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THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


VOL.  IX. 
HORTENSIUS-KINGLAKE. 


THE 


AMERICAN  CYCLOBEDIA: 


OF 


GENERAL   KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A.  DAM. 


VOLUME  IX. 
HORTENSILTS-KINGLAKE. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549   AND  551   BROADWAY. 

LONDON:   1C  LITTLE  BEITAIN. 

1874. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1860,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in 
the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Among  the  Contributors  to  the  Ninth  Volume  of  the  Revised  Edition  are  the 

following  : 


Prof.  CLEVELAND  ABBE,  Washington,  D.  C. 
HURRICANE. 

WILLARD  BARTLETT. 

INDIA. 

INDIAN  ARCUIPELAGO. 

KASIIGAE. 

KHOKAN. 

Prof.   0.  W.  BENNETT,   D.  D.,   Syracuse    Uni 
versity. 

HUNTINGDON,  SELINA,  Countess  of. 
JANES,  EDMUND  STONER. 
KIDDER,  DANIEL  PARISH. 

JULIUS  BING. 

ISMAIL  PASHA,  Khedive  of  Egypt, 
KAULBACII,  WILHELM  VON, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 

history. 

FRANCIS  C.  BOWMAN. 

HUMMEL,  JOHANN  NEPOMUK. 
JOSQUIN  DES  PRES. 
KELLOGG,  CLARA  LOUISA. 

T.  S.  BRADFORD,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  Washing 
ton,  D.  C. 

HYDROGRAPHY. 
EDWARD  L.  BURLINGAME,  Ph.  D. 

JOANNA  I.  and  II.,  Queens  of  Naples, 
JOHN,  Archduke  of  Austria, 
KENT,  England, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 

history. 

KOBERT  CARTER. 

HOTTENTOTS, 
HOUSTON,  SAM, 
HUGHES,  THOMAS, 
HUNS, 
JAY,  JOHN, 
JAY,  WILLIAM, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

Jonx  D.  CHAMPLIN,  Jr. 

HOUGHTON,  RICHARD  MONCKTON  MILNES,  Lord, 
HUXLEY,  THOMAS  HENRY, 
IRON  MASK,  Man  in  the, 

JlDDAH, 

KIDD,  WILLIAM. 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 
history. 

Prof.  E.  II.  CLARKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

HYPOPHOSPHITES, 
HYPOSULPIIATES, 
IODINE, 

and  other  articles  in  materia  medica. 

T.  M.  COAX,  M.  D. 

KALAKAUA,  DAVID. 

KAUAI. 

KILAUEA. 

Hon.  T.  M.  COOLEY,  LL.  D.,  Michigan  Univer 
sity,  Ann  Arbor. 

HUSBAND  AND  WIFE, 
and  other  legal  articles. 

Rev.  S.  S.  CUTTING,  D.  D.,  Rochester  Univer 
sity,  K  Y. 

JUDSON,  ADONIRAM. 
JUDSON,  ANN  HASSELTINE. 
JUDSON,  SARAH  HALL. 
JUDSON,  EMILY  CHITBBUCK. 


Prof.  J.  C.  DALTON,  M.  D. 

HYBRID, 

HYDROPHOBIA, 

HYGIENE, 

INOCULATION, 

and  other  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

EATON  S.  DRONE. 

ILLINOIS, 
INDIANA, 
IOWA, 

KANSAS, 
KENTUCKY, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Prof.   THOMAS  M.   DROWN,   M.  D.,  Lafayette 
College,  Easton,  Pa. 

IRON. 

ROBERT  T.  EDES,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Articles  in  materia  medica. 

W.  M.  FERRISS. 

HUGO,  VICTOR  MARIE. 
HUNTER,  JOHN. 
KEARNY,  PHILIP. 

Prof.  W.  E.  GRIFFIS,  Imperial  College,  Tokio, 
Japan. 

JAPAN. 
KANAGAWA. 

ALFRED  H.  GUERNSEY. 

JACKSON,  THOMAS  JONATHAN, 
JOHNSTON,  JOSEPH  ECCLESTON, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

J.  W.  HAWES. 

HOUSTON,  Texas, 

IDAHO, 

IDIOCY, 

INDIAN  TERRITORY, 

JERSEY  CITY, 

KANSAS  CITY, 

KEY  WEST, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Hon.  CHARLES  C.  HAZEWELL,  Boston,  Mass. 
JACKSON,  ANDREW. 

M.  HEILPRIN. 
HUNGARY. 

J.  C.  HEPBURN,  M.  D.,   LL.  D.,   Yokohama, 
Japan. 

JAPAN,  LANGUAGE  OF. 

CHARLES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 
HUYGENS,  CHRISTIAN. 
HYDRAULIC  RAM. 
HYDROMECHANICS. 
HYDROMETER. 
INFLAMMATION. 
INSANITY. 

OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES,  M.  D.,  Boston. 

JACKSON,  CHARLES. 
JACKSON,  JAMES,  M.  D. 

ROSSITER  JOHNSON. 

INGELOW.  JEAN, 
IRVING,  WASHINGTON, 
JOHNSON.  ANDREW, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 


IV 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO   THE   NINTH  VOLUME. 


Prof.   C.  A.  JOY,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 

INDIUM, 

and  other  chemical  articles. 

Prof.   S.    KNEELAND,   M.  D.,   Mass.    Inst.   of 
Technology,  Boston. 

HOUND, 

HUMMING  BIRD, 
HY.ENA, 
HYDROIDS, 
ICUTIIYOLOGY, 

ICHTHYOSAURUS, 

KING  CRAB, 
KING  FISH, 

and  other  articles  in  zoology. 

Rev.  FRANKLIN  NOBLE. 

HOWARD.  OLIVER  OTIS, 
HUDSON  BAY, 
INDEPENDENTS, 
JACQUELINE  OF  BAVARIA, 
JOHN,  King  of  Saxony, 

and  other  articles  'in  biography. 

Rev.  BERNARD  O'REILLY,  D.  D. 

ICELAND, 

ICONOCLASTS, 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION, 
INDULGENCE, 
INFALLIBILITY, 
JESUITS, 

and  other  articles  in  ecclesiastical  history. 

Prof.  S.  F.  PECKHAM,  University  of  Minnesota, 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

KEROSENE. 

Count  L.  F.  DE  POTJRTALES,  Museum  of  Com 
parative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

INDIAN  OCEAN. 
JUAN  FERNANDEZ. 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  A.  M.,  London. 

JUPITER. 

Prof.  ROSSITER  W.  RAYMOND,  Ph.  D. 

IRON  MANUFACTURE. 
IRON  ORES. 

PHILIP  RIPLEY. 

HURLBERT,  "WILLIAM  HENRY. 
HURLBUT,  STEPHEN  AUGUSTUS. 
INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS. 
KEBLE,  JOHN. 

W.  E.  ROGERS,  Late  Capt.  Corps  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  A. 

INFANTRY. 

ERNEST  SATOW,  Japanese  Secretary  II.  B.  M. 
Legation,  Tokio,  Japan. 
JAPAN,  LITERATURE  OF. 


JOHN  SAVAGE. 

IRELAND. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 

IRELAND,  CHURCH  OF, 
JANSENIUS,  CORNELIUS, 

JANSENISTS, 

and  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

J.  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

HURONS. 

ILLINOIS  (Indians). 

IROQUOIS. 

KANSAS. 

KEECHIES. 
KICKAPOOS. 

Prof.   J.   A.  SPENCER,  D.  D.,  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York. 

HOWSON,  JOHN  SAUL. 
HUDSON,  HENRY  NORMAN. 
HUNTING-TON,  FREDERICK  DAN. 
JOWETT,  BENJAMIN. 
KAYE,  JOHN. 

N.  L.  THIEBLIN. 

INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION. 

Prof.  GEORGE  TIIUBBEB. 

HOTBED, 

HYACINTH, 

IMMORTELLES, 

INDIAN  SHOT, 

INSECT  FERTILIZATION, 

INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS, 

IVY, 

JUNIPER, 

KALMIA, 

and  other  botanical  articles. 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  VAN  RIIYN,  Ph.  D. 

INDIA,  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES  OF, 

INDIA.  RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE  OF, 

INDO-CHINESE  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES. 

IRANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES, 

ITALIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES, 

JAVA,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF. 

and  other  archaeological,  oriental,  and  philologi 
cal  articles. 


I.  DE  VEITELLE. 


ITUANCAVELICA, 
HUANUCO, 

ITURBIDE,  AGUSTIN  DE, 

JAMAICA, 

JORULLO, 

JUAREZ,  BENITO  PABLO, 

and  other  Spanish  American  articles. 

C.  S.  WEYMAN. 

HUNGARY,  WINES  OF. 
ITALY,  WINES  OF. 

Gen.  JAMES  HARRISON  WILSON. 

IRON-CLAD  SHIPS. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPEDIA 


HORTEXSIUS 

HORTEASIUS,  Quietus,  a  Roman  orator,  born 
in  114  B.  C.,  died  in  50.  At  the  age  of  19 
he  made  a  speech  in  the  forum,  and  gained  the 
applause  of  the  orators  Crassus  and  Scosvola. 
He  joined  the  side  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war, 
and  afterward  was  a  constant  supporter  of  the 
aristocratic  party.  When  Cicero  first  came  to 
the  forum  llortensius  was  called  the  rex  judi- 
dorum.  Though  professionally  rivals,  they 
seem  to  have  lived  on  friendly  terms ;  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  De  Claris  Oratoribus, 
Cicero  pays  an  eloquent  tribute  to  the  memory 
of  llortensius.  When  obliged  to  leave  the  city 
on  account  of  the  impeachment  of  Clodius, 
however,  Cicero  was  bitter  against  the  sup 
posed  duplicity  of  llortensius,  and  it  was  not 
till  some  time  after  his  return  that  he  was 
convinced  of  the  injustice  of  his  suspicion. 
In  81  llortensius  was  made  quaestor;  in  75, 
rodile;  in  72,  prootor;  and  in  09,  consul,  with 
Q.  Cecilius  Metellus.  The  year  before  his  con 
sulship  occurred  the  trial  of  Verres,  in  which 
the  two  rival  orators  were  opposed.  After 
his  consulship,  Hortensius  took  an  active  part 
against  Pompey,  opposing  the  Gabinian  law, 
which  gave  Pompey  the  control  of  the  Medi 
terranean  sea,  and  the  Manilian  law,  which 
transferred  to  his  command  the  army  against 
Mithridates.  Cicero  subsequently  joined  the 
same  party,  and  we  find  them  pleading  often 
in  common.  They  defended  together  C.  Rabi- 
rius,  L.  Murrena,  and  P.  Sulla.  Ten  years  be 
fore  his  death  Hortensius  withdrew  from  public 
life.  He  had  acquired  great  wealth,  and  own 
ed  villas  at  Tusculum,  Bauli,  and  Laurentum. 

HORTICULTURE,  the  most  perfect  method  of 
tilling  the  earth  so  as  to  produce  the  best  re 
sults,  whether  the  products  are  objects  of 
utility  or  of  beauty.  It  is-  difficult  to  define 
the  line  between  horticulture  and  improved 
agriculture  upon  the  one  side,  and  landscape 
architecture  upon  the  other.  Horticulture  or 
gardening  has  been  pursued  from  the  earliest 


HORTICULTURE 

times  of  civilization  or  national  refinement. 
Among  the  Romans,  according  to  Pliny,  small 
gardens  filled  with  roses,  violets,  and  other 
sweet-scented  flowers  were  in  repute ;  while 
many  of  the  choicest  plants  and  flowers  which 
we  now  cherish  were  cultivated  by  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Horticultural  art  declined,  however, 
with  the  fall  of  Rome,  and  not  until  long  after 
did  it  revive  under  the  monastic  institutions. 
A  part  of  the  policy  of  Charlemagne  was  the 
establishment  of  gardens  by  royal  edict,  pre 
scribing  the  very  plants  which  were  to  be 
grown.  In  the  16th  century  several  botanic 
gardens  were  founded  by  Alfonso  d'Este,  duke 
of  Ferrara,  and  in  consequence  many  other 
noblemen  had  fine  gardens  of  their  own.  The 
Venetians  and  Paduans  followed  the  example, 
and  in  1555  a  garden  founded  at  Pisa  by 
Cosmo  de'  Medici  had  become  so  rich  in  plants 
as  to  excite  admiration.  The  garden  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  France,  founded  by  Henry  IV.,  con 
tained  before  the  end  of  the  16th  century  up 
ward  of  1,300  French,  Alpine,  and  Pyrenean 
plants.  At  this  time  the  garden  at  Breslau  in 
Germany,  to  which  the  celebrated  botanist 
Fuchs  was  attached,  was  in  existence ;  and  in 
1577,  at  the  suggestion  of  Bontius,  was  founded 
the  garden  at  Ley  den.  In  England,  pleasure 
gardens  with  fountains  and  shady  walks,  with 
hedges  and  designs,  were  known  from  the  time 
of  the  conquest,  but  it  was  not  until  the  con 
struction  of  conservatories  for  the  preservation 
of  tender  plants  that  horticulture  made  much 
progress.  According  to  Loudon,  it  was  not 
till  1717  that  such  structures  were  furnished 
with  glass  roofs,  and  from  this  time  a  new  era 
in  gardening  began.  The  education  and  train 
ing  of  young  persons  to  the  practice  of  gar 
dening  raised  the  occupation  to  an  art,  and  has 
brought  horticulture  in  European  countries 
especially  to  a  high  rank. — We  have  considered 
horticulture  as  the  acme  of  agriculture ;  and 
those  familiar  only  with  ordinary  farm  tillage 


IIORTUS   SICCUS 


IIOSACK 


would  be  surprised  to  find  how  productive  land 
can  be  made  when  husbanded  by  practical  gar 
dening.  In  the  best  market  gardens  the  soil, 
by  abundant  manuring  and  working,  is  kept  up 
to  the  highest  attainable  state  of  fertility,  and 
is  made  to  produce  always  two,  and  frequently 
three  and  four  crops  in  a  year.  It  often  hap 
pens  that  a  single  acre  near  a  large  city  yields 
the  cultivator  a  greater  profit  than  many  entire 
forms  bring  to  their  owners.  Within  the  last 
30  or  40  years  horticulture  in  the  United  States 
has  rapidly  advanced,  and  its  progress  has 
been  largely  due  to  the  influence  of  the  various 
horticultural  societies,  especially  those  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  Massachusetts.  In  this  country 
there  are  very  few  magnificent  gardens;  but 
in  the  diffusion  of  a  knowledge  of  horticul 
ture  among  the  people  at  large  there  has  been 
a  steady  advance,  and  a  special  literature  per 
taining  to  the  science  and  practice  of  horticul 
ture  has  sprung  up.  The  large  works  of  other 
countries  upon  the  general  subject  are  superior 
to  any  yet  published  here,  but  our  works  upon 
separate  topics  are  more  thorough  and  prac 
tical  than  those  of  any  European  country. 
Among  the  earlier  horticultural  works  pub 
lished  in  this  country  is  "  The  American  Gar 
dener/'  by  ^ymiam  Cobbett  (New  York,  1819). 
"The  American  Gardener's  Calendar,"  by  B. 
McMahon  (Philadelphia,  1819),  is  one  of  the 
few  works  embracing  every  department  of 
horticulture.  In  landscape  gardening  the  lead 
ing  authors  are  A.  J.  Downing,  Copeland, 
"Weidenmann,  and  Scott;  in  arboriculture, 
Warder,  Hoopes,  and  Bryant ;  in  flower  gar 
dening,  including  roses,  Breck,  Buist,  Rand, 
Parkman,  and  Parsons.  In  floriculture  under 
glass,  "Practical  Horticulture,'1  by  Peter  Hen 
derson  (New  York,  1868),  is  the  only  recent 
work.  Among  works  on  vegetable  gardening, 
the  most  prominent  are  Burr's  "  Vegetables  of 
America,"  White's  "  Gardening  for  the  South," 
Quinn's  "  Money  in  the  Garden,"  and  Hender 
son's  "Gardening  for  Profit."  The  leading 
agricultural  journals  have  each  a  horticultural 
department  with  a  competent  editor,  and  there 
are  now  only  three  journals  devoted  solely  to 
horticulture ;  these  are :  "  The  Horticulturist  " 
(New  York),  established  by  A.  J.  Downing  in 
1846,  and  now  (1874)  edited  by  II.  T.  Williams; 
"  The  Gardener's  Monthly  "  (Philadelphia, 
1859),  Thomas  Meehan,  editor;  and  "The 
California  Horticulturist  "  (San  Francisco, 
1871),  C.  Stephens,  editor. 

HORTIS  SICCIS.     See  HERBARIUM. 

HORFS,  a  god  of  the  Egyptians,  son  of  Osiris 
and  Isis.  He  represented  the  rising  sun.  He 
pierces  with  a  spear  the  serpent  Apophis  or 
Apap,  the  vapors  of  dawn.  He  avenges  his 
father  Osiris,  whom  Set  or  Soutekh,  also  called 
Baal,  kills,  and  whom  the  prayers  of  Isis  re 
suscitate.  The  death  of  Osiris,  the  grief  of 
Isis,  and  the  final  defeat  of  Set,  the  god  of  evil, 
are  common  themes  in  oriental  mythologies, 
and  recur  in  the  stories  of  Cybele  and  Atys, 
and  of  Venus  and  Adonis.  The  youthful 


Horus  was  held  forth  as  a  model  for  all  princes, 
and  as  a  type  of  royal  virtues.  He  was  often 
represented  as  a  little  child,  sometimes  in  the 
lap  of  Isis,  and  always  with  a  finger  on  his 
mouth,  which  is  the  common  Egyptian  sign 
indicative  of  extreme  youth  or  infancy.  The 
Greeks  identified  Horus  with  their  god  Har- 
pocrates,  whom  they  represented  also  with  a 
finger  on  the  lips;  but  mistaking  the  signifi 
cance  of  the  sign,  they  regarded  it  as  a  symbol 
of  silence,  secrecy,  and  mystery,  and  ascribed 
these  attributes  to  the  deity.  He  became  ac 
cordingly  a  favorite  subject  for  speculation 
with  the  later  philosophers.  His  worship  was 
also  carried  into  Rome,  where,  probably  on 
account  of  excesses  committed  in  the  mysteri 
ous  rituals,  it  was  for  a  while  forbidden.  The 
peach  was  considered  the  sacred  fruit  of  the 
god.  The  Egyptians  also  believed  that  Horus 
held  in  conjunction  with  Anubis  the  balance  in 
which  the  hearts  of  the  dead  are  weighed  be 
fore  Osiris  and  the  42  assessors,  and  that  he 
or  Smon  beheaded  those  found  wanting  on  the 
nemma  or  infernal  scaffold. 

HORVATH,  Miltaly,  a  Hungarian  historian,  born 
at  Szentes,  Oct.  20,  1809.  He  was  ordained  as 
priest  in  1830,  and  became  in  1844  professor 
of  the  Hungarian  language  and  literature  in 
the  Theresianum  at  Vienna.  In  1848,  during 
the  Hungarian  revolution,  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Csanad,  and  ex  officio  a  member  of  the  up 
per  house  in  the  diet ;  and  in  1849  he  was  min 
ister  of  public  worship  and  education.  The 
Hungarian  uprising  having  been  overthrown, 
he  took  refuge  first  in  France,  and  afterward 
in  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  where  for 
several  years  he  prosecuted  his  studies  in  Hun 
garian  history.  In  the  mean  while  the  Aus 
trian  government  sentenced  him  to  death  in 
his  absence.  In  1866  he  was  permitted  to  re 
turn  to  his  native  country,  and  in  1869  he  was 
unanimously  elected  member  of  the  diet  for 
Szegedin.  His  works  on  Hungarian  history,  in 
Hungarian,  include  "Hungarian  History"  (4 
vols.,  Papa,  1842-'6  ;  abridged  in  1  vol.,  Pesth, 
1847;  enlarged  in  6  vols.,  1859-'63;  German 
translation,  2d  ed.,  1861) ;  "  Twenty-five  Years 
of  Hungarian  History  "  (2  vols.,  Geneva,  1863  ; 
German  translation,  Leipsic,  1866);  "History 
of  the  War  of  Independence  in  Hungary  "  (3 
vols.,  Geneva,  1865);  and  "Reply  to  the  Let 
ters  of  Kossuth,"  a  pamphlet  setting  forth  the 
great  importance  for  Hungary  of  the  compro 
mise  with  Austria  in  1867.  He  has  also  pub 
lished  a  collection  of  Hungarian  historical  docu 
ments  in  4  vols. 

IIOSACK,  David,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  New  York,  Aug.  31,  1769,  died  Dec.  23, 
1835.  He  studied  in  Columbia  college  from 
1786  to  1788,  thence  went  to  Princeton  col 
lege,  where  he  graduated  in  1789,  and  receiv 
ed  his  degree  as  doctor  of  medicine  in  Phila 
delphia  in  1791.  He  subsequently  continued 
his  medical  studies  in  London  and  Edinburgh  ; 
and  on  his  return  home  in  1794  brought  with 
him  a  cabinet  of  minerals  obtained  from  Wer- 


IIOSAXXA 


HOTBED 


ner,  and  a  collection  of  duplicate  specimens  of 
plants  from  the  herbarium  of  Linnaeus.  This 
collection  of  dried  plants  gathered  by  Linmeus 
now  constitutes  a  part  of  the  museum  of  the 
lyceum  of  natural  history  of  New  York.  In 
1795  he  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  in 
Columbia  college,  and  in  1797  of  materia  med- 
ica.  In  1807  he  became  professor  of  materia 
medica  and  of  midwifery  in  the  newly  created 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons,  antl  in  1811 
of  the  theory  and  practice  of  physic  and  clini 
cal  medicine,  to  which  were  afterward  added 
obstetrics  and  the  diseases  of  women  and  chil 
dren.  He  retained  his  post  after  the  union  of 
the  two  rival  medical  faculties  of  Columbia 
college  and  the  college  of  physicians  and  sur 
geons  in  September,  1813.  Resigning  with  the 
rest  of  the  faculty  in  1820,  he  aided  in  organi 
zing  the  Rutgers  medical  school,  which  ceased 
in  1830.  Dr.  Hosack  held  several  public  medi 
cal  offices,  and  was  prominent  in  the  promo 
tion  and  management  of  municipal  institutions. 
He  founded  in  1810,  with  Dr.  Francis,  the 
"American  Medical  and  Philosophical  Regis 
ter,"  and  was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  societies  of 
London  and  Edinburgh.  Among  his  works 
are :  "  A  Biographical  Memoir  of  Hugh  Wil 
liamson,  M.D.,  LL.D."  (8vo,  1820);  u  Essays 
on  Various  Subjects  of  Medical  Science"  (3 
vols.,  1S24-'30) ;  "  System  of  Practical  Nosolo 
gy  "  (1829)  ;  "  Memoirs  of  De  Witt  Clinton  " 
(4to,  1829);  "Lectures  on  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Physic,"  edited  by  the  Rev.  II.  W. 
Ducachet,  M.D.  (1838). 

HOSAXNA  (Heb.  hoshVali  na,  Save,  we  pray), 
in  Jewish  antiquity,  a  form  of  acclamation  on 
joyous  and  triumphal  occasions.  At  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  it  was  customary  to  sing  Ps. 
cxviii.  25,  which  contains  the  words  JiosJiVah 
na,  while  the  people  carried  green  boughs  of 
palm  and  myrtle  and  branches  of  willow. 
Hence  the  prayers  were  called  hosanna,  and 
the  seventh  day  of  the  feast  the  great  hosanna. 
The  term  was  employed  as  a  salutation  to 
Christ  on  his  public  entry  into  Jerusalem. 

HOSEA,  the  first  of  the  minor  prophets.  He 
was  the  son  of  Beeri,  commenced  his  prophecy 
about  785  B.  C.,  and  exercised  his  office  at  in 
tervals  for  about  00  years.  He  was  a  resident 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  against  which  most 
of  his  prophecies  are  directed,  rebuking  and 
threatening  the  people  for  their  sins,  and  ex 
horting  them  to  repentance.  His  style  is  con 
cise,  sententious,  and  abrupt ;  and  his  prophe 
cies  are  in  one  continued  series,  without  any 
distinction  as  to  the  times  when  they  were  de 
livered  or  their  subjects. 

HOSMER,  Harriet  G.,  an  American  sculptor, 
born  in  Watertown,  Mass.,  Oct.  9,  1830.  She 
studied  sculpture  in  the  studio  of  Mr.  Steven 
son  in  Boston,  also  with  her  father,  a  physician, 
and  in  the  medical  college  of  St.  Louis.  In 
the  summer  of  1851  she  commenced  her  first 
original  work,  a  bust  of  Hesper.  Late  in  1852 
she  went  to  Rome,  entered  the  studio  of  Gib 
son,  and  passed  her  first  winter  in  modelling 


from  the  antique.  Her  busts  of  Daphne  and 
Medusa  were  her  first  attempts  at  original  de 
sign  in  Rome,  and  were  followed  by  a  statue 
of  (Enone.  For  the  public  library  of  St.  Louis 
she  also  executed  her  "  Beatrice  Cenci."  In 
1855  she  modelled  a  statue  of  Puck,  the  popu 
larity  of  which  procured  her  orders  for  nearly 
30  copies.  In  1859  she  finished  a  colossal  sta 
tue  of  "  Zenobia  in  Chains."  This  was  followed 
by  a  statue  of  Thomas  H.  Benton  in  bronze  for 
Lafayette  park,  St.  Louis,  and  a  "  Sleeping 
Faun."  She  still  resides  in  Rome  (1874). 

HOSPITAL  (Lat.  Jwspitalia,  apartments  for 
guests),  an  institution  for  the  reception  and 
relief  of  the  sick,  wounded,  or  infirm.  The 
word  has  undergone  great  changes  of  significa 
tion.  The  earliest  known  hospital  for  the  sick 
was  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  cen 
tury  at  Cassarea ;  St.  Chrysostom  built  one  at 
his  own  expense  in  Constantinople  ;  and  Fabi- 
ola,  the  friend  of  St.  Jerome,  founded  one  at 
Rome.  The  IIotel-Dieu  in  Paris,  founded  in 
the  7th  century,  has  long  been  the  largest  and 
finest  hospital  in  the  world.  It  was  rebuilt 
in  the  12th  century,  and  has  been  extended 
from  time  to  time  until  now  it  covers  five  acres. 
The  IIotel-Dieu  of  Lyons,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Childebert  in  the  Oth  century,  al 
most  equals  it.  Rome  had  2'4  hospitals  in  the 
9th  century;  and  in  the  llth  they  began  to 
be  established  for  pilgrims  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Archbishop  Lanfranc  built  a  hospital  at  Can 
terbury  in  1070.  The  oldest  hospitals  in  Lon 
don  are  St.  Bartholomew's,  which  dates  from 
1546;  Bethlehem,  1547;  and  St.  Thomas's, 
1553.  In  all  civilized  countries  every  consid 
erable  city  now  has  one  or  more  hospitals, 
sustained  by  charity,  endowment,  or  govern 
ment  grants.  Frequently  they  are  connected 
with  medical  schools,  for  mutual  advantage. 
Many  have  elaborate  and  costly  buildings ;  but 
the  latest  theories  are  not  in  favor  of  perma 
nent  structures,  which  are  believed  to  harbor 
the  germs  of  disease.  Military  field  hospitals, 
first  known  in  the  Oth  century,  have  now,  in 
connection  with  the  ambulance  system  (see 
AMBULANCE),  been  made  highly  efficient.  A 
yellow  flag  is  the  sign  of  a  hospital. 

HOSPITALLERS.  See  SAINT  Jonx  OF  JERU 
SALEM,  KNIGHTS  OF. 

HOTBED,  in  gardening,  a  bed  of  earth  en 
closed  by  a  frame,  which  is  covered  by  movable 
sashes,  and  heated  from  below  by  means  of 
fermenting  vegetable  matter.  In  large  estab 
lishments  the  hotbed  is  replaced  by  a  glass 
structure  heated  by  flues  or  by  hot- water  pipes. 
(See  GREENHOUSE.)  When  vegetables  are  made 
to  grow  out  of  their  proper  season,  they  are 
said  to  be  forced ;  large  quantities  of  lettuce, 
radishes,  &c.,  are  forced  for  market  in  hotbeds 
during  the  winter  months.  The  most  general 
use  of  the  hotbed  is  in  starting  such  seeds  as 
would  germinate  very  slowly,  if  at  all,  in  the 
open  ground,  and  to  forward  plants  for  an  early 
crop  of  those  kinds  that  are  later  sown  in  the 
open  air ;  by  the  use  of  the  hotbed,  plants  six 


8 


HOTBED 


HOT  SPRINGS 


weeks  old,  of  cauliflower  and  cabbage  for  ex 
ample,  may  be  had  for  planting  out  at  the  time 
when  the  outside  soil  is  dry  and  warm  enough 
to  allow  of  the  sowing  of  seeds,  thus  enabling 
the  gardener  to  produce  a  much  earlier  crop. 
The  hotbed  allows  us  to  extend  the  season  of 
many  vegetables  about  t\vo  months ;  for  in 
stance,  the  season  of  tomatoes  would  be  a  very 
short  one  if  we  depended  upon  plants  from 
seed  sown  in  the  open  ground,  but  with  the 
aid  of  the  hotbed  the  plants  may  be  so  far 
forward  as  to  be  ready  to  flower  at  the  time 
when  it  is  safe  to  put  them  out.  The  usual 
heating  material  is  horse  dung;  this  is  turned 
over  a  few  times  at  intervals  of  a  few  days, 
and  when  in  a  state  of  active  fermentation  is 
laid  up  in  a  regularly  formed  bed  3  or  4  ft. 
thick,  and  a  foot  wider  on  each  side  than  the 
frame  of  the  hotbed ;  care  is  taken  to  have  the 
manure  evenly  packed,  and  it  is  beaten  with 
the  fork  to  make  it  solid ;  the  frame  is  then 
set  upon  the  manure;  fine,  light,  rich  soil 
should  be  at  hand,  and  when  the  thermometer 
shows  that  the  heat  of  the  bed  (at  first  very  vio 
lent)  has  receded  to  90°,  this  is  spread  evenly 
over  the  manure  to  the  depth  of  6  or  8  in. ; 
then  the  seeds  may  be  sown.  The  use  of  one 
third  or  one  half  its  bulk  of  forest  leaves  with 
the  manure  gives  a  more  gentle  and  more 
lasting  heat.  The  hotbed  for  a  family  garden 
is  made  in  the  manner  described,  and  the  frame, 
usually  permanent,  is  large  enough  for  two  or 
three  sashes.  In  market  gardens  the  method 
is  quite  different.  The  regular  hotbed  sash  is 
usually  6x3  ft. ;  the  bars  to  hold  the  glass  run 
longitudinally,  there  being  no  crossbars,  but  the 
glass  is  lapped  at  the  edges  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch.  The  width  of  the  bed  is  the  length 
of  the  sash,  and  the  length  of  the  bed  is  deter 
mined  by  the  number  of  sashes ;  an  excavation 
is  made  2£  ft.  deep,  and  of  the  required  size  ; 
this  is  boarded  up  with  rough  boards  nailed 
to  posts  ;  the  boarding  extends  above  the  sur 
face  of  the  ground  12  in.  in  front  and  18  in.  at 
the  rear;  cross  pieces  are  nailed  from  front  to 
rear,  upon  which  the  sash  can  slide.  The  ma 
nure  is  then  placed  in  this  pit  and  the  soil  put 
upon  it  as  before  described.  Mats  of  straw  or 
shutters  of  thin  boards  are  provided  to  protect 
the  bed  in  cold  nights,  and  to  afford  shading 
when  needed.  The  hotbed  should  be  in  a 
sheltered  place  well  exposed  to  the  sun;  if 
need  be,  shelter  from  cold  winds  is  afforded 
by  making  a  fence,  or  setting  up  a  wind-break 
of  brush.  As  soon  as  the  young  plants  are  up 
they  require  the  same  care  in  weeding,  thinning, 
watering,  and  loosening  the  soil,  as  those  in  the 
open  ground ;  besides  this,  the  sashes  must  be 
opened  more  or  less,  according  to  the  weather, 
to  prevent  injury  from  too  great  heat,  and  when 
open  must  be  closed  should  the  outer  tempera 
ture  fall,  to  prevent  damage  from  cold.  Unless 
the  beds  are  carefully  attended  to  in  both  par 
ticulars,  an  hour  of  neglect  may  destroy  the 
contents.  Many  plants  require  transplanting, 
when  large  enough,  into  other  hotbeds  before 


they  are  finally  set  out.  Before  setting  in  the 
open  ground  the  plants  are  hardened  by  gradu 
ally  exposing  them  by  the  removal  of  the 
sashes  whenever  the  night  temperature  will 
allow.  The  usual  night  temperature  for  a  hot 
bed  is  55°  to  65°,  and  that  in  the  day  70°  to 
80°.  -  Where  many  varieties  are  to 'be  sown  in 
a  bed,  it  is  convenient,  instead  of  sowing  the 
seeds  in  the  soil  of  the  bed,  to  sow  them  in 
shallow  Wooden  boxes  2|-  or  3  in.  deep.  Be 
sides  seeds,  roots  of  various  kinds  are  for 
warded  in  hotbeds ;  sweet  potatoes  are  buried 
in  the  soil  of  the  bed  in  order  to  get  sets  for 
planting;  dahlia  roots  are  started,  and  such 
slow-growing  bulbs  as  tuberoses  are  best  for 
warded  in  this  way  before  putting  them  out. 
A  little  bottom  heat  will  often  resuscitate  a 
languishing  plant  or  start  a  backward  one  into 
growth,  and  a  hotbed  is  often  useful  as  a  place 
in  which  to  plunge  the  pots  of  such  plants. 
Where  a  very  gentle  and  long  continued  heat 
is  required,  what  is  called  a  bark  pit  is  used ; 
in  this  spent  tanner's  bark,  or  waste  tan,  as  it 
is  called,  takes  the  place  of  manure. 

HOTHO,  Hemrich  Gnstav,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Berlin,  May  22,  1802,  died  there,  Dec. 
25,  1873.  He  studied  in  Berlin,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  Hegel.  In 
1828  he  became  professor  of  history  in  the 
military  school  of  Berlin,  and  in  1829  professor 
in  the  university;  in  1830  assistant  curator 
of  the  gallery  of  paintings,  and  in  1859  director 
of  the  collection  of  engravings  in  the  royal 
museum.  He  published  an  edition  of  Hegel's 
Vorlesungen  iiber  AestJietik  (3  vols.,  Berlin, 
1835-'8),  and  acquired  celebrity  as  a  historian 
and  critic  of  Flemish  and  German  art.  His 
works  include  Gescliiclite  der  deutscJien  und 
niedcrldndischenMalerei(2vo]s.,  1840-'43,  left 
unfinished)  ;  Die  Nalerschule  Hulerfs  van 
Eyclc,  &c.  (2  vols.,  1855-'9)  ;  and  Die  Meister- 
werlee  der  Malerei  vom  Ende  des  3.  bis  Anfang 
des  18.  Jalirliundcrts  (1865  et  seq.}. 

HOT  SPRINGS,  a  S.  W.  central  county  of 
Arkansas,  intersected  by  Washita  river ;  area 
in  1870,  about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  5,877,  of  whom 
650  were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile  in  the  river  bottoms,  and 
timber  is  abundant.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Cairo  and  Fulton  railroad.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  5,796  bushels  of  wheat, 
196,848  of  Indian  corn,  15,851  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  and  843  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
964  horses,  3,896  cattle,  1,779  sheep,  and  11,- 
364  swine.  The  portion  containing  the  hot 
springs  whence  its  name  is  derived  was  set  off 
to  form  Garland  co.  in  1873,  reducing  the  area 
given  above.  Capital,  Rockport. 

HOT  SPRINGS,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Gar 
land  co.,  Arkansas,  about  45  m.  W.  S.  W.  of 
Little  Rock,  6  m.  N".  of  the  Washita  river,  and 
21  m.  from  Malvern  on  the  Cairo  and  Fulton 
railroad;  pop.  in  1870,  1,276,  of  whom  296 
were  colored.  It  is  built  principally  in  the 
narrow  valley  of  Hot  Spring  creek,  running 
N.  and  S.,  and  contains  8  or  10  hotels,  3 


HOTTENTOTS 


HOUDETOT 


schools,  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  5  churches. 
In  the  vicinity  is  found  valuable  stone  for  hones 
and  whetstones,  of  which  considerable  quanti 
ties  are  quarried.  The  springs  (57  in  number) 
issue  from  the  "W.  slope  of  Hot  Spring  moun 
tain,  vary  in  temperature  from  93°  to  150°,  and 
discharge  into  the  creek  about  500,000  gallons 
a  day.  They  are  much  resorted  to  by  invalids 
and  tourists. — See  "The  Hot  Springs  as  They 
Are,"  by  Charles  Cutter  (Little  Rock,  1874). 

HOTTENTOTS,  a  people  of  South  Africa,  in 
cluding  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  territo 
ry  now  occupied  by  Cape  Colony.  Van  Kie- 
beek,  the  founder  of  this  colony  in  1652,  states 
that  they  called  themselves,  according  to  the 
various  dialects,  Koi-koin,  Tkuhgrub,  Quenau, 
and  Quaquas.  It  is  supposed  that  the  name 
of  Hottentots  was  given  them  by  the  Dutch, 
probably  in  imitation  of  the  clicking  sounds 
in  the  language  of  the  natives.  The  general 
characteristics  of  the  Hottentots  are  a  pecu 
liarly  livid  and  yellowish  brown  skin,  crisp 
and  tufted  hair,  a  narrow  forehead,  projecting 
cheek  bones,  a  pointed  chin,  a  body  of  me 
dium  height  and  rather  tough  than  strong, 
small  hands  and  feet,  and  a  flat  and  nar 
row  skull.  The  Griquas  are  half-breeds  de 
scended  from  Hottentot  mothers  and  Dutch 
fathers.  The  Hottentots  are  skilled  in  horse 
manship,  and  are  intelligent  and  courageous. 
They  are  of  a  mild  disposition,  but  given  to 
lying,  stealing,  drunkenness,  and  sensuality. 
They  are  ruled  by  chiefs  who  are  controlled 
by  councils.  Their  religious  notions  are  cen 
tred  in  a  supreme  being,  who  is  little  else 
than  a  deified  chieftain.  They  believe  in  a  fu 
ture  life,  and  fear  the  return  of  spirits.  They 
have  various  superstitions.  They  refuse  to 
have  their  photographs  taken  lest  it  should 
deprive  them  of  a  portion  of  their  life.  They 
sometimes  mutilate  their  hands  as  a  protection 
against  evil  influences.  As  an  example  of  their  j 
intellectual  capacity  may  bo  mentioned  the 
Hottentot  Andreas  Stoffles,  who  was  master 
of  several  languages,  and  could  make  a  good 
speech  in  English.  The  Damaras,  a  nomadic 
warrior  tribe  who  came  to  South  Africa  from 
the  central  regions  of  that  continent  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  are  now  almost 
extinct.  Nearest  related  to  the  Hottentots 
are  the  Bushmen.  See  BUSHMEN,  and  ETH 
NOLOGY  ;  also  Fritsch,  Die  Eingeborenen  Sud- 
afrikas  (Breslau,  1872j,  and  Perty,  Antliro- 
pologie  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1873-'4).— The  Hot 
tentot  language  has  four  dialects.  The  Nama 
dialect  is  spoken  by  the  Namaquas  (properly 
Nama-kha  or  Nama-na,  klia  and  na  being  plu 
ral  suffixes,  the  one  of  masculine,  the  other  of 
common  gender),  N.  W.  of  Cape  Colony,  and 
also  by  the  Damaras,  N.  of  them,  but  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  their  original  tongue.  It  is  the 
oldest  and  purest  of  the  dialects,  but,  like  the 
speech  of  all  savages,  it  may  be  subdivided  into 
several  sub-dialects  according  to  tribes  and 
even  families.  The  Khora  dialect  is  spoken  by 
the  Koraquas  (better  Khora-kha  or  Kora-na), 


N.  of  the  upper  Orange  river,  and  is  in  age 
and  purity  greatly  inferior  to  the  Nama.  The 
Cape  dialect  is  the  least  cultivated  of  all,  and 
no  grammar  of  it  has  been  published.  The 
same  is  the  case  with  the  dialect  of  the  eastern 
races.  The  Hottentot  is,  generally  speaking, 
of  a  monosyllabic  structure.  It  is  rich  in  diph 
thongs  and  remarkably  delicate  in  the  use 
of  inflectional  final  sounds,  which  contrast 
strangely  with  the  constantly  recurring  initial 
clicking  sounds.  Flectional  forms  are  pro 
duced  by  suffixes  to  the  verbal  root.  Mascu 
line,  feminine,  and  common  genders,  and  sin 
gular,  dual,  and  plural  numbers,  are  distin 
guished,  and  in  case  of  pronouns  not  only  in 
the  third,  but  even  in  the  first  and  second  per 
son.  These  distinctions,  however,  are  not  as 
clear  as  in  other  languages.  The  Bushman 
language  also  is  considered  a  form  of  the  Hot 
tentot.  Missionaries  speak  of  it  as  hard  and 
rough,  and  as  represented  by  numerous  dia 
lects  among  the  races  of  the  desert  and  moun 
tains  of  the  interior. — See  Tindall,  "  Grammar 
and  Vocabulary  of  the  Namaqua-Hottentot 
Language"  (no  date);  Bleek,  "Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  South  African  Languages" 
(2  vols.,  Capetown  and  London,  1862-'9);  and 
F.  Miiller,  Eeise  der  Oesterreichisclien  Fregatte 
Novara  :  LinguistiscJier  Theil  (Vienna,  1867). 

HOTTENTOTS'  BREAD.     See  TORTOISE  PLANT. 

HOTTIAGER,  Johann  Heinrich,  a  Swiss  philolo 
gist,  born  in  Zurich,  March  10,  1620,  drowned 
June  5,  1667.  He  studied  at  Groningen,  and 
afterward  at  Leyden.  In  1642  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  church  history  in  Zurich,  and  in  1643 
also  of  the  Hebrew  language;  and  in  1653  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  rhetoric,  logic, 
and  Scriptural  theology.  In  1655  he  accepted 
the  professorship  of  eastern  languages  and  Bib 
lical  criticism  at  Heidelberg.  On  his  return  to 
Zurich  in  1661  he  was  made  rector  of  the  uni 
versity.  His  increasing  reputation  led  to  an 
invitation  from  the  university  of  Leyden  in 
1667,  which  he  was  ready  to  accept,  when, 
while  crossing  the  river  Limmath  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  Zurich,  he  was  drowned  by  the  upsetting 
of  a  boat,  with  several  of  his  children.  Among 
his  works  are  Thesaurus  Pldlologicus,  sen  Cla- 
vis  Scripture  (Zurich,  1649),  sm<\.Etymologicum 
Orientale,  sive  Lexicon  Harmonicum  Heptci- 
glotton  (Frankfort,  1661). — His  son,  JOHANN 
JAKOB  (1652-1735),  wrote  Helvetisclte  Kirclien- 
gescMcJite  (Zurich,  1708-'29);  and  another  Jo- 
IIANN  JAKOB,  of  the  same  family  (1783-1859), 
wrote  a  Gescliichte  der  Scliiceizerisclteii  Kir- 
chentrcnnung  (Zurich,  1825-'7). 

HOIDETOT,  Elisabeth  Fran^oise  Sophie  d',  coun 
tess,  a  French  lady  celebrated  by  her  associa 
tion  with  Rousseau,  born  in  Paris  about  1730, 
died  Jan.  22,  1813.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
M.  de  la  Live  de  Bellegarde,  and  married  about 
1748  the  count  d'Houdetot,  to  whom  she  bore 
a  son  in  1750.  She  left  him  toward  1753,  and 
lived  with  the  poet  Saint-Lambert  till  his  death 
in  1803.  While  residing  at  the  chateau  of 
Eau-Bonne  near  Andilly,  and  iu  the  vicinity 


10 


HOUDIX 


HOUGHTON 


of  the  Hermitage  which  her  sister-in-law  Mine. 
d'Epinay  had  fitted  up  for  Rousseau,  she  renew 
ed  her  acquaintance  with  the  latter,  whom  she 
had  previously  met  in  her  relative's  house  in 
Paris.  He  fell  in  love  with  her,  and  idealized 
her  in  his  Julie,  ou  la  nouvelle  Helo'ise,  describ 
ing  the  vicissitudes  of  his  passion  and  of  his 
relation  with  her  in  his  Confessions;  but  the 
countess  protested  against  his  exaggerations, 
and  according  to  Rousseau's  account  as  well  as 
her  own  she  remained  faithful  to  her  lover 
Saint-Lambert,  although  she  felt  much  nat 
tered  by  Rousseau's  admiration.  She  had  fine 
hair,  but  was  far  from  handsome.  When  Saint- 
Lambert  became  idiotic  in  his  old  age  she 
nursed  him.  Her  husband,  who  died  some  10  j 
years  before  her  lover,  never  lost  his  regard 
for  her.  Her  son  became  a  lieutenant  general, 
and  his  three  sons  acquired  eminence  respec 
tively  in  civil  and  military  life  and  in  literature. 

HOUDIX,  Robert,  a  French  conjurer,  born  in 
Blois,  Dec.  G,  1805,  died  there  in  June,  1871. 
His  father,  a  watchmaker,  gave  him  a  good 
education  at  the  college  of  Orleans,  and  at  18 
years  of  age  placed  him  in  a  lawyer's  office ; 
but  having  an  extraordinary  taste  for  mechan 
ics,  his  father  consented  that  he  should  learn 
watchmaking.  While  engaged  in  this  occupa 
tion,  the  perusal  of  works  on  natural  magic 
and  a  friendship  formed  with  a  travelling  con 
jurer  inspired  him  with  an  inclination  for  jug 
gling.  Having  married,  he  went  to  Paris  and 
engaged  in  his  trade.  He  employed  himself  for 
a  year  in  reconstructing  a  complicated  ma 
chine,  and  so  overstrained  his  mind  as  to  lose 
all  mental  power  for  five  years.  After  recov 
ering  he  devoted  himself  for  some  time  to  ma 
king  mechanical  toys  and  automata,  and  at  the 
Paris  exhibition  of  1844  obtained  a  medal  for 
several  curious  figures  of  this  kind.  In  1845 
he  opened  a  series  of  exhibitions  in  juggling 
which  became  famous  throughout  Europe,  and 
in  1848  he  performed  with  great  success  in 
England.  In  1855,  at  the  great  Paris  exhi 
bition,  he  gained  the  gold  medal  for  his  sci 
entific  application  of  electricity  to  clocks,  and 
shortly  after  relinquished  his  exhibition  to  his 
brother-in-law  Hamilton,  retiring  with  a  for 
tune  to  Blois.  In  1856  the  French  government, 
finding  that  the  Arabs  in  Algeria  were  fre 
quently  stirred  up  to  rebellion  by  the  pre 
tended  miracles  of  their  marabouts  or  priests, 
invited  Houdin  to  visit  that  colony,  and  if  pos 
sible  excel  the  magicians  in  their  own  tricks. 
He  completely  succeeded,  passing  through  sev 
eral  very  singular  adventures  while  so  doing. 
In  1857  he  published  Robert  Houdin,  sa  vie,  scs 
ceuvres,  son  theatre,  and  in  1859  his  Confidences, 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  (Phila 
delphia,  1859).  In  1861  he  published  Les  tri 
ckeries  des  Grecs  devoiles,  exposing  the  cheats 
Of  gamblers. 

HOIDO.X,  Jean  Antoine,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Versailles,  March  20,  1741,  died  in 
Paris.  July  15,  1828.  Having  gained  the  first 
prize  for  sculpture  in  the  royal  academy  at  Pa 


ris,  he  passed  ten  years  in  Rome,  and  finished, 
among  other  works,  the  statue  of  St.  Bruno  in 
the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli.  Re 
turning  to  Paris,  he  executed  during  the  next 
15  years  admirable  busts  of  Rousseau,  Diderot, 
D'Alembert,  Gluck,Turgot.  Franklin,  Mirabeau, 
and  many  other  distinguished  men ;  statues  of 
Voltaire  and  Tourville ;  the  "  Diana  "  for  the 
empress  of  Russia  ;  the  "  Shivering  Woman," 
and  other  works,  which  placed  him  in  the  first 
rank  of  French  sculptors,  and  procured  his  ad 
mission  to  the  academy,  lie  made  at  this  time 
the  statue  of  a  muscular  skeleton  of  the  human 
body,  which  he  afterward  reproduced  in  smaller 
size,  and  which  has  been  often  copied  and  used 
for  the  artistic  study  of  anatomy.  In  1785  he 
accompanied  Franklin  to  the  United  States,  to 
prepare  the  model  for  the  statue  of  Washing 
ton  ordered  by  the  state  of  Virginia,  and 
passed  two  weeks  at  Mount  Vernon  for  that 
purpose.  The  statue,  bearing  the  sculptor's 
legend,  Fait  par  Houdon,  citoyen  fmngais, 
1788,  in  the  hall  of  the  capitol  at  Richmond, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Lafayette  and 
other  personal  friends  of  Washington,  is  the 
best  representation  of  him  ever  made.  Among 
his  later  works  were  busts  of  Napoleon  and 
Josephine  and  other  celebrities  of  the  first 
empire,  and  the  statue  of  Cicero  in  the  Lux 
embourg  palace. 

HOUGHTON,  a  N".  W.  county  of  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Lake 
Superior,  indented  on  the  N.  E.  by  Keweenaw 
bay,  and  drained  by  Sturgeon  river  and  other 
streams;  area,  about  2,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870, 13,879.  The  surface  is  uneven  and  rocky, 
the  N.  W.  portion  consisting  of  the  upper  half 
of  Keweenaw  point,  a  peninsula  lying  between 
Lake  Superior  and  Keweenaw  bay,  through 
which  runs  the  Mineral  range,  and  which  con 
tains  Torch  lake  and  Portage  lake,  discharging 
into  the  bay.  Silver  and  iron  ore  are  found, 
but  the  great  wealth  of  the  county  is  in  its 
copper  mines,  which  are  situated  in  the  Mineral 
range  near  Portage  lake,  the  most  productive 
being  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  mine  on  the  X. 
border.  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
there  were  11  copper  mines,  employing  2,961 
hands,  and  producing  $3,231,888  worth  of  ore. 
The  product  of  1872  was  12,602  tons  (four  fifths 
of  the  product  of  the  Lake  Superior  region), 
of  which  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  mine  yielded 
9,800  tons.  The  ore  is  in  a  nearly  pure  state. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  8,595 
bushels  of  oats,  22,040  of  potatoes,  and  703 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  3  manufactories  of 
clothing,  2  of  iron  castings,  1  of  machinery, 
1  of  soap  and  candles,  12  of  copper  (milled  and 
smelted),  4  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
4  breweries,  2  planing  mills,  and  5  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Houghton. 

HOI  GHTOIV,  Richard  Monokton  Milnes,  lord,  an 
English  author,  born  in  Yorkshire,  June  19, 
1809.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cam 
bridge,  in  1831,  entered  parliament  as  member 
for  Pontefract  in  1837,  and  represented  that 


HOUGHTON 


HOUND 


11 


constituency  till  Aug.  20,  1863,  when  he  was  j 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Houghton. 
He  began  his  political  life  as  a  conservative, 
but  soon  allied  himself  with  the  liberals.  In 
the  house  of  commons  he  advocated  popular 
education,  religious  equality,  and  measures  for 
the  reformation  of  criminals,  and  proved  him 
self  a  warm  friend  of  Italy  in  its  struggles  for 
unity  and  freedom.  In  early  life  he  travelled 
much  in  southern  Europe  and  in  the  East,  and 
he  has  published  several  volumes  of  travels 
and  a  number  of  poems,  some  of  the  latter 
descriptive  of  oriental  life  and  scenery.  His 
works  are  :  "  Memorials  of  a  Tour  in  Greece  " 
(1833);  "Memorials  of  a  Residence  on  the 
Continent,  and  Historical  Poems,"  and  "Poeti 
cal  Works"  (1838);  "Poetry  for  the  People, 
and  other  Poems"  (1840);  "Memorials  of 
Many  Scenes :  Poems  "  (1843) ;  "  Palm  Leaves : 
Eastern  Poems,"  "Poems  Legendary  and  His 
torical,"  and  "  Poems  of  Many  Years  "  (1844) ; 
"Good  Night  and  Good  Morning"  (1859); 
"Monographs,  Personal  and  Social"  (1873); 
and  "Poetical  Works"  (1874).  He  edited  the 
letters  and  literary  remains  of  John  Keats,  with 
a  memoir  (1848),  has  published  many  pam 
phlets  and  speeches  on  political  topics,  includ 
ing  "Thoughts  on  Party  Politics,"  "Real  Union 
of  England  and  Ireland,"  and  "  Events  of  1848, 
especially  in  their  relation  to  Great  Britain," 
and  has  contributed  articles  to  the  "  Westmin 
ster  Review"  and  other  periodicals. 

HOIGHTON,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Norwich  in  1807.  He  graduated  at 
Highbury  college,  London,  in  1832,  and  in  1833 
became  minister  of  the  Congregational  church 
at  Windsor.  In  1844  he  succeeded  Dr.  Robert 
Yaughan  as  minister  of  the  Congregational 
society  at  Kensington,  and  in  1855  was  elected 
chairman  of  the  Congregational  union  of  Eng 
land  and  Wales,  and  delivered  the  "  Congrega 
tional  lecture,"  his  subject  being  "  The  Ages  of 
Christendom."  Dr.  Houghton  has  travelled 
extensively  in  the  East,  and  has  written  many 
hooks,  the  most  important  of  which  is  "The 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  England  "  (4  vols.,  Lon 
don,  1870).  Among  his  other  works  is  "Coun 
try  Walks  of  a  Naturalist  with  his  Children  " 
(1809).  lie  represented  the  English  Indepen 
dents  at  the  meeting  of  the  evangelical  alliance 
held  in  New  York  in  1873. 

H()l:JVD  (canis  sfiya-x),  the  name  of  several 
varieties  of  large  and  powerful  dogs  hunting 
by  scent,  and  trained  to  pursue  the  stag,  the 
fox,  the  hare,  and  other  animals,  and  even 
man.  The  progenitors  of  the  hound  races 
were  probably,  according  to  Hamilton  Smith, 
the  jungle  koola  (lyciscm  tigris,  II.  Smith)  and 
the  buansuah  (canis  prime/evils,  Hodg.),  both  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  Asia.  (See  DOG.)  These 
were  domesticated  after  the  more  wolf-like 
varieties,  and  display  in  all  the  breeds  a  ten-  j 
dency  to  the  three  colors  of  white,  black,  and 
tan,  characterizing  them  in  their  wild  state.  ! 
The  cranium  has  a  larger  cerebral  cavity  than 
in  less  sagacious  dogs,  with  a  more  convex  fore-  : 


head,  wider  space  between  the  eyes  for  the 
organ  of  smell,  and  broader  jaws;  most  varie 
ties  have  also  a  wide  nose,  full  and  prominent 
eyes,  large  hanging  ears,  a  raised  and  truncated 
tail,  and  often  a  spurious  toe  on  the  hind  feet. 
There  are  two  races,  the  one  with  short  hair, 
the  hounds  proper,  and  the  other  with  long 
hair,  like  the  setter  and  spaniel,  and  used  as 
gun  and  water  dogs ;  the  pointer  seems  to 
occupy  an  intermediate  place  between  them. 
The  faculties  which  make  the  hounds  so  useful 
in  hunting  must  have  existed  in  the  original 
species,  and  have  been  cultivated  in  regard  to 
special  game  according  to  the  fancy  of  man; 
the  blood,  stag,  and  fox  hounds  have  no  intui 
tive  tendency  to  pursue  respectively  man,  the 
deer,  and  the  fox,  and  these  only,  but  have 
been  trained  with  great  care  to  hunt  a  single 
game.  The  most  ancient  form  of  hound  fig 
ured  upon  the  Egyptian  monuments  resembles 
much  the  bloodhound,  which  was  formerly  so 
much  esteemed  for  its  sagacity,  strength,  and 
olfactory  acuteness.  The  bloodhound,  once 
employed  to  trace  felons,  enemies,  and  fugi 
tives,  or  to  bring  the  huntsman  to  the  retreat 
of  a  wounded  animal,  has  been  fully  described 
under  that  title;  it  is  now  kept  in  civilized 
countries  rather  for  show  than  use.  •  The  stag 
hound  is  but  little  smaller  than  the  blood 
hound,  and  like  it  is  slow,  sure,  and  steady  ;  in 
fact  it  is  a  mongrel  bloodhound,  the  cross  being 
either  some  greyhound  or  swift  fox  hound ; 
it  has  a  large,  rather  short  and  sharp  head, 
long  hanging  ears,  muscular  limbs,  small  feet, 
and  tail  carried  high;  the  color  is  always  more 
or  less  white  with  fulvous  markings.  Stag 
hunting,  as  performed  in  the  fatiguing  and 
cruel  manner  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries, 
is  now  rare,  and  this  form  of  hound  has  be 
come  nearly  if  not  entirely  extinct.  The  fox 
hound  of  the  present  day  is  a  perfect  model  of 


English  Fox  Hound. 

a  hunting  dog,  and  is  a  carefully  bred  cross 
between  the  bloodhound  and  the  greyhound, 
probably  with  the  intermixture  of  the  southern 
English  and  perhaps  other  hounds;  exactly  how 
it  has  attained  its  present  character  it  is  impos 
sible  to  determine.  It  is  lower  at  the  shoulders 


12 


HOUNSLOW 


IIOUSELEEE 


and  more  slenderly  built  than  the  stag  hound, 
with  shorter  hair,  and  the  color  is  white,  with 
larger  clouds  of  black  and  tan,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  head,  covering  the  ears,  another  on  each 
flank,  and  a  third  at  the  root  of  the  tail.  Its 
speed  is  such  that  none  but  a  thoroughbred 
hunter  can  keep  up  with  it,  and  its  endurance 
so  great  that  a  pack  has  been  known  to  run  for 
ten  hours,  tiring  out  three  changes  of  horses, 
and  severely  testing  the  strength  of  the  sports 
men.  Breeders  dilfer  as  to  the  best  size  for  fox 
hounds,  but  from  22  to  24  in.  high  at  the  shoul 
der  is  generally  considered  the  most  advantage 
ous.  The  best  food  is  thought  to  be  oatmeal 
and  well  boiled  horse  flesh,  attention  being  paid 
to  their  constitution,  the  season  of  the  year,  and 
amount  of  work  to  be  done.  The  cry  of  a  pack 
of  hounds,  once  so  cheering  and  melodious,  has 
lost  much  of  its  romantic  interest  from  the 
change  man  has  effected  in  the  character  of 
these  animals ;  the  other  good  points  of  a  hound, 
such  as  pureness  of  stock,  beauty  of  form,  speed, 
endurance,  and  acuteness  of  smell,  are  more 
highly  prized  in  a  pack  than  harmonious  voices. 
The  average  value  of  an  established  pack  of 
fox  hounds  may  be  set  down  at  about  £1,000, 
though  some  have  been  sold  for  more  than 
twice  that  sum ;  single  hounds  are  often  sold 
as  high  as  100  guineas.  (See  BEAGLE,  BLOOD- 
HOUXD,  DOG,  GREYHOUND,  and  HAEEIEE.) 

HOOSLOW,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  England,  10 
m.  W.  S.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  in  1871,  9,294.  It 
consists  of  a  single  street,  which  stretches  along 
the  Great  Western  road  from  London.  On 
Hounslow  heath,  which  previous  to  the  pres 
ent  century  was  frequently  the  scene  of  high 
way  robberies,  now  stand  gunpowder  mills. 

HOUR  (Gr.  &pa ;  Lat.  hora),  a  measure  of 
time  equal  to  ^T  of  a  mean  solar  day,  or  this 
proportion  of  the  period  between  sunrise  and 
sunrise  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes.  Thus 
applied,  it  becomes  a  definite  measure ;  but  as 
employed  by  the  ancients  to  designate  -fa  of 
the  natural  day,  it  was  an  indefinite  period, 
varying  with  the  times  of  rising  and  setting 
of  the  sun,  times  which  continually  changed 
with  the  season,  and  between  increasing  ex 
tremes  as  the  observations  were  made  in  high 
er  and  higher  latitudes.  Even  in  the  latitude 
of  Rome,  the  length  of  the  hour  on  June  25 
was  about  ^  part  of  15  hours  6  minutes,  as 
now  reckoned,  and  on  December  23  it  was  only 
y^  part  of  8  hours  54  minutes.  At  the  two 
equinoxes  only  would  the  hour  agree  with  its 
present  measure.  Hours  thus  divided  were 
known  as  "  temporary  hours,"  in  reference  to 
their  constant  change  of  length.  When  the 
day  was  thus  first  divided  is  unknown.  Herod 
otus  states  that  the  Greeks  obtained  the  prac 
tice  from  the  Babylonians.  Wilkinson,  how 
ever,  says  that  "  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  day  and  night  were  divided,  each  into  12 
hours,  by  the  Egyptians,  some  centuries  before 
that  idea  could  have  been  imparted  to  the 
Greeks  from  Babylon."  The  division  of  the 
night  as  Avell  as  the  day  into  12  equal  parts  was 


not  practised  by  the  Romans  until  the  time  of 
the  Punic  wars,  and  the  use  of  equinoctial 
hours  was  not  adopted  till  toward  the  end  of 
the  4th  century  of  our  era ;  the  first  calendar 
known  to  have  been  made  after  this  system 
is  the  Calendarium  Rusticum  Farnesianum. 
Hours  are  now  reckoned  in  common  practice 
in  two  series  of  12  each,  from  midnight  to 
midday,  and  from  this  to  midnight,  which  cor 
responds  to  the  supposed  divisions  of  the  an 
cient  Egyptians.  Astronomers  count  24  hours 
from  one  midday  to  the  next ;  and  the  Ital 
ians  24  hours  from  one  sunset  to  the  next, 
changing  the  commencement  of  the  day  with 
the  season.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into 
12  hours,  one  of  their  hours  being  equal  to 
two  of  ours.  They  reckon  from  an  hour  (of 
our  time)  before  midnight.  In  the  use  of 
clocks  in  the  llth  century  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  sacristans  of  the  churches  to  regulate  the 
horologia  each  morning. 

HOUR  CIRCLES,  or  Horary  Circles,  great  circles 
of  the  sphere,  passing  through  the  poles,  and 
consequently  perpendicular  to  the  equator. 
They  are  meridians  at  every  -fa  part  of  the 
circumference,  their  planes  thus  making  an 
gles  of  15°  with  each  other. 

HOURIS,  the  black-eyed  damsels  of  the  Mo 
hammedan  paradise,  formed  of  pure  musk,  and 
made  by  a  peculiar  creation  perpetual  virgins. 
They  dwell  in  green  gardens  and  pearl  pavil 
ions,  among  lotus  and  acacia  trees,  with  fruits 
in  abundance,  near  flowing  streams,  reposing 
on  lofty  couches  adorned  with  gold  and  pre 
cious  stones.  Some  of  the  pavilions  which 
they  occupy  are  60  miles  square.  The  very 
meanest  of  the  faithful  will  have  V2  houris,  be 
sides  the  wives  which  he  married  when  living. 
They  join  in  concert  with  the  angel  Israfil,  the 
most  melodious  of  God's  creatures,  and  the 
branches  of  the  trees  give  an  ^Eolian  accom 
paniment.  They  may,  if  they  desire,  have 
children,  which  within  an  hour  shall  be  con 
ceived,  born,  and  grow  to  maturity.  Algaz- 
zali  regards  the  descriptions  of  the  houris  in 
the  Koran  as  allegorical,  and  designed  to  con 
vey  an  impression  of  the  spiritual  beatitude  of 
the  saints ;  and  the  orientalist  Hyde  affirms 
that  an  enlightened  belief  prevails  among  the 
wiser  Mohammedans. 

HOl'RS,  in  mythology.     See  HOE^. 

HOISATONIC,  a  river  of  New  England,  which 
rises  in  Berkshire  co.,  Mass.,  flows  into  Con 
necticut,  winds  through  Litchfield  co.,' forms 
a  part  of  the  boundary  between  New  Haven 
co.  and  Fail-field  co.,  and  falls  into  Long  Island 
sound  below  Milford.  Its  entire  length  is 
about  150  m.  Its  scenery  in  general  is  very 
picturesque,  and  on  its  banks  are  numerous 
large  mills.  The  Housatonic  railroad  follows 
its  course  for  about  75  m. 

HOl'SELEEK.  (sempermvum,  Linn.),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  cmssidacew,  having 
thick  succulent  stems  and  leaves,  the  former 
frequently  short,  with  the  leaves  so  closely 
crowded  upon  them  as  to  form  a  dense  rosette, 


IIOUSELEEK 


IIOUSSA 


13 


and  ornamental  flowers,  either  yellow  or  red.  j  cially  adapt  them  to  this  purpose ;  and  these 
The  houseleeks  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  I  plants,  which  were  formerly  kept  as  single 
southern  and  central  Europe,  the  Canaries,  specimens  by  the  curious,  are  now  raised  by 
and  various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  The  the  florists  in  large  quantities  for  ornam en- 


common   houseleek   (S.  tectorum,  Linn.)   has 
very  thick,  succulent  leaves,  disposed  about  a 


Common  Ilouscleek  (Sompm'ivum  tcctorum). 

short  stem  in  a  circular  manner.  It  will  grow 
in  the  most  scanty  soils  and  where  it  is  exposed 
to  drought,  patches  of  it  several  feet  in  circum 
ference  thriving  for  years  upon  the  exposed 
surfaces  of  rocks  that  are  partially  shaded.  In 
Europe  it  is  very  common  upon  the  thatched 
roofs  of  houses;  it  was  formerly  supposed  to 
serve  as  a  protection  from  lightning,  and  in 
early  times  every 
house  was  required 
to  have  it ;  the  cus 
tom  still  prevails, 
and  it  is  said  that 
the  plant  tends  to 
preserve  the  thatch. 
AVithin  a  few  years 

t]ie  taste  in  garden- 
ing  has  led  to  the 
of    semper  vi- 


Cobweb  llouseleck  (Sempervivum  arachnoideum). 

vums  and  other  succulents  for  forming  beds 
of  a  mosaic  of  living  plants.  The  neat  com 
pact  habit  of  the  houseleeks  and  the  related 
cotyledons,  echeverias,  &c.,  as  well  as  the  va 
riety  in  color  presented  by  the  leaves,  espe-  I 


tal  planting.  One  of  the  most  valued  for 
this  purpose  is  8.  calcareum  from  the  Alps 
(incorrectly  S.  Californicum  of  florists),  and 
several  others  are  employed.  A  very  striking 
and  interesting  little  species  is  the  cobweb 
houseleek  (S.  aracJinoideum),  also  an  alpine 
species;  its  rosettes,  about  an  inch  across, 
grow  close  together  in  large  clumps ;  the  tiny 
leaves  are  connected  by  a  fine  down  which 
passes  from  tip  to  tip,  making  the  plant  look 
as  if  an  industrious  spider  had  spun  its  web 
over  it.  AYhere  sparrows  abound  the  plant 
cannot  be  grown  in  perfection,  as  these  birds 
rob  it  of  the  web  to  use  in  their  nests.  The 
tree  houseleek  (S.  arboreum),  from  the  Ca 
naries,  has  a  branching  stem  3  ft.  or  more  high, 
each  branch  terminated  by  a  handsome  rosette 


Tree  Houseleek  (Sempervivum  arboreurn). 

of  green  leaves,  or  in  the  varieties  yellow 
margined  or  purple.  It  is  a  greenhouse  plant, 
and  was  formerly  common  as  a  window  plant. 
— The  houseleeks  are  not  remarkable  for  useful 
qualities.  The  fresh  leaves  of  the  cnsao  of 
Madeira  (S.  (jlutinosum,  Aiton)  are  used  by  the 
fishermen  to  rub  upon  their  nets,  to  preserve 
them.  Malic  acid  combined  with  lime  exists 
in  8.  tectorum.  Its  juices  are  considered  cool 
ing,  and  its  bruised  leaves  are  used  in  domestic 
practice  as  applications  to  burns,  ulcers,  and 
inflammation,  and  from  them  also  a  simple  and 
cooling  salve  is  prepared. 

IIOl'SSA,  or  llanssa,  a  country  of  central  Af 
rica,  bounded  N.  by  the  Sahara,  E.  by  Bor 
neo,  S.  by  Xufi,  and  "W.  by  the  Quorra.  The 
people  are  negroes,  and  the  Foolahs  or  Fella- 
tahs  are  the  ruling  race.  Barth  found  the  coun 
try  divided  into  10  provinces.  Kano,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  is  the  principal 
city  in  point  of  commerce,  and  has  about  30,- 
000  inhabitants;  it  is  in  lat.  12°  0'  19"  N.  and 


1-t 


IIOUSSAYE 


HOUSTON 


Ion.  8°  40'  E.  Katagum,  E.  by  N.  of  Kano,  has 
from  7,000  to  8,000  inhabitants.  Sackatoo,  in 
the  N.  W.  part  of  the  country,  has  upward  of 
20,000  inhabitants,  and  has  one  of  the  best  sup 
plied  markets  in  central  Africa.  Wurno,  15  m. 
N.  E.  of  Sackatoo,  on  the  river  Rima,  is  a  new 
town  founded  in  1831 ;  its  population  is  about 
12,000.  Zaria,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Zegzeg,  is  in  lat.  10°  59'  N.  and  Ion.  8°  E. ; 
it  is  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  and  highly  cul 
tivated  country,  and  its  population  is  estimated 
at  50,000.  Houssa  is  well  watered,  being 
traversed  by  the  rivers  Sackatoo,  Mariadi, 
Zirmie.  Bugga,  Zoma,  and  other  tributaries  of 
the  Niger.  It  is  considerably  elevated  above 
the  sea,  and  its  climate  is  consequently  cooler 
and  more  healthy  than  that  of  the  other  coun 
tries  of  central  Africa.  The  land  is  well  culti 
vated,  the  principal  crop  being  Indian  corn, 
of  which  two  harvests  are  annually  produced. 
Cotton  is  largely  raised,  and  Kano  is  famous 
throughout  central  Africa  for  its  dyed  cloths. 
Tobacco,  indigo,  rice,  and  various  kinds  of 
grain  and  fruits  are  diligently  cultivated.  At 
Sackatoo  there  are  extensive  manufactures  of 
leather,  iron,  and  cotton  cloths ;  and  an  active 
commerce  is  carried  on  in  all  the  cities  by 
means  of  open  markets,  which  are  frequented 
by  traders  from  the  neighboring  countries 
and  from  remote  parts  of  the  continent.  The 
people  of  Houssa  are  mostly  Mohammedans. 
They  have  attained  to  some  degree  of  civiliza 
tion,  have  a  written  language,  and  have  his 
torical  records  reaching  back  to  the  13th  cen 
tury  of  our  era.  They  were  converted  to  Mo 
hammedanism  in  the  16th  century,  and  were 
conquered  by  the  Foolahs  in  1807,  when  Kat- 
sena,  then  their  principal  city,  surrendered 
after  a  desperate  defence  of  seven  years. 

IIOUSSAYE.  3.  Arsene,  a  French  author,  born 
at  Bruyeres,  near  Laon,  March  28, 1815.  While 
young  he  went  to  Paris,  where  his  two  novels, 
La  couronne  de  bluets  and  La  pecheresse,  ap 
peared  in  1836.  The  friendship  of  Jules  Janin 
and  Theophile  Gautier,  and  his  association  in 
work  with  Jules  Sandeau,  aided  to  establish 
him  in  the  literary  world.  From  1844  to  1849 
he  was  editor  of  D  Artiste,  and  his  Histoire  de 
la peinture Jiamande  et  liollandaise  (fol.,  1846) 
was  aided  by  a  subscription  of  50,000  francs 
from  the  government.  This  work  was  receiv 
ed  with  popular  favor,  although  charged  with 
plagiarism.  At  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was 
thrown  into  political  prominence,  and  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  assembly.  He 
was  manager  of  the  Theatre  Francais  from 
1840  to  1856,  and  he  became  one  of  the  most 
notorious  courtiers  of  the  second  empire.  In 
1861  he  became  one  of  the  proprietors  and  the 
managing  editor  of  La  Prense.  His  numerous 
writings  include  poetry,  plays,  essays,  and  pop 
ular  sketches  of  celebrated  and  fashionable 
women.  Among  them  are  Nos  grandes  dames  (4 
vols.,  1868),  Les  Parisiennes  (4  vols.,  1869-'70), 
and  Mademoiselle  Cleopdtre  (new  ed.,  1874). 
Hi  Henry,  a  French  author,  son  of  the  prece 


ding,  born  in  Paris,  Feb.  24,  1848.  He  be 
came  known  in  1867  by  his  Histoire  d?Apelles, 
and  his  subsequent  works  include  Histoire 
d? Alcibiade  et  de  la  repullique  athenienne 
depuis  la  mart  de  Pericles  jusqifd  Vavenement 
des  trente  tyrans  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1874). 

HOUSTON.  I.  A  central  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Ocmulgee  river,  which  is 
navigable  by  steamboats,  and  drained  by  seve 
ral  of  its  affluents ;  area,  875  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  20,406,  of  whom  15,332  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  and  the  soil,  of 
limestone  formation,  is  very  fertile.  The 
Southwestern  railroad  passes  through  the 
county.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
3,536  bushels  of  wheat,  363,895  of  Indian  corn, 
40,107  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  3,819  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  834  horses,  2,730  mules 
and  asses,  1,502  milch  cows,  3,890  other  cattle, 
and  10,963  swine;  1  manufactory  of  agricul 
tural  implements,  3  of  carriages,  1  of  cotton 
goods,  1  flour  mill,  and  7  saw  mills.  Capital, 
Perry.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded 
E.  by  Neches  river,  and  W.  by  Trinity  river, 
both  navigable  ;  area,  1,090  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  8,147,  of  whom  3,542  were  colored.  It 
has  a  highly  fertile  soil,  and  a  rolling  surface 
diversified  in  some  places  with  hills,  and  well 
timbered  with  oak,  pine,  ash,  hickory,  black 
walnut,  &c.  The  Houston  and  Great  North 
ern  railroad  traverses  it.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  33,163  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  5,779  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  920  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  297  horses,  2,684  cattle, 
and  3,171  swine.  Capital,  Crockett.  III.  A 
N.  W.  county  of  Tennessee,  formed  since  the 
census  of  1870,  bounded  W.  by  the  Tennessee 
and  N.  E.  by  Cumberland  river;  area,  about 
350  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  the 
soil  fertile.  The  Louisville  and  Nashville  and 
Great  Southern  railroad  passes  through  the  N. 
part.  The  assessed  value  of  property  in  1871 
was  $344,775.  Capital,  Erin.  IV.  A  S.^E. 
county  of  Minnesota,  separated  on  the  E.  from 
Wisconsin  by  the  Mississippi,  bordering  on 
Iowa  on  the  S.,  and  intersected  by  Root  river  ; 
area,  about  575  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,936. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  mostly  wooded, 
only  about  a  fifth  being  occupied  by  prairies. 
The  soil,  resting  on  magnesian  limestone,  is 
very  fertile.  The  Southern  Minnesota  and  the 
Chicago,  Dubuque,  and  Minnesota  railroads 
intersect  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  623,557  bushels  of  wheat,  249,761  of  In 
dian  corn,  227,688  of  oats,  31,182  of  barley, 
32,065  of  potatoes,  27,560  Ibs.  of  hops,  14,286 
of  wool,  229,183  of  butter,  and  14,776  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  2,917  horses,  3,614  milch 
cows,  4,536  other  cattle,  4,697  sheep,  and  6,305 
swine  ;  1  car  factory,  6  flour  mills,  and  2  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Caledonia. 

HOUSTON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Harris 
co.,  Texas,  the  second  city  in  the  state  in  pop 
ulation  and  importance,  situated  at  the  head 
of  tide  water  on  Buffalo  bayou,  45  m.  above  its 
mouth  in  Galveston  bay,  46  N.  W.  of  Galves- 


HOUSTON" 


15 


ton,  and  150  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Austin;  pop.  in 
1860,  4,845  ;  in  1870,  9,882,  of  whom  3,691 
were  colored;  in  1874,  estimated  by  the  local 
authorities  at  20,000.  It  is  built  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  bayou,  which  is  spanned  by  several 
bridges,  the  principal  ones  being  of  iron,  and 
embraces  an  area  of  9  sq.  m.  The  city  hall 
and  market  house  of  brick,  just  finished  at  a 
cost  of  $400,000,  is  272  ft.  long  by  146  ft.  wide, 
and  has  two  towers,  14  by  21  ft.  and  114  ft. 
high.  It  contains  a  hall,  70  by  110  ft.,  fitted 
up  for  public  entertainments  and  capable  of 
seating  1,300  persons.  The  masonic  temple  is 
a  handsome  structure  costing  $200,000.  The 
principal  hotel,  the  largest  in  the  state,  has 
accommodations  for  500  guests.  The  city  is 
lighted  with  gas,  and  is  easily  drained.  The 
construction  of  street  railroads  and  grading  of 
streets  are  in  progress.  Houston  is  the  centre 


of  the  railroad  system  of  the  state,  and  attracts 
the  trade  of  the  surrounding  country,  which 
is  rich  in  grazing  and  agricultural  products. 
There  are  six  diverging  lines:  the  Houston  and 
Texas  Central ;  the  Houston  and  Great  North 
ern  and  International ;  Houston  Tap  and  Bra- 
zoria;  Galveston,  Houston,  and  Henderson; 
New  Orleans  and  Texas ;  and  Buffalo  Bayou, 
Brazos,  and  Colorado.  The  bayou  opposite 
the  city  has  a  depth  of  5  ft.,  but  owing  to  bars 
in  Galveston  bay  vessels  drawing  more  than  4 
ft.  cannot  reach  this  point.  Improvements  are 
in  progress  by  the  United  States  government 
and  an  incorporated  company,  which  will  ren 
der  Houston  accessible  by  vessels  drawing  9  ft. 
The  navigation  of  the  bayou  is  mainly  con 
trolled  by  the  Houston  direct  navigation  com 
pany,  which  hac  a  capital  of  $300,000,  and 
owns  6  steamers,  4  tugs,  and  24  barges.  The 


Market  and  Opera  House,  Houston. 


whole  number  of  vessels  regularly  engaged  in 
the  trade  of  the  Ijayon  in  1872  was  71,  viz. : 
steamers,  10  ;  fugs,  6 ;  barges,  30  ;  schooners, 
mostly  employed  in  the  lumber  trade  with  the 
Sabine,  Louisiana,  and  Florida  coasts,  25.  An 
extensive  lumber  trade  is  also  carried  on  by 
flatboats  with  the  bayous  emptying  into  Buffalo 
bayou  and  San  Jacinto  river.  The  principal 
business,  however,  is  manufacturing,  in  which 
Houston  surpasses  all  other  places  in  the  state. 
The  chief  establishments,  besides  the  extensive 
machine  shops  of  the  railroads,  are  2  cotton  fac 
tories,  4  iron  and  brass  founderies,  3  car  facto 
ries.  4  planing  mills  and  wood  works,  5  manu 
factories  of  furniture,  2  of  soap,  1  of  cement 
pipe,  1  of  bone  dust,  5  sheet-iron  and  tin  works, 
5  carriage  and  wagon  works,  1  beef-packing 
and  ice-manufacturing  establishment,  and  7 
brick  yards.  There  are  three  nurseries,  two 

VOL.  IX. — 2 


fire  and  marine  insurance  companies,  a  cotton 
press  company,  two  national  banks  with  a  cap 
ital  of  $200,000,  and  a  state  bank  with  $500,000 
capital.  The  valuation  of  property  in  1873 
was  $7,669,625.  The  state  fair  is  held  here  an 
nually.  The  city  contains  14  public  schools, 
which  in  1872  had  26  teachers  and  1,228  pu 
pils,  two  public  libraries  with  about  3,000  vol 
umes,  three  daily  and  six  weekly  newspapers, 
two  monthly  periodicals,  and  12  churches. — 
Houston  was  settled  in  1836,  and  in  1837  was 
temporarily  the  seat  of  government. 

HOUSTON,  Sam,  an  American  soldier,  born 
near  Lexington,  Va.,  March  2,  1793,  died  at 
Huntersville,  Texas,  July  25,  1863.  His  father 
served  in  the  revolutionary  war,  and  held  the 
post  of  inspector  of  brigade  till  his  death  in 
1807.  His  mother,  after  her  husband's  death, 
emigrated  with  her  six  sons  and  three  daugh- 


16 


HOUSTON 


ters  to  East  Tennessee,  within  8  m.  of  the  Cher 
okee  country.  Sam  had  read  a  few  books, 
among  them  Pope's  translation  of  the  Iliad,  of 
which  lie  could  repeat  nearly  the  whole  from 
memory,  lie  desired  to  learn  Greek  and  Latin, 
but  was  refused  by  his  schoolmaster,  upon 
which  he  left  the  school,  and  entered  a  store 
as  clerk.  This  occupation  he  had  no  relish  for, 
and  absconding,  he  crossed  the  Tennessee  river, 
and  lived  witli  the  Indians  about  three  years. 
Though  under  18  years  of  age,  he  was  six  feet 
high  and  an  active  hunter,  and  stood  high  in 
the  esteem  of  his  savage  associates.  Oolooteka, 
one  of  their  chiefs,  adopted  him  as  his  son.  In 
1811  he  returned  to  his  family,  and  opened  a 
school.  In  1813,  during  the  war  with  Great 
Britain,  he  enlisted  as  a  common  soldier,  was 
promoted  to  be  an  ensign,  and  fought  under 
Jackson  against  the  Indians  at  the  battle  of 
the  great  bend  of  the  Tallapoosa,  March  24, 
1814,  where  he  was  severely  wounded.  After 
the  ratilication  of  peace  in  1815  he  was  pro 
moted  to  be  a  lieutenant,  and  was  stationed 
near  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  and  afterward  at  New 
Orleans.  In  November,  181 7,  he  was  appoint 
ed  a  subordinate  Indian  agent  to  carry  out  the 
treaty  with  the  Cherokees  which  had  just  been 
ratified.  In  the  following  winter  he  conducted 
a  delegation  of  Indians  to  Washington.  Com 
plaints  were  made  against  him  to  the  govern 
ment  on  account  of  his  exertions  to  prevent 
the  unlawful  importation  of  African  negroes 
through  Florida,  then  a  Spanish  province. 
He  was  acquitted  of  all  blame  by  the  gov 
ernment ;  but  conceiving  himself  to  be  ill 
treated,  he  resigned  his  commission  in  the 
army,  March  1,  1818,  settled  in  Nashville, 
and  began  to  study  law.  In  six  months  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  practice  in 
Lebanon,  30  m.  E.  of  Nashville,  lie  was  soon 
appointed  adjutant  general  of  the  state,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel ;  and  in  1819  he  was  elected 
district  attorney  of  the  Davidson  district,  and 
took  up  his  residence  in  Nashville.  In  1821 
he  was  elected  major  general  of  militia,  and  in 
1823  a  representative  in  congress.  He  was  re- 
elected  in  1825  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote, 
and  in  August,  1827,  was  chosen  governor  of 
Tennessee.  In  January,  1829,  he  was  mar 
ried,  and  in  April,  for  reasons  unknown  to  the 
public,  separated  from  his  wife,  resigned  his 
office,  went  to  the  wrest  of  Arkansas,  to  which 
his  former  friends  the  Cherokees  had  removed, 
and  presented  himself  before  Oolooteka,  who 
had  now  become  the  principal  chief  of  the 
tribe.  lie  was  kindly  received,  and  by  an 
official  act  of  the  ruling  chiefs,  Oct.  21,  1829, 
was  formally  admitted  to  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  Cherokee  nation.  In  1832 
he  went  to  Washington  to  remonstrate  against 
the  frauds  and  outrages  practised  upon  the 
Indians.  This  resulted  in  the  removal  of  five 
government  agents  from  office,  and  he  be 
came  involved  in  a  series  of  personal  and  legal 
contests  with  the  removed  agents  and  their 
friends.  He  was  accused  in  the  house  of  rep 


resentatives  by  W.  R.  Stansbury  of  Ohio  of 
having  attempted  to  obtain  from  government 
a  fraudulent  contract  for  Indian  rations.  This 
led  to  a  personal  rencontre  between  Houston 
and  Stansbury,  who  was  severely  beaten.  For 
this  Houston  was  arrested,  and  publicly  cen- 
.sured  by  the  speaker  of  the  house.  He  was 
also  tried  for  assault,  and  lined  $500  ;  but  the 
sentence  of  the  court  was  not  enforced,  and 
the  tine  was  afterward  remitted  by  President 
Jackson.  A  committee  of  which  Mr.  Stans 
bury  was  chairman  was  appointed  to  investi 
gate  the  charge  of  fraud,  but  reported  that 
it  was  not  sustained.  Houston  returned  to 
his  wigwam,  and  in  December,  1832,  went  to 
Texas,  where  a  revolutionary  movement  was 
organizing  against  the  Mexican  government. 
In  the  constitutional  convention,  which  met 
April  1,  1833,  Houston  exercised  a  controlling 
influence.  When  the  war  with  Mexico  began 
he  was  chosen  general  of  the  military  district 
east  of  the  Trinity,  and  in  October,  1835,  mus 
tered  his  forces  and  led  them  to  the  camp  of 
Gen.  Austin,  who  was  besieging  Bexar.  He 
was  soon  elected  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Texan  army.  After  the  declaration  of  Texan 
independence,  he  resigned  his  command,  and 
was  immediately  reflected  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  the  new  republic.  On  March 
10, 1836,  he  went  to  the  camp  of  Gonzalez  and 
took  command  of  the  army  of  374  men,  ill  or 
ganized,  poorly  armed,  and  without  supplies. 
The  fort  of  the  Alamo  had  just  be"en  taken  by 
the  Mexicans,  and  its  garrison  of  about  170  put 
to  death.  On  March  12  information  reached 
the  camp  of  this  massacre,  accompanied  by 
the  statement  that  the  president  of  Mexico, 
Santa  Anna,  was  close  at  hand  with  an  army 
of  5,000  men.  The  wildest  panic  seized  the 
Texan  camp.  Houston  promptly  restored  or 
der,  and  fell  back  to  the  Colorado,  receiving 
from  time  to  time  small  reinforcements,  till  at 
length  the  entire  number  of  his  force  was  650 
men.  He  had  no  artillery,  and  Col.  Fannin, 
who  was  stationed  at  Goliad  with  500  men 
well  armed  and  supplied  with  artillery,  was 
ordered  to  join  him;  but  he  was  intercepted 
by  a  vastly  superior  force,  and  after  a  desperate 
defence  capitulated,  March  20,  and  with  his 
command  of  357  was  massacred  in  cold  blood, 
March  27.  Santa  Anna  advanced  to  Harris- 
burg,  the  capital,  which  he  laid  in  ashes,  and 
marched  upon  the  town  called  New  Washington. 
Here  upon  the  San  Jacinto  he  was  encountered 
by  Houston,  who  had  at  length  received  two 
six-pounders  from  Cincinnati.  His  force  had 
been  increased  till  it  numbered  783  men,  all 
volunteers,  most  of  whom  had  never  seen  a 
battle  ;  but,  led  in  a  general  charge  by  Houston, 
with  shouts  of  "  Remember  the  Alamo !  "  "Re 
member  Goliad !  "  they  utterly  routed  (April  21) 
the  Mexican  force  of  1,600  regulars,  of  whom 
(530  were  killed  and  nearly  all  the  remainder 
captured.  The  Texans  had  only  8  killed  and  25 
wounded.  The  next  day  Santa  Anna,  disguised 
as  a  common  soldier,  was  captured  and  brought 


IIOYEDEN 


HOWARD 


17 


before  Houston,  who  rebuked  him  for  the  cruel 
and  perfidious  massacres  of  Goliad  and  the 
Alamo,  but  protected  him  from  the  wrath  of 
the  Toxans.  A  treaty  made  with  the  captive 
president  secured  the  independence  of  Texas. 
Houston,  who  had  been  severely  wounded  in 
the  ankle,  was  relieved  from  the  command  of 
the  army,  and  sailed  for  New  Orleans,  where 
he  arrived  almost  in  a  dying  condition.  In 
July,  however,  he  returned  to  his  home  in  Na- 
cogdoches.  In  the  following  September  he 
was  elected  president  of  Texas,  and  was  in 
augurated  Oct.  22,  1836.  He  appointed  his 
political  rivals  to  important  offices,  liberated 
Santa  Anna,  and  opened  negotiations  with 
the  United  States  government  for  the  an 
nexation  of  Texas  to  the  Union.  His  presi 
dential  term  expired  Dec.  12,  1838;  and  as 
the  constitution  made  him  ineligible  for  the 
next  term,  he  was  succeeded  by  Mirabeau  B. 
Lamar.  During  the  three  years  of  the  next 
presidential  term  Texas  became  involved  in 
wars  with  the  Indian  tribes  on  her  borders, 
in  disastrous  expeditions  against  the  Mexican 
territories,  and  in  debt  to  an  enormous  amount. 
The  expenditures  for  the  year  1841  amounted  to 
$1,176,288,  and  the  receipts  to  only  $442,604. 
Houston,  who  had  meantime  been  twice  elected 
to  congress,  was  reflected  president  in  Septem 
ber,  1841,  by  more  than  three  quarters  of  the 
votes.  After  a  stormy  administration,  beset 
at  the  outset  with  difficulties  of  the  gravest 
character,  which  were  met  with  firmness  and 
overcome  with  great  judgment  and  ability,  he 
retired  from  his  second  presidential  term  in  De 
cember,  1844.  He  had  paid  off  a  large  amount 
of  the  national  debt,  had  kept  the  expendi 
tures  far  within  the  revenues,  restored  peace 
and  trade  with  Mexico,  made  treaties  with  all 
the  hostile  Indian  tribes,  and  lastly  had  nego 
tiated  successfully  the  great  measure  of  annexa 
tion  to  the  United  States,  though  its  final  con 
summation  did  not  take  place  till  after  the  ex 
piration  of  his  constitutional  term  of  office, 
when  he  was  once  more  ineligible.  Texas  be 
came  one  of  the  United  States  in  1845,  and 
Sam  Houston  and  Thomas  J.  Rusk  were  the 
first  senators  she  sent  to  Washington.  Hous 
ton  was  reflected  at  the  end  of  his  term  in 
1853,  and  remained  in  the  senate  till  March  4, 
1859.  As  a  senator,  he  was  the  zealous  ad 
vocate  of  justice  and  humanity  to  the  Indians. 
He  opposed  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  bill,  in  a 
speech  March  3,  1854,  and  gave  in  his  adhesion 
to  the  "Know-Nothing"  or  American  party. 
In  1858  he  voted  against  the  Lecompton  con 
stitution  of  Kansas.  On  Aug.  1,  1859,  he  was 
elected  governor  of  Texas.  He  opposed  seces 
sion  in  1861,  and  long  resisted  the  clamor  for 
an  extra  session  of  the  Texas  legislature ;  and 
he  finally  resigned  his  office  in  preference  to 
taking  the  oath  required  by  the  convention. 

IIOYEDEN,  Roger  de,  an  English  chronicler, 
born  in  Yorkshire  about  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century.  He  was  attached  to  the  court  of 
Henry  II.,  and  was  employed  in  visiting  mon- 


j  asteries,  and  in  watching  over  the  revenues 
i  that  accrued  to  the  king  on  the  death  of  the 
I  superiors.  His  history,  Annales  Serum  Anyli- 
carum,  is  a  continuation  of  the  ecclesiastical  his 
tory  of  Bede,  beginning  where  he  left  off  (731), 
and  extending  to  1202,  the  third  year  of  the 
reign  of  King  John.  Its  accuracy  is  attested  by 
Sir  Henry  Savile,  Selden,  Leland,  and  Nicolson. 
It  was  published  in  Savile's  Scriptores  post 
Bedam  (London,  1595),  and  translated  by  II. 
T.  Riley  for  Bonn's  "  Antiquarian  Library." 

HOVEY,  ilrah,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Thetford,  Yt.,  March  5,  1820.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1844.  Having 
taught  in  the  academy  at  New  London  one 
year,  he  studied  theology  at  Newton,  Mass., 
completing  the  course  in  1848.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church  at  New  Gloucester,  Me., 
for  one  year,  and  in  1850  returned  to  Newton 
theological  institution,  and  taught  in  the  de 
partment  of  Biblical  literature  till  1853.  He 
became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in 
1853  and  of  theology  and  Christian  ethics  in 
1855,  which  latter  post  he  still  retains  (1874). 
He  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Brown 
university  in  1856.  He  has  published  a  transla 
tion  of  Perthes's  "  Life  of  Chrysostom,"  jointly 
with  the  Rev.  D.  B.  Ford  (Boston,  1854) ;  "  Life 
and  Times  of  Backus"  (1858);  "The  State  of 
the  Impenitent  Dead "  (1859);  "The  Miracles 
of  Christ  as  Attested  by  the  Evangelists" 
(1863);  "The  Scriptural  Law  of  Divorce" 
(1866) ;  and  "  Religion  and  the  State"  (1874). 
HOWARD,  the  name  of  eight  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of  Mary 
land,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Patapsco  river, 
and  S.  W.  by  the  Patuxent;  area,  225  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,150.  of  whom  3,474  were 
colored.  It  has  an  uneven  surface,  rising  in 
some  places  into  hills.  The  valleys  are  gen 
erally  fertile.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail 
road  and  the  Washington  branch  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  128,- 
376  bushels  of  wheat,  415,719  of  Indian  corn, 
204,877  of  oats,  97,929  of  potatoes,  182,980 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  189,646  of  butter,  and  7,445 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,958  horses,  3,100 
milch  cows,  3,056  other  cattle,  2,516  sheep, 
and  8,441  swine ;  3  cotton  mills,  1  woollen  mill, 
and  5  flour  mills.  Capital,  Ellicott  City.  II.  A 
S.  W.  county  of  Arkansas,  formed  in  1873 
from  portions  of  Hempstead,  Pike,  Polk,  and 
Sevier  cos.  It  is  well  watered  by  affluents  of 
Little  river  and  of  the  Little  Missouri.  The 
surface  is  irregular,  consisting  of  hills,  valleys, 
and  river  bottoms.  The  valleys  and  bottoms 
|  produce  corn  and  cotton ;  the  hills  are  better 
i  adapted  to  the  smaller  grains  and  fruit.  Tim- 
!  her  is  abundant,  and  lead,  silver,  and  marl  are 
I  found.  Capital,  Centre  Point,  III.  A  central 
!  county  of  Indiana,  traversed  by  Wildcat  creek, 
|  an  affluent  of  the  W  abash  ;  area,  279  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  15,847.  It  has  a  level  surface 
and  an  excellent  soil.  The  Pittsburgh,  Cin- 
|  cinnati,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Indianapolis, 
I  Peru,  and  Chicago  railroads  intersect  at  the 


18 


HOWARD 


county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  287,875  bushels  of  wheat,  350,401  of  In 
dian  corn,  34,031  of  oats,  37,668  of  potatoes, 
4(5,429  Ibs.  of  wool,  121,777  of  butter,  and 
4,250  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,803  horses, 
2,687  milch  cows,  4,424  other  cattle,  14,393 
sheep,  and  14,656  swine;  5  Hour  mills,  3  pla 
ning  mills,  36  saw  mills,  and  3  woollen  facto 
ries.  Capital,  Kokomo.  IV.  A  N.  E.  county 
of  Iowa,  bordering  on  Minnesota,  and  watered 
by  the  AVapsipinicon,  Turkey,  and  Upper  Iowa 
rivers;  area,  about  430  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,282.  It  is  well  timbered,  and  has  tracts  of 
prairie.  The  Iowa  and  Minnesota  division  of 
the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railroad  crosses  the 
N.  E.  corner.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  321,514  bushels  of  wheat,  120,234  of 
Indian  corn,  263,258  of  oats,  30,713  of  pota 
toes,  408,351  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  14,880  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  2,175  horses,  2,734  milch 
cows,  3,922  other  cattle,  1,648  sheep,  and 
2,640  swine.  Capital,  New  Oregon.  V.  A 
central  county  of  Missouri,  bounded  S.  and  AV. 
by  the  Missouri  river,  and  drained  by  some  of 
its  small  tributaries;  area,  430  sq.  in.;  pop.  in 
1870,  17,233,  of  whom  5,193  were  colored.  It 
abounds  in  anthracite  coal,  and  has  quarries 
of  limestone  and  sandstone.  The  surface  is 
rolling,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  400,410  bushels  of  wheat, 
917,335  of  Indian  corn,  152,490  of  oats,  42,422 
of  potatoes,  788,132  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  66,554  of 
wool,  120,216  of  butter,  and  3,856  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  5,799  horses,  2,425  mules  and  asses, 
4,103  milch  cows,  7,326  other  cattle,  19,156 
sheep,  and  35,094  swine ;  2  manufactories  of 
carriages,  4  of  saddlery  and  harness,  and  4 
flour  milK  Capital,  Fayette.  VI.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Kansas,  bordering  on  the  Indian  ter 
ritory,  and  drained  by  Suicide  creek  and  other 
branches  of  the  Arkansas,  and  by  Fall  river ; 
area,  1,271  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,794.  The 
surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  4,766  bushels 
of  wheat,  26,795  of  Indian  corn,  2,710  of  oats, 
2,304  of  potatoes,  and  150  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  243  horses,  502  milch  cows,  1,348  other 
cattle,  592  sheep,  and  435  swine.  Capital,  Elk 
Falls.  VII.  An  E.  central  county  of  Nebraska, 
intersected  by  Loup  fork  of  the  Platte  river 
and  its  branches ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  not  in 
cluded  in  the  census  of  1870.  VIII.  A  N.  W. 
county  of  Dakota,  bordering  on  Montana,  re 
cently  formed  and  not  included  in  the  census 
of  1 870  ;  area,  about  3,500  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  Missouri,  intersected  by  the  Little 
Missouri,  and  watered  by  other  streams. 

HOWARD,  Charles,  Lord   Howard  of   Effing- 
ham,  an  English  admiral,  born  in  1530,  died 
Dec.  14,   1024.      His  father,   William,  son  of 
Thomas,  second  duke  of  Norfolk,  was  lord  high 
admiral  of  England  and  lord  privy  seal.     The 
son  was  sent  to  France  in  1559  to  congratulate 
Francis  II.  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  and  ' 
served  with  credit  on  land  and  sea  for  many  I 
years.    In  1585  he  was  appointed  lord  high  ad- 


i  miral,  and  in  1588  succeeded  in  averting  from 
the  English  coasts  the  attack  of  the  Spanish  ar 
mada.  In  1590  he  participated  with  the  earl 
of  Essex  in  the  capture  of  Cadiz  and  the  de 
struction  of  the  Spanish  shipping  there,  for 
which  service  he  was  created  earl  of  Notting 
ham.  The  appointment  of  Essex  in  the  suc 
ceeding  year  to  be  hereditary  earl  marshal, 
with  precedence  over  the  lord  high  admiral, 
induced  Lord  Howard  to  resign  the  latter 
office ;  but  he  subsequently  resumed  it,  and  in 
1599,  during  the  alarm  at  the  prospect  of 
another  Spanish  invasion,  and  of  an  insurrec 
tion  under  Essex  in  Ireland,  was  appointed 
by  the  queen  lieutenant  general  of  England. 
He  commanded  the  party  which  captured  Essex 
in  London,  and  retained  his  office  under  James 
I.  until  a  few  years  before  his  death,  when  he 
resigned  it  in  favor  of  Buckingham,  receiving 
in  compensation  a  pension  of  £1,000,  and  the 
acquittal  of  a  debt  of  £1,800  due  the  crown. 

HOWARD,  Henry,  earl  of  Surrey.    See  SURREY. 

