 2 II 2 4Oi2 becoming 2C 3 lleO 3 , or lactic acid.
Caseine while passing into a state of decay was
formerly supposed to be the ferment which in
duced the process ; but according to Ilallier
and others, it consists of minute organisms
which are developed from spores of penicillium
crustaceum. (See figs. 4, 5, G, 7.) The pro
cess is usually accompanied or immediately fol
lowed by the coagulation of the milk, an ac
tion which is generally ascribed to the ab
straction of the alkaline constituents of the
caseine, which are supposed to hold it in so
lution; but it is asserted by some observers
that coagulation of new milk by rennet often
commences before any lactic acid makes its
appearance. Another mode of producing lac-
teous fermentation is by the employment of
glucose. When a solution of glucose is mixed
with new sour cheese, or with milk and chalk,
and exposed to a temperature of 75 or 80 F.
for some weeks, with frequent stirring, the
sugar is converted into lactic acid, which when
chalk is used combines with the base, forming
lactate of lime. The chalk is used for the pur
pose of combining with the acid, the accumu-

144:

FERMENTATION

lation of which to a certain amount arrests
the process. 5. Butyric Fermentation. To
ward the clo.se of lactic fermentation butyric
acid makes its appearance, accompanied by the
evolution of hydrogen and carbonic acid, par
ticularly when sugar of milk and lime are em
ployed. The formation is represented by the
following equation:

2C 3 TI fl 3 = C 4 II S 2 + 2CO a
Lactic acid. Butyric acid.

411

6. Viscous or Mucous Fermentation. When
the juices of beet root and carrot are left in a
warm place for a few days, they spontaneously
pass into the viscous state, for which reason
this has been called the viscous fermentation.
During the process there is an escape of car
bonic acid and hydrogen, as in the case of
butyric fermentation, and the formation of
mannitc, gum, and lactic acid. It lias been
described as taking place under the influence
of a peculiar ferment composed of minute
spherules, which are probably a species of pe-
nicillium. It is doubtful whether this should
be considered as a distinct species, or as an
incident in lactic or butyric fermentation.
7. Putrefactive Fermentation. This occurs
when bodies containing nitrogenous compounds
decompose spontaneously in a limited amount
of air. When the decomposing substance is
freely exposed to the air, and there is not too
much moisture present, eremacausis or slow
combustion takes place (see EREMACAUSIS) ;
but if the access of air is much obstructed,
as when the decaying body is submerged in
water, a more complex reaction takes place,
in which several very offensive gases are evol
ved, prominent among which is sulphuretted
hydrogen, the gas which gives the odor of
rotten eggs. Phosphuretted hydrogen, carbu-
retted hydrogen, ammonia, free nitrogen and
hydrogen gases, and acetic, lactic, butyric, and
valeric acids, as well as several noxious com
pounds, the nature of many of which is not
perfectly understood, are also formed. The
putrefaction which takes place soon after the
death of a person or animal generates poisonous
matter of great virulence. It is, however, the
opinion of Dr. Lionel Beale that the peculiar
matter which is the most poisonous is engen
dered at about the time of death, and perhaps
a few hours before. (" Disease Germs, their
Nature mid Origin," London, 1872.) Com
plete exclusion of the air prevents putre
faction. If fermentable liquids are tirst boiled
and sealed tightly in close jars, they may be
kept for an indefinite time without undergo
ing either vinous or putrefactive fermentation.
The commencement of the process is a matter
which is involved in some obscurity. A piece
of wood or animal tissue undergoing erema
causis, if supplied with sufficient moisture and
nearly excluded from the air, immediately be
gins to putrefy. Whether the ferment is the
decaying matter itself, or consists of living or
ganisms, is a question that has not been decided.

Pasteur regards putrefaction as a peculiar spe
cies of fermentation caused by animal organ
isms of the genus vibrio, of which there arc six
known species; and he also regards each of
them as having the power of exciting a particu
lar mode of putrefaction. If a putrescible
liquid holding air in solution is sealed in a glass
vessel and left to stand for a time, certain infu
soria, monas crepusculum and bacterium tcrmo,
are first developed. They absorb oxygen from
the air and evolve carbonic acid, and then die
and fall to the bottom as a sediment. If germs
of the vibrio are present, they become devel
oped, and the process of putrefaction com
mences. These vibrions, according to Pasteur,
cannot exist in a liquid which contains oxygen.
If the putrescible liquid is exposed to the air,
the monads and bacteria are first developed,
and fonwing a pellicle on the surface prevent
the access of oxygen to the interior. Putrefac
tion then commences, but the products are par
tially decomposed by the influence of the layer
of infusoria, and receiving oxygen are converted
into water, carbonic acid, and ammonia. Pas
teur also regards the slow oxidation of animal
and vegetable matters, such as moistened saw
dust, as dependent upon the influence of the
loAver cryptogamic and infusorial organisms,
without the presence of which he thinks dead
organized matter would be subject to but little
change. There is a tendency at the present
time to regard all kinds of fermentation as
due to the development of living organisms,
either animal or vegetable, depending princi
pally upon the nature and condition of the fer
menting liquid. According to Pasteur, it is
always accompanied by an incessant inter
change of molecules between the fermenting
substance and the living cells which develop
themselves within it. In the souring of wine,
a growth of mycoderma aceti forms on the
surface, and has the power of condensing the
oxygen of the air, like that of platinum black,
or of the blood globules, and conveying it to
the liquid on which it rests. Pasteur also says
I that the germs which cause the fermentation
j of grape juice come from the exterior of the
fruit. He finds with the microscope organized
corpuscles attached to the grape skins, which
he regards as germs of the ferment. He more
over holds that alcoholic fermentation may be
conducted without the presence of atmospheric
oxygen, and in an atmosphere composed en
tirely of carbonic acid ; in accordance with
which idea he has invented and patented ap
paratus for brewing, by which atmospheric air
is excluded during fermentation, one great ad
vantage of which lie claims is that the germs
of other ferments which produce lactic, acetic,
and butyric acids are excluded, and beer yeast
or true alcoholic ferment alone allowed to act,
by which a greater percentage and also better
quality of product is obtained, and in a more
economical way. Experiments have been made
by Pasteur and others in which boiled must
and other fermentable liquids have been sub-

FERMENTATION

145

jected to the action of filtered and heated air
and oxygen without the production of fermen
tation ; and they have also introduced the pulp
of fruits into boiled must, with the same result
when it was excluded from the presence of un-
filtered air. Fermentation has also been car
ried on in tubes having their ends closed by
thin membranes, and placed in fermentable
liquids, but without exciting in the latter any
fermentation except when natural air was ad
mitted, which, it is contended, always carries
the germs of ferments. M. Fremy maintains
that certain experiments which he lias made
controvert the position of the upholders of
the physiological theory. At a session of the
French academy of sciences held in October,
1872, a discussion of the subject took place
between Al. Pasteur and M. Fremy, in which
the latter contended that the influence of at
mospheric dust in the phenomena of fermenta
tion is only secondary and accidental, and that
the true origin of ferments is in the mass of
the fermentable substance. Fremy is disposed
to believe that Pasteur did not establish fer
mentation in the boiled must in which he had
placed grape juice, because he placed it in other
conditions, besides those of exclusion of air, in
which alcoholic fermentation could not take
place. lie recounted some experiments which
he had made, among which was the following:
He squeezed the pulp of some pears and other
fruits, but without breaking the skins, and
placing them in favorable situations, found at
the end of several days that they contained
notable quantities of alcohol ; fermentation
having been produced in the interior of the
fruit where, in his opinion, the dust of the air
could not exert any influence. Fremy there
fore believes that the parenchyma of fruits con
tains the material which is capable of taking
on conditions by which it may form ferments.
He contends that there is a great number of
ferments that are neither organized nor living,
which are capable of producing various kinds
of fermentation, depending upon the conditions
in which the fermentable matter is placed.
Liebig compares the action of a ferment to
that of heat, by which the atomic constituents
of organic molecules are shaken asunder and
left to recombine under the influence of forces
that may be present. Acetic acid is separated
by heat into carbonic acid and acetone; just
as sugar is separated by yeast into carbonic
acid and alcohol. He regards vital action and
chemical action as phenomena which must be
considered separately in seeking an explana-
tion of fermentation, and holds that the fact
that yeast causes fermentation in a pure so
lution of sugar is opposed to the idea that the
decomposition of sugar is caused by the devel
opment and increase of yeast cells; for yeast
consists chiefly of a substance containing nitro
gen and sulphur, besides phosphates, and these
cannot be furnished by the sugar; and more
over, beer yeast causes a similar decomposition
of other substances, malate of lime being con-

verted into carbonic acid, acetate, carbonate,
and succinate of lime. Salicine is also decom
posed by yeast into saligenine and salicylic
acid; "and a similar decomposition of salicine
I is produced by emulsine without any recogni-
| zable physiological process being concerned in
[ the change. Emulsine acts upon amygdaline
in like manner, its etfects being recognizable in
| a fe\v minutes by the new products. Emulsion
of sweet almonds also undergoes active vinous
| fermentation when mixed with grape sugar.
j But if substances containing sulphur and nitro-
gen, like emulsine, are, by reason of alteration
in the arrangement of their atoms, capable of
inducing change in other organic molecules,
so that they separate into new products, there
is reason for suspecting that in the action which
yeast exerts upon sugar its sulphuretted and
nitrogenous constituent plays a similar part."
j On the other hand, the experiments of Ilallier
j are more in support of the views of Pasteur.
According to this observer, the same germinal
molecules develop, according to the nature of
j the fermentable substances in which they are
I deposited, into the fungoid forms peculiar to
each fermentation. The forms which induce
putrefaction, fermentation, and mildew are all
varieties of one another. When they are de-
| veloped within the fluids they are cellular for-
| rnations, but when they grow upon the surface
j they produce fructification. Ilallier agrees with
Pasteur s view that the germs are all carried .
by the air. The following, condensed from the
" Quarterly Journal of Science," is a brief sum
mary of Hallier s views. The most abundant
source of germs appears to be the penicillium
\ crustaceum (fig. 4), whose spores are universal-
j ly spread because it is more hardy, more fertile,
and develops at lo\ver temperatures than others
of its kind. A spore of penicillium falling into
a watery fluid bursts into a multitude of parti
cles, each of which may be the radicle of a
! living fungus. The minute particles unite in
j twos, forming a double cell, and divide with
! great rapidity. (See fig. 5.) The minute parti-
j cles then unite in chains, constituting lepto-
I thrix, which is not a species, but a form of vege-
! tation common to many species. In pure water
development can go no further, and after a few

FIG. 4. Fructification
of Penicillium crus-
taceum (Ilallier).

Fifl. 5. Spores of Penicillium crus-
taoetim bursting 1 in water and
setting 1 free their contained par
ticles, niicrococci. which unite
in rows or chains Chillier).

hours the organisms cease to be formed, the
presence of a nitrogenous substance being ne
cessary for further development. The minute
spherules, micrococci, are the special ferment
of putrefaction. In the presence of sugar the
spherule enlarges and becomes a nucleated cell,

FERMENTATION

cryptococcus, which is identical with the yeast
cell. (See fig. 6.) In milk, during lacteous fer
mentation, the micrococcns elongates and forms
jointed start-like cells, as in fig. 7, arthrococciis ;
and in acetic fermentation the cells become lan
cet-shaped. According to these views, alcoholic

FIG. &lt;). Cryptococcus in vari
ous grades of development
from Penicillium (Hallier).

FIG. 7. Artlirococcus,
found in sour milk
(Ilallier).

and putrefactive fermentations are both due to
the influence of a single agent, transported from
place to place in the air, which everywhere
con tains germinal matter, protoplasm, bioplasm,
or whatever it may be called ; the living mole
cules growing wherever they find a suitable
soil, and in different soils developing into differ
ent forms, producing by their vital acts different
effects. The microscopic investigations of Dr.
Beale upon the development of the yeast plant
show that the cells vary in size more than is
usually represented, and that the development
of buds is greater, the layer cells having as many
as ten or more buds. (See figs. 1 and 3.) He
says : " The different germinal matter within the
yeast cell is the material upon which alone all
growth and action depends. Were it not for
the bioplasm or germinal matter, the cell would
be lifeless and passive, incapable of exciting fer
mentation or any change whatever ; and it may
under favorable circumstances undergo devel
opment into complete yeast cells, so that by
the artificial division of one thousands may re
sult. And if the soft, bioplasmic matter which
can be expressed from the yeast cell be placed
under favorable conditions, every particle of it
may germinate. This matter alone furnishes
the germs, it alone grows and appropriates the
nutrient material ; in short, it alone manifests
the phenomena peculiar to living things. The
little buds or gemmules above referred to, de
tached from the parent mass, and capable of
independent existence, are, many of them, much
less than To~ovinro f an inch in diameter ; but
each is living, and will grow under favorable
circumstances into a body like the parent cell,
giving origin in its turn to countless descen
dants. These very minute particles divide and
subdivide independently, producing still more
minute particles, capable of growth and divi
sion like themselves; . . . and this mode of
multiplication may go on for a long period,
perhaps for an indefinite time, if certain con
ditions persist. But if any one of these exces

sively minute particles falls into a medium con
taining suitable pabulum, it will appropriate it
and soon pass on to a higher stage of develop
ment. In this case branches may be formed,
and from them may proceed stems which grow
upward into the air, and bear upon their sum
mits heads in which spores are found, these
last being so well protected from the influ
ence of destructive agents that the germinal
matter within can retain its vitality for a
great length of time. The spores just re
ferred to are so light as to be easily sup
ported in the atmosphere, and they may be
carried a long distance by currents of air."
Bechamp has made an investigation into the
action of chalk which is used in lactic and
butyric fermentation. As has been stated,
the chalk is added for the purpose of pre
venting an accumulation of acid in the so
lution ; and although this is an important ac
tion, Bechamp has shown that chalk is itself
capable of establishing alcoholic, lactic, and
butyric fermentations. The chalk formation
consists principally of the remains of minute
organisms ; but independently of these fossils,
he finds that chalk contains living organisms
of extreme minuteness, which he has named
mycrozyma cretcc, and regards as the most
powerful ferments known. A sample of native
chalk, taken from the centre of a large block
and mixed with water, reveals tinder the mi
croscope numerous bright points having very
lively trepidating movements, which are the
organisms in question. The following experi
ment shows their power of inducing fermenta
tion : There were intimately mixed 420 grms.
of starch paste, 30 grms. of chalk, and 4 drops
of creosote. At the same time a similar mix
ture was made, except that pure carbonate of
lime was used in place of chalk. In three days
the starch in the mixture containing chalk
was liquefied, but no change was produced in
the one containing pure carbonate of lime. On
Nov. 14, 1864, 100 grms. of starch, 1,500 cc.
of water, and 10 drops of creosote were mixed
with 100 grms. of chalk. On March 30, 1806,
the mixture was analyzed and found to contain
4 cc. of absolute alcohol, 8 grms. of butyric
acid, and 5 2 grms. of crystallized acetate of
soda. On April 25, 1865, 80 grms. of cane
sugar, 1,400 grms. of chalk were mixed with
1,500 cc. of water containing creosote, and
when examined on June 14 following yielded
2 6 cc. of absolute alcohol, 4*5 grms. of buty
ric acid, 6-8 grms. of acetate of soda, and 9
grms. of lactate of lime. AVhen proper pre
cautions are taken no other ferment is found
in the liquid after fermentation besides those
contained in the chalk, and which have be
come considerably augmented. Fermentation
is .retarded or arrested by the action of vari
ous substances. An accumulation of about
15 per cent, of alcohol in the process arrests
it. Lactic fermentation is also arrested when
a certain quantity of lactic acid accumu
lates. Sulphurous acid, even in small quan-

FERMENTATION

FERMOY

titles, has a remarkable effect in arresting fer
mentation, especially the acetic, and sulphite
of calcium is extensively used by manufactu
rers of cider and wine, and judiciously em
ployed does not injure the beverage. Sulphur
ous acid is coming into use in distilleries in the
process of mashing, with a view to prolong it
so that an increased amount of dextrine and
fecula may be converted into glucose before fer
mentation commences. The mineral acids gen
erally, chlorine, chloroform, camphor, carbolic
and formic acids, and creosote, as well as most
mineral salts, also turpentine and essential oils,
have in varying degrees the property of arrest
ing or preventing fermentation. The employ
ment of common salt to prevent putrefactive
fermentation is a familiar example of antisep
tic action. According to Dumas, alcoholic fer
mentation is not affected by earthy carbonates
and neutral salts of potash and lime, and it is
accelerated by a solution of bitartrate of potash,
the yeast cells becoming more perfect, and
filled with plastic matter containing numerous
germs and mobile corpuscles. From all the
researches which have been made into the
subject of fermentation, whether the ferment
be considered merely as an organic body in a
state of change, or as a living organism, the
explanation of the process is assisted by a con
sideration of the vibratory theory of molecular
physics. When two or more bodies are brought
into intimate contact with each other, as where
a ferment is suspended or stirred in a ferment
able liquid, so that the molecules are intermin
gled, a tendency to produce a change of vibra
tory motion in them must follow as a necessary
consequence ; and this tendency is much modi
fied by the addition or abstraction of heat.
The difficulty of ascertaining experimentally
whether any of the minute germs, which re
quire the highest powers of the microscope
yet attained to enable them to be seen, may
be present in a liquid, places the question as
to the ultimate cause of fermentation in doubt,
and it seems that the nearest approach to a so
lution of it must thus far depend upon logical
inferences. Bucholz found that no fungi could
be detected in milk mixed with a small quan
tity of carbolic acid, but that nevertheless it
slowly turned sour. He therefore inferred
that lactic fermentation is not due to the ac
tion of living organisms, but to a chemical fer
ment contained or formed in the milk. But
although he found no fungi, minute organic
germs may have been present, undiscoverable
by the microscopic power which he employed.
Bechamp, before making the experiments with
chalk described above, had also found that
creosote in certain quantities prevented the
development of spores of fungi and germs of
infusoria, without interfering with the action
of ferments. The influence which may be ex
erted by undeveloped germs under similar cir
cumstances is a matter difficult to determine.
There is a suggestion contained in the results
of experiments which have been made by Pas

teur and others with boiled fermented liquors.
It is asserted that they may be preserved for
an indefinite time if filtered air or pure oxygen
only is admitted into the vessel. Now, Pay en
found that certain organic spores did not lose
the power of germination till heated to 284 F. ;
and others maintain that organic germs will re
tain their vitality at much higher temperatures
than this. It is certain that the decomposition
i of the proteine body is arrested by boiling, so
i that its influence is destroyed ; but it is quite
, probable that germs which have hitherto es-
I caped detection by means of the microscope
may yet remain alive. If, therefore, it be a
fact that boiling will for an indefinite time
preserve a fermentable liquor when natural air
is excluded, this would seem to indicate that
something more than the presence of organic
j germs is necessary to induce fermentation,
such as proteine compounds in a certain state
i of change, the peculiar action of which, how-
1 ever, may be advantageously manifested in the
i presence of yeast or some living organism.
: The facts also that brewers find in their prac-
j tice that yeast does not exert its powers advan-
: tageously unless, before being added to the fer-
| menting tun, it be kept in a warm place till
incipient putrefaction takes place, and that
washed yeast when added to wort does not
produce fermentation until a certain time has
elapsed, strengthen the opinion. The fact,
however, that, although undecomposed pro
teine compounds may be contained in the
boiled liquor, they will not begin to decay in
the presence of filtered air or pure oxygen,
but require the admission of natural air, would
j indicate that they also require the presence of
i some body having a chemical or catalytic force
| not possessed by pure oxygen, which is re-
j moved from the atmosphere by filtration.

FERMO (anc. Finmim Picenum), a town of

| Italy, in the province of Ascoli, 32 m. S. E. of

| Ancona, and 3 m. from the Adriatic; pop.

j about 20,000. It is the seat of an archbishop,

has a cathedral and seven other churches,

a lyceum, a communal gymnasium, a public

library, and a theatre. It exports corn, silk,

and woollens. It was founded by the Sabines

before Rome existed, and became in 204 B. C.

j a Roman colony. From the 8th century it

; ! generally belonged to the papal dominions till

1800, when it became part of the kingdom of

Italy. It is the birthplace of Lactantius.

FER3IOY, a town of Ireland, in the county
! and 19 m. X. E. of the city of Cork, on both
sides of the Blackwater, which is here spanned
by a fine stone bridge, built in 1800 ; pop. in
: 1871, 7,011. At the beginning of the present
! century there were here only a few cabins,
until Mr. John Anderson, the owner of the es-
: tate, built a hotel, and erected for the govern
ment barracks sufficient for 3.000 men. Fer-
l moy thus became the central military station
of Ireland. Mr. Anderson also laid out streets
and built houses which constitute the greater
part of the town. It has a Roman Catholic

FERN

FERNANDO PO

cathedral, several Protestant churches, two
colleges (Fermoy college, and St. Colman s
Roman Catholic* college), two convents, and
three branch banks.

FERN, Male. See MALE FERN".

FERNANDINA, a port of entry and the capi
tal of Xassau co., Florida, situated on the W.
shore of Amelia island, at the entrance of
Amelia river, which separates it from the
mainland, into Cumberland sound, 160 m. E.
by X. of Tallahassee; pop. in 1870, 1,722, of
whom 959 were colored. The harbor is land
locked and capacious, and is unsurpassed on
the Atlantic coast S. of Chesapeake bay. Ves
sels drawing 19 or 20 feet of water can cross
the bar at high tide, and the largest ships can
unload at the wharves. The climate, mild in
winter and tempered in summer by the sea
breezes, is very healthful. In the vicinity are
numerous sugar, cotton, and orange planta
tions. The town, which is the seat of the
Protestant Episcopal bishopric of Florida, con
tains seven churches, a
young ladies seminary
under the charge of the
bishop, and a weekly
newspaper. It has an
important trade in lum
ber, and possesses a
large cotton-ginning es
tablishment and a man
ufactory of cotton-seed
oil. Lines of steamers
to Savannah, Charles
ton, and Xew York
touch here. The value
of the foreign commerce
for the year ending
June 30, 1873, was
$327,859; 52 vessels
of 14,789 tons entered
from, and 63 of 22,217
tons cleared for foreign
ports; entered in the
coastwise trade, 112
steamers of 77,708 tons,

and 105 sailing vessels of 28,493 tons; cleared,
110 steamers of 76,292 tons, and 106 sailing
vessels of 26,021 tons. Fernandina was built
by the Spaniards in the early part of this
century, but was of little importance until the
completion of the Florida railroad, extending
from this point to Cedar Keys.