HOAVARD,  John,  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  in  Entield,  Sept.  2,  1720,  died  in  Kherson, 
Russia,  Jan.  20,  1790.  At  10  years  of  age  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  grocer  in  London ;  but 
upon  the  death  of  his  father  soon  after,  ho 
purchased  his  indentures  and  travelled  on  the 
continent.  Returning  to  England,  he  occupied 
himself  with  medical  and  scientific  studies  at 
Stoke  Newington.  About  the  age  of  25  he  ex 
perienced  a  severe  attack  of  illness,  and  upon 
his  recovery  testified  his  gratitude  to  his  land 
lady,  who  had  nursed  him,  and  who  was  27 
years  his  senior,  by  marrying  her.  She  died 
at  the  end  of  three  years,  and  Howard  in  1756 
embarked  for  Lisbon,  with  a  view  of  doing 
something  to  alleviate  the  calamity  of  the 
great  earthquake.  On  the  voyage  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  a  French  privateer  and  car 
ried  into  Brest,  where  he  witnessed  the  inhu 
man  treatment  of  prisoners  of  war.  Having 
procured  the  exchange  of  himself  and  his 
fellow  captives,  he  returned  to  England,  mar 
ried  a  second  time  in  1758,  and  settled  upon 
an  estate  at  Cardington,  Bedfordshire,  which 
he  had  inherited  from  his  father.  His  career 
of  active  philanthropy  may  be  said  to  date 
from  this  time.  He  built  schools  and  model 
cottages  for  the  peasantry,  the  latter  the  first 
erected  in  England  for  their  benefit ;  and  Car 
dington,  formerly  a  wretched  and  filthy  village, 
now  attracted  attention  by  its  neatness  and 
the  healthful  and  thrifty  appearance  of  its  in 
habitants.  In  1765  his  second  wife  died,  and 
for  several  years  he  was  employed  in  his  stu 
dies  and  reformatory  plans,  and  in  travelling 
on  the  continent.  He  was  named  for  the  office 
of  sheriff  of  Bedfordshire  in  his  absence,  and 
upon  his  return  in  1773  accepted,  and  visited 
in  his  official  capacity  the  Bedford  jail,  in 
which  John  Bunyan  wrote  his  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress."  The  wretched  condition  of  the 
prisoners  made  a  deep  impression  upon  him  ; 
and  the  confinement  of  many  innocent  persons 
for  months  and  sometimes  for  years,  from  in- 


HOWARD 


19 


ability  to  pay  their  fees  of  jail  delivery,  so 
shocked  him  that  he  proposed  to  the  magis 
trates  to  pay  regular  salaries  to  the  jailers,  in 
place  of  the  fees  collected  from  the  prisoners. 
The  magistrates,  unprepared  for  such  an  inno 
vation,  asked  for  a  precedent,  and,  in  his  fruit 
less  exertions  to  find  one,  Howard  visited  every 
town  in  England  containing  a  prison.  He  col 
lected  a  mass  of  information  respecting  prison 
ahuses,  which  he  communicated  in  a  report  to 
the  house  of  commons,  who  gave  him  a  vote 
of  thanks,  and  in  1774  passed  hills  "for  the  re 
lief  of  acquitted  prisoners  in  the  matter  of 
fees"  and  "for  preserving  the  health  of  pris 
oners."  At  his  own  expense  he  caused  copies 
of  the  new  laws  to  he  sent  to  every  jailer  in  the 
kingdom.  The  prominence  thus  given  to  his 
name  secured  his  election  from  Bedford  to  the 
house  of  commons  ;  but  his  sympathy  with  the 
American  revolution  aroused  the  ministry  to 
oppose  him,  and  a  parliamentary  scrutiny  un 
seated  him.  He  never  afterward  participated 
in  political  life,  but  gave  his  whole  time  to  the 
philanthropic  plans  in  which  he  had  embarked. 
He  reexamined  the  principal  penal  establish 
ments  of  England,  and  visited  those  of  France. 
Germany,  and  the  Low  Countries ;  then  made  a 
new  tour  through  England,  examining  the  opera 
tion  of  the  new  jail  act,  and  relieving  much  dis 
tress  among  poor  debtors,  and  revisited  a  large 
portion  of  the  continent.  The  result  of  these 
researches  appeared  in  his  "  State  of  the  Prisons 
in  England  and  Wales,  with  Preliminary  Ob 
servations  and  an  Account  of  some  Foreign 
Prisons  "  (4to,  1777).  One  of  the  first  fruits 
of  this  publication  was  the  determination  of 
the  ministry  to  make  a  trial  of  the  discipline 
of  hard  labor  in  one  of  the  large  prisons.  But 
as  no  building  was  adapted  to  the  purpose, 
Howard  undertook  in  1778  another  tour  to 
collect  plans  and  information,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  visited  the  Low  Countries,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  France,  and  travelled  upward  of 
4,600  miles.  In  the  succeeding  year  he  made 
another  survey  of  English  prisons,  and  in  1780 
published  an  appendix  to  his  work.  A  bill, 
drafted  by  Sir  William  Blackstone  and  Mr. 
Eden,  was  now  passed  for  building  two  peni 
tentiaries  on  the  hard  labor  system,  of  which 
Howard  was  appointed  the  first  supervisor. 
To  escape  controversy  as  to  the  site  of  the 
buildings,  he  resigned  his  office,  and  between 
1781  and  1784  travelled  through  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  Spain,  and  Portugal, 
publishing  in  1784  a  second  appendix  and  a 
new  edition  of  his  work.  His  labors  for  a 
period  of  more  than  ten  years  had  left  him  I 
with  impaired  pecuniary  resources  and  shat 
tered  health  ;  but  he  embarked  upon  a  second 
series  of  philanthropic  researches  with  a  zeal 
surpassing  his  physical  powers,  volunteering 
to  procure  for  the  British  government  informa 
tion  relating  to  quarantine  establishments.  The 
French  government  was  incensed  against  him 
for  having  published  in  1780  a  translation  of  a 
suppressed  French  account  of  the  interior  of 


the  Bastile,  and  refused  him  a  passport.  He 
therefore  travelled  through  the  country  in  vari 
ous  disguises,  and,  after  a  series  of  romantic 
adventures  and  several  narrow  escapes  from 
the  police,  who  were  constantly  on  his  track, 
succeeded  in  visiting  the  new  lazaretto  at 
Marseilles.  He  proceeded  thence  to  Malta, 
Zante,  Smyrna,  and  Constantinople,  fearlessly 
exposing  his  person  in  infected  places.  That 
he  might  speak  with  authority  on  the  subject 
of  pest  houses,  he  went  to  Smyrna,  sought  out 
a  foul  ship,  and  sailed  in  her  for  Venice. 
After  a  voyage  of  GO  days,  during  which  he 
assisted  the  crew  in  beating  off"  an  attack  of 
pirates,  he  arrived  at  his  destination  and  was 
subjected  to  a  rigorous  confinement  in  the 
Venetian  lazaretto,  under  which  his  health 
suffered  severely.  He  returned  to  England  in 
February,  1787,  after  an  absence  of  10  months, 
and  published  his  second  great  work,  "An 
Account  of  the  Principal  Lazarettos  of  Europe, 
with  various  Papers  relating  to  the  Plague, 
together  with  further  Observations  on  some 
Foreign  Prisons  and  Hospitals,  and  additional 
Remarks  on  the  Present  State  of  those  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  "  (4 to,  1780),  in  the  preface 
to  which  he  announced  his  intention  to  pursue 
his  inquiries  in  the  same  direction,  observing 
that  his  conduct  was  not  from  rashness  or  en 
thusiasm,  but  a  serious  conviction  of  duty.  In 
the  summer  of  1789  he  started  on  his  last  con 
tinental  tour,  meaning  to  pass  through  Russia 
to  the  East,  but  was  cut  oft"  by  camp  fever 
which  he  contracted  from  a  patient  at  Kher 
son,  on  the  Black  sea.  He  expended  nearly 
the  whole  of  his  fortune  in  various  benefactions. 
In  his  private  relations  he  was  pure-minded, 
pious,  and  upright. — See  Hep  worth  Dixon's 
"  Howard  and  the  Prison  World  of  Europe  " 
(2d  ed.,  London,  1850);  also  the  memoirs  by 
Dr.  Aikin,  J.  B.  Brown,  the  Rev.  J.  A.  Field, 
and  T.  Taylor.  A  marble  statue  of  him  was 
erected  in  St.  Paul's  cathedra),  London. 

HOWARD,  John  Eager,  an  American  revolu 
tionary  soldier,  born  in  Baltimore  co.,  Md., 
June  4,  1752,  died  Oct.,  12,  1827.  In  1776  he 
commanded  a  company  in  the  flying  camp  un 
der  Gen.  Mercer,  which  took  part  in  the  bat 
tle  .of  White  Plains.  Upon  the  disbanding  of 
his  corps  in  1776,  he  was  commissioned  major 
in  the  4th  Maryland  regiment  of  the  line,  with 
which  he  took  part  in  the  battles  of  German- 
town  and  Monmouth.  In  1780,  as  lieutenant 
colonel  of  the  5th  Maryland  regiment,  he 
fought  at  Camden  under  Gates  (Aug.  16),  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  joined  the  army 
under  Greene.  In  the  battle  of  Cowpens,  Jan. 
17,  1781,  he  displayed  great  gallantry,  and  the 
bayonet  charge  of  the  Maryland  troops  under 
his  command  secured  victory  to  the  Ameri 
cans.  At  one  period  of  the  day  he  held  in  his 
hands  the  swords  of  seven  officers  of  the  71st 
British  regiment  who  had  surrendered  to  him. 
This  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  occasion 
in  the  war  on  which  the  bayonet  was  effective 
ly  used  by  the  American  troops.  For  his  ser- 


20 


HOWARD 


HOWARD  UNIVERSITY 


vices  in  this  battle  Col.  Howard  received  from 
congress  a  silver  medal,  lie  fought  at  Guil- 
ford  Court  House  (March  15),  materially  aiding 
Greene  in  effecting  his  retreat,  and  again  at 
Hohkirk's  Hill  (April  25).  After  the  latter 
battle  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  2d 
Maryland  regiment.  At  Eutaw  Springs  (Sept. 
8)  his  troops  were  so  cut  up  that  the  com 
mand  was  reduced  to  Col.  Howard,  a  single 
commissioned  officer,  and  30  men.  With  this 
small  force  he  was  returning  to  the  charge 
when  he  was  severely  wounded.  He  was 
governor  of  Maryland  from  1789  to  1792,  Uni 
ted  States  senator  from  1796  to  1803,  and  in 
1798  was  selected  by  Washington,  in  anticipa 
tion  of  war  with  France,  for  one  of  his  briga 
dier  generals.  During  the  panic  in  Baltimore 
subsequent  to  the  capture  of  Washington  by 
the  British  troops  in  1814,  he  was  one  of  the 
most  earnest  opponents  of  the  capitulation. 

HOWARD,  Oliver  Otis,  an  American  soldier, 
born  at  Leeds,  Maine,  Nov.  8, 1830.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1850,  and  at  West 
Point  in  1854,  and  became  instructor  in  mathe 
matics  there  in  1857.  He  resigned  his  com 
mission  as  first  lieutenant  June  4,  1861,  to  take 
command  of  a  regiment  of  Maine  volunteers. 
At  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  he  commanded  a  bri 
gade,  and  was  made  brigadier  general  of  volun 
teers,  Sept.  3.  He  was  assigned  to  a  brigade 
in  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  in  the  battle 
of  Fair  Oaks,  June  1,  1862,  lost  his  right  arm. 
After  the  battle  of  Antietam  he  took  command 
of  a  division  of  the  2d  corps,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Chancellorsville  he  commanded  the  llth 
corps.  At  Gettysburg,  after  the  death  of  Rey 
nolds,  he  commanded  during  the  first  day  of 
the  battle.  lie  afterward  received  a  commis 
sion  as  major  general  of  volunteers,  dating  from 
Nov.  29,  1862.  He  was  engaged  at  Lookout 
Valley,  Oct.  29,  1863,  at  Chattanooga,  Nov. 
23-25,  and  in  the  operations  for  the  relief  of 
Knoxville  in  Deeemher.  On  July  27,  1864,  he 
took  command  of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee. 
He  was  in  most  of  the  battles  of  the  Georgia 
campaign  ending  in  the  capture  of  Atlanta, 
and  commanded  the  right  wing  of  Sherman's 
army  in  its  march  to  the  sea  and  through  the 
Carolinas.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier  gen 
eral  in  the  regular  army,  his  commission  to 
date  from  Dec.  21, 1864 ;  and  brevet  major  gen 
eral  March  13, 1865.  On  May  12,  1865,  he  was 
appointed  commissioner  of  the  freedmen's  bu 
reau,  and  held  that  office  until  the  closing  of 
the  bureau  by  law,  June  30,  1872.  lie  was 
made  a  trustee  of  Howard  university  March 
19,  1867,  president  of  that  institution  April  6, 
1869,  and  resigned  in  1873.  He  was  appoint 
ed  special  commissioner  to  the  Indians  March  i 
6,  1872,  and  spent  eight  months  on  0that  duty 
in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  In  March,  1874,  i 
he  was  tried  by  court  martial  on  charges  of 
pecuniary  dishonesty  in  the  management  of  the  | 
freedmen's  bureau,  and  was  acquitted.  . 

HOWARD,   Thomas,   third   duke   of  Norfolk, 
an  English  statesman,  born  about  1473,  died  j 


July  18,  1554.  In  1513  he  became  high  admi 
ral  of  England,  and  in  the  same  year  aided  his 
father  in  gaining  the  battle  of  Flodden  field, 
for  which  he  was  created  earl  of  Surrey.  He 
afterward  quelled  an  insurrection  in  Ireland 
under  O'Neal,  and  one  incited  by  the  Catho 
lics  in  the  north  of  England.  Though  a  stanch 
Catholic,  he  succeeded  by  his  prudent  conduct 
in  disarming  for  a  long  time  the  suspicion  and 
jealousy  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  however  con 
demned  to  death  his  son,  the  accomplished  earl 
of  Surrey.  The  duke  himself  was  finally  con 
demned  to  be  beheaded  for  treason ;  but  the 
king  dying  before  his  execution,  a  respite  was 
granted  him,  and  he  was  kept  a  prisoner  in 
the  tower  throughout  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
On  the  accession  of  Mary  in  1553  he  was  re 
stored  to  his  rank  and  property. 

HOWARD,  Thomas,   earl   of    Arundel.      See 

AllTJXDEL. 

HOWARD  UNIVERSITY,  an  institution  of  learn 
ing  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  organized  by  a  special 
act  of  congress  in  1867,  and  named  from  Gen. 
O.  O.  Howard,  one  of  its  founders.  It  was  de 
signed  to  afford  advanced  instruction  especial 
ly  to  colored  students,  but  in  the  admissions 
no  distinction  is  made  as  to  color  or  sex,  and 
among  its  instructors  and  students  are  white 
and  colored  persons  of  both  sexes.  The  uni 
versity  grounds  are  near  the  head  of  Seventh 
street,  where  are  grouped  nine  buildings,  the 
chief  of  which  is  four  stories  high  and  contains 
rooms  for  lectures  and  recitations,  a  chapel, 
library,  philosophical  apparatus,  museum,  and 
offices.  Miner  hall  is  three  stories  high,  with 
rooms  for  100  young  women,  while  Clark  hall 
has  accommodations  for  200  male  students. 
The  general  management  of  the  institution  is 
vested  in  a  board  of  21  trustees.  The  univer 
sity  comprises  a  normal  department  with  a 
two  years'  course  of  study,  including  also,  for 
younger  students,  the  model  school  and  the 
Miner  school ;  the  preparatory,  with  a  course 
of  three  years;  the  collegiate,  four  years;  the 
theological,  two  years;  the  law,  two  years; 
the  medical,  three  years;  and  the  military, 
commercial,  and  musical  departments.  An  ex 
amination  is  required  for  admission  to  the  col 
legiate  department,  and  upon  the  completion 
of  the  course  the  degree  of  A.  B.  is  conferred. 
Special  efforts  have  been  made  to  give  the  law 
department  the  most  complete  facilities  for  im 
parting  a  thorough  legal  education.  From 
this  school  have  graduated  49  young  men  and 
one  young  woman.  The  whole  number  of  in 
structors  connected  with  the  university  is  28, 
including  4  in  the  collegiate,  5  in  the  theologi 
cal,  3  in  the  law,  and  9  in  the  medical  depart 
ment,  The  number  of  students  in  1872-'3  was 
238  in  the  normal,  100  in  the  preparatory,  35 
in  the  collegiate,  26  in  the  theological,  67  in  the 
law,  45  in  the  medical,  84  in  the  commercial, 
and  21  in  the  musical  department ;  total,  after 
deducting  repetitions,  567.  About  two  thirds 
of  the  students  are  colored.  Indigent  students 
may  be  relieved  from  paying  the  tuition  fee. 


HOWE 


The  university  possesses  a  library  of  7,500  vol 
umes,  a  mineralogical  cabinet,  a  museum  of  cu 
riosities,  and  a  picture  gallery.  Although  the 
government  of  the  United  States  aided  in  the 
establishment  of  the  university,  it  is  now  de 
pendent  upon  contributions  and  fees  received 
from  students.  More  than  $100,000  toward  a 
proposed  endowment  of  $300,000  has  been 
subscribed.  Gen.  Howard  was  president  of 
the  university  until  the  latter  part  of  1873, 
when  he  resigned,  and  John  M.  Langston  (col 
ored),  dean  of  the  law  department,  was  ap 
pointed  vice  president. 

HOWE,  the  name  of  three  British  officers  con 
nected  with  American  history,  all  of  them  sons 
of  Emanuel  Scrope  Howe,  Viscount  Howe  in 
the  peerage  of  Ireland.  I.  George  Augnstns, 
general,  born  in  1724,  killed  at  Ticonderoga, 
July  8,  1758.  In  1757  he  was  sent  to  America 
in  command  of  the  GOth  regiment,  and  arrived 
at  Halifax  in  July.  On  Sept.  28  he  was  put 
in  command  of  the  55th  foot,  and  on  Dec.  29 
was  made  brigadier  general.  On  July  G,  1758, 
he  landed  under  Abercrombie  at  the  outlet  of 
Lake  George.  Coming  suddenly  upon  a  French 
force,  he  fell  in  the  ensuing  skirmish.  The 
general  court  of  Massachusetts  appropriated 
£250  for  a  monument  to  him,  which,  was  erect 
ed  in  Westminster  abbey.  II.  Hi  chard,  admi 
ral,  born  in  London  in  1725,  died  there,  Aug. 
5,  1799.  He  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of 
14,  and  served  with  distinction  against  the 
French  from  1745  to  1759.  After  the  conclu 
sion  of  peace  he  obtained  a  seat  at  the  admiral 
ty  board.  In  1705  he  was  appointed  treasurer 
of  the  navy,  and  entered  parliament  for  Dart 
mouth.  Five  years  later  he  was  made  rear 
admiral  of  the  blue,  and  commanded  a  fleet  in 
the  Mediterranean.  In  177G  he  sailed  for  North 
America  with  the  rank  of  vice  admiral  of  the 
blue,  and  as  joint  commissioner  with  his  brother 
William  for  restoring  peace.  He  was  variously 
employed  against  the  American  forces  for  two 
years,  and  in  August,  1778,  had  an  indecisive 
encounter  with  a  superior  French  fleet  under 
Count  d'Estaing,  off  the  coast  of  Rhode  Island, 
both  fleets  being  much  shattered  by  a  severe 
storm.  In  April,  1782,  he  was  made  a  peer 
of  Great  Britain,  under  the  title  of  Viscount 
Howe,  having  since  1758  borne  the  Irish  title 
of  the  same  grade,  inherited  from  his  brother 
George.  In  the  latter  part  of  1782  he  succeeded 
in  bringing  into  the  harbor  of  Gibraltar  the 
fleet  sent  to  the  relief  of  (Jen.  Eliott,  then  be 
sieged  there  by  the  combined  French  and  Span 
ish  forces.  For  these  and  previous  services  he 
was  in  August,  1788,  created  Earl  and  Baron 
Howe  of  Lungar.  In  170:5  he  was  put  in  com 
mand  of  the  channel  fleet.  On  June  1,  1794, 
he  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  off  the 
western  coast  of  France,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament.  In  the  succeeding  year 
he  was  made  admiral  of  the  fleet,  and  in  1797 
a  knight  of  the  garter.  His  last  important  ser 
vice  was  the  suppression  of  the  mutiny  in  the 
fleet  at  Spithead  in  1797.  His  memoirs  were 


compiled  by  Sir  John  Barrow  (London,  1838). 
III.  William,  general,  born  Aug.  10,  1729,  died 
July  12,  1814.  lie  commanded  the  light  in 
fantry  under  Wolfe  in  the  battle  on  the  heights 
of  Abraham,  near  Quebec  (1759),  and  in  1775 
succeeded  Gen.  Gage  as  commander  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  He  commanded  at 
the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  after  the  evacua 
tion  of  Boston  retired  to  Halifax.  Subsequently 
he  defeated  the  Americans  on  Long  Island, 
Aug.  27,  1776,  took  possession  of  New  York, 
Sept.  15,  directed  the  movements  in  the  Jer 
seys  and  in  Pennsylvania,  and  repelled  the 
American  attack  at  Gerrnantown,  Oct.  4,  1777. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  May, 
1778.  His  conduct  was  severely  criticised,  but 
an  investigation  ordered  by  parliament  in  1779 
freed  him  from  blame.  He  succeeded  his  bro 
ther  Richard  in  the  Irish  viscounty,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  was  a  privy  councillor  and 
governor  of  Plymouth. 

HOWE,  Ellas,  an  American  inventor,  born  in 
Spencer,  Mass.,  July  9, 1819,  died  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  3,  18G7.  He  lived  with  his  father, 
who  was  both  farmer  and  miller,  till  1835, 
working  upon  the  farm  and  in  the  mill,  and 
attending  the  district  school  during  the  winters. 
He  then  went  to  Lowell,  and  was  employed  in 
a  manufactory  of  cotton  machinery,  and  after 
ward  worked  in  a  machine  shop  in  Boston. 
Here  he  developed  his  invention  of  the  sewing 
machine,  completing  his  first  machine  in  May, 
1845,  and  securing  a  patent  Sept.  10,  1846. 
After  constructing  four  machines  in  the  Lrnited 
States,  he  visited  England  in  1847,  and  re 
mained  two  years.  He  returned  to  Boston  en 
tirely  destitute,  and  resumed  his  trade.  From 
this  period  till  1854  he  was  involved  in  expen 
sive  lawsuits,  when  the  principal  infringers  of 
his  patents  acknowledged  his  rights,  and  ar 
ranged  to  manufacture  sewing  machines  under 
licenses  from  him.  His  income  now  steadily 
increased,  reaching  $200,000 ;  and  his  fortune 
realized  from  his  invention  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  $2,000,000.  During  the  civil  war 
he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  a  Connecticut  regi 
ment,  and  when  the  payment  of  the  regiment 
was  delayed  by  the  government,  he  advanced 
the  necessary  money.  (See  SEWING  MACHINE.) 

HOWE,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Loughborough,  Leicestershire,  May  17, 1630, 
died  in  London,  April  2,  1705.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  became 
pastor  of  a  nonconformist  church  in  Great  Tor- 
rington,  and  was  selected  by  Cromwell  in  1657 
for  his  domestic  chaplain.  After  the  restora 
tion  and  the  act  of  uniformity  he  led  a  wan 
dering  life,  and  continued  to  preach  in  private 
houses.  He  passed  five  years  in  Ireland,  where 
he  was  chaplain  to  Lord  Massarcne  in  the  par 
ish  of  Antrim,  was  pastor  of  a  congregation  in 
London  from  1675  to  1684,  travelled  on  the 
continent  with  Lord  Wharton  in  1685,  became 
pastor  of  the  English  church  at  Utrecht,  and 
returned  to  England  in  1687,  when  James  ll. 
published  his  declaration  for  liberty  of  con- 


22 


HOWE 


HOWITT 


science.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works, 
with  a  life  by  the  Rev.  John  Hunt,  appeared  in 
London  in  8  vols.  (1810-'22  ;  new  ed.,  1868), 
and  with  a  life  by  Edmund  Calainy  in  1  vol. 
(1838).  A  biography,  by  Henry  Rogers,  was 
published  in  1830. 

HOWE.  I.  Samuel  Gridley,  an  American  phi 
lanthropist,  born  in  Boston,  Nov.  10,  1801.  lie 
studied  in  the  Boston  grammar  school,  thence 
went  to  Brown  university,  where  he  gradu 
ated  in  1821,  and  studied  medicine  in  Boston. 
In  1824  ho  went  to  Greece,  and  served  as  a 
surgeon  in  the  patriot  army  and  in  various  oth 
er  capacities  till  1830.  In  1831  he  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  soon  became  inter 
ested  in  the  project  for  establishing  an  institu 
tion  for  the  blind  in  Boston.  lie  accepted  the 
charge  of  it,  and  embarked  at  once  for  Europe, 
to  acquire  the  necessary  information  and  en 
gage  teachers,  visiting  the  schools  of  France 
and  England  for  this  purpose.  While  in  Paris 
he  was  made  president  of  the  Polish  commit 
tee,  and  undertook  to  carry  and  distribute 
funds  for  the  relief  of  the  detachment  of  the 
Polish  army  which  had  crossed  into  Prussia. 
In  the  discharge  of  this  duty  he  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  for  about  six  weeks  by  the 
Prussian  government.  lie  was  then  liberated, 
and  escorted  over  the  French  frontier  by  night. 
In  1832  the  Perkins  institution  for  the  blind, 
in  Boston,  was  put  in  operation  under  his 
charge.  A  notable  achievement  in  this  insti 
tution  is  the  education  of  Laura  Bridgman,  a 
blind  deaf  mute.  (See  BEIDGMAX,  LAURA.) 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding  the  ex 
perimental  school  for  the  training  of  idiots, 
which  resulted  in  the  organization,  in  1851,  of 
the  Massachusetts  school  for  idiotic  and  feeble 
minded  youth.  He  was  actively  engaged  in  the 
anti-slavery  movement,  and  was  a  freesoil  can 
didate  for  congress  from  Boston  in  1846.  He 
engaged  earnestly  in  the  sanitary  movement 
in  behalf  of  the  soldiers  during  the  civil  war. 
In  1807  he  again  went  to  Greece  as  bearer  of 
supplies  for  the  Cretans  in  their  struggle  with 
the  Turks,  and  subsequently  edited  in  Boston 
"  The  Cretan."  In  1871  he  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  visit  Santo  Domingo  and  re 
port  upon  the  question  of  the  annexation  of 
that  island  to  the  United  States,  of  which  he  has 
since  been  an  earnest  advocate.  He  has  pub 
lished  a  "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Greek  Revo 
lution"  (1828),  and  a  "  Pveader  for  the  Blind," 
in  raised  characters  (1839).  I!.  Julia  Ward,  an 
American  poetess,  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  New  York,  May  27,  1819.  Her  early  edu 
cation  comprised  an  unusually  wide  range  of 
studies.  In  1843  she  was  married  to  Dr.  Howe, 
with  whom  she  made  a  tour  in  Europe.  In 
1850  she  again  went  to  Europe,  being  absent 
more  than  a  year,  a  great  part  of  the  time  in 
Rome.  After  her  return  she  published  "  Pas 
sion  Flowers,"  a  volume  of  poems  (1854) ; 
44  The  World's  Own,"  a  drama  (1855) ;  "  Words 
for  the  Hour"  (1850);  "  Lenore,"  a  tragedy 
(1857);  and  "Ilippolytus,"  a  tragedy  (1858). 


During  the  winter  of  185S-'9  she  visited  Cuba, 
and  in  1800  published  "A  Trip  to  Cuba."  A 
volume  of  poems,  "  Later  Lyrics,"  appeared  in 
1860.  In  1807  she  accompanied  her  husband 
to  Greece,  and  published  "  From  the  Oak  to 
the  Olive  "  (1808).  She  is  a  prominent  speaker 
in  behalf  of  woman's  rights. 

IIOWTLL,  a  S.  county  of  Missouri,  bordering 
on  Arkansas,  and  drained  by  Spring  river  and 
affluents  of  the  N.  fork  of  the  White;  area, 
about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,218,  of  whom 
24  were  colored.  The  surtace  is  hilly,  and  the 
soil  in  the  valleys  fertile.  There  are  large 
forests  of  pine.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  15,350  bushels  of  wheat,  115,728  of  In 
dian  corn,  and  8,454  of  oats.  There  were 
1,132  horses,  3,201  cattle,  2,707  sheep,  and 
5,656  swine.  Capital,  West  Plains. 

HOWTLL,  James,  an  English  author,  born  near 
Brecknock,  Wales,  in  1596,  died  in  1600.  He 
was  educated  at  Jesus  college,  Oxford,  and 
passed  many  years  on  the  continent,  as  a  mer 
cantile  agent,  as  travelling  tutor,  or  in  a  diplo 
matic  capacity.  In  1040  he  was  appointed 
clerk  to  the  council  at  Whitehall,  but  after  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  was  thrown 
into  the  Fleet,  where  he  languished  until  after 
the  death  of  Charles  I.  After  the  restoration 
he  was  appointed  historiographer  royal,  an 
office  which  he  retained  until  his  death.  How- 
ell's  publications  number  about  40,  the  greater 
part  as  well  as  the  best  of  them  being  in  prose. 
His  Epistolm  Ho-Elianc?,  or  "Familiar  Let 
ters,"  first  printed  in  1045-'5o,  and  of  which 
many  editions  have  appeared,  was  the  second 
published  collection  of  epistolary  literature  in 
the  English  language. 

HOWELLS,  William  Dean,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Martinsville,  Belmont  co.,  Ohio,  March 
1,  1837.  He  learned  the  printing  business  in 
his  father's  office,  and  worked  at  that  trade 
for  12  years.  lie  then  became  connected 
with  the  "Ohio  State  Journal"  as  assistant 
editor,  and  up  to  1800  had  published  six  po 
ems  in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  besides  a  life 
of  Abraham  Lincoln,  and,  with  John  J.  Piatt, 
a  volume  of  verse  called  "Poems  of  Two 
Friends."  He  was  appointed  by  President 
Lincoln  United  States  consul  at  Venice,  where 
he  remained  till  1805.  On  his  return  home  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  "Nation,"  and  shortly 
after  became  assistant  editor  of  the  "Atlan 
tic,"  which  magazine  passed  into  his  sole  con 
trol  as  editor  in  July,  1871.  His  publications 
are :  "  Venetian  Life  "  (London  and  New  York, 
1800)  ;  "  Italian  Journeys  "  (1 807)  ;  "  No  Love 
Lost,"  a  poem  (1808);  "Suburban  Sketches" 
(1809);  "Their  Wedding  Journey"  (1872); 
and  "A  Chance  Acquaintance"  (1873). 

HOWITT.  I.  William,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Heanor,  Derbyshire,  in  1795.  His  pa 
rents  were  members  of  the  society  of  Friends, 
and  in  1823  he  married  Mary  Botham,  also  a 
I  member  of  the  society.  They  made  a  pedes- 
j  trian  excursion  through  Great  Britain,  and 
I  subsequently  embarked  in  literature,  writing 


HOWITZER 


HUACA 


several  books  in  common,  the  first  being  "  The 
Forest  Minstrel  and  other  Poems"  (1831).  In 
1840  lie  went  to  Heidelberg  for  the  education 
of  his  children.  In  1847  he  established  "IIow- 
itt's  Journal,"  which  was  published  only  a 
short  time.  In  1852-'4  he  was  engaged  in 
gold  mining  in  Australia.  His  principal  works 
are:  kvBook  of  the  Seasons"  (1831);  "Popu 
lar  History  of  Priestcraft"  (1834);  "Rural 
Life  of  England"  (1837);  "Colonization  and 
Christianity"  (1838);  "Boy's  Country  Book  " 
(1839) ;  "  Visits  to  Remarkable  Places  "  (1839) ; 
"Student  Life  of  Germany"  (1841);  "Rural 
and  Domestic  Life  of  Germany"  (1842); 
"  Jack  of  the  Mill  "  (1844) ;  "  The  Aristocracy 
of  England"  (1846);  "Homes  and  Haunts  of 
the  British  Poets  "  (1847) ;  "  The  Year  Book 
of  the  Country"  (1847);  "The  Hall  and  the 
Hamlet"  (1847);  "Stories  of  English  Life" 
(1853);  "Natural  History  of  Magic  "  (1854); 
Land,  Labor,  and  Gold"  (1855);  "The  Man 
of  the  People"  (1860);  "Illustrated  History 
of  England"  (1861);  "The  Ruined  Castles  and 
Abbeys  of  Great  Britain"  (1861);  "History 
of  the  Supernatural  in  all  Ages  and  Nations  " 
(1863);  "Discoveries  in  Australia"  (1865); 
and  "  The  Mad  War  Planet,  and  other  Poems  " 
(1871).  II.  Mary  Botham,  an  English  authoress, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Uttoxeter  about 
1804.  She  is  joint  author  with  her  husband 
of  several  of  the  books  above  mentioned. 
Among  her  numerous  separate  publications 
are  the  novels  "Wood  Leighton"  (1836)  and 
"The  Heir  of  Wast  Wayhmd"  (1851).  She 
has  written  many  volumes,  in  prose  and  verse, 
designed  for  the  young,  and  has  made  numer 
ous  translations  from  the  Swedish  of  Fre- 
drika  Bremer,  the  Danish  of  Andersen,  and 
the  German  of  various  authors.  Her  later 
works  are:  "Biographical  Sketches  of  the 
Queens  of  England"  (1862);  "The  Cost  of 
Caergwyn"  (1864);  "Birds  and  their  Nests"- 
(1871); 'and  "A  Pleasant  Life"  (1871).— AN 
NA  MARY,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  married 
in  1859  to  Mr.  A.  A.  Watte,  has  published 
"An  Art  Student  in  Munich"  (1853),  and 
"The  School  of  Life"  (1857).  Her  sister 
MARGARET  has  published  "  Twelve  Months  with 
Fredrika  Bremer  in  Sweden"  (2  vols.,  1866). 

HOWITZER.     See  ARTILLERY,  vol.  i.,  p.  786. 

HOVFSON,  John  Saal,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1816.  lie  graduated  at  Trinity  col 
lege,  Cambridge,  a  double  first,  in  1837,  and 
in  each  of  the  next  three  years  obtained  a 
prize  for  an  essay.  In  1845  he  took  orders 
and  became  senior  classical  master  in  Liver 
pool  college,  of  which  he  was  principal  from 
1849  to  1865.  In  1866  he  was  made  vicar  of 
Wisbeach,  Cambridgeshire,  and  in  1867  dean 
of  Chester.  He  has  made  numerous  con 
tributions  to  Biblical  literature,  his  principal 
publication  being  "  The  Life  and  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul"  (2  vols.  4to,  1850-'52),  which  he 
wrote  conjointly  with  the  Rev.  W.  J.  Cony- 
beare,  furnishing  the  historical,  geographical, 
and  descriptive  matter.  He  has  also  published 


"The    Character   of   St.    Paul"   (1864)   and 
"Metaphors  of  St.  Paul"  (1868). 

HOWTH,  Hill  of,  a  peninsula  of  Ireland,  county 
Dublin,  forming  the  N.  boundary  of  Dublin 
bay.  It  is  a  rocky  and  picturesque  elevation, 
rising  to  the  height  of  563  ft.,  3  m.  long  and  2 
m.  broad,  having  at  its  extremity  a  lighthouse. 
Ilowth  gives  the  title  of  earl  to  the  family  of 
St.  Lawrence,  the  descendants  of  its  Anglo- 
Norman  conquerors.  A  harbor  of  52  acres 
has  been  formed  at  Howth,  costing  £500,000. 

IIOXTER,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  Weser,  crossed  here  by  a 

I  stone  bridge,  28  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Paderborn ;  pop. 

|  in  1871,  5,041.     It  is  a  thriving  manufacturing 

i  and  commercial  place,  and  paper,  cotton  goods, 
and  linen  are  made.  Hoxter  was  formerly  the 

!  capital  of  the  ecclesiastical  principality  of 
Korvei,  and  belonged  to  the  Hanseatic  league. 
It  abounds  Avith  reminiscences  of  the  battles 
of  Charlemagne  against  the  Saxons,  and  the 
watch  tower  on  the  neighboring  Brunsberg  is 
according  to  some  traditions  the  relic  of  a  for 
midable  Saxon  fortress  built  by  Bruno,  brother 
of  Wittikind.  The  town  endured  many  mili 
tary  vicissitudes  during  the  17th  century. 

H01LE,  Edmund,  an  English  writer  on  games, 
born  in  1672,  died  in  1769.  So  generally  is 
his  principal  work  accepted  as  authority  in 
card  playing,  that  "  according  to  Iloyle  "  has 
become  a  proverb.  There  have  been  many 
editions  of  his  book,  among  which  are  "Hoyle's 
Games,  Improved  and  Enlarged  by  G.  II." 
(London,  1853)  ;  "  Iloyle's  Games  made  Famil 
iar"  (London,  1855);  and  "Hoyle's  Games, 
containing  the  Rules  for  playing  Fashionable 
Games"  (Philadelphia,  1859). 

HRABAMS  MAIMS.  See  RABANI  s. 
HUACA,  a  Peruvian  word,  signifying  some 
thing  sacred,  applied  particularly  to  sepulchral 
mounds.  Among  the  Peruvians  all  persons 
remarkable  for  their  inventions,  or  for  having  in 
any  way  ameliorated  the  condition  of  mankind, 
were  the  recipients  of  a  kind  of  hero  worship. 
Few  had  temples,  their  shrines  being  generally 
their  tombs,  called  huacas.  The  Peruvians 
made  sacrifices  to  the  huacas,  which  were  sup 
posed  to  respond  to  petitions  and  questions 
supported  by  appropriate  offerings  made  in  a 
proper  spirit.  The  inner  chambers  of  these 
oracular  tombs  were  sometimes  inhabited  by 
priests;  and  generally  they  seem  to  have  been 
devices  whereby  an  inferior  class  of  priests  ob 
tained  their  support.  Some  were  of  great  ex 
tent,  and  erected  over  the  remains  of  the  in- 
cas,  who  were  entitled  to  divine  honors  after 
death,  and  over  the  chiefs  of  provinces.  In  ac 
cordance  with  an  invariable  custom,  the  wealth 
of  these  high  personages  was  buried  with 
them.  The  violation  of  their  tombs  was  com 
menced  soon  after  the  conquest,  and  from  some 
of  them  vast  treasures  were  taken.  A  single 
huaca  among  the  ruins  of  Chimu,  near  the  port 
of  Trujillo  in  Peru,  opened  in  1563  by  Garcia 
Gutierrez,  afforded  so  large  a  treasure  of  gold 
and  silver,  that  he  paid  85,547  castellanos  of 


24: 


IIUALLAGA 


IIUBBAKD 


gold,  as  the  royal  fifth,  into  the  treasury  of 
Trujillo.  But  he  did  not  obtain  the  whole  of 
it,  for  in  1592  it  was  again  opened,  and  47,020 
castellanos  of  gold  were  paid  into  the  treasury 
as  the  royal  fifth.  So  it  seems  that  not  less 
than  677,600  castellanos  of  gold,  equal  to 
$931,000,  were  taken  from  this  single  tomb. 
The  name  huaca,  as  applied  to  aboriginal 
graves,  gradually  became  extended  to  the 
provinces  adjacent  to  Peru  on  the  north,  where 
they  were  also  found  to  contain  more  or  less 
of  treasure.  The  name  has  also  been  applied 
to  Indian  graves  in  the  district  of  Chiriqui  in 
Colombia,  whence  many  golden  ornaments 
and  images  have  been  extracted. 

HUALLAGA,  a  river  of  Peru,  rising  on  the  E. 
slope  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  about  lat.  10° 
S.  and  Ion.  75°  30'  W.,  flowing  tf.  W.  parallel  to 
that  range  as  far  as  lat.  8°,  where  it  curves  to 
the  N".  E.,  and  joining  the  Maranon  or  Upper 
Amazon  at  La  Laguna,  lat.  4°  50'  S.  and  Ion. 
75°  40'  "W.,  after  a  tortuous  course  of  some 
600  m.,  mainly  through  the  Pampa  de  Sacra 
mento,  a  region  of  which  little  is  definitely 
known.  For  60  m.  from  its  mouth  the  Hua- 
llaga  is  navigable  by  the  largest  vessels ; 
above  that  point  rapids  occur  at  intervals  of 
about  50  m.,  but  these  do  not  impede  the 
passage  of  canoes,  especially  in  the  upper  por 
tion  of  the  river. 

IIIAMANGA.     See  AYAOUCIIO. 

HIANCAVELICA.  I.  An  inland  department  of 
Peru,  occupying  a  portion  of  the  valley  bor 
dered  by  the  Eastern  and  Western  Cordilleras 
S.  E.  of  the  department  of  Lima.  The  surface 
is  intersected  by  numerous  hills,  and  watered 
by  the  Jauja  and  other  rivers,  and  numerous 
lakes.  The  climate  is  mostly  very  cold,  and  the 
soil  rather  inferior  to  that  of  other  parts  of  the 
republic.  There  being  no  forests,  wood  is  scarce, 
and  the  chief  combustible  used  is  a  species 
of  grass  called  ichu.  Gold  is  found,  silver  is 
abundant,  and  there  is  some  copper;  but  the 
principal  mineral  product  is  mercury,  es 
pecially  that  from  the  mine  in  the  Cerro  de 
Santa  Barbara,  discovered  in  1563,  the  mean 
annual  yield  of  which  for  200  years  was  from 
400,000  to  600,000  Ibs.  Large  numbers  of  cat 
tle,  sheep,  and  llamas  are  reared,  and  wool  of 
excellent  quality  is  exported.  II.  A  city,  cap 
ital  of  the  department,  and  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  150  in.  S.  E.  of  Lima;  pop. 
about  8,000.  The  streets  are  regular,  and  the 
houses  solidly  constructed  of  stone  ;  several 
stone  bridges  cross  the  streams  intersecting  the 
town.  Owing  to  the  elevation,  12,670  ft.  above 
the  sea,  the  climate  is  very  cold,  and  the  town 
is  Exposed  to  fierce  tempests,  thunder,  hail,  and 
frost.  Husbandry,  cattle  rearing,  and  mining 
are  the  chief  occupations.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  are  numerous  mercury  furnaces ;  and 
excellent  colors  are  extracted  from  a  peculiar 
species  of  metalliferous  clay  which  abounds  in 
the  neighborhood. 

HIAXTA,  a  town  of  Peru,  in  the  department 
of  Ayacucho,  205  m.  S.  E.  of  Lima ;  pop. 


about  5,000.  It  is  in  a  very  picturesque  and 
fertile  region,  is  well  built  of  stone,  and  has  a 
large  trade  in  cattle,  sheep,  grain,  fruit,  coca, 
dragon's  blood,  cinnamon,  honey,  &c. 

IIUANUCO.  I.  An  inland  department  of  Peru, 
occupying  a  portion  of  the  valley  bordered  by 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Cordilleras,  N".  of  the 
department  of  Lima.  The  surface  is  irregular, 
being  intersected  by  hills  mostly  densely  wood 
ed,  and  delightful  vales,  watered  by  the  Hua- 
llaga,  Jauja,  and  numerous  minor  streams. 
The  climate,  hot  in  the  low  and  cold  in  the 
elevated  regions,  is  very  salubrious,  and  the 
soil  is  extremely  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
Precious  woods,  particularly  cedar,  and  coca 
leaves  are  important  articles  of  commerce. 
The  sugar  cane  thrives  well,  and  sugar  is  man 
ufactured  in  several  places ;  and  coffee  of  su 
perior  quality  is  grown.  The  plains,  though 
of  inconsiderable  extent,  afford  good  pasturage 
for  large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  the 
horses  of  Concepcion  are  highly  esteemed. 
The  district  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  department,  has  long  been  cele 
brated  as  the  principal  mining  region  of  Peru. 
There  are  weaving  factories  at  Tarma  and  else 
where.  Ruins  of  towns,  temples,  palaces,  and 
fortresses,  in  various  parts  of  the  department, 
attest  the  opulence  and  civilization  of  the  an 
cient  Incas,  once  the  exclusive  lords  of  the 
soil.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  department,  and 
of  a  province  and  district  of  the  same  name, 
near  the  river  Iluallaga,  165  m.  N".  X.  E.  of  Li 
ma;  pop.  about  7,000.  The  only  objects  of 
interest  still  remaining  in  this  once  nourishing 
city  are  the  ruins  of  edifices  attesting  its  early 
splendor,  and  particularly  a  palace  and  temple 
of  the  sun,  built  by  the  Incas.  Besides  mining 
and  agriculture,  the  manufacture  of  sweet 
meats,  much  prized  in  Lima,  occupies  many  of 
the  inhabitants.  It  was  founded  in  1539  by 
Gomez  Alvarado,  who  named  it  Leon  de  los 
Caballeros. 

IIUARAZ,  an  inland  city  of  Peru,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Ancachs,  and  of  a  district  of 
its  own  name,  192  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Lima;  pop. 
about  6,000.  It  is  situated  in  the  valley  of 
Iluaraz,  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  the  republic, 
and  derives  its  importance  from  the  large  quan 
tities  of  wheat  and  other  grains,  sugar,  fruit, 
and  cattle  which  it  exports.  Wood  is  here  ex 
tremely  scarce,  and  in  its  stead  a  species  of 
peat  called  champa\s  used  for  fuel.  The  min 
eral  productions,  including  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  are  of  considerable  value.  A  railway 
is  in  course  of  construction  (1874)  from  Iluaraz 
to  Chimbote,  172  m. 

HIASTECAS.     Sec  QTJETZALCOATL. 

IIUBBARD,  William,  an  American  historian, 
born  in  England  in  1621,  died  in  Ipswich, 
Mass.,  Sept.  14,  1704.  He  graduated  at  Har 
vard  college  in  1642,  and  was  ordained  in 
1658  as  minister  at  Ipswich,  where  he  contin 
ued  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  1688 
he  was  temporary  rector  or  president  of  Har 
vard  college.  He  is  the  author  of  "  A  Narra- 


HUBBARDTON 


IIUBER 


tive  of  the  Troubles  with  the  Indians  from 
1G07  to  1077,  with  a  Discourse"  (4to,  Boston, 
1677),  the  map  accompanying  which  is  sup 
posed  to  he  the  first  executed  in  America,  and 
"  Memoir  of  Gen.  Denison  "  (1(384).  He  left 
also  in  manuscript  a  general,  history  of  New 
England,  for  which  the  colony  paid  him  £50. 
For  the  most  of  the  earlier  annals  he  was  in 
debted  to  AVinthrop's  MS.  journal,  and  his 
MS.  has  been  used  by  other  historians  and  an 
nalists.  It  was  published  by  the  Massachusetts 
historical  society  in  1815  (8vo,  Cambridge). 

IHBBARDTON,  a  town  of  Rutland  co.,  Ver 
mont,  48  m.  S.  W.  of  Montpelier ;  pop.  in 
1870,  606.  It  is  noted  for  a  battle  between 
the  British  and  Americans,  July  7,  1777.  The 
American  army  under  Gen.  St.  Clair  having 
been  forced  to  evacuate  Ticonderoga,  July  6, 
their  main  body  marched  through  Ilubbardton 
to  Castleton,  leaving  a  rear  guard  of  1,000  half 
equipped  men  under  Cols.  Warner,  Francis, 
and  Haile,  to  wait  at  Ilubbardton  for  the  str'ag- 
glers.  Here  on  the  following  morning  they 
were  overtaken  by  about  double  their  number 
of  British,  commanded  by  Gen.  Fraser.  The 
battle  began  at  7  A.  M.  The  charge  of  the 
Americans  at  first  forced  the  enemy  to  give 
way,  but  they  soon  formed  again,  while  at  the 
same  time  Col.  Francis  was  mortally  wounded, 
his  men  fell  back,  and  Gen.  Riedesel  appeared 
on  the  field  with  a  heavy  reinforcement  for 
the  British.  Warner  was  obliged  to  retreat, 
leaving  30  of  his  men  killed  and  294  wounded 
and  prisoners,  while  the  British  acknowledged 
a  loss  of  183  killed  and  wounded,  though,  ac 
cording  to  Ethan  Allen,  they  lost  300.  Col. 
Ilaile  withdrew  from  the  field  with  300  men 
without  corning  into  action.  He  demanded  a 
court  martial  to  investigate  the  charge  of  cow 
ardice  brought  against  him,  but  died  in  captiv 
ity  before  it  could  be  held.  A  monument  on 
the  battle  field  was  inaugurated  July  7,  1859. 

HIBER,. Francois,  a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  in 
Geneva,  July  2,  1750,  died  in  Lausanne,  Dec. 
21,  1831.  At  15  years  of  age  a  too  close  devo 
tion  to  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences, 
which  he  had  followed  from  childhood,  affect 
ed  his  health  and  eyesight,  and  he  was  taken 
to  Paris  for  medical  treatment.  His  health 
was  soon  restored,  but  the  disease  of  his  eyes 
was  pronounced  incurable,  and  he  soon  after 
became  totally  blind.  Before  that  time  he 
had  won  the  affections  of  a  young  lady,  Mile. 
Lullin,  who  married  him,  and  until  the  close 
of  his  life  was  unremitting  in  her  devotion  to 
him.  Being  left  by  his  father  in  comfortable 
circumstances,  he  resumed  his  investigations 
in  natural  science,  in  which  he  was  aided  by 
his  wife,  and  a  faithful  attendant  named  Bur- 
nens,  who  ultimately  became  his  reader  and 
amanuensis.  lie  had  previously  given  much 
attention  to  the  habits  of  bees,  and  believing 
tli at  many  of  the  statements  of  Reaumur  and 
Bonnet  on  the  subject  were  erroneous,  he  pro 
ceeded,  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife  and  at 
tendant,  to  make  a  vast  number  of  original 


observations,  which,  having  been  digested  and 
systematically  arranged  by  him,  were  first  pub 
lished  in  his  "Lettres  d  Cli,  Bonnet  (1792).  The 
work  was  reprinted  in  1796,  and  again  in  1814, 
under  the  title  of  Nourelles  observations  sur  les 
abeilles,  both  times  with  important  additions. 
The  last  edition  contained  his  Memoire  sur 
Vorigine  de  la  cire,  in  preparing  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  son  Pierre.  The  impregnation 
of  the  queen  bee,  and  many  other  important 
facts  in  the  economy  of  the  beehive,  were  first 
made  known  in  this  work,  which  from  its  in 
trinsic  merits,  as  well  as  the  unusual  circum 
stances  under  which  it  was  prepared,  made 
Huber's  name  famous  throughout  Europe. 
Subsequently,  with  the  cooperation  of  Sene- 
bier,  he  produced  a  Memoire  sur  V influence  de 
Vair  et  des  diverscs  substances  gazeuses  dans  la 
germination  des  differentes  plantes  (Geneva, 
1801). — PIERRE,  his  son,  born  in  Geneva  in 
1777,  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  papers 
relating  to  bees  and  butterflies,  and  published 
Itccherches  sur  les  fourmis  indigenes  (1810). 
He  died  at  Yverdun  in  1840. 

HUBER,  Jean  Rodolphe,  a  Swiss  painter,  born 
in  Basel  in  1668,  died  in  1748.  He  studied  in 
Switzerland  and  in  Italy,  and  executed  works 
for  various  German  princes,  including  histori 
cal  pictures  for  the  palace  of  the  duke  of  Wtir- 
temberg  at  Stuttgart.  He  excelled  in  correct 
ness  of  drawing  and  vigorous  coloring,  and  on 
account  of  his  surprising  facility  in  portrait 
painting  was  called  the  Tintoretto  of  Switzer 
land,  though  greatly  inferior  to  that  master. 

IIUBER,  Johann  Ncpomuk,  a  German  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Munich,  Aug.  18,  1830.  lie 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Munich  in  1854, 
and  became  professor  in  1859.  His  Philosophic 
dcr  Kirchenrater  (Munich,  1859)  was  in  1860 
placed  on  the  prohibitory  index,  and  an  effort 
was  made  to  prevent  students  from  attending 
his  lectures.  His  rupture  with  the  ultramon- 
tanes  became  still  wider  in  1863,  when  in  an 
assembly  of  Roman  Catholic  scholars  he  stood 
alone  in  asserting  the  right  of  free  investigation 
in  theology.  In  1871  he  became  the  foremost 
adversary  of  the  society  of  Jesus,  and  one  of 
the  principal  leaders  of  the  Old  Catholic  move 
ment  in  Bavaria,  in  opposition  to  the  papal  de 
cree  of  infallibility.  Ilis  works  include  Joliann 
Scotus  Erigena  (Munich,  1859);  Idee  dcr  Un- 
sterUichlceit  (1861);  Die  Proletarier  (1864); 
Professor  Stockl  in  Minister,  and  Offener  Brief 
an  ^Professor  Ktocl'l,  exposing  the  pantheism 
of  Thomas  Aquinas  (1864);  Studicn  (1867); 
Freiheiten  der  franzosischen  Kirch  e  (1870); 
Das  Papstthum  uud  <ler  M<rnt  (1870);  Die 
Lehre  Darwin*  kritisch  betrachtet  (1870);  and 
Kleine  ScJiriften  (1871). 

HIRER,  Mario,  a  Swiss  authoress,  born  in 
Geneva  in  1695,  died  in  Lyons,  June  13,  1753. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  merchant,  received 
a  scientific  education,  never  married,  and  spent 
her  whole  life  in  seclusion,  study,  and  charita 
ble  labor.  Her  principal  works  are:  Systemcs 
des  theologiens  anciens  et  modcrnes  concilies 


26 


IIUBER 


HUO 


(Geneva,  1731  ;  enlarged  ed.,  1T39);  and  Let-  \ 
tres  sitr  la  religion  essetitielle  d  Vhomme  (1739;  ! 
ne\v  ed.,  enlarged,  G  vols.,  1754). 

IIIBER.  I.  Michael,  a  German  scholar,  born 
at  Frontenhausen,  Bavaria,  in  1727,  died  in  j 
Leipsic,  April  15,  1804.  lie  resided  in  Paris 
for  several  years,  and  went  to  Leipsic  in  1706, 
where  he  became  a  teacher  of  the  French  lan 
guage,  lie  translated  into  French  many  poems  \ 
of  Klopstock,  Wieland,  Lessing,  and  others  | 
(Choixdepoesie8allernandes,4:vo]s.,'P&ris,lf7()Q),  j 
and  other  Avorks,  among  which  is  Winckel- 
m&nn's  Kunstgeschichte  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1781), 
and  wrote  Notices  generates  des  graveurs  et  ties 
peintres  (Dresden,  1787).  II.  Lndwig  Ferdinand,  i 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1764,  I 
died  near  Leipsic,  Dec.  24,  1804.  In  1798  he 
became  editor  of  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung  in 
Stuttgart.  He  translated  dramas  from  the 
English  and  French,  and  Avrote  a  number  of 
plays  and  collections  of  tales.  He  also  pub 
lished  Friedempraliminarien  (10  vols.,  Ber 
lin,  1793-'6).  A  collection  of  his  later  works 
was  published  by  his  widow  (4  vols.,  Tubin 
gen,  1806-'19).  III.  Therese,  wife  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Gottingen,  May  7,  1764,  died 
in  Augsburg,  June  15,  1829.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  lleyne,  and  Avas  first  married  to 
the  traveller  Johann  Georg  Forster,  and  after 
ward  in  1794  to  Huber,  under  Avhose  name 
many  of  her  writings  Avere  published.  In 
1819  she  became  editor  of  the  Morgeriblatt  at 
Stuttgart,  and  published  Forster^s  BriefwecJisel 
with  a  biographical  sketch  (2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1828-'9).  A  collection  of  her  Erzahlungen 
was  published  by  her  son  (6  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1830-'33).  IV.  Victor  Aime,  son  of  the  prece 
ding,  born  in  Stuttgart,  March  10, 1800,  died  at 
Wernigerode,  July  19,  1869.  He  studied  med 
icine,  travelled  extensively,  and  Avas  professor 
in  various  places,  lastly  in  1843  of  languages 
and  literature  at  Berlin,  retiring  in  1850.  As 
a  publicist  he  opposed  the  revolutionary  move 
ments  of  1846-' 9,  but  subsequently  left  the 
ranks  of  the  ultra  conservatives.  His  later 
writings  embrace  popular  politico-economical 
subjects,  but  his  reputation  rests  mainly  on  his 
works  relating  to  the  English  and  Spanish 
languages  and  literature.  The  more  celebrated 
of  them,  besides  those  treating  of  the  history 
of  the  Cid,  are:  Skizzen  aus  Spanien  (4  vols., 
Gottingen,  1828-'3o) ;  Die  nevromantische  Poe- 
eie  in  Frankreich  (Leipsic,  1833) ;  Die englischen 
Unifier sitaten  (2  vols.,  Cassel,  1839-'40);  and 
JReiselriefe  aus  Jlelgien,  Frankreich  inid  Eng 
land  (2  vols.,  Hamburg,  1855).  His  biography 
by  Elvers  was  published  in  1872. 

IliJB\ER,  Karl,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Konigsberg,  June  14,  1814.  lie  is  a  disciple 
of  the  Diisseldorf  school,  and  excels  in  genre 
pictures.  In  1864  he  Avas  appointed  profes 
sor  at  Diisseldorf.  Many  of  his  Avorks  have 
been  brought  to  the  United  States. 

IIIBXER,  Rudolf  Jnlins  Benno,  a  German  his-  | 
torical  painter,  born  in  Prussian  Silesia  in  1806.  | 
He  studied  in  Berlin  under  Schadow,  and  fol-  j 


lowed  his  master  to  Diisseldorf.  Among  his 
earlier  works  were  illustrations  of  Goethe's 
ballad  of  the  "Fisherman,"  and  "  Orlando  de 
livering  Isabella,"  a  scene  in  Ariosto's  epic.  He 
has  also  gained  reputation  as  a  painter  of  car 
toons  and  portraits.  He  became  a  resident  of 
Dresden  in  1839,  and  professor  at  the  academy 
there  in  1841.  lie  sent  to  the  universal  expo 
sition  of  1867  a  historical  painting  of  the  "Dis 
cussion  between  Luther  and  Eck,"  and  two  re 
ligious  paintings,  "Jesus  at  the  Age  of  twelve," 
and  the,"  Magdalen  by  the  Body  of  Christ." 

IIUC,  Evariste  Regis,  a  French  missionary  and 
traveller,  born  in  Toulouse,  Aug.  1,  1813,  died 
in  Paris,  March  31, 1860.  He  studied  theology 
in  his  native  city,  and  taught  in  the  seminary 
there  for  a  while,  aftef  which  he  entered,  the 
order  of  Lazarists,  and  Avas  ordained  priest  in 
Paris  in  1839.  Resolving  to  devote  himself  to 
the  Chinese  missions,  he  set  sail  from  Havre  a 
few  days  after  his  ordination,  and  reached  Ma 
cao  about  the  month  of  August.  He  passed  18 
months  in  the  Lazarist  seminary  at  this  place, 
preparing  himself  for  the  work  he  Avas  about 
to  undertake,  and  in  the  early  part  of  1840, 
shaving  his  head  Avith  the  exception  of  the 
queue  which. he  had  carefully  cultivated  since 
his  arrival,  dyeing  his  skin,  and  putting  on  the 
Chinese  costume,  he  started  from  Canton  for 
the  interior  of  the  empire.  After  directing  a 
Christian  mission  in  the  southern  provinces,  he 
Avent  to  Peking,  where  he  perfected  himself  in 
the  Chinese  language,  and  subsequently  estab 
lished  himself  at  He-Shuy  (valley  of  Black 
Waters),  in  Mongolia,  just  north  of  the  great 
Avail  and  not  far  from  Peking,  where  there  AAras 
a  considerable  population  of  Chinese  Chris 
tians.  He  visited  various  parts  of  Mongolia, 
acquiring  the  dialect  of  the  country,  and  trans 
lating  into  Mongol  several  books  of  prayer  and 
instruction.  In  1844  the  vicar  apostolic  of 
Mongolia  directed  M.  Hue  and  another  French 
Lazarist,  Joseph  Gabet,  to  make  a  journey 
through  the  vicariate,  for  the  purpose  of  ascer 
taining  its  extent  and  studying  the  character 
and  manners  of  the  Tartars.  Adopting  the 
costume  of  the  Thibetan  lamas  or  priests,  and 
accompanied  by  a  young  lama  convert,  named 
Samdadshiemba,  they  set  out  in  September, 
travelling  S.  W.  along  the  Mongolian  side  of 
the  great  wall.  Their  caravan  consisted  of  a 
horse,  a  mule,  and  three  camels.  Their  only 
guides  were  a  map  and  a  compass.  At  night 
they  slept  in  tents,  and  their  food  during  18 
months  Avas  generally  confined  to  tea  and  a  lit 
tle  meal.  After  a  few  days'  journey  they  ar 
rived  at  the  city  of  Tolon-noor,  Avhere  they 
completed  their  outfit.  At  the  large  neAv  toAvn 
of  Shagan-kooren  they  crossed  the  Hoang-ho 
river  and  entered  the  sandy  steppes  of  the  Or- 
toos  country,  Avhere  they  suffered  for  Avant  of 
water  and  forage.  Crossing  the  Hoang-ho 
again  Avith  great  difficulty  at  a  season  of  inun 
dation,  they  entered  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  Chi 
nese  province  of  Kansu  in  the  early  part  of 
November,  and  remained  two  days  at  a  frontier 


IIUC 


IIUDDERSFIELD 


27 


town.  In  January,  1845,  they  reached  Tang- 
kinul,  on  the  boundary  between  Kansu  and 
the  territory  of  Koko-nor.  From  Lassa,  the 
capital  of  Thibet,  their  point  of  destination, 
they  were  yet  distant  four  months'  journey 
across  a  desert  utterly  uninhabited  except  by 
robbers.  They  consequently  resolved  to  wait 
here  eight  months  for  the  arrival  of  a  Thibetan 
embassy  on  its  way  home  from  Peking,  under 
whose  escort  they  might  travel  in  safety. 
During  their  stay  they  studied  the  Thibetan 
language  and  Buddhist  books  with  the  assis 
tance  of  a  teacher,  and  after  awhile  they  were 
invited  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the  famous 
lamasery  of  Koonboom,  about  80  in.  distant. 
In  this  establishment,  which  numbers  about 
4,000  lamas,  they  remained  three  months, 
treated,  as  they  were  in  all  parts  of  Mongolia, 
with  great  kindness.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
they  removed  to  Chogortan,  a  summer  estab 
lishment  belonging  to  the  lamasery.  Toward 
the  end  of  September  the  embassy  arrived,  and 
the  missionaries  joined  the  caravan,  which 
consisted  of  2,000  men  and  8,700  animals.  In 
crossing  the  desert  and  climbing  the  snow- 
covered  mountains  over  which  their  route  led 
them,  they  suffered  the  most  terrible  hard 
ships.  M.  Gabet  fell  ill  and  was  every  moment 
expected  to  die,  but  they  were  obliged  to  press 
on  with  the  sick  man  fastened  to  his  camel. 
On  Jan.  29,  1846,  they  entered  Lassa.  After  a 
few  days  they  were  summoned  before  the  Act 
ion  or  regent,  the  real  ruler  of  the  country  un 
der  the  nominal  supremacy  of  the  grand  lama, 
who  received  them  well,  gave  them  a  residence 
of  his  own,  and  allowed  them  to  preach  and 
set  up  a  little  chapel.  The  Chinese  ambassador, 
Keshen,  who  had  conducted  the  negotiations 
with  the  British  at  Canton  in  1840-'41,  soon 
interposed  on  political  grounds,  and  they  were 
sent  to  Chingtoofoo,  capital  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  Sechuen,  ami  their  neophyte  Sarn- 
dadshiemba  back  to  his  own  country.  MM. 
Hue  and  Gabet  left  Lassa  March  15,  and  trav 
elled  in  palanquins  with  great  state,  having  a 
mandarin  and  a  body  of  soldiers  for  escort. 
They  wore  the  richest  Chinese  robes,  and  in 
sisted  upon  putting  on  the  yellow  cap  and  red 
girdle  reserved  for  members  of  the  imperial 
family.  These  precautions  secured  respectful 
treatment  throughout  their  journey.  Their 
expenses  wrere  defrayed  by  government.  At 
Chingtoofoo  they  were  puc  on  trial,  and  it  was 
resolved  to  send  them  to  Canton.  The  journey 
was  performed  in  the  same  state,  sometimes 
overland,  sometimes  on  the  Yangtse-kiang  and 
other  navigable  rivers.  In  October,  184(5,  they 
arrived  at  Canton,  and  soon  went  to  the  Laza- 
rist  seminary  at  Macao.  Here  M.  Hue  remain 
ed  between  two  and  three  years,  arranging  for 
publication  his  notes  of  travel.  M.  Gabet  re 
turned  to  Europe  in  November,  and  thence 
proceeded  to  South  America,  where  he  died 
soon  afterward  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  1840  M. 
Hue  set  out  for  Peking,  intending  to  revisit 
the  missions  in  Mongolia;  but  an  inundation 


obliged  him  to  remain  six  months  at  a  Chris 
tian  station  in  the  province  of  Chekiang,  and 
shortly  after  his  arrival  at  the  capital  the  shat 
tered  state  ot!  his  health  induced  him  to  return 
home.  He  sailed  from  Macao  Jan.  1,  1852, 
visited  Ceylon,  India,  Egypt,  Palestine,  and 
Syria,  and  landed  at  Marseilles  in  June  of  the 
same  year.  He  subsequently  iixed  his  residence 
in  Paris.  His  Souvenirs  (Tun  voyage  dans  la 
j  Tartarie,  le  Thibet  et  la  Chine  appeared  in  1852 
[  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris),  and  was  translated  into 
English  by  William  Hazlitt  (London,  1852). 
This  work  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  interest 
ing  books  of  travel  which  have  been  written 
during  the  present  generation,  but  is  stored 
with  valuable  information  with  regard  to  the 
history,  inhabitants,  and  geography  of  the  pre 
viously  almost  unknown  region  of  Mongolia. 
V Empire  chinois  (2  vols.  8vo,  1854 ;  English 
translation,  London,  1855)  relates  the  adven 
tures  of  the  missionaries  during  their  journey 
from  Lassa  to  Canton ;  it  is  written  in  an  at 
tractive  style,  enlivened  with  much  humor, 
and  a  large  part  of  it  is  devoted  to  a  general 
account  of  the  manners,  customs,  government, 
laws,  and  internal  condition  of  the  Chinese 
empire.  He  also  wrote  Le  Christianisme  en 
Chine,  en  Tartarie  et  au  Thibet  (4:  vols.,  1857- 
'8  ;  translated  into  English,  3  vols.). 

HUCKLEBERRY.     See  WHORTLEBERRY. 

HtDDERSFIELD,  a  market  town  and  par 
liamentary  borough  of  England,  in  the  West 
riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Colne,  85  m.  S.  W. 
of  York,  and  204  m.  by  railway  N.  N.  W.  of 
London;  pop.  in  1871,  of  the  borough,  70,253, 
of  the  town,  38,058.  There  are  in  the  town 
34  places  of  worship,  of  which  9  belong  to  the 
established  church,  5  to  the  Congregationalists, 
and  14  to  the  Methodists.  There  are  two  col 
leges,  a  philosophical  hall,  and  a  mechanics' 
institute.  It  is  connected  by  canals  with  the 
Mersey  and  the  Humber.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  woollen  manufacture  in  England, 
of  which  nearly  every  variety  is  produced.  It 
has  an  extensive  cloth  hall,  where  a  fair  is  held 
each  Tuesday  attended  by  upward  of  000  manu 
facturers.  There  are  also  cotton  mills,  brew 
eries,  chemical  works,  and  dye  houses. 

HUDSON,  a  N.  E.  county  of  New  Jersey, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Hudson  river  and  New 
York  bay,  S.  by  the  Kills,  separating  it  from 
Staten  island,  S.  W.  and  W.  by  Passaic  river 
and  Newark  bay,  and  N.  W.  by  the  Ilacken- 
sack,  Avhich  also  intersects  the  S.  W.  part ; 
area,  75  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  129,007.  It  has 
a  diversified  surface,  rising  into  hills  on  each 
side  of  the  Hackensack.  Limestone,  copper, 
and  magnetic  iron  ore  are  found.  The  Morris 
canal  passes  through  it,  and  numerous  railroads 
radiate  from  Jersey  City  and  Hoboken.  The 
value  of  farms  in  1 870  was  $3,134,000  ;  of  farm 
productions,  chiefly  market  vegetables,  $312,- 
920.  There  were  333  manufacturing  establish 
ments,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $3.280,526, 
and  an  annual  product  of  $24,250,017.  The 
most  important  were  1  manufactory  of  boxes, 


28 


HUDSON 


19  of  bread,  &c.,  1  of  cars,  25  of  clothing,  1  of 
cooperage,  3  of  crucibles,  2  of  drugs  and  chemi 
cals,  1  of  feathers,  3  of  gas,  1  of  heating  appa 
ratus,  1  of  India-rubber  goods,  11  of  iron,  3  of 
jewelry,  11  of  machinery,  5  of  marble  and 
stone  work,  2  of  molasses  and  sirup,  4  of  oak 
um,  1  of  castor  oil,  2  of  paints,  2  of  paper,  1  of 
polishing  preparations,  3  of  silk  goods,  4  of  soap 
and  candles,  3  of  steel,  8  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  37  of  cigars,  1  of  watches,  1 
Hour  mill,  4  breweries,  2  saw  mills,  and  4  pork- 
packing  establishments.  Capital,  Jersey  City. 
HUDSON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Columbia 
co.,  New  York,  situated  on  the  E.  or  left  bank 
of  the  Hudson  river,  at  the  head  of  ship  navi 
gation,  IK)  m.  above  New  York  city  and  29  m. 
below  Albany;  pop.  in  1850,  0,280;  in  1800, 
7,187;  in  1870,  8,015.  It  is  beautifully  situ 
ated  on  rising  ground,  and  presents  a  highly 
picturesque  appearance,  especially  when  seen 
from  the  river  at  a  distance.  A  slate  bluff 
rises  abruptly  from  the  water  to  a  height  of  GO 
ft.,  whence  a  ridge  slopes  upward  for  1-^  m., 
terminating  in  Prospect  hill,  500  ft.  above  the 
river.  The  principal  street  runs  along  this 
ridge,  from  Prospect  hill  to  a  public  square 
laid  out  on  the  summit  of  the  bluff.  The  city 
is  divided  into  four  wards,  and  is  regularly  laid 
out,  with  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
court  house,  a  handsome  marble  and  limestone 
building,  110  ft.  long  and  GO  ft.  high,  sur 
mounted  by  a  dome  and  faced  by  an  Ionic 
portico,  and  the  city  hall,  a  brick  edifice,  con 
taining  the  post  office.  Hudson  is  a  terminus 
of  the  Hudson  and  Boston  railroad,  and  an  im 
portant  station  on  the  Hudson  River  railroad. 
It  has  regular  steamboat  communication  with 
Albany  and  New  York ;  and  from  Athens  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  steam  ferry,  a  branch  of  the 
New  York  Central  railroad  extends  to  Sche- 
nectady.  The  wharves  are  built  on  two  bays 
at  either  side  of  the  public  square,  and  are  ac 
cessible  by  large  ships.  It  is  said  that  at  one 
time  Hudson  owned  a  larger  amount  of  ship 
ping  than  New  York.  It  was  made  a  port  of 
entry  in  1795,  had  an  extensive  commerce  with 
the  West  Indies  and  Europe,  and  owned  a  num 
ber  of  whaling  and  fishing  vessels.  Its  com 
merce  was  destroyed  during  the  embargo  and 
the  war  of  1812;  and  although  the  whaling 
business  was  resumed,  it  has  since  been  entirely 
abandoned.  Its  trade,  however,  is  still  im 
portant,  the  principal  article  of  export  being 
pressed  hay  for  the  New  York  market.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  of  iron.  The  Hudson 
iron  company  and  the  Columbia  iron  works  to 
gether  turn  out  from  00  to  75  tons  of  pig  iron  j 
per  day.  There  are  two  machine  shops,  two 
iron  foimderies,  a  stove  foundery,  manufacto 
ries  of  steam  fire  engines,  paper  car  wheels, 
tiles,  and  pianos,  six  carriage  factories,  two  j 
breweries,  three  rectifying  establishments,  knit-  ; 
ting  mills,  a  spoke  factory,  a  pump  and  block 
factory,  a  tannery,  a  fiour  mill,  three  national 


banks  writh  a  capital  of  $750,000,  a  savings 
bank,  and  10  hotels.  The  city  is  lighted  with 
gas,  is  supplied  with  drinking  water  through 
iron  pipes  from  a  spring  2  m.  distant,  and  has 
an  efficient  fire  department.  There  are  six 
public  schools  with  about  1,000  pupils,  an  acad 
emy,  three  public  libraries,  two  daily  and  three 
weekly  newspapers',  an  orphan  asylum,  and  12 
churches. — Hudson,  originally  known  as  Clave- 
rack  Landing,  was  settled  in  1783.  It  was  in 
corporated  as  a  city  in  1785.  A  lunatic  asy 
lum  was  established  here  in  1832,  but  given  up 
on  the  opening  of  the  state  asylum  at  Utica. 

HUDSON,  a  township  and  village  of  Summit 
co.,  Ohio,  at  the  junction  of  the  Cleveland  and 
Pittsburgh  and  the  Cleveland,  Mt.  Vernon,  and 
Columbus  railroads,  25  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Cleveland 
and  120  m.  N.  E.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,520.  The  village  is  pleasantly  situated  and 
neatly  built.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Western  Re 
serve  college,  chartered  in  1820,  which  has 
handsome  grounds  and  five  substantial  college 
halls.  In  1872-'3  the  academical  department 
had  8  professors  and  instructors,  52  students, 
and  a  library  of  10,000  volumes ;  the  prepara 
tory  department  had  2  instructors  and  47  pu 
pils.  The  medical  department  (Cleveland  med 
ical  college)  is  in  Cleveland ;  it  was  founded 
in  1843,  and  in  1871-'2  had  14  professors  and 
instructors,  70  students,  and  a  library  of  0,000 
volumes.  There  is  also  a  female  seminary. 

HUDSON,  Henry,  a  British  navigator  and  dis 
coverer,  born  about  the  middle  of  the  10th 
century.  He  was  first  employed  by  a  compa 
ny  of  London  merchants  to  search  for  the  N. 
W.  passage  in  1007,  when  he  sailed  in  a  small 
vessel  with  a  crew  of  only  ten  men  and  a  boy 
to  the  E.  coast  of  Greenland,  lat.  80°,  where 
he  was  stopped  by  ice.  After  three  months  of 
fruitless  exploration  he  returned  to  England, 
whence  he  sailed  again,  April  21,  1008,  hoping 
to  find  the  passage  between  Nova  Zembla  and 
Spitzbergen,  but  was  again  hindered  by  ice, 
not  being  able  to  get  to  the  eastward  of  the 
former  land.  On  April  0,  1009,  he  began 
another  voyage  to  the  N.  E.  of  Asia,  sailing 
from  Amsterdam  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  company.  His  crew  being  unable 
to  endure  the  climate,  he  sailed  for  Davis  strait, 
but  came  to  the  American  coast  in  lat.  44°. 
Sailing  S.,  he  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  river 
which  has  received  his  name.  Having  sailed 
up  the  river  to  the  head  of  navigation  and  ex 
plored  it  in  a  boat  for  some  miles  further,  and 
afterward  followed  the  coast  S.  as  far  as  Chesa 
peake  bay,  he  returned  to  England.  In  April, 
1010,  he  began  his  fourth  voyage  Avith  23  sail 
ors,  passing  in  June  and  July  through  the  strait 
and  into  the  bay  which  now  bears  his  name. 
Finding,  however,  that  this  did  not  give  him 
an  open  route  westward,  he  resolved  to  winter 
there  and  resume  explorations  in  the  spring. 
His  provisions  ran  short,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  return.  It  is  said  that  he  incautiously  de 
clared  that  in  their  destitute  condition  he  would 
have  to  leave  some  behind,  and  in  a  mutiny  he 


HUDSON 


HUDSON  RIVER 


was  seized  and  placed  with  his  son  and  seven 
others  who  remained  faithful  to  him  in  an  open 
boat,  and  abandoned.  His  fate  was  revealed  | 
by  one  of  the  mutineers,  and  an  expedition  was 
sent  from  England  in  quest  of  him,  but  no  trace 
of  him  was  ever  discovered.  "A  Collection 
of  Documents  forming  a  Monograph  of  the 
Voyages  of  Henry  Hudson,"  edited,  with  an 
introduction,  by  George  Asher,  was  published 
in  London  hy  the  Hakluyt  society  in  1860.  See 
also  a  "  Historical  Inquiry  concerning  Henry 
Hudson,"  by  J.  M.  Read,  jr.  (Albany,  1866). 

HUDSON,  Henry  Norman,  an  American  essayist, 
born  in  Cornwall,  Vt.,  Jan.  28,  1814.  His  early 
youth  was  passed  on  a  farm ;  from  his  18th  to 
his  21st  year  he  lived  in  Middlebury  as  an  ap 
prentice  at  the  trade  of  coachmaking,  during 
which  time  he  prepared  himself  for  college. 
He  graduated  at  Middlebury  college  in  1840, 
and  went  to  Kentucky,  where  he  remained  a 
year  engaged  in  teaching,  an  occupation  which 
he  subsequently  followred  for  two  years  in 
Huntsville,  Ala.  Having  during  this  time  ap 
plied  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  Shake 
speare,  he  wrote  and  delivered  at  Huntsville  a 
course  of  lectures  on  the  great  dramatist,  which 
he  subsequently  delivered  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  and  finally  printed  (2  vols.  12mo, 
New  York,  1848).  In  1844  he  became  a  com 
municant  of  the  Episcopal  church,  and  was  or 
dained  to  the  priesthood  in  New  York  in  1849. 
He  has  since  edited  the  works  of  Shakespeare 
(11  vols.  12mo,  Boston,  1850-'57),  and  for  a 
short  time  edited  the  "Churchman."  He  was 
rector  of  the  Episcopal  church  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  in  1859  and  1860.  In  the  winter  of 
1860-'61  he  delivered  a  new  course  of  Shake 
spearian  lectures.  During  the  civil  war  he 
was  a  chaplain,  in  the  army,  and  subsequently 
taught  school  in  Boston,  and  for  two  years 
edited  the  "Saturday  Evening  Gazette."  He 
has  published  "  A  Chaplain's  Campaign  with 
Gen.  Butler"  (1865),  a  "School  Shakespeare" 
(1870),  "  Shakespeare,  his  Life,  Art,  and  Char 
acters"  (1872),  and  "Sermons"  (1874). 

HUDSON,  Jeffery.     See  DWARF. 

HUDSON  BAY,  an  inland  sea  of  British  North 
America,  between  lat.  51°  and  64°  N.,  and  Ion. 
77°  and  95°  W.  It  is  of  irregular  shape,  850 
m.  long  N.  and  S.,  and  600  m.  broad.  Its  S. 
extremity  is  called  James  bay.  In  its  mouth, 
at  the  northeast,  lies  Southampton  island  ;  out 
side  of  this  it  communicates  with  Davis  strait 
by  means  of  Hudson  strait,  and  E.  of  South 
ampton  island  Fox  channel  extends  N.  The 
coasts  are  generally  high,  rocky,  and  rugged. 
The  depth  of  the  middle  of  the  bay  has  been 
taken  at  150  fathoms,  but  it  is  probably  more. 
Southampton  island  is  formed  of  high  rocky 
masses,  and  seems  to  be  composed  of  several 
small  islands  separated  by  straits,  always  closed 
however  by  ice.  There  are  many  other  islands, 
and  many  reefs  and  sand  banks.  The  princi 
pal  rivers  flowing  into  the  bay  are  the  Great 
Whale  river,  on  the  E.  coast ;  the  Main,  Abbi- 
tibbe,  Moose,  and  Albany,  into  James  bay ;  and 


the  AVeenisk,  Severn,  Hayes,  Nelson,  QJiurchill, 
and  Seal,  on  the  AV.  coast.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  that  there  were  two  tides  in  the  bay, 
one  from  the  east  and  another  from  the  west; 
and  this  error  led  to  the  belief  in  a  channel 
communicating  with  the  western  sea,  which 
was  thought  to  be  not  far  distant.  Navigation 
is  possible  only  during  two  months,  the  bay 
being  completely  frozen  over  or  obstructed  by 
drift  ice  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  Before 
the  navigation  of  the  bay  was  understood,  it 
was  usual  to  take  two  seasons  for  a  voyage 
from  England  ;  and  the  captain  who  succeeded 
in  returning  the  same  year  was  awarded  a  prize 
of  £50.  Accounts  differ  as  to  the  abundance 
of  fish  in  Hudson  bay.  The  Hudson  bay  com 
pany  gave  little  attention  to  fisheries,  yet  the 
white  whale  is  found  there,  and  the  whale 
fisherv  was  once  of  considerable  importance. 

HUDSON  BAY  TERRITORY.     See  NOETIIWEST 
TERRITORIES. 

HUDSON  RIVER,  in  New  York,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  important  rivers  in  the 
United  States.  Its  remote  sources  are  in  the 
Adirondack  mountains,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the 
state,  more  than  4,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Its 
principal  head  streams  rise  in  Hamilton  and  Es 
sex  cos.,  serving  as  the  outlets  to  a  great  num 
ber  of  small  highland  lakes.  Several  of  these 
streams  unite  in  the  S.  AV.  part  of  Essex  co., 
and  the  river  formed  by  their  junction  flows 
in  a  tortuous  course  S.  E.  to  about  the  centre 
of  AVarren  co.,  where  it  receives  the  outlet  of 
Schroon  lake  on  the  east,  about  8  m.  AV.  of  the 
S.  part  of  Lake  George.  It  runs  from  this 
point  nearly  S.  to  the  town  of  Corinth,  on  the 
boundary  between  AArarren  and  Saratoga  cos., 
receiving  on  its  way  the  Sacondaga  river  from 
the  west,  and  some  smaller  streams,  and  then 
turns  sharply  to  the  east,  following  that  gene 
ral  direction  with  several  bends  until  it  reaches 
Glen's  Ealls,  where  it  has  a  fall  of  50  ft.  Soon 
after  passing  this  point  it  sweeps  around  to  the 
south,  and  flows  in  that  direction  with  little 
deviation  to  its  mouth,  a  distance  of  about  190 
m.,  separating  AVashington,  Rensselaer,  Colum 
bia,  Dutchess,  Putnam,  AVestchester,  and  New 
York  cos.,  on  the  east,  from  Saratoga,  Albany, 
I  Greene,  Ulster,  Orange,  and  Eocklandcos.,  and 
the  state  of  New  Jersey  on  the  west.  From 
Glen's  Falls  to  Troy  its  course  is  much  broken 
by  rapids,  but  at  the  latter  place,  151  m.  from 
its  mouth,  it  is  aftected  by  the  tide  and  becomes 
a  broad,  deep,  sluggish  stream.  From  Albany, 
6  m.  below  Troy,  its  general  width  is  from  300 
to  700  yards,  though  it  greatly  exceeds  this 
in  certain  places.  Its  banks  are  elevated  and 
picturesque  throughout  nearly  its  whole  course. 
i  The  upper  part  of  the  river  is  bordered  by  gen 
tle  eminences,  covered  with  cultivated  fields, 
interspersed  with  pleasant  towns  and  villages, 
I  while  in  Greene  and  Ulster  cos.  its  valley  is 
i  bounded  AV.  by  the  Catskill  mountains,  which 
i  in  the  former  approach  within  7  m.  of  the 
river.  A  short  distance  below  Newburgh,  61 
m.  from  New  York,  it  begins  its  passage  through 


30 


HUDSON  RIVER 


HUfi 


the  beautiful  hills  called  the  Highlands,  which 
rise  abruptly  from  the  water ;  in  some  places 
vessels  following  the  channel  pass  so  near  the 
shore  that  one  can  almost  touch  the  cliffs  from 
their  decks.  The  most  remarkable  of  these 
hills  are  Breakneck  (1,187  ft.  in  height),  Bea 
con,  so  named  from  the  signal  tires  which 
used  to  burn  on  its  summit  during  the  revo 
lutionary  war  (1,085  ft.),  Butter  (1,500  ft.), 
Crow  Nest  (1,428  ft.),  Sugarloaf  mountain, 
Bull  hill,  Anthony's  Nose  (1,128  ft.),  and 
Dunderberg  (Thunder  Hill)  or  Donderbarrack 
(Thunder  Chamber).  The  Highlands  cover 
an  area  of  about  16  by  25  m.,  and  the  river 
flows  through  them  with  many  windings, 
which  add  greatly  to  its  beauty.  In  the  midst 
of  them,  on  a  bold  promontory  commanding 
magnificent  views  both  N.  and  S.,  is  West 
Point,  the  seat  of  the  United  States  military 
academy.  Fort  Putnam,  the  ruins  of  which 
remain,  was  built  here  during  the  war  of  inde 
pendence  by  the  Americans,  and  a  chain  was 
stretched  across  the  river  at  this  place  to  pre 
vent  the  passage  of  British  ships.  Several  other 
sites  memorable  in  the  history  of  that  period 
are  pointed  out  to  tourists  in  various  parts  of 
the  river.  Shortly  after  emerging  from  the 
Highlands  the  Hudson  widens  into  the  expanse 
kno\vn  as  Haverstraw  bay,  immediately  below 
which  is  Tappan  bay,  extending  from  Teller's 
Point  to  Piermont,  about  12  m.  long  and  3  to  4 
m.  wide.  On  the  TV.  shore  a  range  of  trap 
rock  called  the  Palisades  rises  perpendicularly 
from  the  water's  edge  to  a  height  of  from  300  to 
500  ft.,  extending  from  the  New  Jersey  boun 
dary  just  below  Piermont  to  Fort  Lee,  9  m. 
from  Ne\v  York  bay,  the  range  being  thus 
about  15  m.  long.  From  this  place  to  its  mouth 
the  Hudson  is  between  1  and  2  m.  wide.  It 
falls  into  New  York  bay  in  lat.  40°  42'  N.,  Ion. 
74°  1'  30"  TV.,  its  whole  length  being  a  little 
over  300  m.  Its  fall  from  Albany  to  its 
mouth,  according  to  the  United  States  coast 
survey  reports,  is  only  about  5  ft.  On  the 
E.  side  of  its  mouth  lies  New  York  city,  on  the 
TV.  side  Jersey  City  and  Iloboken.  The  Hud 
son  has  few  tributaries,  the  largest  being  the 
Iloosac,  Mohawk,  TValkill,  and  Croton.  Spuyten 
Duy  vil  creek  connects  it  with  the  Harlem  river, 
which  flows  into  the  East  river,  forming  the 
N.  boundary  of  Manhattan  island.  The  basin 
of  the  Hudson  occupies  about  two  thirds  of  the 
E.  border  of  the  state,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
interior.  The  principal  cities  and  towns  on  its 
banks  are  Lansingburgh,  Troy,  Hudson,  Pough- 
keepsie,  Peekskill,  Sing  Sing,  Tarry  town,  Yon- 
kers,  and  New  York,  on  the  east,  and  Water- 
ford,  West  Troy,  Albany,  Catskill,  Kingston, 
Rondout,  Newburgh,  Ilaverstraw,  Nyack,  Pier 
mont,  Iloboken,  and  Jersey  City  on  the  west.  It 
is  navigable  by  ships  to  Hudson,  by  steamboats 
to  Troy,  and  by  sloops,  by  means  of  a  dam  and 
lock,  to  Waterford,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mo 
hawk.  The  passenger  steamers  from  New 
York  to  Albany  and  Troy  are  noted  for  their 
elegance  and  tine  proportions.  A  little  below 


Albany  the  navigation  is  at  times  obstructed 
by  shifting  sands  called  the  Overslaugh,  for  the 
removal  of  which  large  expenditures  have  been 
made  by  the  United  States  government.  New 
York  is  indebted  for  much  of  its  prosperity  to 
this  river,  which  forms  one  of  the  principal 
channels  of  communication  between  the  east 
and  west,  and  is  connected  with  the  great  lakes 
by  the  Erie  canal  and  the  Erie  and  New  York 
Central  railroads,  with  Lake  Champlain  and 
Canada  by  canal  and  railroad,  and  with  the 
Delaware  river  and  the  Pennsylvania  coal  re 
gion  by  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal.  The 
Hudson  River  railroad  runs  along  its  east  bank 
from  New  York  to  Troy,  and  a  railroad  has 
been  commenced  along  its  west  bank  from  Jer 
sey  City  to  Albany. — In  1524  Verrazzani,  sail 
ing  under  a  commission  from  Francis  I.  of 
France,  entered  the  bay  of  New  York  and 
sailed  a  short  distance  up  the  river  in  a  boat. 
Henry  Hudson  discovered  it  Sept.  11,  1009,  ex 
plored  it  above  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  and 
called  it  "  river  of  the  mountains."  This  name 
was  soon  changed  to  Mauritius,  in  honor  of 
Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau;  and  about  1682  it 
became  generally  known  as  the  North  river,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  Delaware  or  South  river. 
The  name  Hudson's  river  had  been  applied  to 
it  by  the  English  not  long  after  its  discovery  in 
1609.  The  Indians  are  said  to  have  called  it 
Shatemuc  and  Cahohatatea.  The  first  success 
ful  attempt  at  steam  navigation  was  made  on 
the  Hudson  by  Robert  Fulton  in  1807. 

HUDSON  STRAIT,  in  British  North  America, 
connects  Hudson  bay  with  the  ocean  and  Da 
vis  strait,  between  lat.  60°  and  64°  N.,  and  Ion. 
65°  and  77°  TV.  Its  length  is  450  in.,  its  average 
breadth  100  m.,  and  its  least  breadth  60  m. 

Hl'E,  a  city  of  Asia,  capital  af  the  empire  of 
Anam,  and  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Hue  roadstead,  about  10  m.  from  the 
China  sea ;  lat.  16°  28'  N.,  Ion.  107°  32'  E. ; 
pop.  estimated  at  from  80,000  to  100,000.  It 
is  composed  of  two  cities,  an  outer  and  an  in 
ner.  The  former  is  surrounded  by  the  river, 
and  by  walls  5  m.  in  circumference  and  60  ft. 
high,  fortified  in  the  European  manner.  It  is 
entered  by  ten  bridges  and  as  many  correspond 
ing  gates,  and  contains  the  palaces  of  the  king's 
near  relatives,  the  different  public  offices,  bar 
racks,  prisons,  magazines,  granaries,  and  the 
dwelling  houses  and  shops  of  the  citizens.  In 
the  centre  of  the  outer  city  is  the  inner  one, 
which  is  also  walled,  and  in  which  are  the  pal 
aces  and  seraglio  of  the  king,  the  palace  of  his 
mother,  the  palace  wherein  the  sovereign  re 
ceives  his  mandarins,  and  guard  rooms  for  the 
sentinels  on  duty.  Hue  is  a  naval  station,  and 
has  extensive  ship  yards  and  a  large  cannon 
foundery.  The  streets  arc  traversed  by  navi 
gable  canals.  The  roadstead  is  an  excellent 
and  well  sheltered  harbor.  The  citadel  is  for 
tified  after  the  European  fashion,  and  would 
require  50,000  men  to  fully  garrison  it.  The 
commercial  and  manufacturing  activity  of  Hue 
is  extensive.  In  1787  the  city  was  formally 


IIUELVA 


IIUFELAND 


31 


ceded  to  the  French,  but  has  never  been  occu 
pied  by  them. 

HIELVA.  I.  A  S.  W.  province  of  Spain, 
forming  the  W.  extremity  of  Andalusia,  bor 
dering  on  Portugal,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  prov 
inces  of  Cadiz,  Seville,  and  Badajoz ;  area, 
4,118  sq.  in.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  196,409.  The 
larger  portion  of  the  province  is  a  picturesque 
mountain  land,  being  traversed  by  a  continua 
tion  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  known  as  the  Sier 
ra  de  Aroche.  It  is  but  little  cultivated  and 
thinly  peopled.  It  has  mines  of  copper,  iron, 
lead,  and  coal,  salt  works,  and  mineral  springs. 
The  copper  mines  on  the  Rio  Tinto  are  cele 
brated.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Guadiana, 
which  forms  part  of  its  western  frontier,  and 
the  Tinto.  The  principal  towns,  besides  the 
capital,  are  Moguer,  Ayamonte,  Cartaya,  La 
Palma,  Yalverde  del  Camino,  and  Aracena. 
II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  province,  situated  on 
a  peninsula  between  the  mouths  of  the  Tinto 
and  the  Odiel,  50  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Seville ;  pop. 
about  10,000.  It  has  broad,  clean  streets,  two 
churches,  two  hospitals,  a  high  school,  a  thea 
tre,  barracks,  a  beautiful  promenade,  and  an 
ancient  aqueduct.  Copper  is  largely  exported, 
and  there  is  a  brisk  coasting  trade  with  Cadiz 
and  Seville.  It  is  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Onoba,  of  which  considerable  remains  exist. 

IIUERFANO,  a  S.  county  of  Colorado,  drained 
by  a  river  of  the  same  name ;  area,  about 
2,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,250.  The  sur 
face  is  generally  mountainous.  The  land  along 
the  Huerfano  and  its  branches  is  fertile,  and 
Indian  corn  grows  well,  but  stock  raising  is 
the  chief  industry.  Some  gold  and  silver  is 
found  in  the  mountains.  The  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  railroad  traverses  the  county.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,597  bushels 
of  wheat,  13,080  of  Indian  corn,  2,170  of  oats, 
and  37,779  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  281 
horses,  1,987  milch  cows,  2,349  other  cattle, 
30,704  sheep,  and  413  swine.  Capital,  Badito. 

HUESCA.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  in  Aragon, 
bordering  on  Franco  and  the  provinces  of  Le- 
rida,  Saragossa,  and  Navarre;  area,  5,872  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  274,023.  The  N.  part,  which 
is  covered  by  offsets  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  rugged 
and  mountainous ;  but  the  S.  is  level  and  fer 
tile.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Cinca,  Alca- 
nadre,  Isuela,  Gallego,  and  Aragon,  all  tribu 
taries  of  the  Ebro.  Wine,  oil,  and  cattle  are 
produced.  Iron,  copper,  and  lead  are  found, 
but  there  is  little  mining.  The  manufac 
tures  are  linen,  woollen,  and  hempen  fabrics, 
&c.  The  principal  towns  are  Iluesca,  Barbas- 
tro,  Fraga,  Monzon,  and  Jaca.  II.  A  town 
(anc.  Osca],  capital  of  the  province,  on  the 
Isuela,  35  m.  1ST.  E.  of  Saragossa;  pop.  about 
10,000.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity.  Ser- 
torius  founded  here  a  college  for  the  instruc 
tion  of  Iberian  youth  in  Greek  and  Roman 
learning.  Julius  Ca?sar  raised  it  to  the  dignity 
of  a  municipium,  and  honored  it  with  the  title 
of  Osca  Urbs  Victrix.  In  1096  Pedro  I.  of 
Aragon  recovered  this  city  from  the  Moors, 
YOL.  ix. — 3 


who  called  it  Weshha,  and  annexed  it  to  his 
dominions.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a 
beautiful  Gothic  cathedral,  four  churches,  an 
episcopal  seminary,  two  colleges,  a  theatre,  and 
barracks.  The  university,  which  was  founded 
by  Pedro  IV.  of  Aragon  in  1354,  has  recently 
been  abolished.  The  industry  is  confined  to 
tanning  and  weaving  of  coarse  linen. 

HIET,  Pierre  Daniel,  a  French  scholar,  born 
in  Caen,  Feb.  8,  1030,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  26, 
1721.  lie  studied  at  Caen  and  Paris,  and  trav 
elled  in  Holland  and  Sweden  in  1052.  In  1670 
he  was  appointed  by  the  king  sub-preceptor  un 
der  Bossuet  of  the  dauphin,  and  he  directed  for 
his  royal  pupil  the  preparation  of  the  Delphin 
edition  of  the  classics  (advsvm  Ddpldni).  He 
was  received  into  the  French  academy  in  1674, 
became  bishop  of  Avranches  in  1089,  resigned 
that  office  after  ten  years,  and  soon  afterward 
entered  an  establishment  of  the  Jesuits  at  Paris. 
His  principal  works  are:  De  Interpretatione 
(Paris,  1661);  Lettre  sur  Vorigine  des  romans 
(1670),  full  of  curious  researches;  Demonstra- 
tio  Evangelica  (1079)  ;  Censura  Philosophies 
Cartesianm  (1689),  in  which  he  appears  as  an 
opponent  of  Cartesianism ;  Histoire  du  com 
merce  et  de  la  navigation  des  ancic?is  (Lyons, 
1716);  and  Traite  philosoptiique  de  lafaiblesse 
de  Vesprit  humain  (Amsterdam,  1723),  which 
caused  him  to  be  classed  among  skeptics.  He 
wrote  memoirs  of  his  life  in  Latin  (1718; 
French  translation  by  Charles  Nisard,  Paris, 
1853).  His  complete  works  appeared  in  1856, 
in  6  vols. 

HiFELAND,  Christoph  Willielm,  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  at  Lanirensalza,  Thuringia,  Aug. 
12,  1762,  died  in  Berlin,  Aug.  25,  1836.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Gottingen,  graduated  as 
M.  I),  in  1783,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
medicine  at  Jena  in  1793.  In  1798  he  removed 
to  Berlin,  and  after  the  establishment  of  the 
university  of  Berlin  (1809)  he  became  profes 
sor  there  of  special  pathology  and  therapeutics. 
His  work  on  the  art  of  prolonging  life  (3fakro- 
l)iotiJc;  oder  die  .Kunst  das  memchliclie  Lelen-  zu 
verlangern,  Jena,  1796  ;  8th  ed.,  Berlin,  1860) 
was  translated  into  several  European  lan 
guages.  Among  his  other  works  is  one  on 
scrofulous  diseases  (Ueber  die  Natvr,  Erkennt- 
nissmittel  vnd  Heilart  der  STcropTielkrankheit, 
Jena,  1795).  His  work  on  the  physical  train 
ing  of  infants  (Outer  Path  an  Mutter  uler  die 
icicJitigsten  Punkte  der  physischen  Erziehung 
der  Kinder  in  den  erstcn  Jahren,  Berlin,  1799  ; 
10th  ed.,  1866)  produced  many  reforms  in  the 
system  of  education;  Avhile  his  Enchiridion 
Medicum  (Berlin,  1836;  10th  ed.,  1857),  which 
gives  the  experiences  of  his  50  years  of  practice, 
is  still  consulted.  His  System  der  praktisclien 
Ileilkiinde  (Jena  and  Leipsic,  1800-'5),  and  his 
GeschicJite  der  Gcmindheit  (Berlin,  1812),  are 
much  esteemed.  He  introduced  the  system  of 
mortuary  houses  for  the  prevention  of  burying 
alive,  the  first  of  which  was  erected  at  Weimar 
under  his  superintendence  ;  and  endowed  char 
itable  institutions  for  poor  physicians  and  phy- 


32 


IltGEL 


HUGH   CAPET 


sicians'  widows.     His  autobiography,  edited  by 
Goschen,  was  published  in  1863. 

IlilOEL,  Karl  Alexander  Anselm,  baron,  a  Ger 
man  traveller,  born  in  Ratisbon,  April  25,  171)6, 
died  in  Brussels,  June  2,  1870.  lie  studied 
law  in  Heidelberg,  served  as  an  Austrian  officer 
in  1813-'! 4,  and  held  an  appointment  in  the 
embassy  sent  to  induce  Christian,  the  tempo 
rary  king  of  Norway,  to  resign.  In  1821  he 
went  in  a  diplomatic  capacity  to  Naples,  and 
afterward  lived  several  years  in  Vienna.  In 
1831  he  set  out  to  visit  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
Egypt,  Barbary,  and  remote  portions  of  India 
and  central  Asia.  He  returned  to  Europe  in 
1837,  bringing  with  him  a  collection  illustra 
ting  ethnography  and  natural  history,  as  well  as 
antique  coins,  manuscripts,  jewelry,  paintings, 
and  silver  vessels.  The  whole  collection  was 
purchased  for  the  imperial  museum  in  Vien 
na.  He  wrote  Botanisches  Archiv  (Vienna, 
1837) ;  Kaschmir  und  das  Reich  der  Sikhs  (4 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1840-'42);  and  Das.BecTcen 
von  Kabul  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1851-'2). 

HUGER.  I.  Isaac,  an  American  revolutionary 
general,  born  at  Limerick  plantation,  S.  C., 
March  19,  1742,  died  in  Charleston  in  Novem 
ber,  1797.  He  was  one  of  five  patriot  broth 
ers  active  in  the  revolution.  Their  parents 
were  wealthy,  and  the  sons  completed  their 
education  in  Europe.  Isaac  first  served  under 
Col.  Middleton  in  the  expedition  against  the 
Cherokees  in  1760.  He  was  made  lieutenant 
colonel  of  the  1st  South  Carolina  regiment, 
June  17,  1775,  and  subsequently  colonel  of  the 
5th  regiment ;  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
engagements  connected  with  the  siege  of  Sa 
vannah  in  1778;  was  made  a  brigadier  general 
Jan.  19,  1779  ;  commanded  a  force  of  cavalry 
at  the  siege  of  Charleston  in  1780,  which  was 
surprised  and  dispersed  by  Tarleton  ;  and  com 
manded  the  Virginia  brigade  which  formed  the 
right  wing  in  the  battles  of  Guilford  Court 
House,  March  15,  1781,  and  Hobkirk's  Hill, 
April  25,  1781.  II.  Francis  Kinlock,  an  Amer 
ican  officer,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1764,  died  in  Charleston,  S.  0.,  Feb.  15,  1855. 
His  father,  Major  Benjamin  Huger,  was  killed 
before  the  lines  of  Charleston  in  1779.  After 
being  a  pupil  of  Dr.  John  Hunter,  and  a  fellow 
student  of  Dr.  Physick  in  Philadelphia,  he  join 
ed  with  Dr.  Eric  Bollmann  in  a  daring  but  un 
successful  attempt  to  rescue  Lafayette  from  Ol- 
miitz.  (See  BOLLMAXX.)  Huger  was  arrested 
and  for  eight  months  kept  in  severe  confine 
ment.  He  returned  home,  and  in  1798  became 
a  captain  in  the  army,  was  a  colonel  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  served  in  both  branches  of  the 
legislature  of  his  state.  HI.  Benjamin,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Charleston  in  1806.  j 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1825,  and  was 
commander  at  Fortress  Monroe  from  1841  to 
1846.  He  served  as  chief  of  ordnance  to  Gen. 
Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  successively  bre- 
vetted  as  major,  lieutenant  colonel,  and  colonel, 
and  from  1854  to  1860  was  in  command  of 
the  arsenal  at  Pikesville,  Md.  He  resigned 


his  commission  in  April,  1861,  entered  the  con 
federate  service,  and  was  soon  made  major 
general.  His  conduct  during  the  campaign  on 
the  peninsula  was  severely  censured,  and  he 
was  removed  from  active  service  soon  after. 

HUGGL\S,  William,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  in  London,  Feb.  7,  1824.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  the  city  of  London  school  and  by  pri 
vate  tutors,  and  devoted  himself  successively 
to  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  micro 
scopy,  attaining  great  proficiency  in  each.  In 
1855  he  erected  an  observatory  near  his  resi 
dence  at  Upper  Tulse  hill,  furnishing  it  with  a 
transit  instrument  and  an  equatorial  of  8  in. 
aperture  manufactured  in  Cambridge,  Mass. 
At  first  he  was  occupied  with  observations  of 
double  stars,  and  he  also  made  drawings  of 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn ;  but  later  he  gave 
almost  his  entire  attention  to  the  application 
of  spectrum  analysis  to  the  examination  of 
comets  and  nebulae,  and  his  most  valuable 
achievements  have  been  in  this  field.  In  1862, 
as  a  preliminary  task,  he  spent  several  months 
in  mapping  the  spectra  of  26  chemical  ele 
ments  ;  the  results  are  published  in  the  "  Phi 
losophical  Transactions  "  for  1864.  In  his  pris 
matic  observation  of  the  stars  he  was  assisted 
by  Dr.  William  A.  Miller,  and  the  gold  medal 
of  the  royal  astronomical  society  was  awarded 
to  them  jointly  in  1867,  Mr.  Huggins  having 
received  one  of  the  royal  medals  in  1866.  He 
has  proved  that  the  proper  motion  of  a  star  in 
the  line  of  sight  can  be  determined  by  any 
small  change  of  position  in  the  lines  of  the 
spectrum,  and  thus  he  calculates  that  Sirius  is 
moving  away  from  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  27 
m.  a  second.  He  has  made  valuable  observa 
tions  on  the  solar  prominences,  showing  how 
their  forms  may  be  seen,  and  has  detected  the 
heat  received  at  the  earth  from  some  of  the 
fixed  stars.  In  1869  he  delivered  the  Rede 
lecture  at  Cambridge,  in  which  he  gave  an  ac 
count  of  his  discoveries.  In  1871  the  royal 
society  placed  at  his  disposal  a  telescope  of 
15  in.  aperture,  which  was  placed  in  a  new  ob 
servatory  at  Upper  Tulse  hill.  For  an  account 
of  his  observations  of  the  spectra  of  comets, 
see  COMET,  vol.  v.,  p.  141. 

HUGH  CAPET,  king  of  France  and  the  found 
er  of  the  Capetian  dynasty,  born  about  940, 
died  Oct.  24,  996.  When  still  a  child  he  in 
herited  from  his  father,  Hugh  the  Great,  the 
duchy  of  France  and  the  county  of  Paris,  thus 
taking  rank  among  the  most  powerful  princes 
of  his  country.  On  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  the 
last  of  the  Carlovingian  kings,  a  number  of  no 
bles  and  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
assembled  at  Senlia  to  settle  the  succession, 
and  selected  Hugh  Capet  in  preference  to  the 
Carlovingian  duke  Charles  of  Lorraine,  the  un 
cle  of  the  late  king.  Hugh  was  consequently 
crowned  at  Noyon,  July  3,  987,  by  the  arch 
bishop  of  Rheims.  Notwithstanding  this  elec 
tion,  Charles  supported  his  claims  to  the  crown 
of  France  by  the  sword,  and  after  four  years' 
hostilities  was  apparently  on  the  point  of  sue- 


HUGHES 


33 


ceeding,  when  lie  was  treacherously  made 
prisoner  by  Adalberon,  bishop  of  Laon,  who 
delivered  him  to  his  rival.  The  unfortunate 
prince  was  sent  to  Orleans,  where  he  soon 
breathed  his  last  in  a  dungeon.  Hugh,  having 
thus  secured  possession  of  the  crown,  associa 
ted  his  son  Robert  in  the  government,  which 
he  settled  on  the  principle  of  hereditary  suc 
cession.  (See  CAPETTANS.) 

HUGHES,  Ball,  an  American  sculptor,  born  in 
London,  England,  Jan.  19,  1804,  died  in  Bos 
ton,  Mass.,  March  5,  1868.  When  only  12 
years  old  he  made  out  of  wax  candle  ends  a 
bass-relief  copy  of  a  picture  representing  the 
wisdom  of  Solomon,  which  was  afterward  cast 
in  silver.  He  spent  seven  years  in  the  studio 
of  Ed  \vard  Hodges  Bailey,  and  competed  suc 
cessfully  for  the  prizes  awarded  by  the  royal 
academy  and  the  society  of  arts  and  sciences. 
Among  his  works  at  this  period,  besides  sev 
eral  ideal  statues,  were  busts  of  George  IV. 
and  the  dukes  of  Sussex,  York,  and  Cambridge. 
In  1829  he  emigrated  to  New  York,  where  he 
executed  a  marble  statue  of  Hamilton,  which 
was  destroyed  in  the  merchants'  exchange,  in 
the  great  fire  of  1835.  He  also  made  a  monu 
mental  alto-relief,  of  life  size,  in  memory  of 
Bishop  Hobart,  which  is  now  in  Trinity  church. 
Several  of  his  casts  are  in  the  Boston  athe- 
najum,  and  his  bronze  statue  of  Nathaniel  Bow- 
ditch  is  in  Mt.  Auburn  cemetery,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  He  also  appeared  as  a  lecturer  on  art. 

HUGHES,  Joliu,  an  American  archbishop,  born 
near  Clogher,  county  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1797, 
died  in  New  York,  Jan.  3,  1864.  He  was, 
to  use  his  own  words  in  his  well  known  letter 
to  Mayor  Harper,  "  the  son  of  a  farmer  of 
moderate  but  comfortable  means."  Being  the 
youngest  of  three  sons,  he  was  allowed  to  in 
dulge  an  early  passion  for  books,  and  was  sent 
for  a  time  to  a  Latin  school.  In  1816  his  father 
came  to  the  LTnited  States.  John  followed 
him  in  1817,  and  in  1818  the  whole  family  set 
tled  near  Chambersburg,  Pa.  Toward  the  end 
of  that  year  John  obtained  admission  to  the 
college  of  Mount  St.  Mary's,  at  Emmettsburg, 
Md.  "  I  was  to  superintend  the  garden,"  he 
afterward  wrote,  "as  a  compensation  for  my 
expenses,  until  I  might  be  appointed  teacher, 
prosecuting  meanwhile  my  studies  under  a  pri 
vate  tutor."  Toward  the  close  of  1825  he  was 
ordained  priest,  and  placed  in  charge  of  a  small 
mission  at  Bedford,  Pa.  A  few  weeks  after 
ward  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's 
church,  Philadelphia,  where  he  soon  gained 
reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator.  On  May  31, 
1829,  he  preached  a  sermon  on  Catholic  eman 
cipation,  which  was  published  in  pamphlet 
form  and  dedicated  to  O'Connell.  In  1830  he 
accepted  a  challenge  from  the  Rev.  John  Breck- 
enridge,  D.  I).,  a  distinguished  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  to  discuss  through  the  press  the 
question,  "  Is  the  Protestant  religion  the  reli 
gion  of  Christ  ?  "  In  1831-'2  he  built  St.  John's 
church,  Philadelphia,  of  which  he  was  the  rec 
tor  as  long  as  he  remained  in  that  city.  In  1834 


he  accepted  a  second  challenge  from  Dr.  Breck- 
enridge  to  a  public  oral  discussion  of  the  ques 
tion,  "Is  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  hostile 
to  liberty  ?  "  The  debate  created  much  inter 
est,  was  brought  to  an  unsatisfactory  termina- 
i  tion,  and  afterward  appeared  in  book  form. 
|  Mr.  Hughes  was  appointed  coadjutor  bishop  of 
|  New  York  in  1837,  received  episcopal  conse 
cration  Jan.  7,  1838,  and  in  1839  became  ad 
ministrator  of  the  diocese,  which  then  com 
prised  the  entire  state  of  New  York  and  part 
of  New  Jersey,  with  a  Catholic  population  of 
200,000,  and  only  40  clergymen.  He  forthwith 
set  to  work  to  remedy  the  evils  springing  from 
the  "  trustee  system  "  of  holding  church  prop 
erty.  The  titles  were  vested  in  laymen,  who 
frequently  came  into  conflict  with  the  episco 
pal  authority,  and  were  sometimes  supported 
in  their  opposition  by  priests  suspended  from 
their  office.  Several  churches  had  in  conse 
quence  been  closed  to  divine  worship;  most  of 
them  had  become  deeply  involved  in  debt,  and 
of  the  eight  churches  in  New  York  city,  five 
were  on  the  point  of  being  sold.  Bishop 
Hughes  set  about  consolidating  these  debts, 
removing  the  lay  trustees,  and  securing  the 
titles  in  his  own  name.  In  spite  of  every  ob 
stacle  he  succeeded,  and  thus  put  an  end  to 
scandalous  contentions.  lie  next  purchased  a 
large  property  at  Fordham,'  Westchester  co., 
with  the  intention  of  opening  there  a  college 
and  theological  seminary.  For  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  money  and  the  aid  of  religious  com 
munities  for  the  institutions  which  he  planned, 
he  went  to  Europe  in  1839.  During  his  ab 
sence  the  Catholics  of  New  York  set  up  an  or 
ganized  opposition  to  the  public  school  system. 
To  prevent  this  movement  from  becoming  a 
purely  political  one,  Bishop  Hughes  on  his  re 
turn  took  himself  the  lead,  and  drew  up  a  pe 
tition  to  the  common  council  praying,  in  the 
name  of  the  Catholic  citizens,  that  seven  pa 
rochial  schools  should  be  designated  as  "enti 
tled  to  participate  in  the  common-school  fund, 
upon  complying  with  the  requirements  of  the 
law."  Remonstrances  to  this  petition  were  sent 
in  by  the  public  school  society  and  the  pastors 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  on  Oct. 
29  both  parties  appeared  before  the  common 
council.  Bishop  Hughes  met  and  answered, 
for  several  days  in  succession,  the  array  of 
eminent  counsel  opposed  to  him,  and  support 
ed  his  petition  in  an  elaborate  speech  ;  but  his 
demands  were  rejected  by  the  common  coun 
cil.  The  matter  was  then  brought  before  the 
legislature  ;  but  being  baffled  in  his  suit  there, 
he  recommended  Catholics  to  nominate  inde 
pendent  candidates  in  the  ensuing  elections ;  a 
movement  which  developed  such  unexpected 
strength  that  a  modification  of  the  school  sys 
tem  was  soon  afterward  effected.  In  1841  he 
I  was  able  to  open  regular  courses  of  classical 
]  and  theological  instruction  in  St.  John's  col- 
i  lege,  Fordham.  In  1842,  after  the  death  of 
I  Bishop  Dubois,  Dr.  Hughes  succeeded  him  as 
!  titular  bishop  of  New  York.  In  August  of 


HUGHES 


HUGO 


that  year  was  held  the  first  diocesan  synod 
of  New  York,  whose  decrees  on  secret  soci 
eties  and  the  tenure  of  church  property  were 
published  officially  by  the  bishop  in  Septem 
ber;  and  this  legislation  was  further  supple 
mented  by  the  publication  in  1845  of  "Rules 
for  the  Administration  of  Churches  without 
Trustees."  On  March  10, 1844,  he  consecrated 
as  his  coadjutor  the  Rev.  John  McCloskey,  D.  D. 
During  the  spring  and  summer  of  this  year 
fears  were  entertained  of  anti-Catholic  riots  in 
New  York,  such  as  had  taken  place  in  Phil 
adelphia.  Bishop  Hughes  thereupon  address 
ed  a  letter  to  Mayor  Harper,  which  calmed 
the  public  excitement,  and  in  a  series  of  let 
ters  denounced  the  editor  of  the  "  New  York 
Herald "  for  attacks  on  himself.  A  second 
visit  to  Europe  in  December,  1845,  enabled 
him  to  secure  the  services  of  the  Jesuits,  Chris 
tian  brothers,  and  sisters  of  mercy.  On  his 
return  he  was  solicited  by  President  Polk  to 
accept  a  peace  mission  to  Mexico,  which  he 
declined.  In  1847  he  delivered  in  the  hall  of 
representatives  at  Washington,  by  request  of 
both  houses  of  congress,  a  discourse  on  "  Chris 
tianity,  the  only  Source  of  Moral,  Social,  and 
Political  Regeneration."  During  this  year  his 
diocese  was  divided  by  the  creation  of  the  sees 
of  Albany  and  Buffalo.  In  1850  the  see  of 
New  York  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank,  and 
Bishop  Hughes  received  the  pallium  as  arch 
bishop  in  Rome  at  the  hands  of  the  pope.  In 
1853  the  sees  of  Brooklyn,  Burlington,  and 
Newark  were  erected,  and  the  new  bishops 
were  consecrated  by  the  nuncio,  Archbishop 
(afterward  Cardinal)  Bedini,  Oct.  30.  Arch 
bishop  Hughes  presided  in  1854  over  the  first 
provincial  council  of  New  York ;  was  in  Rome 
at  the  proclamation  of  the  dogma  of  the  im 
maculate  conception,  Dec.  8  ;  and  on  his  return 
was  involved  in  a  controversy  with  Mr.  Eras- 
tus  Brooks,  the  letters  on  both  sides  being  pub 
lished  in  a  volume  entitled  "  Brooksiana." 
On  Aug.  5,  1855,  he  laid  the  corner  stone  of  a 
new  cathedral  on  Fifth  avenue,  New  York,  the 
largest  yet  planned  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  preceding  autumn,  while  accompanying  the 
nuncio  to  Canada,  he  was  seized  with  lung  fe 
ver,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  never  wholly 
recovered.  He  persisted  nevertheless  in  the 
discharge  of  his  daily  duties,  causing  himself 
toward  the  end  of  his  life  to  be  carried  to  the 
altar  when  conferring  confirmation.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  and  before  ac 
tive  operations  had  begun  in  Virginia,  Arch 
bishop  Hughes,  though  in  very  feeble  health, 
went  to  Washington  to  proffer  the  aid  of  his 
priests,  sisters  of  charity,  and  sisters  of  mer 
cy.  In  November,  1861,  at  the  solicitation  of 
President  Lincoln,  he  went  to  Europe  in  com 
pany  with  Mr.  Thurlow  Weed,  in  order  to  se 
cure  the  friendly  neutrality  of  some  govern 
ments,  particularly  of  the  French  court.  Af 
ter  visiting  France  and  Italy,  he  preached  at 
the  laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  the  Catho 
lic  university  of  Dublin,  June,  1862.  He  ap 


peared  at  the  New  York  academy  of  music 
in  April,  1863,  to  make  an  appeal  in  favor  of 
the  famishing  Irish,  and  in  July  made  his  last 
public  address  to  quell  the  draft  riots.  Thence 
forward  his  strength  steadily  declined  until 
his  death.  His  works  have  been  published  by 
L.  Kehoe  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1864-'o) ;  and 
his  life  has  been  written  by  John  R.  G.  Ilassard 
(Svo,  New  York,  1866). 

HUGHES,  Thomas,  an  English  author,  born 
near  Newbury,  Berkshire,  Oct.  20,  1823.  He 
was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  graduated  at  Oriel 
college,  Oxford,  in  1845.  He  studied  law,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1848,  and  beeame  queen's 
counsel  in  1869.  From  1865  to  1868  he  was  a 
liberal  member  of  parliament  for  the  borough 
of  Lambeth,  and  from  1868  to  January,  1874, 
for  the  borough  of  Frome,  which  was  not  con 
tested  by  the  liberals  in  the  election  of  Feb 
ruary,  1874,  and  consequently  a  conservative 
took  his  place.  While  in  parliament  he  sup 
ported  the  bills  for  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  church,  and  for  secularizing  the  universi 
ties,  abolishing  tests,  and  admitting  dissenters 
to  fellowship  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  He 
took  an  active  interest  in  educational  and  so 
cial  questions  and  in  all  measures  for  the  im 
provement  of  the  laboring  classes.  In  1869 
and  1870  he  visited  the  United  States,  lecturing 
in  the  principal  cities,  and  was  well  received. 
He  is  the  author  of  "Tom  Brown's  School 
Days,"  a  graphic  description  of  life  at  Rugby 
school  under  Dr.  Arnold  (1856) ;  a  sequel  to  it 
entitled  "Tom  Brown  at  Oxford"  (1861); 
"  The  Scouring  of  the  White  Horse  "  (1858)  ; 
"  Religio  Laici,"  a  semi-theological  essay  (1862) ; 
"Alfred  the  Great"  (1869);  and  "Memoirs 
of  a  Brother  "  (1873).  He  has  also  written 
critical  prefaces  to  English  editions  of  a  work 
on  "Trades  Unions"  by  the  count  de  Paris, 
Lowell's  "  Biglow  Papers,"  and  the  poems  of 
Walt  Whitman. 

HIGHS,  a  S.  county  of  Dakota,  bounded  S. 
W.  by  the  Missouri,  recently  formed  and  not 
included  in  the  census  of  1870 ;  area,  about 
800  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  East  Medicine 
Knoll  river,  and  watered  by  several  small 
affluents  of  the  Missouri. 

HUGO,  Gnstav,  a  German  jurist,  born  at  Lor- 
rach,  Baden,  Nov.  23,  1764,  died  in  Gottingen 
Sept.  16,  1844.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  from 
1782'  to  1785,  and  first  became  known  by  his 
edition  of  the  "  Fragments  of  Ulpian  "  (Gottin 
gen,  1788).  In  17H8  he  was  appointed  professor 
extraordinary  and  in  1792  regular  professor  of 
law  at  the  university  of  Gottingen.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  follow  the  example  of  Leib 
nitz  and  of  Putter,  presenting  the  Roman  law 
classified  with  reference  to  the  principal  eras 
of  its  history.  His  principal  works  are  :  Lehr- 
Imch  der  Q-eschichte  des  romischen  Reclits  (Ber 
lin,  1790;  9th  ed.,  1824);  Lehrluch  eines 
cimlistiscJien  Curms  (7  vols.,  1799-1812)  ;  and 
Beitrage  zur  cimlistischen  Bucherkenntniss  der 
letzten  merzig  Jahre  (2  vols.,  1829).  He  edited 
the  Civil istische  Magazin  from  1814  to  1837. 


HUGO 


35 


HrCO,  Victor  Marie,  a  French  poet  and  novel 
ist,  born  in  Besancon,  Feb.  26,  1802.  The  son 
of  an  officer  whose  military  duties  called  him 
out  of  France,  he  was  carried  in  childhood  to 
Elba,  Corsica,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  In 
1809  he  was  taken  to  Paris ;  and  here  for  two 
years,  under  the  exclusive  supervision  of  his 
mother  and  the  care  of  an  old  priest,  he  com 
menced  his  classical  studies  in  company  with 
an  elder  brother,  Eugene,  and  a  young  girl 
who  afterward  became  his  wife.  In  1811, 
his  father  having  been  made  general  and 
appointed  major-domo  of  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
the  new  king  of  Spain,  Victor  went  to  Madrid, 
and  entered  the  seminary  of  nobles  with  a 
view  of  becoming  one  of  the  pages  of  Joseph  ; 
but  subsequent  events  defeated  this  design. 
In  1812  Mine.  Hugo  returned  to  Paris  with  her 
two  sons,  and  had  their  classical  education 
continued  by  the  same  clergyman  who  had 
already  instructed  them.  On  the  fall  of  the 
empire  a  separation  took  place  between  the 
general  and  his  wife ;  and  thenceforth  the 
young  man  was  placed  entirely  under  the  con 
trol  of  the  former.  He  entered  a  private 
academy  to  prepare  himself  for  admission  to 
the  polytechnic  school.  Here  he  evinced  some 
taste  and  ability  for  mathematics,  but  a  much 
stronger  inclination  toward  poetry;  and  his 
first  poems  gave  promise  of  such  talent  that 
his  father  was  finally  persuaded  to  allow  him 
to  follow  literature  as  his  vocation.  In  1817 
he  presented  to  the  French  academy  a  poem 
upon  Les  wantages  de  V etude.  He  afterward 
won  three  prizes  in  succession  at  the  Toulouse 
academy  of  floral  games.  His  first  volume  of 
Odes  et  ballades  (1822)  created  a  sensation. 
Two  novels,  Han  d^Islande  (1823)  and  Bug- 
Jargal  (1825),  exhibited  him  as  an  original 
and  forcible  prose  writer,  but  already  displayed 
that  predilection  for  the  horrible  and  mon 
strous  which  characterizes  most  of  his  greater 
productions.  His  second  volume  of  Odes  et 
ballades  appeared  in  1826.  About  this  pe 
riod,  in  conjunction  with  Sainte-Beuve,  An- 
toine  and  £mile  Deschamps,  A.  de  Vigny,  Bou- 
langer  the  painter,  and  David  the  sculptor, 
he  formed  a  kind  of  literary  association,  called 
the  Cenacle,  in  the  meetings  of  which  new 
literary  and  artistic  doctrines  were  debated. 
They  also  established  a  periodical,  called  La 
m-use  franpaise,  which  attracted  little  attention. 
The  drama  of  Cromwell  (1827),  although  un 
suitable  for  the  stage,  was  presented  as  a  spe 
cimen  of  the  literary  reforms  aimed  at  by  the 
new  school ;  but  it  had  much  less  importance 
than  the  preface,  which  was  a  treatise  on  «3S- 
thetics.  Thenceforth  Victor  Hugo  was  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  the  romanticists,  wlib 
waged  earnest  war  against  their  opponents, 
the  classicists.  His  claims  to  this  distinction 
were  strengthened  in  1828  by  the  publication 
of  Les  orientates.  Le  dernier  jour  d'un  con- 
damne,  which  followed,  fascinated  the  public 
by  its  vivid  delineation  of  the  mental  tortures 
of  a  man  doomed  to  execution.  The  contest 


between  the  two  opposite  schools  reached  its 
climax  when,  on  Feb.  26,  1830,  the  drama  of 
Hernani  was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Fran- 
£ais.  In  1831  Hugo  won  another  dramatic 
triumph  with  Marion  Delorme,  while  his  lyri 
cal  poems  Les  feuilles  d'automne  and  his  nov 
el  Notre  Dame  de  Paris  were  received  with 
enthusiasm.  The  performance  of  his  dramas, 
Le  roi  s1  amuse  (1832),  Lucrece  Borgia  and  Ma 
rie  Tudor  (1833),  Angela,  tyran  de  Padoue 
(1835),  Euy  Bias  (1838),  and  especially  Les 
burgraves  (1843),  drew  forth  marked  appro 
bation;  his  political  poems,  Les.  chants  du 
crepuscule  (1835),  Les  voix  interieures  (1837), 
and  Les  rayons  et  les  ombres  (1840),  were  high 
ly  popular ;  and  his  miscellaneous  writings, 
Claude  Gueux,  Etude  sur  Mirabeau,  Littera- 
ture  et  pliilosopJiie  melees  (1834),  and  Le  Rhin 
(1842),  were  scarcely  less  successful.  His  lite 
rary  reputation  had  secured  his  election  to  the 
French  academy  in  1841,  notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  the  members  attached  to  the  old 
classic  school ;  and  having  thus  reached  the 
highest  distinction  in  literature,  he  now  in 
dulged  in  political  aspirations,  which  were 
partly  gratified  by  his  being  created  in  1845  a 
peer  of  France  by  King  Louis  Philippe.  On 
the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  he  was 
elected  a  deputy  to  the  constituent  assembly, 
where  he  generally  voted  with  the  conserva 
tive  party.  On  his  reelection  to  the  legislative 
assembly,  he  evinced  more  democratic  and  so 
cialistic  tendencies.  In  vehement  speeches  he 
denounced  the  reactionary  tendencies  of  the 
majority,  and  the  secret  policy  of  President 
Louis  Napoleon.  On  the  coup  cVi'tat  of  Dec. 
2,  1851,  Hugo  was  among  .those  deputies  who 
vainly  attempted  to  assert  the  rights  of  the  as 
sembly  and  to  preserve  the  constitution.  His 
conduct  led  to  his  proscription ;  he  took  refuge 
in  the  island  of  Jersey,  where,  while  resuming 
his  literary  pursuits,  he  continued  his  opposi 
tion  to  Louis  Napoleon,  publishing  Napoleon 
le  Petit  (1852),  and  his  bitter  satires  Les  clid- 
timents  (1853).  Two  years  later  he  Avas  com 
pelled,  on  account  of  some  hostile  manifesta 
tion  to  the  French  government,  to  remove  to 
the  island  of  Guernsey.  He  refused  to  accept 
the  amnesty  offered  to  political  exiles  in  1859. 
In  1856  he  published  Les  contemplations,  a 
collection  of  lyrical  and  personal  poems,  and 
in  1859  La  legende  dcs  sieclcs  (2  vols.  8vo),  a 
series  of  poems  mainly  of  an  epical  character. 
Les  miseral)les,  a  romance  which  had  been  an 
nounced  several  years  before,  appeared  in  nine 
languages  simultaneously  at  Paris,  London, 
Brussels,  Madrid,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  Tu 
rin,  and  New  York  (April,  1862).  Its  success 
equalled  that  of  any  of  his  previous  works. 
An  illustrated  edition,  published,  in  parts 
(Paris,  1863-'5),  attained  a  sale  of  150,000  cop 
ies.  In  1865  he  published  Chansons  desrues  et 
des  J0&,  in  which  all  the  peculiarities  of  the 
author  were  exhibited  in  an  exaggerated  de 
gree.  Les  travaillenrs  de  la  mer  (1866)  was 
j  also  very  popular  ;  but  Uliomme  qui  rit  (1869), 


36 


HUGO 


HUGUENOTS 


in  which  the  author's  fondness  for  monstrous 
caricature  was  carried  to  its  height,  did  not 
attain  so  great  a  success.  In  1809  he  again 
refused  to  avail  himself  of  the  privilege  of 
returning  to  France  afforded  him  by  the  em 
peror's  proclamation  of  amnesty  of  Aug.  15. 
He  published  in  the  Rappel  a  protest  against 
the  plebiscite  of  May  8,  1870,  ratifying  the 
new  reforms  of  the  empire,  the  violence  of 
which  caused  it  to  be  officially  condemned. 
After  the  fall  of  the  emperor  and  the  procla 
mation  of  the  republic  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  soon  after  issued  an  address  to  the  Ger 
mans  calling  upon  them  to  proclaim  a  Ger 
man  republic  and  extend  the  hand  of  friendship 
to  France.  On  Feb.  8,  1871,  he  was  elected 
one  of  the  43  representatives  of  the  department 
of  the  Seine  in  the  national  assembly.  He 
there  vehemently  opposed  the  parliamentary 
treaty  of  peace  between  France  and  Germany. 
This  aroused  against  him  the  anger  of  the  par 
ty  of  "the  right,"  and  on  March  8,  when  he 
attempted  to  address  the  assembly,  the  oppo 
sition  was  so  violent  that  he  left  the  tribune 
and  immediately  resigned  his  seat.  Returning 
to  Paris  when  the  insurrection  of  the  commune 
broke  out,  he  vainly  protested  in  the  Rappel 
against  the  destruction  of  the  Vendome  col 
umn,  and  soon  after  went  to  Brussels,  where  on 
May  26  he  wrote  a  letter  protesting  against 
the  course  of  the  Belgian  government  in  re 
gard  to  the  insurgents  of  Paris,  and  offering 
an  asylum  to  the  soldiers  of  the  commune. 
This  excited  the  hostility  of  the  Belgian  gov 
ernment  and  of  the  populace  of  Brussels;  his 
house  was  surrounded  in  the  night  by  a  mob, 
and  he  escaped  only  by  the  intervention  of  the 
police.  Being  required  by  the  government  to 
quit  Brussels,  he  went  to  London,  and  after 
the  condemnation  of  the  leaders  of  the  com 
mune  he  returned  to  Paris  and  interceded 
with  M.  Thiers  energetically,  though  vainly, 
in  behalf  of  Rossel,  Rochefort,  and  others  of 
the  communist  leaders.  At  the  election  in 
Paris  on  Jan.  7,  1872,  he  was  presented  by  all 
the  radical  newspapers  as  their  candidate,  but 
was  defeated.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  a 
new  edition  of  Les  clidtiments  was  published, 
and  more  than  100,000  copies  were  sold.  In 
1872  he  published  a  volume  of  poetry  entitled 
VAnnee  terrible,  depicting  the  misfortunes  of 
France.  On  May  10  of  that  year  he  com 
menced,  in  company  with  his  son  Francois  and 
others,  the  publication  of  a  democratic  journal 
called  Le  Peuple  Souverain.  His  latest  novel, 
Quatre-mngt-treize  (1874),  relates  to  the  war 
in  the  Vendee,  and  introduces  Robespierre, 
Danton,  and  Marat.  It  was  published  simul 
taneously  in  French,  English,  Russian,  Italian, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  Hungarian,  and 
other  languages,  Hugo  deriving  80,000  francs 
from  these  translations  alone.  The  latest  edi 
tion  of  Hugo's  works,  complete  to  the  time  of 
publication,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1862-'3, 
in  20  vols.  12mo. — Two  of  his  sons,  CHARLES 
VICTOR  (born  in  1826,  died  March  16,  1871), 


\  and  FRANC,  ois  VICTOR  (born  in  1828,  died  Dec. 

;  26,  1873),  distinguished  themselves  as  pupils  of 
the  Charlemagne  college,  and^in  1848-'50  con 
tributed  to  the  newspaper  L 'Evenement,  which 
supported  the  politics  of  their  father.  The 
elder,  on  account  of  an  article  on  the  death 

|  penalty,  was  sentenced  to  six  months'  impris 
onment.  Both  accompanied  their  father  in  his 
exile,  and  devoted  their  leisure  hours  to  litera- 

I  ture.  Charles  published  several  light  novels, 
among  which  La  Boheme  dorec  was  especially 
successful.  Francois,  after  translating  with 
considerable  success  the  sonnets  of  Shake 
speare  into  French,  began  in  1859  a  translation 
of  his  dramatic  works,  which  he  completed  in 
1865.  The  brothers  returned  to  France  in 
1869,  and  commenced  the  publication  of  the 
Rappel  in  company  with  Rochefort,  who  how 
ever  soon  separated  from  them.  Francois  at 
the  time  of  his  death  had  nearly  completed 
an  edition  of  a  posthumous  work  by  his  broth 
er  Charles,  Les  homines  de  Vexil. — One  of  the 
two  brothers  of  Victor  Hugo,  JULES  ABEL 
(born  in  1798,  died  in  1855),  deserves  mention 
as  a  literary  man.  Among  his  many  publica 
tions  were :  Ilistoire  de  la  campayne  d  Espagne 
en  1823  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1824);  France  pit- 
toresque,  ou  Description  des  departements  et 
colonies  de  la  France,  &c.  (3  vols.  4to,  1833)  ; 
France  militaire,  histoire  des  arinees  francaises 
de  terre  et  de  mer  de  1792  d  1833  (5  vols.  4to, 
1834) ;  and  France  historique  et  monumentale, 
Ilistoire  generale  de  France  depuis  les  temps  les 
plus  recules  jusqii*  d  nos  jours  (5  vols.  4to,  with 
maps  and  plans,  1836-'43). 

HUGUEXOTS,  a  name  of  uncertain  origin,  first 
applied  by  the  Roman  Catholics  of  France  to 
all  partisans  of  the  reformation,  but  subse 
quently  restricted  to  the  Calvinists.  Some  de 
rive  it  from  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city  of 
Tours  called  Hugons,  at  which  these  Protestants 
held  some  of  their  first  assemblies  ;  others  from 
the  words  Hue  nos,  with  which  their  protest 
commenced ;  others  from  aignos  (Ger.  Eidge- 
noss),  a  confederate.  The  Dictionnaire  de  Tre- 
voux  suggests  its  derivation  from  the  hiding  in 
secret  places  and  appearing  at  night  like  King 
Hugon,  the  great  hobgoblin  of  France.  Prof. 
Malm,  in  his  Etymologisclie  Untersuchiingcn, 
who  quotes  no  fewer  than  15  different  deriva 
tions,  derives  the  word  himself  from  Hugues, 
the  name  of  some  conspirator  or  heretic,  from 
which  it  was  formed  by  the  addition  of  the 
French  diminutive  ending  ot.  The  reformation 
in  France  was  but  little  influenced  by  Luther, 
and  before  Calvin  took  the  lead  was  almost 
entirely  self-developing.  "It  was  not,"  says 
D'Aubigne,  "a  foreign  importation.  It  was 
born  on  French  soil ;  it  germinated  in  Paris ; 
it  put  forth  its  shoots  in  the  university  itself, 
that  second  authority  in  Romish  Christendom." 
Anti-Catholic  influences  had  been  at  work  in 
France  from  an  early  age.  Arianism  had  for 
several  centuries  been  the  prevailing  religion 

j  of  a  part  of  southern  France,  and  though  it 

|  was  finally  rooted  out  by  the  victory  of  the 


HUGUENOTS 


Catholic  Franks,  there  remained  a  widespread  j 
dissatisfaction  with  the  religion  of  the  victors.  : 
Throughout  the  middle  ages  the  national  senti-  j 
ment  of  the  race  of  Languedoc,  as  the  history 
of  the  Albigenses  and  kindred  sects  amply  , 
proves,  was  prone  to  sympathize  and  to  iden-  j 
tify  itself  with  demands  for  religious  reform, 
and  even  with  open  secession  from  the  church 
of  Home.  (See  CATIIARISTS.)  To  these  influ 
ences  was  added  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I. 
the  very  important  aid  of  courtly  fashion,  or 
rather  the  sympathy  of  those  nobles  and  schol 
ars  who  had  become  interested  in  the  revival 
of  letters,  and  who  in  France,  as  in  Germany 
and  other  countries  of  Europe,  were  involved 
in  animated  conflicts  with  the  monks  and  the 
prominent  theologians  of  the  churches.  These 
elements  of  courtly,  scholarly,  or  popular  op 
position  to  the  church  gave  birth  not  merely 
to  the  humor  of  Rabelais,  but  to  the  poetry 
and  philosophy  which  sprung  up  around  the 
beautiful  Marguerite  of  Valois,  queen  of  Na 
varre,  from  whom  the  spirit  of  the  reforma 
tion  was  transmitted  to  Jeanne  d'Albret,  the 
mother  of  Henry  IV.  At  this  court  all  poets, 
scholars,  and  clergymen  more  or  less  tinctured 
with  the  spirit  of  reform,  such  as  Lefevre, 
Farel,  and  Roussel,  were  welcome;  and  for  a 
time  it  seemed  as  though  the  court  and  the 
government  of  France  might  be  gained  for  the 
cause  of  the  reformation.  But  at  length  Fran 
cis  I.,  like  his  opponent  the  emperor  Charles 
V.,  decided  in  favor  of  the  old  church,  as  the 
papal  nuncio  succeeded  in  convincing  him  that 
"  a  new  religion  disseminated  among  the  peo 
ple  must  result  in  a  change  of  kings."  In  the 
city  of  Meaux,  around  its  bishop  Briconnet,  a 
large  body  of  men  inclined  to  the  new  faith 
began,  without  formally  professing  schism,  to 
act  as  reformers.  Among  these  were  Gerard 
Roussel,  Francois  Vatable,  Martial  Mazurier,  j 
Josse"  Clicthou,  Michel  d'Arande,  and  Guil- 
laume  Farel.  Their  labors,  joined  to  the  po 
litical  and  social  agitations  of  the  day,  soon  at 
tracted  persecution.  It  is  remarkable  that  this 
persecution  in  France  acted  so  effectually  on 
the  French  reformation  as  to  free  it  in  a  great 
measure  from  excesses  such  as  those  of  the 
Anabaptists  in  Germany.  Yet  it  would  prob 
ably  have  fallen  away  had  not  the  strong  hand 
of  Calvin  taken  it  up  (1528).  Hence  wo  find 
the  French  reformers  embodying  Calvin's  ideas 
of  church  government  ai.d  discipline  in  a  com 
mon  confession  of  faith,  which  was  formally 
done  at  the  celebrated  general  synod  in  May, 
1559.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (1547-'59)  j 
the  Huguenots  gathered  such  strength  as  to  i 
entertain  hopes  of  becoming  the  dominant  po-  I 
litical  party  ;  hopes  which  were  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  several  of  the  royal  family,  such 
as  the  king  of  Navarre,  his  brother  the  prince  \ 
de  Conde,  and  many  of  the  nobility,  including 
the  Chatillons  and  Admiral  Coligni,  favored  j 
the  reformation.  From  this  blending  of  re-  I 
ligious  reform  with  politics  arose  the  conspira 
cy  of  Amboise,  whose  object  was  to  overthrow  | 


the  power  of  Duke  Fran9ois  of  Guise  and  his 
brother  the  cardinal  de  Lorraine,  who  with 
Mary  of  Scotland  ruled  the  kingdom  through  the 
feeble-minded  boy-king  Francis  II.  The  king 
of  Navarre  and  prince  de  Conde  were  deeply 
involved  in  this  plot,  and  would  have  suffered 
death  with  their  Calvinist  friends  had  it  not 
been  for  the  unexpected  demise  of  the  king. 
This  occasioned  a  pause  in  persecution,  of  which 
the  queen  mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  and 
the  ruling  party  availed  themselves  for  politi 
cal  purposes,  becoming  more  moderate  in  their 
treatment  of  reformers.  By  extending  tolera 
tion  to  the  Augsburg  confession,  the  cardinal 
de  Lorraine  shrewdly  fomented  quarrels  be 
tween  the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans.  This 
state  of  affairs,  which  led  to  terrible  commo 
tions,  was  again  temporarily  checked  by  the 
edict  of  January,  1502.  At  this  time,  during 
the  reigns  of  two  successive  kings  whose  in 
tellectual  inferiority  rendered  a  regency  always 
necessary  (after  1559),  Catharine  de'  Medici 
held  the  reins  of  authority,  while  the  dukes 
of  Guise  supported  by  the  Catholics,  and  the 
princes  of  Bourbon  by  the  Huguenots,  contend 
ed  for  the  regency.  Some  liberal  concessions, 
made  for  the  sake  of  policy  by  Catharine  and 
the  Guises  to  the  Huguenots,  excited  the  anger 
of  the  Catholics,  and  to  allay  these  feelings  war 
was  renewed  and  raged  till  the  peace  of  St. 
Germain  (1670),  when  full  liberty  was  guaran 
teed  the  Huguenots,  and  the  king's  sister  given 
as  wife  to  Henry  of  Navarre.  The  leading 
Protestants  were  invited  to  Paris  to  the  nup 
tials,  where  on  the  day  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
1572,  a  general  massacre  of  Protestants  was  at 
tempted  at  the  instigation  of  the  queen  mother. 
The  Huguenots,  with  Henry  of  Navarre  as  lead 
er,  now  battled  against  the  holy  league  formed 
by  the  Guises  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Charles 
IX.  died  a  victim  to  nervous  excitement  (1574), 
and  Henry  III.,  disgusted  with  the  tyranny  of 
the  league,  had  Henry,  duke  of  Guise,  and  the 
cardinal  put  to  death,  and  fled  for  safety  to 
the  Protestant  camp.  He  was  himself  assassi 
nated  by  the  Dominican  Clement  (1589),  and 
was  succeeded  by  Henry  of  Navarre,  who,  to 
pacify  these  terrible  disorders  in  France,  be 
came  a  Catholic,  but  secured  full  freedom  of 
conscience  and  all  political  and  religious  rights 
to  the  Huguenots  by  the  edict  of  Nantes  (1598). 
The  murder  of  Henry  IV.  by  Ravaillac  (1G10) 
left  the  Protestants  without  a  protector.  Under 
his  young  son  and  successor  Louis  XIII.  their 
rights  were  soon  attacked.  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
determined  to  build  up  royal  power  and  crush 
all  jarring  elements,  at  one  time  made  war 
upon  the  Protestants,  driving  them  into  an  un 
lucky  league  with  England,  which  resulted  in 
the  siege  and  capitulation  of  La  Rochelle.  But 
his  treatment  of  them  was  on  the  whole  toler 
ant,  though  its  ultimate  result  was  to  greatly  di 
minish  their  numbers  and  weaken  their  power. 
From  1G29  to  1001,  under  Richelieu  and  espe 
cially  under  his  successor  Mazarin,  there  was 
comparative  rest.  After  the  death  of  Mazarin 


38 


HUGUENOTS 


HULL 


several  edicts  were  again  published  in  rapid 
succession  which  aimed  at  reducing  and  finally 
exterminating  the  Huguenots.  Colbert,  from 
considerations  of  national  economy,  made  the 
utmost  efforts  to  secure  toleration  for  them, 
but  they  were  of  little  avail.  Two  years  after 
his  death,  in  1G85,  Louis  XIV.  published  the 
celebrated  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
on  which  occasion  at  least  500,000  Protestants 
took  refuge  in  foreign  countries.  From  this 
time,  for  many  years,  their  cause  was  com 
pletely  broken  in  France.  In  the  wild  moun 
tains  of  the  Cevennes,  the  religious  peasants, 
under  the  name  of  Camisards,  waged  war 
against  the  royal  troops  for  the  defence  of 
Protestant  principles ;  but  they  had  finally  to 
succumb.  In  1705  there  was  not  a  single  or 
ganized  congregation  of  Huguenots  left  in  all 
France.  Soon,  however,  the  scattered  rem 
nants  were  again  collected  and  the  church  re 
organized  by  the  indefatigable  Jean  Court. 
Although  under  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  severe 
ordinances  were  again  issued  against  them, 
they  continued  to  increase,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  century  found  a  powerful  aid  in  men 
like  Montesquieu  and  Voltaire.  Their  position 
was  greatly  improved  on  the  accession  of  Louis 
XVI.  (1774),  and  finally  the  revolution  restored 
to  them  their  full  rights,  which  have  been  sub 
stantially  respected  by  all  the  succeeding  gov 
ernments  of  France.  The  right  of  convening 
general  synods  of  the  church  was,  however, 
not  recovered  till  1872.  The  term  Huguenot 
had  long  before  ceased  to  be  the  common  name 
of  the  church,  which  is  now  known  as  the  Re 
formed  church  of  France. — So  early  as  1555, 
Coligni  attempted,  but  without  success,  to  es 
tablish  a  Huguenot  colony  in  Brazil.  In  1562 
he  sent  out  two  ships,  under  the  command  of 
Jean  Ribault,  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  to 
Florida,  but  the  attempt  to  establish  a  colony 
was  unsuccessful.  Many  departed  for  North 
America  even  before  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  Some  settled  in  and  around 
New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York,  where  their 
family  names  are  frequent.  Others  found  homes 
in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Virginia. 
But  South  Carolina  was  their  favorite  resting 
place,  and  a  large  number  of  the  foremost 
families  in  that  state  are  of  Huguenot  origin. 
This  class  of  emigrants  has  contributed,  in 
proportion  to  its  numbers,  a  vast  share  to  the 
culture  and  prosperity  of  the  United  States. 
Wherever  they  settled  they  were  noted  for 
severe  morality,  great  charity,  and  politeness 
and  elegance  of  manners.  Of  seven  presidents 
who  directed  the  deliberations  of  the  congress 
of  Philadelphia  during  the  revolution,  three, 
Henry  Laurens,  John  Jay,  and  Elias  Boudinot, 
were  of  Huguenot  parentage. — Among  the  co 
pious  existing  sources  of  Huguenot  history, 
the  pjincipal  are  :  Beza,  Ilixtoire  cede  sin  utiqiie 
dcs  Eglises  reformees  du  royaume  de  France 
(Antwerp,  1580);  Weiss,  Hlstoire  des  refugies 
protfutanta  de  France  (Paris,  1843  ;  translated 
by  H.  W.  Herbert,  New  York,  1854) ;  Gieseler, 


Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte  (Bonn,  1845- 
'7) ;  Berthold,  Deutschland  und  die  Hugenotten 
(Bremen,  1848)  ;  Felice,  Plistoire  des  protes- 
tants  de  France  (Paris,  1851);  the  Bulletin 
de  la  societe  de  Vhistoire  du  protestantisme 
francais  ;  La  France  protestante,  by  Eugene 
and  Emile  Ilaag  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1859)  ;  Smiles, 
"  The  Huguenots:  their  Settlements,  Churches, 
and  Industries  in  England  arid  Ireland  "  (Lon 
don,  1867 ;  American  edition,  New  York,  1869, 
containing  a  valuable  appendix  on  the  Hugue 
nots  in  the  United  States,  by  G.  P.  Disosway, 
a  descendant  of  a  Huguenot  family);  Hugues, 
Histoire  de  la  restauration  du  protestantisme 
de  France  au  XV III*  siecle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1872). 
HULIN,  or  Hnllin,  Pierre  Augnstin,  count,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  6,  1758, 
died  Jan.  9,  1841.  He  enlisted  in  the  army 
when  scarcely  13  years  old,  entered  the  regi 
ment  of  French  guards,  and  was  a  sergeant 
when  the  revolution  broke  out.  He  sided  with 
the  people,  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor 
and  humanity  at  the  taking  of  the  Bastile, 
July  14,  1789,  and  was  appointed  captain  in  the 
national  guards  under  Lafayette.  During  the 
reign  of  terror  he  was  imprisoned,  but  was 
liberated  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In 
1796  he  joined  the  army  of  Italy  under  Bona 
parte,  who  appointed  him  adjutant  general ; 
he  was  governor  of  Milan  in  1797-'8,  and  was 
in  Paris  on  the  18th  Brumaire,  when  he  sup 
ported  his  general.  He  followed  Bonaparte  in 
Italy  during  the  campaign  of  Marengo  ;  was 
made  brigadier  general  in  1803  ;  presided  over 
the  court  martial  which  sentenced  the  duke 
d'Enghien  to  death,  March  21,  1804;  received 
the  rank  of  general  of  division  and  the  com 
mand  of  the  first  military  division  in  1807 ; 
and  was  the  next  year  created  count  of  the 
empire.  He  held  the  command  of  Paris  until 
the  first  restoration;  and  although,  after  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  he  had  sent  in  his 
adhesion  to  the  new  government,  he  was  dis 
missed  by  the  Bourbons.  He  resumed  his  post 
during  the  hundred  days,  was  arrested  on  the 
second  restoration,  and  compelled  to  leave 
France,  but  was  allowed  to  return  in  1819. 
Under  the  title  of  Explications  offertcs  aux 
hommes  impartiaux  au  si/jet  de  la  commission 
militaire  instituted  e'n  Van  XII  pour  juger  le 
due  (PEngliien  (Paris,  1823),  he  published  a 
plain  account  of  his  part  in  that  tragedy. 

HILL,  or  Kiiigston-upoii-Hnil,  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  and  seaport  of  Eng 
land,  in  the  East  riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
river  Hull,  at  its  mouth  in  the  Humber,  34  m. 

I  S.  E.  of  York,  154  m.  N.  of  London,  and  20 
in.  from  the  sea;  pop.  in  1871,  121,598.  It  is 
built  on  a  low  plain,  protected  against  inunda 
tion  by  artificial  means,  and  extends  more  than 
2  m.  along  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hull,  and  near- 

j  ly  the  same  distance  along  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Humber.  The  streets  are  very  irregular,  but 
are  mostly  well  paved,  lighted,  and  drained. 
The  residences  of  the  wealthy  inhabitants  are 
principally  in  the  parish  of  Sculcoates  and  the 


HULL 


39 


quarter  called  Myton.  A  part  of  the  town 
built  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Hull  is  con 
nected  with  the  remainder  by  a  bridge  of  four 
arches.  On  the  point  of  land  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  two  rivers  there  is  a  fort  which 
commands  the  whole  harbor.  Adjoining  it  is 
the  Victoria  dock.  The  old  dock,  opened  in 
1778  on  the  Hull,  is  nine  acres  in  extent,  and 
can  accommodate  100  square-rigged  ships. 
There  is  also  a  railway  dock  at  the  terminus 
of  the  Hull  and  Selby  railway.  Other  docks 
have  been  built  of  late  years,  and  the  total 
area  of  all  the  docks  of  Hull  in  1874  was 
about  87i  acres.  The  principal  public  build 
ings  are  the  custom  house,  exchange,  post 


Town  Hall,  Hull. 

office,  mansion  house,  courts  of  law,  jail  and 
house  of  correction,  assembly  rooms  and  muse 
um,  concert  rooms,  two  theatres,  several  banks, 
and  corn  exchange.  The  Holy  Trinity  church 
is  a  handsome  cruciform  edifice  of  several 
dates;  the  oldest  portion  was  built  in  1270. 
The  town  has  several  charitable  schools,  one 
of  which  educates  30  boys  to  be  seamen,  and 
is  connected  with  the  Trinity  house  founded  in 
1300  for  the  relief  of  decayed  seamen  and  the 
widows  of  seamen.  There  is  a  marine  hos 
pital  attached  to  it.  Hull  college,  founded  in 
1838,  occupies  a  fine  Grecian  building.  There 
are  also  a  lunatic  asylum,  a  general  infirmary, 
a  school  of  medicine  and  anatomy,  various  lit 
erary  associations  with  libraries,  and  botanic 


and  zoological  gardens  and  a  "  People's  Park  " 
of  27  acres  given  by  Sir  Z.  C.  Pearson  in  18(54. 
The  manufactures  include  canvas,  chains,  ma 
chinery,  earthenware,  chemicals,  leather,  su 
gar,  cotton  and  linen  goods,  &c.  There  are 
ship-building  yards,  rope  walks,  saw  mills, 
grist  mills,  bone  mills,  and  oil  mills.  The 
principal  exports  are  hardware  and  manufac 
tures  of  cotton  and  woollen ;  the  imports, 
timber,  tar,  pitch,  rosin,  grain,  wool,  flax, 
hemp,  iron,  hides,  tallow,  horns,  bones,  &:c. 
The  trade  is  chiefly  along  the  coast,  with  the 
Baltic  ports,  and  with  Germany,  Holland,  Bel 
gium,  Denmark,  and  America.  Hull  is  an  im 
portant  station  for  steam  packets  which  connect 
it  with  various  ports  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
continent,  and  also  has  railway  communication 
with  nearly  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  to 
tal  imports  in  1871  were  valued  at  £15,076,095, 
the  exports  at  £27,387,071.  The  entrances 
were  3,417  vessels,  of  1,188,841  tons;  clear 
ances,  2,911  vessels,  of  1,044,158  tons.  Hull 
ranks  as  the  third  port  in  the  kingdom. 

HILL,  Isaac,  an  American  naval  officer,  born 
I  at  Derby,  Conn.,  March  9,  1775,  died  in  Phila- 
j  delphia,  Feb.  3,  1843.  He  commenced  his  ca 
reer  in  the  merchant  service,  and  was  commis 
sioned  as  lieutenant  in  the  navy  at  the  com 
mencement  of  hostilities  with  France  in  1798. 
In  1800  he  was  first  lieutenant  of  the  frigate  Con 
stitution,  and  performed  a  very  gallant  achieve 
ment  in  cutting  out  a  French  letter  of  marque 
from  under  the  guns  of  a  strong  battery  in  the 
harbor  of  Port  Platte,  Santo  Domingo.  During 
the  war  with  Tripoli,  1802-'o,  Hull  served  with 
distinction  in  the  several  attacks  on  the  city  of 
Tripoli  in  July,  August,  and  September,  1804, 
and  subsequently  cooperated  with  Gen.  Eaton 
in  the  capture  of  Derne.  In  1800  he  was  made 
captain.  At  the  opening -of  the  war  of  1812 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
he  was  in  command  of  the  frigate  Constitu 
tion,  and  in  July  of  that  year,  while  cruising 
off  Few  York,  he  fell  in  with  a  British  squad 
ron  consisting  of  a  razee  of  64  guns  and  four 
frigates,  which  chased  the  Constitution  closely 
for  nearly  three  days  and  nights.  By  the 
greatest  efforts,  and  the  exercise  of  a  skill  in 
handling  his  ship  which  excited  the  admiration 
of  his  pursuers,  he  succeeded  in  escaping.  Af 
ter  this  remarkable  feat,  Hull  went  into  Boston 
for  a  few  days,  whence  he  sailed  Aug.  3,  and 
on  Aug.  19,  in  Lit.  41°  41'  K,  Ion.  55°  48'  W., 
discovered  a  ship  to  leeward,  which  was  soon 
made  out  to  be  an  English  frigate.  The  course 
of  the  Constitution  was  shaped  to  close  with 
this  vessel,  which  hove  to  to  await  an  engage 
ment.  At  5  P.  M.  the  English  frigate  opened 
her  fire  at  very  long  range,  and  at  a  little  after 
0  the  Constitution  closed  with  her.  After  a 
desperate  fight  of  about  half  an  hour  the  Eng 
lish  frigate  was  reduced  to  a  Avreck  and  sur 
rendered.  She  proved  to  be  the  Guerriere, 
Capt.  Dacres,  one  of  the  ships  which  had 
recently  chased  the  Constitution.  Possession 
was  taken  of  her  soon  after  7  P.  M.  The  next 


40 


HULL 


HUMBOLDT 


day  she  was  discovered  to  be  in  a  sinking  con 
dition,  and  after  the  removal  of  the  prisoners 
she  was  set  on  tire  and  soon  afterward  blew  up. 
The  Constitution  suffered  somewhat  aloft  in 
this  action,  though  but  little  in  her  hull.  Her 
loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  14,  and  that  of 
the  Guerriere  79.  The  Constitution  was  the 
larger  and  heavier  ship,  mounting  54  guns, 
long  24s  and  32-pounder  carronades,  the  Guer 
riere  mounting  49  guns,  long  18s  and  32-pound 
er  carronades.  As  this  was  the  first  naval  action 
of  the  war,  it  was  regarded  as  very  important. 
Capt.  Hull  carried  his  prisoners  into  Boston, 
where  he  was  enthusiastically  received.  Con 
gress  at  its  next  session  presented  a  gold  medal 
to  him,  and  silver  ones  to  each  commissioned 
officer  under  his  command  in  this  engagement. 
After  the  war  his  principal  services  were  in 
command  of  the  navy  yards  at  Boston  and 
Washington,  of  the  squadrons  in  the  Pacific 
and  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  board  of  navy 
commissioners. 

HULL,  Willi.im,  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
Derby,  Conn.,  June  24,  1753,  died  in  Newton, 
Mass.,  Nov.  21),  1825.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1772,  studied  law  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1775. 
He  entered  the  army  of  the  revolution  at  Cam 
bridge  in  1775  as  captain  of  a  Connecticut  com 
pany  of  volunteers ;  was  made  major  in  the 
8th  Massachusetts  regiment  in  1777,  and  lieu 
tenant  colonel  in  1779,  and  was  inspector  of 
the  army  under  Baron  Steuben.  He  was  in 
the  battles  at  White  Plains,  Trenton,  Prince 
ton,  Stillwater,  Saratoga,  Monmouth,  and 
Stony  Point.  He  commanded  the  expedition 
against  Morrisania,  for  which  he  received  the 
thanks  of  Washington  and  of  congress.  After 
the  war  he  was  major  general  of  the  3d  division 
of  Massachusetts  militia,  and  a  state  senator, 
and  was  appointed  by  Jefferson  governor  of 
Michigan  territory  in  1805.  He  remained  in 
this  office  till  1812,  when  he  was  appointed  as 
brigadier  general  to  the  command  of  the  north 
western  army.  He  marched  his  troops  through 
the  wilderness  to  Detroit,  heard  of  the  decla 
ration  of  war,  and  of  the  fall  of  Michilimack- 
inac,  which  let  loose  the  Indians  of  the  north 
west  upon  him,  crossed  into  Canada,  but  found 
his  communications  cut  off,  recrossed,  and  on 
the  arrival  of  Gen.  Brock  surrendered  to  that 
officer  the  post  of  Detroit  and  the  territory. 
For  this  act  he  was  tried  two  years  after  by  a 
court  martial,  and  sentenced  to  be  shot.  The 
execution  of  the  sentence  was  remitted  by  the 
president  in  consideration  of  his  age  and  revo 
lutionary  services.  In  1824  Gen.  Hull  pub 
lished  a  series  of  letters  in  defence  of  his  con 
duct  in  this  campaign.  In  1848  a  volume  was 
published  in  New  York  on  his  revolutionary 
services  and  the  campaign  of  1812,  written  by 
his  daughter,  Mrs.  Maria  Campbell  of  Georgia, 
and  his  grandson,  the  Rev.  James  F.  Clarke  of 
Massachusetts. 

Ill  LLlll,  John,  an  English  composer  and 
teacher  of  music,  born  in  Worcester  in  1812. 


|  His  comic  opera  "  The  Village  Coquettes," 
'  written  in  conjunction  with  Dickens,  and  pro 
duced  in  1836,  first  made  him  known  to  the 
public.  After  the  production  of  two  other 
operas,  he  turned  his  attention  about  1838  to 
the  establishment  in  England  of  popular  sing 
ing  schools,  similar  to  those  which  had  proved 
so  successful  in  Paris.  In  1847  a  spacious 
music  hall  was  erected  in  London  for  his  con 
certs,  which  was  burned  down  in  I860.  He  is 
professor  of  vocal  music  and  harmony  in  King^, 
Queen's,  and  Bedford  colleges,  London,  organ 
ist  of  the  Charterhouse,  conductor  of  the  or 
chestra  and  chorus  in  the  royal  academy  of 
music,  and  musical  inspector  for  the  United 
Kingdom.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous 
works,  essays,  and  lectures  on  the  science  and 
history  of  music. 

HULTSCH,  Friedrich  Otto,  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Dresden,  July  22,  1833.  He  became 
a  teacher  at  Leipsic  in  1857,  subsequently  at 
Zwickau,  and  afterward  at  Dresden,  where  in 
1868  he  became  rector  of  the  Kreuzschule. 
His  principal  works  are  Griechische  und  ro- 
mlsche  Metrologie  (Berlin,  18G2),  and  editions 
of  the  Scriptores  Metrologici  (Leipsic,  1864-'6), 
of  Heron's  Geometrici  et  Stereometrici  (Berlin, 
1864),  of  Censorinus  De  Die  Natali  (Leipsic, 
1867),  and  of  the  "Histories"  of  Polybius 
(Berlin,  1867-'72). 

HUMBER,  a  river  or  estuary  of  England,  sep 
arating  the  counties  of  York  and  Lincoln.  It 
is  principally  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Ouse  and  the  Trent.  Its  course  is  nearly  E.  as 
far  as  Hull,  and  S.  E.  thence  to  where  it  falls 
into  the  North  sea.  It  is  about  40  m.  in  length, 
and  varies  in  breadth  from  2  to  7  m.  'The 
chief  towns  on  its  banks  are  Hull,  Goole,  and 
Great  Grimsby.  By  means  of  its  numerous 
tributaries  it  drains  an  area  of  10,000  sq.  m. 
It  is  navigable  for  the  largest  ships  to  Hull,  20 
m.  from  the  sea,  and  throughout  for  vessels 
of  considerable  burden. 

HIMBOLDT.  I.  A  N.  W.  central  county  of 
Iowa,  intersected  by  the  Des  Moines  river  and 
its  W.  branch  ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,596.  It  has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  fer 
tile  soil.  There  are  quarries  of  good  building 
stone.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
59,101  bushels  of  wheat,  107,950  of  Indian 
corn,  60,316  of  oats,  12,416  of  potatoes,  83,985 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  9,133  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  999  horses,  1,021  milch  cows,  1,614 
other  cattle,  and  1,393  swine ;  1  saw  mill,  and 
2  flour  mills.  Capital,  Dakota  City.  II.  A 
N.  W.  county  of  California,  bordering  on  the 
Pacific,  and  drained  by  Eel,  Mad,  and  Bear 
rivers,  and  other  streams ;  area,  2,800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,140.  Humboldt  bay  lies  near 
the  N.  W.  corner,  and  Cape  Mendocino,  the 
westernmost  point  of  the  state,  projects  into 
the  Pacific  near  the  centre  of  the  coast  line. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  mostly  cov 
ered  with  forests  of  redwood,  pine,  spruce,  &c., 
which  attain  an  enormous  size.  The  bottom 
lands  are  fertile,  but  lumber  is  the  chief  source 


HUMBOLDT 


41 


of  wealth.  Petroleum  has  been  found  in  the  [ 
S.  part.  The  streams  swarm  with  salmon.  , 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  32,284  | 
bushels  of  wheat,  137,022  of  oats,  31,907  of  j 
barley,  54,316  of  peas  and  beans,  372,924  of  j 
potatoes,  112,580  Ibs.  of  butter,  51,867  of  wool,  | 
and  7,426  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,329 
horses,  5,691  milch  cows,  12,056  other  cattle, 
12,660  sheep,  and  10,050  swine  ;  3  manufac 
tories  of  carriages,  1  flour  mill,  and  8  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Eureka.  III.  A  N.  "VV.  county 
of  Nevada,  bordering  on  Oregon;  area,  19,000 
sq.  in.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,916,  of  whom  220  were 
Chinese.  The  surface  is  generally  mountain 
ous,  the  E.  portion  being  occupied  by  the  Ilum- 
boldt  range.  Humboldt,  Reese,  and  Quins 
rivers,  and  other  streams  that  lose  themselves 
in  "  sinks,"  or  lakes  without  outlet,  water  por 
tions  of  the  county.  There  are  several  lakes  in 
the  W.  part.  On  Humboldt  river  and  in  Para 
dise  and  other  valleys  is  some  arable  land,  and 
the  hills  afford  grazing ;  but  the  chief  wealth 
is  in  the  silver  mines,  which  are  mostly  S.  of 
the  Humboldt  river.  Gold,  copper,  and  lead 
are  also  found.  By  the  census  of  1870,  14 
mines  were  returned,  of  which  12  were  of  sil 
ver,  1  of  gold,  and  1  of  lead.  There  were  10 
quartz  mills,  all  except  one  for  the  production 
of  silver.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Central  Pa 
cific  railroad.  The  chief  productions  were 
4,419  bushels  of  wheat,  30,209  of  barley,  5,504 
of  potatoes,  and  2,219  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
365  horses,  2,186  cattle,  700  sheep,  and  786 
swine.  Capital,  Unionville. 

HOIBOLDT,  Friedrich  Heinrieh  Alexander  TOD, 
baron,  a  German  naturalist,  born  in  Berlin, 
Sept.  14,  1769,  died  there,  May  6,  1859.  He 
was  less  than  ten  years  old  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  who  had  been  adjutant  of  Duke  Ferdi 
nand  of  Brunswick  in  the  seven  years'  war, 
and  afterward  a  Prussian  royal  councillor. 
He  and  his  elder  brother  Wilhelm  were  edu 
cated  at  home,  with  special  care  in  the  natural 
sciences.  In  1787  he  studied  at  the  university 
of  Franktbrt-on-the-Oder,  returned  to  Berlin 
in  the  following  year,  and  applied  himself  to 
the  technology  of  manufactures  and  to  the 
Greek  language.  An  acquaintance  with  the 
botanist  Willdcnow  led  him  to  study  the  cryp- 
togamous  plants  and  the  family  of  grasses.  lie 
passed  a  year  (1789-'90)  at  the  university  of 
Gottingen,  studying  philology  under  Heyne, 
and  extending  his  knowledge  of  natural  history 
under  the  guidance  of  Blumenbach,  Lichten- 
berg,  and  others.  His  first  published  work, 
the  fruit  of  an  excursion  from  the  university, 
was  Uel)er  die  Basalt e  am  Bhein,  nelst  Unter- 
suchungen  uler  Syenit  und  Basanit  der  Alten 
(Berlin,  1790).  A  rapid  journey  which  he 
made  in  1790,  in  company  with  George  For- 
ster,  through  the  Low  Countries,  England,  and 
France,  gave  him  a  desire  to  visit  the  tropics. 
He  returned  to  Germany  with  the  purpose 
of  devoting  himself  to  finance,  and  repaired 
to  a  mercantile  academy  at  Hamburg,  where 
he  learned  bookkeeping,  familiarized  himself 


with  counting-house  affairs,  and  practised  the 
modern  languages.  On  a  visit  to  his  mother 
in  the  following  year  he  obtained  permission 
to  engage  in  practical  mining ;  and  he  went 
to  the  mining  academy  at  Freiberg,  where 
for  eight  months  he  enjoyed  the  private  in 
struction  of  Werner  and  the  friendship  of 
Freiesleben,  Yon  Buch,  and  Del  Rio,  the  last 
of  whom  12  years  later  he  found  settled  in 
Mexico.  He  wrote  while  there  a  description 
of  the  subterranean  flora  and  an  account  of  his 
experiments  on  the  color  of  plants  withdrawn 
from  the  light  and  surrounded  by  irrespirable 
gases,  entitled  Flora  Siilterranea  Frilergensis, 
et  ApTiorismi  ex  PJiysiologia  Chemica  Plant  a- 
rum,  which  first  appeared  in  1793.  With  Frei 
esleben  he  made  the  first  geognostic  descrip 
tion  of  one  of  the  Bohemian  mountain  ranges. 
In  1792  he  was  appointed  assessor  in  the  mi 
ning  department,  and  subsequently  became 
superior  mining  officer  in  the  Fichtelgebirge. 
In  l793-'4  he  explored  the  mining  districts  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  Galicia,  and  various  parts  of 
Prussia.  In  1794  he  accompanied  the  minister 
Hardenberg  to  Frankfort,  and  was  employed 
in  his  cabinet  correspondence.  On  his  return 
he  experimented  on  the  nature  of  fire-damp 
in  mines.  In  1795  he  made  a  geognostic  jour 
ney  through  Tyrol,  Lombardy,  and  Switzer 
land.  In  1796  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
the  headquarters  of  Gen.  Moreau  in  Swabia. 
From  the  time  when  he  first  heard  of  Gal- 
vani's  discovery  he  had  accumulated  materials 
for  his  work  Uder  did  gereizte  Musl'el-  itnd 
Nervenfascr,  nelxt  VermutJiungen  filer  den 
chemise-hen  Process  des  Lclens  in  der  Thicr- 
vnd  Fflanzenwclt  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  l797-'9). 
He  also  familiarized  himself  with  practical 
astronomy,  especially  with  the  use  of  the  sex 
tant  for  determining  geographical  positions. 
On  the  death  of  his  mother  he  resolved  to 
prosecute  his  purpose  of  a  great  scientific 
expedition.  Leaving  Baireuth  in  1797,  he 
passed  three  months  at  Jena,  and  then  be 
gan  a  second  journey  to  Italy,  with  a  desire  to 
see  the  volcanoes  Vesuvius,  Stromboli,  and 
Etna.  The  disturbed  condition  of  Italy  made 
his  purpose  impracticable,  and  he  passed  the 
winter  in  Salzburg  and  Berchtesgaden,  occu 
pied  with  meteorological  observations.  There 
he  accepted  the  invitation  of  Lord  Bristol  to 
accompany  him  on  an  excursion  to  Upper 
Egypt,  intending  also  to  proceed  to  Syria  and 
Palestine.  He  visited  Paris  to  procure  the 
requisite  scientific  instruments,  but  in  May, 
1798,  he  learned  that  Lord  Bristol  had  been 
arrested  at  Milan  charged  with  having  secret 
political  designs  in  Egypt.  Remaining  in 
Paris,  he  became  intimate  with  the  future 
companion  of  his  travels,  the  young  botanist 
Bonpland.  At  this  time  the  public  were  inter 
ested  in  the  voyage  of  circumnavigation  which 
the  directory  had  decreed  and  put  under  the 
command  of  Capt.  Baudin.  The  expedition 
was  to  explore  the  E.  and  W.  coasts  of  South 
America  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Panama,  to 


HUMBOLDT 


touch  at  many  islands  of  the  South  sea,  New 
Zealand,  and  Madagascar,  and  to  return  by  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope.  Uumboldt  received  per 
mission  to  join  the  expedition,  and  to  leave  it 
when  and  where  he  wished.  After  several 
months  of  suspense,  the  necessities  of  war 
obliged  the  government  to  postpone  the  under 
taking.  Thus  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of 
travel,  Humboldt  accepted  an  invitation  to 
accompany  the  Swedish  consul  Skjoldebrand, 
who  had  been  appointed  to  carry  presents  to 
the  dey  of  Algiers,  and  he  intended  to  proceed 
by  way  of  Tunis  to  Egypt.  The  delay  of  the 
Swedish  frigate,  and  the  news  from  Barbary 
that  during  the  war  bet  ween,  the  Turks  and 
French  every  person  arriving  from  a  French 
port  was  thrown  into  prison,  thwarted  this 
purpose.  He  therefore,  in  company  with  Bon- 
pland,  resolved  to  spend  the  winter  in  Spain ; 
and  passing  through  Perpignan,  Barcelona, 
Montserrat,  and  Valencia,  making  botanical, 
astronomical,  and  magnetic  observations  by 
the  way,  they  reached  Madrid  in  February, 
1799.  He  was  received  with  distinguished  fa 
vor,  and  the  Saxon  minister  at  Madrid,  Baron 
Forell,  having  overcome  the  scruples  of  the 
Spanish  government  and  procured  for  him  an 
interview  with  King  Charles  IV.,  all  the  Span 
ish  possessions  in  Europe,  America,  and  the 
East  Indies  were  opened  to  him,  with  free 
permission  to  use  all  instruments  for  astro 
nomical  and  geodetic  observations,  the  meas 
urement  of  mountains,  the  collection  of  objects 
of  natural  history,  and  investigations  of  every 
kind  that  might  lead  to  the  advancement  of 
science.  Such  extensive  privileges  had  never 
before  been  granted  to  any  traveller.  He  left 
Madrid,  measuring  the  elevations  on  his  way 
through  Old  Castile,  Leon,  and  Galicia,  and 
on  June  5,  1799,  embarked  with  Bonpland  in 
the  frigate  Pizarro  from  Corunna.  Avoid 
ing  the  English  cruisers,  they  reached  Tene- 
rilfe  on  June  19,  where  they  tarried  to  ascend 
the  peak  and  to  make  many  observations  on 
the  natural  features  of  the  island,  and  arriv 
ed  at  Cumana,  in  Venezuela,  July  16,  1799. 
After  exploring  the  Venezuelan  provinces  for 
18  months,  residing  the  latter  part  of  the  time 
at  Caracas,  they  set  out  for  the  interior  from 
Puerto  Cabello  over  the  grassy  plains  of  Cala- 
bozo  to  the  river  Apure,  a  branch  of  the  Orino 
co.  In  Indian  canoes  they  made  their  way  to 
the  most  southern  post  of  the  Spaniards,  Fort 
San  Carlos,  on  the  Rio  Negro,  within  two  de 
grees  of  the  equator.  They  could  have  ad 
vanced  only  by  taking  their  boats  over  land, 
and  therefore  returned  through  the  Cassiquiare 
to  the  Orinoco,  which  they  followed  to  Angos 
tura,  proceeding  thence  to  Cumana.  This 
journey  through  wild  and  unfrequented  re 
gions  was  the  first  which  furnished  any  posi 
tive  knowledge  of  the  long  disputed  bifurcation 
of  the  Orinoco.  They  sailed  to  Havana,  but 
after  a  few  months  hastened  to  seek  some 
southern  port,  hearing  a  false  report  that  Bau- 
din,  whom  they  had  promised  to  join,  had  ap 


peared  on  the  W.  coast  of  South  America. 
They  embarked  in  March,  1801,  from  Batabano, 
on  the  S.  coast  of  Cuba.  The  season  of  the 
year  forbade  the  execution  of  their  plan  of 
going  to  Cartagena  and  Panama,  and  they 
sailed  for  54  days  up  the  river  Magdalena  to 
Honda,  in  order  to  reach  the  high  plateau  of 
Bogota.  Thence  they  made  excursions  to  the 
most  remarkable  natural  features  of  the  sur 
rounding  country.  In  September,  1801,  in 
spite  of  the  rainy  season,  they  began  to  jour 
ney  southward,  passed  Ibngua,  the  Cordillera 
de  Quindiu  (at  an  altitude  of  12,000  ft.,  their 
highest  encampment  by  night),  Cartago,  Po- 
payan,  Almaguer,  and  the  lofty  plain  of  Los 
Pastos,  and  reached  Quito,  after  experiencing 
the  greatest  difficulties  for  four  months,  Jan. 
6,  1802.  The  next  five  months  they  passed  in 
investigations  of  the  elevated  vale  of  Quito, 
and  of  the  snow-cupped  volcanoes  which  sur 
round  it,  ascending  some  of  these  to  heights 
not  before  attained.  On  Chimborazo  they 
reached  (June  23,  1802)  the  altitude  of  19,286 
ft.,  about  3,500  ft.  higher  than  the  point  reached 
by  La  Condamine  on  the  Corazon  in  1738,  and 
they  were  prevented  only  by  a  dee])  crevasse 
from  advancing  to  the  summit.  They  were 
joined  at  Quito  by  a  young  scholar,  Carlos 
Montufar,  son  of  the  marquis  of  Selvalegre, 
who  attended  them  throughout  their  wander 
ings  in  Peru  and  Mexico  and  back  to  Paris. 
Over  the  pass  of  the  Andes  in  the  paramo  of 
Asuay,  by  Cuenca  and  Loja,  they  descended 
into  the  vale  of  the  upper  Amazon  at  Jaen  de 
Bracamoras,  and  traversing  the  plateau  of  Ca- 
jamarca,  by  the  mountain  city  Micuipampa  (up 
ward  of  11,000  ft.  high,  near  the  silver  mines 
of  Chota),  they  reached  the  western  declivity 
of  the  Peruvian  Andes.  From  the  summit  of 
Guangamarca  (about  9,500  ft.  high)  they  en 
joyed  for  the  first  time  the  long-sought  view 
of  the  Pacific.  They  reached  the  coast  at  Tru- 
jillo,.and  travelled  through  the  sandy  deserts 
of  Lower  Peru  to  Lima,  After  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  designs  of  their  Peruvian  journey,  the  ob 
servation  of  the  transit  of  Mercury  over  the  sun, 
was  fulfilled,  they  embarked  from  Callao  in  De 
cember,  1802,  and  reached  Acapulco  in  Mexico, 
March  23,  1803.  They  arrived  in  the  city  of 
Mexico  in  April,  remained  there  a  few  months, 
and  then  visited  Guanajuato  and  Valladolid, 
the  province  of  Michoacan  near  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  the  volcano  of  Jorullo,  which  had 
first  broken  out  in  1759,  and  returned  by  way 
of  Toluca  to  the  capital,  where  they  remained 
long  enough  to  arrange  their  rich  collections 
and  to  reduce  their  various  observations  to 
order.  In  January,  1804,  after  having  mea 
sured  the  volcano  of  Toluca  and  the  Cofre  de 
Perote,  they  descended  through  the  oak  forests 
of  Jalapa  to  Vera  Cruz,  where  they  escaped 
from  the  then  prevalent  yellow  fever.  They 
compared  their  barometric  measurement  of  the 
eastern  declivity  of  the  highland  of  Mexico 
with  that  which  they  had  formerly  completed 
of  the  western  declivity,  and  made  a  profile 


HUMBOLDT 


of  tlie  country  from  sea  to  sea,  the  first  that 
was  ever  Driven  of  any  entire  country.  On 
March  7,  1804,  llumboldt  sailed  from  the  coast 
of  Mexico  for  Havana,  where  during  a  two 
months'  residence  he  completed  the  materials 
for  his  Exsai  politiqiie  sur  Vile  de  Cuba  (Paris, 
1826).  He  embarked  thence  with  Bonpland 
and  Montufar  for  Philadelphia,  enjoyed  a 
friendly  reception  at  Washington  from  Presi 
dent  Jefferson,  and  leaving  the  new  world 
landed  at  Bordeaux,  Aug.  3,  1804,  having 
spent  five  years  in  America,  and  gained  a 
larger  store  of  observations  and  collections  in 
all  departments  of  natural  science,  in  geog 
raphy,  statistics,  and  ethnography,  than  all 
previous  travellers.  He  selected  Paris  for  his 
residence,  and  remained  there  till  March,  1805, 
arranging  his  numerous  collections  and  manu 
scripts,  and  experimenting  with  Gay-Lussac 
in  the  laboratory  of  the  polytechnic  school  on 
the  chemical  elements  of  the  atmosphere.  He 
was  accompanied  by  Gay-Lussac  in  a  visit  to 
Koine  and  Naples,  and  also  by  Von  Buch  on 
his  return  through  Switzerland  to  Berlin, 
where,  after  an  absence  of  nine  years,  he  ar 
rived  Nov.  16,  1805.  In  the  hope  of  modify 
ing  the  ignominious  treaty  of  Tilsit  by  nego 
tiation,  the  government  resolved  in  1808  to 
send  the  young  brother  of  the  king,  Prince 
"William  of  Prussia,  to  the  emperor  Napoleon 
at  Paris.  During  the  French  occupation  of 
Berlin  llumboldt  had  been  busy  in  his  garden, 
making  hourly  observations  of  the  magnetic 
declination,  and  he  now  received  the  command 
of  the  king  to  accompany  Prince  "William  on 
his  mission.  As  the  condition  of  Germany 
made  it  impracticable  to  publish  there  his  large 
scientific  works,  he  was  permitted  by  Frederick 
"William  III.,  as  one  of  the  eight  foreign  mem 
bers  of  the  French  academy  of  sciences,  to 
remain  in  Paris,  which  was  his  residence,  ex 
cepting  brief  periods  of  absence,  from  1808  to 
1827.  There  appeared  his  Voyage  aux  regions 
equinoxiales  du  nouveau  monde  (3  vols.  fol., 
with  an  atlas,  Paris,  1809-'25  ;  translated  into 
German,  6  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1825-'32).  "When 
in  1810  his  elder  brother  resigned  the  direc 
tion  of  educational  affairs  in  Prussia  to  be 
come  ambassador  at  Vienna,  the  former  post 
was  urged  upon  Alexander  von  llumboldt ; 
but  he  declined  it,  as  the  publication  of  his 
astronomical,  zoological,  and  botanical  works 
was  not  yet  far  advanced.  He  had  also  already 
decided  upon  a  second  scientific  expedition 
through  upper  India,  the  region  of  the  Hima 
laya,  and  Thibet,  in  preparation  for  which  he 
was  diligently  learning  the  Persian  language. 
He  accepted  from  Count  Rurniantzeff  in  1812 
an  invitation  to  accompany  a  Russian  expe 
dition  over  Kashgar  and  Yarkand  to  the  high 
lands  of  Thibet,  but  the  outbreak  of  war  be 
tween  Russia  and  France  caused  the  abandon 
ment  of  the  plan.  The  political  events  be 
tween  the  peace  of  Paris  and  the  congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  gave  him  occasion  for  several 
excursions.  He  went  to  England  in  the  suite  of 


the  king  of  Prussia  in  1814,  again  in  company 
with  Arago  when  his  brother  Wilhelm  was  ap 
pointed  ambassador  to  London,  and  again  in 
1818  with  Valenciennes  from  Paris  to  London 
and  from  London  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  where 
the  king  and  Ilardenberg  wished  to  have  him 
near  them  during  the  congress.  He  also  ac 
companied  the  king  to  the  congress  of  Verona 
and  thence  to  Rome  and  Naples,  and  in  1827, 
at  the  solicitation  of  the  monarch,  gave  up  his 
residence  in  Paris,  and  returned  by  way  of 
London  and  Hamburg  to  Berlin,  where  in  the 
following  winter  he  delivered  public  lectures 
on  the  cosmos.  In  1829  began  a  new  era  in 
his  active  career.  He  undertook,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  czar  Nicholas,  an  expedition 
to  northern  Asia,  the  Chinese  Dzungaria,  and 
the  Caspian  sea,  which  was  magnificently  fit 
ted  out  by  the  influence  of  the  minister,  Count 
Cancrin.  The  exploration  of  mines  of  gold 
and  platinum,  the  discovery  of  diamonds  out 
side  of  the  tropics,  astronomical  and  mag 
netic  observations,  and  geognostic  and  botan 
ical  collections,  were  the  principal  results  of 
this  undertaking,  in  which  llumboldt  was  ac 
companied  by  Ehrenberg  and  Gustav  Rose. 
Their  course  lay  through  Moscow,  Kazan,  and 
the  ruins  of  old  Bulgari  to  Yekaterinburg, 
the  gold  mines  of  the  Ural,  the  platinum  mines 
at  Nizhni  Tagilsk,  Bogoslovsk,  Verkhoturye, 
and  Tobolsk,  to  Barnaul,  Schlangenberg,  arid 
Ustkamengorsk  in  the  Altai  region,  and  thence 
to  the  Chinese  frontier.  From  the  snow-cov 
ered  Altai  mountains  the  travellers  turned  to 
ward  the  southern  part  of  the  Ural  range,  and, 
attended  by  a  body  of  armed  Cossacks,  trav 
ersed  the  great  steppe  of  Ishim,  passed  through 
Petropavlovsk,  Omsk,  Miyask,  the  salt  lake  of 
llmen,  Zlatusk,  Taganai,  Orenburg,  Uralsk  (the 
principal  seat  of  the  Uralian  Cossacks),  Sara 
tov,  Dubovka,  Tzaritzyn,  and  the  Moravian  set 
tlement  Sarepta,  to  Astrakhan  and  the  Cas 
pian  sea.  They  visited  the  Calmuck  chieftain 
Sered  Jab,  and  returned  by  Voronezh,  Tula, 
and  Moscow.  The  entire  journey  of  over  10,- 
000  miles  was  made  in  nine  months  ;  its  results 
are  given  in  Rose's  Mmeralogisch-geognostische 
Reise  nach  dem  Ural,  Altai  und  dem  Kaspischen 
Meere  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1837-'42),  and  in  Hum- 
boldt's  Asie  centrale,  reclicrches  sur  les  cJiaines 
de  montagnes  et  la  climatologie  compavee  (3 
vols.,  Paris,  1843  ;  translated  into  German  by 
Mahlmann,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1843-'4).  This  ex 
pedition  extended  the  knowledge  of  telluric 
magnetism,  since  in  consequence  of  it  the 
Russian  imperial  academy  established  a  series 
of  magnetic  and  meteorological  stations  from 
St.  Petersburg  to  Peking,  an  example  which 
was  followed  by  the  British  government  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  The  convulsions  of 
1830  gave  a  more  political  direction  to  Ilum- 
boldt's  activity  for  several  years,  without  in 
terrupting  his  scientific  career.  He  had  ac 
companied  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia  in  May, 
1830,  to  "Warsaw,  to  the  last  constitutional 
diet  opened  by  the  emperor  Nicholas  in  per- 


44: 


nUMBOLDT 


son,  and  he  attended  the  king:  to  the  baths 
of  Teplitz.  On  the  news  of  the  French  revo 
lution  and  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  he 
was  selected  to  convey  to  Paris  the  Prussian 
recognition  of  the  new  monarch,  and  to  send 
political  advices  to  Berlin.  The  latter  office 
fell  to  him  again  in  1834-15,  and  he  was  called 
upon  to  fulfil  it  five  times  in  the  following 
twelve  years,  residing  four  or  five  months  in 
Paris  on  each  mission.  To  this  period  belongs 
the  publication  of  his  Examen  critique  de  la 
geographic  du  nouveau  continent  (5  vols.,  Paris, 
1835-'8 ;  translated  into  German  by  Ideler,  5 
vols.,  Berlin,  1836  et  seq.}.  He  made  a  rapid 
journey  with  King  Frederick  William  IV.  to 
England  in  1841,  to  attend  the  baptism  of  the 
prince  of  Wales,  to  Denmark  in  1845,  and  re 
sided  in  Paris  several  months  in  184T-'8,  from 
which  time  he  lived  in  Prussia,  usually  in 
Berlin,  pursuing  his  scientific  labors  in  his 
advanced  age  with  undiminished  zeal  and  en 
ergy. — Ilumboldt  was  distinguished,  as  a  man 
of  science,  for  the  comprehensiveness  of  his 
researches,  and  especially  for  the  skill  and 
completeness  with  which  he  connected  his  own 
observations  with  all  the  stores  of  previous 
knowledge,  and  for  the  clearness  with  which 
he  expounded  facts  in  their  relations.  This 
tendency  appeared  in  one  of  his  earliest  works 
on  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  and  nerves, 
in  which,  after  the  progress  of  physiology  for 
more  than  half  a  century,  may  still  be  seen  I 
the  sagacity  of  his  experiments  on  galvanism,  | 
and  the  truth  of  most  of  the  inferences  which 
he  drew.  In  his  travels  he  measured  eleva 
tions,  and  investigated  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  the  thermometrical  relations,  at  the  same 
time  collecting  herbariums,  and  founding,  by  a 
combination  of  the  materials  in  his  hands,  the 
new  science  of  the  geography  of  plants.  Linno3us 
and  some  of  his  successors  had  observed  some 
of  the  more  palpable  phenomena  of  the  migra 
tions  of  plants,  without,  however,  considering 
elevation  or  temperature.  It  remained  for  Ilum 
boldt  to  bring  together  the  vast  series  of  facts 
collected  from  the  most  remote  points,  to  com 
bine  them  with  his  own  observations,  to  show 
their  connection  with  the  laws  of  physics,  and 
to  develop  the  principles  in  accordance  with 
which  the  infinitely  numerous  forms  of  the 
vegetable  world  have  been  spread  over  the 
earth.  He  was  the  first  to  see  that  this  dis 
tribution  is  connected  with  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  as  well  as  with  the  altitudes  of  the 
surface  on  which  they  grow,  and  he  systema 
tized  his  researches  into  a  general  exposition 
of  the  laws  by  which  the  distribution  of  plants 
is  regulated.  Connected  with  this  subject  he 
made  those  extensive  investigations  into  the 
mean  temperature  of  a  large  number  of  places 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe  which  led  to  the 
drawing  of  the  isothermal  lines,  so  important 
in  their  influence  in  shaping  physical  geography 
and  giving  accuracy  and  simplicity  to  the  mode 
of  representing  natural  phenomena.  By  as 
sociating  many  important  questions  with  bot 


any,  he  made  it  one  of  the  most  attractive 
of  the  natural  sciences.  He  showed  the  pow 
erful  influence  exercised  by  vegetable  nature 
upon  the  soil,  upon  the  character  of  a  people, 
and  upon  the  historical  development  of  the 
human  race.  This  view  of  the  connection  be 
tween  the  physical  sciences  and  human  history 
opened  a  path  which  has  been  followed  by  a 
school  Of  subsequent  investigators  with  novel 
and  important  results.  Though  wholly  free 
from  mystical  meanings  and  obscure  phrase 
ology,  his  works  are  marked  by  poetical  con- 
j  ceptions  of  nature  wherever  it  is  his  aim  to 
I  present  broad  and  complete  pictures.  His  de 
lineations  of  the  tropical  countries  give  delight 
to  readers  who  have  no  special  knowledge  of 
or  interest  in  natural  history.  At  the  beginning 
of  this  century  even  the  coasts  of  the  immense 
Spanish  colonies  in  America  were  scarcely 
known,  and  but  little  confidence  was  placed 
in  the  best  maps.  More  than  700  places  of 
which  he  made  astronomical  measurements 
were  calculated  anew  by  Oltmanns,  whose  work 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1808-' 10)  forms  the  fourth  part 
of  Humboldt's  "Travels."  lie  himself  made 
the  map  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Magdalena, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  atlas  of  Mexico. 
He  travelled  with  the  barometer  in  his  hands 
from  Bogota  to  Lima,  ascended  the  peaks  of 
TenerifFe,  Chimborazo,  and  numerous  other 
mountains,  and  made  459  measurements  of  al 
titude,  which  were  often  confirmed  by  trigo 
nometrical  calculations.  His  measurements  in 
Germany  and  Siberia,  combined  with  those 
made  by  other  travellers,  furnished  valuable 
results  to  geography,  and  were  the  foundation 
of  theories  of  the  dispersion  of  plants  and  ani 
mals.  Climatology  was  intimately  connected 
with  his  researches.  By  his  daily  record  of  the 
meteorological,  thermometrical,  and  electrical 
phenomena  of  the  countries  through  which  he 
passed,  he  instituted  the  science  of  comparative 
climatology.  He  was  the  first  to  entertain  the 
idea  of  estimating  the  average  elevation  of  con 
tinents  above  the  sea,  previous  geographers  and 
geologists  having  considered  only  the  altitude  of 
mountain  chains  and  of  the  lower  lands.  His 
principal  works  in  this  department  are :  Phy 
sique  generale  et  geologie  (Paris,  1807);  Essai 
geognostique  sur  le  gisement  des  roches  dans  les 
deux  hemispheres  (1823-'6);  and  Fragments  de 
geologie  et  climatologie  asiatique  (2  vols.,  1831 ; 
translated  into  German  by  Lowenberg,  Berlin, 
1832).  The  phenomena  of  the  volcanoes  of 
South  America  and  Italy  he  keenly  observed 
and  explained.  With  Bonpland  he  made  very 
important  observations  on  the  sites,  uses,  and 
structure  of  plants.  His  principal  botanical 
works  are  Essai  sur  la  geographic  des  plantes 
(Paris,  1805),  and  De  Distrihutione  Geographi- 
ca  Plantarum  secundum  Cceli  Temperiem  et 
Altitudinem  Montium  (1817).  The  rich  her 
barium  collected  by  him  and  Bonpland  con 
tained  more  than  5,000  species  of  phaneroga 
mous  plants,  of  which  3,500  were  new.  They 
were  arranged  and  illustrated  by  Humboldt, 


IIUMBOLDT 


Bon  pin  nd,  and  Kunth,  in  the  following  works,  ! 
which  form  the  sixth  part  of  his  "Travels:" 
Plantes  equinoxiales,  recueillies  au  Mexique, 
dam  rile  de  Cuba,  &c.  (2  vols.,  1809  et  seq.,  with 
144  plates) ;  Monographic  des  melastomes  et 
autres  genres  du  meme  ordre  (2  vols,,  1809-'23,  j 
with  120  colored  plates) ;  Nova  Genera  et  Spe-  I 
cies  Plantarum,  &c.  (7  vols.,  1815-25,  with  TOO 
plates);  Mimeses  et  autres  plantes  leg  urn  ineu- 
ses  du  nouveau  continent  (1819-'24,  with  00 
plates) ;  Synopsis  Plantarum,  &c.  (4  vols., 
1822-'G);  fievision  des  graminees  (2  vols., 
1829-'34,  with  220  colored  plates).  The  zo 
ological  results  of  his  travels  are  contained  in 
his  Recueil  d* observations  de  zoologie  et  d'ana- 
tomie  comparee  (2  vols.,  1805-'32),  in  the  pub 
lication  of  which  he  was  aided  hy  Cuvier, 
Latreille,  and  Valenciennes.  Another  costly 
work,  the  Vues  des  Cordillercs  et  monuments 
des  peuples  indigenes  de  VAmerigue  (1810,  with 
69  plates),  contains  elaborate  pictures  of  the 
scenery  of  the  Andes  and  of  the  monuments  of 
the  ancient  civilization  of  the  aborigines.  The 
study  of  the  great  architectural  works  of  the 
ancient  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  led  Humboldt 
to  investigations  of  their  languages,  records, 
early  culture,  and  migrations.  In  this  de 
partment  his  treatment  was  peculiar,  for  his 
Essai  politique  sur  le  royaume  de  la  Nouvelle 
Espagne  (2  vols.,  1811)  contained  statistics 
united  with  the  facts  of  natural  history,  a<nd 
presented  various  doctrines  of  political  econo 
my  from  a  new  point  of  view.  Especially  ori 
ginal  and  influential  were  his  reflections  on  the 
culture  of  the  soil  under  different  climates  and 
on  its  effects  upon  civilization,  and  on  the  cir 
culation  of  the  precious  metals.  Besides  his 
general  works,  he  made  many  special  investi 
gations,  as  his  treatise  on  the  geography  of  the 
middle  ages,  in  which  he  appears  at  once  as 
historian,  astronomer,  and  savant,  his  chemical 
labors  with  Gay-Lussac,  his  system  of  isother 
mal  lines,  his  experiments  on  the  gymnotus 
and  on  the  respiration  of  fishes,  and  numerous 
contributions  to  physical  geography.  Soon 
after  his  return  from  America  he  gave  a  gen 
eral  sketch  of  the  results  of  his  inquiries  in 
his  Ansicliten  der  Natur  (Stuttgart,  1808),  in 
which  he  aimed  to  present  a  picture  of  the 
physical  world,  exclusive  of  everything  that 
relates  to  the  turmoil  of  human  society  and 
the  ambitions  of  individual  men;  and  in  the 
evening  of  his  life  he  determined  to  give  a  sys 
tematic  view  of  the  results  of  his  investigation 
and  thought  in  the  whole  domain  of  natural 
science.  This  was  the  design  of  his  Kosmos  (5 
voK,  Stuttgart,  1845-'G2),  which  explains  the 
physical  universe  according  to  its  dependen 
cies  and  relations,  grasps  nature  as  a  whole 
moved  and  animated  by  internal  forces,  and 
by  a  comprehensive  description  shows  the 
unity  which  prevails  amid  its  variety.  He 
lived  to  complete  this  work,  but  the  last 
volume  was  published  after  his  death.  It  was 
translated  into  almost  all  the  European  lan 
guages,  and  has  been  without  an  equal  in  giving 


an  impulse  to  natural  studies.  To  his  personal 
influence  is  due  nearly  all  that  the  Prussian 
government  did  for  science  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  life.  Agassiz  says  of  him:  "The  per 
sonal  influence  he  exerted  upon  science  is  in 
calculable.  With  him  ends  a  great  period  in 
the  history  of  science ;  a  period  to  which  Cu 
vier,  Laplace,  Arago,  Gay-Lussac,  De  Candolle, 
and  Robert  Brown  belonged."  His  personal 
habits  were  peculiar,  lie  slept  but  four  hours, 
rose  at  6  in  the  winter  and  5  in  the  summer, 
studied  two  hours,  drank  a  cup  of  coffee,  and 
returned  to  his  study  to  answer  letters,  of 
which  he  received  hundreds  every  day.  From 
12  to  2  he  received  visits,  and  then  returned  to 
study  till  the  dinner  hour.  From  4  till  11  lie 
passed  at  the  table,  generally  in  company  with 
the  king,  but  sometimes  at  the  meeting  of 
learned  societies  or  in  the  company  of  friends. 
At  11  he  retired  to  his  study,  and  his  best 
books  are  said  to  have  been  written  at  mid 
night.  Many  of  the  works  of  Ilumboldt  are 
now  almost  inaccessible  on  account  of  their 
great  cost.  A  new  edition  of  his  select  works 
was  published  in  Stuttgart  in  1874,  in  80  num 
bers,  including  Kosmos,  with  a  biographical 
sketch  by  Bernhard  von  Cotta ;  Ansicliten  der 
Natur,  with  scientific  explanations ;  and  Eeise 
in  die  Aequinoctialgegendcn  des  neuen  Conti 
nents,  by  Hermann  Hauff,  the  only  authorized 
German  translation  of  this  work.  English 
translations  of  his  "Travels,"  "Views  of  Na 
ture,"  and  "Kosmos"  are  contained  in  Bolm's 
"Scientific  Library,"  of  which  they  constitute 
nine  volumes.  The  translation  of  "Kosmos" 
has  been  republished  in  New  York  in  5  vols. 
12mo.  The  centenary  of  Ilumboldt' s  birth, 
Sept.  14,  1809,  was  celebrated  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States,  and  eulogies  were  pro 
nounced  by  many  of  the  foremost  scientific 
men  of  the  day,  among  whom  were  Bastian, 
Dove,  Ehrenberg,  Virchow,  and  Agassiz. 
Many  biographies  of  him  have  been  published, 
the  best  being  Alexander  Ton  Ifumloldt,  eine 
uissensclinftliche  Biograpliie,  edited  by  Karl 
Bruhns,  a  joint  production  of  Ave-Lallemant, 
Cams,  A.  and  H.  W.  Dove,  Ewald,  Grisebach, 
Lowenberg,  Peschel,  AViedemann,  Wandt,  and 
the  editor,  aided  by  the  friends  and  relatives 
of  Ilumboldt,  and  by  the  Prussian  government 
(3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1872 ;  English  translation  by 
Jane  and  Caroline  Lassells,  "Life  of  Alexan 
der  von  Ilumboldt,"  2  vols.,  London,  1872). 
See  also  his  Briefe  an  Varnnagen  Ton  Ense  aus 
den  Jaliren  1827-'58,  published  by  Ludmille 
Assing,  with  extracts  from  Varnbagen's  diaries 
(Leipsic,  1800) ;  and  Les  barons  de  ForeU,  by 
Alexandre  Daguet  (Lausanne,  1873),  containing 
many  letters  of  Ilumboldt  and  an  interesting 
account  of  his  negotiations  in  'Madrid  for  the 
exploration  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  both 
hemispheres. 