FERNANDO DF, NORONIIA, a group of small
islands in the Atlantic ocean, belonging to
Brazil, situated about 210 m. N. E. of Cape St.
Roque; lat. of S. E. extremity of the principal
island, 3 50 S., Ion. 32 28 W. The shores
are rocky, and difficult of access on account
of the violence of the surf. The largest island,
which gives the name to the group, is about
&gt; m. in circumference. In .it is a conical
mountain about 1,000 ft. high, the upper part
of which is very steep, and "on one side over
hangs its base. It is composed of phonolitic
rock, which has been severed into irregular

columns. The island is covered with wood,
but such is the aridity of its climate, there
being sometimes no rain for two years, that
vegetable production is very limited. It con
tains two harbors, and the coasts abound with
fish. It is used as a place of banishment by
Brazil, whose government maintains a garrison
there to prevent the escape of criminals. Xo
woman is permitted to land on it. Another
of these islands is about 1 m. square, and the
rest are mere rocky islets, separated from the
main islands by very narrow channels.

FERNANDO PO (Port. Fernao do Po\ an
island in the bight of Biafra, W. coast of
Africa, about 25 m. from the mainland, lying
between lat. 3 12 and 3 47 X., and Ion. 8
26 and 8 57 E. ; pop. variously estimated at
from 5,000 to 20,000. It is about 44 m. long
and 20 m. broad. Rising in bold precipitous
cliffs from the sea, its surface gradually be
comes more and more elevated, until in Clar
ence peak, near the X. extremity, it attains an

Clarence Peak, Fernaudo Po.

altitude of 10,650 ft. The rocks are wholly
of volcanic formation. The soil, which is
mostly covered with wood, is everywhere well
watered and fertile. The scenery is pictu
resque and beautiful, the highest summits and
the deepest vales being alike adorned with
luxuriant vegetation. The principal vegetable
products are palms, the bombax or silk cotton
tree, the goora (sterculia\ a species of ebony,
the sugar cane, here growing wild, and yams,
which form the staple food of the inhabitants.
The most numerous quadrupeds are antelopes,
monkeys, squirrels, and rats. The rivers
abound in fish and alligators. The coast is in
dented with several creeks and bays, the most
capacious of which is Maidstone bay, at the
X. E. extremity, where is situated the capital,
Clarencetown. The aborigines of Fernando
Po, called Edecyahs. are widely different in
appearance and language from the natives of

FERXEY

FERNS

149

the continent. They are of lighter complexion
and better features, well made and muscular,
and in disposition brave, generous, and amiable.
Their dwellings are of very rude construction, i
consisting merely of palm-leaf mats thrown
loosely over upright poles. This island was [
discovered by the Portuguese in 1471, and |
named after the leader of the expedition. In
1778 it was ceded to the Spaniards, who at
tempted to colonize it and carry on a slave
trade, but were repelled by the natives. In
1827 Spain permitted it to be occupied by the
British, who in 1834 abandoned it on account
of its insalubrity ; since which period the
Spaniards have again claimed it and changed
its name to Puerto de Isabel, and now use it
as a place of banishment for criminals. During
the British possession ,a Baptist mission was
established here ; but in 1858 the missionaries
were expelled by the Spanish government.
/ FERXEY, or Fernex, a town of France, in the
department of Ain, on the frontier of Switzer
land, at the foot of the Jura mountains, 5 m.
N. W. of Geneva; pop. about 1,200. It was
a place of refuge for the Huguenots during the
era of religious persecution in France, and
was for 20 years the residence of Voltaire.
When he bought the land, about 1758, Ferney
was a miserable hamlet, consisting only of a
few hovels. By his exertions it became a
prosperous town, with nearly 1,500 inhabi
tants. He drained and cultivated the adja
cent grounds, and caused Geneva watchmakers
and other industrious artisans to settle there,
while the constant concourse of visitors and j
travellers contributed to enhance the general ]
prosperity. The death of Voltaire proved
disastrous to the industry of the place, the
persons employed in the manufacture of
watches being reduced from 800 to about 200.
The chateau in which he lived has undergone
many alterations, so that few relics of him re
main. Adjoining the chateau are two small edi
fices, one the theatre and the other the church
built by Voltaire. Upon the porch of the lat
ter is the following inscription : Deo erexit Vol-
tarius. In front of the chateau is the mauso
leum which he had built with the utmost atten
tion to artistic execution.

FERNIG, Felicite and Theopliile de, French
heroines, sisters, born at Mortagne, depart- I
ment of Le Nord, Felicite in 1776, Theophile
in 1779. They distinguished themselves by I
bravery on many occasions, especially at the |
battles of Valmy and Jemmapes, having enlist- j
ed without their father s knowledge in a com- j
pany of national guards which he commanded
in 1792. Their services were officially recog- |
nized, and are commemorated in Lamartine s
" History of the Girondists." Theophile, who
had musical and poetical talents, died in Brus
sels in 1818. Felicite 1 became the wife of M.
Van der Walen, a Belgian officer, whose life
she had saved, and died much later.

FERNKORN, Anton Doniinik, a German sculptor
and bronze founder, born at Erfurt, March 17, ,

1813. He spent a number of years in a foun-
dery at Munich, and at the same time attended
the academy of Schwanthaler. In 1840 he
settled in Vienna, and having produced sev
eral excellent works was made director of a
government bronze foundery. Among his best
productions are the colossal equestrian statue
of the archduke Charles, finished in 1860, and
the monument to Prince Eugene in 1865. In
1866 he became insane, and was placed in a
private asylum at Dobling, near Vienna.

FERXS, the highest order of cryptogamous
plants, forming a natural group distinguished
for beauty and elegance, and much cultivated
for ornament. Ferns are leafy plants producing
a stem or rhizome, which creeps below or upon
the surface of the earth, and sometimes rises
to the height of 50 ft. as a tree trunk, crowned
with terminal leaves or fronds. The rhizome
is a fibrous woody cylinder, growing only at
the end, and so of equal diameter throughout,
giving out rootlets anywhere on its surface,
and presenting on a cross section a hard fibrous
rind composed of the angular bases of fallen
fronds, enclosing a cellular tissue with a ring
of woody plates, folded and curled, which are
in fact the bases of the leaf stalks, and in the
centre a cellular mass or highly developed pith.
The stem is in fact a consolidated bundle of leaf
stalks. The frond is circinate or coiled in ver
nation, and when unfolded is often of great
size (25 ft. long). From this and the minute
subdivision of the frond it has been considered
rather a leaf-bearing branch than a proper
leaf ; but there are all gradations from an en
tire frond to one most minutely divided, and in
the latter case the membranous portion proves
on examination to be one, however deeply in
cised. The petiole is never sheathing or articu
lated at the base, although in some tropical
species the base is much enlarged and forms
an elastic joint, quite edible. The size of the
fronds varies from a diameter of less than a
quarter of an inch to an expansion unequalled
by any other vegetable except some seaweeds. \
In several cases buds spring out on the surface
or edges of the frond, and thus multiply the
species; this is the case in the walking fern,
camptosorus, where the tip of the elongated
hastate frond bends to the earth and takes
root, giving rise to new plants. The veins of
the pinnao or leaflets of the fronds are various
ly arranged, and usually so definitely in each
genus as to be used in generic distinctions.
The fructification of /erns is always on the
lower face of the fronds, which sometimes un
der its influence are reduced to simple supports
in the shape of a spike or panicle; it consists
of sporangia or capsules, each containing many
spores, and usually attached to the nerves or
veins, but sometimes covering the whole sur
face. These capsules are grouped in clusters
of various forms called sori, and each cluster is
often covered until ripe by a fold of the leaf
membrane called an indiisivm. The order of
ferns is divided into suborders, most botanists

150

FERXS

recognizing as many as eight, founded upon the
structure, manner of attachment, and mode of
opening of the sporangia. By far the largest of
these suborders is the polypodiaeece, or true
ferns, Avhich includes the great majority of
those with which we are familiar in the wild

Eock Fern (Polypodium vulgare).

state or in cultivation. In ferns of this sub
order the structure of the sporangium is
curious. A little bundle of cellular pores on
a stem of the same cell formation is clasped
around by a ring of thick and elastic segments,
each resembling a U with the rounded part in
ward and the sides united. AVhile the sporan
gium is alive and full of sap the arms of the U

fern (polypodium) they are round, cinnamon-
colored dots in rows each side of the midrib ;
in hart s tongue (scolopendrium) they form
numerous obliquely transverse lines; in maiden
hair (adiantum) a bit of the edge of the frond
folds over the capsules ; in the brake (2&gt;teris)

Maiden-hair (Adiantum pedatum).

the whole edge is folded over; and in the
asplenium and many other ferns the sporangia
"are in oblong masses pinnately arranged each
side of the midrib of the smaller divisions of
the frond. In hymenophyllum, of a different
suborder, the- fcapsules are contained in a calyx-
like urn springing from the terminal veins. In
the ophiofflossacece, which include our com-

Hart s Tongue (Scolopendrium offidnarum).

remain almost parallel; but as the ring dries
the arms shrink together, and the capsule is
ruptured, often with force enough to throw the
minute spores to some distance. The position
of the sporangia on the frond is an import
ant generic distinction. In the common rock

Common Brake (Pteris aquilina).

mon adder s tongue and moon wort, the spo
rangia are entirely without the elastic ring, and
open by a transverse slit into two valves. The
spores are very minute and of various shapes,
and form the brown (rarely green) dust which
falls when a ripe frond is shaken. The mode

FERXS

151

Adder s Toneue (Ophio-
glossuin vulgatuin).

in which ferns are fecundated is a modern
discovery, but the process may be watched un
der the microscope by sowing the spores of any
common fern in a moist place. The spore swells
with the moisture and ruptures its walls; a
little radicle or rootlet
is thrown out, consist
ing of a single cell, and
at the same time an
other cell spreads out
as a tube of irregular
form, which soon forms
partitions through its
mass, and by multiplica
tion of these cells be
comes a small green leaf-
like expansion called a
protlicdlm. On the un
der surface of this spring
organs of two kinds,
the antheridia and
archegonia. The former
are filled with minute
spiral bodies called an-
therozoids, which have
cilia and the power of
motion in water, which
is always abundant on
the under side of the
prothallus ; when mature they pass into the
archegonia, which are cup-like organs, open
when mature, and containing one or more cells
which the contact of the antherozoids causes
to develop, and soon a root appears, then the
first frond, and so on until the complete fern is
the result. The species of ferns at present de
scribed are 2,235, although some botanists make
the number above 3,000. In the earlier geolo
gical ages ferns formed a most important part
of the vegetation, as is plainly seen in the coal
fields, where numerous fronds and stems are
preserved; but from the general absence of
fructification on these remains, it is often im
possible to distinguish the species. They are
now found all over the world, but especially in
the warmer and moister climates ; thus in "the
Antilles they comprise T V of the vegetation, in
Oceanica i or |, in St. Helena $-, in Juan Fer
nandez |, and in England %. The Hawaiian
islands and Xew Caledonia are particularly rich
in species. The tree ferns are chiefly confined
to the torrid zone, but Martens found them 50
ft. high in Japan, and Robert Brown found
arborescent ferns at the extremity of Tasmania,
and even at Dusky bay in Xew Zealand, near
I at. 46 S. Most tree ferns are easily propa
gated by planting sections of their stems, which
readily leaf out. For the classification of ferns,
which is very unsettled and depends on techni
cal differences, see Hooker s " Genera," Hooker
and Baker s "Synopsis," or Smith s "Ferns,
British and Foreign ;" and for local descrip
tions see local floras. The uses of ferns are
not very prominent. On the Hawaiian islands
the stem of a tree fern is often baked in the
steam cracks of the volcanoes, and by long

cooking becomes quite palatable, although ra
ther leathery, and tasteless without salt. The
enlarged bases of the petioles of other spe-

j cies are cooked and eaten in times of scarcity ;

| when raw they smell precisely like a raw po
tato. The stems and midribs of some smaller
species are woven into baskets and hats. A
lew species are considered medicinal, and some
are aromatic and used to scent cocoanut oil.
In cultivation ferns may be adapted to a va
riety of localities; for, although generally found
in shady places, many thrive in the full tropical
sun if the air be moist, and some grow on dry
rocks and even on the uninviting surface of lava

Tree Ferns.

1. Alsophila excelsa. 2. Dicksonia arborescens. 3. Cyathea
eleerans. 4. Cyathea arborea. 5. HemiU-lia speciosa.
6. Drynaria coronans. 1. Platyceriuni graude. 8. Bird s
nest fern. 9. Asplenium luciduin.

streams. A compost of peat or bog earth, de
cayed leaf mould, yellow loam, and silver sand
in* equal proportions, may be used in potting
ferns; but it must be well underdrained, and
the addition of a fe\v fragments of mortar or
limestone is advantageous. Several species
climb on rocks, like ivies; others cling to
trees, or, like the beautiful climbing fern (lygo-
dium), run over bushes. About 1830 Mr. X. B.
Ward of England, in investigating the trans
formations of an insect, buried its chrysalis in
some earth in a closed glass bottle. A seedling
fern and a grass sprang up from the soil and
gre\v within the confined atmosphere of the

152

FfiRON

FERRARA

vessel. This led to experiments upon the growth
of plants, especially ferns, in close cases, and re
sulted in establishing the fact that these plants
would not only grow under such conditions,
but that most ferns would flourish much better
than in the open air. "Wardian cases, which
resulted from this discovery, are now in gen
eral use for the cultivation of ferns, and are
among the most popular as they are the most
beautiful of household ornaments.

FEROJV, Firmin Eloi, a French painter, born
in Paris, Dec. 1, 1802. He studied under Gros,
and received the great prize in 1825 for his
picture of "Damon and Pythias." Among
his subsequent works are "Hannibal in the
Alps" (1833), "The Resurrection of Lazarus "
(1835), and "Christ arrested by Judas" and
"Souvenir of Tunis" (1855). Many of his
pictures are in the museum of Versailles, and
he was a favorite painter of Louis Philippe
and his sons ; but his reputation has declined.

FEROZEPOOR, a town of British Indja, in
the Punjaub, about 3 m. S. of the river Ghara,
45 m. S. S. E. of Lahore ; pop. about 10,000.
The ruins which surround it show that it
was once a large city. It came into pos
session of the British in 1835, since w T hen it
has been greatly improved, and bids fair to
become of considerable military and commer
cial importance. In May, 1857, during the
sepoy rebellion, a regiment of native infantry
revolted, but were driven out of the fort by a
handful of Europeans, and fled after plundering
and burning the houses, hospitals, and church.
In August following a regiment of cavalry re
volted, but after killing several persons were
repulsed and dispersed.

FEBBAND, Antoine Franfois Claude, count, a
French politician and historian, born in Paris,
July 4, 1751, died there, Jan. 17, 1825. At the
age of 18 years he was admitted a counsellor
in the parliament of Paris by special dispen
sation. He left Paris in 1789, and attached
himself to the prince of Conde ; and after the
death of Louis XVI. he was appointed a mem
ber of the council of regency. He returned
to France in 1801, devoted himself to litera
ture, and published a work, on which he had
been long engaged, entitled De V esprit de
Vkiatoire, which was a bold defence of abso
lute monarchy. He was engaged to complete
RuHnere s unfinished Histoire de Vanarchie de
Polocjne ct du demembrement de cette repu-
Wique ; but the imperial police prevented the
publication on the ground that the work be
longed to the government, it having been ori
ginally written for the instruction of Louis
XVI., then dauphin. After the restoration of
the Bourbons lie was appointed minister of
state and postmaster general. He was a mem
ber of the academy, and author of several dra
matic and a large number of political works, I
the latter of which were conservative and j
many of them reactionary in their tendency.

FERRARI, I. A province of Italy, formerly I
a part of the Papal States, bounded N. by j

the main branch of the Po, which divides it
from Lombardy, E. by the Adriatic, S. by the
provinces of Ravenna and Bologna, and W.
by Modena, from which it is partly separated
by the river Panaro ; area, 1,009 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1871, 215,369. The surface is flat,
and in many parts below the level of the Po,
and protected from inundation by embank
ments along the river. A considerable portion
of the E. part of the province is almost con
stantly under water. In June, 1872, there
was a terrible inundation by which 20,000
people were rendered homeless. The soil is
rich and fertile, but the vast swamps render
the atmosphere more or less unwholesome,
especially in summer. The chief products are
grain, rice, flax, hemp, wine, olives, and silk.
Extensive pastures favor the rearing of cattle,
and the fisheries are of some importance. The
province formerly constituted the greater part
of the duchy of Ferrara, which was ruled by
the house of Este from the early part of the
13th century to 1598, when it was annexed to
the Papal States. In 1796 it was taken by
the French and formed part first of the Cisal
pine republic, and afterward of the kingdom
of Italy, till 1814, when it was restored to the
pope, with the exception of a small portion
between the Po di Goro and the Po della
Maestra, which was secured to Austria by the
congress of Vienna, together with the right
of garrisoning the citadel of Ferrara. The
province was governed by a papal legate or
cardinal, and was called a legation, until No
vember, 1850, when it came under the admin
istration of an inferior prelate. In June, 1859,
the Austrian troops were withdrawn from the
capital, and in March, 1860, it was annexed
to the kingdom of Sardinia. The principal
towns besides the capital are Lugo, Cento,
Bagnacavallo, and Comacchio, the last a forti
fied town, situated on an island in the midst
of extensive swamps, and noted for its fish
eries, which are celebrated by Tasso and Ari-
osto. II. A city, capital of the province, situ
ated in a flat unhealthy country, only about 7
ft. above the level of the sea, on the left bank
of the Volano, branch of the Po, about 5 m.
S. of the main channel of that river, 26 m. N.
E. of Bologna and 38 m. N. W. of Ravenna ;
pop. as a commune, in 1871, 72,447, of whom
less than one half were in the city proper.
Ferrara was a small village until the beginning
of the 7th century, when it was walled by the
exarch of Ravenna. The bishopric of Fer
rara dates from 661, the archbishopric from
1735. A general council was convened here
in 1338, but was removed to Florence. (See
EuGENirs IV., and FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF.)
Under the rule of the princes of Este the city
gained great importance, especially in the 16th
century, when it was celebrated for learning,
poetry, art, and the refinement and splendor
of its ducal court. In the 15th century it was
famous for its school of painting. In the early
part of the 16th it gave an asylum to Calvin

FERRARA

FERRARI

153

and other religious reformers. Guarini, Boiar- |
do, Ariosto, and Tasso were among the most
illustrious ornaments of its court. The city
had in its most prosperous period about 100,-
000 inhabitants. It still retains many ves
tiges of its former splendor. The churches
contain fine works of art, especially that of the
Carapo Santo, which occupies the site of the
old Certosa convent. The cathedral of St.
Paul was consecrated in 1135, and contains the
tomb of Urban III. Santa Maria del Vado
is the oldest church, but has been entirely
altered by modern restoration. That of San
Francesco is famous for its echo, which has 16
reverberations. Ariosto was buried in the
church of San Benedetto, but in 1801 his re
mains were removed to the public library.

*H*i

Castle of Ferrara.

The finest of the palaces of Ferrara are the
Diamond palace, or Villa Ercole, and the
palazzo del Magistro, where the accademia
Ariostea holds its sittings. In the hospital of
Santa Anna a small room on the ground floor
is still shown in which Tasso is said to have
been confined as a lunatic for many years by
Alfonso II., but the identity of this room with
his place of confinement is now very generally
disbelieved ; and near the city is the villa Bel
Riguardo, where the poet enjoyed the society
of Eleonora of Este. The university of Fer
rara was founded in 1321, renovated in 1402,
closed in 171*7, and reopened in 1824. It was
again closed during the revolutionary troubles

of 1848- 9, and reopened Nov. 1, 1850, after
the reC-stablishment of the papal authority. It
is chiefiy renowned as a school of jurispru
dence and medicine, and is attended by 200 to
300 students. It contains a collection of an
tiquities, a library of 80,000 volumes and 900
MSS., comprising some of Guarini, Ariosto,
and Tasso, and many valuable editions of the
15th and 16th centuries. Ferrara possesses
one of the finest and largest theatres of Italy,
a botanical garden, and many charitable in
stitutions and convents. In the centre of the
city is a castle flanked with towers and sur
rounded by wet ditches, which was formerly
the palace of the dukes. The population is
chiefly collected in the vicinity of this castle,
and but thinly scattered elsewhere. The city
is enclosed with walls and defended on the W.
side by the citadel. The Austrians took pos
session of the whole city in August, 1847, but
the troops were withdrawn in L)ecemher, and
the Austrian occupation remained confined to
the citadel until July 14, 1848, when the city
was again seized by Prince Liechtenstein. On
Feb. 18, 1849, it was occupied for a short time
by Gen. Ilaynau, who imposed upon the in
habitants a contribution of 200,000 scudi. In
June, 1859, after the battle of Magenta, the
Austrian forces withdrew from the citadel,
and it was destroyed.

FERRARI, Gandenzio, a painter of the Milan
ese school, born at Yalduggia in 1484, died in
Milan in 1550. His principal works are illus
trative of the story of creation and of the early
events of Christianity, and are found in the gal
leries and churches of Lombardy. He was also
a sculptor, architect, mathematician, and poet.

FERRARI, Ginseppe, an Italian philosopher
and historian, born in Milan about 1811. In
1831 he graduated as a doctor of law in the
university of Pa via, but devoted himself to
literature and philosophy, and became a disci
ple of Romagnosi. In 1835 appeared his com
plete edition of the works of Vico, reprinted
in 1853, in Milan, in the collection of Italian
classics. In 1837 he went to France, and pub
lished in 1839 Vico et V Italic. In 1840 he be
came professor of philosophy at the college
of Rochefort, and afterward at Strasburg, but
soon lost his oflice on account of his radical
ism. In 1847 he published Es&ai sur le prin-
cipe et les limites de la philosophic de Vltis-
toire, his most important work. After the
revolution of Feb. 24, 1848, he was reinstated
in his chair at Strasburg, but the dislike of
the French clergy followed him there, and to
Bourges, whither he removed at the end of
that year, and they eventually succeeded in
procuring his dismissal (June 13, 1840). In
1859 he returned to Italy and became a mem
ber of parliament, and successively professor
in Turin, Milan, and Florence. He is the fore
most Italian representative of positivism, and
attempts a philosophical reconstruction of the
political development of nations, founded ex
clusively upon experience and induction. His

154.

FERRARI

FERRET

more recent works include Filosofia della rho-
luzione (1851); Histoire des revolutions (Vita-
lie (4 vols., Paris, 1850- 8) ; and Corso di lezioni
suffli scrittori politici italiani (1862- 3).

FERRARI, Luigi, an Italian sculptor, born in
Venice in 1810. He studied under his father
Bartolommeo, an eminent artist, and was early
employed in connection with Canova s monu
ment to Titian. In 1827 he exhibited his first
work, a statuette of the Virgin ; and since 1851
he has been professor of statuary at the acad
emy of fine arts in Venice. Among his prin
cipal works are "Laocoon," in the museum of
Brescia ; two figures representing a " Nymph
collecting Lotus " and " Melancholy ;" and
marble statues of King David, of the Madonna
della Concezione, of Marco Polo, and of St.
Justus, in Trieste. He has executed many
funeral monuments, and busts and statues of
angels, nymphs, and children.

FERRE," Theophile Charles, a French commu
nist, born about 1845, executed at Satory, near
Paris, Nov. 28, 1871. He was a merchant s
clerk, and was early implicated in revolutionary
movements. During the insurrection of March,
1871, he favored the assassination of Gens. Le-
comte and Clement-Thomas, and became a
member of the commune and of the commission
of public safety, adjunct procurator general,
and prefect of police. On May 27 he presided
over a massacre of hostages, after having re
leased and armed the inmates of the peniten
tiary and converted them into executioners.
One of the most ferocious terrorists, he set fire
to the prefecture of police, and ordered the
burning of the ministry of finance. Previous
to his execution, he wrote to his sister that he
died as he had lived, a materialist.

FERREIRA, Antonio, a Portuguese poet, born in
Lisbon in 1528, died there of the plague in
1569. He was a contemporary of Camoens,
and perfected the elegiac and epistolary style
already introduced with success by Sa de Mi
randa. He enriched Portuguese poetry with
the epithalamium, the epigram, ode, and tra
gedy, and the influence which he exerted in
kindling a love for classical scholarship caused
him to be called the Horace of Portugal. His
Poemas lusitanos, which are distinguished by
remarkable purity of language, appeared in
1598, and his complete works in 1771. His
best comedy is Comcdia do cioso (the u Jealous
Man "), and his masterpiece is the tragedy of
Lies de Castro. An English translation of this
tragedy, by Mr. Musgrave, appeared in 1825.

FERRET, a carnivorous digitigrade animal,
belonging to the weasel family, and the genus
putorius (Guv.). The dentition is: incisors,
|; canines, |:|; molars, |:t, two above and
three below being false molars. Since the
time of Linnreus the ferret has been generally
considered a southern or albino variety of the
polecat (P. fn tidus, Klein), principally from
their producing offspring together; but they
may more properly be considered distinct
species for the following reasons : the ferret is

a native of Africa and warm regions, and only
exists in Europe in a domesticated state, being
very sensitive to cold, and requiring the pro
tection of man; its size is smaller, its shape
more slender, and its snout sharper than in* the
polecat; and its habits, though quite as san
guinary, do not enable it to live wild in the
woods. The length of the ferret (P. furo,
Linn.) is from 12 to 14 in. from nose to base of
tail, the latter being about 5 in. long. It is an
error to suppose that the ferret is always white,
with pink eyes, as such individuals are only
albino varieties, such as occur in many other
animals ; the general color is an irregular mix
ture of yellow and black, the fur being long
and fine, with an undergrowth of cinereous
woolly hair; the yellowest animals are most
subject to albinism. Both sexes are alike in
color, but the male is the larger, being about 3
in. high at the shoulder and 4 in. at the sa
crum. Though ranked as a domesticated ani
mal, and employed by man to hunt rabbits and
rats, it is far from docile or gentle, and never
seems to have any affection for those who feed

Ferret (Putorius furo).

and take care of it. According to Strabo, it was
introduced from northern Africa into Spain,
whence it has spread over Europe. In its nat
ural condition it has the habits of the polecat

| and weasels, sucking the blood of small quad-

j rupeds and birds, and devouring eggs ; it is noc
turnal, sleeping nearly all day ; in captivity it is

I fed on bread and milk and raw meat. It pro
duces young twice a year, and from five to eight

| at a time ; gestation is about six weeks, and the
young are said by F. Cuvier to be born hair-

j less and with closed eyes, and to be frequently

j devoured by the mother. Its natural enmity
to the rabbit has been taken advantage of by

I man, who trains it to enter the burrows of
these animals, and to drive them out into nets
spread over the entrance ; the ferret is muzzled
to prevent its killing the -rabbits, otherwise it is

I believed it would suck their blood, and go to

sleep in the burrow. It will also soon rid a house
of rats and mice. For these reasons the ferret is
cared for by man, without whose aid it would

i not survive in Europe ; it is carefully bred in

FERRIER

FERRY

155

captivity, and sometimes crossed with the pole-
cat, which is supposed to increase its ferocity, i
The ferret is easily irritated, and then emits a
strong disagreeable odor. It is generally be
lieved that the ferrets kill by sucking the blood
of their victims, aiming at the jugular vein or j
the great vessels of the neck; but the rapidity j
of the death is entirely inconsistent with so !
long a process as this. Experiments have
shown that the ferret often inflicts but a single
wound, which is almost instantly fatal, and ;
frequently immediately disengages itself from !
the body of its victim to attack and kill another !
in a similar manner ; the single wound is in the
side of the neck, under or behind the ear, and
may or may not pierce the large blood vessels ;
the canines enter the spinal cord between the
skull and the first vertebra of the neck, de- |
stroying its victim by the same process as the
bull-fighter with his keen sword, or the Spanish
executioner with the steel point of the garrote,
making neither a lacerated nor a contused
wound, but penetrating into the medulla ob-
longata, the very centre of life, instantly ar- j
resting the action of the heart and respiratory i
muscles, and at once destroying consciousness, j
sensation, and motion. This is one of many j
instances in which the instinct of animals has j
anticipated the slow deductions of science.
The truth seems to be that when the animal
is of small size, it is killed by the ferret by
wounding the upper part of the spinal cord ;
but that when it is of superior size and strength,
the ferret seizes it wherever it can, producing
death by loss of blood, pain, and exhaustion of j
strength. After the animal is dead, the ferret, i
like other weasels, no doubt sucks its blood, I
though the statement generally made in works i
on natural history, from Butfon to F. Cuvier j
and Geoffrey Saint-IIilaire, that death is uni
formly caused in this manner, is untrue.

FERRIER, James Frederick, a Scottish meta
physician, born in Edinburgh in November,
1808, died at St. Andrews, June 11, 1864. He
was a nephew of Miss Ferrier the authoress,
graduated at Oxford in 1832, and was admitted
the next year to the Scottish bar. lie married
a daughter of Prof. James Wilson, whose col
lected works he subsequently edited ; and he
early contributed to "Black wood s Magazine"
essays on philosophical and literary subjects.
In 1842 he was elected professor of history
in the university of Edinburgh, and in 1845
of moral philosophy at St. Andrews. His lec
tures and conversation displayed great learn
ing, independence of thought, and felicity of
expression, and he was one of the ornaments
of the intellectual circles of Edinburgh. His
principal work, " Institutes of Metaphysics :
the Theory of Knowing and Being, 1 appeared
in 1854; and his u Lectures on Greek Philoso
phy" and other philosophical remains were
edited by Sir A. Grant and E. L. Lushington
(2 vols., 1866). He attempted to construct a
system of idealism, which however has found
few if any disciples; but he called attention

to many vital principles of thought, and Ueber-
weg accords to him in his "History of Philos
ophy " a rare preeminence among English phi
losophical writers.

FERRIER, Susan Edmonston, a Scottish novel
ist, born in Edinburgh about 1782, died there
in November, 1854. Her works, all published
anonymously, are: "Marriage" (1818), "The
Inheritance" (1824), and "Destiny, or the
Chief s Daughter" (1831). She possessed a
rare ability for delineating national character
istics, genial wit, and a quick sense of the lu
dicrous. Sir Walter Scott pays a tribute to
her talent at the conclusion of his "JLegend of
Montrose." She was his frequent guest at
Abbotsford, and contributed by her society to
relieve the sadness which clouded the last days
of his life. She was never married.

FERRIERES, a village of France, in the de
partment of Seine-et-Marne, 15 m. E. of Paris;
pop. about 800. In the 17th century it was a
marquisate, afterward belonged to Fouche, and
was finally purchased by Baron Rothschild, for
whom the English architect Paxton built here
one of the most magnificent chateaux in France,
in the style of the last period of Italian renais
sance. From Sept. 19 to Oct. 5, 187* , it was
the headquarters of King William of Prussia.
An interview between Jules Favre and Bis
marck took place there immediately after the
arrival of the king.

FERRO, or Hierro, the most westerly and
smallest of the Canary islands, in lat. 27 40
N., Ion. 18 W T . ; length 18 m., greatest breadth
9 m. ; area, about 100 sq. m. ; pop. about 4,600.
The ancient geographers supposed this to be
the westernmost point of the world, and drew
through it the first meridian; they are imitated
by the Germans (who place it at 17 3 40 from
Greenwich), and others of eastern Europe who
follow them. Chief town, Valverde.

FERROL, a seaport city of Spain, on the N".
arm of the bay of Betanzos, in the province
| and 12 m. X. E. of the city of Corunna; pop.
| about 23.000. Its harbor, which is defended
by Forts Palma and San Felipe, is one of the
best in Europe. The town is well built, and
; protected on the land side by formidable forti
fications. It has an immense marine arsenal,
covering nearly 24 acres, with a basin and
docks, which are among the finest in Europe.
The marine barracks afford accommodation for
6.000 men. In connection with the arsenal
there is a school for seamanship and engineer
ing; there is also a naval observatory. Ferrol
has a few manufactures, but being a military
port, foreign merchant vessels are excluded
from it. It was but a small fishing town prior
to 1752. when its fortifications were begun by
Ferdinand VI. The English failed in an attack
upon it in 1799. but it was taken by the French
in 1809 and 1823.

FERRHI. See IRON.

FERRY, a place where persons, animals, or
goods are carried across a river or other
water; in law, a liberty or franchise so to

156

FERSEX

transport persons or things. Such a franchise
can exist in England only by grant from the
king, or by a prescription which supposes a
grant; and being granted and accepted, the
grantee is indictable if he have not suitable
means of transport. In the United States, fer
ries are created as well as regulated generally
by statutes, although there may be ancient fer
ries resting on usage and prescription. The ter
mini of the ferry are at the water s edge, and
shift with that if it varies; but the owner has a
right of way to and from the ferry. Ferrymen
are common carriers, and have the rights and
come under the obligations of common carriers.
Thus, they may determine (within reasonable
limits) when and how often, and upon what
terms, their boats shall cross the water, and
what they will transport; but all these things
they must do by general rules, without favor
itism or arbitrary exception. They are liable
for all loss of or injury to property in their
possession, unless it be caused by the act of
God or of the public enemy. This liability
does not attach when persons or things are
coming toward or going from their boats, but
begins as soon as they are on the boat, or on
the slip or flat, and continues while they are
there. One who owns a ferry, and employs |
persons to do all the labor and the actual trans
port, is in law the ferryman, and liable ac
cordingly. But if he leases the ferry, reserving
only his rent, the lessee in possession, and not
the owner, is the responsible ferryman ; and
this is true even if the rent reserved be a cer
tain proportion of the receipts.

FERSEN, Axel, count, a Swedish soldier, born
in Stockholm about 1750, killed June 20, 1810.
He was educated at the military academy of
Turin, and entered the Swedish army, but
afterward went to Versailles, and was made
colonel of the royal regiment of Swedes, the
body guard of Louis XVI. He served in the |
American revolutionary war with distinction, j
and was aide-de-camp of Rochambeau at York- |
town. Upon his return to France he became i
a devoted adherent of the Bourbons, and Marie !
Antoinette especially distinguished him. In j
the flight to Varennes Fersen was the disguised j
coachman of the royal fugitives. After their j
capture he escaped, and was employed by Gus- !
tavus III. in furthering the project of reinstating i
the Bourbon dynasty in France. Toward the |
end of his life he became the favorite of Charles !
XIII., and his sister enjoyed in an equal degree ,
the favor of the queen; but both were unpop- j
ular with the people. Fersen was made grand
marshal of the kingdom; but the sudden death
of the crown prince, Christian Augustus of
Augustenburg, gave rise to suspicion that Fer
sen bad poisoned him. A tumult occurred at
the funeral and while the troops looked on
with indifference, the mob killed Fersen with
sticks and stones in the great square of the
Riddarhus in Stockholm. His sister escaped ,
in disguise. It is now universally acknowl- ,
edged that Fersen was guiltless.

FESCH

FESCA. I. Friedrich Ernst, a German com
poser and musician, born in Magdeburg, Feb.
15, 1789, died May 24, 1826. His father held
a minor municipal office in Magdeburg, and
devoted much of his time to the practice of the
violoncello and piano, and his mother had been
a professional vocalist in early life. When he
was but four years of age he could perform
pieces of moderate difficulty upon the piano,
and began the violin. He studied harmony
and counterpoint under the instruction of Mi il-
ler at Leipsic. In 1805 he made his first public
appearance as a violinist, playing a concerto
of his own in E minor. He soon after became
attached to the chapel royal at Cassel, where
he remained till 1813. After the dissolution
of the kingdom of Westphalia he went to
Vienna, and thence to Carlsruhe, where he be
came attached to the court of the grand duke
of Baden. Here he remained 11 years and
composed the majority of his works, including
quartets and quintets for stringed instruments,
overtures, symphonies, two operas, and settings
of several of the psalms for solo voices, chorus,
and orchestra. He was a man of noble disposi
tion, kindly heart, and much devotional feel
ing. His works, formed on the best models,
display a refined and elevated taste and a
delicate fancy. II. Alexander Ernst, a German
composer and musician, son of the preceding,
born in Carlsruhe, May 22, 1820, died in Bruns
wick, Feb. 22, 1849. He studied the piano
under Taubert and composition under Rungen-
hagen and Wilhelm Bach. At the age of 18
he brought out at Carlsruhe a comic opera
entitled Mariette. His compositions evinced a
fine original and progressive talent, especially
his chamber music, and songs, many of which
have been republished in this country.

FESCEMINE VERSES, licentious poems sung
at the private festivals of the ancient Romans,
particularly at nuptial celebrations. They de
rived their name and origin from Fescennium,
an Etruscan city, where they seem to have
been a rude dramatic entertainment improvised
in the intoxication of rustic festivals. They
were composed with the most unbounded li
cense, accompanied with uncouth posturing
and dances, and gave delight to the yet savage
and untaught Romans. The later satire and
comedy took their origin from them, and Catul
lus introduced them into his epithalamia ; but
in attaining a better literary character these
verses hardly improved their morals.

FESCH, Joseph, cardinal, and archbishop of
Lyons, born in Ajaccio, Corsica, Jan. 3, 1703*
died in Rome, May 13, 1839. He was the son
of a Swiss officer in the Genoese service, and
half brother of Letizia Ramolino, the mother
of Xapoleon Bonaparte. He was archdeacon
of the chapter of Ajaccio when the chapters
were suppressed by the revolution of 1789. In
1793 he was exiled with the Bonapartes, and
being without resources laid aside his priesthood
and was appointed commissary of war to the
army of Italy, of which subsequently his nephew

FESSENDEN

FESSLER

157

Napoleon received the command. lie resumed
his ecclesiastical functions when the first consul
determined to reestablish in France the Cath
olic worship, and was active in the negotiations
between Napoleon and Pius VII. which pre
pared for the concordat of July 15, 1801. The
influence of his nephew made him archbishop
of Lyons in 1802, and obtained a cardinal s hat
for him in 1803. As ambassador of France at
Eome in 1804, after conducting the negotia
tions, he accompanied Pius VII. on his way to
Paris to crown the emperor. Many civil digni
ties and emoluments were subsequently con
ferred upon him, but in 1809 he declined the
archbishopric of Paris, to which Napoleon,
wishing to make some one of his family the
head of the French clergy, nominated him.
He was president of the council which sat in
Paris in 1810, and also of the national council
of 1811, called to consider the disagreement
between Napoleon and the holy see concern
ing the nomination of bishops. In this capa
city he did not satisfy the emperor, and for a
time he disappeared from court ; and he after
ward adhered to the pope, greatly to the dis
pleasure of his nephew. Upon the fall of
Napoleon he retired to Rome, but was recalled
to Paris during the hundred days. After the
battle of Waterloo he lived in retirement in
Rome. His collection of paintings, one of the
largest ever brought together by a single per
son, was dispersed after his death.

FESSENDEA, Thomas Green, an American au
thor and journalist, born in Walpole, N. II.,
April 22, 1771, died in Boston, Nov. 11, 1837.
He graduated at Dartmouth college in 1796,
and studied law in Vermont, employing his
leisure hours in writing humorous poems and
other papers for the "Farmer s Weekly Mu
seum " of Walpole, then edited by Joseph
Dennie. In 1801 he went to England as the
agent for a newly invented machine, the failure
of which to answer its purpose involved him
in pecuniary difficulties. He produced in 1803
a poem entitled Terrible Tractoration," in
which the metallic tractors of Perkins are
advertised, and the medical profession is sati
rized. It was successful in London, where it
was published anonymously. It was repub-
lished in New York in 1804, and again in 1806
iu an enlarged form, under the title of "The
Minute Philosopher." A third edition ap
peared toward the close of the author s life.
He returned to America in 1804, and was en
gaged in various avocations till 1822, when he
commenced the publication of the "New Eng
land Farmer," with which he remained con
nected during the remainder of his life. lie
also edited the "Horticultural Register" and
the "Silk Manual." and contributed articles to
a variety of journals. His remaining works
are: " Original Poems," published in England
and America ; " Democracy Unveiled " (1800) ;
" American Clerk s Companion " (181 o) ; " The
Ladies 1 Monitor" (1818); and "Laws of Pat
ents for new Inventions" (1822).

FESSEXDEX, William Pitt, an American states-
, man, born in Boscawen, N. II., Oct. 16, 1806,
died in Portland, Me., Sept. 8, 1869. He grad
uated at Bowdoin college in 1823, was admit-
: ted to the bar in 1827, and commenced practice
in Bridgton, Me., but in 1829 removed to Port
land, where he soon attained eminence as a
i counsellor and advocate. lie belonged to the
whig party, was a member of the legislature
j of Maine in 1832 and again in 1840, and from
1841 to 1843 was a representative in congress.
i He was again in the legislature in 1845- f&gt; and
| 1853- 4. In the latter year, although the legis
lature was democratic in both branches, he was
chosen, by a union of the whigs and freesoil
democrats, United States senator, an office
| which he held almost uninterruptedly until his
I death. This election, brought about by the
I disturbing elements introduced by the Kansas-
; Nebraska question, was the preliminary step
j toward the establishment in Maine of the re-
publican party, of which he was one of the
chief organizers. In 1861 he was a member
of the peace congress." In July, 1864, he
was appointed by President Lincoln secretary
j of the treasury, to succeed Salmon P. Chase ;
| but he resigned the position in 1865 to resume
i his seat in the senate. During his connection
i with this body he served as chairman of the
i finance committee and of the committee on
I public buildings and grounds, as a member of
I the committees on foreign relations and the
I library, as regent of the Smithsonian institu-
| tion, and as chairman of the special joint com-
| mission on reconstruction. lie was the author
of the report of the last named committee, rec
ommending an amendment to the constitution.
On the impeachment trial of President Johnson,
i he was one of the few republican senators who
voted for acquittal. He was an invalid during
the later years of his life.

FESSLER, Ignaz Aiirolins, a Hungarian author,
i born in 1756, died in St. Petersburg, Dec. 15,
I 1839. He was a Capuchin friar, but was dis-
i missed from that order and became professor of
i oriental languages and hermeneutics in Lem-
berg, where his tragedy of Sidney was performed
in 1787. This being denounced as impious and
revolutionary, he was obliged to flee, and re
paired to Silesia. He embraced Protestantism,
and in 1796 went to Berlin, where he joined
Fichte in reforming a lodge of freemasons. In
1809 he became professor of oriental languages
and philosophy at St. Petersburg, but soon lost
this office on account of his alleged atheistic
doctrines. Subsequently lie was Protestant
bishop of Saratov, and from 1833 till his death
was general superintendent and ecclesiastical
councillor of the Lutheran community of St.
Petersburg. He was often involved in difficul
ties, especially as member of a Russian official
committee at Sarepta. where he was charged
with wishing to convert the Moravian com
munity of that city into a Protestant organiza
tion similar to that of the Jesuits. His prin
cipal work is Geschiclite tier Unfjurn imd deren

158

FESSLER

FETICHISM

LandsaMen (10 vols., Leipsic, 1812- 25). He
also wrote several historical novels, and works
relating to oriental languages and philosophy,
freemasonry, and literature, and an autobiog
raphy (Ruckltlicke avfmeine siebzigjafirige Pil-
gerschaft, Breslau, 1826 ; 2d ed., 1851).

FESSLKK, Joseph, an Austrian prelate, born
at Lochau, Tyrol, Dec. 2, 1813. In 1837 he
was ordained priest in Brixen, and devoted
himself to teaching. He was professor of his
tory and canon law for eleven years in the
seminary of Brixen, and for four years in the
university of Vienna, where he filled for four
years more the newly established chair on the
"Decretals." In 1861 the pope summoned
him to Rome, and employed him in managing
the affairs of the eastern churches, appointing
him also consultor of the Propaganda on orien
tal rites. The bishop of Brixen at the same
time named him his vicar general. Pius IX.
nominated him, April 7, 1862, bishop of Nyssa
in partibus; and on March 27, 1865, he was
made bishop of St. Polten in Lower Austria.
His long studies and labors on patrology, church
history, and canon law, as well as in all that
relates to the holding of diocesan, provincial,
and general councils, caused the pope to desig
nate him in 1869 as secretary of the council of
the Vatican.