HIMBOLDT,  Karl  Wilhelm  von,  baron,  a  Ger 
man  scholar,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Potsdam,  June  22,  1767,  died  at  Tegel,  April 
8,  1835.  In  1788  he  went  to  the  university  of 


46 


HUMBOLDT 


Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  thence  to  Gottin- 
gen,  where  he  studied  philology  under  the 
care  of  Ileyne.  lie  here  became  intimate  with 
George  Forster,  and  through-  him  Avith  Jacob! 
and  Johannes  von  Miiller.  When  the  French 
revolution  broke  out,  Wilhelm  llmnboldt,  who 
had  long  been  a  reader  of  Rousseau,  went  to 
Paris  (July,  1780),  in  company  with  Campe; 
and  the  result  of  his  observations  there  was  a 
great  distrust  of  many  theories  and  abstract 
ideas  which  he  had  previously  held.  Two 
years  later  he  published  his  first  work  on  the 
subject,  a  memoir  in  the  Berliner  Monatschrift 
(1702),  entitled  Ideen  iiber  Staatsverfassung 
(lurch  die  neue  franzdswche  Constitution  veran- 
lasst,  in  which  he  combated  the  possibility  of 
establishing  a  constitution  on  untried  theories. 
He  discussed  the  subject  more  fully  at  a  later 
date  in  a  separate  book  :  Idees  sur  un  essai  de 
determiner  les  limites  de  V action  que  doit  ex- 
ercer  Tetat.  After  completing  this  work  he 
laid  it  aside,  judging  the  time  inopportune  for 
its  publication,  and  afterward  lost  the  manu 
script,  which  was  not  found  or  published  until 
after  his  death ;  bnt  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  he  always  entertained  the  opinions 
expressed  in  it.  The  keynote  of  the  work  is 
individual  liberty.  It  presents  a  lofty  ideal  of 
the  rights  and  duties  of  the  individual,  and  of 
the  dignity  and  nobleness  to  which  human  na 
ture  is  able  and  ought  to  attain.  The  govern 
ment  which  hinders  individual  development 
the  least  is  to  him  the  best.  About  this  time 
philology  and  archaeology  had  become  promi 
nent  objects  of  investigation,  and  Ilumboldt, 
under  the  guidance  of  Heyne  and  Wolf,  entered 
upon  the  study  of  Greek  literature  and  art. 
An  early  result  of  his  studies  appeared  in  his 
"  Essay  on  the  Greeks  "  (1702).  In  July,  1791, 
he  had  married  Caroline  Dacheroden,  a  brilliant 
woman,  who  shared  with  him  his  Greek  studies. 
In  1703,  at  Jena,  he  contracted  with  Schiller 
an  intimacy  which  had  great  influence  on  his 
studies,  the  poet  inducing  him  to  apply  him 
self  more  closely  to  philosophy  and  aesthetics. 
To  this  intimacy  was  added  that  of  Goethe, 
who  was  then  writing  "  Hermann  and  Doro 
thea."  This  work  owed  much  to  the  criti 
cisms  and  care  of  Ilumboldt,  who  not  only 
superintended  its  printing,  but  wrote  a  com 
mentary  on  it  which  ranks  as  a  masterpiece 
of  German  criticism.  In  1707,  having  lost  his 
mother,  he  began  his  travels.  After  remain 
ing  with  his  family  some  time  at  Dresden,  he 
went  to  Vienna  and  tlience  to  Paris,  where 
he  arrived  in  November.  He  resided  a  year 
and  a  half  in  Paris,  and  then  went  to  Spain, 
where  he  travelled  during  six  months.  At 
this  time  he  was  occupied  with  his  system  of 
comparative  anthropology,  or  a  philosophical 
history  of  mental  development,  in  which  every 
phase  of  literature  should  be  traced  to  a  corre 
sponding  civilization.  This  he  based  on  phi 
lology,  and  his  first  studies  were  directed  to 
the  old  Spanish  languages,  and  particularly  the 
Basque.  lie  returned  to  Germany  in  1801, 


and  was  soon  after  appointed  Prussian  resident 
minister  in  Home,  where  he  distinguished  him 
self  as  much  in  diplomacy  as  in  letters.  His 
knowledge  of  art  enabled  him  to  cultivate 
friendly  personal  relations,  and  his  residence 
became  a  point  of  union  for  the  most  intelli 
gent  men  in  Home.  His  letters  to  Goethe4and 
Schiller,  his  translations  of  Pindar  and  /Eschy- 
lus,  and  the  poems  written  during  this  period, 
indicate  great  activity  and  versatility.  In  1806 
the  defeat  of  Prussia  at  Jena  rendered  his 
political  position  a  most  trying  one.  He  re 
mained  unwillingly  at  Rome  during  1807,  be 
ing  desirous  of  contributing  his  aid  to  his 
country  while  recovering  from  its  disasters. 
In  1808  he  was  recalled  by  family  affairs,  and 
was  immediately  appointed  minister  of  state 
for  the  departments  of  religion,  public  educa 
tion,  and  medical  establishments.  He  was 
called  under  very  trying  circumstances,  in 
January,  1800,  to  reorganize  public  instruction 
in  Prussia  ;  and  the  prominent  position  which 
that  country  at  present  holds  in  education  is 
in  a  great  measure  due  to  him.  In  the  midst 
of  the  apathy  and  despondency  bordering  on 
despair  which  at  that  time  affected  the  peo 
ple  and  government  of  Prussia,  he  succeeded 
in  establishing  the  university  of  Berlin,  and 
from  its  foundation  until  his  death  his  contri 
butions  formed  the  chief  glory  of  its  trans 
actions.  All  his  reforms  were  effected  during 
a  period  of  general  confusion,  and  in  the  face 
of  opposition  which  demanded  great  firmness, 
and  often  severity.  When  they  were  fairly  es 
tablished,  he  reentered  the  diplomatic  service, 
and  on  June  14,  1810,  was  appointed  minister 
at  the  court  of  Vienna.  At  Prague  he  met 
with  the  minister  Stein,  who  was  then  flying 
from  the  pursuit  of  Napoleon,  and  with  him 
concerted  the  part  he  was  to  take  in  the  po 
litical  struggles  of  the  day.  Stein  had  been 
greatly  interested  in  the  energetic  reforms  of 
Ilumboldt,  and  now  gave  him  his  full  confi 
dence.  His  task  at  the  court  of  Vienna  was  to 
effect  the  reconciliation  of  Prussia  and  Austria, 
to  consolidate  the  strength  of  Germany,  and  to 
excite  it  against  Napoleon.  The  difficulty  of 
the  effort  was  greatly  increased  by  the  passive 
position  assumed  by  Austria  after  the  campaign 
of  1800,  and  the  marriage  of  Maria  Louisa 
to  Napoleon  in  1810.  Finally  in  1813,  when 
Prussia  rose  against  Napoleon,  the  conference 
of  Prague  was  held.  At  this  most  critical  pe 
riod  the  perseverance  of  Humboldt  succeeded 
in  overcoming  the  hesitation  of  Metternich. 
Stein,  at  least,  declared  that  the  new  course 
taken  by  Austria  was  entirely  due  to  Ilum 
boldt,  and  Talleyrand  said  of  him  that  there 
were  not  in  all  Europe  three  statesmen  of 
his  ability.  He  manifested  the  same  shrewd 
ness,  reserve,  and  energy  at  the  conferences 
of  1813-'15  at  Frankfort,  Chatillon,  Paris,  and 
the  congress  of  Vienna.  But  with  the  forma 
tion  of  the  treaty  known  as  the  "holy  alli 
ance  "  Ilumboldt  had  nothing  to  do,  the  em 
peror  of  Russia  insisting  that  the  king  of  Prus- 


HUMBOLDT  RIVER 


HUME 


47 


sia  should  not  permit  Humboldt  to  know  any 
thing  of  the  treaty  until  it  was  concluded. 
During  his  diplomatic  career  he  showed  great 
genius  in  debate,  quickness  of  reply,  and 
a  most  delicate,  cutting  irony.  In  181 G  he 
went  to  Frankfort  as  ambassador,  and  in  1818 
to  London  and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  1819 
he  was  called  to  the  ministry.  At  this  time 
the  king  of  Prussia  determined  not  to  in 
troduce  the  representative  system  which  he 
had  promised  to  the  people.  Other  points 
of  difficulty  arose,  and  Humboldt  disagreed 
with  his  colleagues.  By  a  decree  of  Dec. 
31,  1819,  he  was  dismissed  from  the  minis 
try  and  deprived  of  his  state  appointments. 
He  now  retired  to  private  life,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  His  contributions  to  phi 
lology  from  this  time  were  very  extensive, 
and  of  such  importance  that  it  has  been  said 
that  before  him  great  minds,  such  as  Herder, 
Adelung,  and  Friedrich  Schlegel,  had  led  the 
way,  but  Humboldt  was  the  first  who  made  of 
philology  a  science.  Having  formed  the  inten 
tion  to  follow  all  the  languages  of  the  Pacific  in 
detail  in  order  to  establish  the  connection  be 
tween  India  and  Europe,  he  began  with  his 
work  Ueber  die  Kaicisprache  auf  der  Jnsel 
Java  (3  vols.  4to,  Berlin,  1836-'40),  in  which 
ho  traces  the  languages,  history,  and  literature 
of  the  Malay  races.  The  most  valuable  portion 
of  the  work  is  its  introduction,  Ueber  die  Ver- 
schiedenheit  des  menschlicJien  SpracTibaues  und 
ihren  Ewfluss  avf  die  geistige  EntwicTcelung 
des  Menschengeschlechts.  This  was  published 
separately  (4to,  Berlin,  1836),  and  embodies 
the  conclusions  at  which  he  had  arrived  in 
regard  to  the  origin,  development,  and  na 
ture  of  language  in  general.  Besides  this,  his 
principal  works  are  a  number  of  criticisms  col 
lected  in  the  AcsthetiscJie  VersucJie  (Bruns 
wick,  1799);  a  translation  of  the  "Agamem 
non  "  of  xEschylus,  a  work  containing  also 
valuable  researches  into  the  Greek  language 
and  metres;  the  Berichtigungen  und  Zitsatze 
zu  Adelung'1  s  Mithridatcs  (Berlin,  1817);  Pru- 
fung  der  Untersuchungen  uber  die  Urbewohner 
Spaniens,  &c.  (1821);  BhagavatlgUta  (1826) ; 
and  Ueber  den  Dual'is  (1828).  His  collected 
works  were  published  by  his  brother  Alexander 
(7  vols.  8vo,  Berlin,  1841-'52).  His  Brief e  an 
eine  Freundin  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1847;  6th  ed., 
1856;  and  in  1  vol.,  2d  ed.,  1863;  English 
translation  by  Catharine  M.  A.  Couper,  2  vols., 
London,  1849),  containing  his  letters  to  Char 
lotte  Diede,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  made 
in  Pyrmont  in  1788,  are  renowned  for  beauty 
of  thought  and  feeling.  Among  other  English 
translations  of  his  writings  is  "  The  Sphere 
and  Duties  of  Government,"  by  J.  Coulthard 
(1854).  The  best  biography  of  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  is  by  Haym  (Berlin,  1856).  His  col 
lection  of  MSS.  and  books  he  bequeathed  to 
the  royal  library  of  Berlin. 

HFMBOLDT  RIVER,  a  stream  which  rises  in 
the  N.  E.  part  of  Nevada  in  Elko  county,  flows 
first  "W.  by  S.,  then  bends  X.,  and  afterward 
VOL.  ix. — 4 


flowing  S.  S.  TV.  loses  itself  after  a  winding 
course  of  about  300  m.  in  the  Humboldt  "  sink  " 
or  lake,  on  the  border  of  Humboldt  and  Chur 
chill  counties,  in  the  TV.  part  of  the  state.  It  is 
!  in  no  part  more  than  a  few  yards  wide,  and  is 
'  not  navigable.  It  flows  through  a  treeless  re 
gion,  the  valley,  except  immediately  along  the 
stream,  consisting  of  sandy  land  covered  with 
sage  brush,  which,  however,  by  irrigation  might 
be  rendered  productive.  Numerous  streams 
on  either  side  of  the  valley  rush  down  the 
mountain  gorges,  but  sink  before  reaching  the 
Humboldt,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  in  sea 
sons  of  more  than  usual  snow  and  rain  in  the 
mountains.  Of  these  streams  the  principal  are 
the  Little  Humboldt  on  the  north,  and  Reese 
river  on  the  south.  Near  its  source  in  Elko 
county,  the  Humboldt  receives  its  N.  and  S. 
forks.  As  the  only  considerable  stream  flowing 
E.  and  TV.  through  the  Great  Basin,  its  valley 
formed  the  ordinary  emigrant  route  from  the 
Great  Salt  lake  to  California  ;  the  Central  Pa 
cific  railroad  now  follows  its  banks  through 
out  its  whole  course.  The  Humboldt  "  sink" 
has  no  outlet,  and  is  merely  a  marshy  spot  in 
a  sandy  plain,  10  or  15  m.  long  and  30  or  40  m. 
in  circumference  ;  the  extent  of  water  surface 
is  variable,  the  capacity  of  the  sands  to  absorb 
and  of  the  atmosphere  to  evaporate  being  gen 
erally  in  excess  of  the  supply  from  the  river. 

HIME,  David,  a  Scottish  historian,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  April  26,  1711,  died  there,  Aug.  25, 
1776.  His  father,  proprietor  of  the  estate  of 
Ninewells  in  Berwickshire,  died  during  David's 
infancy,  leaving  three  children.  Hume  was 
intended  for  the  bar.  He  passed  through  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  but  was  drawn  away 
from  his  legal  studies  by  that  love  for  literature 
which  became  the  ruling  passion  of  his  life. 
At  16  he  was  a  skeptic  in  matters  of  religion. 
His  inheritance  as  a  younger  son  being  small, 
in  1734  he  entered  a  counting  room  at  Bristol, 
whence  after  a  few  months  he  passed  over  into 
France,  and  lived  for  three  years  with  great 
economy  while  composing  his  "Treatise  of 
Human  Nature."  In  1738  he  printed  his  work 
in  London,  which,  as  he  says,  "  fell  dead  born 
from  the  press."  Returning  to  live  at  Nine- 
wells,  he  printed  anonymously  at  Edinburgh, 
in  1742,  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Essays."  Ho 
next  sought  a  professorship  in  the  Edinburgh 
university,  but  his  skeptical  principles  pre 
vented  his  success.  In  1745  he  went  to  live 
as  companion  to  the  insane  marquis  of  Annan- 
dale.  In  1746  Gen.  St.  Clair  invited  him  to 
become  his  private  secretary,  in  an  expedition 
designed  for  the  invasion  of  Canada,  but  which 
was  finally  directed  against  the  coast  of  France. 
Hume  was  also  made  judge  advocate  in  the 
army,  and  was  highly  popular  with  his  military 
associates.  TVhcn  St.  Clair  went  as  minister 
to  Turin,  he  took  Plume  with  him  as  his  secre 
tary.  On  his  way  to  Italy  he  passed  through 
Germany,  sailed  down  the  Danube,  and  at 
Vienna  was  presented  to  the  empress  Maria 
Theresa.  While  at  Turin,  his  "  Inquiry  con- 


HUME 


cerning  the  Human  Understanding,"  a  new  cast 
ing  of  the  unfortunate  "  Treatise,"  was  printed 
at  London.  On  his  return  from  Italy  in  1749,  he 
lived  with  his  brother  and  sister  at  Nine  wells, 
his  mother  being  now  dead,  and  there  wrote 
the  "  Inquiry  concerning  the  Principles  of 
Morals"  and  Ms  "  Political  Discourses"  (1752). 
In  1752,  after  strong  opposition,  he  was  chosen 
librarian  of  the  advocates1  library  of  Edinburgh, 
and  now  began  his  "  History  of  England." 
The  first  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the  House 
of  Stuart,"  containing  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  L,  came  out  toward  the  end  of  1754, 
and  was  unfavorably  received.  In  1756  he 
published  a  second  volume,  embracing  the 
reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.,  which  was 
better  received.  Hume  had  now  formed  a 
wide  acquaintance  among  the  professional  and 
literary  men  of  Scotland,  his  amiable  manners 
and  pure  morals  having  conquered  the  preju 
dices  excited  by  his  skeptical  opinions.  The 
general  assembly  of  1755,  however,  condemned 
his  writings,  and  even  threatened  him  with 
excommunication.  In  1757  appeared  his  "  Nat 
ural  History  of  Religion,"  which  Dr.  Hurd 
attacked  in  a  violent  pamphlet.  Hume  mean 
while  became  the  patron  of  the  rising  litera 
ture  of  Scotland.  He  aided  the  blind  poet 
Blacklock,  and  encouraged  Wilkie,  author  of 
the  "  Epigoniad."  Toward  the  end  of  1758  he 
went  to  London  to  publish  the  "  History  of  the 
House  of  Tudor."  It  appeared  in  1759,  and 
was  severely  criticised.  In  1761  he  published 
two  volumes  containing  the  earlier  portion  of 
the  English  annals.  He  proposed  to  write  two 
more  volumes  to  embrace  the  reigns  of  William 
III.  and  Anne,  but  this  design  was  not  fulfilled. 
By  the  sale  of  his  copyrights  he  had  now  gath 
ered  a  moderate  fortune,  and  lived  in  Edin 
burgh  in  philosophic  ease.  But  in  1763  the 
marquis  of  Hertford  invited  him  to  accompany 
him  to  Paris,  where  the  marquis  was  appointed 
minister.  Hume  at  first  declined  the  invitation, 
but  finally  attended  the  marquis,  and  was  re 
ceived  at  Paris  with  signal  distinction.  The 
whole  royal  family,  the  French  philosophers, 
the  nobility,  and  particularly  the  ladies  of  high 
rank  and  fashion,  overwhelmed  him  with  their 
attentions ;  and  Hume  wrote  to  his  friends  in 
Scotland  that  Louis  XIV.  had  never  suffered 
so  much  flattery  in  three  weeks  as  he  had  done. 
When  Lord  Hertford  left  Paris  Hume  became 
charge  d'affaires.  In  the  beginning  of  1766  he 
returned  to  England,  bringing  with  him  Rous- 
eeau,  who  sought  there  a  refuge  from  persecu- 
•tion  ;  he  provided  him  with  retired  lodgings 
in  Derbyshire,  and  obtained  for  him  a  pension 
from  the  king.  But  Rousseau  soon  afterward 
wrote  a  letter  to  Hume,  accusing  him  of  desiring 
to  destroy  his  fame.  Their  quarrel  made  a 
great  sensation,  and  Hume  in  self-defence  pub 
lished  the  letters  that  had  passed  between 
them.  In  1766  Hume  went  to  Edinburgh,  but 
was  invited  by  Gen.  Conway  the  next  year  to 
become  undersecretary  of  state.  He  remained 
.in 'London  until  Conway  was  superseded,  and 


in  1769  returned  to  Edinburgh.  His  income 
being  now  £1,000  a  year,  he  engaged  in  build 
ing  a  house,  and  in  the  pleasures  of  society. 
In  March,  1775,  his  health  began  to  decline. 
The  next  spring  he  wrote  a  congratulatory  let 
ter  to  Gibbon,  who  had  sent  him  the  first  vol 
ume  of  the  "Decline  and  Fall."  In  April, 
1776,  he  finished  his  "Own  Life,"  a  concise 
narrative  of  his  literary  career.  After  a  jour 
ney  to  Bath  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  to  die. 
Five  days  before  his  death  he  wrote  to  the 
countess  de  Boufflers :  u  I  see  death  gradually 
approach  without  any  anxiety  or  regret."  He 
was  buried  in  Calton  hill  graveyard,  Edin 
burgh,  where  a  monument  to  him  was  erected. 
As  a  historian  Hume  holds  a  high  rank  among 
English  writers.  His  narrative  is  interesting, 
his  style  clear,  and  with  happy  ease  he  blends 
profound  thought,  distinct  portraiture,  and 
skilful  appeals  to  the  feelings.  He  lacks,  how 
ever,  accuracy  and  impartiality.  His  philo 
sophical  writings  do  not  form  a  complete  sys 
tem.  He  discussed  detached  questions  of  meta 
physics,  and  aimed  at  the  refutation  of  what 
he  considered  erroneous  opinions  rather  than 
at  the  attainment  of  positive  results.  He  re 
garded  utility  as  the  basis  of  morals,  maintain 
ing  that  the  moral  quality  of  actions  was  to 
be  decided  by  their  consequences.  He  asserts 
that  the  mind  is  conscious  only  of  impressions 
and  ideas,  the  latter  following  the  former,  and 
that  there  is  no  clearer  proof  of  the  existence 
of  the  mind  than  there  is  of  matter.  He  traces 
the  course  of  thought  to  the  law  of  association, 
which  he  founds  upon  resemblance,  contiguity, 
and  cause  and  effect.  But  the  doctrine  of 
cause  and  effect  is  only  a  habit  of  the  mind, 
resulting  from  experience.  Thus  all  is  uncer 
tainty,  and  the  mind  reduced  to  skepticism. 
His  history  was  continued  by  Smollett  down 
to  the  death  of  George  II.,  and  after  that  by 
various  authors.  A  new  edition  of  his  "Phil 
osophical  Works,"  edited  by  T.  H.  Green  and 
T.  H.  Grose,  has  been  commenced  in  London 
(4  vols.,  18*74:  et  seq.). — See  "Life  and  Corre 
spondence  of  David  Hume,"  edited  by  John 
Hill  Burton  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1847). 

HUME,  Joseph,  a  British  statesman,  born  in 
Montrose,  Scotland,  in  January,  1777,  died  in 
Burnley  hall,  Norfolk,  Feb.  20, 1855.  At  about 
the  age  of  nine  he  lost  his  father,  the  master 
of  a  small  vessel,  but  was  enabled  by  his  moth 
er,  who  established  a  crockery  shop  in  Mont- 
rose,  to  receive  a  tolerable  education.  About 
1790  he  was  placed  with  an  apothecary  of 
Montrose,  and  three  years  later  he  became  a 
student  of  medicine  at  the  university  of  Edin 
burgh,  where  he  remained  till  1796,  when  he 
was  admitted  a  member  of  the  college  of  sur 
geons  of  Edinburgh.  Being  appointed  surgeon 
to  an  East  Indiaman,  he  made  two  voyages  to 
India,  and  in  1799  joined  the  medical  establish 
ment  in  Bengal.  Finding  that  few  of  the  com 
pany's  servants  had  acquired  the  native  lan 
guages,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  them, 
j  and  was  soon  able  to  speak  them  with  fluency. 


HUMMEL 


HUMMING  BIRD 


49 


At  the  outbreak  of  the  Mahratta  war  he  was 
attached  to  the  army,  and  upon  a  sudden 
emergency  officiated  as  Persian  interpreter 
with  so  much  efficiency,  that  he  was  appointed 
to  that  office  permanently.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  at  the  head  of  the  medical  staff,  and 
for  long  periods  acted  as  paymaster,  post 
master,  prize  agent,  and  commissary  general. 
These  employments  brought  him  reputation 
and  emoluments;  and  in  1808  he  was  able  to 
retire  from  professional  life,  and  to  return  to 
England  with  a  considerable  fortune.  For 
several  years  he  devoted  himself  to  travel  arid 
study.  In  January,  1812,  he  was  for  a  valuable 
consideration  returned  to  the  house  of  com 
mons  for  Weymouth  and  Melcombe  Regis, 
commencing  his  political  career  as  a  tory. 
Before  the  parliament  was  dissolved,  in  the 
succeeding  July,  he  opposed  a  ministerial  mea 
sure  for  the  relief  of  the  Nottingham  frame 
work  knitters,  on  the  ground  that  the  masters 
would  be  thereby  so  much  injured  that  the 
workmen  would  be  reduced  to  a  worse  state 
than  before.  This  so  alarmed  the  conservative 
patrons  of  his  borough  that  at  the  next  elec 
tion  they  refused  him  a  seat,  although  he  had 
bargained  for  a  second  return.  This  proceeding 
probably  opened  the  eyes  of  the  new  member 
to  the  evils  of  the  borough  system,  for,  although 
offered  Beats  from  other  boroughs,  he  refused 
to  enter  parliament  again  except  as  a  perfectly 
free  member,  a  contingency  which  did  not  oc 
cur  for  several  years.  During  this  interval  he 
busied  himself  with  a  variety  of  projects  for 
the  improvement  of  the  laboring  classes;  but 
his  chief  efforts  were  directed  against  the 
abuses  of  the  East  India  direction.  In  Janu 
ary,  1819,  he  reentered  parliament  as  a  radical 
member  for  the  Aberdeen  district  of  burghs, 
comprehending  his  native  town,  Montrose.  He 
continued  to  represent  the  Scotch  burghs  till 
1830,  when  he  was  returned  unopposed  as  one 
of  the  members  for  Middlesex.  In  1837  he 
was  defeated,  but  was  immediately  returned 
through  the  interest  of  Mr.  CTConnell  for  Kil 
kenny,  which  he  represented  till  1841,  when 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  town 
of  Leeds.  In  the  succeeding  year  he  offered 
himself  once  more  to  the  electors  of  Montrose, 
in  whose  service  he  died.  His  legislative  zeal 
and  labors  were  hardly  equalled  by  those  of 
the  most  eminent  of  his  contemporaries.  He 
urged  reforms  in  every  department  of  gov 
ernment  ;  and  he  lived  to  see  the  adoption  of 
almost  every  important  measure  which  he  had 
advocated.  In  1859  a  statue  of  him  was  erect 
ed  in  his  native  town. 

HUMMEL,  Joliann  Neponmk,  a  German  compo 
ser,  born  in  Presburg,  Hungary,  Nov.  17,  1778, 
died  at  Weimar,  Oct.  17, 1837.  At  seven  years 
of  age  he  showed  so  much  talent  that  Mozart 
assumed  the  direction  of  his  musical  studies. 
Later  he  received  lessons  in  harmony,  accom 
paniment,  and  counterpoint  from  Albrechts- 
berger,  and  valuable  suggestions  from  Salieri. 
In  1803  he  entered  the  service  of  Prince  Ester- 


hazy,  and  composed  his  first  mass,  which  won 
the  approval  of  Haydn.  From  1811  to  1816 
he  taught  at  Vienna,  and  after  that  was  suc 
cessively  chapelmaster  to  the  king  of  Wiirtem- 
burg  and  the  grand  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar.  He 
made  many  tours  through  Germany,  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  Russia,  winning  renown  as 
a  pianist.  He  excelled  as  a  pianist,  improvisa 
tor,  and  composer.  His  improvisations  were 
remarkable  for  their  originality  and  brilliancy, 
and  were  so  carefully  worked  out  as  to  have 
all  the  character  of  finished  compositions.  He 
took  high  rank  as  a  composer,  but  it  was  un 
fortunate  for  his  reputation  that  he  was  the 
contemporary  of  Beethoven,  by  whose  genius 
he  was  overshadowed.  He  composed  for  the 
stage,  the  church,  and  the  concert  room.  His 
compositions  of  the  first  class  consist  of  ope 
ras,  pantomimes,  and  ballets ;  of  the  second,  of 
three  masses  for  voice,  organ,  and  orchestra. 
The  third  class  is  the  most  numerous,  consist 
ing  of  concerted  pieces  for  various  instruments, 
trios,  quartets,  quintets,  and  septets,  with  many 
works  for  the  piano  alone.  He  wrote  also  a 
complete  pianoforte  method,  which  in  spite  of 
its  many  merits  has  been  superseded  by  later 
works  in  stricter  relation  to  the  requirements 
of  modern  art. 

HUMMING  BIRD,  the  common  name  of  a  large 
family  (trochilidce)  of  beautiful  slender-billed 
birds,  found  in  America  and  its  adjacent  islands. 
There  are  three  subfamilies,  grypince  or  wedge- 
tailed  humming  birds,  lampornince  or  curved- 
billed  humming  birds,  and  trochilince  or 
straight-billed  humming  birds.  The  most  bril 
liant  species  live  in  the  tropical  forests,  amid 
the  rich  drapery  of  the  orchids,  whose  mag 
nificent  blossoms  rival  the  beauty  of  the  birds 
themselves.  As  we  leave  the  tropics  their 
numbers  decrease,  and  but  a  few  species  are' 
found  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
some  however  reaching  as  high  as  lat.  57°  N. 
In  whatever  latitude,  their  manners  are  the 
same ;  very  quick  and  active,  almost  constantly 
on  the  wing,  as  they  dart  in  the  bright  sun  they 
display  their  brilliant  colors.  When  hovering 
over  a  flower  in  which  they  are  feeding,  their 
wings  are  moved  so  rapidly  that  they  become 
invisible,  causing  a  humming  sound,  whence 
their  common  name,  their  bodies  seeming  sus 
pended  motionless  in  the  air.  They  rarely 
alight  on  the  ground,  but  perch  readily  on 
branches;  bold  and  familiar,  they  frequent 
gardens  in  thickly  settled  localities,  even  en 
tering  rooms,  and  flitting  without  fear  near 
passers  by  ;  they  are  very  pugnacious,  and  will 
attack  any  intruder  coming  near  their  nests. 
The  nest  is  delicate  but  compact,  and  lined 
with  the  softest  vegetable  downs  ;  it  is  about 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  same  in  depth, 
and  placed  on  trees,  shrubs,  and  reeds.  The 
eggs,  one  or  two  in  number,  average  about 
one  half  by  one  third  of  an  inch,  and  are 
generally  of  a  white  color,  and  hatched  in  10 
or  12  days.  It  is  very  difficult  to  keep  these 
birds  in  cages;  but  they  have  been  kept  in 


50 


HUMMING  BIRD 


rooms  and  conservatories  for  months,  feeding 
on  sugar  or  honey  and  water  and  the  insects 
attracted  by  these,  and  have  become  so  tame 
as  to  take  their  sweetened  fluids  from  the  end 
of  the  linger.  They  are  incidentally  honey  eat 
ers,  but  essentially  insectivorous ;  their  barbed 
and  viscid  tongue  is  admirably  adapted  for 
drawing  insects  from  the  depths  of  tubular 
flowers,  over  which  they  delight  to  hover.  The 
family  of  trochilidce  may  be  recognized  by  their 
diminutive  size,  gorgeous  plumage,  long,  slen 
der,  and  acute  bill,  but  little  cleft  at  the  base, 
and  peculiar  tongue ;  the  species  are  very  nu 
merous,  probably  as  many  as  400,  some  of 
which  have  a  very  limited  range.  The  bill 
when  closed  forms  a  tube,  through  which  the 
long,  divided,  and  thread-like  tongue  may  be 
protruded  into  deep  flowers;  there  are  no 
bristly  feathers  around  its  base,  as  in  birds 
which  catch  insects  on  the  wing  ;  the  tongue 
has  its  cornua  elongated  backward,  passing 
around  the  back  to  the  top  of  the  skull,  as  in 
woodpeckers ;  the  wings  are  long  and  falci 
form,  with  very  strong  shafts,  the  first  quill  of 
the  ten  the  longest ;  the  secondaries  usually 
six ;  the  tail  is  of  various  forms,  but  always 
strong,  and  important  in  directing  the  flight ; 
the  tarsi  short  and  weak ;  the  toes  long  and 
slender,  and  capable  of  sustaining  them  in  a 
hanging  position,  as  is  known  from  their  be 
ing  not  unfrequently  found  hanging  dead  from 
branches  in  the  autumn  after  a  sudden  cold 
change  in  the  weather. — The  subfamily  gnj- 
pince  have  the  bill  slightly  curved,  and  the 
tail  long,  broad,  and  wedge-shaped ;  of  these 


Euff-necked  Humming-  Bird  (Selasphorus  rufus). 
1.  Male.    2.  Female. 

the  genus  pJiostornis  (Swains.)  is  found  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  South  America,  and  is  nu 
merous  in  species ;  oreotrocliilus  (Gould)  in 
habits  the  mountains  of  the  western  side  of 
South  America  immediately  beneath  the  line 


of  perpetual  snow,  feeding  upon  the  small  he- 
mipterous  insects  which  resort  to  the  flowers ; 
grypm  (Spix)  is  found  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  ruff-necked  humming  bird 
(selasphorus  rufus,  Swains.),  of  the  western 


Anna  Humming  Bird  (Althis  Anna). 
1.  Male.    2.  Female. 

parts  of  North  America,  is  about  3£  in.  long, 
with  a  wedge-shaped  tail ;  in  the  male  the 
upper  parts,  lower  tail  coverts,  and  tail  are 
cinnamon-colored,  the  latter  edged  or  streaked 
with  purplish  brown  ;  throat  coppery  red,  with 
a  ruff,  and  below  it  a  white  collar ;  in  the  fe 
male  the  back  is  greenish,  and  the  metallic 
reflections  are  less  brilliant.  The  Anna  hum 
ming  bird  (altJiis  Anna,  Reich.)  is  somewhat 
larger,  also  inhabiting  California  and  Mexico; 


Mango  Humming  Bird  (Lampornis  mango). 
1.  Male.    2.  Female. 

the  tail  is  deeply  forked  ;  top  of  head,  throat, 
and  ruff  metallic  red,  with  purple  reflections; 
rest  of  upper  parts  and  band  on  breast  green  ; 
tail  purplish  brown  ;  in  the  female  the  tail 
is  somewhat  rounded,  barred  with  black  and 


HUMMING  BIRD 


HUMPHREYS 


51 


tipped  with  white,  and  the  general  color  above 
metallic  green.  A  second  species  of  the  last 
two  genera  is  described  by  Prof.  Baird  in  vol. 
ix.  of  the  Pacific  railroad  reports. — The  curved- 
billed  humming  birds,  more  than  100  species, 
are  not  represented  in  the  United  States,  un 
less  the  mango  humming  bird  (lampornis  man 
go,  Swains.)  be  admitted ;  this  may  be  distin 
guished  from  the  common  species  by  the  ab 
sence  of  metallic  scale-like  feathers  on  the 
throat,  and  by  the  serrations  of  the  end  of  the 
bill ;  the  prevailing  colors  are  metallic  green 
and  golden  above,  and  velvety  bluish  black  be 
low,  with  a  tuft  of  downy  white  feathers  under 
the  wings. — The  common  species  throughout 
the  eastern  states,  extending  to  the  high  cen 
tral  plains,  and  south  to  Brazil,  is  the  ruby- 
throated  humming  bird  (trochilus  colubris, 
Linn.).  The  length  of  this  "  glittering  frag 
ment  of  the  rainbow  "  (as  Audubon  calls  it) 
is  about  3J  in.  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  4J 


7     ) 

Euby-throated  Humming  Bird  (Trochilus  colubris). 

in. ;  the  upper  parts  are  uniform  metallic  green, 
with  a  ruby  red  gorget  in  the  male,  a  white 
collar  on  the  throat,  and  the  deeply  forked  tail 
brownish  violet ;  the  female  has  not  the  red 
throat,  and  the  tail  is  rounded,  emarginate,  and 
banded  with  black.  The  corresponding  spe 
cies  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  the  black-chinned 
T.  Alexandri  (Bourc.  and  Mulsant).  The  last 
two  belong  to  the  subfamily  of  trocliilince  or 
mellisugina>,  having  straight  bills ;  their  genus 
is  given  by  Gray  as  mellisuga  (Briss.),  of  which 
there  are  more  than  100  species.  The  largest 
of  the  humming  birds  belongs  to  this  subfam 
ily,  and  is  the  JiylocJiaris  giyds  (Vieill.) ;  it  is 
nearly  8  in.  long,  brownish  green  above  and 
light  reddish  below  ;  the  wings  are  longer  than 
the  deeply  forked  tail,  and  the  general  appear 
ance  is  that  of  a  brilliant  swallow,  with  a  long 
straight,  bill. — Those  wishing  to  study  in  detail 
the  complicated  arrangement  of  this  beauti 
ful  family  are  referred  to  the  illustrated  works 
of  Lesson,  Temminck,  Audebert,  and  Vieillot, 


and  especially  to  Gould's  monograph  on  the 
trochilidce ;  also  to  vols.  xiv.  and  xv.  of  the 
"Naturalists'  Library." 

HUMPHREY,  Neman,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Simsbury,  Conn.,  March  26,  1779,  died 
in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  April  3,  1861.  From  the 
age  of  16  he  was  engaged  for  several  succes 
sive  winters  as  a  teacher  in  common  schools. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1805,  studied 
theology,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
church  in  Fairfield,  Conn.,  from  1807  to  1817, 
and  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  from  1817  to  Octo 
ber,  1823,  when  he  became  president  of  Am- 
herst  college,  then  unincorporated.  Principally 
through  his  influence  it  obtained  an  act  of  in 
corporation  the  next  year,  and  he  presided 
over  it  till  1845,  when  he  resigned,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literary  pursuits,  residing  in  Hat- 
field,  Mass.,  and  afterward  in  Pittsfield.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  the  tem 
perance  cause.  In  1810  he  preached  six  ser 
mons  on  intemperance,  and  in  1813  drew  up  a 
report  to  the  Fairfield  consociation  which  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  earliest  tract  on  the 
subject.  Among  his  writings  are :  a  prize 
essay  on  "The  Sabbath"  (1830);  "Tour  in 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  Belgium  "  (2  vols. 
12mo,  New  Y'ork,  1838);  "Domestic  Educa 
tion  "  (1840) ;  "  Letters  to  a  Son  in  the  Minis 
try"  (Amherst,  1845);  "Life  and  Writings  of 
N.  W.  Fiske"  (1850);  "  Life  and  Writings  of 
T.  H.  Gallaudet"  (1857);  "Sketches  of  the 
History  of  Revivals"  (1859);  and  "Revival 
Sketches"  (1860).  A  volume  entitled  "Me 
morial  Sketches  of  Heman  and  Sophia  Hum 
phrey,"  by  Z.  M.  Humphrey  and  Henry  Neill, 
was  printed  for  the  use  of  the  family. 

HUMPHREYS,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Tennessee, 
bounded  E.  by  Tennessee  river,  and  intersected 
near  its  S.  border  by  Duck  river,  a  tributary 
of  the  former  stream  ;  area,  375  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,326,  of  whom  1,295  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  moderately  uneven,  and  the  soil 
is  fertile.  The  Nashville  and  Northwestern 
railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  27,783  bushels  of  wheat, 
491,355  of  Indian  corn,  29,967  of  oats,  62,766 
of  peas  and  beans,  18,502  of  Irish  and  17,829 
of  sweet  potatoes,  113,177  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
and  107  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,971 
horses,  914  mules  and  asses,  2,355  milch  cows, 
4,488  other  cattle,  8,937  sheep,  and  18,418 
swine;  1  manufactory  of  woollen  goods,  1  of 
ground  bark,  2  saw  mills,  6  tanneries,  and  5 
currying  establishments.  Capital,  Waverley. 

HOIPHREYS,  Andrew  Atkinson,  an  American 
soldier,  born  in  Pennsylvania  about  1812.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1831,  and  served 
mainly  in  topographical  duty  till  1836,  when 
he  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army,  and 
became  a  civil  engineer  in  the  United  States 
service.  In  1838  he  was  reappointed  in  the 
army,  serving  generally  in  the  topographical 
department,  and  from  1844  to  1849  had  charge 
of  the  coast  survey  office  at  Washington.  In 
1849-'50  he  was  engaged  in  making  topographic 


HUMPHREYS 


IIUNFALVY 


and  hydrographic  surveys  of  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi,  continuing  in  general  charge  of  the 
work  till  1861,  when  he  published  a  volumi 
nous  and  very  valuable  "Report  upon  the 
Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi  Riv 
er."  During  the  civil  war  he  was  on  the  staff 
of  McClellan  until  his  supersedure  by  Burnside, 
was  made  brevet  colonel  for  his  services  in  the 
battle  of  Fredericksburg,  commanded  a  divi 
sion  at  Chancellorsville  and  at  Gettysburg,  and 
after  the  last  battle  became  chief  of  the  staff 
of  Gen.  Meade,  being  appointed  major  general 
of  volunteers,  July  8,  1863.  He  took  an  ac 
tive  part  in  the  campaigns  of  1864  and  1865, 
succeeding  Hancock  in  the  command  of  the 
2d  corps.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier  gen 
eral  in  the  regular  army  for  gallant  conduct  at 
Gettysburg,  and  major  general  for  services  at 
the  battle  of  Sailor's  Creek,  the  closing  battle 
of  the  war  (April  7,  1865).  From  July  to  De 
cember,  1865,  he  commanded  the  district  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  thereafter  he  was  in  charge 
of  the  examination  of  the  Mississippi  levees  till 
August,  1866,  when  he  was  appointed  chief  of 
engineers  of  the  United  States  army,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general. 

HUMPHREYS,  David,  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Derby,  Conn.,  in  July,  1752,  died  in  New 
Haven,  Feb.  21,  1818.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale  college,  entered  the  army  at  the  begin 
ning  of  the  revolutionary  war,  and  in  1780 
became  a  colonel  and  aide-de-camp  to  Wash 
ington.  He  resided  more  than  a  year  with 
Washington  after  his  retirement  to  Virginia, 
and  again  in  1788.  He  accompanied  Jefferson 
to  Europe  as  secretary  of  legation  in  1784, 
was  elected  to  the  legislature  of  Connecticut 
in  1786,  and  was  soon  associated  with  Lemuel 
Hopkins,  John  Trumbull,  and  Joel  Barlow  in 
the  composition  of  the  "Anarchiad,"  a  series 
of  poems  which  appeared  in  the  "New  Haven 
Gazette "  and  the  "  Connecticut  Magazine." 
These  poems  were  satirized  as  being  the  pro 
duction  of  "four  bards  with  Scripture  names." 
An  edition  of  them,  purporting  to  be  "the 
first  published  in  book  form,  edited,  with  notes 
and  appendices,  by  Luther  G.  Riggs,"  was  pub 
lished  at  New  Haven  in  1861.  Humphreys 
was  minister  to  Lisbon  from  1791  to  1797,  and 
afterward  minister  to  Spain  till  1802,  and  on 
his  return  imported  from  Spain  100  merino 
sheep,  and  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
woollens.  He  held  command  of  two  Connec 
ticut  regiments  in  the  war  of  1812,  after  which 
he  lived  in  retirement.  His  principal  poems 
are  :  an  "  Address  to  the  Armies  of  the  United 
States"  (1782);  a  "Poem  on  the  Happiness 
of  America;"  a  tragedy,  entitled  "The  Widow 
of  Malabar,"  translated  from  the  French  of 
Le  Mierre ;  and  a  "Poem  on  Agriculture." 
His  "Miscellaneous  Works"  (New  York,  1790 
and  1804)  contain  besides  his  poems  a  biogra 
phy  of  Gen.  Putnam  and  several  orations  and 
other  prose  compositions. 

HUMUS  (Lat.  humus,  the  soil),  vegetable 
mould,  or  the  product  of  the  decay  of  vegeta- 


|  ble  matter.  When  portions  of  a  decayed  stump 
or  the  decayed  matter  of  peat  is  digested  in 
a  weak  solution  of  caustic  potash  or  soda,  a 
brown  liquid  is  formed,  which  on  the  addition 
of  an  acid  deposits  a  dark  brown  precipitate. 
This  is  a  mixture,  according  to  Mulder,  of  three 
substances,  which  he  considers  as  compounds 
of  water,  or  of  water  and  ammonia,  with  three 
different  acids,  viz. :  1,  geic  acid,  C^ll^Oi ; 
2,  humic  acid,  C2oHi2O6 ;  3,  ulmic  acid,  C2o 
Hi4O6.  It  has  been  doubted,  however,  wheth 
er  humus  has  so  definite  a  composition.  Mul 
der  also  found  that  the  brown  substances  form 
ed  by  the  prolonged  action  of  boiling  dilute 
acids  upon  sugar  resemble  ulmic  and  humic 
acids  derived  from  mould,  both  in  chemical 
composition  and  properties.  Humus  may  be 
regarded  as  in  a  state  of  continuous  decompo 
sition  or  eremacausis,  a  species  of  slow  com 
bustion  (see  EKEMACAIJSIS),  in  which  the  hy 
drogen  of  the  vegetable  matter  is  more  rapidly 
removed  by  oxidation  than  the  carbon,  so  that 
it  contains  an  excess  of  the  latter  element. 
The  formation  of  water,  carbonic  acid,  and 
ammonia,  and  the  elimination  of  mineral  con 
stituents  in  the  decay  of  woody  fibre  is  one 
cause  of  the  beneficial  action  of  vegetable  ma 
nures  in  promoting  the  growth  of  plants. 

HUMUYA,  a  river  of  Honduras,  rising  at  the 
S.  extremity  of  the  plain  of  Comayagua,  and 
flowing  due  N.  for  a  distance  of  about  100  m. 
to  a  point  N.  of  the  town  of  Yojoa,  where  it 
unites  with  the  rivers  Blanco  and  Santiago  or 
Venta,  forming  the  great  river  Ulna,  which 
falls  into  the  bay  of  Honduras,  about  25  m. 
N.  E.  of  the  port  of  Omoa.  For  the  greater 
part  of  its  course  it  is  a  rapid  stream,  and  only 
navigable  for  canoes.  It  is  principally  inter 
esting  in  connection  with  the  interoceanic  rail 
way  through  Honduras,  in  course  of  construc 
tion  (1874)  through  its  valley.  Comayagua, 
the  capital  of  Honduras,  stands  on  its  E.  bank. 

HUNDRED,  the  name  given  in  some  parts  of 
England  to  the  subdivision  of  a  shire,  which 
may  have  received  the  appellation  from  having 
comprised  100  families,  100  warriors,  or  100 
manors.  The  existing  divisions  of  this  name 
differ  greatly  in  area  and  population.  The 
hundred  is  by  some  considered  to  have  been 
a  Danish  institution,  adopted  by  King  Alfred 
about  897,  each  county  being  divided  into 
tithings,  of  which  10  or  12  made  a  hundred, 
presided  over  by  a  decanus,  head  borough,  or 
hundred  man.  The  hundreds  were  represent 
ed  in  the  "shiremote,"  which,  under  the  presi 
dency  of  its  earl  and  bishop  or  sheriff,  regula 
ted  the  affairs  of  the  county.  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  hundred  was  vested  in  the  sheriff,  al 
though  it  was  sometimes  a  special  grant  from 
the  crown  to  individuals,  and  he  or  his  deputy 
held  a  court  baron,  or  court  leet.  The  hun 
dred  was  held  responsible  for  felons  until  de 
livered  up. — The  townships  of  the  state  of 
Delaware  are  called  hundreds. 

HUNFALVY.  I.  Pfil,  a  Hungarian  philologist, 
born  at  Nagy-Szalok,  March  12,  1810.  He 


HUNGARY 


53 


became  in  1842  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
Kasmark,  was  a  member  of  the  Hungarian 
diet  of  1848-'9,  and  has  since  lived  in  Pesth. 
He  has  written  and  edited  a  number  of  philo 
logical  and  ethnological  publications,  inclu 
ding  Clii'estomathia  Fennica  (Pesth,  1801),  and 
"The  Land  of  the  Voguls"  (3  vols.,  18G3), 
after  the  accounts  of  the  Hungarian  traveller 
Reguly.  II.  Jauos,  a  Hungarian  geographer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Gross-Scbla- 
gendorf,  June  8,  1820.  He  became  in  1846 
professor  of  statistics  and  history  at  Kasmark, 
took  part  in  the  revolutionary  movement  of 
1848-'9,  and  was  imprisoned,  but  in  1850  re 
sumed  his  duties  at  Kasmark,  and  was  sub 
sequently  suspended  for  advocating  the  in 
dependence  of  Protestant  education,  lie  re 
moved  to  Pesth  in  1853,  and  became  professor 
of  statistics,  geography,  and  history  at  the 
polytechnic  institute  of  Buda.  His  works  in 
clude  a  "Universal  History"  (3  vols.,  Pesth, 
2d  ed.,  1862),  "Physical  Geography  of  Hun 
gary"  (3  vols.,  1863-'6),  the  text  to  the  pic 
torial  work  "  Hungary  and  Transylvania  "  (3 
vols.,  Darmstadt,  1859-'64),  and  a  Hungarian 
edition  of  the  "  Travels  "  of  Ladislas  Magyar 
(Pesth,  1859). 

HOiGARY  (Hung.  Magyarorszdg,  Magyar 
land  ;  Ger.  Ungarit),  a  country  of  Europe,  for 
merly  an  independent  kingdom,  subsequently 
united  with  Austria,  from  1849  to  186V  a  crown- 
land  or  province  of  the  latter,  and  since  1867  one 
of  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  monarchy.  Before  1849  it  embraced 
in  a  constitutional  sense,  besides  Hungary 
proper,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  the  Hungarian 
Littorale  (coast  land  on  the  Adriatic),  and  in 
its  widest  acceptation  also  Transylvania,  the 
Military  Frontier,  and  Dalmatia,  with  an  ag 
gregate  population  of  about  15,000,000.  All 
these  dependencies  were  in  1849  detached,  and 
besides  them  from  Hungary  proper  the  coun 
ties  of  Middle  Szolnok,  Zarand,  and  Kraszna, 
and  the  district  of  Kovar,  to  be  reunited  with 
Transylvania,  and  the  counties  of  Bacs,  Toron- 
tal,  Temes,  and  Krasso,  to  form  the  new  crown- 
land  of  the  Servian  Waywodeship  and  Banat. 
In  1867  the  changes  made  in  1849  were  re 
pealed  ;  the  Way  wodeship  was  abolished,  Tran 
sylvania  reunited  with  Hungary,  and  Croatia 
and  Slavonia  recognized  as  a  dependency  of 
the  Hungarian  crown,  which  has  its  own  pro 
vincial  assembly,  but  also  sends  deputies  to 
the  Hungarian  diet,  and  is  subordinate  to  the 
Hungarian  ministry.  The  Military  Frontier, 
which  formerly  had  its  separate  administration, 
was  destined  to  gradual  incorporation  partly 
with  Hungary  proper  and  partly  with  Croatia. 
Dalmatia  was  united  with  Cisleithan  Austria. 
Thus  Hungary  in  the  wider  sense,  also  called 
Transloithania  or  Transleithan  Austria,  from 
the  little  river  Leitha  which  constitutes  part  of 
the  frontier  between  the  two  main  divisions  of 
the  monarchy,  now  comprises  (the  reorgani 
zation  of  the  Military  Frontier  having  become 
complete  in  1873)  Hungary  proper,  Transyl 


vania,  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and  Fiume.  The 
lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown  have  in  common 
with  Cisleithan  Austria  an  imperial  ministry, 
consisting  of  the  departments  of  foreign  affairs 
and  the  imperial  house,  of  finances,  and  of  war. 
hi  the  article  ATSTRIA  we  have  treated  of  the 
Austro-IIungarian  monarchy  as  a  whole;  arid 
the  articles  CROATIA,  MILITARY  FRONTIER,  SLA 
VONIA,  and  TRANSYLVANIA  will  contain  what  is 
or  lately  was  peculiar  to  those  sections.  In 
this  article  we  shall  treat  of  the  lands  of  the 
Hungarian  crown  with  special  reference  to  that 
section  which  is  called  Hungary  proper.  Hun 
gary  (in  the  wider  sense)  is  situated  between  lat. 
44°  11'  and  49°  35'  K,  and  Ion.  14°  25'  and  26° 
30'  E.,  and  is  bounded  N.  E.,  N".,  and  W.  by  Cis 
leithan  Austria,  S.  and  E.  by  the  Turkish  prov 
inces  and  dependencies  Bosnia,  Servia,  and 
Roumania.  The  total  area  of  the  lands  of  the 
Hungarian  crown  is  125,045  sq.  m.,  of  which 
87,045  belong  to  Hungary  proper.  The  popu 
lation,  according  to  the  census  of  1869,  was 
15,509,455,  of  whom  11,530,397  lived  in  Hun 
gary  proper. — Hungary  in  its  chief  parts  forms 
a  large  basin  surrounded  almost  entirely  by 
mountain  ranges,  of  which  the  principal  are : 
the  Carpathians,  which  encircle  the  north,  with 
their  various  offshoots,  the  Hungarian  Ore 
mountains  between  the  "Waag  and  the  Eipel, 
the  Matra  E.  of  the  preceding,  and  the  wine 
growing  Hegyalja  between  the  Theiss  and  the 
Ilernad  ;  the  Leitha  range,  the  wooded  Ba- 
kony,  and  the  Vertes,  mostly  continuations  of 
the  Noric  and  Carnic  Alps,  in  the  S.  TV.  divi 
sion;  and  the  Transylvanian  Alps  on  the  S.  E. 
frontier.  The  chief  artery  of  the  country  is  the 
Danube,  which  enters  it  between  Vienna  and 
Presburg,  and  on  its  course  to  the  Black  sea 
receives  the  waters  of  all  the  other  rivers,  ex 
cepting  only  the  Poprad,  which  rises  near  the 
N.  boundary  and  flows  to  the  Vistula.  The 
principal  of  these  affluents  of  the  Danube  are : 
on  the  right,  the  Leitha,  Raab,  Sarviz,  and  the 
Drave,  which  separates  Hungary  proper  from 
Slavonia,  with  the  Mur,  its  affluent ;  on  the  left, 
the  March,  AVaag,  Keutra,  Gran,  Eipel,  Theiss, 
and  Temes.  The  Theiss  rises  in  the  northeast, 
in  the  county  of  Marmaros,  and  its  chief  afflu 
ents  are  the  Bodrog,  Hernad,  Sajo,  and  Zagyva 
on  the  right,  and  the  Szamos,  Koros,  and  Maros 
on  the  left.  Most  of  the  rivers  of  Croatia  and 
Transylvania  are  also  tributaries  of  the  Danube ; 
among  others,  the  Save  on  the  Turkish  frontier 
and  the  Alt  from  Transylvania.  The  S.  TV.  di 
vision,  which  has  the  fewest  rivers,  includes 
the  two  principal  lakes  of  the  country,  the 
Balaton  and  the  Neusiedler.  Various  marshes, 
moors,  soda  lakes,  and  swamps  extend  near  the 
banks  of  the  great  rivers,  especially  of  the 
Theiss.  There  are  also  numerous  mountain 
lakes  called  "eyes  of  the  sea,"  and  caverns,  of 
which  that  of  Agtelek  in  the  county  of  Gomor 
is  the  most  remarkable.  Extensive  islands  are 
formed  by  the  branches  of  the  Danube  ;  among 
others,  the  Great  Schiitt  and  Csepel  in  its  up 
per  course.  The  climate  is  in  general  mild, 


HUNGARY 


owing  to  the  great  northern  barrier  of  the  Car 
pathians.  Often,  when  snow  covers  the  north 
ern  mountain  regions,  the  heat  is  considerable 
on  the  lowlands  of  the  south,  especially  near 
the  Maros.  The  climate  of  the  great  central 
plain  resembles  that  of  northern  Italy;  its 
sandy  wastes,  however,  greatly  contribute  to 
the  aridity  of  the  summer  winds.  Blasts  of 
wind  and  hailstorms  are  not  unfreqwent  in  the 
Carpathians.  The  spring  is  the  most  agreeable 
season,  but  the  autumn  often  partakes  of  the 
character  of  the  Indian  summer  in  the  United 
States.— The  fertility  of  the  soil,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  several  mountainous  and  sandy 
regions,  is  almost  extraordinary.  Among  the 
vegetable  productions  are :  the  different  species 
of  grain,  especially  wheat,  maize,  hemp,  flax, 
rapeseed,  melons,  often  of  immense  size,  apples, 
pears,  apricots,  and  plums ;  cherries,  mulber 
ries,  chestnuts,  filberts,  and  walnuts ;  tobacco, 
which  is  now  monopolized  by  the  crown  ;  wine 
of  the  most  various  kinds,  including  the  Tokay 
of  the  Hegyalja;  almonds,  figs,  and  olives,  on 
the  southern  border  ;  anise,  Turkish  pepper, 
sweet  wood,  safflower,  madder,  and  other  dye 
plants;  oaks,  which  yield  large  quantities  of 
galls,  the  beech,  fir,  pine,  ash,  alder,  and  nu 
merous  other  forest  trees,  often  covering  ex 
tensive  tracts  of  land  in  the  mountainous  re 
gions.  Among  the  animals  are  the  bear,  wolf, 
lynx,  wild  cat,  boar,  chamois,  marmot,  deer, 
fox,  hare  ;  many  fine  breeds  of  horses  and  cat 
tle  (including  buffaloes),  dogs,  sheep,  and  swine, 
the  last  of  which  are  fattened  in  the  forests 
on  acorns.  The  birds  comprise  the  golden  and 
stone  eagle,  hawk,  kite,  bustard,  heron,  par 
tridge,  woodcock,  nightingale,  and  lark.  Fish, 
bees,  and  leeches  abound.  Of  minerals,  there 
are  gold,  iron,  and  copper  in  large  quantities ; 
silver,  zinc,  lead,  coal,  cobalt,  nitre,  antimony, 
arsenic,  sulphur,  alum,  soda,  saltpetre,  potas 
sium,  marble,  crystal,  chalk ;  salt  in  immense 
mines,  especially  in  Marmaros  ;  jasper,  chalce 
dony,  hyacinths,  amethysts,  agates,  and  beau 
tiful  varieties  of  opal  (in  Saros).  There  are 
more  than  300  mineral  springs,  of  which  those 
of  Buda,  Trentschin,  Posteny,  Bartfeld,  Parud, 
and  Szobnincz  are  among  the  most  renown 
ed.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  wheat, 
rapeseed,  galls,  honey,  Avax,  wine,  tobacco, 
copper,  alum,  potash,  wood,  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  hides,  wool,  dried  fruits,  and  brandies, 
especially  sliwvitw  or  plum  liquor.  For  im 
ports  and  manufactures  Hungary  relies  mainly 
on  Austria,  the  chief  home  manufactures,  be 
sides  metals,  being  linen  and  woollens,  leather, 
paper,  pottery  and  clay  pipes,  soap  and  can 
dles,  and  tobacco.  The  means  of  communica 
tion,  formerly  scanty,  are  now  rapidly  extend 
ing.  Steamers  ply  on  the  Danube  and  Theiss  ;  < 
a  network  of  railways  connects  the  various 
parts  of  the  country  with  eacli  other  and  with 
the  neighboring  provinces.  The  principal  seats  , 
of  learning  are  at  Pesth,  which  is  also  the  lit-  I 
erary  centre,  Presburg,  Kaschau,  Debreczin, 
Patak,  Papa,  Erlau,  Veszprem,  Miskolcz,  Sze-  : 


gedin,  Stuhl-Weissenburg,  and  Grosswardein. 
— The  variety  of  nationalities  and  languages 
rivals  that  of  productions.  There  are  Magyars 
or  Hungarians  proper,  the  predominant  race 
(according  to  the  census  of  1869,  about  5,688,- 

000  in  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown,  in 
cluding  the  Szeklers  of  Transylvania ;  5,024,000 
in  Hungary  proper),  chiefly  in  the  fertile  re 
gions  of  the  centre  and  in  the  southwest;  Slo 
vaks  (1,841,000)  in  the  mountain  regions  of  the 
northwest  and  north  ;  Ruthenians  (448,000)  in 
those  of  the  northeast ;  Croats  and  Serbs  (Ras- 
cians)  in  the  south  and  southwest  (about  2,405,- 
700,  of  whom  about  800,000  are  in  Hungary 
proper);    Roumans   in  the    southeast   (about 
2,477,700,   of  whom  about   1,270,000   are  in 
Hungary  proper) ;  Germans  (1,894,800;  in  Hun 
gary  proper,    1,592,000)   and  Jews  (552,000, 
mainly  in  Hungary  proper),  chiefly  in  the  towns 
of  all  regions ;  gypsies  (50,000),  settled  in  towns 
and  villages,  or  migratory ;  besides  Armenians, 
French,  Bulgarians,    &c.     These  various   ele 
ments  are  distinguished  not  only  by  language, 
but  also  by  peculiar  costumes,  manners,  and 
moral  characteristics.      Of  the  inhabitants  in 
1869,  7,558,000  (in  Hungary  proper,  5,933,000) 
were  Roman  Catholics,  1,599,000  (in  Hungary 
proper,  981,000)  united  Greeks,  2,589,000  (in 
Hungary  proper,  1,414,000)  non-united  Greeks, 
2,031,000     (in    Hungary    proper,     1,720,000) 
Calvinists    (Reformed,    popularly    Hungarian 
church),  1,113,000  (in  Hungary  proper,  887,- 
000)  Lutherans,  and  552,000  Jews.    Public  edu 
cation  was  reorganized  in  1868.     The  common 
schools  are  of  two  grades :    elementary  schools 
with  from  one  to  three  classes  (14,685  in  1869), 
and  schools  of  a  higher  grade  with  as  many 
as  six  classes  (569  in  1869).     Education  is  com 
pulsory,    and   children   are   bound   to  attend 
school  from  their  6th  to  their  12th  year,  and 
after  that  until  their  15th  year  a  "  school  of 
review."     The  actual  attendance,  however,  is 
as  yet  unsatisfactory,  and  in  1869  amounted 
to  only  50  per  cent,  of  the  children  of  school 
age,  the  number  of  attendants  being  1,226,000. 
In  1869  there  were  152  gymnasia,  25  Eeal- 
schulen,  and  a  university  at  Pesth.     In  1872  a 
second  university  was  opened  at  Klausenburg. 
— The  Hungarian  diet  consists  of  two  houses, 
the  table  of  magnates  and  the  table  of  depu 
ties.     The   former  in  1873  was  composed  of 
the  3  archdukes  who  had  landed   estates  in 
Hungary,  31  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  arch 
bishops,  bishops,  and  high  church  dignitaries, 
12  imperial  banner  bearers,  57  presidents  of 
counties,  5  supreme  royal  judges,  the  count  of 
the  Saxons  in  Transylvania,  the  governor  of 
Fiume,  3  princes,  218  counts,  80  barons,  and 
3  "regulists"  of  Transylvania.     The  table  of 
deputies  had  444  members,  of  whom  334  be 
longed  to  Hungary  proper,  75  to  Transylvania, 

1  to  Fiume,  and  34  to  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 
The  diet  meets  annually,  and  new  elections 
must  take  place  every  three  years.     The  right 
of  voting  belongs  to  all  who  have  a  regular 
business  or  pay  a  small  amount  of  direct  taxes, 


HUNGARY 


55 


as  provided  by  law.  The  language  of  the  diet 
is  the  Hungarian,  but  the  representatives  of 
Croatia  and  Slavonia  are  permitted  to  use  the 
Croatian  language.  The  Hungarian  ministry 
consists  of  a  president  and  the  heads  of  nine 
departments,  viz. :  the  ministry  of  national  de 
fence,  the  ministry  near  the  king's  person  {ad 
latus\  the  ministry  of  finance,  of  the  interior, 
of  education  and  public  worship,  of  justice;  of 
public  works,  of  agriculture,  industry,  and  com 
merce,  and  for  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  The  ad 
ministration  of  communes  was  regulated  by 
law  in  1871 ;  that  of  municipia,  which  class 
comprises  counties,  districts,  and  the  royal  free 
cities,  in  1870.  The  supreme  court  of  the 
kingdom  is  the  royal  curia  in  Pesth,  consist 
ing  of  two  divisions,  the  court  of  cassation 
and  the  supreme  court.  The  royal  tables  of 
Pesth  (for  Hungary  proper  and  Fiume)  and  of 
Maros-Vusarhely  (for  Transylvania)  are  courts 
of  the  second  resort ;  102  royal  courts  and 
306  district  courts  have  original  jurisdiction. 
The  public  revenue  of  Hungary  for  the  year 
1872  amounted  to  $82,187,809,  the  expendi 
ture  to  $112,853,705.  To  meet  the  interest  on 
the  common  debt  of  the  monarchy  contracted 
prior  to  1808,  Hungary  pays  an  annual  contri 
bution  ^f  $13,030,000.  It  has  also  a  special 
debt  amounting  to  $219,000,000.  Politically, 
Hungary  proper,  according  to  ancient  custom, 
is  divided  into  four  natural  divisions  or  circles, 
subdivided  into  counties,  and  called,  from  the 
standpoint  of  Pesth,  the  Cis-Danubian  (N.  and 
E.  of  the  Danube),  Trans-Dan ubian  (S.  and  W. 
of  the  Danube),  Cis-Tibiscan  (N.  and  W.  of  the 
Theiss),  and  Trans-Tibiscan  (S.  and  E.  of  the 
Theiss),  and  three  districts:  Jazygia  (Jdszsdg), 
with  Great  and  Little  Cumania  (Kunsag}  ;  the 
Hayduk  towns  (ffajdu-Vdrosok);  and  Kovar. 
The  counties  are  as  follows :  Cis-Danubian 
circle — Presburg  (Pozsony),  Neutra  (Nyitra), 
Trentschin  (Trencseny\  Arva,  Turocz,  Bars, 
Lipto,  Zolyom,  Hont,  Nograd,  Pesth  (Pest), 
G;TKQ.(E8ztergom),  Bacs.  Trans-Danubian  circle 
— Wieselburg  (Mosony),  Oedenburg  (Soprony\ 
Vast,  Zala,  Somogy,  Baranya,  Tolna,  Vesz- 
prem,  Raab  (Gyor),  Comorn  (Iiomarom),  Weis- 
senburg  (Fejer).  Cis-Tibiscan  circle — Heves, 
Borsod,  Gornor,  Zips  (Szepes),  Saros,  Torna, 
Abauj,  Zemplen,  Ung,  Bereg.  Trans-Tibiscan 
circle — Ugocsa,  Marmaros,  Szatmar,  Szabolcs, 
Bihar,  Bekes,  Arad,  Csanad,  Csongrad,  Toron- 
tal,  Temes,  Krasso,  Middle  Szolnok,  Kraszna, 
Zarand. — Among  the  nations  who  occupied 
parts  of  Hungary  before  its  conquest  by  the 
Magyars  or  Hungarians,  we  find  the  Dacians, 
Illyrians,  Pannonians,  Bulgarians,  Jazyges, 
Alans,  Avars,  Huns,  Gepid.T,  Longobards,  and  j 
Kliazars.  The  Romans  held  the  S.  W.  part 
of  the  country  under  the  name  of  Pannonia, 
while  the  S.  E.  belonged  to  their  province  of 
Dacia.  Various  Slavic  tribes,  together  with 
Wallachs,  Bulgarians,  and  Germans,  were  the 
chief  occupants  at  the  time  of  the  Magyar 
invasion.  The  Magyars,  a  warlike  people  of 
the  Turanian  race,  had  made  various  migra 


tions,  and  long  dwelt  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Caucasian  mountains,  and  afterward  in  the  re 
gion  between  the  Don  and  the  Dniester,  before 
they  approached  and  crossed  the  Carpathians 
(about  887)  under  the  lead  of  Almos,  one  of 
their  seven  chiefs  (Kezer),  and  elected  head 
(fejedelem)  or  duke.  They  were  divided  into 
seven  tribes  and  108  families,  had  a  compact, 
consecrated  by  oaths,  which  guaranteed  justice 
and  equality  among  themselves,  and  a  religion 
which  in  various  features  resembled  the  Aryan 
element  worship  of  the  Medo-Persians,  but  also 
included  the  notion  of  a  supreme  being  (hten). 
Arpad,  the  son  of  Almos,  conquered  the  whole 
of  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  organized  the 
government,  and  also  made  various  expeditions 
beyond  the  limits  of  these  countries,  among 
others  against  Svatopluk  of  Moravia,  being  in 
vited  by  Arnulf  of  Germany.  These  expedi 
tions  were  further  extended  under  his  son  Zol- 
tan  (907-946)  and  grandson  Taksony  (946-972), 
spreading  terror  and  devastation  as  far  as  the 
Xorth  sea,  the  south  of  France  and  Italy,  and 
the  Euxine.  But  various  bloody  defeats,  es 
pecially  near  Merseburg  (933)  by  the  emperor 
Henry  L,  on  the  Lech  (955)  by  Otho  I.,  and  in 
Greece  (970),  finally  broke  the  desire  of  the 
Hungarians  for  booty  and  adventurous  ex 
ploits,  and  turned  the  attention  of  their  princes 
to  the  consolidation  of  their  power  within  the 
natural  limits  of  the  country.  Gejza  (972-997), 
the  son  of  Taksony,  who  married  a  Christian 
princess,  promoted  the  introduction  of  Chris 
tianity,  which  was  almost  completed  under  his 
son  Stephen  I.  (997-1038),  whose  religious  zeal 
gained  him  a  crown  and  the  title  of  apostolic 
king  from  Pope  Sylvester  II.  (1000),  and  after 
ward  the  appellation  of  saint.  Assisted  by 
Roman  priests  and  German  knights,  he  pro 
claimed  the  freedom  of  Christian  slaves,  intro 
duced  Latin  schools,  established  bishoprics, 
built  churches,  chapels,  and  convents,  elevated 
the  bishops  to  the  foremost  rank  in  the  state, 
compelled  the  people  to  pay  tithes  to  the  new 
clergy,  and  subdued  the  rebellious  adherents 
of  the  national  religion.  The  political  and  ad 
ministrative  institutions  of  the  state  were  also 
organized.  The  original  equality  of  the  con 
querors  was  limited  by  imitations  of  the  west 
ern  feudal  aristocracy.  The  higher  clergy,  the 
higher  nobility,  consisting  of  distinguished  na 
tional  families  and  of  foreign  lords,  and  the 
common  nobility,  embracing  the  bulk  of  the 
national  warriors,  were  the  ruling  classes;  the 
two  former,  together  with  the  dignitaries  of 
the  state,  the  palatine  (nddor),  the  court  judge 
(afterward  land  judge),  &c.,  formed  the  senate, 
or  the  higher  division  of  the  legislative  body. 
Against  this  new  and  foreign  order  of  things 
the  national  party  more  than  once  violently 
rose,  both  under  Stephen  and  his  successors, 
Peter  (1038-'40),  against  whom  Aba  Samuel 
was  elected  king,  and  who  twice  lost  his 
throne,  Andrew  I.  (1040-101),  who  perished 
after  being  defeated  by  his  brother  Bela,  and 
Bela  I.  (1061-?63),  under  whom  the  resistance 


56 


HUNGARY 


of  the  defenders  of  the  ancient  religion  was 
finally  broken.  The  civil  strifes  were  not  only 
kept  up  by  the  undefined  succession  to  the 
throne  by  the  house  of  Arpad,  but  also  foment 
ed  by  the  intervention  of  the  popes  and  the 
emperors.  The  emperor  Henry  III.  in  the 
reign  of  Andrew  repeatedly  invaded  the  coun 
try.  The  son  of  the  latter,  Solomon  (1063- 
'74),  lost  his  throne  chiefly  in  consequence  of 
his  ill  treatment  of  his  gallant  cousins  and  suc 
cessors  Gejza  (1074-'77)  and  Ladislas  (1077- 
'95),  to  whom  he  owed  his  elevation,  and  some 
splendid  victories  over  invaders  ;  and  he  vainly 
applied  for  aid  both  to  the  emperor  Henry  IV. 
and  his  antagonist  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  who 
each  claimed  the  rights  of  suzerainty  over 
Hungary.  Solomon  died  in  exile.  Ladislas  was 
equally  brave  and  pious.  He  is  a  saint  in  the 
Roman  calendar,  and  his  victories  over  the 
Cumans,  who  invaded  Transylvania  and  the 
neighboring  districts,  and  the  conquest  of 
Croatia  and  Ilalicz  (eastern  Galicia),  made 
him  one  of  the  favorite  princes  of  his  nation. 
His  nephew  Coloman  (1095-1114),  surnamed 
the  Scholar,  was  an  enlightened  and  able  ru 
ler.  He  introduced  various  reforms,  refused 
to  accept  the  lead  of  the  first  crusade,  closely 
watched  the  hosts  which  passed  through  his 
country,  and  routed  or  repulsed  the  more  dis 
orderly,  though  he  received  Godfrey  of  Bouil 
lon  as  a  friend.  He  annexed  Dalmatia,  but 
stained  the  close ^ of  his  reign  by  cruelty  to 
ward  his  brother  Almos,  who  conspired  against 
him.  His  son,  the  profligate  Stephen  II.  (1114 
-'31),  waged  war  against  almost  all  his  neigh 
bors.  Bela  II.,  the  Blind  (1131-'41),  the  son 
of  Almos,  and  like  his  father  the  victim  of 
Coloman,  took  bloody  revenge  on  his  former 
enemies  on  the  occasion  of  the  diet  at  Arad. 
Under  his  son  Gejza  II.  (1141-'61)  numer 
ous  Saxon  colonies  were  settled  in  Zips  and 
Transylvania,  while  their  countrymen  who 
joined  the  second  crusade  desolated  the  re 
gions  through  which  they  passed.  The  dis 
puted  rights  to  Galicia  and  Dalmatia,  and  the 
often  changing  relations  with  the  Byzantine 
empire,  were  now  sources  of  frequent  wars  in 
the  north  and  south.  Stephen  III.  (1161-'73), 
Gejza's  youthful  son,  who  overcame  the  in 
trigues  of  Manuel  Cornnenus  and  the  opposi 
tion  of  two  rivals,  Ladislas  II.  and  Stephen 
IV.,  but  succumbed  to  poison,  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Bela  III.  (1173-'96),  who,  hav 
ing  been  educated  at  the  Greek  court,  and 
supported  by  it,  introduced  various  imitations 
of  its  administrative  organization,  and  was 
successful  in  Galicia,  as  well  as  in  Dalmatia 
against  the  republic  of  Venice.  His  connection 
with  the  West  in  consequence  of  his  marriage 
with  Margaret  of  France  induced  numerous 
noble  youths  to  visit  the  chief  cities  and  schools 
of  France,  England,  and  Italy.  His  son  Emeric 
(1196-1205)  was  tormented  by  the  revolts  of 
his  brother  Andrew,  and  in  vain  had  his  son 
Ladislas  III.  crowned  before  his  death.  An 
drew  II.  (1205-'35)  was  successively  under 


the  influence  of  his  unscrupulous  wife,  who 
finally  was  assassinated;  of  the  pope,  who 
compelled  him  to  undertake  a  crusade;  of  his 
financiers,  Christian,  Saracen,  and  Jewish, 
who  monopolized  the  revenues  of  the  impov 
erished  kingdom;  of  the  nobility,  who  in  1222 
extorted  from  him  the  "  Golden  Bull,"  a  Hun 
garian  Magna  Charta  of  freedom  and  privi 
leges,  including  the  right  of  armed  resistance 
to  tyranny  ;  and  finally  of  a  combined  violent 
opposition,  to  which  belonged  his  son  and  suc 
cessor  Bela  (IV.).  The  long  reign  of  the  latter 
(1235-'70)  commenced  with  salutary  reforms, 
but  was  afterward  disturbed  by  the  immigra 
tion  of  the  Cumans  and  the  invasion  of  the 
Tartars,  who  annihilated  the  Hungarian  army 
on  the  Sajo  (1241),  and  marked  their  way  from 
the  Carpathians  to  the  Adriatic  by  sword  and 
fire,  famine  and  pestilence.  Bela  did  his  best 
to  restore  order  and  repeople  the  country  by 
new  immigrants,  bestowed  various  rights  on 
the  cities,  and  promoted  the  culture  of  the 
vine ;  but  his  wars  with  Austria,  Styria,  &c., 
and  the  revolts  of  his  son  Stephen,  destroyed 
order,  and  promoted  only  the  usurpations  of 
the  high  nobility.  Stephen  V.  (1270-'72)  was 
successful  against  Ottokar  of  Bohemia.  His 
son  Ladislas  IV.  (1272-'90),  who  succeeded  at 
the  age  of  10,  caused  violent  commotions  and 
endless  misery  by  his  Cumanian  amours  and 
predilections,  and  was  murdered  at  the  instiga 
tion  of  one  of  his  mistresses.  A  nephew  of 
Bela  IV.,  Andrew  III.  (1290-1301),  was  the 
last  of  the  Arptids,  and  after  a  disturbed  reign, 
which  various  diets  held  on  the  plain  of  Rakos 
near  Pesth  could  not  consolidate,  died  proba 
bly  by  poison.  The  throne  was  now  open  for 
competition,  and  the  royal  dignity  became 
purely  elective.  Charles  Robert  of  Anjou,  a 
nephew  of  the  king  of  Naples,  and  by  his 
mother  a  descendant  of  the  extinct  dynasty, 
being  supported  by  the  see  of  Rome,  was  the 
first  elected ;  while  another  party,  the  leader 
of  which  was  the  powerful  count  Matthias 
Csak,  successively  elected  Wenceslas,  son  of 
the  king  of  Bohemia  (1301-'5),  and  Otho  of 
Bavaria  (1305-'8),  both  of  whom  were  by 
a  similar  title  descendants  of  the  Arpiids. 
Charles  Robert's  reign  (1309-'42)  was  marked 
by  great  successes  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
regal  power  was  extended  and  consolidated, 
chiefly  by  a  new  military  and  financial  organi 
zation  ;  western  refinement  and  luxury  made 
the  Hungarian  lords  more  docile,  and  the  suc- 

|  cession  to  the  thrones  of  Poland  and  Naples 
was  secured  to  the  two  sons  of  the  king,  Louis 
and  Andrew.  Visegrad,  hoAvever,  which  re 
placed  Stuhl-Weissenburg  as  the  royal  resi 
dence,  witnessed  many  a  princely  crime.  Buda 

|  became  a  still  more  splendid  residence  under 
Louis,  surnamed  the  Great  (1342-'82),  who 
further  developed  the  regal  power,  but  with  it 

i  the  oppressive  feudal  institutions ;  and,  except 
ing  his  repeated  expeditions  to  Italy  to  revenge 

i  the  assassination  of  his  brother  Andrew  by  his 

i  own  wife,  Joanna,  he  was  successful  in  all  his 


HUNGARY 


undertakings,  conquering  among  other  terri 
tories  Moldavia  and  Bulgaria.     He  also  suc 
ceeded  his  uncle  Casimir  the  Great,  the  last  of 
the  Piasts,  as  king  of  Poland.     lie  was  chival 
rous,  luxurious,  and  bigoted ;  he  promoted  com 
merce,  but  burdened  the  peasants,  persecuted 
the   Cuman  pagans,  and  expelled   the  Jews, 
whom,  however,  his  son-in-law  Sigismund  of 
Luxemburg   brought  back   into   the   country. 
This  prince  having  liberated  his  wife  Mary,  who 
had  got  rid  of  a  rival,  the  Neapolitan  Charles 
the  Little,  by  assassination,  but  subsequently 
lost  her  throne  and  freedom,  reigned  together 
with  her  (1387-'95),  and  after  her  death  alone 
(1395-1437),  being  also  elected  German  em 
peror,    and   succeeding  to   the  throne  of  his 
house  in  Bohemia.     His  long  reign  was  full  of 
civil  strife,  including  the  Hussite  war  in  Bo 
hemia,  a  revolt  in  Hungary,  which  for  a  short 
time  deprived  him  of  his  liberty,  and  a  rising 
of  the  peasants,  in  Transylvania,  and  of  wars 
against  Venice  and  the  Turks,  who  under  Ba- 
jazet  routed  him  in  the  battle  of  Nicopolis ; 
but  it  was  also  marked  by  some  salutary  re 
forms  in  favor  of  the  lower  classes.    Sigismund 
was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law  the  emperor 
Albert  (II.)  of  Hapsburg  (1437-'9).     He  died 
after  an  unsuccessful  campaign  against  Sultan 
Amurath,  leaving  his  thrones  to  his  wife  Eliza 
beth,  who  offered  her  hand  to  Ladislas  III. 
of  Poland,  a  grandson  of  Louis  the  Great.     The 
young  Polish  king  after  some  struggle  became 
also  king  of  Hungary  under  the  name  of  Ula- 
dislas  I.  (Hung.  Uldszlo),  but,  after  several  vic 
tories  of  his  great  general  John  Hunyady  over 
the  Turks,  fell  at  Varna  (1444),  having  broken 
his  oath  of  peace  to  the  infidels.    Ladislas  (V.), 
the   posthumous  child   of  Albert,   whom   his 
mother  Elizabeth,   shortly  before  her  death, 
had  carried  together  with  the  crown  to  her 
brother-in-law  the  emperor  Frederick  III.,  was 
now  acknowledged  as  king  (1445),  Hunyady  be 
ing  appointed  governor  or  regent.     Frederick 
of  Hapsburg,  however,  had  to  be  compelled  to 
restore  the  prince  ;  powerful  lords  caused  end-  j 
less  disturbances,  and  the  Turks  menaced  Hun-  \ 
gary,  while  preparing  to  strike  the  last  blow  | 
at  the  Byzantine  empire.     Hunyady  himself  ; 
was  defeated,  but  made  good  his  escape,  and  | 
died  victorious,  having  repulsed  Mohammed  : 
II.,  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  from  the  i 
walls  of  Belgrade  (1450).     Of  his  two  sons,  j 
Ladislas  was  executed  by  command  of  the  un-  j 
grateful  king,  but  Matthias,  surnamed  Corvi-  j 
nus,  ascended  the  throne  after  the  death  of  the  ! 
latter  (1457)  and  a  protracted  election  struggle.  | 
The  ablest  monarch  of  Hungary  (1458-'90),  he  • 
subdued  the  rebellious  lords,  and  in  numerous  j 
campaigns  vanquished  the  emperor,  Podiebrad 
of  Bohemia,  and  the  armies  of  Mohammed  II. 
He  restored  order,  law,  and  prosperity,  pro-  j 
moted  science  and  art  more  than  any  other  ! 
prince  of  his  age,  and  administered  his  king-  j 
dom  with  an  impartiality  the  glory  of  which  ' 
survived  him  in  the  popular  adage,  u  King  Mat-  | 
thias  is  dead,  justice  gone."     But  his  works  ; 


j  perished  with   him.      The   indolent  Uladsilsa 
\  (II.)  of  Bohemia  (1490-1510)  was  as  poor  as  he 
was  contemptible,  and  let  his  lords  do  as  they 
chose.     Of  these  John  Zapolya,  waywode  of 
I  Transylvania,  suppressed  with  dreadful  blood- 
,  shed  a  great  insurrection  of  the  peasantry  un- 
'  der  Dozsa  (1514).     Under  the  young  and  weak 
j  son  of    Uladislas,   Louis    II.    (1510-'20),    the 
j  country  gradually  ripened  for  a  catastrophe. 
j  While  the  nobles  disputed,  Belgrade  fell,  and 
!  finally  the  battle  of  Mohacs  was  rashly  fought 
j  against  Sultan  Solyman  the  Magnificent.     The 
Hungarian  army  was  destroyed,  Louis  perished 
j  on  his  Might,  and  his  wife,  the  sister  of  Ferdi- 
nand  of  Austria,  hastened  to  carry  the  crown 
to  her  brother.     This  prince  inaugurated  the 
|  still  reigning  dynasty  of  the  Ilapsburgs,  being 
acknowledged  as  king  (1527-'04)  by  the  nobil 
ity  of  the  western  counties,  while  the  national 
party  elected  John  Zapolya,  who  prevailed  in 
Transylvania  and  the  adjoining  parts.      The 
latter  put  himself  under  the  protection  of  Soly 
man,  who  took  Buda  and  even  besieged  Vienna 
(1529).     Long  campaigns  and  negotiations  and 
short-lived  treaties  now  followed  each  other, 
the  final  result  of  which  was  that  Hungary 
was  for  about  150  years  divided  into  three  parts 
with  often  changing  limits,  under  the  Ilaps 
burgs  as  kings,  the  pashas  of  the  sultans,  and 
!  the  princes  of  Transylvania.     The  greater  part 
I  of  Hungary  proper,   however,   including  the 
j  whole  northwest,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  royal 
or  imperial  armies,  the  monarchs  holding  also 
the  crown  of  Germany  after  the  abdication  of 
Charles  V.,  and  finding  many  a  hero  among 
their  Hungarian  subjects.     Maximilian  (1504- 
'70)  was  saved  by  the  self-sacrificing  heroism 
of  Zrinyi,  who  fell  with  his  little  fortress  Szi- 
get  and  the  last  of  his  men  only  after  the  death 
of  the  besieger  Solyman  and  the  destruction 
of  a  part  of  his  army  (1500).     All  these  ser 
vices  of  the  magnates,  as  well  as  of  the  nation, 
were  ill  repaid  by  the  Austrian  dynasty.     The 
diets  of  Hungary,  which  for  centuries  remained 
the  blood-covered   bulwark   of  Christendom, 
more  than  once  had  to  complain  that  the  impe 
rial  soldiery  did  more  to  devastate  the  country 
and  famish  the  people  than  the  infidel  con 
querors.      Rudolph  I.  (1570-1608)  commenced 
the   persecution  of  the  Protestants.      These, 
however,  not  only  had  a  free  home  in  Transyl 
vania  under  the  enlightened  Stephen  Bathori, 
afterward  king  of  Poland  (who  had  succeeded 
the  younger  Zapolya),  but  also  a  protector  of 
their  rights  in  Hungary  in  Bocskay,  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  successor  of  Sigismund  Bathori,  who 
suddenly  raised  the  banner  of  freedom,  sweep 
ing  all  over  the  north,  crushing  the  generals  of 
Rudolph,  and  finally  compelling  the  latter  to 
the  humiliating  peace  of  Vienna  (1000).     The 
old   emperor  finally  resigned   his   Hungarian 
crown  to  his  brother  Matthias  (II.),  whose  tol 
erant  reign,  however,  was  too  short  for  the 
pacification  of  the   country  (1008-'19).      His 
successor  Ferdinand  II.  (1619-'37),  who  com 
menced  his  reign  amid  the  first  flames  of  the 


58 


HUNGARY 


thirty  years'  war,  was  prevented  from  tearing 
the  Hungarian  charter  of  liberty,  as  he  did  the 
Bohemian,  by  the  victories  of  the  Transylva- 
nian  prince  Bethlen  Gabor  (Gabriel  Bethlen), 
the  successor  of  the  profligate  tyrant  Gabriel 
Btithori,  who  extorted  from  him  the  treaty  of 
Nikolsburg  (1622),  which  again  sanctioned  the 
rights  of  the  Protestants.  A  similar  treaty 
was  concluded  at  Linz  by  Ferdinand  III.  (1637- 
'57)  with  George  I.  Rakoczy  of  Transylvania 
(1645).  Leopold  I.  (1657-1705),  whose  long 
reign  in  Hungary  was  but  a  series  of  wars,  in 
surrections,  and  executions,  found  a  less  able 
opponent  in  the  ambitious  George  II.  Rakoczy 
of  Transylvania,  and  excellent  generals  against 
the  Turks  in  Montecuculi,  who  gained  the  bat 
tle  of  St.  Gothard  (1664),  and  Nicholas  Zrinyi 
(the  poet),  but  made  an  ignominious  peace  with 
the  sultan,  and  sent  against  the  insurgents  of 
the  northern  counties  the  bloodthirsty  Caraffa, 
Strasoldo,  and  others.  The  people  rose  again 
"for  God  and  freedom"  under  Tokolyi  (1678), 
who,  being  allied  with  Apafi  of  Transylvania, 
the  Porte,  and  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  was  near 
uniting  the  whole  of  Hungary  under  his  ban 
ner,  when  the  reverses  of  the  Turks  before 
Vienna  (1683),  and  the  subsequent  victories  of 
the  imperialists,  sealed  the  fate  of  the  insurrec 
tion.  Caraffa  made  the  scaffold  permanent  in 
Eperies ;  the  diet  of  Presburg  had  to  consent 
to  the  demands  of  the  emperor  in  making  the 
throne  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Austria  and 
abrogating  the  clause  of  the  golden  bull  which 
guaranteed  the  right  of  resistance  to  oppres 
sion  (1687)  ;  Prince  Eugene  completed  the  vic 
tories  over  the  Turks,  and  conquered  the  peace 
of  Carlovitz  (1699) ;  Transylvania  was  occu 
pied,  and  Tokolyi,  who  tried  in  vain  to  recov 
er  it,  died  in  exile  in  Asia  Minor.  Hungary 
was  now  a  province  of  Austria,  and  treated  as 
such,  when  the  noble-hearted  Francis  Rakoczy, 
who  had  long  lived  in  exile,  suddenly  appeared 
on  the  N.  E.  borders  (1703)  and  renewed  the 
struggle  for  religious  and  civil  liberty.  Prot 
estants  and  Catholics  flocked  to  his  banners, 
which  were  triumphantly  carried  into  the  very 
vicinity  of  Vienna,  when  the  emperor  died.  His 
son  Joseph  I.  (1705-' 11)  was  inclined  to  peace, 
and  Riikoczy  was  not  opposed  to  it,  though  as 
sisted  by  Louis  XIV.  and  the  perplexities  of  the 
new  emperor  in  the  war  of  Spanish  succession. 
Diets  and  negotiations  followed  each  other,  but 
without  success,  while  the  victories  of  Eugene 
and  Marlborough  and  violent  dissensions  in  the 
camp  of  the  insurgents  enabled  the  emperor  to  | 
restore  the  fortunes  of  the  war  in  Hungary. 
In  the  absence  of  Rakoczy,  who  had  gone  to 
Poland  to  procure  the  alliance  of  Peter  the 
Great,  a  peace  was  finally  concluded  at  Szat- 
mar  (1711)  with  the  representatives  of  the  em 
peror,  toleration  and  a  strict  observance  of  the 
constitution  being  promised.  Joseph's  succes 
sor  Charles  (VI.  as  emperor,  III.  as  king, 
1711-'40)  ratified  the  treaty,  while  Rakoczy 
absolved  his  followers  from  their  oath  of  al 
legiance  to  him.  The  new  emperor's  favorite 


scheme,  the  pragmatic  sanction,  which  was  to 
secure  the  succession  of  the  female  line  to  all 
his  possessions,  was  agreed  to  by  the  diet  of 
1722,  which  also  enacted  various  other  impor 
tant  laws.  The  peace  of  Passarovitz  (1718), 
the  result  of  Eugene's  new  victories,  enlarged 
the  kingdom  with  the  Banat,  the  last  prov 
ince  of  the  Turks  in  Hungary ;  but  after  an 
other  war  Belgrade  was  ceded  to  the  Turks 
by  the  treaty  concluded  in  that  city  in  1739. 
Charles's  mild  reign  disposed  the  nation  to  de 
fend  the  disputed  rights  of  his  daughter  Maria 
Theresa  (1740-'80),  who  appeared  in  person  be 
fore  the  diet  of  Presburg,  and  was  greeted  with 
lively  acclamations  by  the  chivalric  nobles. 
Their  ILoriamur  pro  rege  nostro  Maria  Theresa 
was  no  vain  promise,  for  Hungarian  blood  was 
shed  profusely  in  her  wars  against  Frederick  the 
Great  and  other  enemies.  She  rewarded  the 
fidelity  of  the  people  by  mildness,  and  various 
ameliorations  of  the  condition  of  the  peasantry 
(the  Urbariuin)  are  among  the  merits  of  her 
reign ;  but  she  too  was  far  from  strictly  observ 
ing  the  constitution,  which  her  son  Joseph  II. 
(1780-'90),  in  his  immoderate  zeal  for  reforms 
and  centralization,  was  eager  to  destroy.  To 
avoid  binding  himself  by  the  constitutional 
oath,  he  refused  to  be  crowned  in  Hungary, 
autocratically  dictated  his  liberal  reforms,  and 
imposed  upon  the  country  foreign  officials,  a 
foreign  language,  the  German,  and  foreign 
official  costumes.  But  his  violent  though  well 
meant  measures  were  opposed  everywhere, 
and  the  rising  in  his  Belgic  provinces,  the  un 
favorable  issue  of  his  war  against  Turkey,  and 
finally  the  threatening  events  in  France,  com 
pelled  the  philanthropic  despot  to  revoke  his 
decrees  shortly  before  'his  death.  His  mild 
and  dissolute  brother  Leopold  II.  (1790-'92), 
afraid  of  the  growing  storm  in  the  West,  has 
tened  to  appease  the  Hungarian  nation,  which 
had  been  aroused  by  ignominious  treatment 
and  the  spectacle  of  its  perishing  neighbor 
Poland  to  a  general  desire  of  national  regen 
eration.  The  diet  of  1791  again  sanctioned 
the  most  essential  constitutional  rights  of  the 
kingdom  in  general,  and  of  the  Protestants  in 
particular,  and  for  a  series  of  years  Francis, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Leopold  (1792-1835), 
was  satisfied  during  his  wars  with  France 
with  the  continual  subsidies  of  Hungary  in 
money  and  men.  The  rare  manifestations  of 
democratic  convictions  he  stifled  in  the  dun 
geons  of  his  fortresses,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
priest  Martinovics  (1795),  in  the  blood  of  the 
offenders.  The  magnates  were  flattered  and 
remained  faithful.  "Thus  Napoleon  in  vain 
called  upon  the  Hungarians  to  rise  for  national 
independence  (1809).  Scarcely,  however,  was 
Napoleon  fallen,  when  Francis's  minister  Met- 
ternich  began  to  undermine  the  constitution  of 
Hungary,  the  only  check  on  the  unlimited  sway 
of  the  Austrian  rulers.  Every  means,  secret 
or  open,  was  resorted  to,  but  in  vain.  The 
progress  of  enlightenment,  the  warning  exam 
ple  of  Poland,  and  the  spirit  of  nationality,  re- 


HUNGARY 


59 


kindled  by  the  activity  of  Francis  Kazinczy 
and  others,  had  prepared  the  nation  for  a 
struggle  for  constitutionalism  and  liberal  re 
forms,  which  Metternich,  both  under  Francis 
and  his  imbecile  son  Ferdinand  V.  (I.  as  empe 
ror  of  Austria,  1835-'48),  was  unable  effectively 
to  resist.  The  Hungarian  constitution  had  du 
ring  the  last  few  centuries  undergone  numerous 
modifications,  without  having  at  any  period  of 
its  existence  lost  its  vitality.  As  it  was  now, 
it  was  at  the  same  time  a  charter  of  freedom, 
which  shielded  the  people  at  large,  and  espe 
cially  the  non-Catholics,  against  bureaucratic 
sway,  and  secured  to  the  nobility  the  greatest 
degree  of  personal  liberty  and  immunity  en 
joyed  by  any  class  in  Europe,  and  on  the  other 
hand  an  instrument  of  oppression  in  the  hands 
of  the  nobility  against  all  plebeian  inhabitants 
of  the  country,  especially  the  peasantry,  which 
was  degraded  by  numerous  feudal  burdens. 
The  nobles  were  free  from  every  tax  and  per 
sonal  service,  except  in  case  of  a  hostile  attack 
on  the  country  itself,  when  they  were  obliged 
to  rise  in  a  body  at  their  own  expense ;  they 
enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of  the  right  of  habeas 
corpus,  governed  the  counties  by  their  regular 
assemblies  ("congregations"),  elected  magis 
trates,  and  exercised  the  right  of  legislation  by 
their  deputies  to  the  lower  house  of  the  diet. 
The  higher  nobility,  or  magnates,  together  with 
the  chief  dignitaries  of  the  crown  and  the 
church,  formed  the  upper  house  of  the  diet  un 
der  the  presidency  of  the  palatine.  The  repre 
sentation  of  the  free  royal  towns  was  almost 
nominal.  The  diet  was  now  regularly  con 
voked  by  the  monarch  at  Presburg,  at  intervals 
not  exceeding  three  years.  Its  duration  was 
unlimited.  The  chief  royal  organs  of  general 
administration  wrere  the  Hungarian  aulic  chan 
cery  at  Vienna,  and  the  royal  council  at  Bud  a, 
whose  decisions,  however,  very  often  met  with 
opposition  or  delay  in  the  county  assemblies. 
This  vis  inertia  of  the  latter  was  the  principal 
check  on  all  despotic  or  unconstitutional  at 
tempts  of  the  Vienna  ministry,  while  their  pub 
licity  and  jealously  guarded  freedom  of  debate 
were  the  chief  elements  of  progress  and  politi 
cal  enlightenment.  Gradually  to  abolish  the  im 
munity  of  the  nobles  and  the  feudal  burdens  of 
the  peasantry,  to  endow  the  great  bulk  of  the 
people  with  political  rights,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  fortify  the  old  bulwarks  of  the  consti 
tution,  now  became  the  task  of  the  patriots ; 
and  the  great  movement  offered  the  rare  spec 
tacle  of  an  aristocracy  contending  for  the  abo 
lition  of  privileges  and  the  equality  of  the  peo 
ple.  Paul  Nagy  and  Count  Stephen  Szechenyi 
were  the  champions  of  nationality  at  the  diet  of 
1825,  which  inaugurated  a  long  period  of  mod 
erate  but  gradual  reforms,  the  most  important 
of  which  were  carried  through  at  the  diets  of 
1832-'0,  1839-'40,  and  1843^'4.  The  rights  of 
the  non-noble  citizens,  peasantry,  and  Jews,  | 
the  equality  of  the  Christian  confessions,  the  j 
official  use  of  the  Hungarian  language,  and  the 
freedom  of  speech  were  extended,  the  majority  j 


of  the  educated  lower  nobility  and  a  minority 
of  the  higher  ardently  contending  against  old 
abuses  and  aristocratic  immunities,  against 
bureaucratic  despotism  and  religious  intoler 
ance.  Among  the  leaders  of  the  "liberal  op 
position  "  under  Ferdinand  were  the  members 
of  the  upper  house  Count  Louis  Batthyanyi 
and  Baron  Eotvos ;  the  deputies  Beak,  Beothy, 
Klauzal,  Raday,  Balogh,  and  Kubinyi;  the 
Transylvanian  agitator  Baron  AVesselenyi,  and 
the  publicist  Kossuth.  The  cabinet  of  Vienna 
chose  the  last  five  as  its  victims,  prosecuting 
them  for  treason,  and  imprisoning  Wesselenyi 
and  Kossuth  for  years.  The  old  palatine  Jo 
seph,  the  uncle  of  the  emperor,  and  the  con 
servatives  under  the  lead  of  Szechenyi  and  oth 
ers,  in  vain  strove  to  check  the  agitation.  It 
reached  its  culminating  point  when  Kossuth, 
after  a  lively  struggle,  was  elected  as  represen 
tative  of  Pesth  to  the  diet  of  1847.  A  conflict 
with  the  government  seemed  imminent,  when 
the  general  shock  which  followed  the  French 
revolution  of  February  overthrew  the  rule  of 
Metternich  (March  13,  1848).  Kossuth  was 
greeted  as  liberator  by  the  people  of  A'icnna, 
and  together  with  L.  Batthyanyi  intrusted  with 
the  formation  of  an  independent  Hungarian 
ministry  by  Ferdinand.  Pesth  had  its  revolu 
tionary  journee  on  March  15.  Batthyanyi  was 
president  of  the  new  ministry,  Kossuth  minis 
ter  of  finance.  Having  enacted  the  abolition 
of  feudality,  a  new  election  law,  and  various 
other  radical  changes  in  the  constitution,  the 
last  diet  of  Presburg  dissolved,  the  new  na 
tional  assembly  being  appointed  to  meet  in 
July  at  Pesth.  The  cabinet  of  Vienna  com 
menced  its  intrigues  against  the  new  order  of 
things  on  the  very  day  when  it  sanctioned  it. 
Jellachich  and  others  were  sent  openly  or  se 
cretly  to  organize  insurrections  among  the  south 
ern  Slavic  tribes  and  the  "Wallachs  and  Saxons 
in  Transylvania,  the  diet  of  which  proclaimed 
its  reunion  with  Hungary.  Every  new  mea 
sure  met  with  opposition  or  delay  through  the 
Vienna  government  or  its  tools.  Negotiations 
had  no  result.  The  whole  south  of  the  coun 
try  was  soon  in  a  flame.  Croatia  and  Slavo- 
nia  proclaimed  their  independence  of  Hungary, 
and  Ban  Jellachich  occupied  the  Littorale,  and 
threatened  to  cross  the  Brave.  Against  all 
these  contingencies  the  only  resource  of  the 
government  was  its  own  zeal  and  the  enthusi 
asm  of  the  people.  Volunteer  troops  (honveds, 
defenders  of  the  land)  were  raised  in  the  coun 
ties,  contributions  toward  a  national  treasury 
were  collected,  and  the  militia  was  organ 
ized.  The  diet  assembled  in  July  and  voted 
extensive  levies  and  ample  means  for  defence, 
but  Ferdinand  refused  to  sanction  its  resolu 
tions.  The  Austrian  troops  which  were  still 
sent  against  the  insurgents  were  led  by  trai 
tors.  A  serious  attempt  under  Meszaros  against 
the  Rascians  in  Bacs  (August)  failed  ;  the 
new  troops  were  slowly  gathering.  Jellachich 
finally  crossed  the  Brave,  and  the  Vienna  gov 
ernment,  having  reconquered  Lombardy,  threw 