FETU ALI, Fntteh AH, Fateh AH, or Fath&gt; AH,
shah of Persia, called before his accession Baba
Khan, born about 1762, died in 1834. In 1797
he succeeded his uncle, Aga Mohammed, found
er of the Kadjar dynasty, after having put
down several claimants to the throne. In
1799 Col. Malcolm was sent by the governor
general of India on a mission to Feth Ali, and
concluded a treaty by which the latter was to
attack Khorasan and Afghanistan, and receive
subsidies from England for that purpose. In
1803 war broke out between Persia and Russia
for the possession of Georgia, whose ruler had
transferred his allegiance from the former to
the latter power. In 1805 Xapoleon offered
Feth Ali his alliance and protection in the
prosecution of the war, and in 1807 sent Gen.
Gardanne as ambassador to Persia. The treaty
of Tilsit having, however, put an end to hostili
ties between France and Russia, the Persian
king abandoned the French alliance for that
of the English ; but he was obliged in 1813 by
the successes of the Russians to yield Georgia
to the czar by treaty. In 1821 "a war broke
out between Persia and the Ottoman empire
on account of the extortions and oppressions
practised by Turkish functionaries upon Per
sian pilgrims, and was terminated in 1823 by
a treaty favorable to Persia. In 1826 Feth
Ali, thinking to profit by the death of the czar
Alexander, and to reconquer Georgia, declared
war against the Russians; but his army, com- j
manded by his favorite son Abbas Mirza, was j
vanquished by Gen. Paskevitch, and he was !
forced in 1828 to abandon Persian Armenia to I
Russia, and to make the Aras the boundary of j
his dominions. He amused himself in his leisure !

with writing verses, and left a collection of
odes and songs. He had 500 females in his
harem, and in 1826 is said to have had 81 sons
and 53 daughters. He was succeeded by his
grandson Mohammed, the son of Abbas Mirza,
who died shortly before his father.

FETIALES, or Feeiales, in ancient Rome, a
college of priests, consisting of 20 members be
longing to the noblest families, who held office
for life, with power to fill vacancies in their
number, and whose duty it was to carry the
complaints and grievances of the Roman people
before the magistrates and rulers of offending
cities and tribes, to ask redress, to declare in
case of refusal whether there was sufficient
reason for hostilities, to perform the religious
rites of warning the enemy, of declaration of
war, and of ratification of peace, and to watch
over the strict observance of treaties. This in
stitution is believed to have existed among the
people of Etruria. Its introduction at Rome is
attributed by some to Numa, by others to An-
cus Marcius. When the policy of Rome be
came that of continual conquest, the institution
lost its influence, preserving only its religious
character. The etymology of the term is un
certain. It has been variously derived from
the Latin words ^/^s, fcedus, ferio, and facio,
and the Greek ^/JLI.

FETICHISM, Fetidpi, or Fetishism (Port, fei-
tifao, magic ; perhaps connected with the Lat.
fasdmim, a bewitching), the religious worship
of material things (fetiches) as the abodes of
spirits. It is the lowest of the forms of wor
ship found among uncivilized tribes, and exists
especially among the negroes in Africa. There
are two kinds of fetiches, natural and artificial.
Among the former are celebrated rocks, par
ticularly high mountain peaks where the light
ning is supposed to dwell ; single trees, and
more frequently whole forests; many animals,
as serpents, one of which has its own temple,
where the snakes are kept by priestesses;
snails, crocodiles (with the Ashantees), goats,
sheep, &c. Usefulness and hurtfulness seem to
have often dictated their selection, but not al
ways. Artificial fetiches are either public,
preserved by priests, or private, purchasable
from them usually at a very high price. Kings
and princes have large collections of fetiches,
and every family has at least one. They are
hereditary, and either hung up in the dwell
ings or worn on the neck or elsewhere, and
even fastened on domestic animals. Occa
sionally they are made in rude imitation of the
human form, and the public fetiches are some
times of gold and very large. The worship
pers provide their fetiches liberally with food,
but if their prayers are not granted they fre
quently throw them away, or beat them to
pieces. They have also festivals and sacrifices.
For the latter the victims are oxen, swine, and
other animals; but sometimes criminals, pris
oners, or persons of the lowest classes of the
tribe are immolated. The festivals are gene
rally attended by excess in drinking, thefts,

FTIS

FEUDAL SYSTEM

150

fights, and gross licentiousness. The priests
form a separate society, with hereditary dig
nity, property, and privileges. They have in
particular the right of retaining the slaves who
come to them, or, as they call it, present their
bodies to the fetich. The limits of the term
fetichism are yet unsettled, as some exclude
from it the worship of forests, mountains,
rivers, &c., and all such as are made to resem
ble the human form.

FETIS, Francois Joseph, a Belgian composer
and writer on music, born in Mons, March 25,
1784, died in Brussels, March 27, 1871. His
father was an organist, and at the age of ten
he was engaged as organist in his native town.
Subsequently, after taking lessons from the
most eminent teachers in Paris, he travelled in
Germany and Italy, and made himself familiar
with the works of the great masters of those
countries. He returned to Paris in 180G, mar
ried a rich woman, and devoted himself to the
study of the history of music, especially of
that of the middle ages. In 1813, a reverse
of fortune obliging him to return to the prac
tice of his profession, he became organist and
teacher of music at Douai, and in 1818 was
appointed professor in the conservatory of
Paris, and soon after published his Traite du
contrepoint et de la fugue. In 1827 he found
ed the first journal devoted to musical criti
cism that had appeared in France, the Revue
musicale, which he edited till 1835. At the
same time he was pursuing his researches upon
the theory of harmony, writing articles for
various periodicals, and volumes upon the his
tory and curiosities of music, and composing
operas and pieces of sacred music. In 1832 he
began his historical concerts, which have since
found imitators in Germany and England. In
1833 the king of Belgium appointed him chapel
master and director of the royal conservatory
of Brussels. In 18G4 he superintended the
production of Meyerbeer s opera L ^Africaine,
in accordance with a direction in the will of
the composer. His own most successful opera
was La meille, which was performed for 100
nights. As a writer on musical history he is
unrivalled, and his works on almost every topic
connected with music are numerous. His prin
cipal writings are : BiograpJiie universelle des
musicicns, ei ~bibliographle generate de la mu-
sique, preceded by an epitome of the history
of music (8 vols., Brussels, 1835- 44) ,Traite
complet de la theorie et de la pratique de Vhar-
monie, con tenant la doctrine de la science et de
Tart (Paris, 1853) ; and a sketch of Meyerbeer
in the Peeve contemporaine (Paris, 1859).
His son DOUARD FRANCIS Loos, born at Bou-
vines, May 12, 1816, was appointed in 1838
conservator of the royal library of Brussels,
and is the author of Les musiciens beiges (2
vols., 1848), Les artistes beiges d Vetranger
(vols. i. and ii., 1858), &c.

FEKIIERES, Sophie de, baroness, mistress of
the last prince of Conde (Louis Henri Joseph,
duke de Bourbon), born in the Isle of Wight

VOL. VII. 11

about 1705, died in England, Jan. 2, 1841.
i She was the daughter of a fisherman named
! Clarke, represented herself as the widow of
i a Mr. Dawes, and is believed to have been on
i the stage ; but the accounts of her life are
j conflicting until about 1817, when she became
I the mistress of the prince of Conde. At his
| instigation she married in 1818 the baron
Adolphe de Feucheres, who became a member
of his household, when the prince settled upon
her 72,000 francs per annum. In 1822 she was
divorced from the baron. She exercised over
Conde an almost unbounded influence. In
1824 he presented her with the domains of
Boissy and St. Leu, and in 1825 with 1,000,000
francs, besides leaving her 2,000,000 by his
will, dated Aug. 30, 1829. A year afterward
(Aug. 27, 1830) the prince was found hanging in
his room, under circumstances which fixed the
suspicions of his relatives upon the baroness,
and also upon Louis Philippe ; for in order
to ingratiate herself with the Orleans family
she is said to have prevailed upon the prince
to bequeath the bulk of his large fortune to
his godson, the duke d Aumale, a disposition
which just before his death he seemed inclined
to revoke in favor of the count de Chambord.
His relatives accused her of having murdered
the prince, and insisted upon a judicial investi
gation ; but nothing could be proved against
her, and the prince s death was ascribed to
suicide? (See Histoire complete du jrroces rela-
tif a la mort et au testament du due de Bour-
l)on, Paris, 1832.) She left her immense for
tune to her niece, Mile. Sophie Tanceron. The
baron de Feucheres gave to the hospitals of
Paris his whole share in the property of his
former wife.

FEUDAL SYSTEM, the name given to the con
dition of society that prevailed in Europe during
the middle ages. Its germs were probably Asia
tic, and in Asia, though never so fully developed,
it has outlasted the system established in Eu
rope. It had the firmest existence in France,
Germany, Aragon, a large part of Italy, Eng
land after the conquest, and Scotland, while
other European countries were more or less
influenced by it. The system grew up in Eu
rope from the 5th to the 9th century, and was
the consequence of the perpetual struggle of
civilization against barbarism. Like all systems
that have lived for any great length of time, it
had a progressive formation. The struggle out
of which it grew began with the fall of the
imperial authority in so many parts of the Ro
man empire ; and Avhen feudalism had estab
lished itself, the way had been prepared for a
far greater advance toward the establishment of
civilization. In France, feudalism was brought
into a rude but intelligible form in the 10th
century, and " the feudal period " is held to
synchronize with the ten generations during
which the throne of that country was held by
the elder branch of the Capet family, 987-1328.
For some generations previous to the extinc
tion of the Carlovingian dynasty it had had a

160

FEUDAL SYSTEM

rude existence, and many of its incidents are
traceable in legislation to the reign of Charle
magne, throughout the limits of whose vast
dominion feudalism had at a later period its
fullest continental development. " The regu
lar machinery and systematic establishment of
feuds, in fact," says Hallam, "may be consid
ered as almost confined to the dominions of
Charlemagne, and to those countries which
afterward derived from them." But it is not
until a much later time that we find " the feu
dal period " clearly established. As the chief
object of the great monarchs of the Carlovin-
gian line was the establishment of a consoli
dated empire, it can scarely be held that they
deliberately sought to develop a system whose
very essence was the disintegration of every
country in which it existed. The imbecility
of the later kings of the second race favored
the advance of feudalism in France ; and in
that country it was known earlier than any
where else, and there it received its essential
peculiarities. At the time of the conquest of
Gaul, and the rise of the Merovingians, there
were many freeholds, that is, independent
properties ; but in the course of the five fol
lowing centuries most of these had disappeared.
The beneficiary condition became the common
condition of territorial property. Benefice and
fief are words that express the same facts at
different dates. In the middle of the 12th
century feodum and beneficium were used in
terchangeably, as they had been used for some
time previously to that date. The exact nature
of benefices has been the source of consider
able dispute, but the better opinion is that
their ordinary duration was the life of the pos
sessor, after which they reverted to the tisc ;
yet there were instances of hereditary benefices
as early as the Merovingian times. The ten
dency to retain property in their families would
lead men to make use of a variety of means to
render what they held hereditary, while the
weakness of the kings would not enable them
to resist claims powerfully urged in behalf of the
sons of beneficiaries. Under the feudal system
the territorial element was known as the fief,
and it has been argued that this did not mean
originally the land itself, but only the tenure
thereof, its relation of dependence toward the
suzerain ; but the weight of authority is ad
verse to this view, though it is admitted that
at a later period some such distinction may
have been made. The titles, or most of them,
which became so identified with feudalism,
were not originally hereditary, but were made
so gradually, like the property possessions which
rendered the great vassals so powerful. Dukes,
counts, and marquises, or margraves, were at
first provincial governors, officers intrusted
with certain specific duties, the margraves be
ing charged with the custody of the frontiers.
The weakness of the Merovingian kings made
these officers very important persons in the
state. The Carlovingians sought to lessen their
power, and with some success so long as that

race produced able kings ; but under Charle
magne s successors the counts rapidly acquired
influence and wealth, and political station. The
same man was allowed to enjoy several coun
ties, in all of which he endeavored to acquire
landed property, and to assume a right to his
dignities. In the last quarter of the 9th cen
tury the succession of a son to a father s county
was a recognized usage; and "in the next cen
tury," says Hallam, " there followed an entire
prostration of the royal authority, and the
counts usurped their governments as little sov
ereignties, with the domains and all regalian
rights, subject only to the feudal superiority
of the king. They now added the name of the
county to their own, and their wives took the
appellation of countess. In Italy, the inde
pendence of the dukes was still more complete ;
and although Otho the Great and his descen
dants kept a stricter rein over those of Ger
many, yet we find the great fiefs of their empire,
throughout the 10th century, granted almost
invariably to the male and even female heirs
of the last possessor." Thus the hereditary
principle was recognized in a double respect
as related to the possession of land, and as re
lated to the possession of political power. The
counts became the enemies of the allodial pro
prietors, whose importance was derived from a
system entirely unlike that upon which their con
sequence rested. The king and the law could
not protect the allodialists or independent pro
prietors from being spoiled by their enemies.
Many of them surrendered their lands, and
received them back upon feudal conditions;
or they acknowledged themselves vassals of a
suzerain. Yet the allodial lands were not en
tirely extinguished. They were common in the
south of France, the strength of the feudal ten
ures being between the Somme and the Loire.
According to the old French law, allodial lands
were always noble, like fiefs, down to 1080.
In the German empire many estates continued
to be held by allodial tenures. This part of the
subject is involved in considerable obscurity,
for in the royal charters of the 10th and llth
centuries the word allodium is continually used
for a feud, or hereditary benefice. "Several
passages in ancient laws and instruments,"
says Hallam, " concur to prove that besides the
relation established between lord and vassal by
beneficiary grants, there was another species
more personal, and more closely resembling
that of patron and client in the Roman repub
lic. This was usually called commendation,,
and appears to have been founded on two very
general principles, both of which the distracted
state of society inculcated. The weak needed
the protection of the powerful ; and the gov
ernment needed some security for public order.
Even before the invasion of the Franks, Salvian,
a writer of the 5th century, mentions the cus
tom of obtaining the protection of the great by
money, and blames their rapacity, though he
allows the natural reasonableness of the prac
tice. The disadvantageous condition of the

FEUDAL SYSTEM

1C1

less powerful freemen, which ended in the ser
vitude of one part and in the feudal vassalage
of another, led such as fortunately still pre
served their allodial property to insure its de
fence by a stipulated payment of money. Such
payments may be traced in extant charters,
chiefly indeed of monasteries. In the case of
private persons, it may be presumed that this
voluntary contract was frequently changed by
the stronger party into a perfect feudal depen
dence. From this, however, as I imagine, it
probably differed, in being capable of dissolu
tion at the inferior s pleasure, without incur
ring a forfeiture, as well as having no relation
to land. Homage, however, seems to have ,
been incident to commendation, as well as to j
vassalage. Military service was sometimes the
condition of this engagement. It was the law
of France, so late at least as the commencement
of the third race of kings, that no man could
take a part in private wars except in defence
of his own lord. Indeed, there is reason to
infer from the capitularies of Charles the Bald
that every man was bound to attach himself
to some lord, though it was the privilege of a
freeman to choose his own superior. And this
is strongly supported by the analogy of our
Anglo-Saxon laws, where it is frequently re
peated that no man should continue without a
lord." By the edict of Milan, issued by Conrad
II., emperor of Germany, in 1037, four regula
tions are established : " that no man should be
deprived of his fief, whether held of the empe
ror or a mesne lord, but by the laws of the
empire and the judgment of his peers ; that j
from such judgment an immediate vassal might \
appeal to his sovereign ; that fiefs should be
inherited by sons and their children, or on their
failure by brothers, provided they were feuda
pater na, such as had descended from the fa- j
ther ; and that the lord should not alienate the ;
fief of his vassal without his consent." This
edict, though relating immediately only to Loin- j
hardy, is thought to mark the full maturity of \\
the feudal system, and the last stage of its pro
gress. Its object was to put an end to disa
greements between inferior vassals and their
immediate lords, which had been caused by
the want of settled usage. Guizot is of opinion ^
that the essential facts of the feudal system
may be reduced to three, viz. : 1, the particular
nature of territorial property, real, full, heredi
tary, and yet derived from a superior, impo
sing certain personal obligations on its posses
sor, under pain of forfeiture ; in a word, want
ing in that complete independence which is
now its characteristic ; 2, the amalgamation of
sovereignty with property, the attribution to
the proprietor of the soil," over all the inhabi-
tants of that soil, of the whole or nearly the
whole of those rights which constitute what |
we call sovereignty, and which are now pos- !
sessed only by government, the public power ; j
3, the hierarchal system of legislative, judicial, !
and military institutions, which united the pos- |
sessors of fiefs among themselves, and formed ;

them into a general society. Of feudal rela
tions, support and fidelity were the principal.
The vassal owed service to his lord, and
lord protection to his vassal. If the vass
failed in his obligation, his land was forfeited ;
if the lord failed, he lost his seigniory. It is
disputed whether the vassal was bound to fol
low his lord s standard against his own kin
dred. As respected the king, the relations were
loose and shifting. There are instances of vas
sals aiding their immediate superiors against
the king ; and the royal power was always in
antagonism to the feudal system. The cere
monies which took place when a fief was co
ferred were principally homage, fealty, and in
vestiture. The first expressed the submissio
and devotedness of the vassal toward his lord.
The oath of fealty differed little in language
from the act of homage, but was indispensable,
was taken by ecclesiastics, but not by minors,
and could be received by proxy. Investiture
was the actual conveyance of feudal lands, and
was proper or improper. By the first, the vas
sal was put in possession upon the ground, by
the lord or his deputy, which the English law
calls livery of seisin ; by the second, possession
was given symbolically, by the delivery of a
branch, turf, or sto.ne, or some other natural
object, according to custom. Nearly a hundred
varieties of investiture are mentioned. The
vassal s duties commenced with his investiture.
These were very numerous, and it is impossible
to define them at large. They embraced nearly
every obligation that can exist in such a state
of society as then prevailed over most of Chris
tendom. They varied, too, with place and time.
Military service depended upon circumstances,
though 40 days was the usual term that the
tenant of a, knight s fee was bound to be in the
field at his own expense. Among the feudal
incidents advantageous to the lord were reliefs,
fines upon alienation, escheats, aid, wardship,
and marriage, the two latter placing the wards
and orphan minors among his vassals almost
entirely at his mercy. The control of female
vassals with respect to marriage was carried
to its utmost extent in the Latin kingdom of .
Jerusalem, founded by the first crusaders at
the time when the feudal system was at its
height. Improper fiefs, as they were called to
distinguish them from the military fiefs, were
in time granted, in order to gratify pride or
to raise money. "They were granted for a
price, and without reference to military service.
The language of the feudal law was applied
by a kind of metaphor to almost every transfer
of property. Hence, pensions of money and
allowances of provisions, however remote from
right notions of a fief, were sometimes granted
under that name ; and even where land was
the subject of the donation, its conditions were
often lucrative, often honorary, and sometimes
ludicrous." Fiefs of office, too, were granted,
by which persons received grants of land on
condition of performing some domestic service
to the lord. The mechanic arts were carried

1G2

FEUDAL SYSTEM

FEUEEBACH

on in the houses of the great by persons receiv
ing hinds upon these conditions. The feudal
system was exclusive in its spirit. In strict
ness, a person not noble by birth could not pos
sess a lief, though there were occasional excep
tions to this rule, which increased as the aris-
tocratical spirit declined. Three descents were
necessary to remove fully the stain of ignoble
blood. Children born of an ignoble mother, in
lawful wedlock, were looked upon as of r ille-
gitimate origin. The higher clergy, as prelates
and abbots, were feudal nobles. Ecclesiastical
tenants came within the scope of feudal duty.
Below the gentle classes were the freemen and
the serfs. The former were dwellers in char
tered towns, and were destined to have an im
portant part in destroying the feudal system ;
and in England, the yeomanry, to whose exis
tence that country owed its leading place in the
military system of Europe, were also among
the freemen. The serfs, or villeins, were among
the most abject of mankind, and were despised
and maltreated because they had been degraded
and injured. In some countries a distinction
was made between villeins and serfs, the latter
being compelled to perform the vilest labors,
and thoroughly enslaved, while the condition
of the former was not so harsh, their payments
and duties being defined. Probably at no time
in the world s history have the mass of the
people been so badly treated as during the ex
istence of the feudal system ; and many of those
customs and opinions that still- impede the
growth of the people in knowledge and happi
ness in se veral countries, are but relics of that
system, and yet continue to do its work.
There were several causes for the decline of
feudalism. The two extremes of society Avere
alike interested in its destruction, and continu
ally sought it : the king, feebly grasping a scep
tre that was scarcely more than a fooFs bau
ble ; and the squalid people, who were treated
by the ruling classes with less consideration
than they bestowed upon beasts of chase. The
growth of the institution of chivalry, which
was one of the children of feudalism, Avas inju
rious to the system whence it sprung. The
feudal system had much to do with the crusades,
and it was probably the only state of society
in which those expeditions could either have
been undertaken, or have been renewed from
time to time during nearly 200 years ; yet they
worked most injuriously to it, and helped to
prepare the Avay for its fall. The growth of the
toAvns, the increase of commerce, the deA elop-
ment of the commercial spirit, the acquisition
of military knoAvledge by the people in several
countries, scientific inventions and discoveries,
and the application of gunpoAvder to the uses
of Avar, aided its downfall. In France it failed
utterly as a bulwark against the English inva
sions of the 14th century, which rapidly accel
erated its fate. It might have remained pow
erful during the first century of the Valois kings
had it not proved totally unequal to the busi
ness it claimed as peculiarly its OAvn, that of

defending the soil its members owned, and the
country they governed. See Sismondi, His-
to ire des francais and Histoire des republiques
italiennes ; Guizot, Histoire generale de la ci
vilisation en France and Histoire generale de la
civilisation en Europe; Miohelet, Histoire de
France; Hallam, "Europe during the Middle
Ages;" Bell, "Historical Studies of Feudal
ism " (London, 1852) ; and Lacroix, " Manners,
Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages,
and during the Renaissance Period " (transla
ted from the French, London, 1874).

FEIERBACH. I. Paul Joliann Aiiselm, a Ger
man jurist, born in Jena, Nov. 14, 1775, died in
Frankfort, May 29, 1833. He studied law at
Jena, and became professor of feudal law there
in 1 801, of criminal and civil laAV at Kiel in 1802,
and at Landshut in 1804. In 1805 he Avas ap
pointed to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, in
1808 became privy councillor, in 1814 a judge
at Bam berg, and in 1817 president of the court
of appeals at Anspach. While there he under
took to investigate the story of Kaspar Hauser,
without much regard to the sovereign families
thought to be compromised in the matter. He
was the author of many standard laAV books.
Of these, the Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutsch-
land gultigen peinlichen Rechts (1801) is one of
the highest authorities on the subject of crimi
nal law in Germany. II. Ludwig Andreas, a Ger
man philosopher, son of the preceding, born in
Landshut, July 28, 1804, died near Nuremberg,
Sept. 12, 1872. He studied theology and phi
losophy at Heidelberg and Berlin, and became a
tutor at the uniA^ersity of Erlangen in 1828, but
retired into private life soon after, occupying
himself solely with literary labors. In 1844 he
delivered a brief course of lectures at the uni
versity of Heidelberg. He subsequently retired
to a small village in Franconia, where he di
rected an industrial establishment, and devoted
his leisure hours to literary pursuits. The lat
ter part of his life was passed in poverty, and
a subscription for his benefit was raised not
long before his death. Among his works (a
collection of which has been published in 10
vols., Leipsic, 1846- 66) the following are the
most important: Abdlard imd Hcloise (Ans
pach, 1833); Geschichte der ncuern Philoso
phic Ton Bacon von Verulam his Spinoza ( 1 863) ;
Darstellung, Entwiclcelung vnd Eritik der
Leibniz 1 schen Philosophic (1837) ; Pierre Bayle
(1838) ; Das Wesen des Christ enthums (Leip
sic, 1841 ; English translation by Mrs. LCAVCS,
London, 1854) ; Das Wesen der Religion (2d ed.,
1849); and Gotiheit, Freiheit und Unsterllich-
Iceit (1866). Fenerbach transformed the He
gelian doctrine into naturalism. The leading
principle of his philosophy is the identification
of God with the idealized essence of man, or the
deified essence of nature. His OAvn statement
is : " My theory may be condensed in two
Avords: nature and man. That being which,
in my opinion, is the presupposition, the cause
of existence of man, is not God a mysterious,
vague, indefinite term but nature. On the

FEUILLANTS

FEVER

103

other hand, that being in which nature becomes
conscious of itself, is man. . . . True, it fol
lows from my theory that there is no God, that
is to say, no abstract being, distinct from na
ture and man, which disposes of the destinies
of the universe and mankind at its discretion ;
but this negation is only a consequence of the
cognition of God s identity with the essence of
nature and man."

FEl ILLANTS, a branch of the order of Cister
cians, founded in France in 1577 by Jean de la
Barriere, abbot of the monastery of Fetiillant,
in the diocese of Rieux, Languedoc, for the
stricter observance of the rules of St. Benedict,
and declared independent by Sixtus V. in 1586.
It received originally a very severe discipline,
its members being obliged to go with naked
head and feet, to sleep upon planks, and to eat
on their knees. The rules were subsequently
greatly relaxed, and the order spread over
France and Italy. It was distinguished by the
part which its members, especially the preach
er Bernard de Montgaillard, called Le petit
Feuillant, took in the civil wars of France in
the time of the league. After having been the
centre of numerous agitations, the Feuillants
of France were in 1630 separated from those
of Italy. Their costume was a white robe with
out a scapular, and a white cowl. De la Bar
riere founded at the same time a female order
of Feuillantes, whose convent was first near
Toulouse, and afterward, by invitation of Anne
of Austria, in Paris. The severe discipline to
which the members of this order at first sub
jected themselves caused the death of many of
them, and was reprimanded by the pope. The
order lasted till 1790. In the French revolu
tion a club founded by Lafayette, Sieves, and
others, at first called the company of 1789, and
opposed to the Jacobins, was known as the
Feuillants, from their meeting in a convent of
the abolished order. In March, 1791, it was
broken up by a mob.

FEIILLET, Ootavo, a French novelist and
dramatist, born in St. L6, La Manche, Aug. 11,
1812. He was educated in Paris in the col
lege of Louis-le-Grand, and in 1845 he wrote,
under the pseudonyme of Desire Hazard, in
conjunction with Paul Bocage and Albert
Aubert, a romance entitled Le grand vieil-
lard, published in the National. Since then
he has written a large number of romances,
comedies, dramas, and farces, nearly all of
which have been received favorably. In 1862
he succeeded Scribe as a member of the French
academy. He was afterward appointed libra
rian of the imperial residences, which position
he held until the revolution of Sept. 4, 1870.
Among his novels are: Polichinelle (1846);
Onesta (1848); Redemption (1849); Bellali
(1850); Le chcveu Wane (1853); La petite
comtesse (1856) ; Le roman d un jeune nomine
pauvre (1858), which has been translated into
many languages ; Histoire de Sibylle (1862),
scarcely less popular than the preceding ; and
Monsieur de Camors (1867), a story remark

able for invention and vigor, but regarded as
exceedingly demoralizing in its tendencies.
His plays include La nuit terrible (1845), Le
bourgeois de Rome (1846), La crise, (1848), Le
pour et le contre (1849), Dalila (1857), Montjoue
(1863), La belle au bois dormant (1865), Le ens
de conscience (1867), Julie (1869), and Le
Sphinx (1874), the last the most sensational
of them all. He has written also, jointly with
Paul Bocage, a number of other dramas, and
has published several poems.

FEVAL, Paul Henri Corentin, a French novelist,
born at Rennes, Nov. 28, 1817. lie belongs
to an old legitimist family, studied law, but
became a banker s clerk, and then a writer.
His Mysteres de Londres (11 vols., 1844), some
what in the vein of Sue and Soulie, passed
through many editions, and has been trans
lated into foreign languages. He has since
published some 200 volumes, including Lcs
amours de Paris (6 vols., 1845) ; Le Jils du
dmble (12 vols., 1846); Les belles de nuit (8
vols., 1850); Le bossu (12 vols., 1858); and
Les tribunaux secrets (8 vols., 1864). English
translations of some of his novels appeared in
1870.

FEVER (Lat. felris, probably a transposition
for ferbis, from fervcre, to be hot), or Pyrexia
(Gr. TTvpets, from Trvpeccetv, to be feverish, de
rived from Triip, fire), a morbid state character
ized especially, as the names denote, by an in
crease of the temperature of the body, generally
together with acceleration of the circulation,
loss of appetite, thirst, muscular debility, men
tal weakness, lassitude, and derangement of
the functions of most of the important organs
of the body. The significance of the term
fever has been enhanced of late by the use of
the thermometer placed either in the armpit
or within some one of the outlets of the body.
The thermometer sho ws morbid increase of the
heat of the body in some cases when this is not
apparent to the hand placed on the skin, and
when the patient may have a sensation of
coldness. During the so-called cold stage of
an intermittent fever, the thermometer shows
the heat of the body to be moderately raised.
Fever may be said to exist whenever the heat
of the body is raised above the maximum of
health, namely, about 99 F. Fever is distin^
guished as symptomatic when it is dependent
upon a local inflammation; and it is said to
be idiopathic, or essential, whenever it cannot
be attributed to any local cause. A symptom
atic fever, as implied in the name, is only a symp
tom of disease ; it does not constitute per se the
disease ; but an idiopathic or essential fever is
reckoned as a disease. In the classification of
diseases there are numerous fevers, which will
be separately considered under the title FE
VERS, excepting measles, smallpox, plague, and
a few others, which are treated under their own
names. In both symptomatic and idiopathic
fever the increase of temperature affords not
only evidence of the existence of the febrile
state, but a criterion of its intensity. The fever

164

FEVER BUSH

FEVERS

is intense in proportion to the increase of the j
heat of the body, as determined by the ther- j
mometer. The range of the morbid rise i&lt; \
from 99 to 110. Moreover, the temperature j
both in symptomatic fever and in the fevers is
a criterion of the immediate danger to life.
A temperature above 105, if persisting, always
denotes great gravity, and death is imminent
if the temperature remains for any length of
time above that point. The increase of heat
is in part due to a morbid activity in the mo
lecular changes incident to disintegration of tis
sue, but our existing knowledge does not enable
the pathologist to give a full explanation of the
rationale of fever. At present it is an unset
tled pathological question to what extent the
increase of heat is causative of the various
morbid phenomena which are presented in
connection with symptomatic and essential
fever. This question is important as bearing
on the employment of drugs and other mea
sures of treatment with a view to dimin
ish the heat of the body. There are cer
tain remedies which from their effect upon
temperature are called antipyretics; such are
quinia in full doses, digitalis, veratnim viri-
de, &c. The most potent measure for dimin
ishing temperature, however, is the employ
ment of water externally, either in the form of
the shower or plunge bath, the douche, the wet
sheet, or by sponging the surface of the body.
Drinking freely of cold water also has this
effect. Antipyretic treatment has recently en
tered more largely into medical practice than
formerly, from more attention having been
given to the study of animal heat in different
diseases by means of the thermometer.

FEVER IH SH (benzoin odoriferum, Js"ees), a
shrub from 4 to 10 ft. high, with long, slender,
and brittle branches, common in the northern

Fever Bush (Benzoin odoriferum).

United States, and remarkable for its graceful
form and large handsome leaves, especially
when it grows upon the margin of some cold,

swampy place in the deep shade of woods.
Here it produces an abundance of flowers and
fruit. The flowers appear in April or May in
clusters from three to six in number, are of a,
greenish yellow color, and come out where the
last year s leaves were. The fruit is a small,
oval, dark red or purple drupe, in bunches of
two to five. The twigs or young branches are
smooth and of a bright green, which assumes
an olive tint the next year, and afterward a
pearly gray. A decoction of the twigs is used
to alleviate the itching from poisoning by su
mach. According to Dr. Darlington, it is also
used as a medicine for cattle in the spring.
The berries have a pleasant, spicy taste, and
have sometimes been used as allspice.

FEVERS, or Pyrcxize, diseases characterized
by a morbid increase of animal heat not refer
able to any local affection ; that is, diseases in
which the febrile state is idiopathic or essen
tial. (See FEVER.) A fever lasting but a
single day in some cases, or continuing for a
few days in other cases, is called ephemeral
fever or a febricula. It is without danger,
as a rule, and calls for only palliative treat
ment. Exclusive of this form of fever, the dif
ferent fevers are classified as follows: 1. Fe
vers characterized by periodical intermissions or
marked remissions. This class is distinguished
as periodical, or, from their causation, malarial
fevers. Intermittent fever and remittent fever
are embraced under these names, and yellow
fever is generally included in this class. 2.
Fevers which, in contrast with the foregoing,
are characterized by a continuous febrile state,
are called continued fevers. The fevers so
classified are typhus and typhoid fever, relaps
ing fever, and erysipelatous fever. 3. Fevers
in which an eruption on the skin is a promi
nent and a pretty constant feature are dis
tinguished as eruptive fevers, namely, small
pox, chicken pox, scarlet fever, and measles.
To this list may be added the disease known as
the plague. Other diseases which are essential
ly fevers are not always nosologically so classi
fied. Examples of this kind are insolation or
sunstroke, cerebro-spinal meningitis, influenza,
and diphtheria. I. PERIODICAL FEVERS. 1. In
termittent and Remittent Ferers. The period
ical fevers of malarial origin manifest this re
markable peculiarity : Intermissions or remis
sions recur at regular intervals, following a law
of periodicity. This is especially marked in in
termittent fever, called also fever and ague,
chills and fever, and various other names. This
law of periodicity varies, giving rise to what are
known as the different types of an intermittent
fever. The regular or simple types are as fol
lows : #, the quotidian type, in which a par
oxysm of fever recurs on each successive day ;
J, the tertian type, in which the paroxysms
recur on every other or every third day ; c,
the quartan type, in which two days elapse be
tween the paroxysms, that is, in which they
recur on the fourth day, dating from the com
mencement of one to the commencement of

FEVERS

1G5

the next paroxysm. Compound types, as they
are termed, are the double quotidian, two par
oxysms occurring daily ; the double tertian, a
paroxysm occurring daily, the paroxysms dif
fering in certain respects on two successive
days, but corresponding on alternate days ; a
double quartan, in which a paroxysm occurs
on two successive days, and on the third day
there is no paroxysm. Extremely rare vari
eties of type are a quintan, sextan, heptan, and
octan; these names expressing the length of
the intervals. The facts thus exemplifying a
law of periodicity are, with our existing knowl
edge, inexplicable. A paroxysm of an inter
mittent fever, when complete, consists of three
periods or stages, called generally the cold, the
hot, and the sweating stage. These different
stages are of variable duration, the length of
the paroxysm in different cases varying from
three to eight hours. The cold stage is some
times characterized by shaking, that is, mus
cular tremor or rigor, and sometimes only by a
sense of chilliness. This stage is sometimes
wanting. The intensity of the fever varies
much in different cases in the hot stage, and
so the amount and continuance of the sweating
which follows. If not arrested by remedies,
intermittent fever tends to continue indefinite
ly, and is apt to induce notable anemia or
impoverishment of the blood (see CHLOROSIS),
and sometimes general dropsy. Enlargement
of the spleen is an occasional result of the
disease. There are certain remedies which
possess the power of arresting the parox
ysms, and these remedies are therefore called
antiperiodics. The drugs which especially
have this power are the salts of quinia or
quinine. (See CINCHONA.) In the vast ma
jority of the cases of intermittent fever, the
disease is promptly cured by quinine, which,
given judiciously, does no harm. This drug
also has a prophylactic power ; that is, it pre
vents the occurrence of intermittent fever, and
protects against relapses. Other remedies
which are efficacious, but in a less degree, are
salacine, bebeerine, ferrocyanide of iron or
Prussian blue, strychnia, and arsenic. Remit
tent fever is also often controlled by quinia
and other periodics. In general, intermittent
and remittent fevers are not immediately
dangerous to life, even if they be allowed to
continue; but they are sometimes attended
with great danger, and they may cause death
within a few hours. In these cases the
disease is distinguished as pernicious intermit
tent or remittent fever. In some portions of
this country it is called congestive chill. Pa
tients affected with this fatal form may fall
quickly into unconsciousness (coma), from
which they do not emerge; some cases are
characterized by delirium, and sometimes
vomiting and purging occur, followed by a
state of collapse resembling that in epidemic
cholera. Pernicious intermittent or remittent
fever is more apt to occur in tropical than
in cold and temperate climates. Cases are

more likely to occur at certain seasons than at
j others; and whenever their occurrence is ob
served, it is immensely important to arrest the
disease in every instance as speedily as pos-
sible, lest succeeding paroxysms may prove to
be pernicious. If a patient pass through one
paroxysm in which the symptoms threatened
danger, the treatment which succeeded in pre-
i venting another paroxysm may be the means
I of saving life. Quinine should be given
; promptly and boldly under such circumstances.
The nature of the special cause of intermit
tent and remittent fever is unknown. Wheth
er it be a chemical product or a living en
tity (animal or vegetable) is as yet a question
which can only be met with reasoning and
j speculations. The cause is endemic in certain
situations, and therefore it is of telluric origin.
j It is more likely to emanate from marshy situ-
j ations than from those in which the soil is
j dry, and hence it has been called marsh miasm.
It is contained in the lower strata of the at-
; mosphere, and is present especially between
; sunset and sunrise. It is a very remarkable
fact that the special cause may remain for a
j long time latent in the system; patients some-
! times do not experience the disease until many
| months or even years after the morbific agent
I has entered the body. Persons who have
had periodical fever are liable during many
! years to relapses, without any fresh exposure
j to the cause. Remittent fever has been called
i bilious remittent, or simply bilious fever ; but
j there is no ground for referring the pathology
of this fever especially to the liver, as these
names would imply. Periodical fever may
j be combined with continued fever, giving rise
to a hybrid disease which of late years, in this
country, has been called typho-malarial fever.
The view generally held is that the special
cause of periodical fever, as well as the special
causes of all the essential fevers, produces its
morbid manifestations by its presence and the
changes which it occasions in the blood. The
blood changes have been supposed to be analo
gous to those in fermentation, or those which
are chemically called catalytic. The name
i zymotic (Gr. fyjuv, leaven) is based on this
I hypothesis. The diseases which are supposed
: to involve fermentation or catalytic changes in
1 the blood have been nosologically distinguished
as zymotic diseases. Many cogent consideraj
: tions render it probable that the special causes
j of different fevers are living germs or entities,
but their existence has not as yet been satis-
; factorily demonstrated. 2. Yellow Fever. This,
although included in the class of fevers called
periodical, differs essentially from intermittent
and remittent fever, and is a distinct species.
It has doubtless its own special cause, that is,
a cause peculiar to this fever. The disease
prevails only in certain portions of the globe,
, and is rare in any but tropical or sub-tropical
regions. As a rule, in these regions it is rarely
prevalent in the colder months of the year.
The yellow fever zone, as it is termed, is be-

166

FEVERS

tween lat. 20 S. and 40 X. The disease pre
vails more in the eastern than in the western
hemisphere, and in certain parts of Europe and
America more than in Africa. In the western
world it occurs especially in the commercial
towns on the Atlantic coast south of Charles
ton, on the gulf of Mexico, and in the West
India islands. In some seasons it prevails
either as an endemic or an epidemic, and is
largely destructive of human life. The mor
tality "varies much in different seasons, the
variation ranging from 10 to 75 per cent. The
question as to its contagiousness has been here
tofore much mooted, but at the present time
comparatively few physicians regard it as com
municable. The special cause,. however, may
be transported by means of infected vessels and
merchandise, and in this way the disease is
liable to be imported. Hence the disinfection
of vessels coming from ports where the disease
prevails, together with certain quarantine re
strictions, are important. The nature of the
special cause of this, as of others of the essential
fevers, is unknown, but the germ theory is
perhaps the most consistent with known facts
relating to the history of epidemics. Facts
show that the prevalence of the disease in situ
ations where it is indigenous, and also where
it has been imported, is much promoted by
auxiliary causes, such as overcrowding, defec
tive drainage or sewerage, filth, and other cir
cumstances affecting unfavorably public health.
The special cause is destroyed by a temperature
of 32 F. Irrespective of the killing effect of
frost, epidemics appear to have a self-limited
duration, averaging a little under 60 days.
Acclimation protects against the disease, the
natives of yellow fever localities, and those
who have been long resident therein, being
rarely attacked, although they have never ex
perienced it ; and this is one of the diseases
which, as a rule, are experienced but once in a
lifetime, being in this respect in striking con
trast to intermittent and remittent fever. In
places where the disease is indigenous, it is
common for it to occur sporadically during the
hot seasons ; that is, cases occur, but not in a
sufficient number to constitute an endemic ; and
when persons receive into the system the spe
cial cause in a place where the disease prevails,
and going to another place experience in the
latter the disease, as a rule it is not dissemi
nated. These facts show that the special cause
is not generated within the bodies of those af
fected. Yellow fever generally is abrupt in its
attack; that is, it is preceded by few or no
premonitions as a rule. It commences with a
chill, which is often not of marked intensity.
The fever varies in its intensity in different
cases, as denoted by the temperature, the pulse,
and other symptoms. Pain in the loins and
limbs is usually a prominent symptom. The
fever continues for a period ranging in different
cases from a few hours to three days, when it
either subsides notably or entirely ceases. In
mild cases convalescence now ensues; and in

a certain proportion of cases the disease is
mild, and not always easily discriminated from
an ephemeral fever or a febricula. In grave
cases the symptoms which especially denote
gravity occur after this paroxysm of fever.
Among these symptoms is yellowness of the
skin, or jaundice, whence the name yellow
fever. This, however, does not occur in all
cases, being absent in very mild attacks. It
denotes a certain measure of gravity, but is by
no means a fatal omen. A much graver symp
tom is the vomiting of blood, or, as it is ctilled,
the black vomit. Cases very rarely end favor
ably when this symptom occurs. Haemorrhage
in other situations, namely, the bowels, blad
der, nose, eyes, and wounds which may exist
on the skin, is an event denoting danger in
proportion to the loss of blood. Suppression
of urine occurs in some cases; and convulsions
with coma, which sometimes occur, are prob
ably caused by the retention in the blood of
the excrementitious principles of the urine.
The mode of death is generally by exhaustion.
The muscular strength in some instances is
preserved in a remarkable degree, patients not
taking to the bed and sometimes continuing their
avocations until shortly before death. These
have been called "walking cases." The dura
tion of the disease in fatal cases ranges from three
to nine days, the average being less than a week.
The treatment does not embrace any specially
curative remedies. Quinia and mercury have
been considered as exerting a controlling in
fluence over the disease, but at the present
time no one attributes such a power to these
remedies. Complete rest is highly important.
Opiates and other anodyne remedies are in
dicated if there be great restlessness. All per-
turbatory and debilitating medication is inju
rious. Diaphoretic remedies are considered
useful. Alcoholic stimulants are to be given, if
tolerated, in proportion as the symptoms denote
exhaustion. There is reason to believe that
lives are sometimes saved by the free use of
wine or spirits. Remedies to palliate vomiting,
and to avert hemorrhage if this occurs, enter
into the treatment. II. CONTINUED FEVERS.
3. Typhus Fever. Of the fevers distinguished
as continued, typhus and typhoid were /ormer-
ly considered identical ; but the researches of
Louis and later observers have established their
non-identity. They are distinct species of fe
ver, and not merely different varieties of one
disease. The name typhus (Gr. 77)90^ stupor)
has reference to the stupor which is a marked
feature in the majority of the cases of the fe
ver so called. It was applied to the disease in
1759 by Sauvages. In this country the disease
has been known as ship fever from the fact
that it is imported in emigrant vessels. It
prevails especially in -Ireland. It has also been
called jail fever, camp fever, petechial fever,
| &c. It is a contagious disease, being com
municated by an impalpable emanation from
I the bodies of those affected with it ; that is,
i by an infectious miasm, the nature of which is