60 


HUNGARY 


off  its  mask  and  sent  Count  Lamberg  to  dis 
perse  the  diet  by  force.  The  Batthyanyi  min 
istry  now  resigned,  and  a  committee  of  de 
fence  was  formed  under  the  presidency  of  Kos- 
suth.  The  revolution  began.  The  old  troops 
were  transformed  and  blended  with  the  new. 
Kossuth's  eloquence  brought  the  people  of  the 
centra]  plain  under  arms.  Single  detachments 
of  Hungarian  troops  returned  with  or  without 
their  officers  from  abroad.  The  fortress  Co- 
morn  was  secured.  The  archduke  Stephen, 
the  new  palatine,  fled  from  the  country.  Lam- 
berg  was  massacred  on  the  bridge  of  Pesth  by 
a  mob.  Jellachich  was  defeated  at  Pakozd 
near  Buda  (Sept.  29)  and  fled  toward  Vienna, 
which  rose  in  revolution  (Oct.  6).  The  prin 
cipal  fortresses  hoisted  the  national  flag.  On 
the  other  hand,  Temesvar  and  Arad  hoisted 
that  of  Austria.  The  war  of  races  raged  with 
terrible  fury  and  varying  success.  Transylvania 
was  entirely  lost.  The  pursuit  of  Jellachich 
was  executed  with  hesitation  by  Moga,  a  late 
Austrian  general,  the  frontier  river  Leitha  was 
crossed  too  late,  and  the  hastily  collected  vol 
unteers  fled  after  a  short  fight  at  Schwechat 
(Oct.  30)  against  TVindischgratz  and  Jellachich, 
who  thus  became  masters  of  Vienna.  Katona, 
sent  to  reconquer  Transylvania,  was  routed  at 
Dees.  Count  Schlick  entered  Hungary  from  the 
north,  and  occupied  Kaschau  (Dec.  11).  The 
Rascian  Damjanics  alone  led  the  honveds  to 
victory  on  the  S.  E.  frontier,  while  Perczel  suc 
cessfully  defended  the  line  of  the  Drave  on  the 
S.  TV.  Unable  to  defend  the  TV.  frontier  against 
TVindischgratz,  Gorgey,  the  new  commander  of 
the  army  of  the  upper  Danube,  retreated  on  the 
right  bank  of  that  river,  evacuating  Presburg, 
Raab,  and,  after  the  rout  of  the  equally  retreating 
Perczel  at  Moor  (Dec.  29)  and  an  engagement 
at  Teteny,  the  capital  Buda-Pesth  itself  (Jan. 
5,  1849)1  The  day  before,  Schlick  dispersed 
the  undisciplined  army  of  the  north  under  Me- 
szaros,  the  minister  of  war.  Thus  the  govern 
ment  and  diet,  which  transferred  their  seat  to 
Debreczin,  would  have  had  little  prospect  of 
security  if  the  Polish  general  Bern  had  not  be 
gun  in  the  latter  half  of  December  a  new  Tran- 
sylvanian  campaign,  which  cheered  the  patriots 
with  a  nearly  unbroken  series  of  successes  over 
the  imperialists.  Gorgey,  too,  who  according 
to  a  new  plan  of  operations  returned  westward 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  leaving  a  part 
of  his  troops  with  Perczel  on  the  middle  Theiss, 
succeeded  in  diverting  the  Austrian  main  army 
under  TVindischgratz  from  a  march  on  Debre 
czin.  Then  turning  northward,  he  skilfully 
fought  his  way  through  the  rugged  region  of 
the  Ore  mountains,  amid  continual  perils,  and, 
after  a  signal  victory  of  his  vanguard  under 
Guyon  over  Schlick's  corps  on  Mount  Brany- 
iszko  (Feb.  5),  finally  effected  a  junction  with 
the  army  of  the  upper  Theiss,  which  under 
Klapka  had  been  successful  against  that  Aus 
trian  general.  The  activity  of  Kossuth  and 
his  associates  in  supplying  all  these  bodies 
of  troops  with  men,  ammunition,  money,  and 


officers  was  admirable.  The  zeal  of  the  com 
mittee  of  defence  was  worthily  responded  to 
by  the  confidence  of  the  people,  who,  even 
when  two  thirds  of  the  country  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy,  almost  as  willingly  accept 
ed  "Kossuth's  bills"  as  specie,  and  by  the  gen 
eral  bravery  of  the  troops.  But  new  dangers 
arose  with  the  invasion  of  the  Russians  from 
the  Danubian  principalities  into  Transylvania, 
where  Bern,  after  a  triumphant  march  (Janu 
ary),  was  suddenly  checked  before  Hermann- 
stadt,  and  could  save  his  position  at  Piski  (Feb. 
9,  10)  only  after  the  loss  of  a  part  of  his 
troops;  and  within  the  national  camp  by  the 
stubborn  disobedience  and  intrigues  of  Gorgey, 
which  caused  the  unfavorable  issue  of  the  great 
battle  of  Kapolna  (Feb.  26,  27),  the  retreat  of 
the  united  main  army  beyond  the  Theiss,  the 
deposition  of  its  commander,  the  Pole  Dem- 
binski,  and  a  considerable  loss  of  time.  An 
other  heavy  loss  was  that  of  the  isolated  for 
tress  Eszek,  which  was  surrendered  with  im 
mense  stores  by  its  cowardly  commanders. 
Elated  by  the  despatches  of  Prince  TVindisch 
gratz,  the  young  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  who 
had  succeeded  his  uncle  at  Olmiitz,  Dec.  2, 
184:8,  now  promulgated  a  new  constitution 
(March  4),  which  with  one  stroke  annihilated 
the  constitution  and  national  independence  of 
Hungary,  making  it,  with  narrowed  limits,  a 
crownland  of  Austria.  But  the  next  few  days 
brought  a  new  series  of  Hungarian  victories. 
Damjanics,  who  had  been  recalled  from  the 
south,  routed  the  Austrians  at  Szolnok  (March 
5).  Bern  took  Ilermannstadt  and  drove  the 
Russians  through  the  Red  Tower  pass  into 
TVallachia.  After  the  occupation  of  Cronstadt, 
all  Transylvania,  except  Carlsburg,  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Polish  general.  Perczel  swept 
over  the  Rascian  Vendee.  The  temporary 
chief  commander  of  the  main  army,  Vetter, 
having  fallen  ill,  Gorgey  finally  received  the 
command,  and  the  offensive  against  TVindisch 
gratz  was  resumed.  He  crossed  the  Theiss  at 
various  points,  and,  advancing  toward  the  cap 
ital,  defeated  the  enemy  at  Hatvan  (April  2), 
Bicske,  Izsaszeg,  TVaitzen,  and  Nagy  Sarlo,  res 
cued  Comorn,  which  had  withstood  a  long  siege" 
and  bombardment,  crossed  the  Danube,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Acs  (April  26).  During 
this  short  campaign  the  diet  at  Debreczin  pro 
claimed  the  independence  of  the  country  (April 
14),  appointing  Kossuth  its  governor,  and  Au- 
lich  entered  Pesth.  Instead,  however,  of  con 
tinuing  his  victorious  march  to  the  capital  of 
the  enemy,  Gorgey  returned  with  the  bulk  of 
his  army  to  the  siege  of  Buda,  while'  a  new  and 
extensive  Russian  invasion  was  approaching. 
Buda  was  stormed  (May  21),  the  government 
and  diet  returned  to  the  capital,  and  Gorgey 
again  took  the  field,  but  injudiciously  chose  the 
N.  bank  of  the  Danube  for  his  new  campaign, 
and,  without  profiting  by  Ivmetty's  victory  at 
Csorna,  S.  of  that  river  (June  13),  wasted  the 
blood  of  his  army  on  the  Wang.  The  Russian 
armies  and  fresh  Austrian  troops  under  Hay- 


HUNGARY 


61 


nau  were  in  the  meanwhile  pouring  into  the 
country  from  various  quarters.  Wysocki,  the 
successor  of  Dembinski  in  command,  retreated 
before  Paskevitch  ;  Temesvar  was  unsuccess 
fully  besieged  by  Vecsey  ;  Bern  was  paralyzed 
by  a  new  and  more  terrible  rising  of  the  Wal- 
lachs,  while  his  province,  too,  was  invaded  by 
the  Russians.  After  various  unsuccessful  strug 
gles  on  the  line  of  the  Waag,  the  loss  of  Raab, 
and  a  great  battle  at  Szony  (July  2),  Gorgey, 
leaving  Klapkain  Comoro,  finally  retreated  to 
ward  the  middle  Theiss;  but  after  a  bloody 
fight  against  Paskevitch  at  Waitzen  (July  15), 
he  turned  northward,  again  and  again  repulsing 
the  Russians,  and  crossed  the  Theiss  at  Tokay. 
The  Russians  crossed  it  at  Fiired,  while  the 
central  Hungarian  forces  under  the  chief  com 
mand  of  Dembinski  retreated  toward  Szegedin. 
The  government,  leaving  the  former  place, 
where  the  last  session  of  the  diet  had  been 
held,  retired  to  Arad,  which,  having  recently 
surrendered,  was  made  the  last  point  of  general 
concentration,  after  the  rout  of  Bern  at  Schiis- 
burg  by  the  Russians  under  Luders,  of  one  of 
Gorgey's  divisions  under  Nagy-Sandor  before 
Debreczin  by  the  army  of  Paskevitch,  and  of 
Dembinski  at  Szoreg  by  Haynau.  Dembinski, 
however,  retreated  toward  Temesvar,  where 
his  army  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  (Aug.  9). 
Gorgey,  who  now  arrived  at  Arad,  summoned 
Kossuth  to  resign,  and  received  from  him  the 
supreme  civil  and  military  command,  Klapka's 
sally  from  Comorn  and  signal  victory  over  the 
besieging  Austrian  army  (Aug.  3)  being  un 
known  at  Arad.  Two  days  later  Gorgey  sur 
rendered  his  army  at  discretion  to  the  generals 
of  the  czar  at  Vilagos  (Aug.  13).  Damjanics 
followed  his  example,  and  surrendered  Arad. 
Kossuth,  the  late  ministers  Szemere  and  Casi- 
mir  Batthyanyi,  the  generals  Bern,  Dembinski, 
Meszaros,  Vetter,  Perczel,  Guyon,  Kmetty, 
Wysocki,  and  others,  fled  into  Turkey.  Mun- 
kacs,  Petenvardein,  and  Comorn  capitulated. 
But  scarcely  had  the  tricolor  disappeared  from 
the  ramparts  of  the  last  named  fortress,  Oct. 
4,  when  the  work  of  revenge  commenced  on 
the  side  of  the  victors.  Count  Louis  Batthy 
anyi,  who  had  been  made  captive  on  a  mission 
of  peaceful  mediation,  was  executed  at  Pesth, 
Oct.  G,  and  the  commanders  Xis,  Aulich, 
Damjanics,  Nagy-Sandor,  To'rok,  Lahner,  Ve 
csey,  Knezich,  Poltenberg,  Leiningen,  Schwei- 
del,  Dessewffy,  and  Liizar,  all  of  whom  had  sur 
rendered  at  discretion,  were  executed  on  the 
same  day  at  Arad.  Other  executions  followed. 
The  dungeons  of  the  empire  were  filled  with 
prisoners  for  life  or  long  terms.  Gorgey  was 
confined  at  Klagenfurth.  The  remnants  of  the 
Hungarian  troops  were  impressed  into  the  Aus 
trian  army,  and  the  estates  of  the  rich  patriots 
confiscated.  The  country  remained  under  mar 
tial  law,  receiving  new  divisions,  authorities,  i 
and  tax  regulations,  and  foreign  officials.  The 
German  was  made  the  language  of  the  reor-  j 
ganized  higher  courts,  offices,  and  schools.  ! 
New  contributions,  military  levies,  and  so-called 


voluntary  loans,  followed  each  other.  A  con 
spiracy  and  an  attempt  on  the  emperor's  life 
led  to  the  resumption  of  wholesale  executions 
in  1853.  The  Protestants  and  Jews  were  sub 
jected  to  particular  restrictions.  This  state 
of  affairs  ended  with  Austria's  defeat  in  Italy 
(185U).  The  dismissal  of  the  centralizing  min 
ister  Bach,  the  appointment  of  Goluchowski, 
and  the  diploma  of  Oct.  20,  18GO,  were  fol 
lowed  by  the  convocation  of  a  Hungarian  diet. 
This  was  opened  in  April,  when  Schmerling 
had  taken  the  place  of  Goluchowski,  and  the 
patent  of  Feb.  26, '1861,  that  of  the  October 
diploma.  (See  AUSTRIA,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  14U,  150.) 
As  no  representatives  from  Transylvania  had 
been  summoned,  the  diet  considered  itself  in 
complete,  and  this  was  to  be  expressed,  to 
gether  with  other  grievances,  either  by  an  ad 
dress  to  Francis  Joseph,  as  Deak  proposed  it, 
or  merely  by  a  resolution  ignoring  the  royal 
rights  of  that  emperor.  When  the  debate 
was  to  open,  May  8,  the  leading  defender  of 
the  latter  policy,  Count  Teleky,  was  found  to 
have  put  an  end  to  his  career  by  a  pistol  shot. 
(See  TELEKY.)  Deak's  address  was  carried,  but 
as  he  emphatically  demanded  the  restoration 
of  the  laws  of  1848,  the  diet  was  dissolved  in  Au 
gust.  The  country  maintained  its  opposition  to 
the  Vienna  schemes,  and  only  the  Saxons  and 
Roumans  of  Transylvania  were  persuaded  in 
1863  to  send  representatives  to  the  imperial 
Reichsrath.  The  joint  intervention  with  Prus 
sia  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein  affairs  proving 
detrimental  to  Austria,  chiefly  from  want  of 
ready  support  on  the  part  of  the  Hungarian 
and  Slavic  nationalities,  Francis  Joseph  re 
paired  to  Pesth  in  June,  1865,  dismissed  Schmer- 
ling,  replacing  him  by  a  federalist  minister, 
Belcredi,  suspended  the  imperial  constitution, 
and  convoked  a  new  Hungarian  diet.  Deak 
ruled  this  as  he  did  the  preceding,  and  re 
mained  firm  in  his  demands.  Francis  Joseph, 
on  the  eve  of  the  great  struggle  with  Prussia, 
prorogued  the  diet,  but  after  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Sadowa  (July  3,  1866)  was  ready  to 
submit  to  the  demands  of  the  Hungarians. 
His  new  leading  minister  Beust  undertook  the 
task  of  carrying  through  a  compromise,  and  the 
result  was  the  dualistic  system  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  as  finally  sanctioned  in 
December,  1867.  (See  AUSTRIA,  vol.  ii.,  p.  141.) 
A  national  Hungarian  ministry  was  appointed  in 
February,  1867,  of  which  Count  Andnissy  was 
the  head.  A  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed, 
and  the  emperor  was  crowned  as  king  of  Hun 
gary  (June  8)  at  Buda,  with  extraordinary 
pomp.  The  diet,  having  carried  through  va 
rious  reforms,  including  the  emancipation  of 
the  Jews,  and  settled  the  relations  of  Croatia  to 
the  Hungarian  crown  on  a  basis  analogous  to 
the  relation  of  Hungary  to  the  monarchy,  closed 
its  sittings  in  December,  1868.  Two  principal 
parliamentary  parties  had  been  formed,  the 
conservative  or  Deak  party,  which  had  a  de 
cided  majority,  and  the  opposition  party  of  the 
left,  under  Ghyczy  and  Tisza,  aiming  at  a  mere 


HUNGARY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


personal  union  with  Cisleithan  Austria  under 
the  house  of  Hapsburg.  The  revolutionary 
extreme  left  numbered  few  adherents.  The 
same  was  the  position  of  affairs  in  the  diet 
of  18G9-72.  Andnissy,  who  in  the  war  of 
1870  restrained  Beust  from  interfering  against 
Prussia,  succeeded  that  statesman  in  Novem 
ber,  1871,  as  foreign  minister  of  the  monarchy, 
Lonyay  taking  his  place  in  Hungary.  A  new 
agreement  was  entered  into  with  Croatia,  and 
the  Military  Frontier  districts  were  gradually 
placed  under  civil  jurisdiction.  The  finances 
of  the  country,  however,  became  rapidly  em 
barrassed  by  state  subsidies,  and  Lonyay  fell 
under  personal  attacks,  Szlavy  becoming  his 
successor  (December,  1872).  The  new  cabinet 
was  even  le>s  successful,  and  in  March,  1874, 
made  room  for  a  coalition  ministry  under  Bitto. 
HUNGARY,  Language  and  Literatnre  of.  The 
Hungarian  language  (Hung.  Magyar  nyelv)  is 
an  isolated  branch  of  the  Uralo- Altaic  family, 
constituting  a  peculiar  group  with  the  now  ex 
tinct  idioms  of  the  Uzes,  Khazars,  Petchenegs, 
and  ancient  Bulgarians.  Leo  Diaconus  (10th 
century)  called  the  Magyars  Huns,  and  the  peo 
ple  liked  to  consider  themselves  as  such,  being 
proud  of  Etele  (Attila)  and  his  brother  Buda, 
The  chronicle  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Wan- 
drill  and  Dankovszki  connect  them  both  with 
the  Huns  and  Avars.  Some  connect  them 
with  both  the  Uigurs  and  the  westerly  Ogors 
or  Yugri.  There  are  also  various  fanciful 
derivations  of  the  nama  Magyar  from  roots 
belonging  to  the  Hungarian  language,  The 
Byzantine  emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogeni- 
tus  names  the  people  Turkoi.  The  Magyars 
and  the  Osmanlis  agree  in  the  belief  that  they 
are  kindred,  and  the  former  are  called  "bad 
brothers •"  by  the  latter  for  having  resisted 
them.  Klaproth  deduces  the  Hungarian  lan 
guage  from  a  mixture  of  Tartaric  or  Turk 
ish  with  Finnic.  Malte-Brun  considers  the 
Magyars  as  Finns  who  were  subjected  to  the 
Turks  and  to  an  unknown  Uralian  people. 
Bese  found  that  Balkar  tribes  in  the  Caucasus 
boasted  of  being  Magyars,  and  that  the  ruins 
of  a  Magyar  town  were  yet  visible  S.  W.  of 
Astrakhan.  Csoma  de  Koros,  who  went  in 
search  of  the  cradle  of  his  nation,  found  many 
words  in  the  Thibetan  and  other  tongues  of 
middle  Asia  akin  in  sound  and  sense  to  the 
Magyar,  but  was  unable  to  solve  the  mystery 
of  the  original  home  of  the  race.  Many  Hun 
garian  writers  report  that  their  ancestors 
brought  from  Asia  works  written  in  their  na 
tional  34  characters,  which  were  suppressed 
at  the  command  of  Pope  Sylvester  II.  and  with 
the  aid  of  Stephen  I.,  but  which  were  taught 
as  late  as  the  beginning  of  our  century  in 
remote  places  among  the  Szeklers,  and  may 
be  seen  in  S.  Gyarmathy's  grammar  as  well  as 
in  George  Ilickes^  Linguarum  Veterum  Sep- 
tentrionalium  Thesaurus  (3  vols.  fol.,  Oxford, 
1703-'5),  under  the  name  of  Hnnnorum  littercp. 
The  language  is  now  accommodated  to  the  Lat 
in  alphabet,  and  consists  of  20  simple  and  G 


compound  sounds,  agreeing,  unless  otherwise 
noticed,  with  the  Italian,  viz.  :  8  vowels :  a 
(like  English  a  in  what,  sicaUou'\  e,  e  (French), 
i  (also  ?/),  0,  w,  d  (Fr.  eu),  it  (Fr.  «);  18  conso 
nants  :  b,  d,  /,  g  hard,  h  (German),  j  (German), 
&,  I,  m,  n,  2^  rt  s  (Eng.  s?i),  t,  v  (also  ic\  z 
(French),  sz  (Eng.  s\  zs  (or  '*,  Fr.  j)  •  4  com 
pounds  with  y:  gy  (dy,  as  in  gydr,  factory, 
pron.  dyar,  in  one  syllable),  ly  (as  in  Fr.jtfWe), 
ny  (Fr.  gn),  ty ;  and  2  compound  sibilants: 
cs  (written  also  ch,  ts ;  Eng.  tcJt)  and  cz,  c,  or 
tz  (Eng.  ts).  With  the  addition  of  the  vowels 
marked  as  long  with  the  acute  accent,  as  for 
instance  a  (long  Italian  a\  i,  6,  o,  u,  u,  there 
are  38  sounds  in  all,  besides  x,  which  is  used 
only  in  foreign  names,  as  in  Xerxes.  As  in 
Turkish  and  other  kindred  tongues,  the  whole 
mass  of  words  and  grammatical  forms  is  divi 
ded  into  two  groups,  viz.,  into  those  of  high 
and  low  sound.  The  former  is  determined  by 
the  presence  of  e,  i),  ii,  the  latter  by  that  of  a, 
0,  u,  in  the  roots  or  stems;  those  with  e  or  i 
constitute  a  neutral  ground.  All  formative  and 
relative  suffixes  have  therefore  a  double  form, 
in  harmony  with  the  roots  to  which  they  are 
attached;  thus:  vdll,  shoulder,  vdllal  (shoul 
ders),  undertakes,  vdllalat,  enterprise ;  but  liecs, 
worth,  becsi'd,  (he)  respects,  lecttulet,  respect. 
Whatever  changes  the  Magyar  language  may 
have  undergone  under  adverse  circumstances, 
amid  hostile  nations,  it  has  yet  retained  its  essen 
tial  peculiarities  of  phonetism,  grammar,  and 
construction.  Although  it  contains  many  Slavic, 
Latin,  German,  Greek,  and  other  foreign  words, 
it  has  digested  them  in  its  own  way,  assimila 
ting  them  otherwise  than  the  western  nations 
have  done  with  the  same  element ;  thus,  schola, 
Slav.  Mas,  Ger.  Schmir,  became  iskola,  kaldsz, 
sinor.  The  concurrence  of  harsh  sounds  and 
of  consonants  is  as  much  avoided  as  in  all  the 
languages  of  central  and  eastern  Asia.  The 
roots  remain  unaltered,  and  most  frequently 
bear  the  accent  in  all  their  derivatives. — The 
most  peculiar  feature  of  Hungarian  grammar 
is  its  system  of  suffixes.  In  the  possessive 
forms  of  nouns  they  are  varied  according  to 
the  number  and  person  of  the  possessor  and 
the  number  of  the  object,  giving  12  distinct 
terminations,  as  follows:  Tidzam,  my  house, 
Jidzaim,  my  houses;  Tidzad,  thy  house,  Mzaid, 
thy  houses;  Tidza,  his  or  her  house,  hdzai,  his 
or  her  houses;  hdzunk,  our  house,  Mzninl^ 
our  houses ;  hdzatok,  your  house.  lu'tzaitoTc, 
your  houses;  Juizob,  their  house,  Jidzaifc,  their 
houses.  In  verbs  they  are  made  to  indicate 
not  only  the  voice,  mood,  and  tense,  and  the 
person  and  number  of  the  nominative,  but  the 
definiteness  or  indefiniteness  of  the  object, 
and  in  one  form  (indicative  present,  first  person 
singular)  the  person  of  the  object,  as  vdi'lafc,  I 
expect  thee;  kerlek,  I  ask  thee.  The  follow 
ing  table  exhibits  the  suffixes  of  the  indicative 
present,  the  root  being  always  the  third  per 
son  singular  of  the  indefinite  form,  and  the 
vowels  varying,  as  above  stated,  in  consonance 
with  that  of  the  root : 


HUNGARY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


03 


IRr 

ACTIVE. 

i.N. 

DL 

finite. 

Indefinite. 

1     -om, 

-cm  (-ora) 

-ok, 

-ek  (-6k) 

-atom, 

-etem 

2 

-od, 

-ed  (-Od) 

-sz 

-atol, 

-etel 

-i 

(Root) 

-atik, 

-etik 

1     -i»k, 

-juk 

-unk, 

-unk 

-atunk. 

-etiink 

2  !  -jutok, 
3  j  -juk 

-itek 
-ik 

-tok, 
-nak 

-tek(-tok):  -attok, 
-nek          j  -atnak, 

-ettek 
-etuek 

Examples :  vdrom,  I  expect  him,  her,  it,  them, 
T  the  man;  xdrok,  I  expect,  wait;  vdratom,  I 
am  expected  ;  leered,  thou  askest  him,  &c. ; 
Teem,  thou  askest ;  keretel,  thou  art  asked ; 
Idtja,  he  or  she  sees  it;  hit,  he  or  she  sees; 
Idtjuk,  \ve  see  it;  Idtunk,  we  see,  &c.  Other 
moods  and  tenses  are  formed  by  inserting  new 
letters  or  syllables  between  the  above  suffixes 
and  the  root,  or  in  a  few  cases  by  a  change  of 
the  final  vowel  or  consonant,  and  by  auxilia 
ries  ;  thus :  xdra,  waited ;  xdrdnk,  we  waited ; 
vdrtunk,  we  have  waited ;  xdrndnk,  we  would 
wait;  xdrandok,  I  shall  wait;  xdrjatok,  that 
ye  wait.  The  auxiliaries  are  :  volt  or  xala,  for 
the  pluperfect ;  legyen,  for  the  conjunctive 
past ;  wlna,  for  the  optative  past.  The  infini 
tive  is  formed  by  suffixing  ni  to  the  root,  as 
xdrni,  to  expect.  A  combined  future  is  formed 
by  the  infinitive  with  the  auxiliary  verb  fog  ; 
thus,  vdrnifogok,  I  shall  wait;  vdrnifogom,  I 
shall  expect  it.  Possession  is  indicated  by  the 
irregular  verb  lenni,  to  be;  van,  is;  xannak, 
are ;  volt,  was ;  lesz,  will  be,  &c. ;  thus  :  any  dm 
van  (mother-ray  is),  I  have  a  mother ;  also  with 
the  mark  of  the  dative,  nekem  xannak  kerteim 
(to-me  are  gardens-my,  milii  aunt  horti),  I 
have  gardens.  Negation  is  expressed  by  nem, 
not;  nines,  is  not,  nincsenek,  are  not;  sines,  is 
neither.  Various  kinds  of  verbs  are  made  by 
affixing  certain  syllables,  thus :  at  or  tat,  cau 
sative;  gal,  gat,  &c.,  frequentative ;  dul,  incep 
tive;  inserting  n,  diminutive;  licit,  potential; 
it,  int,  &c.,  transitive;  kodik,  reciprocal;  odik, 
kozik,  reflexive,  &c.  Examples:  xer,  he  beats; 
xeret,  he  causes  to  beat ;  xereget  (vcrf7.cs,  xerde- 
gel),  he  beats  often ;  xerint,  beats  softly ;  xere- 
kedik,  fights  with  ;  xerodik,  beats  against ; 
xergodik,  beats  himself  (breaks)  through ;  ver- 
het,  can  beat ;  xeretJiet,  can  cause  to  beat ; 
verintJiet,  can  beat  gently ;  verekedhetik,  can 
fight  with  somebody;  xcrodJietik,  can  knock 
against;  vergtidhetik,  can  break  through,  etc. 
All  these  and  similar  derivatives  can  be  con 
jugated  throughout  in  the  same  way  as  the 
simple  verb.  There  are  besides  these  other 
compounds  with  prefixes  :  aid,  down  ;  dltal, 
through,  by  ;  ~be,  in  ;  ~bele,  into ;  el,  of,  away ; 
ellen,  against ;  fel,  up  ;  ki,  out ;  ossze,  together, 
<fec. ;  and  especially  meg,  which  is  an  emphatic 
particle  denoting  attainment  of  the  aim,  ac 
complishment  (like  the  German  er  and  be  in 
erlangen,  bcgrdberi). — There  is  no  gender;  he 
and  she  are  expressed  by  the  same  word.  The 
definite  article  az  or  a'  is  of  recent  use.  The 
adjective  precedes  the  substantive,  and  receives 
the  marks  of  relations  only  when  standing  by  I 
itself.  The  relations  called  cases  and  those 
VOL.  ix. — 5 


expressed  by  prepositions  in  Indo-European 
languages  are  denoted  in  all  Altaic  tongues  by 
suffixes.  The  plural  is  formed  by  k.  Cases :  e, 
genitive;  nak,  genitive  and  dative;  t,  at,  accu 
sative;  l)an,  in ;  5«,  into;  1)61,  out  of;  ert,  for; 
hoz,  to ;  ig,  till ;  kent,  like,  instead,  as ;  kep,  in 
manner  of;  kor,  at  the  time  of  (about);  ndl 
(Latin  apud,  German  bci),  at ;  on,  upon ;  rol, 
down;  id,  instead,  as;  xd,  (changed)  into;  xal, 
with,  by,  &c. ;  almost  all  the  suffixes  being  har 
monized  with  the  stem.  Examples:  szemeink- 
ben,  eyes-our-in ;  ebedeikkor,  dinners-their-at- 
the-time-of.  The  separable  postpositions  are  of 
three  categories :  1,  answering  to  three  ques 
tions,  where?  whither?  whence?  thus:  elott, 
before  (where ?);  ele,  before  (whither?);  elol, 
from  before;  such  are  alatt,  below;  korott, 
around ;  kdzott,  between,  among ;  megctt,  be 
hind  ;  mellett,  near  by ;  2,  of  two  forms,  as  Jie- 
gyett,  hegye,  upon,  &c. ;  3,  of  one  form,  as  ellen, 
against;  irdnt,  regarding,  &c.  The  compara 
tive  degree  is  formed  by  suffixing  l>b ;  the  super 
lative  by  prefixing  leg  to  the  comparative ;  thus : 
nagy,  great,  nagyolb,  greater,  legnagyobl,  great 
est.  Pronouns :  1st  person,  en,  I ;  enyem,  mine ; 
nckem,  to  me;  engemet,  me;  mi,  we;  mienk, 
ours ;  nekunk,  to  us ;  minket,  us ;  2d  person,  te, 
tied,  neked,  tegedet ;  ti,  tietek,  nektek,  titeket ; 
3d  person,  of  both  genders,  6,  ore,  neki,  ot ;  6k, 
ovek,  nekik,  b'ket.  These  are  joined  with  relative 
prefixes,  thus  :  Icnnem,  in  me ;  lelolcd,  out  of 
thee;  hozzdjok,  to  them;  alattam,  under  me; 
alattad,  under  thee,  &c.  In  addressing  a  per 
son  we  say  on  (self),  plural  i'mok,  or  kegyed  (thy 
grace),  plural  kegyetek,  for  both  genders;  or 
az  ur,  sir  (the  lord  or  gentleman) ;  urcsagod, 
sirship-thy;  az  asszony,  lady;  asszonsdyod,  la- 
dyship-thy;  formerly  maga,  self;  to  persons 
of  lower  standing,  kend,  you.  Numerals:  egy, 
1;  kettS,  ket,  2;  Mrom,  3;  negy,  4;  ot,  5; 
hat,  6;  het,  T;  nyolcz^S;  kilenez,  9;  t\z,  10; 
tizenegy,  11,  &c.  ;  husz,  20;  harmincz,  30; 
ncgyven,  40,  &c. ;  szdz,  100;  ezer,  1,000.  Or 
dinals:  clso,  1st;  mdsodik,  2d;  the  others  are 
formed  by  suffixing  dik,  as  negyedik,  szdzadik, 
&c.  All  other  varieties  are  formed  by  suita 
ble  suffixes.  The  formation  of  parts  of  speech, 
and  of  various  categories  of  signification,  is  ex 
tremely  luxuriant  by  means  of  suffixed  letters 
or  syllables,  so  that  an  indefinite  and  yet  ever 
intelligible  mass  of  words  may  be  made  to 
suit  all  conceptions  and  shades  of  meaning. 
This  plasticity  of  the  Magyar,  together  with 
its  free  syntax,  renders  it  capable  of  expressing 
the  turns  of  other  tongues  and  the  Greek  and 
Latin  metres  with  more  ease  and  fidelity  than 
almost  any  other  language.  We  subjoin  an 
example  of  construction  and  of  elegiac  distichs : 

Pfrfiak!  'iqy  Kzhlott  Pannon        vcsz-ifttcnf     Jiairtan: 
Men  !  so    spake  Pannonia's  war-god  (its)  of  old  : 

J]ol<log   foldet    artok,    r'tjcrtok    <r1e  IHI  k^tf. 
Blessed  country  give-J,  fight-yc  for-it  if  need, 

\9    v'lttanak  elszuvtan  nagy  bator  nemsetek  <:>ic 
and  fought      decidedly  great  brave    nations    for-it 

'.9    Tf-rf-Kftt    a^  dinrtalt,  n'flre  kinyerte        iiiaci'ijdr. 
and  bloodily  the  victory   lastly  gained  (the)  Hungarian. 


HUNGARY  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


All     dc- •  ri&z&ly  maradott  a?    nepeV    lelkein:    a?  fold 
Alas,  but  discord  remained  the  nations'  souls-in :  the  land 

BoldoggA      item  tud  lenni  as    fitok    alatt 

happy-made  not  knows  (can)    be     the  curse  under. 

(Vorosmarty.) 

This  language  is  spoken  by  more  than  one  third 
of  the  population  of  Hungary  in  its  wider 
sense,  by  more  than  one  fourth  of  that  of 
Transylvania,  and  in  some  places  of  Moldavia, 
"\Vallachia,  and  Bukowina.  It  consists  of  four 
dialects,  which  do  not  differ  so  much  as  those 
of  other  tongues,  viz. :  the  Gyori,  of  Raab,  or 
Trans-Danubian,  and  the  Bihari  on  the  Theiss, 
both  represented  in  books ;  the  Palocz  in  the 
Matra  mountains,  in  the  contiguous  districts 
of  the  counties  of  Ileves,  Borsod,  Gomor, 
Hont,  and  Xograd,  with  more  genuine  ancient 
Magyar  words  than  the  preceding;  and  the 
Szekely  in  Transylvania  and  the  contiguous 
countries,  with  many  Tartaric  words,  and  of  a 
drawling  pronunciation.  The  language  has 
varied  very  little  in  progress  of  time. — HUN 
GARIAN  LITERATURE  is  comparatively  of  late 
date.  The  introduction  of  the  religion  of 
Rome  under  King  Stephen  I.  (997-1038)  made 
the  Latin,  the  language  of  its  priests  and 
teachers,  predominant  in  the  court,  the  higher 
institutions  for  education,  administration,  and 
justice,  and  among  the  higher  classes  in  gen 
eral,  who  found  it  the  most  convenient  medium 
for  communication  with  the  representatives  of 
the  cultivated  AVest  and  South  in  diplomacy, 
literature,  or  religion.  Of  the  time  of  the 
Arpads  and  the  next  following  period  only 
Latin  chronicles  are  preserved,  of  which  those 
of  the  "Anonymous  Secretary  of  King  Bela" 
(IL)  and  Simon  Keza,  the  Chronicon  Budense, 
and  the  Chronicon  Rerum  Ilungaricarum  of 
John  Turoczy  (Thurocius),  are  the  most  re 
markable.  The  court  of  Matthias  Oorvinus 
(1458-'9G)  at  Buda  was  adorned  by  distin 
guished  native  and  foreign  scholars.  Of  the 
latter,  Bonfinus  wrote  an  interesting  though 
often  legendary  history  of  Hungary  in  De 
cades  IV.,  which  was  published  Avith  a  con 
tinuation  by  Sambucus  (Basel,  1568).  Galeo- 
tus  wrote  on  Matthias  himself,  whose  libra 
rian  he  was,  and  Callimachus  on  Attila  and 
Uladislas  I.  Among  the  natives  the  poet  Ja 
nus  Pannonius  holds  the  foremost  rank.  The 
preserved  remnants  of  Hungarian  writings  of 
that  period  are  very  scanty.  The  spread  of 
the  reformation  in  the  following  century,  as 
in  most  countries  of  Europe,  promoted"  the 
culture  of  the  native  tongue.  But  the  simul 
taneous  disasters  of  the  country,  the  Turk 
ish  and  civil  wars,  and  chiefly  the  introduc 
tion  of  the  German  element  with  the  dynasty 
of  the  Hapsburgs,  checked  the  development 
of  a  flourishing  national  literature.  Parts  of 
the  Scriptures  were  translated  into  Hunga 
rian  during  the  16th  century  by  Komjati, 
Erdosi,  lleltai,  Szekely,  Juhasz,  Karolyi,  and 
others.  Gal,  Juhasz,  Kulcsar,  Telegdi,  Dec-si, 
and  Karolyi  distinguished  themselves  as  ora 
tors.  Tinodi,  Valkai,  and  Temesvari  sang  the 


warlike  exploits  of  their  times  in  light  verses, 
Kakonyi  the  deeds  of  Cyrus,  Csaktornyi  the 
heroes  of  the  siege  of  Troy;  Balassa,  Rimai, 
and  Erdosi  composed  lyrical  poems  of  incom 
parably  higher  merit.  In  the  17th  century  the 
Hungarian  muse  found  votaries  in  Zrinyi,  the 
grandson  of  the  defender  of  Sziget,  who  cele 
brated  in  rhymed  alexandrines  the  deeds  and 
death  of  that  hero,  in  Liszti,  Pasko,  and  Ko- 
hary,  and  especially  in  Gy ongydsi,  who  sang  the 
defence  of  Murany  by  Maria  Szecsi.  Molnar  and 
Kaldi  translated  the  Scriptures ;  the  primate 
and  cardinal  Pazman  and  Kecskemeti  were 
distinguished  as  orators ;  Csere  even  published 
a  cyclopaedia  of  sciences  and  a  treatise  on 
logic  in  Hungarian.  This  national  movement 
in  literature  was  paralyzed  by  the  growing  in 
fluence  of  the  German  dynasty  ;  the  bloody 
persecutions  of  the  patriots  under  Leopold  I. 
(1657-1705)  suppressed  it  almost  entirely.  The 
Latin  again  became  predominant,  being  cultiva 
ted  in  the  18th  century  by  a  large  number  of 
scholars  in  every  branch,  who  vied  with  each 
other  in  the  purity  of  their  dead  idiom,  and 
compared  with  whom  the  Magyar  writers  Fa- 
ludi  and  Bessenyei,  the  founders  of  a  classical 
and  a  French  school  in  poetry,  Orczy,  Count 
Teleky,  Baroczi,  Revay,  and'  others,  formed 
but  a  feeble  minority.  A  new  and  fertile  pe 
riod  began  about  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  Germanizing  mea 
sures  of  Joseph  II.  (1780-'90),  which  caused 
a  lively  and  general  reaction.  Societies  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  national  tongue  were 
formed,  literary,  political,  and  scientific  peri 
odicals  started,  national  theatres  established, 
and  various  linguistic  theories  developed.  This 
movement,  being  identical  with  the  general 
regeneration  of  the  nation,  triumphed  over 
all  foreign  elements  after  the  first  quarter  of 
the  present  century,  about  the  beginning  of 
which  Francis  Kazinczy,  the  great  reformer 
of  the  language  after  Revay,  and  the  popular 
poet  Csokonai,  appear  as  the  foremost  in  liter 
ature.  The  poets  Dayka,  Verseghy,  and  Vi- 
rag,  and  the  novelist  Dugonics,  were  their  con 
temporaries.  The  lyrical  "  Loves  of  Ilimfy  " 
(Ilymfy  szerelmei),  by  Alexander  Kisfaludy 
(1801),  were  received  with  general  admira 
tion,  and  were  followed  by  his  "  Tales  "  (Regelc) 
and  other  poems.  Berzsenyi  wrote  glowing 
odes  in  Roman  metre.  The  poets  Andrew 
Ilorvath,  Dobrentei,  Vitkovics,  Kis,  and  Paul 
Szemere,  belong  both  to  the  period  of  regener 
ation  and  to  the  golden  age  of  Hungarian  liter 
ature,  which  embraces  the  30  years  preceding 
the  revolution  of  1848-'9.  This  period  opens 
with  the  simultaneous  activity  of  five  classical 
writers,  Charles  Kisfaludy,  the  brother  of  Alex 
ander,  Kolcsey,  Fay,  Czuczor,  and  Vorosmarty, 
of  whom  only  the  last  three  survived  it.  Kis 
faludy  may  be  regarded  as  the  creator  of  the 
Hungarian  drama  by  his  tragedies,  and  still 
more  by  his  really  national  comedies,  some  of 
which  are  as  yet  unsurpassed.  Kolcsey's  lyri 
cal  poems,  ballads,  and  prose  writings,  inclu- 


HUNGARY  (LANGUAGE  AXD  LITERATURE) 


65 


ding  orations,  are  distinguished  by  a  spirit  of 
ardent  patriotism.  Fay's  "Fables"  (Mesefy 
are  excellent  specimens  of  that  kind  of  poet 
ry,  in  the  manner  of  Lessing.  Czuczor,  dis 
tinguished  also  as  a  grammarian  and  lexicog 
rapher,  is  chiefly  renowned  for  his  popular 
songs  and  his  historical  epics  in  hexameter,  the 
"  Battle  of  Augsburg  "  (Aitgsliirgi  utkozet)  and 
"  Assembly  of  Arad  "  (Aradi  gyules).  The 
latter,  however,  were  excelled  by  the  more  nu 
merous  epics  of  Vorosmarty,  "Cserhalom," 
"The  Flight  of  Zalan  "  (Zaldn  futdsa),  "Er- 
lau "  (Eger),  &c.,  which,  together  with  his 
tragedies,  short  novels,  songs,  and  especially 
odes  and  ballads,  gave  him  the  foremost  rank 
among  the  writers  of  his  nation.  In  lyrical 
poetry,  next  to  Vorosmarty  and  Kolcsey  we 
find  Bajza,  who  is  also  remarkable  as  an  ces- 
thetical  critic  and  historical  writer,  Peter  Vaj- 
da,  John  Erd61yi,  Kunoss,  Alexander  Vachott, 
Csusziir,  and  Garay,  whose  ballads  also  rival 
those  of  Vorosmarty.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
period  appear  the  three  youthful  popular  poets 
Tompa,  Arany,  and  Petofi,  of  whom  the  first 
two  excelled  chiefly  in  tales  and  legends,  and 
the  last  in  light  and  playful  songs,  whose  sub 
jects  are  love,  liberty,  independence,  nature, 
and  all  that  can  touch  the  heart  or  inspire  the 
imagination.  Fictitious  literature  was  chiefly 
cultivated,  if  not  created,  by  Josika,  whose 
historical  novels,  "Abafi,"  "The  Last  of  the 
Biithoris"  (Utolso  Bdihory),  "The  Bohemians 
in  Hungary"  (Csehek  Magyarorszdgbari),  &c., 
exercised  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  de 
velopment  of  Hungarian  prose  after  Kazinczy. 
Smaller  though  not  inferior  works  were  written 
by  Peter  Vajda.  In  many  respects  both  were 
surpassed  by  Eotvos,  whose  "  Carthusian  "  (A 
carthausi),  a  philosophical  romance,  "Village 
Notary  "  (A  falu  jcyyzoje),  an  admirable  pic 
ture  of  recent  political  life  in  Hungary,  and 
"Hungary  in  1514"  (Magyar or szdg  1514ften),  a 
historical  novel,  place  him  among  the  most 
eminent  writers  of  his  age.  Kuthy  is  often 
eminent  in  pictures  of  nature,  and  Ignatius 
Nagy  in  caricaturing  characters ;  both  pro 
duced  imitations  of  Sue's  "Mysteries,"  taken 
from  Hungarian  life,  but  disfigured  by  unnatu 
ral  exaggerations.  Kemeny  and  Jokai  belong 
also  to  a  more  recent  period,  both  as  novelists 
and  publicists.  The  principal  dramatic  authors 
besides  Kisfaludy  and  Vorosmarty  were  Katona 
(Barikbdri),  L.  Toth,  Garay,  Szigligeti,  who  is 
eminent  in  popular  plays.  Gal  ("  The  Notary 
of  Peleske"),  I.  Nagy,  Emeric  Vahot,  Paul 
KOVJ'ICS,  and  Czako.  Travels  were  written  by 
Belenyei  (America),  Csaszar  (Italy),  Bartholo 
mew  Szemere,  Irinyi,  L.  Toth,  and  Gorove 
(western  Europe),  Mehes  (Switzerland),  Jerney 
(southeastern  Europe),  and  Reguly  (northern 
Russia),  the  work  of  Szemere  being  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  productions  of  the  period  ; 
political  works  by  Szechenyi,  Wessclenyi,  Kos- 
suth,  Eotvos,  Szalay,  B.  Szemere,  and  others; 
the  best  histories  by  M.  Horvath,  Peczely,  and 
Jaszay  (Hungary),  Bajza  (the  ancient  world), 


and  Toldy  (national  literature);  philosophical 
treatises  by  Szontagh,  Marki,  Gregus,  and  oth 
ers  ;  the  best  statistical  works  by  Feuyes,  Vallas, 
and  Kovary.  Natural  sciences,  theology,  lan 
guages,  and  antiquities  also  found  numerous 
representatives.  The  best  grammatical  and  lex 
icographical  works  on  the  national  language 
were  written  by  Czuczor,  Fogarassy,  and 
Bloch.  The  beautiful  songs  of  the  people 
were  published  in  various  collections,  among 
others  by  Erdelyi;  miscellaneous  writings  by 
Pulszky,  Lukacs,  Frankenburg,  Gabriel  Ka 
zinczy,  Gondol,  Berecz,  Pompery,  Amelia 
Bezer6dy,  Theresa  Karacs,  and  others.  Of 
translators  we  will  mention  only  Szabo,  who 
published  an  admirable  metrical  version  of 
Homer.  During  the  revolution  of  1848-'9 
the  muses  were  silent,  excepting  only  the 
stirring  songs  of  war.  The  battle  field  closed 
many  a  glorious  career,  as  in  the  case  of  Pe 
tofi,  and  destroyed  many  an  incipient  genius, 
as  in  that  of  the  eloquent  Vasvari.  After  the 
close  of  the  war  the  dungeon,  the  scaffold,  and 
exile  doomed  the  most  gifted  of  the  nation 
to  silence.  The  last  quarter  of  a  century  is 
therefore  in  a  literary  respect  inferior  to  the 
preceding  period,  though  productive  of  a  large 
number  of  publications  of  different  degrees  of 
merit.  Some  of  them,  mostly  belonging  to 
the  surviving  representatives  of  the  preceding 
period,  are  worthy  of  their  great  popularity. 
In  poetry  the  imitators  of  Petofi  have  been 
numerous.  Among  the  most  remarkable  pro 
ductions  are  the  poems  of  Tompa,  Arany,  Su- 
rossy,  Lisznyai,  Levai,  Gyulai,  Nicholas  Sze 
mere,  Szasz,  Jambor  (Iliador),  Stikei,  Szeles- 
tei,  Bozzai,  Losonczy,  Sz6kely,  and  others ; 
the  novels  of  Kemeny,  Josika,  Jokai,  Pally, 
Gyulai,  and  Berczy ;  the  humorous  writings 
of  Bernat  and  Radakovics  (Vas  Gereben) ;  the 
historical  works  of  Szalay,  Joseph  Teleky, 
Jaszay,  Toldy,  Csengery,  Palugyai,  M6szaros, 
Fejer,  J.  Hunfalvy,  &c. ;  the  political  writings 
of  Eotvos  and  Kemeny ;  the  translations  of  Ste 
phen  and  Charles  Szabo,  P.  Hunfalvy,  Csen 
gery,  Irinyi,  Szasz,  and  Siikei ;  the  travels  of 
Emanuel  Andrassy  (India),  Nendtwich  (Ameri 
ca),  Podrnaniczky  (northern  Europe),  Magyar 
(southern  Africa),  Emma  Teleky  (Greece), 
&c. ;  and  the  dramas  of  Szigligeti  and  others. 
Journalism  and  oratory,  both  of  which  at 
tained  their  highest  development  during  the 
later  period  of  Kossuth's  agitation,  have  been 
revived  by  the  restoration  of  the  Hungarian 
constitution.  This  sketch,  which  includes  va 
rious  Magyar  productions  of  the  Transylvanian 
press,  excludes  all  more  modern  non-Magyar 
literary  productions  of  Hungary  belonging  to 
the  Slavic,  German,  or  other  literatures. — 
Among  the  principal  works  on  Hungarian  his 
tory  (in  various  languages)  are  those  of  Bel, 
Pray,  Gebhardi,  Katona,  Fessler,  Engel,  Maj- 
Itith,  Horvuth,  Peczely,  Toldy,  A.  de  Gt-rando, 
Szalay,  and  Ker£kgyarto.  See  also  A.  J.  Pat 
terson,  "The  Magyars  :  their  Country  and  In 
stitutions"  (2  vols.,  London,  1869). 


C6 


HUNGARY   (WIXES  OF) 


m:\GARY,  Wines  of.  In  respect  to  climate  and 
soil  Hungary  may  be  considered  a  country  un 
usually  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  grape ; 
but  although  wine  is  produced  in  almost  every 
portion  of  it,  only  a  comparatively  small  amount 
is  available  for  the  purposes  of  commerce.  The 
total  production  may  be  estimated  at  nearly 
400,000,000  gallons,  not  more  than  50,000,000 
of  which  are  capable  of  being  rendered  fit  for 
export.  The  amount  annually  leaving  the 
country  is  in  fact  very  much  less  than  this, 
owing  to  the  imperfect  system  of  viticulture 
practised  by  the  producers,  and  to  defective 
and  primitive  treament  of  wine  in  the  cellar. 
The  wines  are  of  three  kinds :  samorodny  or 
"natural  wine;"  mdslds,  which  is  made  of 
dry  and  plump  grape  berries,  used  in  certain 
proportions;  and  ordinary  wine,  made  from 
plump  grapes  only.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Hungarian  vines  that  the  grapes  ripening  ear 
liest  often  burst  and  discharge  a  portion  of 
their  juice,  after  which  they  dry  up  and  are 
converted  into  lumps  of  sugar,  called  aszu  (Ger. 
Trockeribeeren)  or  dry  berries.  These  very 
rarely  comprise  an  entire  bunch,  but  are  inter 
spersed  with  fully  ripe  and  plump  grapes.  It  is 
customary  at  the  vintage  to  separate  the  dry 
berries  from  the  others  ;  but  when  the  clusters 
are  put  into  the  press  without  undergoing  this 
process,  the  product  is  known  as  natural  wine. 
The  choice  varieties  are  made  from  the  ordina 
ry  wine,  with  the  addition  of  dry  berries.  This 
is  maslas.  It  is  of  four  qualities,  according 
to  the  quantity  of  dry  berries  added  to  each 
cask  of  wine.  When  reenforced  beyond  these 
proportions,  it  is  called  aszulor  or  Ausbruch, 
the  choicest  kind  of  which  is  that  running  spon 
taneously  from  the  musk-infused  dry  berries, 
known  as  "  essence."  These  fortified  wines  are 
as  a  rule  very  alcoholic  and  sweet,  and  are  the 
chief  wines  of  commerce.  The  most  famous 
product  of  the  Hungarian  vines  is  the  Tokay 
wine,  which  is  made  in  the  vineyards  covering 
the  slopes  of  the  Hegyalja  range  of  hills,  near 
the  town  of  Tokay,  in  northern  Hungary. 
Five  qualities  are  classified  :  Essence,  aus- 
bruch,  maslas,  samorodny,  and  ordinary.  Of 
these  the  first  is  probably  the  most  costly 
wine  in  the  world,  selling,  when  50  years  old 
and  upward,  at  from  $5  to  $15  the  small  Tokay 
bottle.  Dr.  Druitt  in  Ins  "  Report  on  Cheap 
Wines,"  commending  the  use  of  Tokay  by  in 
valids,  describes  the  essence  as  "a  wine  of 
delicate  pale  tint,  in  which  the  sweetness  and 
fragrance  of  the  grape,  though  perceptible, 
are  partly  hidden  by,  or  converted  by  age  into,  . 
an  exceedingly  rich,  aromatic,  mouth-filling 
wine  flavor,  so  that,  rich  as  it  may  be,  it  is  not 
cloying  nor  sickly ;  and  in  its  admirable  aroma 
there  is  a  decided  remembrance  of  green  tea." 
This  has  long  been  considered  peculiarly  the 
wine  of  crowned  heads  and  princes,  and  is 
rarely  if  ever  for  sale.  The  ausbruch  and 
other  qualities  of  Tokay  also  command  high 
prices,  and  are  usually  found  in  limited  quanti 
ties  wherever  costlv  wines  are  in  the  market. 


Among  other  Hungarian  wines  of  the  first 
class,  but  ranking  below  the  Tokays,  may  be 
enumerated  theMenes  Magyarat,  red  and  white 
ausbruch,  and  natural  wines,  yielding  about 
3,000,000  gallons,  find  the  wines  of  Rust,  pro 
duced  in  the  country  lying  west  of  the  river 
Raab,  and  yielding  annually  between  800,000 
and  900,000  gallons  of  white,  strong,  sweet 
ausbruch  and  natural  wine.  Wines  of  the 
second  class  comprise  those  of  Somlyo,  Bada- 
csony,  Neszmely,  £rmellek,  Szerednye,  Nograd, 
and  Krasso,  which  are  white ;  and  Erlau,  Yi- 
sonta  (called  also  Schiller),  Szcgszard,  Yillany, 
Buda  (Ofner),  and  Krasso,  red  wines.  Those 
of  the  third  and  fourth  class  are  scarcely  known 
beyond  the  confines  of  the  region  in  which 
they  are  produced.  Hungarian  wines,  though 
comparatively  new  at  the  present  time  to 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  were 
introduced  into  the  former  country  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  and,  on  the  authority  of 
a  German  author  of  the  last  century,  Helve- 
tius,  "  were  the  favorite  wines  of  the  court 
and  all  over  the  kingdom."  They  were  sub 
sequently  supplanted  by  port,  sherry,  and  ma 
deira.  Friedrich.  Hoffmann,  professor  of  medi 
cine  at  Halle,  and  a  man  of  great  mark  in  his 
profession,  declared  in  1085,  in  an  essay  "On 
the  Excellent  Nature,  Virtue,  and  Use  of  Hun 
garian  Wines,"  by  which  he  means  the  sweeter 
wines  of  the  Tokay  order,  that  they  excel  all 
other  wines,  in  that  they  are  strong,  preserve 
their  sweetness,  have  spirit,  odor,  and  aroma ; 
are  strengthening,  and  yet  open  the  pores  of 
the  skin  and  other  organs,  so  that  they  cause 
no  headache  nor  languor;  and  that  the  better 
wines  keep  for  an  unlimited  time. — In  connec 
tion  with  the  wines  of  Hungary  may  be  con 
sidered  those  of  Austria,  in  many  parts  of 
which  country  the  vine  is  largely  cultivated. 
The  average  yield  may  be  estimated  at  be 
tween  200,000,000  and  300,000,000  gallons,  in 
cluding  many  wines  of  fair  quality  and  good 
keeping  properties.  Most  of  this  is  consumed 
within  the  country.  The  finest  varieties  are 
those  of  Voslan,  Goldeck,  and  Steinberg,  of 
each  of  which  there  is  a  red  and  a  white  kind. 
The  vines  employed  are  those  of  Portugal,  and 
their  products  are  said  to  bear  some  resem 
blance  both  to  port  and  burgundy.  They  re 
semble  Madeira  wines  also  in  returning  greatly 
improved  from  a  sea  voyage  of  several  years. 
The  sparkling  Voslauer,  an  effervescent  wine, 
has  considerable  flavor  and  a  delicate  aroma. 
The  vineyards  producing  these  wines  lie  S.  of 
Vienna,  between  the  Hungarian  hills  and  the 
Styrian  Alps,  and  enjoy  a  climate  well  adapted 
to  the  maturing  of  delicntc-ly  flavored  wines. 
Dr.  Druitt  sums  up  his  opinion  of  them  as 
follows :  "  The  richness  of  the  overripe  white 
grapes  destined  to  produce  the  cabinet  wine ; 
the  amplitude  of  the  cellars  excavated  in  the 
bowels  of  a  hill ;  the  vicinity  of  sulphur  springs 
and  volcanic  debris ;  and  the  immense  care, 
activity,  and  conscientiousness  employed,  be 
speak  a  great  future  for  these  vines." 


HUNGER 


HUNS 


67 


HrVGER,  the  sensation  by  which  the  neces 
sity  for  food  is  made  known  to  the  system,  re 
ferred  to  the  stomach,  hut  indicating  the  wants 
of  the  system  at  large ;  impelling  us  to  supply 
the  waste  of  the  tissues  consequent  on  all  vital 
acts,  and  in  proportion  to  the  activity  of  the 
animal  functions  from  exercise,  &c.  If  the 
desire  cannot  be  gratified,  or  if  ahsent  from 
disease,  the  phenomena  of  inanition  or  of  star 
vation  are  induced,  with  a  diminution  of  the 
bulk  of  nearly  all  the  tissues  and  proportionate 
weakness.  Hunger  is  greatest  in  the  young 
and  growing  state,  and  least  in  old  age,  when 
the  vital  operations  are  deficient  in  activity. 
It  varies  with  the  amount  of  heat  to  be  gen 
erated  in  the  body ;  external  cold  increases 
hunger,  while  heat  diminishes  it ;  hence  the 
voracious  appetite  of  the  arctic  regions,  and 
the  general  use  of  stimulating  condiments  in 
the  tropics ;  it  is  also  increased  by  any  unusual 
drain  upon  the  system,  when  accompanied  by 
febrile  action,  as  in  lactation  and  diabetes,  in 
the  last  of  which  especially  hunger  is  almost 
insatiable.  In  health,  the  feeling  of  hunger 
is  a  very  good  indication  of  the  demands1  of 
the  system  for  food,  and  it  becomes  the  stimu 
lant  to  mental  operations,  automatic  in  infancy, 
but  directed  by  intelligence  in  the  adult,  which 
have  for  their  object  the  gratification  of  the 
desire.  Hunger  depends  rather  upon  the  de 
mand  of  the  system  for  aliment  than  upon  the 
state  of  emptiness  of  the  stomach.  The  sense 
of  hunger  may  be,  however,  immediately  de 
pendent  on  some  condition  of  the  stomach;  it 
is  well  known  that  the  swallowing  of  indiges 
tible  and  non-nutritious  substances  will  tem 
porarily  relieve  it.  The  demands  of  the  stom 
ach  and  of  the  general  system  in  this  respect 
are  probably  communicated  to  the  sensorium 
by  the  pneumogastric  nerves  and  by  the  sym 
pathetic.  On  the  other  hand,  mere  emptiness 
of  the  stomach  does  not  produce  hunger,  as  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  an  ample  supply  of 
food  passes  entirely  from  the  stomach  hours 
before  this  sensation  is  felt,  and  that  in  disease 
there  may  be  no  desire  for  food  for  many  days 
with  total  abstinence  from  it.  Moreover,  hun 
ger  may  be  relieved  by  the  injection  of  alimen 
tary  fluids  into  the  large  intestine,  when  the 
stomach  cannot  receive  or  retain  food. 

Hl'XS  (Lat.  Hunni),  a  people  of  northern 
Asia  who  in  the  '5th  century  invaded  and  con 
quered  a  great  part  of  Europe.  Of  their  ori 
gin  little  is  known  with  certainty.  Under  the 
name  of  Chuni  they  were  known  to  the  Greeks, 
and  are  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  early  as  the 
2d  century.  According  to  the  theory  of  De 
Guignes  in  his  Ilistoire  des  JTuns,  the  Huns 
were  a  Tartar  nation,  the  Iliung-nu,  whose 
original  country  was  the  region  immediately 
north  of  the  great  wall  of  China,  which  was 
built  to  protect  that  empire  against  their  in 
cursions.  For  several  ages  they  carried  on 
successful  wars  against  the  Chinese  emperors, 
who  were  compelled  to  pay  them  tribute  in 
order  to  purchase  a  precarious  peace.  Their 


power  was  at  length  broken  by  the  arms  of 
the  emperor  Youti  and  by  their  own  dissen 
sions,  and  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era  the  unconquered  remnant  of  the/'  nation 
abandoned  their  country  and  marched  west 
ward  in  search  of  a  new  home.  One  division 
established  themselves  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  where  they  became  known  as 
White  Huns.  The  main  body  of  the  nation 
established  themselves  for  a  while  in  Russia  on 
the  banks  of  the  Volga.  In  the  3d  century 
they  crossed  this  river  and  invaded  the  terri 
tory  of  the  Alans,  whom  they  conquered  and 
amalgamated  with  themselves.  The  united  na 
tions  pressed  onward,  and  attacked  the  Goths 
in  375.  The  Goths  were  defeated,  their  king 
Ermanric  put  to  death,  and  the  Gothic  nation 
driven  to  seek  an  asylum  within  the  bounds 
of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Huns  established 
themselves  on  the  banks  of  the  Don  and  the 
Dnieper  and  in  Pannonia.  They  soon  became 
involved  in  war  with  the  Romans,  and  in  the  5th 
century  under  the  leadership  of  Attila  attained 
to  a  high  degree  of  power  and  empire.  (See 
ATTILA.)  Their  dominion  fell  to  pieces  after 
the  death  of  Attila  (about  453),  and  the  peo 
ple  themselves  were  lost  and  swallowed  up  in 
fresh  invasions  of  barbarians  from  the  north 
and  east.  The  Huns  of  the  Byzantine  authors 
included  many  distinct  tribes  which  invaded  Eu 
rope  in  successive  waves,  including  the  Avars. 
Howorth  identifies  the  Hunnic  Avars  with  the 
louan-Iouan,  who  appear  in  Chinese  history  in 
the  beginning  of  the  3d  century  A.  D.  Some 
time  later  they  are  found  on  the  Jaxartes,  and 
invading  Transoxiana,  where  they  intermarried 
with  the  Yethas  or  Ephtalitre.  They  compelled 
these  latter  to  emigrate  to  the  south  of  the 
Oxus,  and  during  the  4th  and  5th  centuries 
extended  their  power  as  far  as  India.  The 
whole  frontier  of  eastern  Persia  is  then  de 
scribed  by  western  writers  as  infested  by  ene 
mies,  to  whom  the  name  of  White  Huns  is 
given.  Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  who  was  in  In 
dia  about  525,  gives  the  name  of  Hunnia  to 
the  vast  territory  separating  India  from  China. 
Thus,  while  Europe  and  the  west  were  flood 
ed  by  one  wave  of  Huns,  eastern  Persia  and 
the  Indian  border  were  flooded  by  another. 
Howorth  has  also  attempted  to  prove  that  the 
Khazars  or  Akatzirs  were  the  same  race  as  the 
Ephtalitro  of  the  Persian  frontier.  According 
to  some  writers,  the  Huns  were  a  tribe  of  Fin 
nish  stock,  and  the  ancestors  of  the  Hungari 
ans  or  Magyars.  They  are  described  by  the 
Roman  writers  as  hideous  in  appearance,  with 
broad  shoulders,  flat  noses,  and  small  black 
eyes,  deeply  buried  in  the  head.  "A  fabulous 
origin  was  assigned  to  them,"  says  Gibbon, 
"worthy  of  their  form  and  manners;  that  the 
witches' of  Scythia,  who  for  their  foul  and 
deadly  practices  had  been  driven  from  socie 
ty,  had  copulated  in  the  desert  with  infernal 
spirits;  and  that  the  Huns  were  the  offspring 
of  this  execrable  conjunction.  The  tale  was 
greedily  embraced  by  the  credulous  terror  of 


63 


HUNT 


the  Goths ;  but,  while  it  gratified  their  hatred, 
it  increased  their  fear,  since  the  posterity  of 
demons  and  witches  might  he  supposed  to  in 
herit  some  share  of  the  preternatural  powers  as 
well  as  of  the  malignant  temper  of  their  pa 
rents." — See  Histoire  generale  des  Hum,  Turcs, 
Moyols  et  autres  Tartares  occidentaux,  by  Jo 
seph  de  Guignes  (5  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1756-'8); 
and  Histoire  (VAttila  et  de  ses  successeurs,  by 
A.  Thierry  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1805). 

HUNT,  a  1ST.  E.  county  of  Texas,  drained  by 
the  head  streams  of  the  Sabine  river  and  by  the 
S.  fork  of  the  Sulphur  ;  area,  935  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10,291,  of  whom  1,078  were  colored. 
It  has  a  rolling  and  in  some  places  hilly  sur 
face,  and  is  well  wooded.  The  soil  is  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  342,411 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  31,480  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  163,267  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,272  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  9,941  horses,  977  mules 
and  asses,  9,672  milch  cows,  2,077  working 
oxen,  25,141  other  cattle,  7,194  sheep,  and  23,- 
347  swine ;  1  flour  mill,  and  1  wool-carding 
establishment.  Capital,  Greenville.  . 

HUNT)  Henry,  an  English  politician,  born  at 
Upavon,  Wiltshire,  Nov.  6,  1773,  died  at  Al- 
resford,  Hants,  Feb.  13,  1835.  He  was  a 
wealthy  farmer,  and  in  early  life  was  noted 
for  extreme  loyalty,  having  in  1801,  during  the 
alarm  at  the  projected  French  invasion,  offered 
to  place  his  personal  property,  valued  at  £20,- 
000,  at  the  disposal  of  government.  He  subse 
quently  retired  in  disgust  from  the  Everly 
troop  of  yeomanry  on  account  of  their  refusal 
to  volunteer  their  services  out  of  the  county, 
and  joined  the  Marlborough  troop.  Having 
challenged  his  commander,  Lord  Bruce,  he 
was  tried  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  £100, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  for  six  weeks  in  the 
king's  bench.  During  his  confinement  he  was 
visited  by  several  prominent  reformers,  under 
whose  influence  he  became  a  champion  of  the 
most  radical  section  of  the  party,  and  the  po 
litical  associate  of  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  Home 
Tooke,  and  William  Cobbett.  For  many  years 
he  attempted  without  success  to  secure  a  seat 
in  parliament,  addressing  popular  meetings  in 
the  large  manufacturing  towns  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  In  August,  1819,  he 
presided  over  the  reform  meeting  in  Manches 
ter,  which  for  alleged  illegality  was  dispersed 
by  the  military,  after  11  persons  had  been 
killed  and  upward  of  600  wounded  ;  and  an 
indictment  for  conspiracy  was  found  against 
him.  He  was  sentenced  to  2£  years'  confine 
ment  in  Ilchester  jail,  and  after  his  release 
made  a  public  entry  into  London  on  Nov.  4, 
1822.  In  1830  and  1831  he  was  returned  to 
the  house  of  commons  from  Preston  ;  but  fail 
ing  of  an  election  to  the  next  parliament,  he 
made  the  tour  of  England  in  a  handsome 
equipage,  speaking  in  the  principal  towns,  and 
offering  for  sale,  under  the  name  of  "  radical 
coffee,1'  roasted  grains  of  wheat,  as  a  substitute 
for  the  heavily  taxed  coffee  of  the  West  and 
East  Indies.  Subsequently  he'  made  his  ap 


pearance  in  London  in  a  coach  drawn  by  white 
horses,  from  which  he  sold  a  new  kind  of 
blacking  invented  by  himself.  He  died  of  a 
stroke  of  paralysis  while  on  a  tour. 

HUNT.  I.  James  Henry  Leigh,  an  English  au 
thor,  born  in  Southgate,  Middlesex,  Oct.  19, 
1784,  died  at  Putney,  Aug.  28, 1859.  His  father, 
a  West  Indian,  married  an  American  lady,  and 
practised  law  in  Philadelphia  till  the  revolu 
tion  broke  out,  when  he  warmly  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  crown  and  had  to  leave  the  coun 
try.  He  went  to  England,  took  orders,  and 
became  tutor  to  Mr.  Leigh,  nephew  of  the 
duke  of  Chandos,  after  whom  he  named  his 
son.  Leigh  Hunt  was  educated  at  Christ's 
hospital,  which  he  left  in  his  15th  year,  spent 
some  time  in  the  office  of  his  brother,  an  at 
torney,  and  then  obtained  a  place  in  the  war 
office.  He  had  written  many  verses  while  a 
boy,  and  in  1801  his  father  published  for  him 
"Juvenilia,  or  a  Collection  of  Poems  written 
between  the  Ages  of  Twelve  and  Sixteen." 
He  now  began  to  contribute  to  periodicals,  and 
in  1805  became  the  dramatic  critic  of  the 
"News,"  a  Sunday  paper  established  by  his 
brother  John,  to  which  also  he  contributed  lit 
erary  articles.  A  volume  of  his  theatrical  crit 
icisms  was  published  in  1807.  In  1808  he  left 
the  war  office,  and  with  his  brother  established 
the  "Examiner,"  a  liberal  journal,  which  he 
edited  for  many  years  and  rendered  exceed 
ingly  popular  ;  it  was  noted  for  the  fearlessness 
of  its  criticism  and  the  freedom  of  its  political 
discussions.  Three  times  the  Hunts  were  pros 
ecuted  by  the  government :  first,  for  the  words, 
"Of  all  monarchs,  indeed,  since  the  revolu 
tion,  the  successor  of  George  III.  will  have 
the  finest  opportunity  of  becoming  nobly  pop 
ular;"  second,  for  denouncing  flogging  in  the 
army ;  third,  when  a  fashionable  newspaper 
had  called  the  prince  regent  an  Adonis,  for 
adding  "  a  fat  Adonis  of  fifty."  On  the  first 
the  prosecution  was  abandoned,  on  the  second 
the  verdict  was  for  acquittal,  but  on  the  third 
the  brothers  were  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  £500 
each,  and  two  years'  imprisonment.  They  re 
jected  offers  to  remit  the  penalties  on  condi 
tion  that  the  paper  should  change  its  tone,  and 
underwent  the  full  sentence  ;  but  so  much  pop 
ular  sympathy  was  excited  in  their  behalf  that 
the  cells  were  transformed  into  comfortable 
apartments,  constantly  supplied  with  books 
and  flowers.  Here  Leigh  was  visited  by  By 
ron,  Moore,  Lamb,  Shelley,  and  Keats,  and 
here  he  wrote  "The  Feast  of  the  Poets" 
(1814),  "The  Descent  of  Liberty,  a  Mask" 
(1815),  and  "The  Story  of  Rimini "  (1816), 
which  immediately  gave  him  a  place  among 
the  poets.  He  also  continued  to  edit  the  "Ex 
aminer"  while  in  prison.  In  1818  he  pub 
lished  "  Foliage,  or  Poems  original  and  trans 
lated,"  and  in  1819  he  started  the  "Indica 
tor,"  a  small  weekly  on  the  model  of  the 
"  Spectator."  A  selection  of  his  best  essays 
|  from  this  was  published  under  the  title  of 
i  "The  Indicator  and  Companion"  (2  vols. 


HUNT 


GO 


Svo,  1822).  But  his  pecuniary  affairs  had  be-  I 
come  badly  involved,  and  in  June,  1822,  on  j 
the  invitation  of  Byron  and  Shelley,  he  went 
to  Pisa,  Italy,  to  assist  them  in  editing  the 
''Liberal,"  a  journal  intended  to  be  ultra-lib-  ! 
eral  in  both  literature  and  politics.  Shelley's  | 
death  occurred  in  July,  and  Hunt  resided  with  I 
Byron  for  several  months ;  but  the  journal  i 
proving  a  failure  and  the  association  uncon 
genial,  the  poets  separated  with  decidedly  un 
pleasant  impressions  of  each  other.  Hunt  re 
mained  in  Italy  for  some  years,  and  after  his 
return  to  England  published  "Recollections 
of  Lord  Byron  and  some  of  his  Contempora 
ries"  (4to  and  2  vols.  Svo,  1828).  In  this 
book  the  character  of  Byron  was  set  forth  in 
so  unfavorable  a  light  that  his  friends,  espe 
cially  Moore,  retorted  upon  its  author  in  the 
severest  manner.  Years  afterward  Hunt  con 
fessed  that  he  was  ashamed  of  it.  From  this 
time  his  life  was  constantly  devoted  to  the  pro 
duction  of  books.  He  had  always  been  sneered 
at  as  a  cockney  by  certain  critics,  and  was  fre 
quently  in  great  pecuniary  straits,  until  in  1847 
he  received  a  literary  "pension  of  £200,  but 
plodded  on  with  unceasing  industry.  He  trans 
lated  Tasso's  Aminta,  Redi's  Bacco  in  Toscana, 
Boileau's  Lutrin,  and  numerous  other  works; 
edited  the  plays  of  Wycherly,  Congreve,  Van- 
brugh,  Farquhar,  and  Sheridan,  and  an  expur 
gated  edition  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher ;  and 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  literary  and 
political  columns  of  newspapers  and  maga 
zines.  Among  his  other  works  are  the  follow 
ing  :  "Sir  Ralph  Esher,"  a  novel  (1832;  new 
ed.,  1850) ;  "  Captain  Sword  and  Captain  Pen," 
a  metrical  satire  against  war  (1835);  "The 
Legend  of  Florence,"  a  drama  (1840);  "The 
Seer,"  a  collection  of  essays  (1841) ;  "  The  Pal 
frey,"  a  love  story  in  rhyme  (1842);  "Stories 
from  the  Italian  Poets,  with  Lives  of  the  Wri 
ters"  (2  vols.,  1840);  "Men,  Women,  and 
Books  "  (2  vols.,  1847) ;  "  The  Town  "  (2  vols., 
1848);  "Autobiography"  (1850);  "Table 
Talk,  with  Imaginary  Conversations  of  Pope 
and  Swift"  (1851);  "Religion  of  the  Heart" 
(1853) ;  and  "  The  Old  Court  Suburb  "  (1855). 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  collected  and  ar 
ranged  a  complete  final  edition  of  his  poems. 
A  selection  from  his  correspondence  was  pub 
lished  in  1802.  II,  Thornton,  an  English  author 
and  art  critic,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
London,  Sept.  10,  1810,  died  June  24,  1873. 
lie  studied  the  art  of  painting,  but  soon  aban 
doned  it  for  journalism,  conducted  the  political 
department  of  the  "Constitutional"  until  that 
journal  ceased  to  exist,  edited  successively  the 
"North  Cheshire  Reformer"  and  the  "Glas 
gow  Argus,"  and  from  1840  to  18GO  was  con 
nected  with  the  London  "Spectator."  lie  j 
published  "The  Foster  Brother,"  a  romance  I 
(1845),  and  edited  his  father's  "Autobiogra 
phy"  (1850)  and  "Correspondence"  (1862). 

HUNT,  Richard  Morris,  an  American  architect, 
born  in  Brattleboro,  Yt.,  Oct.  28,  1828.  In 
184-3  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  studied  his  ! 


profession  at  the  school  of  fine  arts  in  Paris, 
and  under  Hector  Lefuel,  and  made  a  tour 
through  various  parts  of  Europe,  Greece,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Egypt.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  was 
engaged  as  inspector  under  Lefuel,  then  archi 
tect  to  the  emperor,  on  the  new  building  con 
necting  the  Louvre  and  the  Tuileries.  On  his 
return  to  America  in  1855,  he  was  employed 
upon  the  capitol  extension  at  Washington. 
Since  then  he  has  executed  many  public  and 
private  works,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  the  Presbyterian  hospital,  the  Stevens 
apartment  house,  the  Lenox  library,  and  the 
Tribune  building  in  New  York ;  the  Yale  di 
vinity  college  in  New  Haven ;  the  Stuy vesant 
building,  New  York ;  the  Brimmer  houses, 
Boston;  the  residence  of  J.  Q.  A.  Ward,  New 
York;  and  several  villas  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

HOT,  Thomas  Sterry,  an  American  chemist, 
mineralogist,  and  geologist,  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Sept.  5,  1820.  He  studied  medicine  for 
a  time,  but,  devoting  himself  to  chemistry,  be 
came  in  1845  a  private  student  with  Prof.  B. 
Silliman,  jr.,  of  New  Haven,  acting  meanwhile 
as  chemical  assistant  to  Prof.  Silliman,  sr.,  in 
the  laboratory  of  Yale  college.  After  two  years 
thus  spent  he  was  in  1847  made  chemist  and 
mineralogist  to  the  geological  survey  of  Canada, 
then  just  begun  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
William  Logan.  He  held  this  post  for  more 
than  25  years,  but  resigned  it  in  1872,  and  ac 
cepted  the  chair  of  geology  in  the  Massachu 
setts  institute  of  technology,  where  he  succeed 
ed  Prof.  William  B.  Rogers.  His  earlier  studies 
were  directed  especially  to  theoretical  chem 
istry,  then  assuming  shape  from  the  labors  of 
Liebig,  Dumas,  Laurent,  and  Gerhardt.  It 
was  as  the  reviewer,  interpreter,  and  critic  of 
these  chemists  that  Mr.  Hunt  first  became 
known,  while  he  at  the  same  time  developed 
from  some  germs  in  the  writings  of  Laurent 
a  new  system  essentially  his  own,  in  which  all 
chemical  compounds  are  deduced  from  simple 
types  represented  by  one  or  more  molecules  of 
water  or  of  hydrogen.  These  views,  maintained 
by  him  in  a  series  of  papers  in  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Science,"  beginning  in  1848,  have 
at  length  been  universally  adopted,  and  are 
now  recognized  as  one  of  the  foundations  of 
modern  chemical  theory.  His  philosophy  of 
the  sciences  has  been  influenced  by  the  study  of 
Kant,  and  still  more  of  Hegel  and  Stallo,  as  may 
be  seen  in  his  essays  on  "  Solution,"  "  Chemical 
Changes,"  and  "  Atomic  Volumes,"  which  first 
appeared  in  the  "Journal  "  (1853-'4),  and  were 
republished  in  England  and  Germany.  In  these 
he  attacks  the  atomic  hypothesis  and  all  its 
consequences,  and  asserts  that  solution  is  chem 
ical  union,  and  chemical  union  identification. 
His  researches  on  the  equivalent  volumes  of 
liquids  and  solids  were  a  remarkable  anticipa 
tion  of  those  of  Dumas,  while  in  his  inquiries 
into  the  polymerism  of  mineral  species  he  has 
opened  a  new  field  for  mineralogy,  as  set  forth 
later  in  his  essay  on  the  "  Objects  and  Meth 
od  of  Mineralogy."  His  philosophical  studies 


HUNT 


have  however  been  only  incidental  to  his 
labors  in  chemical  mineralogy  and  chemical 
geology.  His  researches  into  the  chemical  and 
mineral  composition  of  rocks  have  probably 
been  more  extended  than  those  of  any  other 
living  chemist ;  and  his  investigations  of  the 
chemistry  of  mineral  waters,  which  are  not 
less  so,  have  enabled  him  to  frame  a  com 
plete  theory  of  their  origin  and  formation, 
and  their  relations  to  the  origin  of  rock  masses 
both  crystalline  and  uncrystalline,  and  to  lay 
the  basis  of  a  rational  system  of  chemical  ge 
ology.  From  his  long  series  of  studies  of  the 
salts  of  lime  and  magnesia  he  was  enabled  to 
exp]ain  for  the  first  time  the  true  relations  of 
gypsums  and  dolomites,  and  to  explain  their 
origin  by  direct  deposition.  His  views  on  this 
subject  are  now,  after  many  years,  finding  rec 
ognition  among  geologists.  He  has  also  care 
fully  investigated  petroleum  both  in  its  chem 
ical  and  geological  relations.  The  phenomena 
of  volcanoes  and  igneous  rocks  have  been  dis 
cussed  by  him  from  a  new  point  of  view,  and 
he  has  revived  and  enforced  the  almost  for 
gotten  hypothesis  of  Keferstein  that  the  source 
of  these  is  to  be  sought  in  chemical  reactions 
set  up  in  the  sedimentary  deposits  of  the 
earth's  crust  through  the  agency  of  internal 
heat.  In  this  discussion  he  was  the  first  to 
point  out  and  explain  the  relation  between 
modern  volcanic  phenomena  and  great  accu 
mulations  of  comparatively  recent  sedimentary 
formations,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  rela 
tions  between  these  and  folded  and  contorted 
strata.  He  has  sought  to  harmonize  the  facts 
of  dynamical  geology  with  the  notion  of  a  solid 
globe,  which  he  early  adopted  in  opposition  to 
the  generally  received  one  of  a  globe  with  a 
liquid  interior,  and  has  also  developed  a  theory 
of  cosmogony  based  upon  the  chemical  and 
physical  conditions  of  a  world  consolidating 
from  a  vaporous  mass,  and  has  endeavored  to 
show  how  the  earth,  air,  and  ocean  have  as 
sumed  their  present  condition  under  the  slow 
operation  of  natural  causes.  His  views  on 
these  questions  will  be  found  in  an  essay  on 
"The  Chemistry  of  the  Earth"  in  the  report 
of  the  Smithsonian  institution  for  1869  ;  while 
his  conclusions  on  many  points  of  geology  are 
embodied  in  his  address  delivered  as  retiring 
president  before  the  American  association  for 
the  advancement  of  science  at  Indianapolis 
in  1871,  on  "The  Geognosy  of  the  Appa 
lachians  and  the  Origin  of  Crystalline  Rocks," 
and  in  others  of  his  recent  papers,  such  as 
"Notes  on  Granitic  Rocks,"  "The  Geognos- 
tical  Relations  of  the  Metals,"  and  "  The  His 
tory  of  the  Names  Cambrian  and  Silurian  in 
Geology."  Besides  his  papers  in  the  "Amer 
ican  Journal  of  Science,"  which  number  more 
than  100,  and  numerous  articles  communicated 
to  the  French  academy  and  the  scientific  jour 
nals  of  France,  England,  and  Canada,  he  has 
contributed  largely  to  the  reports  of  the  geo 
logical  survey  of  Canada,  and  to  the  work 
entitled  "Geology  of  Canada"  (1863),  the 


latter  half  of  which  is  from  his  pen.  He  is 
also  the  author  of  a  summary  of  organic  chem 
istry  forming  a  part  of  Prof.  Silliman's  "First 
Principles  of  Chemistry  "  (1852).  A  volume 
of  his  collected  scientific  essays  is  now  in 
press  (1874).  He  is  also  known  for  his  re 
searches,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  into 
the  chemistry  and  metallurgy  of  iron  and  of 
copper,  some  of  which  will  be  found  in  the 
"Proceedings  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers."  Dr.  Sterry  Hunt  received 
I  in  1854  the  honorary  degree  of  A.  M.  from 
I  Harvard  college,  and  later  the  degrees  of  LL.  I), 
and  Sc.  D.  from  the  universities  of  Montreal 
I  and  Quebec,  in  both  of  which  he  was  for  many 
years  a  professor,  and  in  the  latter  of  which  ho 
lectured  in  the  French  language.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  international  jury  at  the  ex 
hibitions  of  Paris  in  1855  and  1867,  and  is  a 
member  of  various  academies  and  learned  so 
cieties  both  in  Europe  and  America,  lie  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  of  London 
in  1859,  and  of  the  national  academy  of  the 
United  States  in  1873.  He  is  also  an  officer 
of  the  French  order  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

HUNT,  William  Henry,  an  English  water-color 
painter,  born  in  London  in  1790,  died  Feb".  10, 
1864.  He  became  a  member  of  the  old  society 
of  painters  in  water  colors  in  1824,  and  from 
that  time  regularly  contributed  to  their  annual 
exhibitions.  As  a  colorist  he  ranked  among 
the  first  painters  of  the  day. 

HUNT,  William  Holinan,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  London  in  1827.  He  studied  in  the 
school  of  the  royal  academy,  and  in  1846  ex 
hibited  his  first  picture,  entitled  u  Hark," 
which  was  followed  by  a  scene  from  "  Wood 
stock  "  (1847),  the  "  Flight  of  Madeline  and 
Porphyro,"  from  Keats's  "Eve  of  St.  Agnes" 
(1848),  and  "Rienzi  vowing  to  obtain  Justice 
for  the  Murder  of  his  Brother,"  from  Bulwer's 
novel  (1849).  In  1850  appeared  his  "Con 
verted  British  Family  sheltering  a  Christian 
Missionary  from  the  Persecution  of  the  Druids,-" 
the  first  fruits  of  the  new  "  pre-Raphaelite  " 
movement  in  British  art.  He  had  in  the  pre 
vious  year  associated  himself  with  John  Ever 
ett  Millais  and  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  for  tho 
purpose  of  restoring  to  the  art  the  earnestness 
and  conscientious  accuracy  that  animated  the 
painters  who  preceded  Raphael.  Medievalism 
in  theology  and  architecture  was  the  prevail 
ing  mode  of  the  day,  and  the  young  artists 
showed  the  influence  which  it  had  perhaps 
unconsciously  exerted  upon  them,  by  styling 
themselves  "pre-Raphaelites ;"  although  they 
distinctly  avowed  their  object  to  be  chiefly  the 
study  of  nature,  to  which  they  looked  for  in 
spiration,  and  the  minutest  details  of  which 
they  proposed  to  copy  with  scrupulous  accura 
cy.  By  common  consent  Hunt  was  regarded 
as  the  leader  of  the  new  school,  which  was 
shortly  joined  by  Charles  Collins  and  other 
young  artists  ;  and  notwithstanding  much  hos 
tile  criticism  and  ridicule,  he  continued  year 
by  year  to  develop  the  idea  with  which  ho 


HUNT 


HUNTER 


71 


started.  In  1851  appeared  his  "Valentine 
rescuing  Sylvia  from  Proteus,"  in  1852  "  The 
Hireling  Shepherd, "and  in  1853  "  Claudio  and 
Isabella  "  and  u  Our  English  Coasts,"  a  pre- 
Kaphaelite  study  of  the  downs  at  Hastings, 
all  strongly  imbued  with  the  characteristics  of 
the  new  style.  In  1854  he  produced  two  pow 
erful  pictures,  "The  Awakened  Conscience" 
and  "  The  Light  of  the  World."  The  summer 
of  1855  was  spent  by  Mr.  Hunt  on  the  shores 
of  the  Dead  sea,  where  he  took  minute  studies 
of  the  surrounding  scenery,  which  were  sub 
sequently  embodied  in  his  picture  of  the 
"Scape  Goat,"  exhibited  in  the  succeeding 
year.  To  the  universal  exposition  of  1867  in 
Paris  he  sent  "  After  Sunset  in  Egypt."  Mr. 
Hunt  resided  for  some  years  in  Jerusalem  en 
gaged  in  painting  a  picture  recently  finished, 
"  The  Shadow  of  Death,"  for  which  he  received 
10,000  guineas. 

HUNT,  William  Morris,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Brattleboro,  Yt.,  March  31,  1824.  He 
entered  Harvard  college  in  1840,  but  went  to 
Europe  on  account  of  his  health  before  the 
completion  of  his  course,  and  in  1846  entered 
the  academy  at  Dtisseldorf,  with  the  intention 
of  studying  sculpture.  At  the  expiration  of 
nine  months  he  went  to  Paris,  and  in  1848  be 
came  a  pupil  of  Couture.  In  1855  he  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  has  since  resided  at 
Newport,  R.  I.  His  paintings  comprise  por 
traits,  history,  and  genre,  and  among  the  most 
successful  are  several  representing  picturesque 
types  of  city  life  in  Paris,  of  which  the  artist 
published  a  series  of  lithographs  executed  by 
himself  in  1859.  Among  his  later  works  are 
the  "Morning  Star,"  and  the  "Drummer 
Boy  "  and  the  "  Bugle  Call,"  illustrating  inci 
dents  in  the  civil  war. 

Hl'XTER,  John,  a  British  surgeon  and  physiol 
ogist,  born  at  Long  Calderwood,  Lanarkshire, 
July  14,  1728,  died  in  London,  Oct.  10,  1793. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  the  young 
est  of  ten  children.  At  IT'  years  he  went  to 
Glasgow  to  assist  his  brother-in-law,  a  cabinet 
maker ;  but  soon  returned  home,  and  wrote  to 
his  brother  William,  who  was  already  successful 
as  a  lecturer  on  surgery,  offering  to  assist  him 
in  his  anatomical  labors.  His  brother's  reply 
was  favorable,  and  he  went  to  London  in  Sep 
tember,  1748.  He  soon  gave  evidence  of  his 
abilities  in  the  dissecting  room.  In  1749-'50  he 
attended  the  practice  at  Chelsea  hospital,  and 
in  1751  became  a  pupil  at  St,  Bartholomew's 
hospital,  continuing  at  the  same  time  his  labors 
in  the  dissecting  room  of  his  brother.  In  1754 
he  became  surgeon's  pupil  at  St.  George's  hos 
pital,  of  which  he  was  appointed  house  surgeon 
two  years  later;  and  in  the  winter  of  1755  he 
became  a  partner  in  the  lectures  of  his  brother. 
In  the  mean  time  he  had  succeeded  in  following 
more  minutely  than  had  before  been  done  the 
ramifications  of  the  olfactory  nerve,  in  tracing 
the  branches  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  in  dis 
covering  the  system  and  functions  of  the  lym 
phatic  vessels  in  birds,  and  the  cause  and  mode 


of  descent  of  the  testis  in  the  foetus.  In  1759 
he  obtained  the  appointment  of  staff  surgeon 
Jin  the  army,  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Belleisle  in  1761,  and  after  the  siege  of  that 
place  served  in  Portugal  until  the  peace  of 
1763.  During  this  time  he  collected  the  ma 
terials  for  his  work  on  gun-shot  wounds,  which 
was  published  after  his  death.  He  returned  to 
London,  was  put' on  half  pay,  and  was  obliged 
to  receive  pupils  in  anatomy  and  surgery  as 
a  means  of  subsistence.  Purchasing  a  small 
piece  of  ground  about  two  miles  from  London, 
he  built  a  house,  and  carried  on  there  his  inves 
tigations  in  comparative  anatomy.  He  bar 
gained  with  the  keepers  of  menageries  for  the 
bodies  of  dead  animals,  spent  all  his  available 
means  in  procuring  rare  species,  and  often  ex 
posed  himself  to  personal  danger  in  watching 
their  habits  and  instincts  and  experimenting 
on  their  dispositions.  His  papers  communi 
cated  to  the  royal  society  drew  attention  to 
his  labors,  and  in  1767  he  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  society,  and  the  following  year  surgeon 
of  St.  George's  hospital  and  a  member  of  the 
college  of  surgeons.  In  1771  he  married  the 
sister  of  Sir  Everard  Home,  his  pupil  and  sub 
sequently  his  biographer,  and  in  the  same  year 
published  his  first  original  work,  "  Natural 
History  of  the  Human  Teeth"  (4to),  of  which 
the  second  part  appeared  in  1778.  In  1773 
he  commenced  his  first  regular  course  of  lec 
tures,  a  task  which  he  seldom  succeeded  in 
discharging  with  satisfaction  to  himself  or  his 
pupils,  and  as  a  preparation  for  which  he  was 
accustomed  to  dose  himself  with  laudanum. 
In  1776  he  was  appointed  surgeon  extraordi 
nary  to  the  king,  and  at  the  request  of  the 
|  royal  humane  society  drew  up  a  paper  on  the 
j  best  mode  of  restoring  apparently  drowned 
I  persons.  He  also  published  papers  on  the  ac 
tion  of  the  gastric  juice  upon  the  stomach  after 
death,  the  torpedo,  electric  eel,  &c.  Between 
1777  and  1785  appeared  his  papers  on  the  heat 
of  vegetables  and  animals,  the  structure  of  the 
placenta,  the  organs  of  hearing  in  fishes,  &c., 
and  the  six  Croonian  lectures  on  muscular  mo 
tion.  The  paper  on  the  placenta,  claiming  for 
the  author  the  discovery  of  the  union  between 
the  uterus  and  placenta,  which  William  Hun 
ter  had  claimed  in  1775  in  his  "Gravid  Ute 
rus,"  caused  an  estrangement  between  the 
brothers  which  only  terminated  a  short  time 
before  the  death  of  William.  In  1785  he  re 
moved  his  whole  museum  to  a  house  erected 
for  the  purpose  in  Leicester  square,  to  which 
he  admitted  the  public  in  May  and  October  of 
each  year.  It  had  now  assumed  enormous  di- 
|  mensions,  and  such  was  his  reputation  as  a 
naturalist  that  no  new  animal  was  brought 
to  the  country  which  was  not  shown  to  him. 
'  In  the  same  year  he  was  prostrated  by  a  se- 
'  vere  spasmodic  attack,  and  was  obliged  to  re- 
|  linquish  practice  for  a  time;  and  thenceforth 
|  until  his  death  he  was  a  constant  sufferer,  his 
j  paroxysms  occurring  after  any  mental  excite- 
j  merit.  He  nevertheless  persevered  in  his  ex- 


HUNTER 


periments,  and  was  constantly  performing  op 
erations  tlieii  ne\v  to  the  art  of  surgery.  Soon 
after  his  attack  in  1785  he  practised  the  new 
method  of  tying  the  artery  for  popliteal  aneu 
rism,  which  has  been  called  the  most  brilliant 
surgical  discovery  of  the  century.  In  1786 
appeared  his  "  Treatise  on  the  Venereal  Dis 
ease  "  (4to,  London ;  new  ed.  by  Sir  Everard 
Home,  1809,  and  by  Joseph  Adams,  1818), 
and  "Observations  on  Certain  Parts  of  the 
Animal  Economy "  (4to,  London ;  new  ed. 
by  Prof.  Owen,  1800,  1837),  the  latter  a  re- 
publication  of  papers  from  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  and  of  others  on  anatomical 
and  physiological  discoveries  by  the  author. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  surgeon 
general  of  the  army,  and  in  1787  he  received 
the  Copley  gold  medal  from  the  royal  society 
for  papers  on  the  ovarinm,  the  specific  identity 
of  the  wolf,  jackal,  and  dog,  and  on  the  struc 
ture  and  economy  of  whales.  Soon  after  he 
published  valuable  papers  on  the  treatment  of 
inflamed  veins,  on  introsusception,  and  on  the 
mode  of  conveying  food  into  the  stomach  in 
cases  of  paralysis  of  the  oesophagus ;  and  in 
1792  he  contributed  his  last  paper  to  the  "  Phi 
losophical  Transactions,"  entitled  ''Observa 
tions  on  the  Economy  of  Bees."  In  this  year 
he  resigned  his  lectureship  at  St.  George's  hos 
pital,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  completion 
of  his  work  on  inflammation.  On  Oct.  16, 
1793,  while  attending  a  meeting  of  the  board 
of  directors  of  St.  George's  hospital,  he  became 
violently  excited  by  a  remark  made  to  him  by 
one  of  his  colleagues,  and  leaving  the  room 
instantly  expired. — As  a  surgical  operator  John 
Hunter  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  his  time.  As  an  anatomist  and  phys 
iologist,  he  displayed  a  keenness  of  intellect, 
a  faculty  of  generalization,  and  a  philosophic 
turn  of  mind,  which  must  rank  him  among  the 
greatest  of  modern  natural  philosophers,  and 
of  which  he  has  left  an  enduring  monument  in 
the  celebrated  museum  named  after  him,  and 
in  1799  purchased  by  the  nation  and  placed 
in  the  keeping  of  the  college  of  surgeons.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  it  contained  more  than 
10,000  preparations  illustrating  human  and 
comparative  anatomy,  physiology,  pathology, 
and  natural  history,  so  arranged  as  to  exhibit 
the  gradations  of  nature  from  the  simplest 
form  of  life  up  to  man.  The  physiological  se 
ries,  which  comprised  considerably  more  than 
half  the  collection,  contained  1,000  skeletons, 
3,000  animals  and  plants  illustrating  natural 
history  (the  animals  stuffed  or  preserved  in 
spirits),  and  1,200  fossils,  besides  monsters  and 
other  eccentric  forms  of  animal  life.  He  left 
in  addition  19  MS.  volumes  of  materials  for  a 
catalogue  of  his  museum,  the  preparation  of 
which  occupied  him  during  the  last  few  years 
of  his  life.  The  completion  of  the  work  was 
assigned  to  Sir  Everard  Home,  his  executor, 
who  was  intrusted  for  that  purpose  with  the 
ten  most  valuable  volumes,  which  he  subse 
quently  burned,  in  accordance,  as  he  said,  with 


Hunter's  express  desire ;  although  there  is  little 
doubt  that  he  destroyed  them  to  conceal  his 
own  appropriation  of  their  contents  in  the  prep 
aration  of  the  anatomical  papers  which  pass 
under  his  name.  After  his  death  appeared  his 
"Treatise  on  the  Blood,  Inflammation,  and 
Gun-shot  Wounds,"  preceded  by  a  biography 
by  Sir  Everard  Home  (4to,  1794);  and  in 
1835-'7  his  surgical  works,  with  notes  by  J. 
F.  Palmer,  were  published  in  4  vols.  4to,  with 
an  atlas  of  60  plates.  Biographies  of  him  have 
also  been  published  by  Jesse  Foot  (8vo,  1794) 
and  Joseph  Adams  (8vo,  1816).  His  remains, 
after  a  repose  of  more  than  half  a  century 
under  the  church  of  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields, 
were  in  March,  1859,  disentombed  by  the  royal 
college  of  surgeons,  and  on  the  28th  of  the 
month  deposited  with  much  ceremony  in  West 
minster  abbey,  next  to  the  remains  of  Ben 
Jonson. — His  wife,  ANNE  HOME  HUXTEK  (born 
in  1741,  died  in  1821),  published  in  1802  a 
volume  of  poems,  several  of  which  were  set  to 
music  by  Haydn. 

HUNTER,  Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro,  an  Ameri 
can  statesman,  born  in  Essex  co.,  Va.,  April 
21,  1809.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Virginia,  studied  law,  and  commenced  practice 
in  1830.  Having  served  in  the  Virginia  house 
of  delegates,  he  was  in  1 837  elected  to  congress, 
and  in  1839  chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  rep 
resentatives.  He  was  defeated  in  1843,  but  re- 
elected  in  1845.  In  1846  he  was  chosen  sena 
tor  in  congress,  taking  his  seat  in  December, 
1847.  In  1849  he  was  made  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  finance,  which  post  he  held  until 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war.  In  the  mean 
while  he  bore  a  large  part  in  the  political  dis 
cussions  of  the  day.  In  1860  he  was  a  promi 
nent  candidate  for  the  democratic  nomination 
to  the  presidency,  receiving  upon  several  bal- 

|  lots  in  the  convention  at  Charleston  the  next 
highest  vote  to  that  for  Mr.  Douglas.  lie  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  secession  movement,  and 

j  according  to  the  original  scheme  was  to  have 
been  president  of  the  new  government,  Jeiferson 
Davis  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 
He  was  formally  expelled  from  the  United 
States  senate  in  July,  1861.  The  confederate 
plan  had  been  changed,  Davis  having  been 
made  president,  and  Robert  Toombs  secretary 

j  of  state.  Toombs  was  soon  superseded  by  Hun 
ter,  and  he  in  a  short  time  by  Judah  P.  Ben 
jamin.  Hunter,  having  been  elected  senator 
from  Virginia,  was  classed  in  the  opposition 
to  the  administration  of  Davis.  In  February, 
1865,  Hunter,  Stephens,  and  Campbell  were 
appointed  peace  commissioners  to  meet  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  and  Mr.  Seward  upon  a  vessel  in 
Hampton  Roads.  The  conference  was  futile, 
Lincoln  refusing  to  treat  upon  the  basis  of  rec 
ognizing  the  independence  of  the  confederacy. 
A  war  meeting  was  then  held  in  Richmond, 
over  which  Hunter  presided,  and  resolutions 
were  passed  to  the  effect  that  the  confederates 
would  never  lay  down  their  arms  until  they 

t  should    have    achieved    their    independence. 