FEVERS

167

not known. The extent of its diffusion, or
what is termed the infecting distance, is not
great, and it is rarely that the contagion is
transported by means of clothing -or other sub
stances to which it adheres ; that is, by fo-
mites. In general, it is necessary that the
miasm be concentrated, as when the emana
tions from a number of patients accumulate
in hospital wards, or when the room in
which a single patient is treated is small and
ill ventilated, for the disease to be communi
cated, excepting to those who may be brought
into close and continued contact with cases.
Among nurses and physicians in the fever
wards of a hospital, a considerable proportion
contract the disease. A single case in a hos
pital ward may communicate the disease to
patients lying in close proximity. It is prob
able that "the special cause is sometimes gene
rated in the concentrated emanations from the
bodies of healthy persons congregated in over
crowded and imperfectly ventilated apart
ments, as in jails, camps, almshouses, and
crowded ships. In typhus, as in other fevers,
the intensity of the febrile condition is denoted
especially by the temperature of the body, the
range in different cases varying from 102 to
107 F. The temperature in the evening, as a
rule, is somewhat higher than that of the morn
ing ; and approaching convalescence is often
first denoted by a fall of temperature. The
frequency of the pulse is also a good criterion
of the severity of the disease. In most cases
there is marked stupor throughout its course.
The patient often lies in apparent somnolen
cy, and when aroused the countenance has a
stupid, besotted expression. The face has a
dusky hue, from tho retardation of the circu
lation through the capillary vessels. A low
muttering delirium is frequent, patients often
attempting to get out of bed from some tran
sient delusion, but being easily induced for the
moment to refrain from the attempt. Active
delirium requiring forcible restraint is rare.
The tongue is often covered with a thick brown
or black coating, and, if not prevented by the
removal of the accumulations on the teeth and
lips, these become covered Avith a dark or
black material called sordes. Tremor of the
muscles of the extremities, called siifaultus
tendinum, occurs in severe cases. The bowels
are usually constipated. Swelling and suppu
ration of the parotid glands occasionally occur.
In the great majority of cases there is an
eruption on the skin, the character of which
serves to distinguish this fever. It appears
generally on the third day after the patient
takes to the bed. The distinctive characters
are as follows : It is maculated, that is, consists
of spots, not elevated above the surface of the
skin, of a dark or dusky ct&gt;lor, and not readily
obliterated by pressure with the finger. They
continue throughout the disease, and are per
ceptible after death. Frequently the body and
limbs are thickly studded with them, but in
some cases thev are few in number and limited

to the trunk. This fever differs from the ma
larial fevers (intermittent and remittent) in
being a self-limited disease. The length of its
course varies between 8 and 20 days, the mean
duration being about 14 days. The mortality
varies considerably at different times and
places, the range of variation being from 9 to
25 per cent. ; the average mortality is as 1 to
5 or G. The death rate differs according to
the age of patients; it is least between 10 and
20 years, increases progressively after the age
of 30, and the proportion of fatal cases is about
one half after 50 years of age. A fatal termi
nation is sometimes attributable to an impor
tant complication, as for example pneumonia;
and it may he due to an antecedent disease,
such as some affection of the kidneys. In gen
eral, the mode of dying is by exhaustion or as
thenia. 1. Typhoid Fever. Although this has
many symptoms in common with typhus, it
differs in essential points. The name signifies
resemblance to typhus. Owing to the existence
of a characteristic affection of the intestines, it
is called by German writers abdominal typhus,
and by English and American writers, for the
same reason, enteric fever. This characteristic
intestinal affection is one of the essential points
of distinction between typhoid and typhus fe
ver. The affection is seated in the Peyerian
and solitary glands of the small intestine.
These glandular sacs become enlarged by mor
bid growth, softening ensues, and at length
they exfoliate or slough away, leaving ulcera-
tions in the spaces they occupied. Perfora
tion of the intestines is an accident which some
times occurs, the contents of the intestinal ca
nal escaping into the peritoneal cavity ; perito
nitis follows as a result, terminating almost
always in death. Another occasional event is
hemorrhage from the ulcers. This is sometimes
profuse, and may be the cause of a fatal termi
nation ; but in the majority of the cases in
which this accident occurs recovery takes
place. The mesenteric glands which are in im
mediate relation to the Peyerian and solitary
glands become considerably enlarged. If re
covery from this fever takes place, the enlarge
ment of these glands gradually disappears, and-
the intestinal ulcerations become cicatrized.
The spleen is also constantly more or less en
larged and softened in typhoid fever. These
morbid changes constitute what are called the
anatomical characteristics of this disease ; they
are wanting in typhus fever. Typhoid fever is
undoubtedly communicable ; yet it is rarely
communicated to those who are brought into
contact with cases of it, namely, physicians,
nurses, and fellow patients in hospital wards ;
and it occurs when it is quite impossible to at
tribute it to a contagium. Hence, this is a dis
ease which, although produced in a certain
proportion of cases irrespective of either a
virus or an infectious miasm, may yet generate
either one or both of these forms of conta
gious material. Facts go to show strongly that
the contagium is contained in the intestinal

1GS

FEVERS

evacuations, and that the disease may be dif
fused bv means of drinking water into which
excrement in ever so small quantities has found
access. Outbreaks of this fever have been re
peatedly traced to defective waste pipes and
obstructed drains or sewers. This fever is not
restricted in its prevalence to any particular
sections, but it is indigenous in every quarter
of the globe. All ages are not alike liable to
it. It is rare in infancy, but not very unfre-
quent in childhood, and occurs very rarely
after the age of 50 years. It is more apt to
prevail in the autumnal months than at other
seasons. It was observed by Louis that in
Paris persons who had resided there but a
short time were more likely to be affected than
native or older residents, and this has been
observed in other cities. In most cases typhoid
fever is developed gradually. The average pe
riod from the first evidence of illness to the
time of taking to the bed is about five days.
The early symptoms are chilly sensations, pain
in the head, loins, and limbs, lassitude, and
looseness of the bowels. Bleeding from the
nose is of frequent occurrence. During the
course of the fever stupor, as in cases of typhus,
is more or less marked. Low muttering delir
ium is common, and in severe cases subsultus
tendinnm. The symptoms which are espe
cially distinctive, as contrasted with typhus fe
ver, are those referable to the intestinal affec
tion, namely, diarrhoea, flatulent distention of
the abdomen, tenderness in the iliac regions,
and a sound of gurgling when pressure is made
in these regions. These are known as the ab
dominal symptoms of typhoid fever. In the
majority of cases there is a characteristic erup
tion, usually confined to the trunk, but some
times extending to the limbs. The eruption,
however, is rarely abundant, differing in this
respect from that of typhus. It also differs
in character, that of typhoid fever being pap
ular (pimples, not spots) ; the color is rose
red (hence called the rose papules) ; the red
ness disappears momentarily on pressure with
the finger; the papules are not persistent, but
come and go throughout the disease, and all
appearance of the eruption disappears after
death. The eruption appears later than in ty
phus, not being discoverable until about the
seventh day from the time the patient takes
to the bed. The duration of the fever is lon
ger than that of typhus, the average, dating
from the time of taking to the bed, being about
16 days in the cases which end in recovery ;
it is somewhat less in fatal cases. In some
cases the duration is greatly protracted, and
may extend to GO days. Relapses sometimes
occur, the patient during convalescence or
shortly after recovery being again seized and
passing through a second course of the fever.
These second attacks rarely prove fatal. Con
valescence is preceded by a decline in the tem
perature of the body (called defervescence);
and frequently before a persistent reduction
there are notable variations, as shown by the

thermometer, between the morning and even
ing temperature. The average mortality is
1 about the same as that from typhus, 1 to 5 or
j ; the rate varies much, however, at different
\ times and places. Generally death is attribu-
I table to accidents, such as perforation of the
intestine and haemorrhage ; to complications,
I as for example pneumonia ; or to the existence
J of antecedent disease. The general principles
j of treatment are the same in cases of typhus
I and typhoid fever. It is doubtful if the cause
| of these diseases be ever arrested, but they
appear sometimes to end prematurely ; abort,
as it were, spontaneously. It may be said, at
all events, that there are no known measures
| which can be relied upon for cutting short
their course. The great object, therefore, is to
j aid in bringing them to a termination in recov
ery. The mineral acids have been found to di
minish the rate of mortality. The use of cold
water, by means of the bath, the wet pack,
and sponging the surface, not only affords re
lief by the abstraction of heat, but clinical
observation has shown that it conduces to re
covery. Supporting the powers of life by a
proper alimentation, and resorting to alcoholic
stimulants when these powers begin to fail, con
stitute essential measures of treatment. Milk is
preeminently the appropriate article of diet, and
alcoholic stimulants are sometimes tolerated
in very large quantities without any of the ex
citant or intoxicating effects which they would
produce in health. There is reason to believe
that lives are sometimes saved by the very free
use of alcoholic stimulants, but it is important
always to be governed in their use by the indi
cations afforded by the symptoms. Favorable
hygienic conditions are important, such as free
ventilation, a proper temperature, and cleanli
ness. The benefit of an abundance of pure air
is illustrated by the success with which these
fevers have been treated in tents. In addition
to the general principles of treatment, particu
lar symptoms and events claim, of course, ap
propriate therapeutic measures. As already
stated in the account of periodical fevers, the
I special cause of these (malaria) may act in
conjunction with the special cause of typhoid
j fever, giving rise to a combination of the symp
toms of both kinds of fever, the disease be
ing then known as typho-malarial fever. In
cases of this compound fever the indications
for treatment relate to the twofold causation.
5. Spotted Fercr. This name was given to a
fever which prevailed in New England, New
York, and Pennsylvania from 1807 to 1815.
It was considered at that time to be a form
of typhus fever, and was called also typlnts
petechialis, typhus syncopalis, and typhus gra-
rior. The name has recently by some writers
been applied to the disease generally known
as cerebro-spinnl meningitis, or cerebro-spi-
nal fever (see BRAIX, DISEASES OF THE), the
opinion being held that the latter disease is
the same as that to which the name was for
merly ffiven. The reason for the name is the

FEVERS

109

occurrence, during the progress of the disease,
of dark or purple spots which are caused by
small extravasations of blood in the skin. As
these spots (petechice) occur in only a certain
proportion of cases, and are present in other
affections, the name spotted fever is not ap
propriate. Differences of opinion as to the
nature and proper treatment of the disease
first mentioned gave rise to a violent con
troversy, in reference to which see the fol
lowing publications: Miner and Tully s tk Es
says on Fever and other Subjects 1 (182-3);
Miner, Typhus Syncopalis" (1825); Xorth
and Strong on "Spotted Fever; 1 report of
a committee of the Massachusetts medical so
ciety in its "Transactions," 1 vol. ii. ; Gallup
on the "Epidemics of Vermont;" and Hale
on the "Spotted Fever in Gardiner. G. Re
lapsing Ferer. Another of the continued fe
vers, now known by this name, has prevailed
at different times in England, Ireland, and
Scotland, but is rare on the continent of Eu
rope. It prevailed among the English and
French troops in the Crimea during the war
with Russia. In this country it never prevailed
to any extent prior to the winter of 1809- TO,
during which and the following summer it ex
isted as an epidemic in Xew York and other
large cities. The disease was evidently im
ported by foreign immigrants. It is undoubt
edly a contagious disease, but not highly so ;
considerable exposure seems to be required.
The infecting distance is restricted to a limited
area, and it is not certain that the contagium
is transported by means of fomites. The
prevalence of the disease is aided much by
cooperating causes, namely, destitution, depri
vation, and deficient alimentation. From the
apparent influence of the latter, the disease
has been called " famine fever " and " hun
ger pt-st." It is developed abruptly, and usu
ally commences with a well pronounced chill,
which is at once followed by more or less in
crease of the heat of the body, with frequency
of the pulse, and the usual concomitants of
the febrile state. Frequently the patient per
spires freely soon after the commencement of
the fever. In most cases the fever is intense,
the thermometer in the armpit showing a tem
perature frequently from 103 to 105, con
tinuing with but little fluctuation until the
paroxysm ends ; that is, for a period varying,
in the great majority of cases, from flvo to
seven days. Exceptionally the duration of
this paroxysm is as brief as two, or as long
as twelve, days. The febrile state subsides
abruptly at the end of the paroxysm, when
the temperature, together with the pulse, some
times falls below the standard of health, re
turning to this standard after a day or two.
The patient remains free from fever for a
period varying from two to twelve days, the
average duration being about seven days.
Then occurs another paroxysm of fever, the
intensity of which is sometimes greater and
sometimes less than that of the primary one.

This relapsing paroxysm varies usually from
three to tivc days, exceptionally lasting only a
single day, or extending even to ten days, the
relapse is occasionally wanting, and in rare
cases a third, a fourth, or even a fifth relapse
has been observed. During the paroxysm nau
sea and vomiting are apt to be more or less
prominent as symptoms. Sometimes blood is
vomited, and hence, among a variety of names,
I the disease has heretofore been called mild
yellow fever. Jaundice occurs in a small pro
portion of cases. Pain in the joints and in
\ the muscles of the loins and limbs is usually a
marked feature of this fever. Delirium rarely
occurs. There is no characteristic eruption.
Important complications are of very unfrequent
| occurrence. The mortality from this disease
I is slight, varying in different collections of
I cases from 2 to 4 percent. In the fatal cases
i the death is sometimes due to complications or
| antecedent diseases; but instances of sudden
I death from syncope have been repeatedly ob-
: served, and also from coma and convulsions
following suppression of the urine. Persons
! who have experienced the disease are not ex
empt from subsequent attacks. The fever can
not be cut short by any known means. The
first consideration in the treatment is the tem
perature. Relief is obtained by the direct ab
straction of heat through baths, the wet pack
or sponging, and by antipyretic remedies. The
; palliation of the muscular and arthritic pain is
| the next object of treatment, requiring the use
1 of opiates. Further indications relate to the
i kidneys, if their action be deficient, and to ali-
j mentation. The dietetic management, espe-
| cially when the patient has been insufficiently
nourished, is highly important ; and, as in the
j treatment of other fevers, milk should consti-
tute the basis of the diet. 7. Epidemic Ery-
\ sipelas. A fever called epidemic erysipelatous
! fever, or epidemic erysipelas, and popularly
j known in some parts of the country by the
j name of black tongue, prevailed extensively
| in the Xew England and the middle, west-
1 ern, and southern states, from 1841 to
| 1846. Erysipelas often occurred during the
1 course of the disease, but not in the majority
i of cases; it appeared in different situations,
! was more or less extensive, and was apt to lead
j to suppuration, gangrene, and sloughing. In
flammation of the throat (pharyngitis) was a
; very constant local affection. The disease was
not unfrequently complicated with inflamma-
; tion of serous membranes (pletiritis, peritonitis,
and meningitis), and with pneumonia. Sup
puration of the glands of the neck was not
uncommon. The mortality was large, owing
to the complications just named. Laryngitis
and oedema of the glottis were other complica
tions leading to a fatal result. Irrespective of
the danger connected with the local affections,
the disease was mild, running its course in five
or six days. Bleeding and other so-called
antiphlogistic measures of treatment appeared
\ to be hurtful. Tonic and supporting measures

170

FEVERS

fulfilled better the therapeutical indications.
It was observed that in places where the dis
ease prevailed cases of puerperal fever were
also prevalent. It was the general opinion
among physicians that the fever was commu
nicable. A fever accompanied by pharyngi
tis or inflammation of the throat prevailed in
the winter and spring of 1857 in the western
part of the state of ^sew York, in the adjacent
parts of Pennsylvania, and in Canada. Its
usual duration was from three to six days, and
it terminated uniformly in recovery. A simi
lar fever prevailed in I860 among the United
States troops stationed at Hart s island, in Long
Island sound. It is probable that this fever
has occurred at other times and places with
out having been described by medical writers.
The disease as yet has no name. It differs
from acute pharyngitis in that it is manifestly
an essential fever; that is, the febrile state is
not symptomatic of the local affection, but the
latter is secondary to or a complication of the
fever. It is analogous to the epidemic erysipel-
atous fever in the constancy of the pharyngeal
affection. III. ERUPTIVE FEVERS. 8. Scarlet
Fever, or Scarlatina. This is distinguished
from other eruptive fevers by the fact of the
eruption being an exanthema, an efflorescence,
or a rash, these terms not being strictly ap
plicable to vesicles and pustules. The disease
sometimes commences with a chill, and in
most cases vomiting is a primary symptom, es
pecially in children. The fever which at once
occurs is usually intense, the axillary tempera
ture often rising to 105, or even higher. The
pulse in general is correspondingly frequent.
The surface of the body often gives to the
touch a burning sensation. The rash appears
in about 24 hours after the date of the invasion,
and with very few exceptions breaks out first
on the face and neck, being diffused over the
body in the course of 24 hours. The color
of the rash is scarlet, whence the name. The
rash in some cases is equally diffused over the
whole skin, giving rise to an appearance like
that of a boiled lobster. In other cases it
is limitod to patches varying in number and
size, with irregular or serrated margins. The
skin is somewhat swollen, and the rash oc
casions a burning sensation, with in some cases
intense itching. Very generally the erup
tion takes place in the throat, more or less
redness being apparent here, simultaneously
with or before the appearance of the rash on
the skin. Generally with the redness there is
more or less swelling of tie tonsils. Some
cases are characterized by severe inflammation
of the throat, accompanied by either an ash-
colored product or an exudation resembling
that which takes place in diphtheria; and with
this affection of the throat the glands of the
neck become inflamed and sometimes suppu
rate. When the throat affection is severe the
disease has been called scarlatina anginosa.
The inflammation in some rare cases extends
from the throat into the middle ear, giving rise

to perforation of the tympanum, with perhaps
loss of the ossicles, and resulting in more or
I less impairment of the sense of hearing. The
cutaneous eruption continues from four to six
days. Then follows the stage of desquamation.
The cuticle generally in this stage exfoliates,
and is separated either in the form of branny
scales, or in large flakes or patches. In some
instances the cuticle of the hands is separated
intact, and may be stripped off like a glove.
The itching in this stage is sometimes extreme
ly annoying. In favorable cases the duration
of this stage may be reckoned to be five or six
days, when convalescence is established. Fre
quently, however, this stage is much protract
ed. Aside from variations in respect of gravity
and danger incident to the throat affection,
scarlet fever differs greatly in the intensity of
the fever and constitutional symptoms. The
| disease in a certain proportion of cases is ex
tremely mild, the patient perhaps not being
confined to the bed. In other cases it is ex
tremely severe, and it may prove fatal within
a few days or even hours. In no other disease
are the two extremes more widely separated.
Death sometimes takes place before the erup
tion appears. An affection of the kidneys,
namely, inflammation of the membrane lining
the uriniferous tubes (desquamative or tubal
nephritis), is occasionally a concomitant, but
oftener a -sequel, of scarlet fever. This local
affection may interfere with the excretory
function of the kidneys so as to occasion re-
I tention of urinary principles in the blood, con
stituting the morbid condition called uneinia ;
and this condition may prove serious, giving
rise to coma and convulsions. Occurring as
a sequel of scarlet fever, this affection of the
i kidneys leads to general dropsy. From this
j the patient recovers, provided fatal effects of
I ura?mia do not take place. Scarlet fever is
highly contagious, and it may be communicated
by means of fomites. The infectious material
! remains for a long time in garments, &c., pre-
&gt; serving its power of producing the disease.
The time which elapses from the reception of
the infection before the manifestation of the
disease, that is, the period of incubation, is
short, sometimes not more than 24 hours, and
rarely exceeding a week. As a rule the disease
is experienced but once, but exceptions are not
very rare. Children are much more susceptible
to the special cause than adults. After 40
years of age the susceptibility generally ceases.
Children under two years rarely contract the
disease. The treatment in mild cases of scarlet
j fever is very simple. Active medication is not
! indicated. It suffices to diminish the animal
heat by sponging the body and giving cooling
drinks, with such palliative remedies as par
ticular symptoms may denote, observing proper
hygienic precautions. In severe cases the use
I of the cold bath or the wet pack is highly
beneficial, not merely as affording relief but
diminishing danger. The value in this disease
\ of the direct abstraction of heat by these means

FEYDEAU

FEZ

171

has been very fully established by clinical ex
perience. Inunction of the surface of the trunk
and limbs with fat bacon or some oleaginous
preparation allays the itching, which is often
very distressing, and in the opinion of some the
severity of the disease is thereby much lessened.
As in other diseases, whenever the symptoms
show failure of the vital powers, supporting
measures of treatment (alcoholic stimulants
and alimentation) are indicated. There are
no known remedies which exert a specific con
trol over this disease, more than over the con
tinued and the other eruptive fevers. Care
during convalescence in scarlet fever is consid
ered as especially important with reference to
the liability to the affection of the kidneys al
ready referred to. This care relates particu
larly to exposure to cold ; and a fact important
to be borne in mind is, that this affection of
the kidneys as often follows mild as severe
cases of scarlet fever. Belladonna has been
supposed to afford protection against this dis
ease after exposure to the infection. This is
not certain. Complete protection can be se
cured only by avoiding the infection through
contact or proximity to patients, and disinfect
ing everything which may convey it. For the
other eruptive fevers, see CHICKEN Pox, SMALL
POX, MEASLES, and PLAGUE.

FEYDEAU, Ernest Aime, a French author, born
in Paris, March 16, 1821, died there, Oct. 28,
1873.. He published a volume of poetry in
1844, and acquired notoriety in 1858 by his
questionable novel Fanny. His subsequent
works of a similar kind were not as popular;
nor was he successful as a playwright. He
was connected with various journals, and his
miscellaneous writings include Histoire gene-
rale des usages funebres et des sepultures des
peuples anciens (3 vols., 1858); Le secret du
Ijonheur, sketches of Algerian life (2 vols., 1804;
English translation, 2 vols., 1807) ; and L Alle-
magne en 1871 (Paris, 1872).

FEY JOG Y MONTENEGRO, Francisco Benito Jero-
nimo, a Spanish reformer, born probably at Car-
damiro, Oct. 8, 1070, died in Oviedo, May 10,
1704. lie was a Benedictine monk, and be
came professor of divinity at Oviedo, abbot,
and eventually general of the Benedictine or
der. He resided the greater part of his life in
the monastery at Oviedo, devoted to literary,
philosophical, and scientific labors. He opposed
the philosophical system then taught in Spain,
maintaining Bacon s principle of induction in
the physical sciences, and ridiculing the pre
vailing fallacies in regard to astronomy and
astrology. He published his dissertations un
der the title of Teatro critico universal, 6 dis-
cursos I arios en todo genera de materias* para
dcsengano de errores comunes (l73G- 42), and
continued them under the title of Cartas erudi
tes (1742- GO). His works have gone through
many editions, and selections from them were
translated into French by D Hermilly (Paris,
1745), and into English by John Brett (Lon
don, 1770- 80).

FEZ (Ar. Fn*). I. A province of Morocco,
occupying the X. portion of the empire, bound
ed X. by the Mediterranean, E. by Algeria,
and W. by the Atlantic. It is traversed in the
east and south by branches of the Atlas moun
tains, but the western portions form a rich
champaign country, productive in grain, chiefly
wheat and barley, honey, tobacco, olives, and
wine. The chief river is the Seboo, which,
rising in the E. part of the province near the
Atlas mountain, passes within 6 m. of the city
of Fez, and enters the Atlantic at Mamora,
where it is navigable. The chief cities are Fez
and Tangier, the principal commercial seats of
the empire, Mequinez, Tetuan, El-Araish, Salee,
Rabat, and Kasr el-Kebir. The Spanish pre
sidios of Ceuta, Alhucemas, Sefior de Velez,
and Melilla are in this province, on the Medi
terranean. Fez formed a part of Mauritania
Tingitana under the Romans. Early in the
5th century the Vandals settled here, and re
mained until the conquest of N. W. Africa by
the Arabs. It was subject successively to the
eastern caliphs and the Ommiyades of Spain,
and was afterward an independent kingdom
till conquered and annexed to Morocco about
1548. 1L A city, capital of the province, in
lat. 34 K, Ion. 5 1 W., about 85 m. from
the Mediterranean, and 90 m. from the Atlan
tic; pop. estimated at 88,000, including 05,000
Moors and Arabs, 10,000 Berbers, 9,000 Jews,
and 4,000 negroes. It is situated on the slope
of a valley watered by a small affluent of the
Seboo, which divides within the city into
two branches, supplying the baths and foun
tains. The city, surrounded by dilapidated
walls, is 4 m. in circuit, and is divided into
the old and new towns, both, however, an
cient, and both composed of narrow, dirty
streets. The houses are of brick, with galle
ries and flat roofs. It is one of the three
residences of the emperor, but the palace, al
though large, is not remarkable. In the 10th
century this place was a famous seat of Arabic
learning. It has yet a university called the
house of science, colleges, and elementary
schools. Formerly the city contained some
hundreds of mosques, and is said still to have
100, of which the principal are El-Karubin
and the mosque of Sultan Muley Edris, founder
of the city (in the 9th century). The former
has a covered court for women to pray in, and
the latter, which contains the remains of the
founder, is a sanctuary for criminals. From
its abundance of mosques and relics Fez is a
holy city to the western Arabs. It possesses
200 caravansaries, some hospitals, and manu
factories of woollens, sashes, silk stuffs and
girdles, the red woollen caps called fez (dyed
of a bright red color by means of a berry found
in the vicinity), slippers, coarse linens, fine car
pets, saddlery, arms, &lt;fcc. Of the fine leather
known by the name of morocco, the red comes
from Fez. Its artisans are very skilful in gold
smith s work and jewelry. It is the depot of
the inland trade, and collects for export gums,

1T2

FEZZAN

FIBPJXE

spices, ostrich feathers, ivory, &c. Caravans
set out from the city semi-annually, in March
and October, across the desert for Timbuctoo.
They complete the round journey in 139 days,
of which only 54 are employed in actual travel.
FEZZAX (aiic. Phaztuiia, and the hind of the
Garamantes), an inland country of X. Africa,
supposed to extend from about lat. 23 to 31
N., and from Ion. 12 to 18 E., but the boun
daries are ill defined ; pop. about 50,000.
It lies south of the pashalic of Tripoli, to
which it is tributary, and is bounded on all
other sides by the Sahara. In consequence
of the want of moisture, and the great heat,
it is almost barren of vegetation. The soil
consists of black shining sandstone, or the
fine sand of the desert, gypsum, and rock
salt, with strata of dolomite and limestone.
The valleys intersecting the low ranges of hills
contain the cultivable land of the region. Its
northern parts are traversed by two ridges of
stony and sandy hills, which in some places
attain an elevation of 1,200 ft. from their base.
In the eastern district they are called El-IIa-
ruj, but in the west take the name of the Ghu-
rian and Soodah mountains. S. of the Soo-
dah extends the salt-incrnsted desert of Ben
Afien. The table land of Moorzook occupies
the middle and southern parts of the country.
The land lies in a hollow lower than the sur
rounding desert. The heat in summer is in
tense, rising sometimes to 133 F. In winter
the cold is greater than might be anticipated
from its latitude ; in 1850 snow fell at Sokna,
and ice as thick as a man s finger was found at
Moorzook. There are no rivers or brooks, rain
seldom falls, thunder storms are rare, and the
climate is very unhealthy for Europeans. Dates
are the staple product ; small quantities of
maize and barley are raised. Among the other
productions are figs, pomegranates, watermel
ons, legumes, durra, and a little wheat. Of
domestic animals, goats are the most numer
ous ; camels, horses, and asses are reared. Of
wild animals, there are the lion, leopard, hyasna,
jackal, buffalo, fox, and porcupine ; among
birds, vultures, falcons, and other birds of
prey, with ostriches and bustards. Fezzan is
exempt from flies, but ants, scorpions, and
bugs abound. Planted on the high road of
commerce between the coast of Africa and the
interior, the inhabitants place their main re
liance upon the caravan trade. From Cairo to
Moorzook the caravan takes about 40 days,
from Tripoli to the same place about 2o days.
Of manufactures, besides a little leather and
articles in iron, the country is almost destitute.
Fezzan is inhabited by two branches of the
Berber race : the Tuariks, who occupy the
northwest, and the Tibboos, who dwell in the
southeast. Their complexion is dark brown,
and their persons are well formed. They
speak a corrupt dialect of Arabic and Berber.
Their writing is in the Mograbin characters,
but they have little idea of arithmetic, and
reckon everything by dots in the sand, ten in

a line. Their media of exchange are Spanish
coin and grain. The country is ruled by a
sultan, who resides at Moorzook. The chief
sources of his revenue are taxes upon slaves
and merchandise. The only places exhibiting
prosperity, according to Barth, are Moorzook
and Sokna; the population of each is estima
ted at about 3,000. L. Cornelius Balbus the
younger, Roman proconsul of Africa, penetra
ted into Phazania about 20 B. C. The remains
of Roman civilization, in the shape of columns
or mausoleums, are still found as far S. as 20
25 . In the 7th century Fezzan fell under the
dominion .of the Arabs, who introduced Mo
hammedanism, to which religion the people
are still fanatically attached. Since then Fez
zan has generally been tributary to some Arab
potentate. In 1811 the bey Mukni usurped
the throne and acknowledged allegiance to the
pasha of Tripoli. Fezzan has been much visit
ed by modern travellers, and is regarded as the
starting point for the interior of Negroland.
Denham and Clapperton, Oudney, Hornemann,
Lyon, Ritchie, Barth, Richardson, and lastly
Dr. Vogel, have all visited and described it.

FIARI), Jean Baptiste, abbe, a French eccle
siastic, born in Dijon, Nov. 28, 1736, died
there, Sept. 30, 1818. He accounted for the
perversities of human conduct by ascribing
them to demoniac agency. It was his opinion
that Voltaire and other philosophers of his
time were merely demons, and he denounced
them as such before an assembly of the clergy
of France in 1775. The French revolution
seemed to him a great diabolic triumph, and
his opinion was confirmed by his own im|&gt;ris-
onment for two years for persistence in the ex
ercise of the priesthood. Among his writings
are Lettres philosophiqnes surla magic (Dijon,
1803), and La France trompee par les magi-
dens et demonoldtres du 18 f siecle, fait dimontre
par dcs faits (Dijon, 1803).

FIBKliVE, a nitrogenous organic substance,
existing in a fluid form in the blood and lymph,
and capable of spontaneous coagulation when
withdrawn from the vessels of the living body.
Vegetable fibrine, a substance analogous to it
in composition, is found in the newly express
ed juices of plants, particularly of the grape,
when these are allowed to stand for some time,
and the gelatinous substance that is deposited
is washed free from the coloring matter asso
ciated with it. A similar substance exists
also in wheat flour, being separated in the glu
ten. Fibrine is obtained from freshly drawn
blood by taking up the ropy portions that ad
here to a twig with which it is stirred, and

thoroughly cleansing these of coloring and
soluble matters by washing. It is a soft white
substance, and becomes on drying yellowish,
brittle, and semi-transparent. Numerous anal
yses have been made of the fibrine, albumen,
and caseine derived from vegetables used for
food the albumen from the clarified juice of
turnips, asparagus, &c., and the caseine from
beans and peas; and the results prove a close

FICIITE

173

analogy of composition not only among them
selves, but with the chief constituents of the
blood, animal tibre and albumen. One of the
analyses of animal ti brine by Sherer might al
most equally well be given for either of the
other substances, or indeed for the caseine of
milk, which is a similar substance. The fol
lowing is one of many quoted by Liebig :
carbon, 54 454 ; hydrogen, 7 069 ; nitrogen,
15 7(&gt;2; oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, 22*715.
Fibrine is exceedingly important as an ingre
dient of the blood, since it is due to its pres
ence alone that the blood is capable of coagu
lating in wounds or after the ligature of blood
vessels, and thus arresting the haemorrhage
which would otherwise continue to take place.
Its proportion in the blood is rather over two
parts per thousand, in the lymph about one
part per thousand.

Fll HTE. I. Johann Gottlieb, a German phi
losopher, born at Rammenau in Lusatia, May
19, 1762, died in Berlin, Jan. 27, 1814. He
was the son of a poor weaver, and owed his
education to a wealthy nobleman, the baron
of Miltitz. He studied theology at Jena, Leip-
sic, and Wittenberg, 1780- 83, and for ten years
obtained a precarious living as a private tutor.
While at Konigsberg in 1791 he became ac
quainted with Kant, of whom he had been one
of the earliest and most enthusiastic admirers,
and as an application of his philosophy wrote
a pamphlet entiled Kritik filler Offeribarungen
( Review of all Revelations ), which, pub
lished anonymously, was generally believed to
have been written by Kant himself. In 1793,
while residing in Switzerland, he published a
work in two volumes " to rectify public opinion
in regard to the French revolution." In 1794
he obtained a professorship of philosophy at
the university of Jena through the influence of
Goethe, then secretary of state of Saxe-Weimar.
Here he commenced a series of lectures on
the science of knowledge ( Wissenschqftslehre),
and gave also a course of Sunday lectures on
the literary calling. In the same year he pub
lished a treatise containing the fundamental
doctrines of his philosophical system, Ueber
den Beyriff der Wissenschaftslehre, and during
the next five years his system was matured
and completed. By it he immediately took
rank among the most original of living philoso
phers, and as it appeared to furnish a meta
physical basis for progressive political and reli
gious views, he was considered one of the lead
ers of the liberal party in Germany. In con
junction with Niethammer he also published a
philosophical journal, in which were inserted
articles containing certain views which were
considered by many as tending directly to athe
ism. The grand-ducal government, alarmed at
the boldness of his theories, insisted on his re
moval, and Goethe, though secretly sympa
thizing with him, felt bound to express his offi
cial disapprobation. Fichte resigned his pro
fessorship and appealed to the public in a
pamphlet entitled Appellation gegen die An-

! Uage des Atheismus, which, though proving his
deep earnestness, could scarcely be considered
a conclusive refutation of the objections raised
against his doctrines. lie maintained in it
that science could conceive the idea of exis
tence only in regard to such beings or things as
belonged to the province of sensual perception,
and that therefore it could not be applied to
j God. God was not an individual being, but
{ merely a manifestation of supreme laws, the
I logical order of events, the ordo ordinans of
j the universe. He said it was no less ridiculous
j to ask a philosopher if his doctrines were athe-
j istic than to ask a mathematician whether a
i triangle was green or red. From Jena Fichte
j went to Berlin, where by his writings and lec-
I tures he exerted a great influence on public
i opinion, and after the reverses which befell the
i Prussian monarchy (180G) became one of the
I most conspicuous and powerful anti-Napoleonic
agitators. For a few months only (1805) he ac-
I cepted a professorship at the university of Er-
langen, where he delivered his celebrated lec-
| tures Ueler das Wesen des Gelchrten. While
j the French conquerors were still in Berlin he
I delivered in the academy his Reden an die
\ deutsche Nation, which are admired as a mon
ument of the most intense patriotism and
depth of thought. Immediately after the es-
1 tablishment of the Berlin university in 1810,
j he accepted a professorship there. In 1813
! he resumed his political activity with great
j success. When at last the deliverance of Ger-
! many from French oppression had given him
sufficient tranquillity of mind to resume the
completion of his philosophical system, he fell
j a victim to the noble exertions of his wife in
j the cause of chanty. By nursing the sick and
j wounded in the military hospitals for five
j months she had become infected with typhus.
She recovered, but her husband, who had also
! taken the disease, succumbed to it. Besides
the above mentioned publications, the following
are Fichte s principal works : Grundlage der
j gesammten Wissenschaftslehre (1794) ; Grund-
! lage des Naturrechts (l796- 7) ; System der
\ Sittenlehre (1798) ; Ueber die Bestimmung des
Menscnen (1801) ; Amccisung zum seligen Le-
len (1800). His complete works were pub
lished at Berlin in 1845. To give a succinct
and intelligible analysis of Ficlite s philosophi
cal system is next to impossible. His language
is abstruse and liable to misconstruction, to
which indeed Ficlite s philosophy has been
subject in a higher degree perhaps than that
1 of any other modern philosopher. Thus, for
instance, to designate the self-conscious intel
lect as contrasted with the non-conscious ob
jects of its conception, he uses the personal
pronoun "I" as contrasted to the not I"
(Ich and Nicht-Ich, in English versions gen
erally rendered by the Latin ego and non-ego) ;
and this was misconstrued by many of his con
temporaries as a deification of his own indivi
dual self, while in point of fact he meant only
that which bv other moderns has been called

FICIITE

FICHTELGEBIRGE

the absolute, and by the ancient philosophers
the substance. Fichte s philosophy was in
tended to amplify that of Kant. Kant, in in
vestigating the theory of human cognition, had
arrived at the conclusion that the properties
of external objects, by which they are discerned
and known, are not realities, transferred from
without into the human mind, but mere forms
of conception innate in the mind. Hence he
argued that objects per sc, or such as they
reallv are, independent of human cognition,
are utterly unknown to man. So far as man
is concerned, they are only phenomena ; that
is to say, for man they exist only as they
appear to the mind according to its forms of
conception (categories), while as noumena, or
such as they are per se, they are unknown and
inconceivable. What Fichte attempts to prove
is simply this : that between objects as they ap
pear to human conception and as they actually
are there is no real difference, since the forms
of human cognition are identical with the ac
tion of the absolute intellect ; that objects are
the limit set by the absolute within itself in
order to &lt; arrive at perfect self-consciousness;
that the absolute (the Icli) is at the same time
subject and object, the ideal and the real. Re
duced to plainer language, all this would mean
that God (the absolute subject, the great active
and creative "I") and nature (the "not I,"
the aggregate of objects) are united in a similar
manner as soul and body ; that the absolute
intellect pervades all and everything, and that
the human mind is an integral part of the
absolute intellect. But, clothed in the most
singular and obscure formulas, the theory of
Fichte was understood by many to mean that
all reality existed only in the imagination of
man, and was in fact merely an outward reflec
tion or manifestation of the workings of the hu
man mind. Such was not his idea, and the
term "idealist," when applied to Fichte, has a
different meaning from that in which it is ap
plied to Berkeley. That the ultimate conse
quences of Fichte s system would have led him
into a sort of pantheistical mysticism is apparent
from his later writings, in which the U I" is
much more clearly than in his earlier works
set forth as God, and all individual minds
only as reflections of the absolute. Applying
his metaphysical theories to ethics, Fichte
concludes that morality consists in the har
mony of man s thoughts (conscience) and ac
tions. Entire freedom of action and self-de
termination is, according to Fichte, not merely
the preliminary condition of morality, but
morality itself. Hence law should be nothing
more than a determination of the boundaries
within which the free action of the individual
must be confined, so as to concede the same
freedom to others. Law has no meaning or
existence without society. The object of so
ciety is the realization of the supreme law as
conceived by human reason. The most perfect
state of human society would be the true king
dom of heaven, since the absolute or God is

| revealed in the rational development of man-
j kind. It is easily seen how these ethical doc-
i trines of Fichte appeared in practice. Main
taining that self-reliance and self-determina
tion were the only guarantees of true morality,
j and contending against the assumption of the
j divine right of political institutions, he fur-
j nished a philosophical basis to the liberal politi-
| cal parties who opposed the sanctity of popu
lar rights to the assumed divine rignt of mon-
archs. In order to insure to the people the
j greatest possible amount of rational well be
ing, Fichte taught that the introduction of the
most universal popular education was one of
the principal duties of the state. In regard
to this subject his urgent appeals to the Ger
man governments were highly successful. The
identity of the subject and object, or of the
ideal and real, as taught by Fichte, became the
basis as well of Schelling s nature-philosophy
as of Hegel s philosophical system, the former
of which attempts a logical construction of the
universe from the standpoint of the object (na
ture), while the other attempts the same from
the point of view of the subject (the human
mind). The Grundzuge des gegenwartigen
Zcitalters ("Characteristics of the Present
Age"), Wesen des Gelehrten ("Nature of the
Scholar "), Bebtimmunfj des Mensclien (" Vo
cation of Man"), Bestimmung des Gelehrten
("Vocation of the Scholar"), and some others
of Fichte s works, have been translated into
English by William Smith (with a memoir,
London, 1845- 8). Other translations from
Fichte, by A. E. Kroeger, are, "New Exposi
tion of the Science of Knowledge " (St. Louis,
1869), and " The Science of Knowledge " (Phil
adelphia, 1870). II, Ininmnnel Hermann, son of
the preceding, born at Jena in 1707. From
1822 to 1842 he filled professorships at Saar-
briick, Dusseldorf, and Bonn, and since 1842
has been professor of philosophy at the uni
versity of Tubingen. He has published many
philosophical works, mostly following the theo
ries of his father, though he claims to have es
tablished a system of his own, which, in con
tradistinction to the Hegelian pantheism, he
calls concrete theism. Among his works are :
Satze zur VorscJiule der Tlieologie (1826) ; Die
Ontologie (1836) ; Die speculative Tlieologie
(1846- 7); System der Etlii k (1850- 53); An-
thropologie (1856); and Psychologic ah Lelire
vom bewussten Geiste des Memclten (1864 et
seq.\ He has also published the literary cor
respondence of his father, with a biography
(1830). He founded at Bonn the ZeitscJirift
fur Philosophic und speculative Theologie,
which he conducted from 1837 to 1848, and
which has been continued by Ulrici and Wirth.
FICIITFXGEBIRGE (Pine mountains), a chain
of mountain s in Bavaria, province of Upper
Franconia, between the Bohemian Forest and
the Franconian Jura, covered with forests of
firs and pines. By reason of its position in
the centre of Germany this chain is regarded
as the nucleus of ail the Germanic mountains,

FICIXO

FICTION

though it docs not surpass the neighboring |
chains in elevation. It separates the affluents |
of the North and Black seas, the river Naah I
descending from it on the south, the Saale on
the north, the Eger on the east, and the Main
on the west. It extends in length 30 in. N. E. |
from Baireuth to the Bohemian frontier, and its
t\vo loftiest summits are the Schneeberg (Snow
mountain) and the Ochsenkopf (Ox Head), re- |
spectively 3,484 and 3,366 ft. high. The Fich- i
telgebirge possess a robust and laborious pop-
illation. The upper part of the mountains
yields oats and wood in abundance, and the I
lower parts produce rye, barley, flax, pulse, \
and a little wheat; but the chief industry of
the inhabitants is in working the numerous
mines of iron, vitriol, sulphur, lead, copper,
and marble. The mountains are densely pop
ulated and traversed by good roads, and in
the northwest by the Saxon-Bavarian railway.

FICIXO, Marsilio, a Platonic philosopher of |
the 15th century, born in Florence, Oct. 19, |
1433, died at Careggi, Oct. 1, 1499. He was
the son of the first physician of Cosmo de Me-
dici, and was intended for his father s proles-
sion. The Greek Gemistus Pletho, an enthu
siastic student of the philosophy of Plato, in
spired Cosmo with the design of naturalizing
this philosophy in Italy. He selected Ficino,
as a youth of great promise, to be instructed
in the mysteries of Platonism, and to become
the chief and preceptor of a new Platonic
academy. He educated him in his palace, sur
rounded him with Greek masters, encouraged
Lira to read the philosophers of antiquity,
placed him when 30 years old at the head of the ;
academy of Florence, and charged him to be
the interpreter and propagator of the Platonic ,
philosophy in the West. Ficino made numer- ;
ous translations from Plato, lamblichus, Her- !
mes Trismegistus, whom he especially admired, :
and from most of the Alexandrian philoso- ;
phers. He was appointed by Cosmo president :
of a literary society which assembled at his
Louse, and had for its object to explain the !
doctrines of Plato. At the age of 40 he en- !
tered the church, and was appointed a canon j
in the cathedral of Florence. He became the !
disciple of all schools, and borrowed from all |
systems. He treated of the nature and im- j
mortality of the soul, the functions and dis- I
tinguishing characters of angels, and the being |
and attributes of God. His chief merit, how- |
ever, is as the translator and first western ad- i
mirer of Plato ; and in his partiality for this
philosopher he is said to have endeavored to
introduce fragments from his writings into the (
offices of the church. His works were collected
and published at Basel (2 vols. folio, 1491).

PICK, Adolf, a German physiologist, born in ,
Cassel in 1829. He received his diploma of
M. D. at Ziirich in 1852, and was professor of
physiology there from 1856 till 1868, and has
since filled the same chair at Wiirzburg. He has
published Die medicinisclie Physik (Brunswick,
1857), as a supplementary volume to Mtiller s

VOL. VII. 12

version of Pouillet s Elements de physique.
His other writings include Compendium der
Physiologic des Menschcn mit Einschluss dcr
Enticiclceliingzgeschichte (1860), Anatomic vud
Physiologic (1862), and Die NaturTcriifte in
Hirer Wechsellteziehung (1869).

FICQIELMONT, Karl Led wig, count, an Aus
trian general and statesman, born at Dieuze,
Lorraine, March 23, 1777, died in Venice,
April 7, 1857. lie was a son of Count Joseph,
who, after emigrating from Lorraine to Aus
tria, died in 1799 from a wound received at the
battle of Magnano. He entered the Austrian
army, and in 1809 was colonel and chief of the
stall of the grand duke Ferdinand of Fste. In
1811 and 1812 he commanded three regiments
of cavalry in Spain under Wellington. In
1813 he was promoted to the rank of major
general, and in 1814 he brought about the ca
pitulation of Lyons. He was afterward sent
on several important diplomatic missions. He
was minister of foreign aftairs during Metter-
nich s temporary absence from Vienna in 1839,
and in 1840 became a member of the cabinet.
During the revolution of 1848 he was for a
short time minister of foreign aftairs, and then
provisional prime minister, till May 4, when he
retired on account of a hostile demonstration
of the people, who looked upon him as a disci
ple of Metternich ; but he continued to exercise
important influence in the aftairs of the em
pire, lie wrote several political pamphlets,
some of which, as Lord Palmerston, England
und der Continent (Vienna, 1852), and Zum
kunftigcn Frieden (1856), attracted consider
able attention. Les pensees et reflexions mo
rales et politiqucs du comte de Ficquelmont ap
peared in Paris in 1859, with a biographical
notice by M. de Barante.