HUNTER 


73 


About  this  time  Gen.  Lee  urged  upon  the  con 
federate  congress  the  passage  of  a  law  author 
izing  the  employment  of  negroes  as  soldiers, 
those  thus  employed  to  be  made  freemen.  A 
bill  to  this  effect  was  passed  in  the  house  of 
representatives,  but  was  defeated  in  the  senate 
by  a  single  vote.  Mr.  Hunter  at  first  voted 
against  it,  but  having  been  instructed  by  the 
legislature  of  Virginia  to  vote  for  it,  he  did  so, 
accompanying  his  vote  with  an  emphatic  pro 
test  against  the  passage  of  the  bill,  for  which 
he  was  compelled  to  vote.  He  said:  "When 
we  left  the  old  government,  we  thought  we  had 
got  rid  for  ever  of  the  slavery  agitation.  We 
insisted  that  congress  had  no  right  to  interfere 
with  slavery.  We  contended  that  whenever 
the  two  races  were  thrown  together,  one  must 
be  master  and  the  other  slave.  We  insisted 
that  slavery  was  the  best  and  happiest  condi 
tion  of  the  negro.  Now,  if  we  offer  slaves  their 
freedom  as  a  boon,  we  confess  that  we  were 
insincere  and  hypocritical.  If  the  negroes  are 
made  soldiers,  they  must  be  made  freemen.  If 
we  can  make  them  soldiers,  we  can  make  them 
officers,  perhaps  to  command  white  men.  If 
we  are  right  in  this  measure,  we  were  wrong 
in  denying  to  the  old  government  the  right  to 
interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  and 
to  emancipate  slaves."  After  the  close  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  arrested,  but  was  released 
upon  parole,  and  was  in  1867  pardoned  by 
President  Johnson.  In  1874  he  was  an  unsuc 
cessful  candidate  before  the  legislature  of  Vir 
ginia  for  the  office  of  United  States  senator. 

HINTER,  William,  a  British  physician  and  anat 
omist,  elder  brother  of  John  Hunter,  born  at 
Long  Calderwood,  Lanarkshire,  May  23,  1718, 
died  in  London,  March  SO,  1783.  At  the  age 
of  14  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Glasgow 
with  the  intention  of  studying  for  the  minis 
try  ;  but  in  1737,  not  being  inclined  to  the 
study  of  theology,  he  went  to  reside  in  Dr. 
William  Cullen's  family  as  a  medical  student. 
Three  years  after  he  formed  a  partnership 
with  Cullen,  by  which  he  was  to  take  charge 
of  the  surgical  part  of  their  practice.  To  pre 
pare  himself  for  this  he  studied  in  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1741  wen't  to  London  with  letters  of 
introduction  to  Dr.  James  Douglass.  Douglass 
offered  to  employ  him  as  tutor  of  his  son  and 
as  dissector  for  a  work  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
bones  which  he  was  preparing.  Hunter  ac 
cepted  the  offer.  Douglass  died  the  following 
year,  but  Hunter  continued  to  reside  with  the 
family  as  tutor,  and  to  pursue  his  studies  in  anat 
omy  and  surgery.  Concluding  to  remain  in  Lon 
don,  the  partnership  with  Cullen  was  dissolved, 
but  they  remained  warm  friends  through  life. 
In  the  winter  of  1740  he  made  his  first  ap 
pearance  as  a  lecturer  on  surgery  before  the 
society  of  navy  surgeons,  and  such  was  the 
favor  with  which  he  was  received  that  he 
was  invited  to  extend  his  course  to  anatomy. 
About  the  same  time  he  began  to  acquire  an 
extensive  practice  both  as  a  surgeon  and  an 
accoucheur;  but  having  in  1748  received  the 


appointment  of  surgeon   accoucheur   to   the 
Middlesex  hospital,  and  in  1749  to  the  British 
lying-in  hospital,  he  abandoned  surgery,  and 
thenceforth  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively 
to  obstetrics.     About  this  time  he  established 
himself  in  a  house  in  Jermyn  street,  where  he 
commenced  the  formation  of  a  large  anatomi 
cal  museum.     In  1754  he  entered  into  a  pro 
fessional  partnership  with  his  brother  John, 
whose  industry  was  of  great  use  in  adding  to 
the  contents  of  the  museum.     In  consequence 
of  the  illness  of  John,  however,  the  partner 
ship  terminated  in  1759.    In  1762  he  officiated 
as  consulting  physician  to  Queen  Charlotte, 
and  two  years  later  was  appointed  her  physi 
cian  extraordinary.     In  1762-'4  appeared  his 
"Medical  Commentaries,  Part  I."  (4to,  Lon 
don).     In  1765  he  applied  to  Mr.  Grenville, 
then  minister,  for  a  piece  of  ground  in  the 
Mews  for  the  site  of  an  anatomical  museum. 
Notwithstanding   that   he   offered   to    expend 
I  £7,000  on  the  building,  and  to  endow  a  pro- 
|  fessorship   of  anatomy,    the    application   was 
i  unfavorably  received,  and  he  accordingly  pur- 
|  chased  a  spot  of  ground  in  Great  Windmill 
I  street,   and   erected  the   necessary   buildings, 
I  into  which  he  removed  in  1770  with  his  whole 
!  collection.     From  time  to  time  the  collections 
I  of  eminent  practitioners  were  purchased  and  in 
corporated  with  it,  and  the  zeal  of  friends  and 
pupils  procured  him  a  great  number  of  mor- 
bicl  preparations.     Not  contented  with  his  ana 
tomical  collection,  he  began  to  accumulate  fos 
sils,  books,  coins,  and  other  objects  of  antiqua 
rian  research.     His  library  was  said  to  contain 
"  the  most  magnificent  treasure  of  Greek  and 
Latin  works   accumulated   since  the  days  of 
Mead ;"  and  his  coins,  of  a  portion  of  which  a 
description  was  published  under  the  title  of 
Nummorum  Veterum  Populorum  et  UrMum, 
gui  in  Museo  Guilielmi  Hunteri  asservantur, 
Descriptw^  figuris  Illustrata,  cost  upward  of 
£20,000.     In  1781  Dr.  Fothergill's  collection 
of  shells,  corals,  and  other  objects  of  natural 
history,  was  added  to  the  museum  at  an  ex- 
i  pense  of  £1,200.     The  whole  collection,  with 
I  a  fund  of  £8,000  for  its  support  and  augmenta- 
i  tion,  was  bequeathed  to  the  university  of  Glas 
gow,  where,  under  the  name  of  the  Hunterian 
museum,  it  is  now  deposited.    In  1774  appear- 
ed  his  Anatomia  Humani   Uteri    Gr<iridi,  in 
'  Latin  and  English  (atlas  fol.,  with  84  plates, 
Birmingham;   fol.,  London,   1828),  on  which 
i  he  had  been  engaged  since  1751.     It  has  been 
called  one  of  the  most  splendid  medical  works 
of  the  age.    A  work  describing  the  engravings, 
|  entitled  "An  Anatomical  Disquisition  of  the 
|  Human  Gravid  Uterus  and  its  Contents"  (4to, 
|  London),  was  published  in  1794  by  his  nephew 
Dr.   Baillie.      The  subsequent   claim  of  John 
Hunter  to  the  discovery  of  the  mode  of  union 
i  between  the  placenta  and  the  uterus,  as  de- 
,  scribed    by  William   in   this   work,   caused   a 
;  bitter  hostility  between  the  brothers,  which 
lasted  until   the  elder  was  on  his  deathbed, 
i  when  a  reconciliation  took  place.     In  1768  he 


HUNTERDON 


HUNTINGDON" 


was  appointed  by  the  king  professor  of  anat 
omy  in  the  royal  academy  of  arts.  In  1767  he 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and 
two  years  before  his  death  he  succeeded  Dr. 
John  Fothergill  as  president  of  the  medical 
society.  He  contributed  important  papers  to 
the  medical  and  scientific  periodicals  of  the 
day,  and  left  several  lectures  and  unfinished 
works  in  manuscript.  He  was  esteemed  one 
of  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  medical  pro 
fession  in  the  18th  century,  and  by  his  anat 
omy  of  the  gravid  uterus,  and  his  description 
of  varicose  aneurism,  materially  advanced  the 
sciences  of  anatomy  and  midwifery. 

HUNTERDON,  a  W.  county  of  New  Jersey, 
separated  from  Pennsylvania  on  the  W.  by 
Delaware  river,  bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Mus- 
conetcong,  E.  in  part  by  the  Lamington,  and 
drained  by  branches  of  Raritan  river  ;  area,  480 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  36,963.  The  surface  is 
level  in  the  centre  and  mountainous  toward  the 
N.  and  S.  Limestone  and  freestone  are  abun 
dant,  and  the  hills  are  well  timbered.  The  soil  of 
the  valleys  is  fertile.  The  New  Jersey  Central, 
the  South  Branch,  the  Belvidere  Delaware,  and 
Flemington  branch,  and  the  Delaware,  Lacka- 
wanna,  and  Western  railroads  traverse  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  340,393  bushels 
of  wheat,  26,799  of  rye,  1,021,251  of  Indian 
corn,  902,737  of  oats,  41,527  of  buckwheat, 
86,807  of  potatoes,  67,863  Ibs.  of  wool,  226,936 
of  flax,  965,243  of  butter,  and  38,110  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  9,520  horses,  12,983  milch 
cows,  7,588  other  cattle,  22,790  sheep,  and  15- 
311  swine;  33  manufactories  of  carriages,  23 
of  clothing,  2  of  cordage  and  twine,  1  of  cot 
ton  goods,  2  of  mirror  and  picture  frames,  6  of 
hubs  and  wagon  material,  1  of  India-rubber 
goods,  5  of  iron,  24  of  masonry,  2  of  wrapping 
paper,  19  of  saddlery,  9  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  48  flour  mills,  24  saw  mills,  and  2  rail 
road  repair  shops.  Capital,  Flemington. 

HUNTINGDON,  a  S.  central  county  of  Penn 
sylvania,  drained  by  the  Juniata  river  and  its 
tributaries;  area,  730  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
31,251.  It  has  a  very  diversified  surface,  oc 
cupied  in  part  by  mountains,  and  noted  for  its 
fine  scenery.  Iron,  lead,  coal,  salt,  and  alum 
are  found,  and  timber  is  abundant.  The  val 
leys  are  fertile.  The  Pennsylvania  Central 
and  the  Huntingdon  and  Broad  Top  railroads 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  388,859  bushels  of  wheat,  78,480  of  rye, 
503,807  of  Indian  corn,  410,479  of  oats,  148,- 
679  of  potatoes,  54,110  Ibs.  of  wool,  465,027 
of  butter,  and  27,815  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  7,098  horses,  7,120  milch  cows,  11,289 
other  cattle,  17,780  sheep,  and  12,909  swine; 
15  manufactories  of  carriages,  7  of  clothing, 
12  of  furniture,  3  of  bricks,  2  of  bread,  3  of 
pig  iron,  8  of  iron  castings,  5  of  blooms,  5  of 
plaster,  8  of  saddlery  and  harness,  13  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4  of  woollen 
goods,  14  flour  mills,  20  tanneries,  9  currying 
establishments,  1  distillery,  2  planing  mills, 
and  7  saw  mills.  Capital,  Huntingdon. 


HUNTINGDON,  an  extreme  S.  W.  county  of 
Quebec,  Canada,  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
angle  of  Chateauguay  co.,  bordering  S.  on  New 
York,  and  N.  W.  on  the  St.  Lawrence  river; 
area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 16,304,  of  whom 
6,386  were  of  Irish,  4,924  of  French,  3,184  of 
Scotch,  and  1,033  of  English  origin  or  descent. 
It  is  drained  by  the  Chateauguay  river  and 
other  streams,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Province 
Line  division  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railroad. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Capital,  Huntingdon. 

HUNTINGDON,  Selina,  countess  of,  a  patron 
of  the  English  Calvinistic  Methodists,  born  in 
1707,  died  June  17, 1791.  She  was  the  daugh 
ter  of  Washington  Shirley,  earl  of  Ferrers, 
and  was  married  to  Theophilus  Hastings,  earl 
of  Huntingdon.  The  Hastings  family  early  be 
came  interested  in  the  Methodists,  and  through 
their  influence  and  from  severe  family  afflic 
tions  the  countess  was  led  to  cherish  a  strong 
sympathy  with  the  methods  and  principles  of 
the  evangelists,  especially  Whitefield.  She  was 
accustomed  to  frequent  the  Moravian  societies 
in  London ;  but  at  the  withdrawal  of  Wesley 
she  favored  the  Methodist  party,  and  specially 
encouraged  the  leaders  in  the  promotion  of  a 
lay  ministry,  which  she  considered  an  absolute 
necessity  to  the  successful  evangelization  of  the 
masses.  Her  house  at  Chelsea,  near  London, 
was  the  resort  of  fashionable  and  aristocratic 
persons,  and  after  Whitefield  was  appointed  her 
chaplain  many  of  the  wits  and  scholars  of  the 
age  became  his  hearers.  Her  house  was  like 
wise  the  centre  of  a  circle  of  women  of  noble 
rank,  who  were  zealous  in  the  cultivation  of  a 
high-toned  piety  in  an  irreligious  age.  Mean 
while  the  rapid  success  of  Wesley,  Whitefield, 
and  their  coadjutors  had  created  a  demand 
throughout  the  kingdom  for  chapels  and  meet 
ing  houses  for  the  poor.  The  countess  under 
took  to  supply  this  need,  and  promoted  in  every 
way  the  labors  of  the  evangelists.  She  dis 
pensed  with  her  luxurious  equipage,  and  even 
sold  her  jewels,  to  obtain  the  means  for  carry 
ing  out  her  plans.  Halls  and  theatres  were 
purchased  in  London,  Bristol,  and  Dublin,  and 
fitted  up  for  chapels,  and  accommodations  for 
the  societies  were  provided  in  England,  Ire 
land,  and  Wales.  She  interested  many  of  the 
noble  and  wealthy  in  her  plans,  met  them  in 
frequent  conference,  and  often  accompanied 
the  preachers  on  their  missionary  tours.  By 
her  advice  England  was  divided  into  six  dis 
tricts,  and  a  scheme  perfected  for  supplying 
destitute  districts  with  religious  instruction. 
The  pressing  need  for  a  larger  number  of  min 
isters  led  her  at  length  to  found  a  theological 
seminary  at  Trevecca  in  Wales,  where  pious 
candidates  for  the  ministry,  irrespective  of 
sectarian  character,  were  provided  with  board, 
tuition,  and  other  aid,  at  the  countess's  ex 
pense.  While  strongly  attached  to  the  church 
of  England,  she  was  at  length  compelled  to 
the  avowal  of  dissent  in  order  to  protect  the 
numerous  chapels  which  she  had  founded  from 


HUNTINGDONSHIRE 


HUNTINGTON 


suppression  or  appropriation  by  the  establish 
ment.  Hitherto,  by  iier  strong  practical  sense 
and  moral  power,  she  had  virtually  controlled 
and  directed  the  movements  of  Calvinistic  Meth 
odism.  After  the  "  Lady  Huntingdon  Connec 
tion  "  had  taken  their  position  among  dissenters, 
the  countess  attempted  to  devise  a  plan  for  a 
closer  and  more  organic  union  among  the  vari 
ous  societies.  Its  provisions  were  very  similar 
to  Wesley's  model.  In  these  attempts,  however, 
she  met  with  very  little  sympathy  from  her 
preachers,  and  after  her  death  the  chapels  that 
she  had  founded  became  mostly  Independent. 
At  her  decease  she  left  £5,000  for  charitable 
purposes,  and  the  rest  of  her  fortune  for  the 
support  of  64  chapels  which  she  had  built. 

HUNTINGDONSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of 
England,  bordering  on  Cambridgeshire,  North 
amptonshire,  and  Bedfordshire ;  area,  359  sq. 
m.,  being  the  smallest  county  of  England  except 
Rutland  and  Middlesex;  pop.  in  1871,  63,672. 
The  N.  portion  forms  part  of  the  fen  district 
(see  BEDFORD  LEVEL),  and  is  devoted  chiefly 
to  grazing.  In  the  "W.  and  S-.  parts  the  surface 
is  slightly  varied  by  the  swell  of  two  low  ridges 
of  hills.  In  the  S.  E.  is  an  extensive  plain  of 
fertile  land,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Ouse 
and  Nene  are  rich  meadows  overflowed  at  high 
tides.  The  general  character  of  the  soil  is 
either  gravelly  or  clayey  loam.  Although  the 
greater  part  of  the  county  was  once  a  royal 
forest,  it  is  now  very  bare  of  timber.  Agri 
culture  is  the  only  industry.  The  products  are 
wheat,  oats,  and  beans,  with  some  barley,  hops, 
hemp,  turnips,  and  mustard  seed.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Ouse  within  the  county,  and  the 
Nene  along  the  border,  with  their  tributaries. 
There  were  formerly  several  small  meres  or 
shallow  lakes  in  the  county,  but  these  have  all 
been  drained  and  brought  under  cultivation. 
The  principal  towns  are  Huntingdon,  St.  Ives, 
St.  Neots,  and  Ramsay.  Huntingdon  is  on  the 
Ouse,  59  m.  N.  of  London ;  pop.  of  the  mu 
nicipal  borough  in  1871,  4,243.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 

HUNTINGTON,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Indiana, 
drained  by  "W abash  and  Salamonie  rivers ;  area, 
384  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,036.  The  surface 
is  slightly  uneven  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  and  the  Toledo,  "Wa- 
bash,  and  Western  railroad,  pass  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  367,521 
bushels  of  wheat,  288,840  of  Indian  corn, 
81,425  of  oats,  42,655  of  potatoes,  66,257  Ibs. 
of  wool,  320,098  of  butter,  and  12,079  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  5,902  horses,  5,094  milch 
cows,  5,582  other  cattle,  31,058  sheep,  and  20,- 
565  swine ;  7  manufactories  of  carriages,  1  of 
baskets,  1  of  boots  and  shoes,  4  of  furniture, 
3  of  wagon  material,  8  of  lime,  5  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  2  of  cigars,  3  of  woollen  goods,  3 
tanneries,  3  currying  establishments,  6  flour 
mills,  and  25  saw  mills.  Capital,  Huntington. 

HUNTINGTON.  I.  Daniel,  an  American  paint 
er,  born  in  New  York,  Oct.  14,  1816.  While 
pursuing  his  studies  at  Hamilton  college,  he 


made  the  acquaintance  of  Charles  L.  Elliott, 
the  portrait  painter,  from  whom  he  received  a 
decided  bias  for  art.  In  1853  he  entered  the 
studio  of  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  then  president  of  the 
national  academy  of  design,  and  soon  after  pro 
duced  "  The  Bar-Room  Politician,"  "A  Toper 
Asleep,"  &c.,  besides  some  landscapes  and  por 
traits.  In  1836  he  spent  several  months  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Hudson  highlands,  and  execu- 
|  ted  views  near  Verplanck's,  the  Dundcrberg 
mountain,  and  Rondout  creek  at  twilight  and 
sunset.  In  1839  he  went  to  Europe,  and  in 
Florence  painted  "  The  Sibyl "  and  "  The  Flor 
entine  Girl."  Removing  to  Rome  soon  after, 
he  painted  "  The  Shepherd  Boy  of  the  Cam- 
pagna"  and  "Early  Christian  Prisoners." 
Upon  his  return  to  New  York  he  was  em 
ployed  for  a  time  almost  exclusively  upon 
portraits,  his  only  historical  pieces  of  impor 
tance  being  "Mercy's  Dream"  and  "Chris 
tiana  and  ner  Children,"  from  "Pilgrim's 
Progress."  For  two  years  he  was  compelled 
by  an  inflammation  of  the  eyes  to  relinquish 
his  labors,  and  in  1844  went  again  to  Rome, 
where  he  passed  the  succeeding  winter,  and 
whence  he  sent  back  to  America  "  The  Roman 
Penitents,"  J'  Italy,"  "The  Sacred  Lesson," 
"  The  Communion  of  the  Sick,"  and  some  land 
scapes.  After  his  return  to  New  York  in  1846 
he  again  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  portraits. 
From  1862  to  1869  he  was  president  of  the 
national  academy  of  design.  Among  his  works 
are  "Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Feckenham  in  the 
Tower,"  "  Henry  VIII.  and  Queen  Catharine 
Parr,"  "  The  Marys  at  the  Sepulchre,"  "  Queen 
Mary  signing  the  Death  Warrant  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,"  and  another  picture  of  "  Mercy's 
Dream,"  all  of  which  have  been  made  familiar 
by  engravings.  II.  Jedidiali  Vincent,  an  Ameri 
can  clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  New  York,  Jan.  20,  1815,  died  in  Pau, 
France,  May  10,  1862.  He  studied  medicine 
and  practised  for  several  years,  but  subsequent 
ly  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  church,  officia 
ting  for  a  time  as  rector  in  Middlebury,  Vt. 
He  afterward  went  to  Europe,  where  in  1849 
he  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  Returning  to 
America,  he  edited  the  "  Metropolitan  Maga 
zine  "  in  Baltimore,  and  subsequently  the 
"Leader"  in  St.  Louis.  He  afterward  re 
sided  in  New  York,  and  finally  again  went  to 
Europe.  He  published  a  volume  of  "Poems  " 
(1843),  and  the  novels  "Lady  Alice,  or  the 
New  Una"  (1849),  "  Alban "  (1850),  "The 
Forest "  (1852),  "Blonde  and  Brunette "  (1851)), 
and  "Rosemary"  (1860). 

HUNTINGTON,  Frederick  Dan,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Hadley,  Mass.,  May  28,  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  college  in  1839,  and 
spent  the  three  following  years  in  the  Cam 
bridge  divinity  school.  In  1842  he  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  South  Congregational  church 
in  Boston,  and  in  September,  1855,  became 
preacher  to  Harvard  university  and  Plummer 
professor  of  Christian  morals.  Although  edu 
cated  in  the  Unitarian  belief,  his  views  of 


76 


HUNTINGTON 


HUPPAZOLI 


theology  gradually  underwent  a  change,  and 
having  become  convinced  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  is  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Scrip 
tures,  he  applied  for  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
church,  was  admitted  to  the  ministry  in  1860, 
and  resigned  his  office  at  Harvard  in  1864.  He 
hecame  rector  of  Emmanuel  church,  Boston, 
was  elected  bishop  of  Central  New  York  in 
January,  1869,  and  was  consecrated  April  8. 
His  principal  publications  are  :  "  Sermons  for 
the  People  "  (1856  ;  9th  ed.,  1869)  ;  "  Sermons 
on  Christian  Living  and  Believing "  (1860);  a 
course  of  lectures  on  "  Human  Society  as  illus 
trating  the  Power,  "Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of 
God"  (1860);  "Lessons  on  the  Parables  of 
our  Saviour;"  "Elim,"  a  collection  of  ancient 
and  modern  sacred  poetry  (1865) ;  "Helps  to 
a  Holy  Lent  "  (1872)  ;  and  "  Steps  to  a  Living 
Faith  (1873).  He  has  also  edited  various  works 
of  the  Rev.  William  Mountford  (1846),  Arch 
bishop  Whately's  "Christian  Morals"  (1856), 
and  "  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life,"  that  is,  of 
the  Hare  family  (1874). 

HUNTIfiGTON,  Samuel,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  American  Declaration  of  Independence, 
born  in  "Windham,  Conn.,  July  3,  1732,  died  in 
Norwich,  Jan.  5,  1796.  lie  was  educated  to 
the  law,  and  previous  to  1775  held  the  offices  of 
king's  attorney  and  associate  justice  of  the  su 
perior  court  of  Connecticut.  In  January,  1776, 
lie  entered  the  continental  congress  as  a  delegate 
from  his  native  state.  In  September,  1779,  he 
succeeded  John  Jay  as  president  of  congress, 
and  filled  that  office  till  1781,  when  he  re 
sumed  his  seat  on  the  Connecticut  bench.  He 
served  again  in  congress  from  May  to  June, 
1783,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  superior  court  of  Connecti 
cut.  In  1785  he  was  elected  lieutenant  gover 
nor  of  Connecticut,  and  in  1786  he  succeeded 
Roger  Griswold  as  governor,  to  which  office 
he  was  annually  reflected  until  his  death. 

HUNTINGTOBT,  William,  an  English  preacher, 
born  in  1744,  died  at  Tunbridge  Wells  in  Au 
gust,  1813.  His  early  life  was  passed  in  menial 
service  and  dissipation;  but  having  been  con 
verted  he  came  to  be  a  zealous  preacher  among 
the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  travelling  through 
the  country,  and  gaining  many  followers.  He 
finally  settled  in  London,  and  having  married 
for  his  second  wife  the  widow  of  a  rich  alder 
man,  his  later  years  were  spent  in  affluence. 
He  published  a  great  number  of  discourses  and 
tracts,  which  were  collected  in  20  vols.  (Lon 
don,  1820).  A  selection  from  these  was  pub 
lished  by  his  son  (6  vols.,  London,  1838;  2d 
ed.,  1856).  To  his  name  he  appended  the  let 
ters  S.  S.,  which  he  thus  explained:  "As  I 
cannot  get  a  D.  D.  for  the  want  of  cash,  nei 
ther  can  I  get  an  M.  A.  for  want  of  learning; 
therefore  I  am  compelled  to  fly  for  refuge  to 
S.  S.,  by  which  I  mean  sinner  saved." 

HINTSVILLE.  I.  A  city  and  the  capital  of 
Madison  co.,  Alabama,  on  the  Memphis  and 
Charleston  railroad,  about  10  m.  N.  of  the 
Tennessee  river,  and  165  m.  N.  of  Montgom 


ery;  pop.  in  1870,  4,907,  of  whom  2,375  were 
colored.  It  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  scene 
ry,  is  well  built,  and  contains  a  handsome  court 
house  and  other  public  buildings,  a  foundery, 
two  planing  mills,  gas  works,  water  works,  a 
bank,  a  tri-weekly  and  two  weekly  newspa 
pers,  and  11  churches,  of  which  5  are  for  col 
ored  people.  Iluntsville  female  seminary,  un 
der  the  charge  of  the  Presbyterians,  organized 
in  1829,  in  1872  had  7  instructors  and  101  stu 
dents.  Huntsville  female  college,  Methodist, 
organized  in  1853,  had  11  instructors  and  132 
students.  II.  A  town  and  the  capital  of  Walk 
er  co.,  Texas,  at  the  terminus  of  a  branch  (8 
m.  long)  of  the  International  and  Great  North 
ern  railroad,  about  12  m.  S.  W.  of  Trinity 
river  and  135  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Austin ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,599,  of  whom  638  were  colored.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  high  ground,  in  the  midst 
of  a  rich  cotton  region,  has  an  active  business, 
is  well  built,  and  is  the  seat  of  Austin  college, 
a  flourishing  institution  under  the  care  of  the 
Presbyterians,  of  the  Andrew  female  institute 
(Methodist),  and  of  the  state  penitentiary.  The 
penitentiary  was  built  in  1848-' 9,  and  has  a 
large  tract  of  land  connected  with  it,  and  fa 
cilities  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  wool 
len  goods.  A  semi-weekly  and  a  weekly  news 
paper  are  published. 

HUJVYADY,  Janos  (JonN  HUNXIADES),  a  Hun 
garian  general  and  statesman,  born  toward  the 
close  of  the  14th  century,  died  in  1456.  His 
birth  and  youth  are  wrapped  in  legendary  ob 
scurity,  as  is  the  origin  of  his  surname 'Corvinus 
(Holl6si).  Under  the  reign  of  Albert  (1437-'9) 
he  became  ban  of  a  province  south  of  the 
Danube,  and  under  Uladislas  I.  (1439-'44)  count 
of  Temes  and  commander  of  Belgrade.  Short 
ly  after  the  latter  appointment  he  repulsed  a 
Turkish  army  of  invasion  from  his  province, 
and  soon  after  routed  the  same  in  Transylvania 
(1442).  In  the  following  year  he  made  a  vic 
torious  campaign  through  Servia  and  across 
the  Balkan,  which  conquered  peace  from  the 
Turks.  Uladislas,  however,  was  induced  by 
the  legate  of  Eugenius  IV.  to  break  it,  and 
perished  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  at 
the  battle  of  Varna  (1444).  Hunyady,  who 
escaped,  was  made  governor  of  Hungary  du 
ring  the  minority  and  absence  of  Ladislas  the 
Posthumous,  son  of  Albert,  who  was  detained 
by  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  In  1448  Hun 
yady  was  defeated  by  Sultan  Amurath  at  Ko 
sovo,  on  the  confines  of  Servia  and  Bulgaria, 
but  in  1454  he  was  again  victorious  over  the 
enemies  of  his  country  and  Christendom,  whose 
expulsion  from  Europe  he  made  the  task  of  his 
life.  The  heroic  defence  of  Belgrade  closed  his 
career.  Of  his  two  sons,  Ladislas  died  inno 
cently  on  the  scaffold,  and  Matthias  (Corvi 
nus)  ascended  the  throne  of  Hungary. 

HUPPAZOLI,  Francesco,  a  Piedmontese  cente 
narian,  who  lived  in  three  centuries,  born  in 
Casale  in  March,  1587,  died  Jan.  27,  1702. 
His  parents  sent  him  to  Pvome  to  be  educated, 
and  obliged  him  to  enter  holy  orders.  He 


IIURD 


IIURLBUT 


77 


travelled  in  Greece  and  the  Levant,  and  in 
1625  was  married  at  Scio  and  engaged  in  com 
merce.  At  82  years  of  age  he  was  appointed 
consul  of  Venice  at  Smyrna.  His  habits  were 
regular ;  he  drank  no  fermented  liquors,  ate 
little,  and  chiefly  of  game  and  fruits,  never 
smoked,  and  went  to  bed  and  rose  early.  lie 
was  sick  for  the  first  time  in  1701,  when  he 
had  a  fever  which  lasted  15  days,  and  he  re 
mained  deaf  for  three  months  after  his  re 
covery.  At  the  age  of  100  years  his  hair, 
beard,  and  eyebrows,  which  were  white,  be 
came  again  black.  At  the  age  of  112  years 
he  had  two  new  teeth,  but  lost  all  his  teeth  be 
fore  his  death,  and  lived  on  soup,  lie  suffered 
in  the  last  year  of  his  life  from  the  gravel,  and 
died  of  a  cold.  He  was  five  times  married, 
and  had  24  legitimate  and  25  illegitimate  chil 
dren.  By  his  fifth  marriage,  which  took  place 
in  his  99th  year,  he  had  four  children.  He  left 
a  journal  of  the  principal  events  of  his  life. 

HlllD,  Richard,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Congreve,  Staffordshire,  in  1720,  died  at  Har- 
tlebury  in  1808.  He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer, 
and  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  be 
came  a  fellow  of  Emmanuel  college  in  1742. 
He  continued  to  reside  at  Cambridge  till  1757, 
when  he  became  rector  of  Thurcaston.  He 
was  preacher  to  the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
in  1765;  archdeacon  of  Gloucester  in  1767; 
bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1775  ;  pre 
ceptor  to  the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  duke 
of  York  in  1776  ;  and  bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1781.  In  1783  George  III.  offered  him  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  but  he  declined 
it.  His  principal  publications  are :  "  Commen 
tary  on  Horace's  Ars  Poetica"  (1749);  "Dia 
logues"  (1758);  "Select  Works  of  Abraham 
Cowley"  (1769);  "  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Prophecies  "  (1772)  ;  several  volumes 
of  "  Sermons  "  (1776-'80) ;  "  Works  of  Bishop 
Warburton"  (7  vols.  4to,  1788);  "Life  of 
Warburton"  (1794) ;  and  "  Addison's  Works" 
(6  vols.,  1810).  There  is  a  collection  of  his 
works,  with  an  autobiography  (8  vols.,  1811). 

HURDWAR,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
province  and  100  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Delhi;  pop.  about  5,000,  besides  many  fakirs 
or  members  of  the  mendicant  order,  who  dwell 
in  caves.  It  is  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrim 
age,  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Him 
alaya  mountains,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ganges.  Immense  multitudes  annually  assem 
ble  here  at  the  vernal  equinox  to  bathe  in  the 
river,  the  religious  ceremony  consisting  only  in 
immersion  ;  but  the  desire  of  being  among  the 
first  to  plunge  into  the  water  is  so  strong  that 
the  crowding  on  the  narrow  passage  leading  to 
the  bathing  spot  has  often  been  attended  with 
riotous  disturbances.  Every  12th  year  is  re 
garded  as  especially  holy,  and  as  many  as 
2,000,000  pilgrims  are  said  to  assemble  on  such 
occasions.  The  fairs  held  at  the  time  of  the 
pilgrimage  are  renowned. 

HURLBERT,  William  Henry,  an  American  jour 
nalist,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  July  3,  1827. 


He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1847, 
and  at  the  Cambridge  divinity  school  in  1849. 
After  preaching  for  some  time  at  Salem,  he 
went  to  Europe  in  1849  and  attended  the  lec 
tures  of  Ritter,  Von  Raumer,  and  Ranke  at 
Berlin,  and  returning  to  Cambridge  in  1851 
studied  during  the  two  following  years  in  the 
law  school.  In  1855  he  went  to  New  York, 
joined  the  staff  of  "  Putnam's  Monthly  "  mag 
azine,  and  was  dramatic  critic  of  the  "Al 
bion."  From  February,  1857,  till  after  the 
presidential  election  of  1860,  he  was. on  the 
staff  of  the  New  York  "Times."  In  1861  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  peace  convention  at  Al 
bany.  In  June  of  that  year,  having  gone  on 
private  business  to  Charleston,  he  was  arrested 
as  a  suspected  emissary  from  the  north,  and 
without  trial  was  sent  to  Richmond,  where  he 
was  imprisoned  14  months,  but  made  his  es 
cape  through  the  lines  to  Washington  in  Sep 
tember,  1862.  In  October  following  he  joined 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  New  York  "  World," 
and  is  still  (1874)  connected  with  that  journal. 
He  has  been  an  indefatigable  traveller,  and  in 
the  discharge  of  his  professional  duties  has 
visited  at  different  times  nearly  every  part  of 
Europe,  has  been  three  times  to  Mexico,  and 
has  made  extended  tours  in  Central  and  South 
America.  In  1867  he  attended  and  reported 
for  the  "World"  the  celebration  of  the  18th 
centenary  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  at 
Rome,  and  in  the  same  year  the  meeting  of  the 
emperors  of  Austria  and  France  at  Salzburg; 
in  1869  he  was  present  at  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  canal  and  the  subsequent  fetes  at  Con 
stantinople  ;  in  1869-'70  he  attended  the  open 
ing  and  session  of  the  oecumenical  council 
at  Rome;  in  1871  he  accompanied  and  re 
ported  the  proceedings  of  the  United  States 
commission  to  Santo  Domingo;  and  in  1873 
he  described  in  a  series  of  letters  the  first  pas 
sage  by  steam  of  the  higher  Andes  of  Bolivia, 
and  wrote  fully  concerning  the  earthquakes  of 
San  Salvador.  He  has  written  numerous  po 
ems,  including  hymns  that  hold  a  place  in 
Unitarian  collections;  has  published  "  Gan- 
Eden,  or  Pictures  of  Cuba,"  written  during 
a  health  trip  to  that  island  in  1853  (Boston, 
1854,  and  London,  1855),  and  "  General  Mc- 
Cleilan  and  the  Conduct  of  the  War  "  (New 
York,  1864) ;  has  contributed  to  numerous  peri 
odicals  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit 
ain;  and  is  now  (1874)  preparing  a  work  on 
the  Pacifi®  countries  of  South  America. 

HIRLBIT,  Stephen  Augustus,  an  American 
soldier,  brother  of  W.  H.  Hurlbert,  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  March  24,  1815.  He  served 
as  adjutant  of  a  South  Carolina  regiment  in  the 
Seminole  war  in  1835,  and  practised  law  in 
Charleston  till  1845,  when  he  removed  to  Belvi- 
dere,  111.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  state  consti 
tutional  convention  in  1847,  and  subsequently 
was  repeatedly  elected  to  the  legislature.  In 
May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a  brigadier  gen 
eral  of  volunteers,  commanded  at  Fort  Donelson 
after  the  capture,  commanded  the  4th  division 


HURON 


in  Gen.  Grant's  army  in  the  movement  up  the 
Tennessee  river,  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Shiloh  and  Corinth,  held  command  at  Mem 
phis  in  1803,  commanded  a  corps  in  Gen.  Slier- 
man's  army  in  the  movement  to  Meridian  in 
1864,  succeeded  Gen.  Banks  in  command  of 
the  department  of  the  gulf  in  May,  1864,  and 
was  mustered  out  of  the  service  at  the  close 
of  the  war.  lie  was  minister  to  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  from  1869  to  1873,  when 
he  returned  to  Illinois,  having  been  elected  a 
member  of  congress. 

Hl'ROX.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Ohio,  drained 
by  Huron  and  Vermilion  rivers ;  area,  455  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  28,532.  It  has  a  nearly  level 
surface,  and  an  excellent  sandy  soil.  The 
Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indian 
apolis,  the  Lake  Erie  division  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio,  and  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  472,496  bushels  of 
wheat,  777,083  of  Indian  corn,  519,905  of 
oats,  169,312  of  potatoes,  445,909  Ibs.  of  wool, 
809,801  of  butter,  60,842  of  cheese,  and  43,- 
747  tons  of  hay.  There  were  8,550  horses, 
10,113  milch  cows,  10,182  other  cattle,  92,627 
sheep,  and  15,244  swine;  5  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  2  of  boots  and  shoes, 
12  of  carriages,  2  of  cheese,  12  of  cooperage, 
5  of  iron  castings,  2  of  machinery,  1  of  malt, 
12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  sewing  ma 
chines,  7  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
5  tanning  and  currying  establishments,  4  dis 
tilleries,  1  brewery,  7  flour  mills,  2  planing 
mills,  and  15  saw  mills.  Capital,  Norwalk. 
II.  An  E.  county  of  Michigan,  forming  the  ex 
tremity  of  a  point  of  land  between  Lake  Hu 
ron  on  the  E.  and  N.  E.  and  Saginaw  bay  on 
the  1ST.  W.  ;  area,  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
9,049.  The  surface  is  nearly  level,  watered  by 
Pigeon,  Willow,  and  Berry  rivers,  and  in  some 
places  marshy.  Most  of  the  county  is  covered 
with  forests,  from  which  in  1872  were  pro 
duced  49,000,000  ft.  of  lumber.  There  are  also 
salt  wells,  from  which  were  obtained  30,615 
barrels  of  salt.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  58,251  bushels  of  wheat,  50,194  of  oats, 
20,778  of  peas  and  beans,  99,005  of  potatoes, 
10,097  Ibs.  of  wool,  131,265  of  butter,  and 
7,597  tons  of  hay.  There  were  624  horses,  1,788 
milch  cows,  1,197  working  oxen,  1,596  other 
cattle,  2,576  sheep,  and  1,933  swine;  4  manu 
factories  of  barrels  and  casks,  2  of  hones  and 
whetstones,  1  of  salt,  and  29  saw  mills.  Cap 
ital,  Port  Austin. 

HURON,  a  W.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
bordering  on  Lake  Huron,  and  watered  by  the 
Maitland  and  its  tributaries;  area,  1,288  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  66,165,  of  whom  23,740 
were  of  Irish,  19,388  of  Scotch,  16,558  of 
English,  and  5,220  of  German  origin  or  de 
scent.  It  is  an  excellent  farming  region,  and 
has  good  facilities  for  lumbering  and  ship  build 
ing.  Near  Goderich  are  extensive  salt  wells. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Grand*  Trunk 
raihvay.  Capital,  Goderich. 


HUROX,  Lake,  one  of  the  great  lakes  on  the 
boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Brit 
ish  America,  lying  between  lat.  43°  and  46°  15' 
NM  and  Ion.  80°  and  84°  40'  W.  It  receives  at 
its  N.  extremity  the  waters  discharged  from 
Lake  Superior  by  St.  Mary's  river  or  strait,  and 
also  those  of  Lake  Michigan  through  the  strait 
of  Mackinaw.  Its  outlet  at  the  8.  extremity 
is  the  St.  Clair  river.  It  is  bounded  W.  and 
S.  W.  by  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan, 
1ST.  and  E.  by  Ontario,  Canada.  Georgian  bay, 
120  rn.  long  and  50  m.  wide,  lies  wholly  within 
Ontario,  and  is  shut  in  from  the  main  body  of 
the  lake  by  the  peninsula  of  Cabot's  head  on 
the  south  and  the  Manitoulin  chain  of  islands 
on  the  north ;  and  N.  of  these  islands  is  Mani- 
tou  bay  or  the  North  channel.  The  whole 
width  of  Lake  Huron,  including  Georgian  bay, 
is  about  190  m.,  and  its  length  about  250  m. 
Its  area  is  computed  to  be  about  21,000  sq.  m. 
Its  elevation  above  the  sea  is  rated  by  the 
state  engineers  of  Michigan  at  578  ft. ;  the 
Canadians  make  it  3  ft.  less.  The  level  of  its 
waters  fluctuates  several  feet  at  irregular  pe 
riods,  as  is  observed  also  of  the  other  lakes. 
Various  estimates  are  made  of  its  average 
depth,  the  least  being  800  ft.,  and  the  highest, 
which  is  that  of  the  Michigan  state  report  of 
1838,  1,000  ft.  In  this  report  it  is  stated  that 
soundings  have  been  made  in  the  lake  of  1,800 
ft.  without  finding  bottom.  Few  harbors  are 
found  along  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Huron. 
About  70  m.  N.  of  the  outlet  Saginaw  bay 
sets  back  into  the  land  a  distance  of  60  m. 
toward  the  S.  W.,  and  under  its  islands  and 
shores  vessels  find  shelter  from  the  storms 
which  prevail  from  the  N.  E.  or  S.  "W.  up  and 
down  its  wide  mouth  and  across  the  broadest 
expanse  of  the  lake.  Thunder  bay  is  a  much 
smaller  extension  of  the  lake  into  the  land, 
about  140  m.  from  the  outlet.  Steamers 
usually  stop  here  for  supplies  of  wood,  chiefly 
pine  and  birch,  which,  with  the  white  pine 
largely  cut  for  lumber,  and  excellent  grind 
stones  obtained  from  the  sandstone  rocks,  con 
stitute  the  only  valuable  products  of  these 
shores.  At  Presque  Isle,  28  m.  further  N.,  is 
another  harbor,  where  the  land  turns  round 
toward  the  N.  W.,  and  a  straight  course  is 
thence  made  for  Mackinaw,  70  m.  distant. 
This  island  is  famous  as  a  trading  post  and  fort 
in  the  history  of  the  northwest  and  of  the  fur 
trade,  and  is  still  a  point  of  importance  on  the 
lake.  The  harbor  is  deep  and  well  sheltered, 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  island,  under  high  hills, 
upon  which  stands  the  United  States  fort.  The 
fishing  business  is  extensively  carried  on,  white- 
fish  of  excellent  quality  abounding  in  the  lake 
near  by,  and  those  of  the  northern  part  of 
Lake  Michigan  also  finding  a  market  here. — 
The  shores  on  the  Michigan  side  present  few 
features  of  interest.  The  rock  formations  are 
sandstones  and  limestones  of  the  several  groups 
from  the  Helderberg  to  the  coal  measures,  the 
latter  being  found  in  the  upper  portion  of  Sag- 
j  inaw  bay,  where,  however,  they  are  of  little 


IIUPvONS 


79 


importance.  Beaches  of  sand  alternate  with 
others  of  limestone  shingle,  and  the  forests 
behind  are  often  a  tangled  growth  of  cedar, 
fir,  and  spruce  in  impenetrable  swamps,  or  a 
scrubby  scattered  growth  upon  a  sandy  soil. 
Calcareous  strata  of  the  upper  Silurian  stretch 
along  the  E.  coast  from  the  outlet  nearly  to 
Georgian  bay,  and  are  succeeded  by  the  lower 
members  of 'the  same  series  down  to  the  Hud 
son  river  slates  and  the  Trenton  limestone, 
which  last  two  stretch  across  from  Lake  On 
tario  to  Georgian  bay.  In  the  metamorphic 
rocks  found  in  the  upper  portions  of  Manitoti- 
lin  bay  copper  ores  begin  to  appear,  and  have 
been  worked  at  the  Bruce  mines.  With  the 
change  in  the  rock  formations  the  surface  be 
comes  more  broken  and  hilly,  rising  to  eleva 
tions  600  ft.  or  more  above  the  lake. — The 
rivers  that  flow  into  Lake  Huron  are  mostly  of 
small  importance.  The  principal  streams  from 
Michigan  are  Thunder  Bay  river,  the  Au  Sable, 
and  the  Suginaw;  from  Ontario,  the  French 
(outlet  of  Nipissing  lake),  the  Muskoka,  the 
Severn  (outlet  of  Lake  Simcoe),  and  the  Notta- 
wasaga,  all  emptying  into  Georgian  bay,  and 
Saugeen,  Maitland,  and  Aux  Sables.  The 
chief  towns  on  its  shores  are  Collingwood  and 
Owen  Sound  (on  Georgian  bay),  Goderich,  and 
Sarnia  (at  the  entrance  of  St.  Clair  river),  in 
Ontario  ;  in  Michigan,  Bay  City  at  the  head  of 
Saginaw  bay,  and  Port  Huron  opposite  Sarnia. 
The  season  of  navigation  in  Lake  Huron  is 
usually  from  the  last  of  April  or  early  part  of 
May  into  December;  and  the  finest  season, 
during  which  the  waters  often  continue  smooth 
and  the  air  mild  and  hazy  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  is  the  latter  portion  of  November. 

HURONS,  a  once  powerful  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  originally  occupying  a  small  territory 
near  Georgian  bay,  a  part  of  Lake  Huron. 
They  were  the  most  northwesterly  branch  of 
the  Huron-Iroquois  family,  the  Hochelagas,  oc 
cupying  Montreal  island  in  Cartier's  time,  being 
the  most  easterly,  and  the  Tuscaroras  the  most 
southerly.  'When  the  French  under  Champlain 
began  to  occupy  the  St.  Lawrence  in  1609, 
the  Ilurons  were  allies  of  the  Algonquins  and 
Montagnais  against  the  Iroquois  or  Five  Na 
tions,  the  most  powerful  tribe  of  the  family  to 
which  the  Hurons  belonged.  Champlain  joined 
the  alliance,  and  in  1C>09  accompanied  a  Huron- 
Algonquin  party  on  an  expedition,  which  de 
feated  an  Iroquois  force  on  Lake  Champlnin. 
In  1015  he  went  up  to  the  Huron  country  with 
the  Franciscan  missionary  Joseph  le  Caron, 
and  thence  accompanied  the  Hurons  on  an  ex 
pedition  against  a  tribe  in  New  York,  belong 
ing  or  allied  to  the  Five  Nations.  The  Fran 
ciscans  continued  missions  among  the  Ilurons 
till  1629,  and  Frdre  Sagard  in  his  Grand  voy 
age,  (iu  pays  des  Nitrons  (Paris,  1632),  and  ///*- 
toire  du  Canada  (Paris,  16-36),  describes  them 
fully  and  gives  a  dictionary  of  their  language. 
They  consisted  of  four  divisions  :  Attigna- 
wantans,  Attigneenonguahac,  Arendahronon, 
and  Tohonteenrat ;  the  first  and  second  being 

VOL.  IX. — 6 


primitive,  and  the  others  subsequently  adopted. 
They  called  themselves,  as  the  Iroquois  did, 
Ontwaonwes,  real  men,  and  as  a  tribe  Wendat. 
Their  country  was  of  very  limited  extent  for 
an  Indian  tribe,  being  only  about  75  m.  by  25, 
lying,  as  was  estimated,  in  lat.  45°  30'  N.,  near 
Lake  Huron.  In  this  space  there  were  30,000 
Ilurons  in  25  towns  of  various  size,  Ossossane 
being  the  chief  one.  Those  on  the  frontiers 
were  fortified  by  a  triple  palisade,  and  gallery 
within,  while  many  of  the  others  were  unpro 
tected.  The  houses  were  long,  containing  sev 
eral  families,  two  to  each  fire ;  they  were  built 
of  poles  covered  with  bark.  The  Hurons  raised 
corn,  squashes,  beans,  and  tobacco.  When 
Canada  was  restored  in  1632,  the  Jesuits  be 
gan  their  famous  Huron  missions,  which  lasted 
till  the  destruction  of  the  nation.  Diseases 
had  greatly  enfeebled  them.  Then  the  Iro 
quois,  supplied  with  firearms  by  the  Dutch,  took 
Ossossane  in  1 648,  killing  the  missionary  Dan 
iel  among  his  flock;  the  next  year  two  other 
large  towns  were  destroyed,  Brebeuf  and  Lale- 
mant  perishing  at  the  stake.  The  Hurons  then 
dispersed.  The  Tohonteenrat  surrendered  in 
a  body  and  removed  to  the  Seneca  country. 
The  rest  fled  to  Charity  island  in  Lake  Huron 
and  to  Manitoulin,  but  famine  swept  many  off. 
In  1650  Pere  Eagueneau  led  a  few  hundred  to 
Quebec,  wrho  were  placed  on  Isle  Orleans,  and 
were  soon  joined  by  those  left  at  Manitoulin. 
In  1656  the  Mohawks  carried  off  a  number  be 
fore  the  eyes  of  the  French  garrison,  and  the 
Onondagas  compelled  others  to  join  their  can 
ton.  Under  more  vigorous  French  rule  the 
Hurons  began  to  thrive,  and  in  1667  they  re 
moved  to  Notre  Dame  de  Foye,  and  in  1693  to 
Lorette,  then  after  a  time  to  Jeune  Lorette, 
|  which  has  since  been  their  abode.  It  is  8  or 
9  m.  from  Quebec,  on  the  river  St.  Charles,  on 
an  eminence,  and  consists  of  40  or  50  houses 
of  stone  and  wood.  Their  number  in  1736 
was  reported  at  60  or  70  men  able  to  bear 
arms,  and  these  by  1763  were  reduced  to  40. 
In  1815  the  tribe  numbered  250,  and  the  offi 
cial  report  of  the  Canadian  government  in 
I  1872  gives  264,  although  in  1870  there  were 
!  329  reported.  There  are  few  of  pare  blood. 
Their  own  language  has  been  superseded  by 
French,  and  they  have  long  been  practical 
Catholics. — Their  early  Huron  cosmogony  was 
curious.  A  woman,  Ataensic,  flying  from  heav 
en,  fell  into  an  abyss  of  waters.  Then  the  tor 
toise  and  the  beaver,  after  long  consultation, 
dived  and  brought  up  earth  on  which  she 
rested  and  bore  two  sons,  Tawescaron  and 
louskeha,  the  latter  of  whom  killed  his  broth 
er.  The  son  of  louskeha,  called  Tharonhia- 
wagon  or  Aireskoi,  was  the  great  divinity 
worshipped  by  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois.  The 
tribe  was  divided  into  clans  or  families,  and 
governed  by  sachems  hereditary  in  the  female 
I  line.  The  totem  of  the  whole  nation  was  the 
I  porcupine.  The  Tionontates,  called  by  Eng- 
!  lish  colonial  writers  Dinondadies,  were  neigh- 
I  bors  of  the  Hurons,  and  were  crushed  soon 


80 


HURRICANE 


after  them.  These  fled  to  "Wisconsin,  and  are 
also  called  Hurons,  but  after  their  removal  to 
Sandusky  they  assumed  the  name  Wyandot. 
(See  W YANDOTS.)  A  grammar  of  the  Huron  lan 
guage,  compiled  by  Pere  Chaumonot,  founder 
of  Lorette,  was  published  at  Quebec  in  1831. 

HURRICANE  (Span,  huracan),  a  word  of  un 
determined  origin,  signifying  a  violent  storm 
of  wind  and  rain,  generally  accompanied  with 
intense  displays  of  lightning  and  thunder.  Al 
though  this  term  was  originally  special  in  its 
application,  it  is  now  frequently  used  to  desig 
nate  not  a  peculiar  class  of  storms,  but  in  gen 
eral  the  strength  of  the  most  violent  winds 
known  to  mariners  ;  thus  we  may  have  storms 
in  any  part  of  the  world  whose  severest  winds 
may  attain  to  the  force  either  of  a  gale,  a 
storm,  or  a  hurricane,  according  to  the  circum 
stances  that  attend  their  development.  The 
hurricanes  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  the  China  sea, 
and  the  northern  portions  of  the  Indian  ocean 
are  called  typhoons,  and  are  from  a  scientific 
as  well  as  a  practical  point  of  view  to  be 
classed  in  the  same  category  with  the  hurri 
canes  proper ;  but  in  what  follows  we  shall 
give  only  such  facts  and  theoretical  views  as 
belong  specially  to  the  hurricanes  of  the  Atlan 
tic  and  southern  Indian  oceans.  The  gen 
eral  subject  of  storms  in  their  various  aspects 
will  be  treated  under  that  title. — To  a  per 
son  occupying  a  stationary  position  toward 
which  a  hurricane  is  approaching,  it  is  said 
that  the  storm  is  frequently  heralded  a  day 
beforehand  by  a  peculiar  haziness  of  the  at 
mosphere,  a  cessation  of  the  regular  trade 
winds,  a  lassitude  perhaps  induced  by  the  hy- 
grometric  condition  of  the  air,  and  an  ominous 
stillness.  Then  follow  a  steady  slow  fall  of 
the  barometer,  light  breezes  increasing  to  high 
winds  from  some  new  quarter  of  the  compass, 
generally  in  the  West  Indies  between  S.  E.  and 
N.  E.,  and  the  obscuration  of  the  entire  heavens 
by  a  uniform  sheet  of  cloud  of  increasing  den 
sity.  When  the  storm  has,  in  the  course  of 
from  4  to  24  hours,  finally  arrived  at  its  great 
est  severity,  the  fury  of  the  wind  and  the  con 
fusion  of  the  scene  become  indescribable ;  in 
the  midst  of  a  drenching  rain  and  a  steady  wind 
that  fills  the  air  with  a  deafening  roar,  there 
occur  prolonged  gusts  whose  violence  equals 
or  excels  the  force  of  the  strongest  waves ;  in 
such  gusts  the  largest  trees  are  uprooted,  or 
have  their  trunks  snapped  in  two,  and  few  if 
any  of  the  most  massive  buildings  stand  unin 
jured.  In  the  midst  of  the  confusion  incident 
to  the  general  destruction  of  property  and  life, 
there  occurs  a  mysterious  calm,  while  a  break 
in  the  clouds  and  the  diminished  rainfall  seem 
to  denote  the  end  of  the  storm.  But  in  the 
course  of  from  five  minutes  to  five  hours  the 
wind  bursts  with  additional  force  from  a  direc 
tion  opposite  to  that  which  had  before  pre 
vailed  ;  whatever  had  escaped  the  destructive 
force  of  the  first  half  of  the  hurricane  is  likely 
to  yield  to  its  subsequent  fury,  and  the  ship 
ping  which  before  perhaps  had  been  blown  out 


to  sea,  is  now  driven  back  upon  the  shore.  If 
now,  instead  of  watching  the  storm  from  a 
fixed  standpoint,  we  take  a  general  survey  of 
the  ocean  over  which  it  rages,  we  shall  observe 
that  the  interval  of  calm  in  the  midst  of  the 
storm,  as  observed  at  the  fixed  station,  corre 
sponds  to  a  central  spot  in  a  large  region  of 
violent  winds  and  heavy  rain  ;  these  winds  are 
found  to  blow  in  spiral  lines  toward  and  around 
the  central  region  of  calms,  increasing  in  force 
as  they  approach  that  centre.  It  will  also  be 
seen  that  the  whole  system  of  winds  moves 
bodily  over  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is  thus 
easily  understood  why  the  stations  over  which 
the  centre  of  the  hurricane  passes  should  ex 
perience,  after  the  central  lull,  a  wind  from 
the  opposite  quarter  to  that  which  prevailed 
immediately  before. — In  the  u  Philosophical 
Transactions"  for  1G98  Langford  represents 
the  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies  as  whirlwinds 
advancing  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the 
trade  wind.  Dampier  (1701)  says  the  West 
Indian  hurricanes  and  the  Chinese  typhoons 
are  of  the  same  nature.  In  1801  Capper  pub 
lished  a  work  on  winds  and  monsoons,  in  which 
he  advanced  the  opinion  that  the  hurricanes 
at  Pondicherry  (1760)  and  Madras  (1773)  were 
of  the  nature  of  whirlwinds  whose  diameter 
would  not  exceed  120  miles.  In  1820  and  1826 
Brande  broached  the  theory  that  the  currents 
of  air  in  great  storms  flow  from  all  directions 
toward  a  central  point.  Dove  (1828),  in  con 
troverting  the  views  of  Brande,  explained  the 
observed  directions  of  the  winds  on  the  as 
sumption  of  general  rotary  currents  or  whirl 
winds.  In  1831  Mitchell  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  phenomena  of  storms  are  the  result 
of  a  vortex  or  gyratory  motion.  The  scanty 
observations  accessible  to  the  authors  previous 
ly  mentioned  were  supplemented  in  1831  by 
Mr.  Redfield  of  New  York,  who  then  published 
the  first  of  a  series  of  remarkable  papers  on 
the  phenomena  of  storms,  in  all  which  he  main 
tained  that  hurricanes  were  progressive  vorti 
cose  whirlwinds.  His  views  were  for  a  long 
time  controverted  in  America  by  Espy  and 
Hare.  Sir  William  Reid  published  his  first 
papers  on  hurricanes  in  1838,  and  subsequently 
other  works,  in  which  he  developed  views  simi 
lar  to  those  of  Mr.  Redfield.  Of  the  authors 
previously  mentioned,  some  laid  a  special  stress 
on  the  tangential,  and  others  on  the  centripetal 
movements  of  the  winds ;  at  present,  however, 
following  the  studies  of  Redfield  (1839-V56), 
Espy  (1840-'57),  Thorn  (1845),  Piddington 
(1839-'54),  Reid  (1838-'50),  Ferrel  (1858),  Mel- 
drum  (1851-"T3),  Mohn  (1870),  Reye  (1872), 
and  many  others,  it  is  generally  acknowledged 
that  the  combination  of  both  these  movements 
with  an  upward  one  is  an  essential  feature  of 
every  hurricane,  so  that  the  movement  of  the 
surface  wind  is  more  correctly  described  as  an 
ascending  spiral.  Concerning  the  direction  of 
this  movement,  Dove,  and  independently  of 
him  Redfield,  concluded  that  in  the  storms  of 
Europe  and  the  American  coast  the  winds  move 


HURRICANE 


81 


in  a  circuit  about  the  storm  centre,  contrary 
to  the  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  hands  of 
a  watch  when  the  latter  is  laid  on  the  ground 
with  its  face  upward.  Furthermore,  Dove 
made  the  important  remark  that  in  the  hurri 
canes  of  the  southern  hemisphere  the  air  re 
volves  in  an  opposite  direction ;  this  general 
ization,  announced  by  him,  apparently  with 
some  limitations,  was  by  the  labors  of  Reid 
(1838)  converted  into  an  accepted  law.  The 
law  of  the  rotation  of  winds  around  the  storm 
centre  is  considered  to  be  of  the  highest  im 
portance  in  its  practical  bearings  on  the  in 
terests  of  navigation,  and  may  be  stated  in 
other  words  as  follows  :  If  in  the  northern  (or 
southern)  hemisphere  you  stand  with  the  cen 
tre  of  the  hurricane  on  your  left  (or  right) 
hand,  the  wind  will  be  on  your  back.  The 
determining  cause  of  this  law  of  rotation,  and 
of  the  distinction  between  the  hurricanes  of 
the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  was 
imperfectly  understood  by  early  writers,  as 
Taylor  and  Ilerschel,  but  was  rigidly  demon 
strated  in  a  remarkable  mathematical  memoir 
by  Ferrel  in  1858,  who  showed  that  the  rota 
tion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  affects  the  direc 
tion  not  merely  of  north  and  south  winds,  but 
of  every  wind,  in  such  a  manner  that  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  winds  tend  as  they  move 
forward  to  deflect  to  the  right  hand,  but  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  to  the  left  hand.  This  ten 
dency,  which  is  known  either  as  Poisson's  or 
as  Ferrers  law,  is  in  largo  storms  sufficient 
to  determine  the  direction  of  rotation,  while  in 
storms  of  comparatively  small  dimensions  acci 
dental  circumstances  may  conspire  to  annul  or 
even  reverse  the  direction  of  rotation.  Thus 
we  are  provided  with  the  means  of  harmoni 
zing,  at  least  in  great  part,  the  views  of  Hare, 
Espy,  and  others,  with  those  of  Redfield  and 
Reid. — There  are  unfortunately  but  few  actual 
measurements  of  the  velocity  of  the  stronger 
winds  that  occur  within  the  limits  of  a  hurri 
cane.  In  general  it  appears  that  the  velocity 
increases  as  we  proceed  from  the  outer  limits 
toward  the  centre  of  the  storm,  but  suddenly 
diminishes  to  feeble  irregular  winds  and  calms 
within  the  central  space.  From  the  observed 
destructive  force  of  some  gusts  it  has  also  been 
contended  that  a  velocity  of  10  m.  per  min 
ute  must  have  been  momentarily  attained,  but 
such  computations  are  not  very  satisfactory. 
The  highest  hurricane  winds  that  have  ever 
been  actually  observed  have  on  the  British 
coast  attained  a  velocity  of  130  m.  per  hour; 
in  the  comparatively  small  hurricane  of  August, 
1871,  the  observers  in  Florida  of  the  United 
States  army  signal  corps  recorded  a  velocity 
of  85  m.  per  hour ;  all  these  winds  of  course 
were  interspersed  with  gusts  of  great  violence. 
The  diameter  of  the  region  of  calms  varies 
from  30  m.  to  a  much  smaller  size,  and  prob 
ably  even  to  nothing.  It  would  seem  that  in 
some  hurricanes,  as  frequently  in  the  smaller 
tornadoes  on  land,  the  so-called  axis  of  the 
storm  rises  temporarily  above  the  surface  of 


the  earth.  The  central  space  in  general,  ac 
cording  to  Redfield,  increases  in  diameter  as 
the  storm  moves  away  from  the  equator  north 
ward  or  southward. — A  heavy  rainfall  extend 
ing  far  beyond  the  region  of  most  violent  winds 
attends  all  hurricanes.  The  quantity  of  water 
that  falls  during  the  prevalence  of  these  storms 
forms  a  large  percentage  of  the  total  animal 
rainfall  over  the  hurricane  regions,  and  in  this 
respect  they  perform  an  important  service  to 
mankind.  At  Mauritius  in  the  Indian  ocean  a 
single  storm  has  been  known  to  be  attended  by 
a  rainfall  of  more  than  10  inches.  The  area  of 
cloud  and  rain  is  especially  extended  on  the 
1ST.  and  E.  quadrant  of  the  storms  of  the  North 
Atlantic ;  it  is  sometimes  much  contracted, 
though  rarely  wanting,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
hurricanes  of  both  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres.  The  movements  of  the  clouds 
have  been  carefully  observed,  especially  by 
Redfield  (1832-'42)  and  Ley  (18G6-'70),  and 
the  result  is  well  expressed  by  Reye  (1872): 
"While  on  the  earth's  surface  the  storm  wind 
in  spiral  curves  gradually  flows  inward,  it 
forces  the  flying  storm  clouds  in  spiral  curves 
outward,  and  removes  them  away  from  the 
axis  of  the  cyclone."  This  generalization  was 
fully  explained  from  a  theoretical  mechanical 
point  of  view  by  Ferrel,  and  was  shown  by 
him  to  be  a  consequence  of  the  rising  or  up- 
wrard  movement  of  the  masses  of  air  that  are 
drawn  into  the  whirlwind.  The  clouds  then 
must  move  in  spirals  opposed  to  the  move 
ments  of  the  lower  winds.  Redfield  estimates 
the  angle  between  the  winds  below  and  the 
clouds  above  to  be  about  22-5°. — The  baro 
metric  disturbance  is  one  of  the  most  remarka 
ble  features  of  a  hurricane.  The  nearer  one 
approaches  the  centre,  the  lower  is  the  baro 
metric  pressure,  and  at  the  centre  the  depres 
sion  is  frequently  two  or  three  inches.  The 
first  notice  of  an  approaching  hurricane,  when 
it  is  yet  100  to  400  m.  distant,  is  usually  given 
by  the  steady  fall  of  the  barometer ;  as  we 
approach  the  centre  the  fall  is  more  rapid. 
The  law  by  which  the  pressure  diminishes,  as 
well  as  the  variations  from  it,  may  be  illus 
trated  by  two  examples,  the  first  showing  a 
very  regular  depression,  the  second  giving  a 
great  and  rapidly  increasing  rate  of  fall.  The 
first  example  is  Redfield's  Cuba  hurricane  of 
Oct.  4-7,  1844,  for  which  we  have  the  follow 
ing  pressures:  at  the  centre,  27*7  in. ;  at  100 
m.  distance,  28'0  in. ;  at  200  m.  29*0  in. ;  at 
300  m.,  29-5  in. ;  at  400  m.,  29'8in.  The 
second  example  is  from  Buchan  (1871),  and  re 
lates  to  the  Bahama  hurricane  of  October, 
1866.  On  the  evening  of  the  1st  of  October 
we  have  the  following  pressures :  at  the  cen 
tre,  27'7  in. ;  at  15  m.  distance,  or  the  radius 
of  the  central  column,  27*8  in. ;  at  300  m., 
29-7 in.;  at  500  m.,  29*8 in. ;  and  at  800  m., 
30-0  in.  The  ratio  at  which  at  a  fixed  station 
the  barometer  falls  on  the  approach  of  a  hurri 
cane  differs  from  the  preceding  by  reason  of 
the  progressive  motion  of  the  storni  toward  or 


82 


HURRICANE 


from  the  station  ;  on -board  a  vessel,  the  baro 
metric  fall  is  further  complicated  by  the  move 
ment  of  the  observer.  The  best  idea  of  the 
barometric  disturbance  is  given  by  a  chart  of 
synchronous  observations  on  which  isobaro- 
metric  lines  are  drawn.  These  isobars  will 
be  found  to  be  crowded  together  on  one  side 
(generally  the  advancing  half)  of  the  storm 
more  than  on  the  other,  and  to  enclose  a  small 
oval  or  circular  region  of  lowest  pressure,  al 
most  if  not  quite  identical  with  that  of  the 
area  of  calms,  though  sometimes  apparently  in 
advance  of  it.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  velocity  of  the  wind  increases 
with  the  crowding  of  the  isobarometric  lines. 
The  exact  relation  between  the  two  is  quite 
complicated,  and  may  be  deduced  from  the 
formulas  of  the  above  mentioned  treatise  by 
Ferrel,  combined  with  the  considerations  in 
troduced  by  Peslin  in  1867  and  Reye  in  1872. 
It  is  evident  that  the  law  above  given  for  the 
rotation  of  the  wind  may  be  converted  into  a 
rule  for  finding  the  centre  of  calms,  which  will 
also  hold  good  for  finding  the  centre  of  lowest 
barometer ;  this  latter  is  generally  spoken  of 
as  the  storm  centre  or  axis.  Buys-Ballot  has 
expressed  this  generalization  in  the  form  known 
as  Buys-Ballot's  rule,  viz. :  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  stand  with  your  back  to  the  wind, 
and  the  lowest  pressure  will  be  on  your  left 
hand  and  somewhat  in  front  thereof;  a  rule 
that  applies  especially  to,  and  was  apparently 
suggested  by,  the  behavior  of  the  winds  of 
hurricanes  and  similar  storms. — The  dimen 
sions  of  hurricanes  generally  increase  from  day 
to  day  until  the  dissipation  of  the  entire  storm, 
while  the  intensity  of  the  winds  is  believed  on 
the  average  to  diminish  somewhat ;  this  will 
however  depend  upon  the  atmospheric  condi 
tions  favoring  the  development  or  the  deca 
dence  of  the  disturbance.  Given  a  proper  sup 
ply  of  warm  moist  air,  and  it  can  be  shown  that 
the  central  depression  with  the  attendant  wind 
and  rain  must  steadily  increase  up  to  a  certain 
limit.  These  favorable  circumstances  are  gen 
erally  found  combined  in  a  remarkable  degree 
in  the  region  of  the  Gulf  stream,  the  Kuro  Siwo, 
and  similar  ocean  currents;  accordingly,  on 
reaching  these  the  area  of  cloud  and  rain  ex 
pands,  as  also  do  the  diameters  of  the  isobaric 
curves.  The  dimensions  of  the  central  depres 
sions  vary  quite  irregularly,  but  appear  on  the 
average  to  increase  as  the  storm  continues; 
while  the  actual  height  of  the  barometer  at 
the  centre  changes  much  less,  but  is  believed 
to  diminish  gradually  so  long  as  the  intensity 
of  the  wind  increases.  If  a  curve,  enclosing 
a  region  in  which  the  winds  attain  the  force 
ordinarily  described  as  a  moderate  gale,  be  as 
sumed  as  the  limit  of  the  storm,  it  will  be 
found  that  in  the  earliest  stages  of  the  hurri 
cane  it  has  a  diameter  of  from  50  to  200  m., 
which  increases  in  the  course  of  5  or  10  days 
to  from  400  to  1,200  m.;  thus  a  disturbance 
that  may  have  been  originally  designated  as 
small  or  local,  increases  so  as  to  involve  half 


the  surface  of  the  North  Atlantic  ocean. — The 
track  of  the  centre  of  the  hurricane  is  a  fair 
indication  of  the  progress  of  the  storm  over 
the  earth,  and  much  labor  has  been  bestowed 
upon  such  collations  of  logs  of  vessels  as  would 
elucidate  this  important  branch  of  the  subject. 
But  notwithstanding  the  labor  expended,  there 
have  as  yet  been  very  few  hurricanes  traced 
back  to  what  appears  to  be  very  near  their 
origin,  and  in  not  a  single  instance  has  unmis 
takable  evidence  of  their  origin  been  adduced. 
The  general  position  of  hurricane  tracks  in  the 
earlier  parts  of  their  course  therefore  remains 
obscure,  although  the  immense  accumulation 
of  material  by  the  labors  of  the  various  na 
tional  government  weather  bureaus  is  rapidly 
dissolving  our  ignorance  on  this  point.  So  far 
as  the  known  hurricane  tracks  are  concerned, 
it  may  be  stated  that  in  the  North  Atlantic 
ocean  each  uniformly  appears  to  be  a  segment 
of  a  parabola  having  its  axis  coincident  with 
the  parallels  of  25°  to  35°  N.  latitude,  and  the 
longitudes  of  whose  apices  fall  between  the 
meridians  40°  and  100°  west  of  Greenwich, 
but  mostly  between  65°  and  85°.  At  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  parabolic  track,  the 
branch  passes  either  to  the  north  of  or  over  the 
Windward  islands,  while  the  northern  branch 
passes  to  the  south  of  or  over  Newfoundland. 
In  a  few  cases  the  first  portion  of  the  track 
has  been  traced  southeastward  nearly  to  the 
coast  of  Senegambia,  and  the  latter  portion 
of  the  track  northeastward  to  the  ocean  be 
tween  Iceland  and  Scotland  ;  some  tracks  that 
curve  northeastward  before  reaching  Ion.  40° 
may  even  strike  England  or  France.  The  hur 
ricanes  of  the  southern  hemisphere  describe 
similar  parabolic  tracks,  which  lie  at  a  corre 
sponding  distance  south  of  the  equatorial  belt 
of  calms,  and  are  symmetrically  disposed  with 
reference  thereto.  Very  few  have  been  traced 
in  the  South  Atlantic  ocean,  but  in  the  south 
ern  Indian  ocean  the  majority  of  the  hurricanes 
pass  from  Sumatra  and  Java  southwestward 
to  within  500  m.  of  Madagascar,  then  south 
ward  and  southeastward.  In  general,  Mohn 
(1870)  and  Reye  (1872)  state  that  all  cyclones 
(of  which  hurricanes  are  the  grandest  examples) 
move  in  the  direction  in  which  for  the  longest 
time  the  warmest  and  moistest  air  has  been 
rising,  and  producing  the  heaviest  cloud  and 
rainfall.  If  we  combine  with  this  law  the 
tendency  of  the  whirlwind  as  a  whole  to  move 
away  from  the  equator,  as  proved  by  Ferrel, 
it  seems  to  the  writer  that  we  have  a  very 
close  approximation  to  the  full  statement  of 
the  reason  for  the  parabolic  form  of  their  orbits. 
— The  rate  of  progression  of  the  West  Indian 
storm  centres  varies  from  50  m.  per  hour  in  a 
few  cases  to  10  or  15  as  the  other  extreme  ; 
that  of  the  storms  of  the  southern  Indian 
ocean  varies  from  1  to  20  m.  The  rate  in  gen 
eral  in  the  North  Atlantic  increases  with  the 
growth  and  northward  movement  of  the  hurri 
cane,  and,  though  sometimes  quite  variable,  is 
not  so  much  so  as  in  the  case  of  the  similar 


HURRICANE 


83 


storms  of  the  Indian  ocean.  The  rate  of 
progress  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  velocity  of  the  wind,  as  the  latter  has  no 
known  relation  to  and  far  exceeds  the  former. 
—The  waves  and  swells  produced  by  the  hur 
ricane  winds  are  a  most  important  feature; 
these  waves  are  the  largest  arid  most  formi 
dable  known  to  the  mariner.  They  form  with 
greatest  regularity  at  points  directly  in  advance 
of  the  approaching  storm  centre ;  at  other 
points  they  form  a  confused  mass  of  crossed 
sea;  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  land  the  con 
fusion  is  increased  by  the  waves  reflected  from 
the  shores.  Such  is  the  equality  of  the  con 
test  of  opposing  waves,  that  near  the  central 
region  these  sometimes  lose  their  progressive 
movement  and  become  stationary  pyramidal 
waves,  simply  rising  and  falling.  The  smaller 
waves  that  are  propagated  in  all  directions 
from  the  region  of  severest  wrinds,  degenerate 
into  long  gentle  swells  that  outrun  the  storm 
in  its  progress,  and  announce  its  presence  sev 
eral  hours  or  a  day  in  advance  of  its  arrival. 
Besides  these  waves,  it  is  believed  that  the 
extended  region  of  low  barometer  allows  the 
formation  of  a  peculiar  "  cyclone  wave,"  which 
is  similar  to  the  tidal  wave  of  mid-ocean.  The 
cyclone  wave  is  coextensive  with  the  area  of 
low  barometer ;  it  is  highest  at  the  central 
lowest  pressure,  where  its  elevation  above  the 
ordinary  sea  level  should  be  a  foot  or  more  for 
each  inch  of  barometric  depression. — From 
the  earliest  times  the  months  from  July  to  Oc 
tober  have  been  known  in  the  West  Indies  as 
the  "  hurricane  season.'1  A  table  published  by 
Poeyin  1855  gives  the  distribution  by  months 
of  355  hurricanes  recorded  on  the  Atlantic 
between  1493  and  1855.  According  to  this 
work,  there  are  recorded  in  this  period  in  all 
in  January  5,  February  7,  March  H,  April  6, 
May  5,  June  10,  July  42,  August  96,  Septem 
ber  80,  October  69,  November  17,  December 
7  ;  but  the  annual  period  is  probably  not  very 
correctly  shown  by  this  list,  because  of  the 
imperfections  of  the  earlier  records.  More 
recently  Poey  has  revised  his  list  and  added 
many  later  hurricanes,  and  has  published  in 
the  Paris  Comptes  Rendus  for  Nov.  24,  1873, 
and  Jan.  5,  1874,  the  results  of  a  comparison 
between  hurricanes  and  the  frequency  of  solar 
spots.  His  results  seem  to  remarkably  confirm 
those  of  Meldrum,  who  had  previously  stud 
ied  the  hurricanes  of  the  Indian  ocean  from 
the  same  point  of  view.  Poey  states  that  in 
the  majority  of  cases  the  years  of  the  great 
est  number  of  hurricanes  are  also  the  years 
of  the  greatest  sun-spot  frequency.  The  ex 
tensive  researches  of  Koppen  (1873)  have 
shown  that  the  amount  of  heat  received  from 
the  sun  varies  annually  with  the  sun  spots, 
whence  we  infer  that  the  variations  in  solar 
heat  produce  a  similar  variation  in  the  terres 
trial  evaporation,  and  an  increased  tendency 
to  the  formation  of  hurricanes.  The  actual 
number  of  hurricanes  visiting  any  limited  re 
gion  is  of  course  very  small.  Since  the  year 


1700  the  centres  of  about  25  have  been  known 
to  pass  quite  near  the  coast  of  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina,  which  is  by  far  the  most  fre 
quently  visited  portion  of  the  United  States. 
Nearly  all  those  of  the  Indian  ocean  pass  near 
to  the  islands  of  Mauritius,  Rodriguez,  &c. — 
Concerning  the  origin  and  cause  of  the  hurri 
canes  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  comparatively 
little  is  positively  known,  but  it  seems  by 
analogy  that  they  may  originate  wherever 
the  lower  stratum  of  warm  moist  air  is  rapidly 
elevated  above  the  sea  level,  whether  (1)  by 
being  pushed  up  over  an  elevated  plateau  or 
mountain  chain,  or  (2)  by  the  under-running 
of  a  layer  of  cold  dry  air,  or  (3)  by  the  conflict 
of  two  opposed  and  nearly  balanced  currents 
of  warm  moist  air.  In  numerous  instances  one 
or  the  other  of  these  cases  seems  to  have  oc 
curred;  and  as  these,  combined  with  (4)  the 
radiation  of  heat  into  space,  are  the  prevailing 
causes  that  determine  the  origin  and  growth 
of  storms  in  general,  there  seems  no  reason 
in  the  case  of  hurricanes  to  appeal  to  more 
forced  theories.  The  immense  mechanical 
power  stored  up  in  the  heat  and  vapor  of 
moist  air  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated 
by  Espy,  Peslin,  and  Reye.  Whenever,  by  the 
action  of  either  of  the  four  causes  just  men 
tioned,  the  process  of  condensation  of  vapor 
into  cloud,  rain,  or  snow  begins,  there  at  once 
occurs  an  influx  of  air  from  all  sides,  and  from 
below  as  well  as  from  above,  to  fill  up  the  par 
tial  vacuum  thus  created;  this  influx  toward 
a  central  region  is  immediately  followed,  as 
shown  by  Ferrel,  by  the  formation  of  a  whirl 
whose  subsequent  development  is  entirely  de 
pendent  on  the  supply  of  moist  air.  The  hur 
ricanes  of  the  southern  Indian  ocean  are  thus 
generated  in  the  region  of  calms  between  the 
N.  "W.  monsoons  and  the  S.  E.  trade  winds  of 
that  ocean.  Similarly  hurricanes  have  been 
known  to  originate  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Florida  when  a  cold  north  wind  has  swept 
under  the  warm  moist  air  of  the  gulf  and 
ocean.  Another  class  originates  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  western  portion  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  after  a  Texas  norther  has  prevailed  for 
a  few  days.  A  few  begin  in  the  interior  of 
Texas  when  a  high  barometric  pressure  on  the 
gulf,  or  a  low  pressure  in  the  western  territo 
ries,  forces  or  draws  the  air  of  the  gulf  up  over 
the  plains  of  Texas.  But  by  far  the  larger  class 
of  the  Atlantic  hurricanes,  including  those  of 
greatest  extent  and  violence,  appear  to  origi 
nate  between  the  Windward  islands  and  the 
African  coast,  and  generally  quite  near  to  the 
latter;  apparently  these  begin  with  heavy  rains 
in  the  region  of  calms,  such  as  are  accompa 
nied  on  the  African  mainland  by  the  peculiar 
harmattan  and  tornadoes  of  that  coast,  which 
may  be,  so  far  as  we  know,  either  the  conse 
quence  or  the  determining  cause  of  the  heavy 
rains.  The  storms  that  originate  here  may 
either  move  as  far  west  as  the  American  coast 
before  recurving  toward  Iceland  and  Norway, 
or  may  describe  a  much  shorter  route,  and 


HURST 


HUSBAND  AND  WIFE 


finally  arrive  at  Great  Britain,  or  possibly  at 
Portugal. — Rules  for  the  Avoidance  of  Hurri 
canes  at  Sea.  The  researches  of  Bedfield  first 
led  to  the  suggestion  of  certain  rules  for  the 
direction  of  navigators.  The  erroneous  theo 
ries  of  the  purely  circular  and  of  the  radial 
movement  of  the  hurricane  winds  early  led 
their  respective  advocates  to  the  suggestion  of 
rules  for  avoiding  the  dangers  of  these  storms, 
which  later  and  more  correct  views  as  to  the 
spiral  or  vorticose  movement  have  somewhat 
modified.  It  may  in  general  be  said  that  a 
vessel's  safety  can  only  be  assured  by  the  pos 
session  of  a  reliable  barometer,  either  aneroid 
or  mercurial ;  and  having  this,  the  navigator 
should  proceed  thus :  First,  as  soon  as  the 
ocean  swell,  the  falling  barometer,  the  clouds, 
and  the  rain  announce  that  a  hurricane  exists, 
though  it  may  be  500  m.  from  him,  he  should 
at  once  lay  to  long  enough  to  ascertain  how 
rapidly  the  barometer  is  falling  and  the  wind 
increasing,  and  in  which  direction  the  course 
of  the  wind  is  changing.  If  the  wind  increases 
without  materially  changing  its  direction,  the 
storm  centre  is  advancing  directly  toward  him ; 
if,  however,  the  wind  veers  or  backs,  the  di 
rection  in  which  the  centre  is  at  any  moment 
may  be  approximately  determined  by  the  rule 
above  given,  viz. :  "in  the  northern  or  south 
ern  hemisphere,  stand  with  your  back  to  the 
wind,  and  the  centre  will  be  on  your  left  or 
right  hand,  and  in  front."  The  mariner  may 
then  by  due  consideration  of  his  own  desired 
course,  and  the  customary  track  of  hurricanes 
in  that  part  of  the  ocean,  so  alter  his  course  as 
to  avoid  the  storm  centre  on  the  one  hand  and 
a  lee  shore  on  the  other,  and  may  indeed,  if 
there  be  plenty  of  sea  room,  take  advantage 
of  the  strong  wind  to  hasten  his  own  course. 
Further  details  on  this  subject  are  given  in  all 
works  on  navigation.  It  is  very  rare  that  a 
navigator  cannot  by  cautious  manoeuvring  thus 
avoid  the  dangerous  portions  of  a  hurricane; 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  said  that  many  ocean 
steamers,  relying  upon  the  power  of  their  en 
gines,  the  strength  of  their  build,  and  their 
great  speed,  deliberately  plough  through  the 
heart  of  the  severest  storms  rather  than  incur 
a  possible  delay  of  a  few  hours  in  order  to 
avoid  them.  The  hurricane  of  August,  1873, 
which  destroyed  over  1,000  vessels  on  our  At 
lantic  coast,  and  those  of  October,  1873,  and 
February,  1874,  afforded  numerous  instances 
of  such  bravado. 

HURST,  John  Fletcher,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  near  Salem,  Md.,  Aug.  17,  1834.  He 
graduated  at  Dickinson  college  in  1853,  taught 
ancient  languages  two  years  at  Ashland,  N. 
Y.,  went  to  Germany  and  studied  theology  at 
Halle  and  Heidelberg,  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1858,  and  for  eight  years  was  pas 
tor  of  Methodist  Episcopal  churches,  chiefly  in 
Passaic  and  Elizabeth,  N.  J.  In  the  autumn  of 
1860  he  took  charge  of  the  theological  depart 
ment  of  the  mission  institute  of  the  German 
Methodist  church  in  Bremen,  Germany,  which 


'  was  afterward  removed  to  Frankfort  under 
the  name  of  the  Martin  mission  institute,  where 
he  continued  to  be  its  director  for  three  years, 
meantime  visiting  Russia,  the  Scandinavian 
countries,  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Great 
Britain,  Greece,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  In  1871 
he  returned  to  the  United  States  to  become 
professor  of  historical  theology  in  the  Drew 
theological  seminary  at  Madison,  N.  J.  In 
1873  he  was  elected  president  of  that  institu 
tion,  retaining  his  chair  of  historical  theology. 
Dr.  Hurst  has  published  a  "History  of  Ration 
alism"  (1865),  "Outlines  of  Bible  History" 
(1873),  "Martyrs  to  the  Tract  Cause"  (1873), 
and  "Life  in  the  Fatherland:  the  Story  of  a 
Five  Years'  Residence  in  Germany  "  (1874). 
He  has  translated  portions  of  Hagenbach's 
"  History  of  the  Church  in  the  18th  and  19th 
Centuries"  (2  vols.,  1869),  Van  Osterzee's 
"  Lectures  in  Defence  of  St.  John's  Gospel " 
(1869),  and  Lange's  "  Commentary  on  the  Epis 
tle  to  the  Romans,"  with  additions  (1870). 

HURTER,  Friedrich  Emanuel  von,  a  Swiss  his 
torian,  born  in  SchafFhausen,  March  19,  1787, 
died  in'Gratz,  Aug.  27,  1865.  He  studied  the 
ology  at  Gottingen,  and  was  gradually  pro 
moted  to  high  ecclesiastical  offices ;  but  he  was 
opposed  on  account  of  his  high-church  views, 
and  his  Geschichte  Papst  Innocenz  III.  itnd 
seiner  Zeitgenossen  (4  vols.,  Hamburg,  1834- 
'42)  resulted  in  1841  in  his  withdrawal  from 
the  church  over  which  he  presided  in  SchafF 
hausen,  and  he  joined  the  church  of  Rome  in 
1844.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  historiog 
rapher  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  who  en 
nobled  him.  Among  his  later  publications  is 
GescJiichte  des  Kaisers  Ferdinand  II.  mid  sei 
ner  A  eltern  (11  vols.,  SchafFhausen,  1850-'64). 
HUSBAND  AND  WIFE.  The  laws  which  gov 
ern  the  marital  relation,  and  determine  the 
mutual  rights  and  obligations  of  the  parties,  are 
among  the  most  important  of  all  laws ;  and  it 
|  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  the  United  States 
they  are  less  accurately  determined  and  less 
ascertainable  than  any  others  of  equal  conse 
quence.  The  reason  is  that  we  received  from 
England  this  portion  of  the  common  law,  and 
have  only  of  late  years  perceived  its  repug 
nance  to  reason  and  justice.  We  now  know 
that  the  feudal  system,  upon  which  the  com 
mon  law  is  founded,  did  not  give  to  woman 
that  place  and  those  rights  which  she  ought  to 
have.  It  not  only  regarded  husband  and  wife 
as  one,  but  the  husband  as  that  one.  The  sen 
timent  that  the  law  needs  vast  change  in  this 
respect  is  proved  to  be  universal  by  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  one  of  our  states  in  which  it 
has  not  undergone  great  modification;  and  the 
difficulty  in  making  the  change  in  such  a  way 
that  the  essential  character  of  the  marriage  re 
lation  may  not  be  impaired,  is  proved  by  the 
great  diversity  in  the  provisions  recently  in- 
'  troduced.  in  the  frequent  changes  among  them, 
•  and  in  the  very  frequent  expression  of  opinion 
!  that  much  harm  has  already  been  done.  In 
I  the  East  woman  has  always  been  regarded  as 


HUSBAND  AND  WIFE 


85 


a  servant  of  her  husband,  as  his  property,  and 
as  his  plaything;  and  man  has  always  been 
held  in  absolute  political  subjection.  In  Greece 
there  were  republics  and  democracies,  in  name 
at  least ;  and  certainly  that  political  tyranny 
which  had  prevailed  among  eastern  nations 
was  greatly  lessened,  and  the  domestic  tyran 
ny  of  the  husband  over  the  wife  was  modified 
about  equally.  But  the  liberty  of  Greece  was 
the  liberty  of  comparatively  few,  who  were 
masters  of  the  many ;  and  the  most  conspicu 
ous  of  the  women  of  Greece  were  those  who, 
like  Sappho  and  Aspasia,  had  indeed  escaped 
from  the  gynceceum,  but  had  not  found  a  home. 
In  Koine  there  was-  a  wider  spread  and  bet 
ter  protection  of  personal  right,  for  even  un 
der  the  most  despotic  emperors  municipal 
rights  and  privileges  were  generally  preserved 
throughout  the  Roman  world ;  and  woman  had 
also  advanced  so  far,  that  the  Roman  matron 
has  been  since  regarded  as  the  type  of  female 
dignity  and  purity.  But  much  was  yet  want 
ed.  The  feudal  system,  built  upon  the  ruins 
of  western  Rome  by  the  Teutonic  nations,  a 
new  race,  acknowledging  the  new  influence 
of  Christianity,  made  an  immense  advance,  be 
cause  it  gave  to  every  man,  even  the  serf,  a 
definite  place  and  definite  rights,  and  in  theory 
at  least  knew  nothing  of  unlimited  power ;  and 
to  woman  it  gave  the  unspeakable  advantage 
of  Christian  marriage.  It  introduced,  proba 
bly  as  a  means  of  remedying  or  of  mitigating 
social  mischiefs  which  it  could  not  otherwise 
restrain,  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  whose  control 
ling  principle  was  the  sentiment  of  honor;  and 
while  this  newly  developed  sentiment  exerted 
a  very  wide  and  beneficial  influence  upon  all 
the  relations  and  all  the  departments  of  socie 
ty,  in  nothing  was  it  more  useful  than  in  the 
profound  respect  and  tender  care  which  it 
sought  at  least  to  inspire  toward  woman.  It 
was  under  this  feudal  system  that  the  law  grewr 
up  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  law  under 
which  we  live.  It  was  by  the  gradual  eleva 
tion  of  woman  in  social  and  domestic  life,  by 
the  side  of  man  as  he  rose  toward  the  posses 
sion  of  political  rights,  that  so  much  good  was 
attained  as  exists  in  that  law.  That  the  law 
of  husband  and  wife  in  the  United  States  is  in 
advance  of  any  that  has  existed  or  now  exists 
elsewhere,  we  are  confident.  The  tendency 
of  the  law,  however  incomplete  it  may  yet  be, 
is  to  respect  and  secure  the  rights  of  woman 
in  such  wise  as  to  preserve  her  influence  and 
her  happiness;  and  to  make  the  relation  of 
husband  and  wife  not  a  form  of  servitude  or 
the  means  of  oppression,  but  the  central  origin 
of  blessings  which  could  spring  from  no  other 
source,  and  may  pervade  the  whole  life  of  both 
sexes.  As  much  the  greater  part  of  the  com 
mon  law  is  still  in  force  with  us,  and  whatever 
laws  wo  have  are  but  various  modifications  of 
that  law,  we  purpose,  first,  to  give  a  condensed 
view  of  the  principles  of  the  common  law  in 
its  reference  to  the  relation  of  husband  and 
wife ;  and  then  to  present  a  brief  statement  of 


the  principal  variations  from  this  law  in  all 
the  states  of  this  Union.  Promises  to  marry, 
the  contract  of  marriage,  and  settlements  or 
contracts  in  view  of  marriage,  will  be  consid 
ered  in  the  article  MAERIAGE.  Here  we  shall 
treat  only  of  the  effect  of  marriage  on  the 
property  of  a  woman,  and  of  the  husband's 
liability  for  her  debts  contracted  previous  to 
marriage,  and  of  her  power  to  bind  him  by  her 
contracts,  and  of  his  obligations  for  her,  after 
marriage. — 1.  A  woman's  real  estate  remains 
her  own  after  marriage ;  but  her  husband  ac 
quires  a  right  to  it  (or,  in  law  language,  an  es 
tate  in  it)  for  her  life,  and  an  estate  in  it  for 
his  own  life  as  soon  as  a  living  child  is  born 
to  them,  by  what  is  called  tenancy  by  cur- 
tesy.  lie  has  therefore  a  life  estate  in  her 
land  either  for  her  life  or  for  his  own  life ; 
but  when  this  life  estate  ceases,  her  rights, 
or  the  rights  of  her  heirs,  revive  absolute 
ly.  He  cannot  transfer  her  land  by  his  deed, 
nor  can  she  by  her  deed  ;  but  in  this  coun 
try  it  may  be  transferred  by  the  joint  deed 
of  the  two.  In  different  states  different  pre 
cautions  are  provided  by  law,  to  make  it  sure 
that  she  executes  such  a  deed  of  her  own  free 
will.  Thus,  in  many  of  the  states,  she  must 
be  examined  apart  from  her  husband,  by  some 
magistrate,  as  to  her  willingness  and  her  mo 
tives  for  thus  disposing  of  her  land.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  her  marriage,  she  acquires  an 
indefeasible  right  of  dower  to  the  use  of  one 
third  of  his  lands  during  her  own  life,  of  which 
she  cannot  be  divested  but  by  her  own  act.  In 
this  country  she  usually  releases  her  right  of 
dower,  when  she  wishes  to  do  so,  by  adding  her 
release  to  her  husband's  deed  of  the  premises; 
but  his  creditors  cannot  generally  get  it  in 
any  way  without  her  consent.  (See  DOWER.) 
2.  A  woman's  personal  property  in  possession 
becomes  absolutely  the  husband's  property  by 
marriage.  By  this  is  meant  all  the  money  in 
her  hands,  and  all  her  chattels,  as  furniture, 
plate,  pictures,  books,  jewels,  &c.  Nor  can  he 
by  common  law  give  to  her  either  of  these  or 
chattels  of  his  own  during  marriage,  because 
transfer  of  possession  is  essential  to  a  valid 
transfer  by  gift,  and  her  possession  is  his  pos 
session  in  law.  lie  however  may  give  to  her 
by  his  will  what  ho  chooses  to,  and  may  doubt 
less  make  a  valid  transfer  of  anything  in  pos 
session  as  a  gift  causa  mortis.  (See  GIFT.)  The 
reason  why  the  personal  property  of  the  wife 
is  thus  absolutely  transferred  to  the  husband 
may  have  been,  in  part,  the  lingering  influence 
of  the  falsity  which  regarded  the  wife  herself 
as  only  the  property  of  the  husband  ;  but  it  was 
much  more,  probably,  the  comparative  worth- 
lessness  of  personal  possessions  in  the  feudal 
ages,  when  the  common  law  began.  "NY hat- 
ever  were  the  reasons,  they  have  little  force  or 
application  at  present.  A  single  woman  may, 
in  general,  make  whatever  contracts  a  man 
can.  If  by  such  a  contract  she  acquires  and 
receives  into  her  own  hands  any  property,  it  is 
property  in  possession,  of  which  we  have  spo- 


86 


HUSBAND  AND   WIFE 


ken.  But  if  the  thing  which  she  purposes  to 
obtain  by  the  contract  be  money,  or  the  right 
to  dividends,  or  any  other  right,  and  it  remains 
to  be  received  or  acquired  after  her  marriage, 
she  herself  possesses  not  the  thing,  but  a  right 
to  demand  and  receive  the  thing ;  and  this  right 
is  a  thing  in  action  (usually  called  by  the  Nor 
man  French  phrase  a  chose  in  action),  and  not  a 
thing  in  possession.  This  chose  in  action,  be 
longing  to  the  wife,  passes  by  marriage  to  the 
husband,  but  not  absolutely.  What  he  acquires 
is  the  right  to  reduce  it  to  possession,  and 
thereby  make  it  absolutely  his  own.  But  he 
is  not  obliged  to  reduce  it  to  possession ;  and 
if  he  does  not,  and  dies,  the  wife  surviving  him, 
all  his  right  is  gone,  and  the  chose  in  action  re 
mains  as  absolutely  the  property  of  the  widow 
as  it  would  have  been  had  she  never  married. 
The  principal  choses  in  action  to  which  this 
rule  applies  are  notes,  bills  of  exchange,  and 
evidences  of  debt  generally,  and  scrip  or  stocks 
standing  in  her  name.  The  principal  ways  of 
reducing  it  to  his  possession  are  four  :  by  col 
lecting  and  receiving  the  debt  for  his  own  use; 
making  a  new  contract  with  the  debtor  in  his 
own  name,  in  substitution  for  her  name;  hav 
ing  the  scrip  or  certificates  or  other  evidences 
of  debt  transferred  to  himself  and  his  own 
name  ;  or  suing  the  debt  and  recovering  a  judg 
ment  upon  it.  If  she  dies  before  him,  and  be 
fore  he  has  reduced  them  to  his  own  posses 
sion,  he  may  now  do  so  as  her  administrator, 
and  then  retain  them  for  his  own  benefit.  If 
he  dies  (having  survived  her)  without  having 
reduced  them  to  possession,  his  next  of  kin 
may  take  out  letters  as  her  administrator,  and 
reduce  the  choses  in  action  to  possession  for 
his  heirs.  In  regard  to  the  debts  she  owes  at 
the  time  of  marriage,  the  general  rule  is  that 
the  husband  is  answerable  for  all  of  these.  The 
creditor  may  demand  payment  of  the  husband, 
and  may  sue  him.  This  is  equally  true  of  the 
debts  which  had  matured  and  become  due 
before  marriage,  and  of  those  which  were 
not  payable  until  afterward  ;  and  his  liability 
for  her  debts  is  the  same,  whether  he  re 
ceives  much  with  her,  or  little,  or  nothing. 
But  this  liability  is  not  absolute  ;  for  if  she 
dies  before  he  pays  the  debt,  and  before  a 
judgment  is  recovered  against  him,  his  lia 
bility  ceases.  But  if  she  leaves  choses  in  ac 
tion  not  reduced  to  the  husband's  possession, 
these  are  still  liable  for  her  debts,  and  the  hus 
band,  or  whoever  becomes  her  administrator, 
must  apply  them  to  pay  these  debts,  and  retain 
only  the  surplus  for  the  husband  or  his  next 
of  kin.  If  he  dies  before  he  pays  her  debts, 
and  before  judgment  is  rendered  against  him, 
his  estate  is  not  liable,  but  the  wife's  liability, 
which  was  suspended  during  his  life,  revives 
at  his  death.  This  is  true  although  he  received 
a  large  property  with  her.  But  when  a  wife 
thus  brings  a  considerable  property  to  her  hus 
band,  courts  of  equity  sometimes  interfere  on  her 
application  and  compel  him  and  his  assignees 
to  make  an  equitable  settlement  out  of  it  for  the 


support  of  herself  and  of  the  children  of  the 
marriage,  if  any.  3.  We  will  now  consider  the 
contracts  or  obligations  of  the  wife  made  or  en 
tered  into  during  marriage.  In  the  first  place,  a 
married  woman  has  at  common  law  no  power 
whatever  to  make  a  valid  contract  which  shall 
bind  herself  or  her  husband.  If  money  is  due 
for  her  services,  or  for  money  lent  by  her,  it 
is  due  not  to  her,  but  to  him.  Her  time  and 
her  labor  and  her  money  are  all  his.  But  she 
may  act  as  his  agent  in  making  a  contract,  and 
if  authorized  by  him,  he  is  bound.  This  au 
thority  may  be  express,  or  it  may  be  implied 
from  frequent  acts  of  agency  recognized  by 
him,  as  when  she  acts  as  his  clerk,  accepting 
or  paying  bills,  &c. ;  and  then  it  does  not  differ 
in  law  from  a  common  agency.  There  is,  how 
ever,  an  important  and  peculiar  agency  of  the 
wife,  growing  out  of  her  duties ;  and  this  is  an 
implied  agency  for  the  husband  in  all  domestic 
matters,  as  the  hiring  of  servants,  and  the  pur 
chase  of  provisions  and  of  clothing  for  the  family. 
As  this  grows  out  of  necessity,  it  is  measured 
by  it ;  but  the  law  means  a  reasonable  neces 
sity,  and  this  is  only  an  appropriateness.  For 
any  contract  of  this  sort  made  by  her,  which 
is  in  due  conformity  with  her  husband's  means, 
station,  and  manner  of  life,  would  bind  him, 
and  he  would  not  be  permitted  to  deny  his 
authority.  If  they  exceeded  this  necessity  or 
appropriateness,  the  husband  could  be  held 
only  on  some  evidence  of  authority  or  assent, 
as  that  he  knew  the  contract,  or  saw  the  things 
bought,  and  made  no  objection.  The  question 
then  occurs,  How  far  is  the  husband  bound  to 
supply  the  necessities  of  the  wife?  The  gen 
eral  rule  on  this  subject  is,  that  he  is  bound 
to  supply  her  with  all  necessaries,  which 
means  in  this  case  all  her  reasonable  wants, 
while  they  live  together.  If  they  separate  be 
cause  he  drives  her  away  without  sufficient 
cause,  the  same  liability  continues ;  and  then 
he  is  responsible  for  any  debts  she  may  con 
tract  for  this  purpose.  Even  Lord  Eldon  de 
clared  that  "  where  a  man  turns  his  wife  out 
of  doors,  he  sends  with  her  credit  for  her  rea 
sonable  expenses."  (3  Espinasse,  250.)  There 
can  hardly  be  a  sufficient  cause  for  thus  casting 
her  off  without  his  liability  for  her  subsistence, 
unless  it  be  her  adultery ;  but  this  certainly  is 
sufficient.  If,  however,  she  voluntarily  leaves 
him,  she  cannot  carry  his  credit  with  her,  un 
less  she  leaves  with  sufficient  cause ;  and  while 
it  is  not  easy  to  determine  in  all  cases  what 
would  be  sufficient  cause,  perhaps  it  would  be 
safe  to  say  that  any  cause  which  would  be  suf 
ficient  for  divorce,  either  from  the  bonds  of 
matrimony  or  from  bed  and  board,  would  jus 
tify  her  leaving.  While  the  law  is  now  pretty 
well  settled,  both  in  England  and  in  this  coun 
try,  as  to  when  the  husband  is  liable  for  neces 
saries  furnished  to  the  wife,  and  when  he  is 
not,  a  question  of  much  moment  remains,  and 
of  late  years  has  been  much  considered,  viz. : 
On  what  ground  does  this  liability  rest?  It 
must  rest  on  his  authority  as  proved,  or  as  im- 


HUSBAND  AXD  WIFE 


8T 


plied  by  law ;  or  else  upon  his  marital  duty  as  [ 
husband.     It'  it  stands  upon  the  former  foun 
dation,  it  must  follow  that  he  may  always  pre-  | 
vent  his  liability  by  express  refusal  and  prohi-  j 
bition ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  he  always  has  j 
the  power  to  limit  or  prevent  his  liability.     If  j 
it  stands  on  the  foundation  of  his  marital  duty,  | 
this  he  is  bound  to  discharge,  and  his  prohibi-  j 
tions  are  of  no  effect.     The  former  was  the 
unquestionable  rule  in  England  and  here  until  I 
very  recently,  no  other  ground  for  the  husband's  j 
liability  being  recognized  in  any  way  than  his  | 
authority  express  or  implied ;  and  therefore  it  j 
was  held  that  if  a  wife  lived  with  her  hus-  j 
band,  no  one  could  recover  from  him  the  price  j 
of  any  necessaries  supplied  to  her,  under  any  j 
circumstances,  against  his  prohibition.     Thus,  ; 
Chief  Justice  Hale  said  (1  Siderfin,  109):  "The 
law  will  not  presume  so  much  ill,  as  that  a  | 
husband  should  not  provide  for  his  wife's  ne 
cessities."     At  length,  however,  it  began  to  be 
seen  that  there  might  be  cases  of  incapacity, 
as  where  the  husband  was  wholly  insane,  and 
could  not  be  supposed  to  constitute  an  agent 
or  confer  authority  upon  any  one ;  and  yet  it 
could  not  be  supposed  that  the  wife  was  to  be 
deprived  of  the  necessaries  of  life  which  her 
husband's  means  were  amply  sufficient  for,  be-  1 
cause  he  could  not  authorize  the  purchase  of  | 
them.     Again,  we  have  seen  that  the  husband  ; 
who  drives  his  wife  abroad  sends  his  credit  | 
with  her;  but  the  absurdity  of  supposing  that 
he  constitutes  her  his  agent  struck  the  court,  j 
Baron  Alderson  said  (Read  v.  Legard,  6  Exch.,  I 
636) :  "It  is  a  monstrous  proposition  that  a  j 
man  who  drives  a  woman  out  of  doors,  who  j 
hates,  who  abominates  her,  actually  gives  her  j 
authority  to  make  contracts  for  him."     In  that  I 
case   the  principle  was   recognized  that  the 
right  of  a  wife  to  a  proper  support  grows  out  ' 
of  the  marital  relation,  and  that  the  liability 
of  the  husband  for  necessaries  supplied  to  her  j 
is  a  consequence  of  that  right.     This  case  was  ; 
so  decided  in  1851 ;  but  like  decisions  had  pre-  ] 
viously  been  made  in  this  country,  and  are  now  ! 
the  settled  law.     It  must  be  remembered,  how-  ; 
ever,  that  there  is  an  essential  difference  be 
tween  the  case  where  husband  and  wife  cohabit,  ' 
and  that  where  they  live  apart.     In  the  first,  i 
the  presumption  of  law  is  strong  against  the 
husband ;  and  he  can  resist  payment  for  sup 
plies  furnished  only  by  showing  that  they  were  j 
not  necessaries,  either  because  they  were  un-  i 
reasonable   and  inappropriate   in   kind   or  in  j 
amount,  or  that  the  wife  was  sufficiently  sup 
plied  elsewhere.     But  if  she  have  separated 
from  him.  no  such  presumption  exists.     Who 
ever  supplies  the -wife  now,  takes  upon  himself 
the  risk  of  being  able  to  show  that  she  needed 
what  he  gave  her,  and  that  there  was  no  such 
sufficient  cause  for  the  husband's  withdrawing 
his  support  of  her  as  would  destroy  his  liability 
for  what  was  furnished  to  her. — As  to  the  sep-  \ 
aration  of  husband  and  wife  by  mutual  con 
sent,  the  law  has  always  regarded  it  as  a  kind 
of  voluntary  divorce,  and  formerly  refused  to 


admit  or  acknowledge  it  in  any  way.  Of  late 
years,  however,  it  seems  to  be  otherwise.  It 
is  still  a  rule  of  the  common  law  that  husband 
and  wife  cannot  contract  with  each  other,  be 
cause  they  are  not  two  persons,  but  one.  Hence 
no  bargain  which  they  can  make  directly  with 
each  other  has  any  force  or  effect  at  law.  But 
if  they  make  their  bargain  through  and  by 
means  of  a  third  person,  by  way  of  trustee,  and 
enter  into  certain  covenants  with  him,  a  court 
of  equity,  and  for  some  purposes  a  court  of  lawr, 
would  permit  this  trustee  to  maintain  such 
actions  as  might  be  necessary  to  give  full  effect 
to  the  bargain,  although  its  only  purpose  were 
to  provide  for  the  separation  of  the  parties. 
There  are,  however,  two  qualifications  to  this 
rule.  One  is,  that  if  the  court  see  that  the 
terms  of  separation  are  catching,  oppressive, 
or  unreasonable,  they  will  not  carry  them  into 
effect.  The  other  is,  that  the  locus  poenitenticB 
is  always  kept  open.  Although  the  bargain 
provides  that  the  separation  shall  be  perpetual, 
and  all  its  terms  are  founded  upon  this  suppo 
sition,  and  are  clothed  for  this  purpose  in  the 
most  stringent  language,  yet,  as  soon  as  either 
party  wishes  the  separation  to  cease,  it  must 
cease.  The  husband  cannot  deprive  himself 
of  his  right  to  recall  his  wife  ;  and  she  cannot 
deprive  herself  of  her  right  to  return.  By 
the  "  custom  of  London,"  a  married  woman 
may  be  a  sole  trader  there,  but  nowhere  else 
in  England.  In  the  United  States,  partly  by 
statute  and  partly  by  adjudication,  a  married 
woman  would  generally  be  permitted  to  carry 
on  business  on  her  own  account,  much  as  a 
single  woman  might,  in  case  of  continued  aban 
donment,  or  long  imprisonment  of  the  hus 
band,  or  alienage  and  non-residence,  or  with 
the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the  husband, 
which  might  be  inferred  from  circumstances. 
It  should  be  added  that  the  husband  is  liable 
for  the  wife's  wrong  doings  in  many  cases ;  as 
for  her  libel,  slander,  fraud,  cheating,  and  gen 
erally  for  injurious  misconduct.  If  she  com 
mit  a  crime  in  his  presence,  the  law  presumes 
that  he  ordered  it ;  but  he  may  remove  this 
presumption  by  evidence  of  its  falsity. — Im 
portant  changes  have  been  made  in  the  com 
mon  law  by  statutes  in  the  several  states  of 
the  American  Union.  In  Maine,  the  property 
owned  by  the  woman  at  marriage  or  acquired 
afterward  remains  hers,  and  she  has  the  same 
rights  as  any  other  owner  in  respect  to  it,  ex 
cept  that  if  the  property  came  from  the  husband 
she  cannot  dispose  of  it  without  his  joining. 
In  Xew  Hampshire,  after  three  months'  deser 
tion  or  any  act  of  the  husband  entitling  her  to 
divorce,  she  may  hold  and  dispose  of  the  prop 
erty  by  her  acquired  and  the  earnings  of  the 
minor  children,  and  the  judge  of  probate  may 
order  provision  made  for  her  from  her  hus 
band's  property  in  the  state,  and  her  property 
shall  descend  on  her  death  as  if  she  were  single. 
A  married  woman  may  will  her  property  to 
any  one  except  her  husband,  but  not  cut  off 
his  right  by  the  curtesy.  In  Vermont,  the  su- 


88 


HUSBAND  AND  WIFE 


preme  court  may  authorize  a  deserted  wife  to 
convey  her  estate  and  the  personal  estate 
which  came  to  the  husband  by  the  marriage, 
and  require  the  debtors  of  the  husband  in  her 
right  to  make  payment  to  her ;  and  the  pro 
ceeds  of  the  earnings  of  herself  and  the  minor 
children  are  to  be  at  her  disposal.  The  rents 
and  profits  of  the  wife's  real  estate,  and  the  in 
terest  of  the  husband  in  it,  are  exempt  from 
execution  for  his  debts,  and  can  only  be  con 
veyed  by  her  joining  in  the  deed.  The  wife 
may  dispose  of  her  property  by  will.  In  Mas 
sachusetts,  a  married  woman  may  be  a  sole 
trader,  and  may  dispose  of  her  real  estate  by 
will,  leaving  to  the  husband  his  estate  by  the 
curtesy,  and  also  her  personal  estate,  but  not 
more  than  one  half  of  it  away  from  the  husband 
without  his  consent.  She  holds  as  her  own 
all  property  howsoever  acquired  except  by 
gift  from  her  husband,  but  she  cannot  convey 
real -estate  or  shares  in  a  corporation  except 
with  his  consent,  or  the  consent  of  a  judge  of 
the  supreme,  common  pleas,  or  probate  court. 
Her  real  estate  and  corporate  shares  are  not 
liable  for  the  husband's  debts.  In  Rhode 
Island,  a  married  woman  may  dispose  of  her 
real  estate  by  will,  saving  to  the  husband  his 
estate  by  the  curtesy,  and  whatever  deposits 
are  made  by  her  in  savings  banks  are  her  own. 
In  Connecticut,  the  personal  property  acquired 
by  the  husband  in  right  of  the  wife  he  holds 
as  trustee  for  her,  except  to  the  extent  he  may 
have  paid  ante-nuptial  debts,  and  his  interest 
in  her  real  estate  cannot  be  taken  for  his  debts 
during  her  life  or  the  life  of  children.  The 
proceeds  of  her  real  estate  are  deemed  hers  in 
equity  and  not  subject  to  his  debts,  and  all  ac 
quired  by  her  personal  services  is  hers  abso 
lutely.  Her  savings  deposits  are  also  her  own, 
and  there  are  further  provisions  in  case  of 
abandonment  or  abuse  by  the  husband.  In 
New  York,  the  wife's  property,  acquired  be 
fore  or  after  marriage,  is  subject  to  her  own 
control,  and  not  liable  for  the  husband's  debts, 
but  is  liable  for  her  own  debts,  while  the  hus 
band  is  not  liable  except  in  case  of  neglect  to 
take  out  administration  on  her  estate  on  her 
death.  In  New  Jersey,  the  real  and  personal  j 
estate  of  the  wife,  whenever  acquired,  remains 
hers,  free  from  her  husband's  control  and  not 
liable  for  his  debts.  In  case  of  his  desertion 
she  may  have  provision  made  for  her  from  his 
estate.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  property  of  the 
married  woman,  acquired  before  or  after  mar-  ' 
riage,  remains  hers,  free  from  any  control  by  ; 
the  husband,  and  liable  for  her  debts,  but  no"t  > 
for  his.  The  husband  is  not  liable  for  the  j 
wife's  ante-nuptial  debts.  In  case  of  desertion  [ 
or  neglect  by  the  husband  to  provide  for  her,  | 
she  has  the  rights  of  a  feme  sole.  In  North  i 
Carolina,  the  interest  of  the  husband  in  the 
real  estate  of  the  wife  cannot  be  taken  on 
execution  for  his  debts,  nor  can  it  be  disposed  j 
of  by  the  husband  except  with  her  consent.  ; 
In  Florida,  the  property  of  the  wife  remains 
hers,  and  the  husband  is  not  liable  for  her 


ante-nuptial  debts.  The  same  is  true  in  Ala 
bama,  and  substantially  so  in  Mississippi.  In 
Louisiana  the  laws  are  peculiar,  but  it  is  com 
petent  for  the  married  woman  to  carry  on 
business  as  a  sole  trader,  and  to  have  all  her 
property  secured  to  her  own  use,  or  the  prop 
erty  of  the  two  may  be  in  common.  In  Texas 
the  laws  are  also  peculiar,  but  the  property  of 
the  wife  owned  at  the  marriage,  or  acquired 
by  gift,  devise,  or  descent  afterward,  remains 
her  own,  though  subject  to  the  husband's 
management.  In  California,  the  property 
owned  by  either  the  husband  or  wife  at  the 
time  of  the  marriage  remains  his  or  hers,  as 
does  also  any  that  either  may  acquire  by  gift, 
bequest,  devise,  or  descent  afterward,  with  the 
rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof;  but  all  other 
property  acquired  by  either  afterward  is  com 
munity  property.  Husband  and  wife  may  con 
tract  with  each  other  or  with  third  persons  re 
specting  property,  as  they  might  if  unmarried  ; 
his  separate  property  is  not  liable  for  her  ante 
nuptial  debts,  nor  her  separate  property  or 
earnings  for  his  debts,  and  dower  and  curtesy 
are  abolished.  "While  the  husband  is  liable  for 
the  wife's  support,  the  wife  is  also  liable  for 
his  support  if  he  has  no  separate  property  and 
they  have  no  community  property,  and  he  from 
infirmity  is  incompetent  to  support  himself. 
The  husband  has  the  management  of  commu 
nity  property,  and  may  dispose  of  it  otherwise 
than  by  will.  In  Kentucky,  a  married  wo 
man  may  dispose  of  her  separate  property  by 
will,  and  the  husband  during  her  lifetime  has 
only  the  use  of  it.  In  Ohio,  a  married  woman 
may  dispose  of  her  separate  property  by  will, 
and  the  interest  of  the  husband  in  any  of  her 
property  cannot  be  taken  for  his  debts  during 
her  life  or  the  life  of  children.  In  Indiana,  the 
wife's  property  remains  hers  and  may  be  dis 
posed  of  by  will,  and  is  not  liable  for  the  hus 
band's  debts.  In  the  other  western  states,  it 
may  be  said  generally,  the  real  and  personal 
estate  owned  by  the  wife  before  marriage  or 
acquired  by  her  afterward  is  at  her  absolute 
disposal,  by  contract,  conveyance,  or  will,  and 
not  subject  to  her  husband's  debts ;  while  the 
husband  is  not  liable  for  her  debts  contracted 
before  marriage  nor  for  those  contracted  after 
ward,  except  where  she  may  have  acted  as  his 
agent  and  with  the  proper  authority.  The  re 
cent  changes  in  the  southern  states  have  been 
in  the  same  direction.  It  is  not  easy  to  say 
exactly  how  the  estate  by  the  curtesy  stands 
in  the  states  where  it  is  not  expressly  saved  by 
statute,  but  we  should  say  any  valid  convey 
ance  of  the  wife's  estate  would  cut  it  off,  and 
in  some  states  it  has  been -decided  that  the 
broad  terms  in  which  statutes  secure  to  mar 
ried  women  their  property  will  preclude  cur 
tesy  attaching. — In  other  respects  statutes 
have  made  important  changes  respecting  the 
rights  of  women  which  do  not  depend  on 
the  status  of  marriage.  Thus,  in  the  territory 
of  Wyoming  the  distinction  of  sex  in  the  ex 
ercise  of  the  elective  franchise  has  been  abol- 


HUSBANDRY 


HUSBANDS 


89 


ished,  and  women  of  the  requisite  age  are  ad 
mitted  to  vote  and  are  eligible  to  office.  In  Il 
linois,  by  statute,  women  passing  the  necessary 
examination  may  be  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
in  some  of  the  other  states  they  have  been  ad 
mitted  by  the  courts  without  question.  Wo 
men  who  pay  school  taxes  are  voters  at  school 
meetings  in  a  number  of  the  states,  and  in  re 
cent  elections  in  some,  notably  in  Illinois  and 
Iowa,  women  have  been  chosen  county  super 
intendents  of  schools.  In  Michigan  a  woman 
has  for  several  years  been  state  librarian. 

HUSBANDRY,  Patrons  of,  an  organization  of 
agriculturists  in  the  United  States.  Its  origin 
is  attributed  to  Mr.  O.  II.  Kelley,  a  native  of 
Boston,  who  in  1866,  being  then  connected 
with  the  department  of  agriculture  in  Wash 
ington,  was  commissioned  by  President  John 
son  to  travel  through  the  southern  states  and 
report  upon  their  agricultural  and  mineral  re 
sources,  lie  found  agriculture  in  a  state  of 
great  depression  consequent  upon  the  radical 
changes  wrought  by  the  civil  war  and  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  At  the  same  time  there 
was  much  dissatisfaction  among  the  farmers  of 
the  west  and  northwest  in  consequence  of  the 
alleged  high  charges  and  unjust  discriminations 
made  by  railroad  companies  in  the  transporta 
tion  of  their  products.  The  farmers  also  com 
plained  of  the  exorbitant  prices  exacted  by  mid 
dlemen  for  agricultural  implements  and  stores. 
Mr.  Kelley  conceived  the  idea  that  a  system  of 
cooperation,  or  an  association  having  some  re 
semblance  to  'the  order  of  odd  fellows  or  ma 
sons,  might  be  formed  with  advantage  among 
the  dissatisfied  agriculturists.  For  this  purpose 
a  plan  of  organization  was  determined  upon 
by  him  and  Mr.  William  Saunders,  of  the  de 
partment  of  agriculture.  The  name  chosen  for 
the  order  was  "Patrons  of  Husbandry,"  and 
its  branches  were  to  be  called  granges  (Fr. 
grange,  a  barn).  The  constitution  of  the  or 
der  provides  for  a  national  grange  and  state 
and  subordinate  granges.  There  are  ceremo 
nies  of  initiation,  rituals,  and  injunctions  of 
secrecy,  though  in  some  respects  the  order  is 
not  secret.  The  officers  of  a  grange,  whether 
national,  state,  or  subordinate,  are  elected  by 
the  members,  and  comprise  a  master,  over 
seer,  lecturer,  steward,  assistant  steward,  chap 
lain,  treasurer,  secretary,  gate  keeper,  Ceres, 
Pomona,  Flora,  and  lady  assistant  steward. 
Women  are  admitted  to  membership  upon  the 
same  terms  and  with  equal  privileges  as  men, 
but  only  those  persons  interested  in  agricultural 
pursuits  are  eligible.  Regular  meetings  of  the 
national  and  state  granges  are  held  annually, 
while  subordinate  granges  usually  meet  monthly 
or  oftener.  The  constitution  was  adopted,  and 
on  Dec.  4,  1867,  the  national  grange  was  or 
ganized  in  AVashington  ;  its  headquarters  are 
now  in  Georgetown,  D.  C.  In  the  spring  of 
1868  Mr.  Kelley  founded  a  grange  in  Harris- 
burg,  Pa.,  one  in  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  one  in  Co 
lumbus,  O.,  one  in  Chicago,  111.,  and  six  in 
Minnesota.  The  number  of  granges  soon  began 


!  to  multiply  rapidly,  and  in  1874  they  lyid  been 
I  organized  in  nearly  every  state  and  territory 
of  the  Union.  In  1871,  125  granges  were  es 
tablished  ;  in  1872, 1,160  ;  in  1873,  8,667  ;  and 
in  the  first  two  months  of  1874,  4,618.  At  the 
beginning  of  1874,  the  number  of  granges  in 
the  United  States  was  10,015,  with  a  member 
ship  of  750,125.  The  total  number  of  members 
in  April,  1874,  was  estimated  at  about  1,500,- 
000.  The  order  has  its  greatest  strength  in 
the  northwestern  and  western  states,  and  is 
well  represented  in  the  south.  At  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  national  grange  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  in  February,  1874,  a  declaration  was 
adopted  setting  forth  the  purposes  of  the  or 
ganization  as  follows:  "To  develop  a  better 
and  higher  manhood  and  womanhood  among 
ourselves  ;  to  enhance  the  comforts  and  attrac 
tions  of  our  homes,  and  strengthen  our  attach 
ment  to  our  pursuits;  to  foster  mutual  under 
standing  and  cooperation ;  to  maintain  invio- 
I  late  our  laws,  and  to  emulate  each  other  in 
labor  ;  to  hasten  the  good  time  coming;  to  re 
duce  our  expenses,  both  individual  and  corpo 
rate  ;  to  buy  less  and  produce  more,  in  order 
to  make  our  farms  self-sustaining  ;  to  diversity 
our  crops,  and  crop  no  more  than  we  can  cul 
tivate  ;  to  condense  the  weight  of  our  exports, 
selling  less  in  the  bushel,  and  more  on  hoof  and 
in  fleece  ;  to  systematize  our  work,  and  calcu 
late  intelligently  on  probabilities ;  to  discoun 
tenance  the  credit  system,  the  mortgage  sys 
tem,  the  fashion  system,  and  every  other  sys 
tem  tending  to  prodigality  and  bankruptcy. 
We  propose  meeting  together,  talking  together, 
working  together,  buying  together,  selling  to 
gether,  and  in  general  acting  together  for  our 
mutual  protection  and  advancement  as  occasion 
may  require.  We  shall  avoid  litigation  as  much 
as  possible  by  arbitration  in  the  grange.  We 
shall  constantly  strive  to  secure  entire  harmony, 
good  will,  vital  brotherhood  among  ourselves, 
and  to  make  our  order  perpetual.  We  shall 
earnestly  endeavor  to  suppress  personal,  local, 
sectional,  and  national  prejudices,  all  unhealthy 
rivalry,  all  selfish  ambition.  Faithful  adherence 
to  these  principles  will  insure  our  mental,  moral, 
social,  and  material  advancement."  One  of 
the  chief  aims  of  the  organization  is  to  bring 
producers  and  consumers,  formers  and  manu 
facturers,  into  direct  and  friendly  relations ; 
for  this  purpose  cooperation  is  encouraged 
among  farmers  in  the  purchase  of  agricultural 
implements  and  other  necessaries  direct  from 
the  manufacturer.  The  organization  therefore 
is  maintained  for  social  and  economic  purposes, 
and  no  grange  can  assume  any  political  or  sec 
tarian  functions. 

HUSBANDS,   Herman,    an   American    revolu 
tionist,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  died  near  Phila- 
|  delphia  about  1794.     Removing  to  Orange  co., 
!  N.  C.,  he  became  a  member  of  the  legislature 
and  leader  of  the  "regulators,"  a  party  which 
was  organized  in  1768  for  the  forcible  redress 
of  public  grievances.     He  published  in  1770  a 
full  account  of  the  rise  of  the  troubles.     A 


90 


HUSH 


HUSS 


battle  took  place  in  1771  between  Gov.  Try  on 
with  1,100  men  and  2,000  of  the  insurgents  on 
the  banks  of  the  Alamance,  in  which  the  latter 
were  defeated.  Husbands  escaped  to  Penn 
sylvania,  where  he  was  concerned  in  the  whis 
key  insurrection  in  1794,  and  was  associated 
with  Albert  Gallatin,  Breckenridge,  and  oth 
ers,  as  a  committee  of  safety.  ^ 

HUSH,  a  town  of  Roumania,  in  Moldavia, 
near  the  Pruth,  36  m.  S.  E.  of  Jassy ;  pop. 
about  13,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop, 
and  has  a  normal  school.  Here,  on  July  25, 
1711,  the  peace  was  concluded  between  Rus 
sia  and  Turkey  which  saved  Peter  the  Great 
and  his  army  on  the  Pruth  from  destruction 
or  captivity. 

HISKISSOtf,  William,  an  English  statesman, 
born  at  Birch-Moreton,  Worcestershire,  March 
11,  1770,  died  at  Eccles,  Lancashire,  Sept.  15, 
1830.  lie  was  originally  intended  for  the 
medical  profession,  and  in  his  14th  year  went 
to  Paris  to  pursue  his  studies.  Here  he  resi 
ded  for  several  years,  and  adopted  the  revolu 
tionary  doctrines  of  the  day ;  but  he  afterward 
abandoned  them,  and  became  private  secre 
tary  to  the  British  ambassador,  Lord  Gower, 
with  whom  he  returned  to  England  in  1792, 
and  in  1795  was  made  undersecretary  of  state 
for  Avar  and  the  colonies.  In  1796  he  entered 
parliament,  of  which,  with  the  exception  of 
two  years,  from  1802  to  1804,  he  remained  a 
member  until  his  death.  Following  the  for 
tunes  of  Mr.  Pitt,  he  retired  from  office  with 
him  in  1801,  and  became  secretary  of  the 
treasury  on  the  formation  of  the  new  Pitt 
ministry  in  1804.  He  attached  himself  to  Mr. 
Canning,  taking  office  with  him  in  1807  and 
retiring  in  1809.  In  1814  he  was  appointed 
chief  commissioner  of  woods  and  forests,  and 
in  1823  entered  the  cabinet  as  president  of 
the  board  of  trade  and  treasurer  of  the  navy, 
which  offices  he  retained  until  the  death  of 
Canning.  In  the  Goderich  cabinet  and  in  that  | 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington  he  held  the  office  | 
of  secretary  for  the  colonies  till  May,  1829, 
when  the  redemption  of  a  pledge  formerly 
given  obliged  him  to  vote  against  his  col 
leagues,  and  he  resigned.  As  a  public  man  he 
was  chiefly  known  by  his  speeches  on  finan 
cial  and  commercial  subjects ;  and  he  is  re 
garded  as  the  great  pioneer  in  the  free-trade 
movement.  In  1823  he  carried  through  par 
liament  an  act  for  removing  various  restric 
tions  upon  commerce.  He  was  also  active  in 
procuring  the  repeal  of  the  combination  laws 
and  the  relaxation  of  the  restrictions  on  the 
exportation  of  machinery.  He  was  present  at 
the  opening  of  the  Liverpool  arid  Manchester 
railway,  and  at  Parkside,  while  conversing 
with  the  duke  of  Wellington,  was  run  over  by 
a  locomotive,  and  died  the  same  evening. 

Hl'SS,  John,  a  Bohemian  religious  reformer, 
born  about  1373,  burned  at  Constance,  July 
6,  1415.  His  surname  was  derived  from  his 
place  of  birth,  Hussinetz,  near  the  border  of 
Bavaria.  lie  studied  first  in  his  own  town, 


then  in  Prachatitz,  and  finally  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Prague,  AYhere  he  graduated  in  1393. 
In  1398  he  began  to  give  lectures  in  philosophy 
and  theology  ;  in  1401  he  became  president  of 
the  university  faculty  of  theology ;  and  in  1402 
he  was  installed  preacher  in  the  Bethlehem 
chapel,  which  had  been  established  ten  years 
earlier  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  people  to 
hear  preaching  and  the  Scriptures  in  the  Bohe 
mian  tongue.  He  became  the  confessor  of  the 
queen,  and  the  head  of  a  party  of  priests  and 
scholars  who  meditated  reforms  in  discipline 
and  in  doctrine.  His  first  polemical  treatise, 
De  Sanguine  Christi  Glorificato,  was  occa 
sioned  by  the  pilgrimages  to  Wilsnack  to  see 
and  worship  the  miraculous  blood  of  Christ 
there  shown  on  the  consecrated  host.  In  suc 
cessive  sermons  preached  before  the  arch 
bishop,  Huss  next  arraigned  the  misconduct 
of  the  clergy  even  in  high  places ;  demanded 
the  despoiling  of  the  churches  of  useless  orna 
ments,  that  the  poor  might  be  fed  and  clothed  ; 
and  called  upon  the  secular  officers  to  hinder 
and  punish  the  open  vices  of  ecclesiastics. 
This  excited  strong  opposition,  which  was  in 
creased  when  the  ordinance  of  Charles  IV., 
giving  special  privileges  to  the  native  over 
the  foreign  students,  was  revived  by  IIuss, 
and  the  Poles  and  Germans  deserted  the  uni 
versity,  depriving  the  city  of  thousands  of  its 
population.  Soon  afterward  he  became  rec 
tor  of  the  university.  Other  circumstances, 
connected  with  the  papal  schism,  aided  to  em 
broil  Huss  with  the  archbishop  and  his  friends. 
It  became  a  warfare  between  the  university 
and  the  cathedral.  The  pope  interfered  for 
the  latter ;  and,  fortified  by  his  bull,  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1409  the  archbishop  Sbinko 
burned  200  volumes  of  the  works  of  Wycliflfe, 
which  had  been  deposited  in  his  palace. 
Against  this  act  Huss  protested,  in  a  spirited 
treatise  addressed  to  the  new  pope,  John 
XXIII.,  with  arguments  of  such  weight  that 
a  commission  of  doctors  condemned  the  arch 
bishop  for  irregular  action.  The  cry  of  heresy 
was  now  raised  against  Huss,  and  he  was  sum 
moned  to  Rome  to  answer  this  charge.  The 
]  court,  the  university,  and  even  the  archbishop 
sent  a  defence  of  his  orthpjd^xypand  Huss  sent 
advocates  to  plead  his  cause  before  the  cardi 
nals,  but  they  were  not  heard.  He  was  con 
demned  as  a  heretic,  and  ordered  to  quit 
Prague ;  and  the  city  was  placed  under  ban  so 
long  as  he  should  remain  there.  Finding  it 
vain  to  resist,  he  left  the  city ;  but  his  retire 
ment  only  inflamed  the  zeal  of  his  partisans. 
The  books  which  he  wrote  at  this  period,  half 
apologetic,  half  polemic,  tended  more  and 
more  to  widen  the  breach  and  to  arouse  acts 
of  violence.  An  outbreak  in  the  city  followed  ; 
|  the  partisans  of  IIuss  were  victorious,  the  arch- 
I  bishop  fled,  and  IIuss  came  back  to  his  chapel, 
'  emboldened  to  preach  more  and  more  vehe 
mently  against  prevalent  corruptions.  He 
i  praised  the  king  for  upholding  the  cause  of 
\  truth  and  purity  against  the  mandates  of  eccle- 


HUSS 


91 


siastical  power;  and  in  his  treatise  Contra 
Occultum  Adversarium,  written  at  this  time, 
he  maintains  the  doctrine  that  kings  have  the 
right  to  rule  the  clergy  not  less  than  the  laity. 
Soon  more  serious  trouble  arose.  The  pope 
had  issued  bulls  of  excommunication  against 
King  Ladislas  of  Naples.  Political  reasons  in 
duced  the  court  and  university  to  side  with 
the  pope ;  but  IIuss  immediately  published  two 
tracts  against  the  papal  bulls.  A  reaction  fol 
lowed.  The  partisans  of  the  pope  were  insult 
ed  in  the  streets,  and  IIuss  had  great  difficulty 
in  restraining  the  fury  of  his  followers.  This 
was  followed  by  tracts  which  maintained  that 
the  clergy  were  only  stewards  of  the  wealth 
in  their  possession,  which  belonged  to  the 
people  and  not  to  the  church.  Huss  contended 
that  not  the  priest's  word,  but  the  power  of 
God,  wrought  the  change  of  transubstantiation ; 
claimed  that  any  one  moved  by  the  Spirit  had 
the  right  to  preach  ;  and  asserted  the  right  of 
conscience  as  against  the  edicts  of  popes  and 
councils.  He  was  accused  of  denouncing  the 
veneration  of  saints  and  the  worship  of  the  Vir 
gin,  but  defended  himself  against  these  charges. 
lie  was  again  summoned  to  Rome,  but  took  no 
heed  of  the  order.  Repeated  attempts  were 
made  by  the  king  to  compose  the  difficulties, 
but  without  success.  A  decree  was  procured 
from  Rome,  putting  Huss  again  under  ban  as 
an  incorrigible  heretic  ;  and  at  the  earnest  re 
quest  of  the  king,  he  left  Prague  for  a  time, 
and  found  shelter  in  his  native  town.  In  a 
long  treatise  upon  "The  Church,"  he  holds  that 
the  papacy  began  to  exist  at  the  time  of  Con 
stantino,  and  that  its  usurpations  threatened  to 
secularize  and  so  to  destroy  the  gospel..  Fre 
quent  letters  and  occasional  secret  visits  con 
firmed  the  zeal  of  his  partisans.  lie  continued 
to  preach  in  the  cities  to  immense  crowds ; 
and  after  a  time,  to  be  nearer  Prague,  he  re 
moved  his  residence  to  the  castle  of  Cracowitz, 
which  had  been  offered  him  as  a  refuge.  In 
1414,  at  the  instigation  of  the  emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  Pope  John  XXIII.  summoned  a  general 
council  at  Constance,  and  IIuss  was  cited  to 
appear.  Trusting  to  the  safe-conduct  which 
the  emperor  granted  him,  he  resolved  to  obey. 
On  his  arrival  at  Constance  he  was  welcomed 
by  the  pope  Avith  a  fraternal  greeting,  and  was 
promised  that  the  former  interdict  should  be 
suspended.  For  some  timo  IIuss  was  free  to 
come  and  go,  to  discuss  and  preach.  Expect 
ing  a  special  trial,  he  had  prepared  his  defence. 
But  on  NY>AT.  28  he  Avas  arrested  and  imprisoned 
in  the  cathedral,  and  several  days  later  trans 
ferred  to  the  Dominican  convent,  on  an  island 
in  the  lake.  An  accusation  against  IIuss  had 
been  drawn  up,  and  three  commissioners  \vere 
appointed  to  visit  him  in  prison,  question  him, 
take  down  his  ansAA'ers,  and  report  to  a  council 
of  doctors.  IIuss  asked,  but  was  not  allowed, 
the  assistance  of  counsel.  His  private  letters 
Avere  opened,  his  appeals  to  the  emperor  disre 
garded,  and  the  kind  treatment  of  his  prison 
keepers  could  hardly  compensate  for  the  in 


justice  of  his  enemies.  The  flight  of  the  pope 
only  aggravated  his  suffering.  He  was  trans- 
furred  to  the  strong  castle  of  Gottleben,  heav 
ily  chained.  A  new  commission  was  appoint 
ed  to  examine  and  decide  in  his  affair,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  June,  1415,  he  Avas  re 
moved  to  the  Franciscan  convent  in  Con 
stance.  On  June  5  he  had  his  first  hearing 
before  the  council,  which  had  already  at  a 
previous  session  condemned  the  heresy  of  Wyc- 
liffe.  The  attempt  of  IIuss  to  ansAver  the  first 
article  of  accusation  was  met  by  such  a  storm 
of  outcries  that  he  was  unable  to  proceed  ;  and 
the  hearing  was  adjourned  until  the  7th,  when 
it  Avas  reneAved  in  presence  of  the  emperor. 
He  Avas  accused  of  denying  transubstantiation  ; 
of  treating  St.  Gregory  as  a  buffoon  ;  of  teach 
ing  the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe ;  of  encouraging 
his  friends  to  resist  the  mandates  of  the  arch 
bishop  ;  of  exciting  a  schism  of  the  state  from 
the  church  ;  of  appealing  from  the  pope  to 
Christ ;  of  counselling  the  people  to  violent 
and  aggressive  measures ;  and  of  boasting  that 
he  could  not  have  been  forced  either  by  pope 
or  emperor  to  come  to  Constance,  unless  he 
had  chosen  to  come.  Some  of  these  charges 
he  admitted  ;  some  he  denied.  A  third  hear 
ing  Avas  allowed  him  on  the  next  day,  Avhen 
39  articles,  extracted  from  three  of  his  works, 
were  read,  touching  various  points  of  his 
teaching  concerning  the  church,  its  officers  and 
sacraments.  Huss  was  then  summoned  to  re 
tract  these  heresies,  which  he  declined  to  do, 
affirming  that  he  could  not  retract  what  he  had 
never  said,  nor  ought  he  to  retract  what  he  had 
said  until  its  falsity  was  shown.  On  June  24 
the  books  of  IIuss  Avere  condemned  to  be 
burned  as  heretical,  and  on  July  G  he  Avas 
brought  before  the  council  to  receive  sentence. 
After  a  discourse  by  the  bishop  of  Lodi,  from 
the  text,  "  that  the  body  of  sin  bo  destroyed," 
the  39  articles  Avere  read,  together  with  the 
sentence  of  condemnation  of  the  books  of  Huss, 
and  finally  the  sentence  of  himself,  to  be  de 
graded  from  the  priesthood  as  an  incorrigible 
heretic,  and  given  over  to  the  secular  arm. 
He  Avas  then  conducted  out  of  the  city  to  an 
open  field,  in  which  a  stake  and  a  pile  of  Avood 
had  been  erected.  Here  he  was  again  sum 
moned  to  abjure  his  heresies,  but  at  the  sum 
mons  he  only  knelt  and  prayed,  using  the  words 
of  the  psalms  of  David.  As  the  fire  was 
kindled,  he  began  to  sing  Avith  a  loud  A'oice  the 
Christe  cleison,  and  only  ceased  Avhen  he  Avas 
suffocated  by  the  rising  flame.  The  ashes  of 
the  pile  were  gathered  and  cast  into  the  Rhine ; 
all  traces  of  the  event  were  carefully  oblitera 
ted,  and  to  this  day  the  exact  spot  remains  un 
certain. — The  writings  of  IIuss,  not  including 
the  minor  pieces  lately  published  by  Palacky, 
are  of  four  kinds,  dogmatic  and  controversial, 
exegetical,  sermons,  and  epistles.  Of  the  first 
class,  there  are  27  separate  treatises,  besides 
fragments.  Of  the  class  of  exegetical  writings, 
there  are  fiVe  treatises,  on  the  acts  of  Christ, 
the  passion  of  Christ,  a  commentary  on  seven 


HUSSARS 


HUTCHINSON 


chapters  of  the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
notes  on  other  canonical  epistles,  and  an  ex 
planation  of  ten  of  the  Psalms.  In  the  class 
of  sermons  there  are  38,  two  of  which  were 
written  at  Constance,  hut  never  preached. 
There  are  two  series  of  letters,  the  first  of 
14,  written  before,  and  the  second  of  56,  writ 
ten  after  his  departure  from  Prague  to  Con 
stance.  The  complete  works  of  IIuss  were 
published  in  quarto  at  Strasburg  in  1525. 
For  his  biography,  see  Neander's  "Church 
History"  (vol.  v.,  Torrey's  translation),  Gil- 
lett's  "  Life  and  Times  of  IIuss"  (2  vols.,  Bos 
ton,  1863),  and  Palacky's  Documents  Magistri 
Joannis  Vitam,  Doctrinam,  etc.,  illustrantia 
(Prague,  1869).  (See  HUSSITES.) 

HUSSARS  (Hung,  husz,  20,  and  dr,  rate),  the 
national  cavalry  of  Hungary  and  Croatia.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  some  bodies  of  light 
cavalry  in  the  armies  of  other  countries  of  Eu 
rope.  It  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
loth  century  every  20  houses  in  Hungary  were 
required  to  furnish  a  soldier  with  a  horse  and 
furniture.  The  arms  of  the  hussars  are  a  sabre, 
a  carbine,  and  pistols.  Their  regimentals  were 
originally  a  fur  cap  with  a  feather,  a  doublet, 
a  pair  of  breeches  to  which  the  stockings  were 
attached,  and  a  pair  of  red  or  yellow  boots. 
There  were  five  regiments  of  hussars  under 
Tilly  at  Leipsic  in  1631.  The  name  first  be 
came  general  in  the  18th  century,  when  regi 
ments  of  hussars  were  organized  in  the  princi 
pal  European  armies. 

HUSSITES,  the  name  of  the  followers  of  John 
Huss  in  Bohemia,  who,  on  his  death  in  1415, 
organized  as  a  sect,  making  the  offering  of  the 
cup  to  the  laity  in  the  sacrament  of  the  eucha- 
rist  the  badge  of  their  covenant.  Upon  the 
death  of  Wenceslas  (1419)  they  refused  to  rec-  f 
ognize  the  emperor  Sigismund  as  king,  where-  I 
upon  the  Hussite  civil  war  broke  out.  They  | 
were  divided  into  two  parties,  the  more  mod-  | 
erate  Calixtines  and  the  more  rigid  Taborites. 
Ziska,  the  leader  of  the  latter  party,  assembled 
them  on  a  mountain  which  he  fortified  and 
called  Mt.  Tabor,  captured  Prague,  pillaged  the  I 
monasteries,  and  in  several  engagements  de 
feated  Sigismund.  (See  ZISKA.)  After  the  death 
of  Ziska  (1424)  his  place  was  filled  by  a  monk 
named  Procopius,  who  defeated  the  mercena 
ries  sent  under  the  name  of  crusaders  by  the 
emperor  and  the  papal  legates  in  the  battles 
of  Mies  (1427)  and  Tachau  (1431),  and  whose 
troops  ravaged  Austria,  Franconia,  Saxony, 
Catholic  Bohemia,  Lusatia,  and  Silesia.  A 
council  held  at  Basel  in  1433  made  concessions 
which  were  accepted  by  the  Calixtines.  (See 
PROCOPIUS.)  The  Taborites,  rejecting  the  com 
promise,  were  vanquished  in  the  battle  of  Prague 
(1434),  and  by  the  treaty  of  Iglau  (1436)  the 
compromise  of  Basel  was  accepted  by  Bohe 
mia,  and  Sigismund  was  recognized  as  king. 
On  the  death  of  Sigismund  (1437)  controver 
sies  again  arose,  and  civil  wars  were  prosecu 
ted  with  no  decisive  results,  till  at  the  diet 
of  Kuttenberg  (1485)  a  peace  was  established 


by  King  Ladislas  which  secured  Catholics  and 
Calixtines  in  the  possessions  they  then  held. — 
See  Schubert,  Geschiclite  des  Hussitenkr  legs 
(1825);  Grunhagen,  Geschiclitsquellen  der  Hus- 
sitenkriege  (1871);  Bezold,  Konig  Sigmund 
und  die  Reichskriege  gegcn  die  Hussiten  (1872) ; 
and  Palacky,  UrkundlicJie  Beitrdge  zur  Ge- 
schichte  des  Hussite  nkrieges  (1872). 

HUTCHESON,  Francis,  a  Scottish  philosopher, 
born  in  Ireland,  Aug.  8,  1694,  died  in  Glasgow 
in  1747.  He  studied  theology  at  Glasgow,  and 
became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation 
in  Ulster.  His  "Inquiry  into  the  Original  of 
our  Ideas  of  Beauty  and  Virtue"  (1720)  gave 
him  distinction  among  philosophers.  In  1728 
he  published  a  treatise  on  the  "Nature  and 
Conduct  of  the  Passions  and  Affections,"  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Glas 
gow.  His  Synopsis  MetapJiysiccB  Ontologiam 
et  Pneumatologiam  complectens,  and  his  Phi 
losophic  Moralis  Institutio,  were  written  as 
text  books  for  his  classes.  His  most  complete 
and  elaborate  work,  the  "System  of  Moral 
Philosophy,"  appeared  after  his  death  (2  vols., 
Glasgow,  1755;,  with  a  biography  by  Dr.  Wil 
liam  Leechman.  Truth  he  divides  into  logical, 
moral,  and  metaphysical.  Logical  truth  is  the 
agreement  of  a  proposition  with  the  object  it 
relates  to ;  moral  truth  is  the  harmony  of  the 
outward  act  with  the  inward  sentiment ;  and 
metaphysical  truth  is  that  nature  of  a  thing 
wherein  it  is  known  to  God  as  that  which  ac 
tually  it  is,  or  in  other  words  it  is  its  absolute 
reality.  He  maintained  that  besides  the  five 
external  senses  we  possess  also  internal  senses, 
one  of  which  occasions  the  emotions  of  beauty 
and  sublimity,  and  another  gives  rise  to  the 
moral  feelings.  He  introduced  the  term  moral 
sense,  and  maintained  the  existence  of  certain 
universal  propositions,  derived  not  from  ex 
perience,  but  from  the  connate  power  of  the 
mind  (menti  congenita  intelligendi  vis). 

HUTCHIMSON,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  in 
tersected  by  the  James  or  Dakota  river ;  area, 
432  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  37.  The  surface  is 
diversified,  the  soil  good.  Capital,  Maxwell. 

HUTCHINSON,  Anne,  founder  of  a  party  of  An- 
tinomians  in  New  England,  born  at  Alford, 
Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1591,  died  near 
New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  in  August, 
1643.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
Francis  Marbury.  Becoming  interested  in  the 
preaching  of  John  Cotton,  and  of  her  brother- 
in-law  John  Wheelwright,  she  followed  the 
former  to  New  England  with  her  husband, 
arriving  in  Boston  Sept.  18,  1634.  She  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Boston  church,  and 
rapidly  acquired  influence.  She  instituted 
meetings  of  the  women  of  the  church  to  dis 
cuss  sermons  and  doctrines,  in  which  she  gave 
prominence  to  peculiar  speculations  which  even 
on  her  voyage  had  attracted  the  attention  and 
caused  the  displeasure  of  her  fellow  passengers. 
Such  were  the  tenets  that  the  person  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  dwells  in  every  believer,  and  that 


HUTCHINSON 


93 


the  inward  revelations  of  the  Spirit,  the  con 
scious  judgments  of  the  mind,  are  of  paramount 
authority.  Two  years  after  her  arrival  the 
strife  between  her  supporters  and  her  oppo 
nents  broke  out  into  public  action.  Among 
her  partisans  were  Vane,  Cotton,  Wheelwright, 
and  the  whole  Boston  church  with  the  excep 
tion  of  live  members,  while  the  country  clergy 
and  churches  were  generally  united  against 
her.  •' The  dispute,"  says  Bancroft,  "infused 
its  spirit  into  everything;  it  interfered  with 
the  levy  of  troops  for  the  Pequot  war ;  it  in 
fluenced  the  respect  shown  to  the  magistrates, 
the  distribution  of  town  lots,  the  assessment 
of  rates ;  and  at  last  the  continued  existence 
of  the  two  opposing  parties  was  considered  in 
consistent  with  the  public  peace."  The  pecu 
liar  tenets  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson  were  among 
the  82  opinions  condemned  as  erroneous  by 
the  ecclesiastical  synod  at  Newtown,  Aug.  30, 
1637;  and  in  November  she  was  summoned 
before  the  general  court,  and  after  a  trial  of 
two  days  was  sentenced  with  some  of  her  as 
sociates  to  banishment  from  the  territory  of 
Massachusetts,  but  was  allowed  to  remain  du 
ring  the  winter  at  a  private  house  in  Roxbury. 
It  was  her  first  intention  to  remove  to  the 
banks  of  the  Piscataqua,  but  changing  her 
plan  she  joined  the  larger  number  of  her 
friends,  who,  led  by  John  Clarke  and  William 
Coddington,  had  been  welcomed  by  Roger 
Williams  to  his  vicinity,  and  had  purchased 
by  his  recommendation  from  the  chief  of  the 
Narragansetts  the  island  of  Aquidneck,  subse 
quently  called  Rhode  island.  There  a  body 
politic  was  formed  on  democratic  principles,  in 
which  no  one  was  to  be  "  accounted  a  delin 
quent  for  doctrine."  The  church  in  Boston, 
from  which  she  had  been  excommunicated, 
vainly  sent  a  deputation  to  the  island  with  the 
hope  of  reclaiming  her.  After  the  death  of 
her  husband  in  1642,  she  removed  with  her 
surviving  family  into  the  territory  of  the  Dutch. 
The  Indians  and  the  Dutch  were  then  at  war, 
and  in  an  invasion  of  the  settlement  by  the 
former  her  house  was  attacked  and  set  on  fire, 
and  herself  and  all  her  family,  excepting  one 
child  who  was  carried  captive,  perished  either 
by  the  flames  or  by  the  weapons  of  the  savages. 
"  HtTCHL\SOi\,  John,  an  English  Puritan  revo 
lutionist,  born  in  Nottinghamshire  about  1616, 
died  in  Sandown  castle,  Kent,  Sept.  11,  1664. 
He  was  a  man  of  family  and  of  good  education, 
and  was  married  at  Richmond,  July  3,  1638,  to 
Lucy,  daughter  of  Sir  Allen  Apsley,  governor 
of  the  tower  of  London,  with  whom  he  sub 
sequently  settled  on  his  estate  at  Owthorpe. 
After  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war  he 
declared  for  the  parliament  and  was  appointed 
governor  of  Nottingham  castle,  which  he  held 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  lie  afterward  rep 
resented  Nottingham  in  parliament,  and,  as  a 
member  of  the  high  court  of  judiciary  ap 
pointed  for  the  trial  of  the  king,  concurred  in 
the  sentence  pronounced  on  him.  The  subse 
quent  course  of  Cromwell,  however,  met  with 


the  disapproval  of  Ilutchinson.  At  the  res 
toration  he  was  comprehended  in  the  general 
act  of  amnesty,  but  was  subsequently  arrested 
on  a  suspicion  of  treasonable  conspiracy,  and 

|  after  a  detention  of  ten  months  in  the  tower 
was  removed  to  Sandown  castle,  where  he  died 
of  an  aguish  fever  brought  on  by  confinement 
in  a  damp  cell.  His  wife  survived  him  many 
years,  and  left  a  memoir  of  him,  which  is 
valuable  as  a  record  of  events.  It  was  first 
published  from  the  original  manuscript  in  1806 
(4to,  London),  and  several  other  editions  have 
since  appeared. 

mJTUUKSON,  John,  an  English  philosopher, 
born  at  Spennithorne,  Yorkshire,  in  1674,  died 
Aug.  28,  1737.  After  receiving  a  careful  pri 
vate  education,  he  served  as  steward  in  several 
noble  families.  As  riding  purveyor  of  the 
duke  of  Somerset,  master  of  the  horse,  he 
made  a  large  collection  of  fossils.  In  1724 
appeared  the  first  part  of  his  "Moses's  Prin- 
cipia,"  in  which  he  disputed  the  Newtonian 
theory  of  gravitation.  In  the  second  part 
(1727)  he  continued  his  criticisms  of  Newton, 
and  maintained,  on  Biblical  authority  the  doc 
trine  of  a  plenum  in  opposition  to  that  of  a 
vacuum.  From  this  time  one  or  more  of  his 
uncouthly  written  volumes,  containing  a  sort 
of  cabalistic  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  appeared  annually.  His  leading 
idea  is  that  the  Scriptures  contain  the  ele 
ments  of  all  rational  philosophy  as  well  as  of 
general  religion.  The  Hebrew  language  has 
not  only  its  literal  but  its  typical  sense,  every 
root  of  it  being  significant.  His  philosophical 
and  theological  works  were  published  in  Lon 
don  in  13  vols.  (1749-' 65). 

HITCHIASON,  Thomas,  governor  of  the  prov 
ince  of  Massachusetts,  born  in  Boston,  Sept. 
9,  1711,  died  at  Brompton,  near  London,  in 
June,  1780.  He  was  the  son  of  a  merchant  of 
Boston  who  was  long  a  member  of  the  coun 
cil,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1727. 
After  engaging  without  success  in  commerce, 
he  began  the  study  of  law.  He  represented 
Boston  for  ten  years  in  the  general  court,  of 
which  he  was  for  three  years  speaker.  lie  be 
came  judge  of  probate  in  1752,  was  a  council 
lor  from  1749  to  1766,  lieutenant  governor  from 
1758  to  1771,  and  was  appointed  chief  justice 
in  1760,  thus  holding  four  high  offices  at  one 
time.  In  the  disputes  which  led  to  the  revo 
lution  he  sided  with  the  -British  governor.  The 
mansion  of  Ilutchinson  was  twice  attacked  in 
consequence  of  a  report  that  he  had  written 
letters  in  favor  of  the  stamp  act,  and  on  the 
second  occasion  (Aug.  26,  1765)  it  was  sacked, 
the  furniture  burned  in  bonfires  in  the  street, 
and  many  manuscripts  relating  to  the  history 
of  the  province,  which  he  had  been  30  years 
in  collecting  and  which  could  not  be  replaced, 
were  lost.  He  received  compensation  for 
his  losses,  but  none  of  the  assailants  were 
punished,  although  the  proceedings  were  de 
nounced  by  resolution  in  a  public  meeting. 

i  In  1767  he  took  a  seat  in  the  council,  claiming 


HUTTEN 


it  ex  officio  as  lieutenant  governor ;  but  both 
the  house  and  council  resisted  his  pretension, 
and  he  abandoned  it.  The  legislature  was 
inclined  to  restore  him  to  the  council  in  1768, 
until  it  was  announced  by  his  opponent  James 
Otis  that  he  received  an  annual  pension  of 
£200  from  the  crown.  When  in  1709  Gov. 
Bernard  was  transferred  to  Virginia,  the  gov 
ernment  of  Massachusetts  fell  to  Hutchinson. 
The  popular  excitement  had  already  been  in 
creased  by  the  arrival  of  British  troops,  and 
after  the  Boston  massacre  a  committee  of  citi 
zens,  headed  by  Samuel  Adams,  forced  him  to 
consent  to  the  removal  of  the  regiments.  He 
received  his  commission  as  governor  in  1771, 
and  his  whole  administration  was  characterized 
by  duplicity  and  avarice.  In  1772  Benjamin 
Franklin,  then  in  London,  procured  some  of 
the  confidential  letters  of  Hutchinson  and  his 
brother-in-law  Andrew  Oliver ;  these  were 
forwarded  to  Massachusetts,  and  proved  that 
he  had  been  for  years  opposing  every  part  of 
the  colonial  constitution,  and  urging  measures 
to  enforce  the  supremacy  of  parliament;  and 
the  result  was  a  petition  to  the  king  from  the 
assembly  and  the  council  praying  for  his  re 
moval  from  the  government.  The  last  of  his 
public  difficulties  was  when  the  people  of  Bos 
ton  and  the  neighboring  towns  determined  to 
resist  the  taxation  on  teas  consigned  by  the  East 
India  company,  two  of  the  consignees  being 
sons  of  Gov.  Hutchinson.  The  popular  com 
mittees  were  resolved  that  the  tea  should  not 
be  landed,  but  should  be  reshipped  to  Lon 
don.  A  meeting  of  several  thousand  men,  held 
in  Boston  Dec.  18,  1773,  demanded  the  return 
of  the  ships,  but  the  governor  refused  a  pass. 
On  that  evening  a  number  of  men  disguised 
as  Indians  repaired  to  the  wharf,  and  emptied 
342  chests  of  tea,  the  whole  quantity  that  had 
been  imported,  into  the  bay.  In  the  following 
February  the  governor  sent  a  message  to  the 
legislature  that  he  had  obtained  his  majesty's 
leave  to  return  to  England,  and  he  sailed  on 
June  1.  The  privy  council  investigated  his 
official  acts,  and  decided  in  favor  of  "  his 
honor,  integrity,  and  conduct."  He  was  re 
warded  with  a  pension.  lie  published  the  fol 
lowing  works:  "The  History  of  the  Colony 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  from  the  First  Settle 
ment  thereof  in  1628  until  the  Year  1750  "  (2 
vols.,  London,  1765-7);  "A  Brief  State  of 
the  Claim  of  the  Colonies"  (1764);  and  a 
"  Collection  of  Original  Papers  relative  to  the 
History  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  " 
(1769).  From  his  manuscripts  a  history  of 
Massachusetts  from  1749  to  1774  was  prepared 
by  his  grandson,  the  Rev.  John  II.  Hutchin 
son,  of  Trentham,  England  (1828). 

HUTTEN,  llrich  Yon,  a  German  scholar  and 
reformer,  born  in  the  castle  of  Steckelberg, 
near  Fulda,  April  20  or  22,  1488,  died  in  Switz 
erland,  Aug.  29,  1523.  When  11  years  old  he 
was  placed  in  the  monastery  of  Fulda,  that  he 
might  there  become  a  monk  ;  but  at  15  he  ran 
away  from  the  cloister  to  the  university  of 


Erfurt,  where  he  was  supported  by  his  friends 
and  relatives.  A  disease  then  new  to  Europe 
raged  in  many  places,  and  when  it  appeared  in 
the  summer  of  1505  in  Erfurt  both  students 
and  teachers  took  to  flight.  Hutten  went  to 
Cologne,  where  he  studied  the  writings  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  Duns  Scotus.  This  city 
was  the  stronghold  of  the  old  system,  led  by 
Ortwein,  Hoogstraten,  Tungern,  Pfetferkorn, 
and  all  who  were  then  termed  Dunkelmanner 
or  "Obscurants."  Here,  in  the  headquarters 
of  monkish  peculiarities,  Hutten  collected  ma 
terials  for  the  sketches  of  the  Epistolcc  Olscu- 
rorum  Virorum.  Even  in  Cologne,  however, 
the  new  spirit  of  classic  study  had  found  a 
home  under  the  care  of  Johannes  Rhagius, 
who  endeavored  to  form  a  taste  for  the  works 
of  classical  antiquity  and  what  was  then  termed 
poetry,  a  word  limited  by  the  Obscurants  to 
pure  and  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  metrical 
composition.  Hutten  became  his  friend  and 
pupil,  and,  when  he  was  driven  away  under 
the  accusation  of  corrupting  youth  and  theol 
ogy,  followed  him  to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
where  a  new  university  was  opened  in  1506. 
At  the  inauguration  Hutten  published  his  first 
poem,  Carmen  in  Laudem  MarcMce,  in  praise 
of  the  mark  of  Brandenburg.  Here  he  re 
ceived  the  degree  of  M.  A.,  and  remained  till 
1508.  The  disease  which  had  driven  him  from 
Erfurt  again  seized  on  him,  and  he  sought 
health  in  travel.  In  northern  Germany  he  was 
everywhere  warmly  received,  but  was  wrecked 
on  the  Baltic  and  reduced  to  great  poverty. 
In  this  condition  he  went  to  the  university 
of  Greifswald,  and  was  kindly  provided  with 
clothing  and  hospitably  entertained  by  the 
burgomaster  Wedeg  Lotz,  and  by  his  son,  a 
professor  in  the  university.  An  unexplained 
change  in  their  treatment  of  him  compelled 
him  to  leave  the  town ;  and  on  the  way,  late 
in  December,  he  was  set  upon  by  their  ser 
vants,  lying  in  wait  for  him,  beaten,  stripped 
of  the  garments  furnished  him,  and  robbed 
of  all  his  money  and  papers.  In  this  condi 
tion,  diseased  and  wounded,  he  came  to  Ros 
tock,  where  he  wrote  a  famous  satire  on  Lotz 
(Klagen  gegen  Lbtz),  calling  on  all  the  schol 
ars  of  the  new  school  in  Germany  to  avenge 
him.  In  Rostock  he  lectured  on  the  classics, 
established  intimate  relations  with  the  profes 
sors,  and  worked  for  the  interests  of  the  clas 
sic  school.  In  1511  he  went  to  Wittenberg, 
where  he  published  his  Ars  Versificatoria,  re 
garded  in  its  day  as  a  masterpiece.  Thence  he 
wandered  through  Bohemia  and  Moravia  to 
Vienna,  where  for  a  time  he  appears  to  have 
been  prosperous  and  courted.  Finally  arriving 
at  Pavia  in  April,  1512,  Ilutten  resolved  to 
study  law.  But  three  months  later  the  city 
wns  besieged  by  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and 
Hutten,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  contest,  be 
lieved  himself  in  danger  of  death,  and  wrote 
his  famous  epitaph.  Plundered  of  all  he  pos 
sessed,  he  fled  to  Bologna.  Here  his  disease 
broke  out  again,  and,  repulsed  by  every  one, 


IIUTTEX 


IIUTTON 


95 


badly  treated,  and  starving,  lie  enlisted  as  a 
soldier  in  the  emperor's  army.  The  results  of 
his  Italian  studies  were  embodied  in  the  satire 
of  QVTIC  ("  Nobody  ").  He  returned  to  Ger 
many,  suffering  from  his  old  disease,  in  1514. 
He  thought  he  had  succeeded  in  effecting  a 
cure  by  the  use  of  gum  guaiacum,  and  wrote  a 
treatise,  De  Gualaci  Medicina  etMorbo  Galileo. 
An  accident  now  brought  him  into  note. 
Duke  Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg  had  fallen  in 
love  with  the  wife  of  his  cousin  Johanri  von 
Ilutten,  and  murdered  the  husband.  When 
llutten  heard  of  this  he  wrote  his  u  Deplora- 
tions,"  in  which  he  cried  for  vengeance.  He 
availed  himself  of  this  deed  to  call  on  German 
towns  to  free  themselves  from  ducal  tyranny. 
His  denunciations  made  the  tyrant  a  byword. 
But  a  short  time  elapsed  before  llutten  found 
himself  in  a  new  quarrel,  ardently  defending 
Reuchlin,  who  as  a  scholar  was  protesting 
against  the  wholesale  destruction  of  all  lie- 
brew  books,  for  which  the  Cologne  Obscurants 
were  clamoring.  With  the  aid  of  many  friends 
he  published  the  celebrated  EplstolcB  Ol)scu- 
Torum  Virorum,  a  work  which  greatly  aided 
the  reformation,  and  previous  to  this  his  Tri- 
wnplms  Capnionis  ("The  Triumph  of  Reuch 
lin"),  the  publication  of  which  was  long  de 
layed  by  the  scruples  of  Erasmus.  In  1515  he 
again  went  to  Rome,  ostensibly  to  study  law ; 
but  having  become  involved  in  a  quarrel,  he 
fled  to  Bologna,  which  he  was  obliged  to  quit 
for  a  like  reason.  After  visiting  Ferrara  and 
Venice,  he  found  it  necessary  to  return  to 
Germany.  At  Augsburg  he  was  presented  to 
the  emperor,  who  gave  him  in  public  the 
spurs  of  knighthood.  He  was  then  sent  by 
the  elector  of  Mentz  on  a  mission  to  Paris, 
where  he  established  intimate  relations  with 
the  learned.  Retiring  to  his  family  castle  of 
Steckelberg,  Huttcn,  having  written  by  way 
of  introduction  several  epigrams  on  Pope  Ju 
lius  IT.,  edited  the  work  of  Laurentius  Valla 
entitled  De  Falso  Credita  et  Ementita  Dona- 
tione  Constantinl  Maf/ni  (1517).  In  1518 
he  found  a  protector  in  Albert,  margrave  of 
Brandenburg,  whom  he  invited  in  a  glowing 
panegyric  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  united 
Germany.  In  the  same  year  he  accompanied 
the  margrave  to  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  where 
Luther  was  to  reply  to  Caietan.  But  "Hut- 
ten,  now  the  brilliant  knight,  troubled  himself 
but  little  as  to  the  poor  Augustinian  monk  ;" 
he  was  full  of  a  project  for  uniting  the  princes 
of  Europe  against  the  Turks,  and  was  fascinated 
with  the  idea  of  becoming  an  influential  states 
man.  The  work  in  which  he  preached  this 
crusade  he  printed  himself  at  Steckelberg  in 
1519,  entitling  it  Ad  Principes  Germanic?,  ut 
Bellum  Turds  Invehant  Exhortatoria.  In  it 
he  upbraids  the  court  of  Rome  and  the  German 
nobility.  These  latter  had  been  previously 
more  fiercely  attacked  in  his  "  Dialogue  of  the 
Court  Enemy,"  in  which  Hutten  boldly  as 
sumes  a  tone  like  that  of  modern  republican 
ism.  In  1519  he  left  the  margrave  to  join 
VOL.  ix. — 7 


Franz  von  Sickingen  in  the  Swabian  league 
against  his  old  enemy  Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg. 
Yet  during  this  war  he  wrote  the  "Triad,"  a 
most  vehement  diatribe  against  Rome,  and 
edited  two  books  of  Livy  hitherto  unpublished. 
The  war  over,  he  retired  to  the  castle  of  Sickin 
gen,  whence  he  sent  forth  the  bitterest  attacks 
on  Rome.  He  discovered  in  the  library  of  Ful- 
da  a  manifesto  of  Henry  IV.  against  Gregory 
VII.,  and  turned  its  German  sentiment  to  such 
account  that  Leo  X.  demanded  him  as  a  pris 
oner.  Driven  from  his  castle,  he  took  refuge 
in  Ebernburg,  and  now  began  to  write  in 
German  prose  and  verse ;  and  these  tracts  are 
among  his  most  daring  productions.  For  a  short 
time  he  fought  in  the  army  of  Charles  V.  at 
the  siege  of  Metz ;  and  at  this  time  Francis  I. 
offered  him  the  place  of  councillor  at  his  court, 
llutten  next  wandered  to  Switzerland,  and 
(Ecolampadius  led  him  to  Basel,  where  he 
hoped  for  support  from  Erasmus,  who  however 
turned  against  him,  and  even  took  pains  to  set 
the  council  of  Zurich  against  him.  Finally 
Zwingli  obtained  for  him  an  asylum  on  the 
island  of  LTnau  in  the  lake  of  Zurich,  where, 
worn  out  by  war  and  suffering,  he  ended  his 
short  and  tumultuous  life.  Among  his  works 
not  mentioned  above  are  Dialog},  Fortuna, 
Fclris  (including  the  Trias,  Mentz,  1520),  and 
his  poems  (Frankfort,  1538).  His  collected 
works  were  published  by  Munch  (6  vols.,  Ber 
lin,  1821-"7).  An  Index  BibliograpJiicus  Ilut- 
tenianus  was  published  by  Booking  at  Leipsic 
in  1858,  and  a  new  edition  of  his  works  in  7 
vols.  in  1859.  Many  biographies  of  llutten 
have  been  written ;  one  of  the  best  and  most 
recent  is  that  by  Strauss  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1857 ; 
2d  ed.,  1871). 

IIITTON,  Charles,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Aug.  14,  1737, 
died  Jan.  27,  1823.  At  the  age  of  18  he  be 
came  an  usher  in  the  village  of  Jesmond,  and 
some  years  later  the  master  of  the  school.  In 
1700  he  removed  to  Newcastle,  where  he  wrote 
his  "Practical  Treatise  on  Arithmetic  and 
Book-Keeping"  (17G4).  His  "Treatise  on 
Mensuration  "  (1771),  and  "  Principles  of  Bridg 
es,  and  the  Mathematical  Demonstration  of  the 
Laws  of  Arches"  (1772),  led  to  his  being 
chosen  in  1773  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  military  academy  of  Woolwich.  He  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  royal  society  in  1774,  and 
was  foreign  secretary  of  that  body  from  1779 
to  1783,  when  he  resigned.  He  published  a 
large  number  of  papers  in  its  "Transactions," 
and  made  all  the  mathematical  calculations  for 
Maskelyne's  experiments  for  determining  the 
mean  density  of  the  earth.  About  1795  he  un 
dertook,  aided  by  Drs.  Pearson  and  Shaw,  the 
labor  of  abridging  the  "  Philosophical  Transac 
tions."  The  work  was  completed  in  1809,  Hut- 
ton  receiving  £6,000  for  his  share  in  it.  Being 
compelled  by  bad  health  to  resign  his  profes 
sorship  at  Woolwich,  he  received  a  retiring 
pension  of  £500.  His  principal  works,  in  ad 
dition  to  those  above  mentioned,  are:  "Tables 


96 


BUTTON 


HUXLEY 


of  the  Product  and  Powers  of  Numbers  "  (Lon 
don,  1781);  "Mathematical  Tables"  (1785); 
"Course  of  Mathematics"  (3  vols.,  1793);  and 
"Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary  " 
(2  vols.  4to,  1795).  He  was  also  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  "Ladies1  Diary." 

BUTTON,  James,  a  British  natural  philoso 
pher,  born  in  Edinburgh,  June  3,  172G,  died 
March  20,  1797.  He  entered  the  university  of 
Edinburgh  in  1740,  and  began  the  study  of 
law,  which  he  subsequently  abandoned  for 
medicine,  taking  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Ley- 
den  in  1749.  He  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  sal  ammoniac  from  coal  soot,  inherited  from 
his  father  a  small  estate  in  Berwickshire,  be 
took  himself  to  agriculture,  finally  removed  to 
his  native  city  in  1768,  devoting  himself  es 
pecially  to  the  study  of  geology,  and  made  sev 
eral  important  discoveries.  In  1795  he  pub 
lished  the  results  of  30  years'  study  in  his 
"  Theory  of  the  Earth,"  assuming  that  heat  is 
the  principal  agent  of  nature. 

HUXLEY,  Thomas  Henry,  an  English  natural 
ist,  born  in  Ealing,  Middlesex,  May  4,  1825. 
He  spent  two  and  a  half  years  at  Ealing  school, 
in  which  his  father  was  ono  of  the  masters,  but 
with  this  exception  his  education  was  'carried 
on  chiefly  at  home.  In  1842  he  entered  the 
medical  school  of  Charing  Cross  hospital,  and 
in  1845  received  the  degree  of  M.  B.  from  the 
university  of  London,  being  placed  second  in 
the  list  of  honors  for  anatomy  and  physiology. 
He  began  his  literary  career  while  yet  a  student 
by  contributing  to  the  '•  Medical  Times  and 
Gazette"  a  paper  on  that  layer  in  the  root 
sheath  of  hair  which  has  since  borne  his  name. 
In  1846  he  joined  the  medical  service  of  the 
royal  navy,  and  was  stationed  at  Ilaslar  hospi 
tal,  whence  he  was  selected  the  same  year  to 
accompany  Capt.  Stanley,  as  assistant  surgeon 
of  the  Rattlesnake,  in  his  expedition  to  the 
South  Pacific.  After  a  four  years'  voyage  of 
circumnavigation,  during  which  surveys  of  the 
east  coasts  of  Australia  and  Papua  were  made, 
the  ship  returned  to  England  in  November, 
1850.  While  absent  Mr.  Huxley,  who  made 
extensive  observations  on  the  natural  history 
of  the  seas  traversed,  sent  home  a  number  of 
communications,  the  first  of  which,  read  before 
the  royal  society  in  1849,  is  "  On  the  Anatomy 
and  Affinities  of  the  Family  of  the  Medusae." 
On  his  return  some  of  these  papers  were  elab 
orated  by  him  and  published  in  the  "Philo 
sophical  Transactions"  of  the  royal  society,  of 
which,  in  June,  1851,  he  was  elected  a  fellow. 
In  1853  he  resigned  his  position  in  the  navy, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  succeeded  Prof. 
Edward  Forbes  as  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  royal  school  of  mines,  an  office  which 
he  still  holds  (1874).  lie  has  since  resided  in 
London,  where  he  has  devoted  himself  to 
constant  scientific  labor  and  research.  In  ad 
dition  to  his  annual  course  of  lectures  on  gen 
eral  natural  history,  he  has  delivered  many 
lectures  on  kindred  subjects  to  mixed  audi 
ences,  and  has  done  much  to  popularize  sci 


ence.  He  was  Ilnnterian  professor  in  the 
royal  college  of  surgeons  from  1863  to  1869, 
and  was  twice  chosen  Fullerian  professor  of 
physiology  in  the  royal  institution.  In  1869 
and  1870  he  was  president  both  of  the  geologi 
cal  and  the  ethnological  society  ;  in  1870  he 
was  president  of  the  British  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science ;  and  in  1872  he  be 
came  secretary  of  the  royal  society.  Since 
1870  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  royal  corn- 
mission  on  scientific  instruction  and  the  ad 
vancement  of  science.  From  1870  to  1872  he 
served  on  the  London  school  board,  where  he 
was  chairman  of  the  committee  which  drew  up 
the  scheme  of  education  adopted  in  the  board 
schools.  During  this  time  he  took  an  active 
part  in  its  deliberations,  and  became  conspicu 
ous  by  his  opposition  to  denominational  teach 
ing,  and  particularly  by  his  denunciation  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  In 
1872  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  univer 
sity  of  Aberdeen. — Prof.  Huxley  has  done  as 
much  probably  as  any  living  investigator  to 
advance  the  science  of  zoology,  and  the  world 
is  indebted  to  him  for  many  important  discov 
eries  in  each  of  the  larger  divisions  of  the  ani 
mal  kingdom.  His  earlier  labors  were  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  lower  marine  animals,  with  which 
he  formed  a  most  thorough  empirical  acquaint 
ance  during  his  Pacific  voyage,  and  he  has 
described  many  which  previously  had  been 
either  unknown  or  very  imperfectly  studied. 
During  the  past  ten  years  he  has  devoted  him 
self  assiduously  to  the  comparative  anatomy 
and  the  classification  of  the  vertebrata,  and 
has  embodied  the  results  of  his  more  important 
researches  in  numerous  monographs.  In  his 
first  published  work,  on  the  medusas,  he  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  body  of  these 
animals  is  formed  of  two  cell  layers,  which  may 
be  compared  to  the  two  germinal  layers  of  the 
higher  animals;  an  idea  which  has  since  found 
its  complete  expression  in  the  gastrraa  theory 
of  Haeckel.  To  him  also  is  due  the  vertebral 
theory  of  the  skull,  which  has  since  been  de 
monstrated  so  clearly  by  Gegenbaur ;  and  he 
was  the  first  to  extend  to  man  Darwin's  theory 
of  natural  selection.  In  his  three  lectures  on 
"Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  delivered  in  1863, 
he  made  an  elaborate  exposition  of  the  doctrine 
of  evolution  as  applied  to  man,  asserting  that 
the  anatomical  differences  between  man  and 
the  highest  apes  are  of  less  value  than -those 
between  the  highest  and  the  lowest  apes. 
Among  his  many  popular  lectures,  that  "  On 
the  Physical  Basis  of  Life,"  delivered  in  1868, 
has  attracted  much  attention.  In  it  he  ad 
vances  the  idea  that  there  is  some  one  kind  of 
matter  common  to  all  living  beings ;  that  this 
matter,  which  he  designates  ns  protoplasm, 
depends  on  the  preexistence  of  certain  com 
pounds,  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia, 
which  when  brought  together  under  certain 
conditions  give  rise  to  it ;  that  this  protoplasm 
is  the  formal  basis  of  all  life,  and  therefore  all 
living  powers  are  cognate,  and  all  living  forms, 


IIUY 


KUYGENS 


97 


from  the  lowest  plant  or  animalcule  to  the 
highest  being,  are  fundamentally  of  one  char 
acter.  Prof.  Huxley  is  a  corresponding  mem 
ber  of  the  principal  foreign  scientific  societies, 
and  lias  received  honorary  degrees  from  the 
universities  of  Breslau  and  Edinburgh.  His 
works  are  as  follows :  "The  Oceanic  Ilydro- 
zoa"  (1857) ;  "Evidence  as  to  Man's  Place  in 
Nature"  (1863);  "Lectures  on  the  Elements 
of  Comparative  Anatomy"  (1864);  "Lessons 
in  Elementary  Physiology"  (1806);  "An  In 
troduction  to  the  Classification  of  Animals" 
(1869);  "Lay  Sermons,  Addresses,  and  Re 
views"  (1870);  and  "Critiques  and  Address 
es"  (1873).  He  is  the  author  also  of  a  large 
number  of  papers  published  in  the  journals 
of  the  royal,  the  Limifeaii,  the  geological,  and 
the  zoological  societies,  and  in  the  memoirs  of 
the  geological  survey  of  Great  Britain. 

HIT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  and 
16  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Liege,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Hoyoux  into  the  Meuse  ;  pop.  in  1866, 
11,055.  It  has  a  handsome  Gothic  church,  a 
college,  manufactories  of  paper,  leather,  and 
faience,  distilleries,  and  an  active  trade.  The 
former  abbey  of  Keufmoutier  contained  the 
tomb  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  by  whom  it  had 
been  founded ;  in  1858  a  statue  was  erected  in 
his  honor  in  the  garden  of  the  abbey.  In  the 
neighborhood  there  are  mines  of  iron,  zinc, 
and  coal,  and  several  mineral  springs. 

IICYGEKS  (incorrectly  HUYGIIEXS),  Christian,  a 
Dutch  natural  philosopher,  born  at  the  Hague, 
April  14,  1629,  died  there,  July  8,1695.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  Constantino  Iluygens, 
secretary  and  counsellor  of  the  stadtholders 
Frederick  Henry,  William  IT.,  and  William  III. 
His  father  taught  him  the  rudiments  of  educa 
tion  and  the  elements  of  mechanics.  At  the 
age  of  15  he  became  the  pupil  of  Stampion, 
and  at  16  he  was  sent  to  Ley  den  to  study  law 
with  Vinnius,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  first 
commentary  on  the  Institutes  of  Justinian.  lie 
there  also  pursued  mathematical  studies,  and 
afterward  at  Breda  in  the  university,  which 
was  under  the  direction  of  his  father.  In  1650, 
after  a  journey  to  Denmark  with  Henry,  count 
of  Nassau,  he  began  those  mathematical  and 
physical  researches  which  afterward  made  him 
famous.  In  1651  he  published  at  Leyden  his 
first  work,  on  the  quadrature  of  the  hyperbola, 
the  ellipse,  and  the  circle,  and  in  1654  a  paper 
entitled  De  Circuit  Magnitudine  ivventa  noxa. 
In  1655  Huygens  went  for  the  first  time  to 
France,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
laws  from  the  faculty  of  the  academy  of  An 
gers.  On  his  return  to  Holland  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  construction  of  telescopes,  in 
connection  with  his  elder  brother  Constantino. 
With  one  of  these  instruments,  having  a  focal 
length  of  10  ft.,  and  more  powerful  than  any 
ever  before  made,  he  discovered  the  first  (now 
called  the  fourth)  satellite  of  Saturn,  and  pub 
lished  the  discovery  at  the  Hague  in  1656. 
During'the  next  year  he  wrote  a  paper  on  the 
calculus  of  probabilities.  Pascal  and  Fermat 


had  already  written  upon  the  subject,  but  the 
treatise  of  Huygens  was  more  profound,  and 
50  years  afterward  James  Bernoulli  employed 
it  as  an  introduction  to  his  Ars  Cortjectandi. 
It  was  also  translated  into  Latin  .by  his  former 
tutor  Schooten  under  the  title  De  Ratiociniis 
in  Lndo  Alea>,  by  which  it  is  also  known  in 
's  Gravesande's  edition  of  Huygens's  works. 
Schooten  published  it  in  his  Exercitationes 
Mathematics,  to  demonstrate,  as  he  says,  the 
utility  of  algebra.  About  this  time  Huygens 
sent  a  paper  to  Wallis  on  the  area  of  the  cis- 
soid,  and  to  Pascal  a  calculation  for  hyperbolic 
conoids,  and  spheroids  in  general,  and  on  the 
quadrature  of  a  portion  of  a  cycloid,  in  which 
papers  he  employed  methods  having  the  high 
est  characteristics  of  original  thought.  But 
his  attention  was  not  wholly  devoted  to  mere 
ly  theoretical  mathematics,  for  about  this  time 
he  introduced  one  of  the  most  practical  and 
important  of  all  inventions.  Galileo  had  ob 
served  the  isochronism  of  small  vibrations  of 
the  pendulum,  and  had  employed  it  as  a  mea 
surer  of  time,  but  his  method  required  an  as 
sistant  to  count  the  oscillations,  and  was  of 
course  far  from  being  exact.  To  keep  the 
pendulum  in  motion  and  cause  it  to  register  its 
successive  vibrations  was  one  of  the  problems 
which  Iluygens  attempted,  and  which  he  suc 
ceeded  in  solving  by  the  invention  of  the  pen 
dulum  clock,  a  description  of  which,  under  the 
title  of  Horologium,  he  dedicated  to  the  states 
general  of  Holland  in  1658.  (See  CLOCKS  AND 
WATCHES.)  In  1659  he  constructed  a  tele 
scope  of  22  ft.  focal  length,  in  which  he  used 
a  combination  of  two  eye  pieces,  and  again 
examined  Saturn,  making  the  discovery  of  the 
ring  of  the  planet.  The  singular  appearance 
which  it  sometimes  presents  of  being  accom 
panied  by  two  luminous  bodies,  one  on  either 
side,  had  been  observed  by  Galileo,  but  his 
telescope  had  not  sufficient  power  to  permit 
him  to  discover  its  cause.  Huygens1  s  instru 
ment  enabled  him  to  make  out  that  the  phe 
nomenon  in  question,  which  at  regular  times 
appeared  and  disappeared,  was  produced  by 
the  oblique  position  of  the  ring  with  regard 
to  the  earth  and  to  the  sun.  From  an  analysis 
of  the  phenomenon  he  predicted  the  disap 
pearance  of  the  ring  in  1671,  and  the  predic 
tion  was  verified.  He  published  an  account 
of  these  observations  at  the  Hague  in  1659, 
in  a  volume  also  containing  an  account  of  sev 
eral  other  discoveries,  such  as  that  of  the  great 
nebula  in  the  sword  of  Orion,  the  bands  upon 
the  disks  of  Jupiter  and  Mars,  and  the  fact  that 
the  fixed  stars  have  no  sensible  magnitude.  It 
was  also  accompanied  by  a  description  of  a 
method  for  measuring  the  diameter  of  the 
planets.  The  micrometer  used  by  him  has  been 
superseded  by  others,  but  it  served  the  pur 
pose  of  making  correct  measurements.  In 
1660  he  visited  France  and  England,  and  soon 
after  published  his  celebrated  theorems  on  the 
laws  of  the  impact  of  bodies,  in  which  most 
of  the  principles  of  the  laws  of  motion  are  es- 


98 


IIUYGENS 


tablished.  In  1GG5,  at  the  invitation  of  Col 
bert,  he  went  to  France  and  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  then  recently 
formed.  Apartments  were  assigned  to  him  in 
the  royal  library,  and  he  resided  in  Paris  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  next  15  years,  during  which 
time  he  presented  many  papers  to  the  acade 
my,  some  of  which  still  remain  unpublished 
in  its  archives.  In  1670  lie  visited  Holland  to 
restore  his  health,  which  had  become  impaired 
by  his  great  labors ;  and  on  his  return  to  Paris 
in  the  following  year  he  completed  his  great 
work  Horologium  Oscillatorium  (fol.,  Paris, 
1673).  To  this  book  are  appended  13  theorems 
on  centrifugal  force,  which  will  be  noted  fur 
ther  on.  About  this  time  he  invented  the 
spiral  spring  which  is  applied  to  the  balance 
wheel  of  watches,  a  description  of  which  was 
published  in  the  journal  of  the  academy  of  sci 
ences  in  1675.  The  invention  was  claimed  by 
Hooke  of  England  and  Hautefeuille  of  France, 
but  the  evidence  that  it  is  the  invention  of  Huy- 
gens  is  too  strong  to  be  any  longer  questioned. 
It  is  said  that  the  first  watch  provided  with  a 
hair  spring  was  made  by  Thuret  under  Huy- 
gens's  direction,  and  was  sent  to  England.  In 
1675  he  again  went  to  Holland  for  the  benefit 
of  his  health,  and  in  1676  he  read  before  the 
academy  of  sciences  his  famous  treatise  on 
light,  and  also  a  treatise  on  the  cause  of  grav 
ity,  in  which  he  attempts  to  account  for  the 
force  by  supposing  that  ethereal  matter  revolves 
about  the  earth  with  a  velocity  greater  than 
that  of  the  planet,  and  compares  it  to  the  force 
which  causes  bodies  a  little  heavier  than  wa 
ter,  and  lying  lightly  upon  the  smooth  bottom 
of  a  cylindrical  vessel  containing  water,  to 
move  toward  the  centre  when  the  circular  mo 
tion  of  the  vessel  by  which  its  fluid  contents 
have  been  caused  to  revolve  is  arrested.  In 
1681  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and 
immediately  began  the  construction  of  an  au 
tomatic  planitarium  to  represent  the  true  mo 
tion  of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system.  This 
invention  led  to  the  important  discovery  of 
continued  fractions,  which  he  found  it  neces 
sary  to  employ  in  order  to  establish  the  rela 
tion  between  the  number  of  teeth  contained  in 
two  wheels  which  play  into  one  another. 
After  this  he  resumed  for  several  years,  in 
conjunction  with  his  brother  Constantine,  the 
construction  of  telescopes.  lie  made  two  ob 
jectives,  one  of  170  and  another  of  210  ft. 
focal  length,  which  he  presented  to  the  royal 
society  of  London.  As  a  telescope  of  such  di 
mensions  would  be  difficult  to  manage,  Huy- 
gens  proposed  to  dispense  with  the  tube  and 
place  the  object  glass  in  an  elevated  position 
so  that  it  could  be  adjusted  to  any  angle,  and 
then  to  place  the  eye  piece  at  the  focus.  This 
arrangement  continued  to  be  used  until  the 
introduction  of  reflecting  telescopes.  While 
Huygens  was  absorbed  in  these  occupations  a 
great  revolution  was  going  on  in  the  mathemat 
ical  world.  Leibnitz  had  invented  the  differ 
ential  calculus,  which  he  published  in  1684,  and 


had  proposed  as  a  test  to  the  followers  of  the 
old  methods  the  problem  of  finding  the  curve 
of  equable  approach,  or  that  which  a  sus 
pended  body  must  follow  in  order  to  approach 
or  recede  from  equal  heights  in  equal  times, 
lluygens  accomplished  the  solution  by  the  old 
methods,  but  he  was  the  only  one  who  suc 
ceeded.  Soon  after  this  Newton  published 
his  Printipia,  and  Huygens,  with  a  desire  of 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  author,  visited 
England  for  the  third  time,  and  on  his  return 
published  his  treatise  on  light  under  the  title 
Traite  de  la  lumiere,  ou  sont  expliquees  les 
causes  de  ce  qui  lui  arrive  dans  la  reflexion, 
dans  la  refraction  et  particulierement  dans 
Vetrange  refraction  du  cristal  d'lslande  (Ley- 
den,  1690).  Soon  after  this  he  investigated 
the  properties  of  the  catenary  curve,  a  problem 
which  had  just  been  proposed  by  James  Ber 
noulli,  who  had  become  proficient  in  the  meth 
ods  of  the  differential  calculus  ;  but  Huygens 
solved  the  question  by  the  old  methods,  which 
was  considered  a  wonderful  achievement.  lie 
nevertheless  found  the  task  so  difficult  that 
his  opposition  to  the  differential  calculus  was 
shaken,  and  he  entered  at  once  into  corre 
spondence  with  Leibnitz,  lie  had  previously, 
whenever  meeting  with  difficulties,  attributed 
them  to  himself  and  not  to  defects  in  the 
methods.  After  examining  the  differential 
calculus  he  admitted  its  superiority,  imme 
diately  commenced  its  use,  and  soon  gave  a 
wider  development  to  the  invention  than  it 
had  yet  attained.  At  his  death  he  left  his 
manuscripts  to  the  library  of  Leyden,  intrust 
ing  their  publication  to  two  of  his  pupils,  Voi 
der  and  Fullen. — Huygens  was  never  married, 
and  aside  from  his  scientific  pursuits  his  life 
was  not  eventful.  He  had  a  fine  personal  ap 
pearance,  and  his  character  was  eminently 
noble.  Newton  spoke  of  him  as  the  summits 
ITugenius,  and  considered  his  stylo  as  an  au 
thor  more  classic  than  that  of  any  other  mathe 
matician  of  that  time.  He  was  affable  and 
kind,  and  was  easily  accessible  to  young  stu 
dents,  whom  he  was  always  delighted  to  assist 
in  their  investigations.  His  labors  were  im 
mense,  and  the  practical  value  of  their  results 
is  inestimable.  His  discovery  of  the  laws  of 
the  double  refraction  of  light  in  Iceland  spar, 
and  of  polarization,  perhaps  as  much  as  any 
other  cause,  led  to  the  reexamination  of  the 
undulatory  theory,  and,  with  the  necessary 
adaptations,  to  its  employment  to  account  for 
all  the  phenomena  of  radiation  of  both  heat 
and  light.  In  accordance  with  this  theory  the 
most  important  researches  in  modern  physics 
have  been  made,  as  those  upon  the  diather- 
manous  properties  of  bodies,  and  upon  the  ab 
sorption  of  radiant  heat  by  gases  and  vapors, 
by  which  great  light  has  been  thrown  on  the 
science  of  meteorology.  Besides  his  invention 
of  the  pendulum  clock  and  of  the  balance 
wheel  to  the  watch,  the  first  chronometers 
taken  aboard  ships  were  made  under  his  direc 
tion,  and  he  was  far  in  advance  of  all  others 


HYACINTH 


99 


of  his  day  in  astronomical  observations.  His 
discovery  of  the  isochronism  of  the  cycloid  was 
one  of  the  most  important  in  mathematics ; 
and  not  inferior  to  it  is  the  invention  of  the  in 
volution  and  evolution  of  curves,  and  the  es 
tablishment  of  the  proposition  that  the  cycloid 
is  its  own  evolute.  He  also,  in  his  Horologium 
Oacillatorium,  gives  a  method  for  finding  the 
centre  of  oscillation,  which  was  the  first  suc 
cessful  solution  of  a  dynamical  problem  in 
which  connected  material  points  are  supposed  | 
to  act  on  one  another.  The  difficulty  of  this 
subject  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Newton  fell 
into  an  error  in  regard  to  it  in  attempting  to 
solve  the  problem  of  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes.  The  question  of  the  centre  of  os 
cillation  had  been  proposed  by  Mersenne  in 
1046,  and  although  some  cases  had  been  solved 
on  the  principle  of  the  centre  of  percussion,  it 
was  beyond  the  reach  of  any  methods  then 
known.  1 1  uy  gens  was  only  a  boy  of  17  when 
the  question  was  proposed,  and  could  then  see 
no  principle  by  which  it  could  be  solved ;  but 
when  he  published  his  Horologium  Oscillato- 
rium  in  1673,  the  principles  which  he  assumed 
led  to  correct  results  in  all  cases.  The  two 
first  theorems  appended  to  that  work  state :  1, 
that  if  two  equal  bodies  move  in  unequal  cir 
cles  in  equal  times,  the  centrifugal  forces  will 
be  proportional  to  the  diameters  of  the  circles ; 
and  2,  that  if  the  velocities  are  equal,  the  cen 
trifugal  forces  will  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  of 
the  diameters.  To  arrive  at  these  conclusions 
required  the  application  of  the  second  law  of 
motion  (i.  e.,  that  the  motion  which  a  force 
gives  to  a  body  is  compounded  with  the  motion 
which  it  previously  had)  to  the  limiting  ele-  I 
mcnts  of  the  curve,  in  the  manner  in  which 
Newton  afterward  demonstrated  the  theorems 
of  Huygens  in  his  Principia.  Huygens's  own 
demonstrations  of  these  theorems  were  found 
after  his  death  among  his  papers.  In  his 
treatise  on  the  impact  of  bodies  (De  Motu 
Corpornm  ex  Percnsxione),  Huygens  must  have 
assumed  the  third  law  of  motion,  which  New 
ton  afterward  expressed  by  saying  that  "  action  i 
and  reaction  are  equal  and  opposite,"  by  which 
we  understand  that  the  quantity  of  motion  in 
the  impact  of  bodies  remains  unchanged,  one 
of  the  first  grand  principles  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  conservation  of  force.  His  works  were 
edited  by  's  Gravesande  under  the  titles  of 
Opera  varia  (2  vols.  4to  in  1,  Leydcn,  1724)  and 
Opera  Rcliqua^  vols.  4to,  Amsterdam,  1728). 
HYACINTH,  a  genus  of  Uliacca>,  containing 
several  species,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
hyacinthus  oricntalis,  a  native  of  the  Levant. 
This  has  an  onion-like  bulb,  which  throws  up 
long,  narrow-channelled  leaves,  from  among 
which  arises  a  scape  bearing  a  raceme  of  bell- 
shaped  drooping  flowers;  the  parts  of  the  pe 
rianth  are  united  to  about  the  middle,  and  the 
free  portions  reflexed ;  flowers  often  very  fra 
grant,  appearing  in  early  spring.  This  being 
one  of  the  florists1  flowers,  great  changes  have  I 
been  produced  in  it  by  cultivation ;  the  size  of  ! 


the  flower  cluster  has  been  greatly  increased, 
the  flowers  are  semi-double  and  double,  and 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  colors  and  tints, 
from  pure  white,  through  various  shades  of  red 
and  blue,  to  nearly  black.  The  number  of 
named  varieties  is  very  large,  and  includes  not 
only  self-colored  ones,  but  double  and  single 
kinds,  with  flowers  variously  striped  and  sha 
ded.  The  bulb  growers  near  Haarlem  in  Hol 
land  supply  the  world  with  hyacinths,  which 
form  a  large  share  of  what  are  imported  under 
the  name  of  "Dutch  bulbs."  The  eminence 
of  the  Dutch  florists  in  the  culture  of  this  and 
other  bulbs  is  in  part  due  to  a  favorable  soil 
and  climate,  and  in  part  to  the  patient  care 
given  to  their  cultivation ;  these,  with  the  low 
price  of  labor,  have  enabled  them  to  hold  a 
monopoly  of  bulb  growing.  Near  Haarlem 
over  100  acres  of  land  are  annually  devoted  to 
hyacinths ;  the  soil  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
alluvium,  and  permanently  supplied  with  the 
requisite  moisture.  New  varieties  are  obtained 
by  sowing  seed,  and  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate 
the  seedlings  for  six  years  before  their  ix-al 


s  {{/> 

\  '/fer 
Hyacinth  Bulb  and  Section. 

merit  can  be  decided  upon.  Established  va 
rieties  are  multiplied  from  the  small  bulbs 
which  form  at  the  base  of  the  larger  ones ;  a 
bulb  will  naturally  produce  several  of  these, 
and  the  cultivators  increase  the  number  by 
wounding  and  cutting  the  bulb  in  various 
ways.  The  small  bulbs  are  carefully  cultiva 
ted  until  of  a  proper  size  for  market ;  in  or 
der  to  increase  its  size  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
the  bulb  is  not  allowed  to  exhaust  its  strength 
in  producing  flowers,  but  the  flower  stem  is 
cut  away  as  soon  as  it  appears.  Millions  of 
bulbs  are  annually  imported  into  this  country 
and  England,  and  large  quantities  go  to  other 
countries.  The  best  are  imported  by  the  deal 
ers  direct  from  the  growers;  it  is  only  the 
poorer  bulbs,  from  which  the  finer  ones  have 
been  selected,  that  are  usually  offered  at  auc 
tion.  The  different  varieties  are  put  up  in 
bags  of  heavy  paper,  with  an  abundance  of  the 
hulls  of  buckwheat,  and  the  bags  are  packed 
in  cases.  The  heaviest  bulbs,  which  show  no 
signs  of  decay  by  being  soft  at  the  top,  are 


100 


HYACINTH 


HYAENA 


to  be  preferred.  Named  sorts  cost  much  more 
than  assorted  kinds,  which  for  the  general  cul 
tivator  may  he  quite  as  satisfactory  as  those 
with  names.  The 
bulbs  for  outdoor 
culture  are  usually 
planted  in  October. 
A  rich  light  soil  is 
best,  and  well  decom 
posed  cow  manure 
is  the  best  fertilizer ; 
the  bulbs  should  be 
set  8  in.  apart  and 
covered  to  the  depth 
of  4  in. ;  when  cold 
weather  conies  on,  the 
bed  is  to  be  covered 
with  litter,  which  is 
to  be  left  on  un 
til  spring;  when  the 
plants  come  into  flow 
er  each  spike  will 
need  the  support  of 
a  small  stick  or  wire, 
which  may  be  so 
placed  as  not  to  be 
noticed  ;  when  the 
flowers  decay  their 
stalks  are  cut  away, 
and  the  bulbs  allowed 
to  remain  until  the 
fading  of  the  leaves 
shows  that  they  have 
finished  their  growth ; 
they  are  then  taken 
up,  dried  in  the  sun, 
each  wrapped  in  a  paper  with  its  label,  and  kept 
in  a  cool  dry  place  until  time  to  plant  in  autumn. 
They  do  not  bloom  in  subsequent  years  so  well 
as  the  first.  In  some  gardens  the  bulbs  are  left 


English  Bluebell. 

from  year  to  year ;  they  increase  and  form 
large  clumps,  which  produce  small  spikes  of 
flowers.  The  hyacinth  is  an  easy  plant  to  force 


in  the  greenhouse  or  in  an  ordinary  room ;  the 
bulbs  should  be  potted  in  October,  and  the 
pots  placed  in  a  cool  dark  cellar,  or  in  a  shady 
corner,  and  covered  with  coal  ashes ;  when  an 
inspection  of  the  pots  shows  that  the  ball  of 
earth  is  well  filled  with  roots,  they  may  be 
brought  to  a  warm  and  light  place,  when 
growth  of  leaves  and  flowers  will  soon  com 
mence  ;  frequent  failure  is  due  to  not  first  se 
curing  a  good  growth  of  roots  by  keeping  the 
bulb  cool  and  from  the  light.  The  bulbs  are 
often  forced  in  glasses  made  for  the  purpose, 
filled  with  water ;  the  base  of  the  bulb  should 
just  touch  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the 
glass  should  be  kept  in  the  dark  until  the  roots 
are  well  developed.  Bulbs  that  have  been 
forced  are  of  little  value ;  single  varieties  are 
preferred  for  forcing. — The  wild  hyacinth,  the 
bluebell  of  England,  II.  nonscriptus  of  the  older 
botanists,  has  been  successively  placed  in  several 
different  genera,  and  is  probably  nearer  a  squill 
(scilla)  than  a  hyacinth. 

HYACINTHE,  Pere.     See  LOTSON,  CHARLES. 

HYACINTHUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  the 
Spartan  king  Arayclas  and  Diomede,  or  of 
Pierus  and  Clio,  or  of  CEbalus  and  Eurotas. 
He  was  a  boy  of  great  beauty  and  the  favorite 
of  Apollo,  but  was  also  beloved  by  Zephyrus, 
who  from  jealousy  caused  his  death  as  he  was 
playing  with  Apollo,  by  blowing  the  quoit  of 
the  god  against  his  head.  From  his  blood 
sprang  the  flower  hyacinth,  upon  whose  leaves 
appears  the  Greek  exclamation  of  woe  AI,  AI, 
or  the  letter  Y  beginning  his  name  ("YaKtvOoc;). 

HYADES,  in  Greek  mythology,  nymphs  vari 
ously  described  as  being  from  two  to  seven  in 
number,  and  bearing  18  names. .  According  to 
some  authorities,  Jupiter  placed  them  among 
the  stars  in  honor  of  their  care  of  the  infant 
Bacchus ;  while  others  say  it  was  to  reward 
them  for  their  long  mourning  for  their  brother 
Hyas,  who  had  been  killed  by  a  wild  boar. 