FICTION, in law, a supposition which is known
not to be true, but which is assumed to be true
in order that certain conclusions and inferences
may be supported. Fictions have been made
use" of in all legal systems, but in none more
abundantly than in that of England. The im
portant courts of queen s bench and exchequer
acquired their general jurisdiction by means
of the fiction of supposing in the one case a
trespass and in the other a debt to the crown,
which the defendant was not suft ered to dis
pute. The old action of ejectment and the
existing action of trover furnish cases of fictions
which seem to us at this day utterly absurd,
the supposed lease, entry, and ouster in the
one case, and the supposed finding of the goods
in dispute in the other, having no bearing on
the merits of the case ; but they nevertheless
have had their use in enabling the courts to
give suitable remedy for a wrong which other
wise might have gone unredressed in some
cases. With few exceptions, no fictions are
now retained in the law except such as have
a beneficial purpose ; and these are mostly fic
tions of relation, as where the title of an admin
istrator is supposed to have attached at the
death of the deceased, in order to enable him

176

FIELD

to recover for any trespass or misuse of the
property prior to his appointment; and that of
a purchaser at a judicial sale is made to relate
Lack to the time of sale, though the title is not
to pass until after the expiration of a period
allowed for redemption. Several rules are
laid down in respect to fictions: 1. The law
never adopts them except from necessity and I
to avoid a wrong. 2. They must not be of a j
thing impossible." 3. They are never admitted
where the truth will work as well. 4. They
are not admissible in criminal trials. The fic
tion, for instance, that the title of a purchaser
at a judicial sale shall relate back and cover
the period allowed for redemption, though ad
missible for the purpose of giving a remedy
against a wrong doer, would not be admissible
as against the party whose previous title was
divested, if by law he was entitled to a benefi
cial use of the property until the time for re
demption expired. Fictions might undoubtedly
be all rendered unnecessary by statutory pro
visions, but not many are made use of in the
law at this time which create any confusion,
or the removal of which could be of any ser
vice beyond giving a little more directness to
legal proceedings, or expressing the legal right
in language more suited to the comprehension
of laymen.

FIELD. I. David Dudley, an American cler
gyman, born at East Guilford, Conn., May 20,
1781, died at Stockbridge, Mass., April 15,
1867. He graduated at Yale college in 1802,
was minister at Iladdam, Conn., from 1804 to
1818, at Stockbridge, Mass., from 1819 to 1837,
and again at Iladdam from 1837 to 1851, when
he returned to Stockbridge. He published
"History of Berkshire County" (1829), "His
tory of Middlesex County " (1839), " History of
Pittsfield" (1844), "Genealogy of the Brainerd
Family (1857), and several occasional ser
mons. II. David Dudley, an American jurist,
eldest son of the preceding, born at Haddam,
Conn., Feb. 13, 1805. When he was 14 his
father removed to Stockbridge, Mass., and in
1821 he entered Williams college. In 1825 he
commenced the study of law, was admitted to
practice in 1828, and settled in New York,
where he has been conspicuous at the bar for
more than 40 years. He is especially known
by his labors in the cause of law reform. As
early as 1839 he published his first essay on the
subject, pointing out the necessity of a recon
struction of the modes of legal procedure. This
he followed up by other articles on the same
subject in 1842, 1844, 1846, and 1847. In 1847
he was appointed by the legislature of Xew
York a commissioner on practice and plead
ings, and as such took the leading part in the
preparation of the code of procedure. Of this
work only a part has been enacted into law,
and many, if not all, the defects imputed to
the code may be fairly attributed to this fact.
The radical design of ^the new system of civil
procedure is to obliterate the distinction be
tween the forms of action and between legal

and equitable suits, so that all the rights of
the parties in relation to the subjects of litiga
tion can be determined in one action, instead
of dividing them as heretofore between differ
ent suits, often inconsistent and always per
plexing. This system has been adopted not
only in Xew York, but in Ohio, Kentucky,
Missouri, Minnesota, California, Oregon, and in
several other states, and has materially affected
the legislation of Great Britain and her col
onies. In 1857 Mr. Field was appointed by the
legislature of New York as the head of a new
commission to prepare a political code, a penal
code, and a civil code, works designed to con
tain, with the codes of procedure, the whole
body of the law. These several codes have
been completed and reported, but have not as
yet been adopted by that state. Other states
have, however, drawn largely from them in
their legislation, and in California they have
been adopted entire, with only such changes
and modifications as its constitution and con
ditions required. In 1866 he brought before the
British association for the promotion of social
science, at its meeting in Manchester, a proposal
for a general revision and reform of the law of
nations, similar to that which he had before
undertaken in regard to the civil and criminal
law. He procured the appointment of a com
mittee consisting of eminent jurists of different
countries, charged with preparing and report
ing to the association the outlines of an inter
national code, to be first submitted to their
careful revision and amendment, and, when
made as complete as possible, to be presented
to the attention of the different governments,
in the hope of receiving at some time their ap
proval and adoption as the recognized law r of
nations. As the distinguished jurists compos
ing this committee resided in different countries,
it was difficult for them to act in concert, and
each was left to act independently. Mr. Field,
as the sole American representative, took the
whole matter upon himself, and in 1873, after
the lapse of seven years, presented to the social
science congress his completed work, in a vol
ume of nearly 700 pages, which he styles Out
lines of an International Code." This work
has attracted no little attention from Euro
pean jurists. In the same year he attended a
meeting held at Brussels, composed of dele
gates from all parts of Europe to consult upon
this subject. This resulted in the formation
of an association for the reform and codifica
tion of the laws of nations. The association
consists of jurists, economists, legislators, and
politicians, with branches in different coun
tries. Its object is to substitute arbitration lor
war in the settlement of disputes between na
tions. Of this association Mr. Field was elect
ed president. In August, 1873, he left the
United States, proposing to make a tour around
the world. HI. Stephen Johnson, an American
jurist, brother of the preceding, born at Ilad
dam, Conn., Nov. 4, 1816. At the age of 13
he went to the East, and passed nearly three

FIELD

177

years at Smyrna and at Athens, engaged in tho
study of modern languages, particularly Greek.
He returned in the winter of 1832- 3, and in
the following autumn entered Williams college,
from which he graduated in 1837. He studied
law in New York with his brother, and on ad
mission to the bar became his partner, and
thus continued until the spring of 1848, when
he went abroad, and passed a year in Europe.
On his return in the autumn of 1849 he went
to California, where he has ever since resided.
He was among the first settlers of what is now
the city of Marysvilje, was elected its first al
calde, and held that office until the organiza
tion of the judiciary under the constitution of
the state. Although the jurisdiction of the
alcalde courts under the Mexican law was lim
ited and inferior, yet in the then existing state
of things in California unlimited jurisdiction,
civil and criminal, was asserted and exercised
by them. In October, 1850, he was elected to
the legislature, and during the session of 1851
was an active member of that body. He intro
duced and succeeded in getting passed the sev
eral laws concerning the judiciary, and regula
ting the procedure, civil and criminal, in all
the courts of the state. He was also the author
of that provision of law which gave controlling
form to the regulations and customs of miners
in the determination of their respective claims,
and in the settlement of controversies among
them; a provision which solved a very per
plexing problem, and has ever since remained
undisturbed. In 1857 he was elected a judge
of the supreme court of California for six years,
from Jan. 1, 1858. A vacancy occurring pre
vious to the commencement of his term, he
was appointed to fill it, and took his seat on
the bench Oct. 13, 1857. In September, 1859,
he became chief justice of the state. The law
of real property in California was placed on a
solid basis while he was on the bench, and
principally by decisions in which he delivered
the opinions of the court. In March, 1863, he
was appointed by President Lincoln an asso
ciate justice of the supreme court of the United
States. As such he delivered the opinion of the
court in the well known test oath cases. His
dissenting opinions in the legal-tender cases, in
the confiscation cases, and in the New Orleans
slaughter house case, have also attracted atten
tion. In 1873 he was appointed by the governor
of California one of a commission to examine
the code of laws of that state, and to prepare
amendments to the same for legislative action.
IV. Cyrus West, an American merchant, brother
of the preceding, born at Stockbridge, Mass.,
Nov. 30, 1819. He was educated in his native
town, at the age of 15 became a clerk in New
York, and in a few years was at the head of a
large and prosperous mercantile house. In
1853 he partially retired from business, and
spent six months in travelling in South Amer
ica. On his return he became deeply interest
ed in the project of a telegraph across the
ocean. He was first applied to for aid to com-

! plete a land line, which had been begun in
j Newfoundland, to cross the island, 400 miles,
from Cape Hay to St. John s, from which it
was intended to run a line of fast steamers
to the west coast of Ireland, and thus bring
America within a week of Europe. While
studying the subject, and turning over the globe
in his library, the idea flashed upon his mind,
"Why not carry the line across the ocean?"
In this idea was the germ of one of the great
est enterprises of modern times, that of tele
graphic communication between the old world
and the new. His first step was to obtain le
gal authority. For this purpose he went in
March, 1854, to St. John s, Newfoundland, and
obtained from the legislature of that colony a
charter, granting an exclusive right for 50
years to establish a telegraph from the conti
nent of America to Newfoundland, and thence
to Europe ; and he thereupon associated Avith
himself Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, Marshall
O. Roberts, Chandler White, and Wilson G.
Hunt, of New York, under the title of the
" New York, Newfoundland, and London Tele
graph Company," for the purpose of carrying
this design into effect. Mr. Field thenceforth
devoted himself almost exclusively to the exe
cution of this project. To build the land line
of telegraph across Newfoundland and Cape
Breton island took more than two years.
While this was in progress he went to England,
and ordered a submarine cable, to connect
Cape Ray and Cape Breton. This was sent out
in 1855, but was lost in a gale in the attempt
to lay it across the gulf of St. Lawrence. The
attempt was renewed the following year with
success. In that year (1856) he went to Lon
don, -and there organized the " Atlantic Tele
graph Company," to carry the line across the
ocean, and himself subscribed for one fourth of
the whole capital of the company. By his per
sonal application he procured from the Brit
ish and American governments aid in ships,
and accompanied the expeditions which sailed
from England in 1857 and 1858 for the purpose
of laying the cable across the Atlantic ocean.
Twice the attempt failed in 1857, and the first
time in 1858. The third attempt proved suc
cessful, and in August, 1858, telegraphic com
munication was established across the ocean.
The cable, however, worked only a few weeks,
and then became silent. To resuscitate the
project now became more difficult than ever,
as the public had lost faith. From that time
it was kept alive only by the ardent faith and
indomitable will of its projector. He was con
tinually passing to and fro between America
and Europe, inspiring fresh courage and gath
ering new resources. But obstacles multiplied,
civil war broke out in the L nited States, and
the nation, absorbed in its own affairs, had no
time for foreign enterprises. Thus seven years
passed away before the attempt was renewed.
But at last, in 1865, another expedition was
prepared. Submarine telegraphy had been
greatly improved ; a better cable was construct-

ITS

FIELD

FIELDFARE

ed ; and the Great Eastern took it on board,
and sailed to the west. Over 1,200 miles had
been laid, when by a sudden lurch of the ship
the cable snapped and was lost. The bottom
of the sea was dragged for days in vain, and
the expedition returned defeated to England.
The year 18(56 saw still another expedition,
which this time proved successful. The cable,
2,000 miles long, was safely stretched across
the ocean, and the communication proved per
fect. After landing this the Great Eastern re
turned to the middle of the ocean in search
of the cable lost the year before, and after a
month s labor finally succeeded in grappling
it at a depth of two miles and bringing it to
the surface, and, joining it to the cable on
board, carried it safely to the western shore.
Thus, after 12 years of incessant labor, in
which he had crossed the ocean some 50 times,
Mr. Field saw r the great object of his life ac
complished. Congress voted unanimously to
present him a gold medal, with the thanks of the
nation ; while the prime minister of England
declared that it was only the fact that he was
a citizen of another country that prevented
his receiving high honors from the British
government. John Bright pronounced him
" the Columbus of modern times, who by his
cable had moored the new world alongside the
old." The great exposition in Paris in 1867
gave him the grand medal, the highest prize
it had to bestow. Since that year two other
cables have been successfully laid, and tele
graphic communication across the Atlantic
ocean has never been interrupted for a single
hour. V. Henry Martyn, an American clergy
man, brother of the preceding, born at Stock-
bridge, Mass., April 3, 1822. lie graduated at
Williams college at the age of 16, and after
four years 1 study of theology became pastor of
a church in St. Louis in 1842. After five years
he resigned his charge to go abroad. In 1847-
8 he was in Europe, and after returning he
published a historical sketch of the Italian revo
lutions, and a letter from Rome on " The
Good and the Bad in the Roman Catholic
Church." In January, 1851, he was settled at
West Springfield, Mass., whence lie removed
in 1854 to New York, to become one of the
editors of the " Evangelist," a religious journal,
of which he subsequently became proprietor.
In 1858 he again made a tour in Europe, which
he described in a volume entitled " Summer
Pictures from Copenhagen to Venice" (New
York, 1859). In 1867 he went abroad again to
the great exposition in Paris, and as a delegate
to the Free church of Scotland and the Pres
byterian church of Ireland. His last book is
a "History of the Atlantic Telegraph." He
has also published "The Irish Confederates, a
History of the Rebellion of 1798 " (1851).

FIELD, John, a British composer, born in
Dublin, July 26, 1782, died in Moscow, Jan.
11, 1837. His father w r as a violin player in
the orchestra of the Dublin theatre. He re
ceived his first instructions upon the piano

forte from his grandfather, who was an organ
ist. Subsequently he became a pupil of Muzio
dementi, whom he accompanied to Paris,
A 7 ienna, and finally to St. Petersburg, where
Field took up his residence, remaining after
dementi s departure in 1804. In 1822 he re
moved to Moscow, where as at the former
city his concerts were attended with success
and pupils fiocked to him in great numbers.
He visited London and Paris in 1832, proceeded
thence to the south of France, passed a por
tion of 1834 and 1835 at Naples, where he
was fgr nine months in a hospital, and in the
latter year returned to Russia, broken down
by sickness and poverty, the result of his two
besetting faults, idleness and intemperance.
His laziness was so great that it is related of
him that when he dropped his cane in the
street he stood till some good-natured passer
by picked it up for him. As a pianist he was
almost without a rival in respect to delicacy,
poetic feeling, and grace of style. He es
pecially excelled in the finish with which he
rendered the works of Sebastian Bach, which
he made popular even in Paris. Among his
chief compositions, which are not numerous,
are seven concertos for piano and orchestra,
three sonatas dedicated to Clemen ti, and 18
nocturnes. Of the last named form of com
position, afterward so extensively used by
Chopin, Kalkbrenner, and other composers,
Field was the inventor ; and his nocturnes are
the most popular as well as the most meri
torious of his works.

FIELDFARE, a European bird of the thrush
family, the turdiis pilaris (Linn.), in form, size,
proportions of parts, and characters of the plu-

Fieldfare (Turclus pilaris).

mage, resembling the migratory thrush or Amer
ican robin (T. migratorius, Linn.). The length
is between 10 and 11 in., the extent of wings
17|, the tarsus 1 J, and the weight about 4 oz. :
it is a stout bird, and from its long tail and
wings rather elegant in form. The bill, which

FIELDING

179

is that of the thrushes, is orange at the base
and brownish black at the end; the inside of
the mouth is orange, the edges of the lids yel- ;
low, the iris brown, the feet and claws dusky; !
the head, hind neck, and rump are gray, most
of the feathers on the first with a central !
dusky streak ; a space before the eye brown
ish black, and a whitish line over the eye ; the |
anterior half of the back and the wing coverts i
are chestnut, shading behind into ash-gray; fore
neck and breast yellowish red, with elongated j
triangular brownish black spots, the sides paler |
with broadly rounded spots; the lower breast
and abdomen grayish white tinged with red ;
the wings are grayish black, with the edges of
the feathers paler ; tail deeper black, the lateral
feathers grayish toward the end ; the lower
wing coverts and axillary feathers are pure
white, conspicuous during flight. The specific
name is derived from a few hairy filaments
on the occiput, which are also found in other
species, and even in other genera. The female
very closely resembles the male. The above is
the plumage when it enters Great Britain from
the continent ; varieties in size and coloring are
met with, and albinos are occasionally seen.
They arrive in October and November, and !
some remain until the following spring if the
season is mild; they roost in trees if they can,
leaving for the fields at early dawn, in parties
of from three or four to many hundreds ; their
flight is easy but not rapid, and their move
ments in the trees and on the ground are grace
ful ; they frequent open fields, associating often
with other species, and are generally very shy.
The food consists of hawthorn and other ber
ries, worms, larva?, insects, seeds, and grains.
They generally disappear in April or May, re
tiring probably in summer to the north to
breed; the nests are built in society, usually in
fir and spruce trees, and with the eggs, five or
six in number, resemble those of the blackbird.
The flesh is tender, fat, and of good flavor;
this is supposed to be the species so highly es
teemed by the Romans.

FIELDING, Copley Vandyke, an English paint
er in water colors, born about 1787, died in
Worthing, Sussex, March 3, 1855. He be
longed to a family of artists, and his first pic
ture was exhibited in 1810. He early became
a teacher, and acquired many pupils and
friends. On the death of Joshua Cristall, he
was elected president of the old society of
painters in water colors, which office he held
till his death. Fielding s favorite subjects were
either rich wooded landscapes, or ships at sea
off a stormy and rock-bound coast. From these
two types he seldom varied. His manipulation
was peculiar, but it represents atmospheric ef
fects with great freshness. The demand for
his works was so great that they were pro
duced too rapidly, and fell into mannerism.

FIELDING, Henry, an English novelist and |
dramatist, born at Sharpham Park, near Glas-
tonbury, Somersetshire, April 22, 1707, died in
Lisbon, Oct. 8, 1754. His father was a grand- j

son of the earl of Desmond, and great-grandson
of the first earl of Denbigh, and served under
Marlborough, attaining the rank of lieutenant
general at the close of the reign of George I.
The family of the Fieldings is stated in the
English peerages (\vhere the name is spelled
Feilding) to be descended from the same an
cestry as the imperial house of Ilapsbnrg. The
early education of Fielding was intrusted to
the care of the Rev. Mr. Oliver, a private
teacher in Gen. Fielding s family, and who, it
is said, appears in "Joseph Andrews" as
Parson Trulliber. lie received but little bene
fit from his tutor, and was sent at an early age
to Eton, where he distinguished himself by his
brilliant parts, and before his IGth year had
made great progress in classical learning.
From Eton he was sent to the university of
Leyden, where he applied with assiduity to his
studies, but led so gay a life that his father,
who had taken a second wife, and had a nu
merous family, found himself unable to defray
the cost of his son s extravagance. In his 20th
year Fielding was compelled to return to. Eng
land, and was at once thrown upon his own
resources, with a fondness for costly pleasures
and but slender means of paying for them.
His father had promised him. an allowance of
200 per annum; but this, as Fielding said,
" any one might pay who would." His viva
city, good humor, and talent gained him the
companionship of the most eminent wits of
his time ; and after he arrived in London,
while yet a minor, he commenced writing for
the stage. His first comedy, " Love in Sever
al Masques," was produced in 1727, when he
was but 20 years of age. He wrote his dra
matic pieces with great rapidity, and threw into
them a marvellous amount of wit and satire.
As the pay he received was small, the neces
sity for constant production left him little
time to make elaborate plots, or to pay much
attention to the characters of his plays. k&gt; The
Wedding Day," one of his most successful
comedies, gained him but 50, and his voca
tion of a dramatist brought him in contact with
acquaintances who were not calculated to im
prove either his finances or his morals. In the
midst of his gay career, while living from hand
to mouth by his pen, and writing his plays on
the backs of his tavern bills, he formed an ac
quaintance with Miss Craddock of Salisbury,
whom he married in his 27th year. As his
wife had a fortune of but 1,500, the financial
condition of the dramatist was not much im
proved by his marriage. He retired to a small
estate in the country which he had inherited
from his mother, worth about 200 per an
num. He was devotedly attached to his
young bride, and made serious resolutions of
reform. He gave up writing for the stage,
having produced about 20 comedies, farces,
and burlesques, only one of which, the bur
lesque of u Tom Thumb," has kept, its place in
the theatre. He applied himself with great
vigor to literary studies in his country retreat ;

ISO

FIELDING

but lie also gave himself up to such pleasures
as the country afforded, and was soon insol
vent, and compelled to return to London to
retrieve his fortunes. At the age of 30 he en
tered himself a student at the Inner Temple,
studied diligently, and in due course was ad
mitted to the bar. But repeated attacks of
the gout compelling him to abandon legal
practice, he again had recourse to his pen.
He renewed his connection with the theatre,
and wrote essays, poems, satires, and whatever
else the taste of the day demanded, for literary
periodicals. Though he could no longer travel
his circuit, he turned his legal acquirements to
account by preparing a work on crown law,
which evinced his remarkable capacity for pa
tient drudgery. Failing to obtain from these
sources the income requisite for his daily
wants, he wrote nearly the whole of the liter
ary contents of the " Champion," a periodical
which is now only known from his contribu
tions. But now his genius was first attracted
to that sphere for which it was best adapted,
and in which he was destined to secure an en
during fame. His first novel, "Joseph An
drews " (1742), professedly in the manner of
Cervantes, was begun as a burlesque on Rich
ardson s " Pamela," which was then the most
popular novel of the time. Fielding s work is
infinitely better than the author intended to
make it, and, if his fame rested upon that
work alone, he would be remembered while
the language in which it is written endures.
In 1743 he published three volumes of "Mis
cellanies," including the "Journey from this
World to the Next," a work which, though
incomplete, and seemingly without any special
plan, exhibits much imagination and satirical
power. " The History of Jonathan Wild,"
which appeared about the same time, is a store
house of wit, profound thought, serious satire,
and benevolence so genuine, that even under
the guise of the greatest villains we are made
to love our brother man. The Newgate or
dinary in this great prose satire is the repre
sentative of the whole class of worldly-minded
ecclesiastics, as much so as Macbeth is the type
of unscrupulous ambition, or Othello of noble
jealousy. Shortly after the publication of
"Joseph Andrews," amid an accumulation of
illness, broken fortunes, and constant disap
pointments, he lost his wife, whom he tender
ly loved and most sincerely mourned ; though
in a few months after her death he married her
maid, an act curiously apologized for by his
relative, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Though
he had faithfully served the whig party with
his pen, the only reward he received was his
appointment, in his