HY/ENA,  a  digitigrade  carnivorous  mammal, 
most  numerous  in  Africa,  but  found  also  in 
southern  and  middle  Asia,  where  the  genus  has 
probably  spread  while  following  the  track  of 
armies  and  caravans.  Zoologists  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  position  of  this  animal ;  the  older  au 
thors  place  it  in  the  feline  family,  with  which 
it  agrees  in  the  single  true  molar  on  each  side 
of  both  jaws,  and  in  the  single  tuberculato 
tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  only ; 
Waterhouse  regarded  it  as  a  small  divergent 
group  of  viverrina  or  civet  cats ;  Linnaeus 
ranked  it  in  his  genus  canis ;  and  Hamilton 
Smith  puts  it  in  juxtaposition  to  the  dogs.  It 
seems  to  be  an  osculant  type,  united  on  the 
one  hand  to  the  dogs  by  the  genus  lycaon,  and 
on  the  other  to  the  civets  by  the  genus  protelcs 
(aard-wolf) ;  its  general  aspect  is  decidedly  ca 
nine,  as  also  are  most  of  its  habits.  The  dental 
formula,  according  to  Owen,  is  :  incisors  |,  ca 
nines  |,  premolars,  £l|,  and  molars  \~\ — 34  in 
all.  The  disposition  of  the  hyama  is  fierce  and 
cowardly,  and  its  habits  are  revolting;  it  is 
able  to  withstand  any  temperatures  and  priva- 


HYAENA 


101 


tions,  revels  in  the  foulest  air,  and  gorges  on 
the  filthiest  substances  when  living  prey  fails ; 
of  powerful  form,  thick  skin,  and  strong  jaws 
and  teeth,  the  bands  of  hyrenas  fear  not  the 
lion  and  tiger,  and  will  attack  even  man  in  the 
night  time.  Its  appearance  is  very  repulsive ; 
the  head  is  large  and  truncated,  the  neck  short 
and  stout,  the  body  thick  and  short,  high  at 
the  shoulders  and  declining  rapidly  toward  the 
tail,  a  long  stiff  mane  from  the  nape  to  the 
rump,  and  a  short  tail ;  the  gait  is  clumsy,  the 
voice  harsh  and  frightful,  the  expression  of  the 
face  malignant,  and  its  body  offensive  from  its 
carrion  food  and  the  strong  odor  of  its  anal 
pouch.  The  feet  are  all  four-toed,  with  strong 
non-retractile  claws  fitted  for  digging,  the  dor 
sals  and  the  pairs  of  ribs  15  or  10,  and  the 
lumbar  vertebrso  4  or  5  ;  the  tibia  and  fibula 
are  much  shorter  than  the  radius  and  ulna ; 
the  tongue  is  covered  with  horny  papilla?,  the 
irides  elliptical  above  and  circular  below,  the 
erect  ears  Jong  and  pointed,  and  mammas  four. 
The  prevailing  color  is  an  ochrey  gray,  with 
dark  stripes  or  spots.  The  hyrena  is  among 
mammals  what  the  vulture  is  among  birds,  the 
scavenger  of  the  wilderness,  the  woods,  and 
the  shore,  and  useful  in  this  way  in  disposing 
of  carcasses  which  otherwise  would  pollute 
the  air;  often  it  attacks  cattle  and  disabled 
animals,  prowls  in  the  rear  of  the  larger  car- 
nivora,  whose  leavings  it  devours,  and  digs  up 
when  possible  the  dead  bodies  of  man  and 
beast ;  from  this  last  undisputed  habit,  the 
hyrena  has  been  regarded  as  a  horrible  and 
mysterious  creature,  and  is  the  subject  of  many 
superstitious  fears  and  beliefs  among  the  Semi 
tic  races.  Its  teeth  are  so  powerful  that  they 
can  crack  the  bones  of  an  ox  with  ease,  and 
their  grip  is  tenacious  to  the  last  degree ; 
were  its  speed  great  and  its  courage  equal  to 
its  strength,  it  would  be  among  the  most  dan 
gerous  of  the  carnivora;  it  sometimes  burrows 
in  the  earth  or  hides  in  caverns,  but  generally 


Spotted  llya-na  (Hyaena  crocuta). 

passes  the  day  in  the  desert,  insensible  to  the 
scorching  sun.  The  spotted  hyrena  (//.  crocuta, 
Erxl.)  is  the  most  dog-like  of  the  genus;  it  is 
about  4i  ft.  long  from  nose  to  base  of  tail,  the 
latter  measuring  about  13  in.  and  the  head 
about  12  ;  the  height  at  the  shoulders  is  2£ 


ft. ;  the  general  color  is  a  dingy  whitish  gray, 
with  small  round  brown  spots,  the  muzzle  as 
far  as  the  eyes  and  lower  limbs  sooty,  and  the 
tail  dark ;  the  mane  is  rather  short.  It  is 
found  in  South  Africa,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
Senegal  and  Guinea,  and  with  the  next  spe- 


Striped  Hyaena  (Hyaena  striata). 

cies  is  generally  called  wolf  by  the  Dutch 
colonists.  It  is  fierce  but  cowardly,  and  will 
sometimes  approach  camps  and  make  severe 
gashes  on  the  limbs  and  faces  of  persons 
asleep;  it  is  said  sometimes  to  drag  off  chil 
dren,  which  from  its  strength  it  could  easily  do ; 
from  the  resemblance  of  its  voice  to  a  human 
laugh,  it  has  received  the  name  of  the  laugh 
ing  hyrcna;  it  rarely  burrows,  but  occupies  the 
retreats  of  other  animals,  prowling  about  at 
night.  The  striped  hyrena  (//.  vulgari*,  Desm., 
or  H.  striata,  Zimm.),  a  rather  larger  animal, 
is  found  in  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  and  Per 
sia  ;  the  head  is  wider,  the  muzzle  fuller,  and 
the  eyes  further  from  the  nose,  than  in  tho 
preceding  species;  the  hair  is  coarse  and  thick, 
of  a  dirty  gray  color,  with  transverse  dark 
stripes  on  the  sides  and  limbs ;  there  is  a  stiff 
mane  along  the  back  ;  the  habits  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  spotted  hyrena.  There  are  some 
varieties  of  smaller  size,  and  one  .with  a  skin 
almost  naked,  in  the  Nubian  deserts.  The 
brown  hyaena,  or  strand  wolf  of  the  Dutch 
colonists  (//.  Irunnea,  Thunb.),  is  only  4  ft. 
long  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  a  little  over  2 
ft.  high  at  the  shoulders  ;  the  hair  is  long  and 
shaggy,  of  a  dirty  yellow  color,  with  tawny  tints 
on  the  back  and  irregular  stripes  on  the  sides; 
it  is  less  in  size  than  the  other  species,  and  less 
destructive  to  cattle.  The  hvrenas  act  very 
much  the  part  of  the  wolf  of  northern  climates, 
being  equally  fierce,  cowardly  except  at  nifiht 
and  when  in  packs,  and  annoying  to  the  herds 
man  by  their  destruction  of  sheep  and  oxen. — 
There  are  in  Africa  certain  dog-like  animals, 
the  uilde  Jtonde,noit\\Q  Dutch,  constituting  the 
genus  h/caon  (Brooks),  which  seem  to  connect 
the  dogs  with  the  hvrenas,  and  which  are  be 
lieved  by  Hamilton  Smith  to  be  partly  the  pro- 


102 


HYBRID 


genitors  of  the  mastiff  races.  The  head  is 
short  and  truncated,  the  mouth  broad,  the 
teeth  strong  and  dog-like ;  the  ears  erect  and 
large  ;  neck  long,  body  short,  the  limbs  slender 
and  highest  before  ;  tail  short,  hanging  down, 
and  inflexible;  four  toes  on  all  the  feet;  pupils 
round ;  mammee  eight  or  ten.  They  hunt  in 
packs,  being  swift,  active,  hardy,  with  excel 
lent  scent  and  acute  sight ;  they  do  not  bur 
row.  They  are  found  in  Africa  south  of  the 
great  desert,  and  in  Arabia,  and  as  far  as  the 
Indus  in  Asia.  The  hunting  hyaena  (lycaon 
venaticus,  Burcli.)  of  the  Cape  is  about  as  tall 
as  a  large  greyhound,  with  long  legs;  the  color 
is  ochrey,  white  on  the  breast,  with  spots  of  the 
same  edged  with  black  on  the  neck,  shoulders, 
loins,  and  croup,  with  wavy  black  streaks  on 
the  sides;  the  muzzle  and  cheeks  black,  the 
color  passing  up  on  the  nape  and  down  on  the 
throat.  It  hunts  in  packs  both  by  day  and 
night,  frequently  destroying  sheep,  and  some 
times  surprising  cattle,  biting  off  their  tails ;  it 


Hunting  Hyaena  (Lycaon  venaticus). 

is  considered  untamable.  The  painted  hyaena 
(L.  pictus,  Temm.)  is  by  many  thought  to  be  a 
mere  variety  of  the  last ;  it  is  about  3  ft.  long, 
the  tail  1  ft.  more,  and  If  ft.  high  at  the  shoul 
ders;  the  colors  are  much  the  same  as  in  the 
preceding  animal ;  it  hunts  also  in  packs,  sur 
prising  antelopes,  and  attacking  when  hard 
pressed  for  food  cattle  and  even  man ;  Riippell 
says  it  looks  much  less  like  a  hytena  and  more 
like  a  dog  than  the  L.  venaticus. — In  anterior 
geological  epochs  the  hyrenas  were  not  confined 
to  tropical  Africa  and  Asia,  nor  to  the  old 
world.  They  appeared  in  Europe  toward  the 
end  of  the  tertiary  age,  but  were  most  numer 
ous  during  the  diluvial  period,  and  were  found 
in  England,  Belgium,  and  Germany ;  there 
were  about  half  a  dozen  species,  numerous  in 
individuals,  and  of  a  size  sometimes  superior  to 
the  living  animal.  In  the  Kirkdalo  and  other 
caverns  of  Europe  three  species  are  found,  of 
which  the  best  known  is  the  //.  spelwa  (Goldf.). 
In  Asia  they  were  numerous  in  the  Himalaya 


region,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  IT. 
Siwilensis  (Cautl.  and  Falc.).  In  the  caverns 
of  Brazil  Lund  has  found  abundant  remains  of 
a  hyiena  which  he  calls  H.  neogcea,  mixed  with 
the  bones  of  rodents,  peccaries,  megalonyx, 
and  other  American  types,  seeming  to  show 
that  the  geographical  distribution  of  animals  in 
the  modern  faunae  is  in  no  way  connected  with 
their  ancient  distribution.  The  bones  of  the 
caverns  bear  unmistakable  marks  of  the  teeth 
of  hyaenas,  even  if  the  remains  of  the  latter 
did  not  prove  their  existence ;  and  this  animal 
seems  to  have  been  the  principal  consumer  of 
the  great  proboscidians  and  ruminants  of  the 
diluvial  age. 

HYBLA,  the  name  of  several  cities  of  ancient 
Sicily,  the  most  considerable  of  which  were  the 
following.  I.  Hybla  Major,  or  Magna,  situated  on 
the  southern  declivity  of  Mt.  Etna,  near  the 
river  Symeethus.  It  was  founded  by  the  Siculi, 
and  was  one  of  those  which  Ducetius,  a  chief 
of  that  people,  sought  to  unite  into  a  confeder 
acy  against  the  Greeks  and  Carthaginians.  In 
the  time  of  Cicero  Ilybla  Major  was  an  opu 
lent  municipium,  but  in  that  of  Pausanias  it 
was  a  poor  decayed  place.  Its  site  was  prob 
ably  at  Paterno,  where  an  altar  has  been  dis 
covered  dedicated  to  Venus  Victrix  Hyhlensis. 
II.  Ilybla  Minor,  which  stood  so  near  Megara 
on  the  E.  coast,  N".  of  Syracuse,  that  the  two 
cities  were  often  confounded,  was  likewise  of 
Siculic  origin.  It  was  chiefly  celebrated  for 
the  honey  produced  in  its  vicinity. 

HYBRID  (Gr.  v/tywf),  an  animal  or  plant  pro 
duced  by  the  sexual  union  of  individuals  be 
longing  to  t\vo  different  species.  As  a  rule, 
in  nature  sexual  union  takes  place  only  be 
tween  individuals  of  the  same  species,  and  the 
offspring  accordingly  presents  the  specific  char 
acters  common  to  both  its  parents.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  the  species  is  indefinitely  main 
tained,  with  its  distinctive  characters,  by  the 
constant  production  of  new  individuals  similar 
in  appearance  to  the  old  and  endowed  with 
similar  powers  of  reproduction.  But  union 
between  a  male  and  a  female  of  different  spe 
cies,  when  fertile,  produces  an  offspring  which 
does  not  precisely  resemble  either  of  its  pa 
rents,  but  presents  a  mixture  in  nearly  equal 
proportions  of  their  separate  characters.  Thus 
a  mule,  which  is  the  most  commonly  known 
example  of  a  hybrid,  is  neither  a  horse  nor  an 
ass,  but  something  intermediate  between  the 
two,  and  is  without  the  complete  distinctive 
marks  of  any  recognized  animal  species.  One 
of  the  most  important  questions  relating  to 
hybridity  is  that  of  the  possible  fertility  of 
sexual  union  between  different  species,  and 
that  of  hybrids  of  the  same  or  different  kinds 
between  themselves.  In  nature,  the  occur 
rence  of  hybridity  is  extremely  rare.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  more  or  less  complete  in 
aptitude  of  the  male  and  female  generative 
products  to  unite  with  each  other  in  such  a 
way  as  to  produce  a  fertile  result.  Thus  the 
germ  and  pollen  of  different  flowers,  or  the 


HYBRID 


103 


ovum  and  spermatic  fluid  of  different  animals, 
may  be  incapable  of  fertilization,  owing  to  pe 
culiarities  of  their  own  internal  constitution  ; 
and  consequently  their  physical  contact  would 
produce  no  result.  But  there  are  other  rea 
sons  upon  which  the  non-occurrence  of  hy 
brids  in  nature  may  partly  depend.  Among  1 
animals  there  is  an  instinctive  preference  for  j 
sexual  union  with  their  own  species  rather  , 
than  with  others,  and  a  similarity  of  habits,  of 
locality,  and  general  disposition,  corroborates  j 
this  preference,  and  alone  makes  it  much  more  j 
likely  that  sexual  union,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
will  take  place  between  animals  of  the  same 
species.  A  certain  degree  of  similarity  in  the 
physical  structure  of  the  parents  is  essential  to 
the  fertility  of  their  sexual  union.  Thus  all 
the  most  frequent  and  most  useful  forms  of 
hybridity  occur  between  different  species  be 
longing  to  the  same  genus.  The  horse,  for  ex 
ample,  will  breed  with  the  ass,  the  zebra,  and 
the  quagga  ;  the  dog  has  been  certainly  known  | 
to  breed  with  the  wolf,  and  probably  with  the 
fox  ;  the  goat  with  the  sheep,  the  ram  with 
the  roe;  and  it  has  been  comparatively  easy  to  j 
obtain  hybrids  from  the  union  of  the  rabbit 
and  the  hare.  But  a  cross  union  is  not  neces 
sarily  fertile,  even  between  species  of  the  same 
genus ;  between  those  of  different  genera  it 
is  still  more  exceptional ;  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  hybridity,  either  natural  or  artificial, 
has  ever  occurred  beyond  these  limits.  The 
second  question  of  interest  relating  to  hybrid 
ity  is  that  of  the  fertility  of  hybrids  among 
themselves.  As  a  rule  it  may  be  said  that  hy 
brids  are  not  fertile.  Thus  the  mule  does  not 
reproduce  itself,  but  is  only  obtained  by  a  repe 
tition  of  the  union  of  the  ass  and  the  mare.  The 
female  mule  will  sometimes  reproduce  by  union 
with  either  the  horse  or  the  ass;  but  in  this 
case  the  offspring  is  no  longer  a  mule,  but  re 
verts  to  the  type  of  the  original  stock  in  pre 
cise  proportion  to  the  admixture  of  blood  re-  ! 
suiting  from  the  union.  Notwithstanding,  \ 
therefore,  that  the  mule  and  its  mode  of  pro 
duction  have  been  known  from  time  immemo 
rial,  and  notwithstanding  the  recognized  use 
fulness  of  its  qualities  in  some  respects,  we 
have  never  been  able  to  obtain  an  indepen 
dent  and  self- reproductive  breed  of  mules; 
that  is,  the  hybrid  has  rover  acquired  the 
physiological  characters  of  a  natural  species. 
— The  terms  hybrid  and  hybridization  are  of 
ten  vaguely  used  as  applied  to  plants,  and  many 
are  called  hybrids  which  are  only  crosses  be 
tween  varieties.  The  name  hybrid  should  be 
restricted  to  plants  resulting  from  the  seeds  of 
one  species  fertilized  by  the  pollen  of  another 
species  ;  those  forms  produced  by  cross  breed 
ing  between  varieties  of  the  same  species  should 
never  be  called  hybrids,  but  crosses.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  horticulturists  generally  ig 
nore  this  distinction  and  use  the  terms  hybrid  j 
and  cross  as  synonymous.  Hybrid  plants  some-  | 
times  occur  in  nature,  and  are  frequently  pro 
duced  artificially.  In  hybridizing,  it  is  neces 


sary  to  prevent  the  flower  used  as  the  mother, 
or  seed-bearer,  from  being  fertilized  by  its  own 
pollen  both  before  and  after  the  artificial  appli 
cation  of  the  strange  pollen ;  the  operator  is 
favored  by  the  fact  that  pollen  retains  its  vital 
ity  for  some  time  after  it  is  removed  from  the 
flower  which  produced  it.  It  is  probable  that 
with  this,  as  with  seeds,  the  duration  of  vitality 
varies  in  different  species  ;  at  all  events,  it  is 
known  that  some  pollen  will  keep  for  weeks 
and  even  months.  The  flower  selected  as  the 
seed-bearer  is  taken  just  as  it  is  about  to  open 
and  before  any  insects  can  have  visited  it ;  the 
envelopes  are  carefully  opened  or  removed,  and 
if  a  perfect  flower  its  still  unopened  stamens 
are  cut  away  with  a  delicate  pair  of  scissors, 
the  foreign  pollen  applied  to  the  stigma  with  a 
small  brush,  and  the  flower  or  flowers  enclosed 
in  a  bag  of  gauze  to  prevent  the  access  of  in 
sects,  which  would  probably  bring  pollen  of  the 
same  kind  to  interfere  with  the  action  of  the 
strange  pollen.  This  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  pro 
cess  ;  there  are  details  which  can  be  learned  by 
practice.  It  is  not  possible  to  know  beforehand 
whether  two  species  will  hybridize ;  two  species 
of  a  genus  that  seem  to  be  the  most  nearly  related 
will  sometimes  refuse  to  be  hybridized,  while 
other  two  that  seem  most  unlike  will  readily 
form  a  union.  It  makes  a  difference  also  which 
plant  is  chosen  as  the  seed-bearer  and  which 
as  the  pollen-bearer ;  for  instance,  the  pistil 
of  A  will  refuse  to  be  fertilized  by  the  pollen 
of  B,  while  the  pistil  of  B  will  readily  accept 
the  pollen  of  A.  Seeds  from  the  flowers  thus 
fertilized  may  produce  plants  quite  intermediate 
between  the  two  parents,  or  may  more  strongly 
resemble  the  one  or  the  other.  Sometimes  a  hy 
brid  will  have  the  leaves  of  one  parent  and  the 
flowers  and  fruit  of  the  other.  By  this  means 
horticulturists  have  produced  useful  varieties 
of  fruit,  notably  in  grapes  and  strawberries, 
and  some  of  the  finest  flowers  are  the  result  of 
hybridizing.  Among  hardy  flowers,  the  rho 
dodendrons  and  azaleas  are  striking  examples 
of  the  improvement  that  may  be  effected  in 
this  manner;  the  fine  rhododendrons  are  hy 
brids  between  the  hardy  R.  Oatawbiense  of 
the  southern  Alleghanies  and  J?.  Fonticum,  a 
greenhouse  species  from  Asia  Minor.  It  is  a 
singular  fact  that  the  English  hybrids,  in  which 
J?.  Catairliicnse  is  the  mother  plant,  are  gen 
erally  hardy,  while  the  Belgian  hybrids  are 
very  much  less  hardy  for  the  reason  that  the 
Belgian  florists  use  It.  Ponticum  as  the  seed- 
bearer.  When  a  desirable  form  is  obtained  by 
hybridizing,  it  can  be  continued  nnd  multiplied 
indefinitely  by  means  of  layers,  cuttings,  or 
grafts.  Hybrid  plants  are  sometimes  fertile; 
the  progeny  from  them  shows  a  tendency  to 
revert  to  the  one  or  the  other  parent,  and  in  a 
few  generations  all  trace  of  the  admixture  is 
obliterated  ;  sometimes  the  progeny  is  too  weak 
to  bear  seeds,  and  thus  becomes  extinct.  More 
generally  hybrid  plants  are  wholly  or  partly 
sterile ;  the  degeneration  shows  itself  most 
prominently  in  the  anthers,  which  fail  to  pro- 


104: 


HYDASPES 


HYDERABAD 


duce  pollen  ;  the  pistil  in  this  case  will  be  fer 
tilized,  if  at  all,  by  pollen  from  either  parent, 
and  thus  a  reversion  of  its  progeny  to  a  normal 
form  assured ;  sometimes  the  pistils  are  abor 
tive  also.  It  will  be  seen  that  while  hybrids 
may  be  produced  among  plants  in  a  wild  state, 
and  are  often  produced  in  cultivation,  there  is 
abundant  provision  against  the  perpetuation 
of  a  race  of  monsters. — Another  kind  of  hybrid 
in  which  fertilization  plays  no  part  has  recent 
ly  received  the  attention  of  vegetable  physiol 
ogists.  There  are  a  number  of  well  authenti 
cated  cases  in  which  a  graft  or  bud  has  so  in 
fluenced  the  stock  in  which  it  was  inserted 
that  the  stock,  even  below  the  point  of  union, 
put  out  branches  partaking  of  the  characters 
of  both  stock  and  scion.  Some  of  these  graft 
hybrids,  as  they  are  called,  have  been  propa 
gated.  An  account  of  this  kind  of  hybrids,  as 
well  as  a  very  full  resume  of  the  whole  subject 
of  hybrids,  will  be  found  in  Darwin's  "  Varia 
tion  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestica 
tion."  See  also  his  "  Origin  of  Species,"  and 
E.  A.  Carriere's  Production  et  fixation  des 
varietes  dans  les  vegetaux  (Paris,  1865). 

HYDASPES,  a  river  of  ancient  India.  See 
JHYLUM,  and  PUXJAUB. 

HYDATIDS.     See  ENTOZOA,  vol.  vi.,  p.  666. 

HYDE.  I.  An  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  Pamlico  sound,  and  bounded  W. 
by  Pango  river ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  6,445,  of  whom  2,378  were  colored. 
It  has  a  level  surface,  a  large  part  of  which  is 
occupied  by  pine,  cypress,  and  cedar  swamps. 
The  products  of  the  pine  are  the  staples  of  ex 
port.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  21,- 
319  bushels  of  wheat,  163,216  of  Indian  corn, 
11,033  of  oats,  235  bales  of  cotton,  and  171,- 
548  Ibs.  of  rice.  There  were  378  horses,  681 
milch  cows,  1,484  other  cattle,  and  3,706  swine. 
Capital,  Swan  Quarter.  II.  A  S.  E.  county 
of  Dakota,  recently  formed,  and  not  included 
in  the  census  of  1870  ;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m. 
Its  S.  W.  corner  touches  the  Missouri  river. 

HYDE,  Edward.     See  CLARENDON. 

HYDE,  Thomas,  an  English  orientalist,  born 
nt  Billingsley,  Shropshire,  June  29,  1636,  died 
in  Oxford,  Jan.  18,  1703.  lie  studied  at  Cam 
bridge  and  Oxford,  took  orders,  became  libra 
rian  of  the  Bodleian  library,  succeeded  Po- 
cocke  in  1691  as  Laudian  professor  of  Arabic, 
and  soon  after  was  appointed  regius  professor 
of  Hebrew.  In  1678  ho  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Gloucester.  He  understood  Hebrew,  Syri- 
ac,  Arabic,  Persian,  Armenian,  Malay,  and 
Chinese,  and  was  interpreter  of  oriental  lan 
guages  to  the  court  during  the  reigns  of  Charles 
II.,  James  II.,  and  William  III.  The  most  im 
portant  of  his  works  is  Vetcrum  Persarum  et 
Medorum  Religionis  Ilistoria  (Oxford,  1700; 
best  ed.,  1760).  A  complete  edition  of  his 
other  writings  appeared  at  Oxford  in  1767. 

HYDE  DE  NEUVILLE,  Jean  Gnillanmc,  baron, 
a  French  politician  of  Scottish  descent,  born 
at  La  Charite-sur-Loire,  Jan.  24,  1776,  died  in 
Paris,  May  28,  1857.  He  was  one  of  the  most 


active  agents  of  the  Bourbons  after  the  death 
of  Louis  XVI.,  and  mingled  in  nearly  all  the 
intrigues  for  the  subversion  of  the  revolutionary 
governments.  After  the  18th  Brumaire,  in  an 
interview  with  Bonaparte,  he  tried  to  persuade 
him  to  restore  the  Bourbons.  He  was  charged 
by  Fouche  with  being  an  accomplice  in  the 
infernal  machine  plot,  but  cleared  himself  from 
the  accusation.  He  subsequently  removed  to 
the  United  States,  settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York,  became  acquainted  there  with  Gen. 
Moreau,  then  an  exile,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
instrumental  in  persuading  him  to  return  to 
Europe.  Early  in  1814  he  returned  to  France, 
and  was  welcomed  by  the  Bourbons,  who  had 
just  been  reinstated  on  the  throne.  He  was 
engaged  in  all  the  negotiations  and  transactions 
which  took  place  during  1814  and  1815,  and 
on  the  second  restoration  was  elected  by  his 
native  department  a  deputy  to  the  chambre  in- 
trouvable,  where  he  was  an  uncompromising 
advocate  of  the  most  reactionary  measures. 
In  1816  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipoten 
tiary  to  the  United  States,  and  held  that  office 
till  1821,  when,  after  being  created  a  baron, 
he  was  recalled  to  France.  Being  ambassador 
at  Lisbon  in  1824,  he  cooperated  in  restoring 
to  power  the  old  king  John  VI.,  whom  his  son 
Dom  Miguel  had  imprisoned.  Thenceforth  he 
gradually  estranged  himself  from  the  ultra- 
royalist  party.  In  1828  he  entered  the  Mar- 
tignac  cabinet  as  minister  of  the  navy,  made 
several  improvements  in  the  colonial  system, 
enforced  measures  against  the  African  slave 
trade,  and  favored  the  independence  of  Greece. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  of  1830, 
he  asserted  the  claims  of  the  duke  of  Bordeaux 
to  the  throne,  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and 
resigned  his  seat  on  Louis  Philippe  being  se 
lected.  From  that  period  he  devoted  himself 
mainly  to  agriculture. 

HYDERABAD.     I.  A  native  state  of  the  Dec- 
can,  India,  called  also  the  Nizam's  Dominions, 
lying  between  lat.  15°  and  21°  30'  N.,  and  Ion. 
74°  40'  and  81°  30'  E.,  bounded  N.  by  Berar, 
N.  E.  by  the  Central  Provinces,  N.  W.  and  W. 
by  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  and  S.  and  S.  E. 
by  that  of  Madras  ;    area,  95,337  sq.  m. ;    pop. 
about  11,000,000.     The  surface  consists  chiefly 
of  a  high  table  land  1,800  to  2,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  several  granite  masses  rising  to  an  eleva 
tion  of  2,500  ft.     The  geological  formation  of 
this  region  is  simple.     Resting  on  a  base  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  talc  slate  are  clay,  horn 
blende,  feldspar,  limestone,  and  sandstone ;  and 
in  some  parts  columnar  basalt  is  conspicuous. 
j  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Godavery,  flowing 
j  through  the  middle  of  the  country,  the  Kistnah, 
j  which  winds  along  its  southern  limits,  and  the 
;  AVurda  and  Paingunga  in  the  north,  all  flowing 
in  an  easterly  direction.     The  minerals  com 
prise  iron   (the  iron  ore  in  the  Nirmal    hills 
being  magnetic)  and  coal,  which  is  found  near 
the  junction   of   the    Godavery   and  Wurda. 
Near  the  Godavery  are  also  mines  of  garnet, 
,  and  at  Parteal  near  Condapilly  are  diamond 


HYDERABAD 


HYDER  ALI 


105 


mines,  from  which  the  treasury  of  Golconda 
was  formerly  supplied.  The  soil  of  the  coun 
try  is  fertile,  but  not  well  cultivated.  There  is 
a  considerable  area  of  waste  and  forest  lands. 
Wheat  and  cotton  are  the  principal  agricultu 
ral  products ;  other  productions  are  barley, 
rice,  oil  plants,  cucumbers,  gourds,  hemp,  su 
gar  cane,  tobacco,  sweet  potatoes,  aromatic 
seeds,  jowary  (Indian  millet),  and  bajree,  a  spe 
cies  of  grain  which  forms  the  chief  sustenance 
of  the  laboring  classes.  The  principal  manu 
factures  are  silks,  brocades,  and  carpets,  and 
in  the  southeast  calico  printing  by  means  of 
wooden  blocks  is  carried  on  to  some  extent. 
The  chief  exports  are  steel,  cotton,  and  teak. 
The  climate,  owing  to  the  elevated  position  of 
the  country,  is  colder  than  is  usual  in  this  lati 
tude.  The  territory  is  crossed  by  several  good 
military  roads,  and  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
railway  traverses  the  eastern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  country.  Branch  lines  are  pro 
jected  from  this  main  line  to  the  city  of  Hy 
derabad,  and  from  Hy 
derabad  to  Masulipatam 
on  the  Madras  coast. 
The  government  is  Mo 
hammedan,  but  nearly 
nine  tenths  of  the  peo 
ple  are  Hindoos. — Hy 
derabad  was  anciently 
subject  to  the  rajahs  of 
Telingana  and  Bijana- 
gur.  It  was  erected 
into  a  separate  kingdom 
in  1512  by  a  Turkish 
adventurer,  and  in  1  GST 
became  a  province  of 
the  Mogul  empire.  Azof 
Jah,  an  officer  of  the 
court  of  Delhi,  who  in 
1719  governed  this  and 
the  five  other  provin 
ces  of  the  Deccan  with 
the  title  of  Nizam  ul- 
Mulk  ("  regulator  of  the 
state  ''),  made  himself 

independent.  On  his  death  in  1748  the  suc 
cession  was  disputed  by  his  son  Nazir  Jung, 
whose  cause  was  espoused  by  the  English,  and 
his  grandson  Mirzapha  Jung,  who  was  favored 
by  the  French.  The  latter  finally  triumphed, 
and  governed  under  the  direction  of  the  French 
commander  Dupleix  until  ho  was  put  to  death 
by  some  Pat  an  chiefs.  During  a  period  of 
anarchy  which  followed,  the  French  and  Eng 
lish  supported  rival  claimants  for  the  sover 
eignty.  Nizam  Ali,  who  came  to  the  throne 
in  1701,  ravaged  the  Carnatic,  but  was  over 
powered  by  a  British  force,  and  induced  to 
sign  a  treaty  in  1760  which  gave  to  the  East 
India  company  the  Northern  Circars.  The 
English  bound  themselves  to  maintain  a  mili 
tary  force  for  the  nizam's  protection.  In  the 
war  between  the  British  and  Ilyder  Ali,  how 
ever,  the  nizam  sided  with  the  sultan  of  My 
sore,  but  in  that  with  Tippoo  Saib  he  formed 


an  alliance  with  the  company  and  thepeishwa, 
and  received  a  share  of  the  spoils  of  victory. 
The  accession  of  territory  which  he  then  ob 
tained  he  subsequently  ceded  to  the  British  in 
lieu  of  payment  for  the  support  of  the  British 
contingent.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  first 
Mahratta  war  in  1804  his  dominions  were 
again  enlarged.  The  misgovernment  of  the 
country  under  the  successors  of  Nizam  Ali 
plunged  Hyderabad  deeply  in  debt.  The  East 
India  company  was  at  one  time  creditor  to  the 
amount  of  £500,000  or  £600,000,  and  in  liqui 
dation  they  accepted  a  cession  of  the  province 
of  Berar,  part  of  the  revenues  of  which  were  to 
be  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  subsidiary  na 
tive  force  known  as  the  nizam's  contingent. 
The  nizam  remained  true  to  the  British  du 
ring  the  mutiny  of  1857-'8,  and  his  dominions 
were  little  disturbed  except  by  marauders.  II. 
A  town,  capital  of  the  Nizam's  Dominions, 
situated  on  the  river  Mussi,  about  300  m.  N. 
N.  W.  of  Madras ;  pop.  variously  estimated  at 


British  Eesidcncy  in  Hyderabad. 

80,000,  120,000,  and  200,000,  a  large  majority 
of  whom  are  Mohammedans.  It  is  a  weakly 
fortified  town,  crowded  with  buildings,  some 
of  which  are  large  and  imposing,  having  nu 
merous  mosques,  and  surrounded  by  gardens 
of  remarkable  beauty.  The  British  residency 
is  a  magnificent  edifice  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river,  connected  with  the  town  by  a 
stone  bridge.  In  the  neighborhood  there  are 
largo  water  tanks,  one  of  which  is  20  m.  in 
circuit.  A  Inrge  British  garrison  is  maintained 
at  Hyderabad,  and  there  is  an  extensive  mili 
tary  cantonment  at  Secunderabad,  a  few  miles 
N.  E.  of  the  town.  The  celebrated  city  of 
Golconda  is  7  m.  distant  to  the  northwest. 

IIYDER  ALI,  sultan  of  Mysore,  born  in  Dina- 
velli,  Mysore,  about  1718,  died  Dec.  7, 1782.  He 
was  of  Arabian  descent,  and  son  of  a  petty  chief. 
Entering  the  service  of  the  rajah  of  Mysore  in 
1749,  he  rose  in  the  course  of  ten  years  to  be 


106 


HYDRA 


HYDRANGEA 


commander  of  the  forces,  and,  having  thus  the 
power  in  his  own  hands,  set  aside  the  rajah 
with  a  pension  of  three  lacs  of  rupees,  and 
took  possession  of  the  sovereignty.  The  East 
India  company,  becoming  alarmed  at  his  in 
creasing  power,  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Mahrattas  and  the  nizam  of  the  Deccan  against 
him ;  hut  Ilyder  not  only  gained  over  the  ni 
zam  to  his  side,  but  for  two  years  waged  ve 
hement  war  on  the  British.  By  a  series  of 
skilful  manoeuvres  he  managed  to  draw  their 
force  to  a  distance  from  Madras,  and  then  at 
the  head  of  6,000  horsemen  rode  120  m.  in 
three  days  and  appeared  before  the  city.  The 
outlying  country  being  at  his  mercy,  the  gov 
ernment  of  the  presidency  was  compelled  to 
come  to  terms,  and  Ilyder  agreed  to  a  treaty 
of  which  the  principal  feature  was  that  the 
British  should  form  an  alliance  with  him  in 
his  defensive  wars.  In  1770,  the  Mahrattas 
having  invaded  his  dominions,  he  applied  to 
the  British  for  their  promised  aid,  but  could 
obtain  from  them  nothing  more  than  neutrality. 
By  the  year  1778  he  had  recovered  from  the 
disadvantages  their  defection  had  caused  him. 
Being  .once  more  threatened  by  the  same  war 
like  people,  he  again  invited  British  assistance, 
but  with  a  like  result.  Incensed  by  this  con 
duct,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Mahrattas 
and  the  nizam,  and  in  1780  invaded  the  Brit 
ish  territory  of  the  Carnatic,  which  he  ravaged 
with  fire  and  sword,  capturing  many  of  the 
strong  places,  but  avoiding  battle  in  the  open 
field.  The  desolation  he  brought  on  the  coun 
try  during  the  two  years'  war  was  such  that 
the  British  force,  and  even  the  city  of  Madras, 
were  in  danger  from  famine.  This  war  elicited 
a  remarkable  display  of  military  talent  by  the 
British  general  Sir  Eyre  Coote  on  the  one 
side,  and  by  Ilyder  and  the  French  officers,  of 
whom  he  had  many  in  his  service,  on  the  other. 
The  Mysore  leader  had  already  rejected  terms 
of  adjustment  offered  by  Lord  Macartney,  the 
governor  of  Madras,  when  he  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Tippoo  Saib. 

HYDRA.     See  HERCULES. 

HYDRA.  I,  An  island  in  the  Grecian  archi 
pelago,  off  the  E.  coast  of  the  Morea,  belong 
ing  to  the  nomarchy  of  Argolis  and  Corinth; 
greatest  length  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  about  12  m., 
greatest  breadth  3  m. ;  pop.  about  20,000.  Its 
surface  is  rocky,  sterile,  and  mountainous.  The 
inhabitants  are  esteemed  the  best  sailors  of 
Greece.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  island,  situ 
ated  on  a  barren  rugged  height  on  the  N.  W. 
shore;  pop.  in  1870,  7,428.  The  streets  are 
steep  and  uneven,  and  the  houses  substantially 
built.  The  manufactures  are  silk  and  cotton 
stuffs,  soap,  and  leather.  The  harbor  is  formed 
by  a  deep  bay,  but  is  neither  spacious  nor  well 
sheltered.  During  the  war  of  the  revolution 
Hydra  was  a  place  of  general  refuge  for  peo 
ple  from  all  parts  of  Greece. 

HYDRABAD,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
province  of  Sinde,  situated  on  an  eminence 
belonging  to  the  Gunjah  hills,  4  in.  E.  of  the 


E.  bank  of  the  Indus  ;  pop.  about  20,000.  Part 
of  it  is  built  on  an  island  15  m.  long,  which 
is  formed  by  the  Indus  and  an  offset  of  that 
stream  called  the  Fulailee.  It  is  defended  by 
a  fortress  of  imposing  appearance  but  no  great 
strength,  and  has  manufactures  of  matchlocks, 
swords,  spears,  and  shields,  and  of  ornamental 
silks  and  cottons.  The  town  is  connected  with 
Kurrachee  on  the  Arabian  sea  by  a  railway 
120  m.  long.  Ilydrabad  was  formerly  the  resi 
dence  of  the  chief  amirs  of  Sinde,  who  governed 
the  southern  and  principal  part  of  the  coun 
try.  A  victory  was  gained  over  a  Sindian 
force  near  here  by  Sir  C.  Napier,  Feb.  24, 1843. 
HYDRANGEA  (Gr.  txtap,  water,  and  ayyof,  a 
vase),  a  genus  of  shrubby  plants,  to  which  the 
name  was  applied  for  no  obvious  reason,  be 
longing  to  the  natural  order  saxifragacece,  and 
natives  of  Asia  and  of  North  America.  The 
species  best  known  (//.  Hortensia),  the  com 
mon  hydrangea,  was  introduced  into  England 
from  China  in  the  year  1790  by  Sir  Joseph 


Garden  Hydrangea  (H.  Hortensia). 

Banks.  Commerson,  wishing  to  honor  his 
friend  Mine.  Hortense  Lapeaute,  called  the 
plant  Lapeautia;.  but  thinking  the  compliment 
not  sufficiently  pointed,  he  changed  the  name 
to  Hortensia,  by  which  it  is  still  known  in 
France ;  when  it  was  found  to  belong  to  the 
old  genus  hydrangea,  Commerson's  generic 
name  was  retained  for  the  species ;  it  is  often 
incorrectly  written  hortensis.  It  is  a  smooth, 
dwarf,  vigorous  shrub,  with  opposite,  coarsely 
toothed,  oval  leaves,  and  bears  immense  globu 
lar  clusters  of  sterile  flowers,  which  are  white, 
pink,  or  blue,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  Cuttings  of  the  wood  or  of  the  growing 
stems  will  root  without  difficulty.  The  hydran 
gea  delights  in  an  unlimited  supply  of  water, 
fading  at  once  on  its  being  withheld.  There  is 
a  variety  with  variegated  foliage,  nearly  all  sil 
very  white,  which  is  fine  in  the  greenhouse,  but 
does  not  endure  our  hot  sun.  Specimens  are 
mentioned  in  England  of  30  ft.  circumference, 


IIYDRAST1S 


HYDRAULIC  RAM 


107 


and  producing  on  a  single  clump  more  than  ' 
1.000  Leads  or  corymbs  of  flowers.  In  the 
United  States,  even  so  far  north  as  Boston,  it 
will  survive  the  winter  it'  slightly  protected  by 
the  stems  being  covered.  The  wild  hydran 
gea  (//.  arborescens,  Linn.)  is  a  shrub  4  to  G 


Oak-leaved  Hydrangea  (II.  quercifolia). 

ft.  high  ;  its  flowers,  which  are  borne  on  flat 
cymes,  are  white  or  yellowish,  and  usually  all 
fertile,  but  sometimes  with  a  row  of  sterile 
ones  around  the  margin ;  the  species  ranges 
from  Pennsylvania  southward.  The  oak-leaved 
hydrangea  (//.  quercifolia}  was  first  discovered 
by  Bartrara  in  Georgia;  it  was  carried  to  Eng 
land  in  1803,  and  is  the  finest  North  American 
species;  it  has  deeply  lobed,  oak-like  leaves, 
and  fine  large  corymbs  of  nearly  white  flowers, 
which  change  afterward  to  purple.  In  the  gar 
dens  at  the  north  is  often  seen  the  snowy-leaved 
hydrangea  (II.  nivea,  MX.),  a  shrub  from  0  to 
8  ft.  high,  with  large  leaves  of  a  silvery  white 
ness  beneath,  and  flowers  in  terminal  cymes, 
having  a  few  showy,  white,  sterile  florets  en 
closing  many  small,  green,  fertile  ones ;  it  grows 
in  the  upper  part  of  Georgia  and  the  Caroli- 
nas.  Within  a  few  years  several  fine  hydran 
geas  have  been  introduced  from  Japan,  some 
of  which,  though  they  have  received  specific 
names,  are  varieties  of  //.  Hortensia,  while 
others  are  distinct;  preeminent  among  these 
is  II.  paniculata  grand  (flora  (sometimes  called 
//.  deutzifolia),  which  is  one  of  the  finest  hardy 
shrubs  in  cultivation;  it  produces  an  oblong 
panicle,  often  a  foot  long,  of  sterile  'flowers, 
which  are  at  first  white,  then  gradually  turn 
pink,  and  by  the  time  frost  comes  they  are 
brownish  red. 

HYDRASTIS.     See  Puocoox. 

HYDRATES  (Gr.  vdup,  water),  compounds  con 
taining  water,  or  its  elements  in  the  proportion 
to  form  water.  Tims  lime  (oxide  of  calcium) 
slaked  with  water  forms  a  chemical  combina 
tion  with  a  portion  of  this,  and  falls  to  a  white 


powder,  which  is  a  hydrate  of  lime.  Hydrate 
of  potassa  is  a  combination  of  potassa  and 
water,  and  is  permanent  even  when  exposed  to 
high  temperature.  Common  oil  of  vitriol  is 
also  a  chemical  combination  of  water  and  sul 
phuric  anhydride. 

HYDRAULIC  RAM,  a  machine  for  raising  water 
by  employing  its  own  momentum,  acquired  by 
a  fall,  a  portion  of  the  water  only  being  raised. 
The  accompanying  diagram,  fig.  1,  will  serve 
to  explain  its  action.  An  impulse  pipe,  II, 
leads  from  a  cistern  or  reservoir,  C,  and  has  a 
fall  depending  on  the  amount  of  impulse  re 
quired,  and  corresponding  with  the  other  parts 
of  the  machine,  and  on  the  height  the  water  is 
required  to  be  raised.  The  lower  end  of  this 
impulse  pipe  turns  up  at  A,  where  there  is  a 
large  valve,  usually  conical  and  opening  down 
ward.  This  valve  is  of  such  a  weight  that  the 
simple  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  cistern  and 
pipe,  or  the  head,  will  not  raise  it,  a  certain 
degree  of  momentum  being  required  for  that 
purpose.  "When  the  valve  is  open  the  water 
rushes  through  it  and  soon  attains  this  required 
momentum,  and  the  valve  rises  and  shuts 
against  its  seat.  The  motion  of  the  water  in 
the  end  at  A  is  arrested,  but  not  entirely  so  in 
that  portion  of  the  pipe  between  II  and  the 
cistern,  for  the  impulse  opens  the  valve  B  and 
forces  water  into  the  bell-shaped  chamber  I), 
and  eventually  into  the  delivery  pipe  E.  AVhen 
the  impulse  of  the  water  flowing  through  the 
valve  B  becomes  less  than  the  pressure  upon 
it,  the  valve  closes  and  prevents  the  water 
which  has  passed  through  from  returning.  The 
time  of  this  flow  is  very  short,  because  the  ar 
rest  of  motion  of  the  water  in  the  end  of  the 
impulse  pipe  so  reduces  the  force  exerted 
against  the  impulse  valve  that  it  falls  after  a 
brief  interval,  when  the  water  again  rushes  out 
and  relieves  the  pressure  at  B.  But  it  soon 
acquires  sufficient  momentum  to  again  raise 
the  impulse  valve,  when  the  shock  is  repeated, 
and  the  acquired  momentum  again  expends  it 
self  principally  against  the  valve  B,  and  the 


FIG.  1.— Hydraulic  Itaiu. 


water  ascends  into  the  air  chamber  and  deliv 
ery  pipe.  The  use  of  the  air  chamber  is  obvi 
ously  to  produce  a  constant  pressure  in  the 
pipe  E,  as  nearly  as  practicable,  and  to  relieve 
it  from  the  sudden  shock  which  would  other 
wise  be  caused  by  the  shutting  of  the  valve  B. 


108 


HYDRAULIC  RAM 


HYDROCHLORIC  ACID 


The  expenditure  of  force  in  this  machine  is 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  amount  of  water 
discharged  at  A  into  the  head,  or  height  of 
water  in  the  cistern  above  the  valve  A.  The 
economy  of  force  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
amount  of  water  delivered  by  the  pipe  E  into 
the  height  to  which  it  is  raised.  The  proportion 
in  good  rams  is  from  60  to  70  per  cent.  The 
head  of  water  should  be  from  4  to  6  ft.  for  rais 
ing  water  vertically  30  ft.  There  is  a  differ 
ence  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  proportional 
increase  of  head  to  increase  in  height  of  the 
delivery  pipe,  and  machines  of  different  modes 
of  construction  will  require  variation  in  this 
particular.  The  height  of  head  is,  however, 
practically  restricted  in  consequence  of  the 
wear  and  strain  produced  by  the  shock  when 
the  head  is  great.  A  practical  difficulty  in  the 
machine  is  to  preserve  the  necessary  quantity 
of  air  in  the  air  chamber.  This  is  constantly 
being  absorbed  by  the  \vater,  so  that  in  time 
its  volume  becomes  too  small  to  yield  sufficient 
elasticity.  The  difficulty  is  obviated  to  a  great 
degree  by  the  application  of  what  is  called  a 
shifting  valve,  opening  inward  at  G.  There  is 
a  moment  of  time  after  the  shutting  of  the  im 
pulse  valve  when  there  is  in  certain  parts  of 
the  machine  a  diminution  of  internal  pressure 
to  a  degree  below  that  of  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  During  this  moment  a  bubble  of 
air  will  enter  at  G  and  ascend  into  the  air 
chamber,  but  it  is  difficult  so  to  regulate  the 
supply  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  remove 
the  air  chamber  and  introduce  a  fresh  supply 
of  air.  In  large  European  machines  there  is 
often  placed  at  B  an  inner  air  chamber  with 
two  valves  at  its  base,  suspended  by  hinges 
and  opening  laterally.  The  impulse  pipe  may 
be  straight,  and  inclined  as  shown  in  the  fig 
ure,  or  have  a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  limb ; 
or  it  may  be  curved.  There  are  several  prac 
tical  points  in  regard  to  its  size  and  length 
which  should  be  observed  in  the  erection  of 
the  ram.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  if 
the  impulse  pipe  is  very  wide  and  short,  it  will 
not  maintain  a  sufficient  impulse  to  lift  the 
water  against  great  pressure  in  a  long  delivery 


FIG.  2,— Whitehurst's  Machine. 

pipe,  because  of  the  tendency  to  a  reactionary 
movement  of  its  contents,  which  is  prevent 
ed  by  the  resistance  offered  by  a  longer  and 
smaller  pipe.  The  invention  of  the  hydraulic 
ram  is  ascribed  to  the  elder  Montgolfier,  and 
its  improvements  to  his  son.  The  principle, 


however,  was  previously  employed  by  John 
Whitehurst  of  Cheapside  in  a  machine  con 
structed  by  him  in  1772,  an  account  of  which 
was  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac 
tions  "  in  1775.  Fig.  2  is  a  representation  of 
Whitehurst's  machine,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  principal  difference  between  it  and  Mont- 
golfier's  ram  is  that  it  has  a  stopcock  in  place 
of  the  automatic  impulse  valve.  Leading  from 
the  cistern  II  is  a  long  pipe,  A  E,  much  longer 
in  proportion  than  is  represented  in  the  figure, 
which  is  the  impulse  pipe.  Its  contents  re 
ceive  momentum  from  the  opening  of  the  cock 
B,  which  is  several  feet  below  E.  When  suf 
ficient  force  has  been  obtained  the  cock  is  shut, 
and  the  column  of  water  in  A  B  is  urged  by  its 
momentum  along  the  direct  branch  of  the  pipe 
G,  through  its  depressed  extremity  D,  into  the 
bottom  of  the  air  chamber  C.  This  part  of 
the  pipe  contains  a  valve  opening  toward  the 
air  chamber,  corresponding  to  the  one  in  Mont- 
golfier's  machine.  F  is  the  lower  section  of 
the  delivery  pipe.  The  principle  of  action  is 
precisely  the  same  in  the  two  machines,  and 
the  explanation  of  the  ram  will  answer  for 
that  of  Whitehurst's  machine. 

HYDRAULICS.     See  HYDROMECHANICS. 

HYDROCEPHALUS.  See  BEAIN,  DISEASES  OF 
THE,  vol.  iii.,  p.  197. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  or  Clilorohydric  Acid,  a 
gaseous  compound  of  one  equivalent  of  chlo 
rine  and  one  of  hydrogen  (IIC1),  of  combining 
proportion  36'5,  long  known  in  its  aqueous 
solution  by  the  names  of  muriatic  acid,  ma 
rine  salt,  and  spirit  of  salt,  in  reference  to  its 
being  prepared  from  sea  salt  (murias).  Priest 
ley  first  obtained  it  as  a  gas  in  1772,  and  Gay- 
Lussac,  Thenard,  and  Davy  long  aftenvard 
showed  that  it  consists  of  equal  volumes  of 
chlorine  and  hydrogen,  and  occupies  the  same 
space  as  the  gases  which  produce  it.  Its  ele 
ments  mixed  together  slowly  combine  by  the 
action  of  the  light,  but  instantly  with  explo 
sion  if  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
or  if  an  electric  spark  is  passed  through  the 
mixture,  or  a  lighted  taper  is  brought  in  con 
tact  with  it.  The  gas  is  obtained  by  adding 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  common  salt 
placed  in  a  retort,  and  collecting  over  mer 
cury.  The  chlorine  of  the  salt  (chloride  of 
sodium)  unites  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  sul 
phuric  acid,  producing  hydrochloric  acid  and 
acid  sulphate  of  soda;  or,  by  symbols,  NaCl 
+  H2S04  =  HCl  +  lSTaHSO4.  The  gas  is  col 
orless,  but  escaping  in  the  air  it  instantly 
unites  with  moisture  present,  and  forms  a 
white  cloud.  It  has  a  strongly  acid  taste  and 
a  pungent  odor.  Taken  into  the  lungs  it  is 
irrespirable,  but  when  diluted  with  air  is  not 
so  irritating  as  chlorine.  It  neither  supports 
combustion  nor  is  itself  inflammable.  Under 
a  pressure  of  40  atmospheres,  at  50°  F.,  it  is 
condensed  into  a  liquid  of  specific  gravity  1'27, 
which  dissolves  bitumen.  The  density  of  the 
gas  is '1209-5,  air  being  1000.  Its  affinity  for 
water  is  such  that  it  can  be  kept  only  in  jars 


HYDROCHLORIC   ACID 


109 


over  mercury.  If  a  piece  of  ice  be  introduced  j 
into  a  jar  containing  the  gas,  the  ice  is  in 
stantly' liquefied,  and  the  gas  disappears.  If  j 
the  jar  be  opened  under  water,  the  water 
rushes  up  as  into  a  vacuum.  Water  at  40°  F.  | 
absorbs  nearly  its  own  weight,  or  about  480 
times  its  bulk  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas,  in 
creasing  in  volume  about  one  third,  and  ac 
quiring  a  density  of  1*2109 ;  at  this  strength  it 
contains  nearly  43  per  cent,  of  acid.  The  j 
aqueous  solution  is  the  form  in  which  the  acid 
is  commonly  known.  It  is  of  various  degrees 
of  strength,  the  strongest  readily  obtained 
having  6  equivalents  of  water  to  1  of  acid, 
40*60  per  cent,  of  real  acid,  and  being  of  spe 
cific  gravity  1-203.  This  loses  acid  by  evapo 
ration,  coming,  according  to  Prof.  Graham,  to 
12  equivalents  of  water  to  1  of  acid,  this  con 
taining  25*52  of  real  acid,  and  being  of  spe 
cific  gravity  1-1197.  When  reduced  by  dis 
tillation  till  it  changes  no  more,  it  contains  10*4 
equivalents  of  water  and  20  per  cent,  of  real 
acid,  and  is  of  specific  gravity  1*0947.  The  fol 
lowing  table  by  Mr.  E.  Davy  gives  its  strength 
at  different  densities : 


Sr.  frr. 
1-21  

Quantity  of 
acid  per  cent. 
42-43 

Sp.  Cr. 
1-10. 

Quantity  of 
acid  i  er  cent. 
20-20 

1'20. 

40-40 

1-00. 

18*18 

1-19  

3S-38 

1-08  

KMG 

1-18... 

3G-36 

1-07 

14-f4 

1-17  

34-34 

1-06... 

12-12 

1-16  

32-32 

1-05. 

10-18 

1-15. 

80-30 

1-04 

8-08 

1  14  

20-28 

1-03. 

6-06 

1-13. 

2G-26 

ro2 

4-04 

1-12  

24-24 

1-01. 

2-02 

1-11... 

..  22-22 

An  approximate  result  is  obtained  by  multiply-  j 
ing  the  decimal  of  the  specific  gravity  by  200.  ' 
— The  pure  concentrated  acid  is  colorless,  and  j 
fuming  when  exposed  to  the  air.     It  is  conve-  j 
niently  used  for  most  purposes  diluted  to  aspe-  | 
cific  gravity  of  about  I'l,  at  which  it  does  not  j 
fume.     Though   powerfully  acid,   it  is  not  so 
corrosive  as  sulphuric  acid.     It  is  decomposed  | 
by  substances   which  yield  oxygen  freely,  as  | 
the  manganese  dioxide,  and  is  thus  made  to  | 
furnish  chlorine  gas,  its  hydrogen  combining 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  metallic  oxide.     Ni 
trate  of  silver,  AgNO3  (old  AgO,NO6),  detects 
its  presence  by  the  formation  of  a  white  curdy 
precipitate  of  chloride  of  silver,  AgCl,  which 
is  soluble  in  ammonia,  but  not  in  nitric  acid. — 
Ingredients  used  for  preparing  hydrochloric  acid 
either  upon  a  large  or  small  scale  are  common  ! 
salt,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water.     Different  pro 
portions   are   adopted,  the   most  usual  being 
equal  weights  of  concentrated  acid  and  of  salt, 
or  in  the  large  way  G  parts  of  salt  to  5  of  acid, 
being  an  equivalent  of  each,  to  which  5  parts  | 
of  water  are  usually  added.     The  acid  mixed  j 
with  about  half  water  is   poured   when  cool  | 
upon  the  salt  contained  in  a  large  retort,  and  j 
the  remainder  of  the  water  is  placed  in  the 
vessel  serving  as  a  condenser  to  receive  the  i 
gas.     Heat  is  applied  to  the  retort,  and  the  acid  ! 
gas  distils  over ;  the  water  in  the  condenser  ; 


allows  none  of  it  to  escape,  so  long  as  it  is  kept 
cool  and  is  not  saturated.  The  aqueous  solu 
tion  obtained  is  of  specific  gravity  about  1*17, 
and  contains  34  per  cent,  of  dry  acid.  The 
residuum  is  common  sulphate  of  soda  or  Glau 
ber's  salt.  The  acid  is  so  cheaply  prepared  in 
large  chemical  works,  that  it  is  seldom  made  in 
the  laboratory.  It  is  an  incidental  product  in 
the  manufacture  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  was 
formerly  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  The  com 
mercial  article  is  often  contaminated  with  iron, 
which  gives  it  a  yellow  color,  though  this  is 
sometimes  owing  to  organic  matter,  as  cork  or 
wood.  Sulphuric  acid  is  almost  always  present 
in  it,  and  sometimes  free  chlorine  and  nitrous 
acid.  Sulphurous  acid,  II2SO3,  has  also  been 
found,  to  the  amount  of  7  to  pearly  11  per 
cent.  Sulphuric  acid  is  detected  by  the  forma 
tion  of  a  white  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  bary 
ta,  produced  when  chloride  of  barium,  BaCl2, 
is  added  to  a  diluted  portion  of  acid.  Traces 
of  sulphurous  acid  are  detected  by  a  mixture 
of  perchloride  of  iron  and  ferrocy  anide  of  potas 
sium,  Prussian  blue  being  formed  by  the  re 
ducing  action  of  the  acid  on  the  mixture.  Arse 
nic  and  chloride  of  lead,  PbCJ2,  may  sometimes 
be  detected  bva  current  of  sulphuretted  hydro 
gen,  II2S  (PbCl2  +  HS2  =  2IIC1  +  PbS).  The 
common  method  of  purifying  is  to  dilute,  add 
chloride  of  barium,  and  distil. — Hydrochloric 
acid  is  largely  employed  in  the  arts,  especially 
as  a  solvent  for  mineral  substances.  In  combi 
nation  with  nitric  acid  it  makes  the  aqua  regia, 
used  for  dissolving  gold  and  platinum.  It  is  used 
to  furnish  chlorine  in  the  preparation  of  bleach 
ing  and  disinfectant  salts,  and  in  the  production 
of  sal  ammoniac ;  and  is  employed  to  extract 
gelatine  from  bones.  When  neutralized  with 
basic  oxides,  it  docs  not  combine  as  an  acid 
with  these,  but  gives  its  hydrogen  to  their  oxy 
gen,  and  its  chlorine  unites  with  the  metallic 
base  of  the  oxide. — In  medicine  hydrochloric 
acicl  may  be  employed  with  advantage,  largely 
diluted,  to  assist  the  process  of  digestion,  which 
it  does  by  replacing  the  deficient  portion  of  the. 
normal  acid  and  of  the  gastric  juice.  When 
administered  with  pepsine  it  forms  a  sort  of  ar 
tificial  gastric  juice.  It  has  also  been  employed 
as  a  tonic  in  various  diseases,  and  as  an  in 
gredient  of  gargles,  when  sufficiently  diluted. 
The  strong  acid  may  be  used  as  an  escharotic. 
It  is  much  less  corrosive  than  sulphuric  acid. 
When  poisoning  has  occurred  from  swallowing 
the  strong  acid,  it  should  be  neutralized  by 
magnesia  or  soap,  and  the  case  then  treated  as 
other  kinds  of  corrosive  poisoning  are.  The 
principal  indications  for  the  therapeutic  admin 
istration  of  hydrochloric  acid  are  to  be  found 
in  calculous  affections,  in  certain  forms  of  dys 
pepsia,  in  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers,  and  in 
aphthous  affections  of  the  mouth  and  stomach. 
It  may  be  given  in  the  dose  of  from  10  to  80 
drops  three  or  four  times  a  day,  freely  diluted 
with  water.  Its  local  application  in  cases  of  ul 
cerated,  putrid,  and  diphtheritic  sore  throat  has 
often  been  attended  with  the  happiest  results. 


110 


HYDROCYANIC   ACID 


HYDROCYANIC  ACID,  or  Prnssic  Acid  (IICX  = 
HCy;  chemical  equivalent  27),  was  first  ob 
tained  in  its  aqueous  solution  by  Scheele  in 
1782,  who  described  it  correctly  as  consisting 
of  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen  ;  but  the 
true  nature  of  the  compound  was  determined 
by  Gay-Lussac  30  years  later,  who  first  ob 
tained  the  anhydrous  acid.  This  is  a  colorless, 
inflammable  liquid,  possessing  a  strong  odor, 
which  is  recognized  in  peach  blossoms;  but 
when  exhaled  from  the  pure  acid  it  is  so  pow 
erful  as  to  cause  immediate  headache  and  gid 
diness,  involving  the  most  serious  consequen 
ces  to  life  itself.  The  vapor  is  so  remarkably 
volatile,  that  a  drop  of  the  acid  congeals  upon 
a  piece  of  glass  by  the  rapid  evaporation  of 
a  portion  of  the  liquid.  It  boils  at  80°,  and 
freezes  at  5°  into  a  fibrous  mass.  At  45°  F.  its 
specific  gravity  is  0'70o8.  Its  taste  (a  hazard 
ous  test)  is  acrid  and  bitter  like  that  of  bitter 
almonds.  Its  acid  properties  are  feeble ;  the 
faint  red  tinge  it  imparts  to  litmus  paper  soon 
disappears ;  and  it  fails  to  decompose  salts  of 
carbonic  acid.  It  exists  in  parts  of  many  plants, 
as  the  kernels  of  peaches,  almonds,  plums,  &c., 
and  in  the  leaves  of  the  peach,  laurel,  &c.  It 
is  also  generated  in  the  processes  contrived  -for 
extracting  it  from  various  vegetable  matters. 
The  chief  source  of  the  acid,  however,  is  the 
blood,  hoofs,  horns,  and  tissues  of  animals, 
which  are  made  to  furnish  cyanogen  to  potas 
sium  on  being  ignited  with  carbonate  of  pot 
ash,  and  the  cyanide  thus  obtained  and  other 
cyanides  of  the  same  derivation  are  employed 
to  furnish  the  cyanogen  for  the  acid.  Its  col 
oration  in  Prussian  blue  gave  it  the  name  of 
Prussic  acid.  Many  methods  have  been  de 
vised  for  preparing  the  anhydrous  acid.  The 
cyanide  of  mercury  has  been  decomposed  to 
gether  with  hydrochloric  acid,  thus  producing 
chloride  of  mercury  and  hydrocyanic  acid ; 
and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  also  diluted 
sulphuric  acid  have  by  suitable  processes  been 
substituted  for  the  hydrochloric  acid.  But  the 
aqueous  solution  or  medicinal  acid  is  common 
ly  prepared  direct  by  some  one  of  the  numer 
ous  processes  of  the  pharmacopoeias.  The  fol 
lowing,  adopted  in  the  United  States,  is  rec 
ommended  for  its  simplicity  and  convenience  : 
Of  cyanide  of  silver  50£  grains  are  dissolved 
in  41  grains  of  hydrochloric  acid  diluted  with 
a  fluid  ounce  of  distilled  water;  the  mixture 
is  shaken  in  a  well  stopped  phial,  and  the  clear 
liquor,  poured  off  from  the  insoluble  matter 
which  subsides,  is  kept  in  tight  bottles  exclu 
ded  from  the  light.  Single  equivalents  of  the 
acid  and  cyanide  salt  are  employed ;  and  by 
their  mutual  decomposition  hydrocyanic  acid 
is  obtained  in  solution,  and  chloride  of  silver 
falls  as  a  precipitate.  By  this  method  the  acid 
may  always  be  prepared  as  wanted  ;  a  matter 
of  no  little  importance  in  its  medicinal  applica 
tions,  in  consideration  of  its  liability  to  decom 
pose  spontaneously,  and  its  consequent  uncer 
tain  composition  and  strength.  The  aqueous 
solutions  prepared  by  the  different  processes 


adopted  are  not  uniform  in  their  proportions 
of  anhydrous  acid;  but  their  strength  ought 
not  to  exceed  3  per  cent,  of  pure  acid.  Vari 
ous  methods  are  given  in  the  chemical  books 
of  ascertaining  this  strength  and  the  degree 
of  purity.  Sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids 
are  the  most  common  foreign  bodies  present. 
The  quantity  of  real  acid  is  usually  determined 
by  the  weight  of  cyanide  of  silver  precipita 
ted  on  adding  nitrate  of  silver.  By  the  Uni 
ted  States  formula  100  grains  of  pure  acid 
must  accurately  saturate  12  '7  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  and  pro 
duce  a  precipitate  of  cyanide  of  silver,  which, 
washed  and  dried  at  a  temperature  not  exceed 
ing  212°,  shall  weigh  10  grains  and  be  wholly 
soluble  in  boiling  nitric  acid.  If  a  residue  re 
main,  it  is  chloride  of  silver,  indicating  the 
presence  of  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  original. 
Sulphuric  acid  would  be  indicated  by  a  pre 
cipitate  formed  on  adding  chloride  of  barium 
to  a  portion  of  the  acid. — Hydrocyanic  acid  is 
well  known  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  of 
poisons,  destructive  to  vegetable  as  well  as  ani 
mal  life.  Seeds  immersed  in  it  lose  their  ger 
minating  power,  and  the  stems  of  sensitive 
plants  lose  their  peculiar  property  by  its  appli 
cation.  Small  doses  of  hydrocyanic  acid  give 
rise  to  a  bitter  taste,  a  tingling  in  the  throat,  a 
feeling  of  warmth  in  the  stomach,  and  an  in 
creased  secretion  of  saliva.  If  the  dose  is  in 
creased,  there  are  in  addition  headache,  dizzi 
ness,  confusion,  drowsiness,  and  sometimes 
nausea  and  labored  breathing.  After  the  long 
continued  use  of  small  doses  the  pulse  becomes 
less  frequent.  As  the  dose  is  increased  the 
symptoms  above  mentioned  increase  in  inten 
sity,  especially  the  dyspnoea,  while  the  pulse  be 
comes  frequent  and  small.  Consciousness  may 
be  completely  lost,  the  pupil  dilated,  and  con 
vulsions  occur,  and  yet  recovery  take  place. 
Fatal  cases  occur  with  aggravation  of  these 
symptoms,  except  when  death  takes  place  so 
rapidly  that  no  symptoms  are  developed  be 
yond  sudden  loss  of  consciousness,  a  short  pe 
riod  of  labored  breathing,  disappearance  of  the 
pulse,  and  collapse.  When  continuously  ap 
plied  externally,  hydrocyanic  acid  lessens  the 
irritability  of  the  sensitive  nerves.  It  is  used 
in  medicine  to  diminish  pain  and  irritation  ;  in 
some  affections  of  the  stomach  to  check  vom 
iting;  and  in  chest  affections  to  allay  icoiigh, 
especially  of  a  spasmodic  character.  Oil  of 
bitter  almonds,  has  been  used  to  produce  the 
effect  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  but  the  amount  of 
acid  contained  therein  is  so  variable  that  it 
is  an  uncertain  preparation.  When  poisoning 
takes  place,  death  often  approaches  so  rapidly 
as  to  preclude  the  employment  of  any  efficient 
treatment.  But  if  the  heart  is  still  beating, 
stimulants,  especially  ammonia,  should  be  very 
cautiously  applied.  Cold  affusion  may  also  act 
as  an  excitant,  and  artificial  respiration  may 
sustain  life  long  enough  for  a  portion  of  the 
poison  to  be  eliminated,  and  life  saved.  The 
subcutaneous  injection  of  atropia  has  also  been 


HYDRODYNAMICS 


HYDROGEN 


111 


proposed,  but  lias  not  been  proved  to  be  of 
much  value  as  an  antidote.  After  death  and 
before  decomposition  has  taken  place,  the  pres 
ence  of  hydrocyanic  acid  is  rendered  apparent 
in  the  blood  vessels  and  also  in  the  brain  by 
its  peculiar  odor.  To  obtain  the  acid,  the  con 
tents  of  the  stomach  should  be  washed  with 
distilled  water  and  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  dis 
tilled  in  a  water  bath.  The  product  may  then 
be  subjected  to  the  various  tests  given  in  the 
chemical  works.  The  therapeutic  value  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  is  limited  chiefly  to  a  few 
nervous  affections  of  the  stomach,  to  the  vom 
iting  of  pregnancy,  and  to  whooping  cough 
and  spasmodic  derangements  of  the  respiratory 
organs.  Only  the  dilute  form  is  used  medi 
cinally,  of  which  the  dose  varies  from  two  to 
five  or  six  drops. 

HYDRODYNAMICS.    See  HYDROMECHANICS. 

HYDROFLUORIC  ACID.     See  FLUORINE. 

HYDROGEN  (Gr.  i>6up,  water,  and  yew&eiv,  to 
produce),  an  elementary  gaseous  body,  named 
from  its  property  of  forming  water  by  com 
bining  with  oxygen.  Its  symbol  is  II ;  chemi 
cal  equivalent  1 ;  weight  compared  with  air 
0-06920 ;  100  cubic  inches  weigh  under  ordinary 
pressure  and  temperature  2-14  grains,  being  16 
times  less  than  an  equal  volume  of  oxygen,  and 
14*4  times  less  than  air.  One  litre  of  hydro 
gen  gas  at  0°  0.  and  760  mm.  pressure  weighs 
0-08936  gramme.  It  was  known  near  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  and  was  termed  in 
flammable  air  from  its  burning  with  a  flame ; 
it  was  also  called  phlogiston,  from  the  suppo 
sition  of  its  being  the  matter  of  heat.  Its  real 
nature  was  first  described  by  Cavendish  in 
1766.  The  gas  is  not  found  uncombined,  but 
is  readily  obtained  by  decomposing  water,  of 
which  it  constitutes  about  one  ninth  by  weight, 
the  remainder  being  oxygen.  This  process  is 
effected  very  much  as  metallic  oxides  are  de 
composed,  some  substance  being  presented  to 
the  compound  which  has  a  strong  affinity  for 
the  oxygen,  and  combining  with  it  liberates 
the  hydrogen  or  other  element.  The  vapor,  of 
water  passed  through  an  iron  tube  filled  with 
iron  shavings  and  kept  at  a  red  heat  is  thus 
decomposed,  the  oxygen  uniting  with  the  iron, 
and  the  hydrogen  escaping.  The  common 
method  of  preparing  the  gas  is  to  place  some 
bits  of  zinc  in  oil  of  vitriol  c"  sulphuric  acid  di 
luted  with  five  or  six  times  its  bulk  of  water. 
Chemical  action  immediately  takes  place,  and 
the  zinc  is  dissolved  with  effervescence,  owing 
to  the  bubbles  of  hydrogen  separating  from 
the  liquid.  The  reaction  is  represented  by 
the  formula  Zn  +  HaS04  =  ZnSO4  +  IIa.  With 
an  ounce  of  zinc  there  may  be  obtained  615 
cubic  inches  of  hydrogen.  A  common  flask 
answers  very  well  for  the  apparatus,  by  in 
serting  a  bent  tube  through  the  cork  for  the 
exit  of  the  gas,  and  a  straight  tube,  termi 
nating  above  in  a  small  funnel,  and  reaching 
below  the  cork  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the 
flask,  at  least  so  as  to  be  covered  by  the 
liquid.  Through  this  tube  the  acid  is  poured 
VOL.  ix. — 8 


in  as  required,  the  zinc  and  water  being  first 
introduced.  The  sulphur  and  carbon  which 
are  present  in  almost  all  zinc  appear  in  the  hy 
drogen  as  traces  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and 
carbonic  acid.  They  may  be  separated  by  agi 
tating  the  gas  with  lime  water.  When  pure,  hy 
drogen  has  neither  taste,  smell,  nor  color.  It 
is  destructive  to  animal  life  when  inhaled  for  a 
short  time,  and  extinguishes  a  burning  taper 
plunged  into  it.  Yet  it  is  itself  highly  com 
bustible,  burning  with  a  faint  bluish  yellow 
flame  at  its  contact  with  atmospheric  air  or 
oxygen ;  and  when  mixed  with  proper  propor 
tions  of  ether  and  ignited  by  flame,  an  electric 
spark,  or  a  glass  rod  heated  hardly  to  redness, 
its  combustion  is  instantaneous  and  explosive. 
A  piece  of  spongy  platinum  introduced  into  the 
mixture  also  causes  combustion  to  take  place. 
The  most  violent  effects  are  produced  by  a  mix 
ture  of  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  one  of 
oxygen.  The  only  product  of  the  combustion 
of  hydrogen  is  water.  The  gas  is  made  to  en 
ter  into  combination  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air,  producing  heat  sufficient  to  cause  its  igni 
tion,  by  directing  a  jet  of  it  upon  a  piece  of 
spongy  platinum,  or  even  upon  a  perfectly  clean 
surface  of  sheet  platinum.  The  metal  becomes 
red  hot,  the  gas  ignites,  and  thus  a  light  may  be 
instantaneously  obtained.  A  little  apparatus 
was  devised  for  this  purpose  by  Prof.  Dobe- 
reiner,  which  would  be  an  excellent  means  of 
obtaining  a  flame  in  the  absence  of  the  cheap 
matches  in  common  use.  Though  the  flame  of 
hydrogen  is  very  slightly  luminous,  a  bright 
light  is  emitted  from  the  heated  platinum  ;  and 
an  apparatus  based  on  this  principle  has  been 
applied  to  purposes  of  illumination  in  the  place 
of  ordinary  gas  lights.  Such  lights  were  at  one 
time  in  practical  use  in  France  and  England. 
The  hydrogen  was  produced  by  the  decompo 
sition  of  water,  effected  by  passing  its  vapor 
over  incandescent  charcoal  contained  in  a  tube ; 
some  carbonic  oxide  and  carburetter!  hydrogen 
were  generated,  which  burned  with  the  hy 
drogen,  the  jet  of  mixed  gases  being  direct 
ed  against  a  basket  constructed  of  fine  gauze 
of  platinum,  which  became  intensely  hot  and 
highly  luminous.  Hydrogen  produces  intense 
heat  by  its  combustion,  taking  up  more  oxygen 
than  is  required  by  the  same  weight  of  any 
other  combustible.  It  is  this  property  that  has 
led  to  its  application  in  the  oxyhydrogen  blow 
pipe  for  melting  the  most  refractory  substances. 
(See  BLOWPIPE.)  The  levity  of  hydrogen  early 
suggested  its  use  for  filling  balloons.  The  quan 
tity  required  to  fill  one  of  the  capacity  of  2,000 
cubic  feet  would  weigh  only  10*57  Ibs.,  while 
the  same  volume  of  air  would  weigh  153-26  Ibs., 
giving  an  ascensional  power  of  142*69  Ibs.  Illu 
minating  gas  is  heavier,  but  is  commonly  used 
instead  of  hydrogen  only  on  account  of  its 
greater  cheapness.  Hydrogen  is  so  subtle  and 
penetrating  a  gas  that  it  passes  with  facility 
through  paper  and  also  through  gold  and  silver 
leaves.  A  stream  of  the  gas  directed  against 
one  side  of  the  leaf  may  be  ignited  on  the 


112 


HYDROGRAPHY 


other.  Hydrogen  combines  with  one  equiva 
lent  of  oxygen  to  form  hydrogen  monoxide  or 
water ;  with  two  equivalents  to  form  the  di 
oxide  or  oxygenated  water,  a  liquid  discovered 
by  Thenard  in  1818,  and  now  prepared  by 
chemists  for  medicinal  purposes ;  also  with  one 
equivalent  of  nitrogen  to  form  ammonia  ;  and 
with  one  of  chlorine  to  form  hydrochloric  acid. 
From  his  researches  on  the  occlusion  of  hydro 
gen  by  palladium,  Prof.  Graham  was  led  to  in 
fer  the  existence  of  an  alloy  of  palladium  and 
hydrogen  gas  condensed  to  a  solid  form,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Jiydrogenium.  As 
suming  that  the  hydrogen  enters  into  the  com 
bination  with  the  density  which  it  would  ex 
hibit  if  solidified  in  the  free  state,  he  calculates, 
from  the  observed  density  of  this  so-called  alloy 
of  palladium  and  hydrogenium,  and  of  similar 
alloys  containing  in  addition  gold,  silver,  or 
nickel,  that  the  density  of  this  hypothetically 
solidified  hydrogen  varies  between  the  limits 
0*711  and  0-7545;  mean,  0'733.  The  presence 
of  hydrogen  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun  and 
in  the  planets  has  been  shown  by  spectrum 
analysis.  On  the  sun  four  lines  are  attributed 
to  hydrogen. 

HYDROGRAPHY  is  the  science  which,  by  rep 
resentation  of  the  figure  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean  and  its  tributaries  by  means  of  soundings, 
by  observations  of  tides  and  currents,  and  by 
investigations  of  the  winds  and  their  action 
and  of  the  law  of  storms,  aims  to  diminish  the 
risk  attending  the  navigation  of  dangerous 
waters.  The  results  of  these  investigations 
are  shown  upon  charts,  which  give  the  out 
lines  of  the  coasts  and  harbors,  the  depths  of 
water  in  the  navigable  channels,  the  rocks  and 
shoals  with  the  soundings  upon  them,  and 
various  tidal  and  magnetic  information.  In 
the  course  of  the  investigations  specimens  of 
the  bottom  are  also  obtained  by  apparatus  at 
tached  to  the  sounding  lead  ;  and  the  tempera 
ture  of  the  water  is  frequently  taken  as  an 
additional  guide  to  determine  the  mariner's  po 
sition.  By  such  sea  charts  as  are  now  pre 
pared  and  published  by  the  English  and  French 
hydrographic  ofiices  and  by  the  coast  survey 
of  the  United  States,  the  risks  attending  nav 
igation  have  been  greatly  diminished.  (See 
COAST  SURVEY.)  Hydrography,  as  it  now  ex 
ists,  belongs  to  modern  times,  although  various 
rude  attempts  at  hydrographic  examinations 
and  the  construction  of  sea  charts  were  made 
in  early  times.  The  invention  of  charts  for 
mariners  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Henry  the 
^Navigator  (1394-1460),  although  earlier  ones 
exist.  Of  necessity  such  were  rude  and  im 
perfect,  the  size  and  even  the  true  shape  of 
the  earth  being  then  unknown,  the  log  for 
measuring  nautical  miles  not  in  use,  the  only 
instrument  for  determining  latitude  being  the 
sea  astrolabe,  and  none  existing  for  determin 
ing  the  longitude.  Little  was  accomplished 
through  national  instrumentality  toward  the 
improvement  of  our  knowledge  of  the  sea  and 
its  tributaries  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen 


tury;  what  little  was  known  being  the  result 
of  the  enterprise  of  individuals,  such  as  Co 
lumbus,  Cabot,  Drake,  and  other  navigators. 
The  researches  of  Capt.  James  Cook  of  the 
English  navy,  which  were  begun  at  Quebec 
in  1759,  when  he  was  master  of  the  frigate 
Mercury,  and  were  continued  for  about  20 
years,  may  be  considered  as  the  commence 
ment  of  a  new  era  in  hydrography.  (See  COOK, 
JAMES,  and  DBS  BARRES.)  The  success  of  the 
English  captain  excited  the  rivalry  of  the 
French  ;  and  in  1785  La  Perouse  was  placed 
in  command  of  an  expedition  consisting  of 
two  frigates,  with  a  corps  of  scientists,  and 
sent  to  continue  the  work  which  Cook's  un 
timely  fate  had  left  unfinished.  They  were 
never  heard  from  after  their  departure  from 
Botany  bay ;  but  La  Perouse  had  sent  home 
from  there  duplicates  of  the  journals  and  charts 
of  his  discoveries  up  to  the  date  of  his  arrival. 
D'Entrecasteaux's  unsuccessful  expedition  in 
search  of  him  in  1791  gave  rise  to  a  text  book 
on  marine  surveying  by  his  navigating  officer, 
Beautemps-Beaupre,  published  as  an  appendix 
to  the  narrative  of  D'Entrecasteaux's  voyage 
(1808).  This,  with  the  exception  of  Alexander 
Dalrymple's  "Essay  on  the  most  Commodious 
Method  of  Marine  Surveying"  (1771),  was  the 
first  treatise  published  in  a  practical  shape. 
About  the  time  of  its  publication  Beautemps- 
Beaupre  took  charge  of  the  survey  of  the  French 
coast,  and  trained  a  corps  of  hydrographers, 
who  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  body  of  scientific 
engineers  to  be  furnished  to  future  expeditions 
for  surveying  and  exploration.  Spain  has  also 
done  a  great  deal  for  hydrography,  although  in 
a  more  indirect  way.  The  legal  provision  for 
the  examination  of  officers  of  the  mercantile 
marine  as  to  their  competency  to  navigate  a 
vessel,  before  promoting  them,  has  given  a 
high  reputation  to  its  merchant  service ;  and 
the  nautical  information  obtained  from  that 
source  has  been  found  exceedingly  valuable. 
Her  example  has  of  late  years  been  followed 
by  almost  every  nation  having  much  commerce. 
But  in  our  own  times,  with  improved  instru 
ments,  trained  professional  hydrographers,  and 
liberal  appropriations  of  money  and  men,  hy 
drography  has  become  a  recognized  branch  of 
public  works,  and  the  knowledge  of  it  an  ab 
solute  necessity  to  the  complete  seaman.  Re- 
connoissances  of  large  extents  of  coast  have 
been  made  by  men  trained  to  the  practice  of 
the  science,  with  such  success  as  to  be  scarcely 
capable  of  correction  by  the  results  of  detailed 
surveys.  In  the  latter  the  aid  of  geodesy  (by 
which  the  positions  of  points  on  shore  are 
accurately  determined)  is  called  in;  and  no 
such  examination  is  considered  complete  or  ac 
curate  unless  it  depends  upon  triangulation. 
(See  COAST  SURVEY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  757.)  Great 
Britain,  France,  Spain,  the  United  States,  and 
other  nations  have  now  their  hydrographic 
offices  as  established  branches  of  government ; 
and  under  the  direction  of  these  departments 
close  and  accurate  survays  are  made  of  the 


HYDROGRAPHY 


113 


home  coasts,  and  their  surveying  vessels  fre 
quent  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  penetrate 
seas  hitherto  almost  unknown,  mapping  the 
limits  of  harbors,  determining  with  precision 
the  geographical  position  of  headlands  and  en 
trances,  and  of  rocks,  shoals,  and  sands,  many 
of  them  hitherto  unknown.  In  this  science 
England  is  far  in  advance  of  all  other  nations. 
Not  content  with  a  most  complete  and  admira 
ble  survey  of  her  own  coasts,  she  has  extended 
her  work  to  all  of  her  possessions  and  to  the 
coasts  of  foreign  nations.  Many  eminent  sur 
veyors  are  numbered  among  her  naval  officers ; 
but  it  is  probable  that  few  have  done  so  much 
or  displayed  so  much  zeal  and  devotion  to  the 
science  as  the  late  Admiral  Beaufort,  so  long 
at  the  head  of  the  hydrographic  office  of  the 
admiralty.  His  surveys  were  sometimes  ac 
tually  carried  on  at  his  own  expense.  Much 
importance  is  attached  to  the  results  expected 
from  the  scientific  cruise  of  the  British  ship 
Challenger,  which  at  the  present  time  (1874) 
is  engaged  in  a  voyage  around  the  world, 
probably  the  most  important  of  its  kind  ever 
undertaken.  She  carries  a  large  number  of 
men  familiar  with  almost  all  the  branches  of 
science  and  art,  whose  labors,  it  is  hoped,  will 
be  productive  of  much  information  in  natural 
science  and  in  marine  surveying  and  deep-sea 
dredging.  Although  surpassed  by  England  in 
the  number  and  completeness  of  her  foreign 
surveys,  the  hydrographic  work  on  our  own 
coasts  is  unequalled  for  accuracy  and  rapidity 
of  execution.  Under  the  charge  of  the  coast 
survey  of  the  United  States  it  has  progressed 
in  company  with  the  trigonometrical  and  topo 
graphical  work  of  that  service ;  and  it  is  safe 
to  assert  that  the  completed  charts  of  the  coast 
and  the  various  harbors  stand  alone  in  the  an 
nals  of  surveying  for  beauty  of  execution,  ac 
curacy,  and  completeness  of  detail.  A  large 
corps  of  skilled  professional  hydrographers  are 
constantly  employed  prosecuting  the  surveys 
of  the  numerous  harbors  on  the  Atlantic,  Pa 
cific,  and  gulf  coasts;  and  others  are  engaged 
in  deep-sea  explorations  along  the  course  of 
the  Gulf  stream,  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
on  the  coasts  of  California  and  Oregon.  These 
deep-sea  expeditions  have  been  especially  use 
ful  in  determining  the  routes  suitable  for  sub 
marine  cables,  several  of  wlrch  have  been  laid 
over  lines  previously  sounded  and  surveyed  by 
officers  belonging  to  the  coast  survey.  One 
of  the  most  successful  hydrographic  expeditions 
of  modern  times  was  that  undertaken  between 
1851  and  1853  under  the  auspices  of  the  coast 
survey  of  the  United  States,  by  Lieut,  (now 
Rear  Admiral)  James  Alden  of  the  navy,  in  the 
schooner  Ewing  and  steamer  Active.  More 
than  1,300  m.  of  the  Pacific  coast  was  ex 
plored,  from  lat.  32°  30'  to  48°  20'  K,  and 
the  geographical  positions  of  all  the  prominent 
headlands  and  of  the  entrances  to  the  har 
bors  were  determined  by  astronomical  observa 
tions,  from  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Uni 
ted  States  to  the  strait  of  Fuca;  lines  of 


soundings  were  carried  along  the  coast  through 
out  its  entire  length,  and  hydrographic  recon- 
noissances  made  of  most  of  the  harbors,  with  ac 
curate  views  of  the  different  entrances  and  of 
prominent  points  on  the  coast ;  and  subsequent 
careful  detailed  surveys,  based  upon  accurate 
geodetic  determinations,  have  failed  to  change 
the  results  of  this  work  in  any  important  par 
ticular.  The  immediate  result  of  this  recon- 
noissance  was  the  publication  of  a  chart  of  the 
Pacific  coast  for  the  use  of  mariners,  and  sub 
sequently  of  a  marine  directory,  which  has 
since  been  elaborated  and  published  as  a 
"  Coast  Pilot  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United 
States." — The  method  of  hydrographic  survey 
ing,  as  now  practised  both  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe,  is  as  follows :  1.  Reconnaissance,  as, 
for  instance,  the  hydrographic  survey  of  a  har 
bor  on  a  foreign  coast,  or  any  place  where  ac 
curate  geodetic  information  cannot  be  obtained. 
The  hydrographer,  obliged  himself  to  make  all 
the  determinations  of  points  on  shore  and  the 
outlines  of  the  coast,  applies  the  principles  of 
geodesy  and  topography,  but  of  course  in  a  com 
paratively  rude  manner.  A  base  line  may  be 
measured,  if  on  land,  in  the  ordinary  way ;  but 
if  the  working  ground  is  so  far  from  shore  as  to 
render  points  on  shore  useless  (as  is  sometimes 
the  case  in  surveys  of  shoals  off  a  low  and 
flat  coast),  or  if  the  coast  is  occupied  by  an 
enemy,  a  base  line  is  sometimes  measured  by 
anchoring  a  boat  at  each  end  of  it,  and  noting 
the  interval  between  the  flash  of  a  gun  fired 
from  one  boat  and  the  report  as  heard  at  the 
other.  But  this  very  rude  method  is  only  ad 
missible  where  no  other  is  possible.  Where 
the  surface  to  be  surveyed  is  small,  good  re 
sults  have  been  obtained  from  a  base  line  mea 
sured  by  a  cord,  the  two  ends  being  marked 
either  by  boats  or  buoys.  Signals  are  erected 
at  each  end  of  the  base  line  and  on  prominent 
points  along  the  shore,  the  latter  being  deter 
mined  by  horizontal  angles  measured  from  each 
end  of  the  base  line.  Not  only  the  angle  be 
tween  each  end  of  the  base  and  each  signal  is 
measured,  but  the  angles  between  the  differ 
ent  signals  themselves ;  and  the  triangles  thus 
formed  are  either  computed  by  trigonometry 
or  platted  by  intersections  upon  the  chart. 
The  latitude  and  longitude  of  some  prominent 
points  are  also  determined.  The  outlines  of 
the  coast  or  harbor  are  drawn  between  inter 
mediate  points  determined  by  horizontal  angles, 
and  the  chart  is  then  ready  for  platting  the 
sounding  lines.  Next,  a  tide  gauge  is  erected. 
This  is  generally  a  plain  staff,  graduated  to 
half  feet;  and  by  continuous  observations  of 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides,  and  of  the  times 
of  high  and  low  water,  the  hydrographer  ob 
tains  an  approximate  establishment  for  the 
port,  and  also  the  means  of  correcting  his 
soundings  for  the  rise  of  the  tide,  which  is 
called  "reducing  them  to  the  level  of  low 
water."  The  shore  line  having  been  rudely 
determined,  and  such  natural  and  artificial 
features  mapped  as  may  be  considered  neces- 


114: 


HYDROGRAPHY 


HYDROIDS 


sary,  a  boat  is  started  from  any  point  in  the 
harbor  to  run  the  lines  of  soundings.  The 
boat  is  steered  on  a  certain  course,  and  sound 
ings  are  taken  at  intervals  as  nearly  regular  as 
possible.  These  soundings,  together  with  the 
time  at  which  they  are  taken  and  the  horizon 
tal  angles  for  position,  are  recorded.  The  end 
of  the  line  is  also  determined  by  angles ;  and 
the  boat  is  then  started  on  a  new  line.  Thus 
the  harbor  or  bay  is  crossed  and  recrossed  by 
lines  of  soundings  intersecting  each  other  in 
numerous  places ;  and  these  soundings,  re 
duced  to  low-water  level  and  laid  down  upon 
the  chart,  show  the  depth  at  low  water  not 
only  in  the  channel  but  on  the  various  shoals. 
2.  Deep-Sea  Soundings.  In  this  kind  of  hydro 
graphy  the  position  of  the  vessel  is  determined 
from  time  to  time  by  careful  and  numerous  ob 
servations  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and  by  dead  reck 
oning.  The  line  used  has  recently  been  success 
fully  replaced  by  a  wire,  and  the  lead  or  shot  at 
the  end  of  it  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  detached 
on  striking  the  bottom.  An  instrument  called 
an  indicator  is  attached  to  the  sounding  line, 
which,  by  means  of  revolving  disks  put  in  mo 
tion  by  a  screw-propeller  wheel,  registers  the 
depths  to  which  it  descends;  when  relieved 
of  the  weight  of  the  lead,  it  is  thrown  out  of 
gear  and  drawn  up.  The  line  is  drawn  in  by 
a  reel  worked  by  a  small  steam  engine ;  and  by 
means  of  all  these  appliances  soundings  are 
taken  at  great  depths  with  a  rapidity  and  ac 
curacy  utterly  unknown  until  of  late  years. 
Specimens  of  the  bottom  are  obtained  by  means 
of  specimen  cups  attached  to  the  sounding  line, 
or  by  the  dredge.  The  best  indicators  now  in 
use  are  those  of  Trowbridge  and  Brooke,  the  lat 
ter  gentleman's  having  given  thus  far  the  best 
results.  3.  Hydrographic  Surveys.  The  pro 
cess  in  a  detailed  survey  is  similar  to  that  in  a 
reconnoissance,  but  more  elaborate.  The  hy- 
drographer  is  furnished  with  the  positions  of 
numerous  points  on  shore  and  with  a  map 
of  the  shores  of  the  harbor  in  detail,  on  a  scale 
to  suit  his  own  work.  Upon  this  map  are 
platted  the  points  furnished  him  from  the  geo 
detic  survey ;  and  upon  it  he  also  constructs  his 
lines  of  soundings.  Usually  two,  and  sometimes 
three  officers  are  employed  in  each  boat  in  run 
ning  the  lines,  the  advantage  of  this  arrange 
ment  being  that  the  two  angles  necessary  to 
determine  the  position  of  the  boat  can  be  taken 
at  the  same  moment  by  two  observers  without 
stopping  the  boat.  Sometimes,  especially  where 
the  work  lies  at  a  distance  from  the  shore,  two 
observers  are  placed  on  prominent  points  on 
shore,  each  with  a  theodolite.  At  stated  in 
tervals  the  surveying  boat  or  vessel  hoists  a 
ball  or  flag,  when  both  observers  direct  their 
instruments  to  her,  and  upon  the  instant  of  its  I 
being  lowered  measure  the  angle  between  the  I 
boat  and  some  fixed  point.  The  intersection  ] 
of  their  two  lines  of  sight  when  platted  upon 
the  chart  gives  the  position  of  the  boat.  The 
lines  of  soundings  are  run  more  closely  than 
in  reconnoissance,  and  as  far  as  possible  are 


made  to  cross  each  other  at  right  angles.  Tidal 
observations  are  made  to  tenths  of  a  foot ;  and 
the  box  gauge,  and  at  certain  central  points 
the  self-registering  gauge,  are  used.  (See 
COAST  SURVEY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  T62.)  The  survey 
ing  parties,  from  the  chief  to  the  leadsman, 
are  specially  trained  for  the  work,  and  the  re 
sulting  accuracy  of  such  a  survey  is  corre 
spondingly  great. — Physical  hydrography  inves 
tigates  the  laws  of  the  formation  of  shoals,  the 
eti'ect  upon  harbors  and  channels  of  the  tidal 
currents,  of  the  extension  of  wharves,  and  of 
the  dumping  of  earth  and  ballast ;  and  endea 
vors  to  provide  remedies  for  the  changes  which 
injure  a  harbor,  and  to  suggest  means  for  im 
proving  the  channels.  This  branch  of  the  sci 
ence  has  of  late  years  attained  to  great  impor 
tance  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States, 
and  the  researches  of  those  who  have  devo 
ted  themselves  to  its  study  have  resulted  in  in 
calculable  benefits  to  commerce.  (See  COAST 
SUEVEY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  761.)  In  regard  to  cur 
rents,  and  other  hydrographic  details,  see  AT 
LANTIC  OCEAN,  and  DBEDGIXG  (DEEP-SEA). 

HYDROIDS,  the  lowest  order  of  acalephs  or 
jelly  fishes,  including,  according  to  Agassiz, 
two  distinct  forms,  one  resembling  polyps,  the 
other  like  the  jelly  fishes,  there  being  every 
possible  gradation  between  the  two.  ,  It  is  in 
this  order  that  the  phenomena  of  alternate 
generation  have  been  specially  studied  by  Sars 
and  others.  (See  JELLY  FISH.)  There  are  many 
plant-like  forms  which  give  a  mossy  cover- 
ering  to  seaweeds  and  stones,  producing  buds, 
developing  in  some  cases  into  free  medusa), 
and  in  others  remaining  attached  to  the  parent 
stalk,  both  discharging  ova  which  swim  off  by 
ciliary  processes  to  establish  ne\v  fixed  hydroid 
communities.  In  the  tubularians  the  hydroid 
is  pedunculated,  and  the  bell-shaped  medusas 
are  either  free  as  in  coryne  or  persistent  as 
in  tiibularia.  In  the  sertularians  the  hydroid 
is  always  pedunculated  and  attached,  protected 
by  a  horny  sheath,  forming  a  cup  around  the 
head,  with  free  medusaa  as  in  campanularia, 
or  free  generative  buds  as  in  scrtularia  ;  their 
medusa?  are  flatter  than  in  tubularians.  The 
siphonopJiora,  like  the  Portuguese  man-of-war, 
are  also  hydroid  communities. — The  common 
green  hydra  of  fresh  water  (hydra  viridis)  is 
easily  seen  by  the  naked  eye ;  the  body  is  a 
cylindrical  tube,  with  thread  cells,  and  a  green 
coloring  matter  believed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
chlorophyl  of  plants ;  at  the  base  is  a  disk -like 
sucker  for  its  attachment  to  foreign  bodies ; 
it  is  usually  suspended,  head  downward,  from 
some  aquatic  plant,  changing  its  position  at 
will.  The  mouth  is  at  the  opposite  end,  sur 
rounded  by  5  to  15  very  contractile  tentacles, 
armed  with  lasso  cells,  hollow,  and  communi 
cating  with  the  general  and  stomachal  cavity 
of  the  body ;  by  these  they  obtain  their  food, 
which  consists  of  minute  aquatic  animals. 
There  are  no  internal  organs  of  any  kind, 
and  they  are  therefore  very  little  higher  than 
the  protozoa.  They  resist  without  destruc- 


HYDROMECHANICS 


115 


tion  a  very  great  degree  of  mutilation,  each 
fragment  into  which  they  may  be  divided  be 
ing  capable,  according  to  Trembley,  of  be 
coming  a  complete  individual.  Reproduction 
is  either  non-sexual,  by  gemmation  in  summer, 
or  sexual,  by  ova  and  sperm  cells  in  autumn ; 


Hydra. 

the  buds  develop  a  mouth  and  tentacles  at  the 
free  end,  and  are  soon  detached,  each  in  its 
turn  producing  similar  buds ;  both  ova  and 
sperm  cells  are  produced  in  the  same  individu 
al,  coming  in  contact  in  the  water ;  the  em 
bryo  is  at  first  ciliated  and  free  swimming, 
afterward  becoming  fixed,  losing  the  cilia,  and 
developing  a  mouth  and  tentacles. 

HYDROMECHANICS,  that  branch  of  natural 
philosophy  which  treats  of  the  mechanics  of 
liquids,  or  of  their  laws  of  equilibrium  and  of 
motion.  It  includes  the  consideration  of  those 
molecular  properties  of  liquids  which  affect 
their  mechanical  applications,  such  as  fluidity 
and  slight  compressibility.  The  science  which 
is  here  termed  hydromechanics  has  been  some 
times  treated  under  the  title  of  hydrodynam 
ics,  this  being  made  to  include  hydrostatics 
and  hydraulics,  which  is  the  nomenclature 
adopted  by  Sir  David  Brewster ;  while  others 
treat  of  hydrodynamics  and  hydrostatics  as 
two  independent  subjects,  hydraulics  being 
embraced  by  hydrodynamics;  but  the  title 
hydromechanics  which  was  adopted  in  the  first 
edition  of  this  Cyclopedia  seems  to  be  the 
most  comprehensive  and  exact,  and  wiH  be  re 
tained. — Hydromechanics  is  comparatively  a 
modern  science,  having  received  its  greatest 
development  in  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  cen 
turies.  The  ancient  mathematicians  and  hy 
draulic  engineers,  who  constructed  the  aque 
ducts  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  must  have  been 
acquainted  with  many  of  the  more  obvious 
principles  of  hydraulics  and  hydrostatics  ;  and 
at  the  time  of  the  construction  of  the  Roman 
aqueducts  hydromechanics  may  be  considered 
as  having  become  entitled  to  be  called  a  sci 
ence  ;  but  the  more  purely  mathematical  prin 
ciples  by  which  its  laws  can  be  well  under 
stood  were  not  discovered  till  centuries  after. 


j  Some  of  the  general  principles  which  lie  at 
the  foundation  of  the  science,  and  are  suscep 
tible  of  analytical  and  experimental  demonstra 
tion,  were  first  given  by  Archimedes  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  3d  century  B.  C. ;  and  it  is 
to  him  that  we  owe  the  demonstration  of  the 
fundamental  principle  of  the  equilibrium  of 
liquids,  that  each  particle  in  a  liquid  at  rest 
receives  equal  pressure  in  every  direction,  and 
also  that  a  solid  immersed  in  a  liquid  loses  an 
amount  of  weight  equal  to  that  of  the  water 
displaced,  from  which  he  deduced  the  method 
of  obtaining  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies.  We 
also  owe  to  him  the  method  of  raising  water 
by  means  of  the  screw  known  by  his  name. 
Other  advances  in  the  construction  of  hydrau 
lic  machinery  were  made  about  the  same  time 
in  the  Greek  school  at  Alexandria  by  Ctesibius 
and  Hero,  who  invented  the  syphon  and  forc 
ing  pump,  and  also  the  fountain  known  as 
Hero's ;  but  their  limited  knowledge  of  pneu 
matics,  and  the  imperfection  in  the  machinery 
of  those  times,  prevented  them  from  bringing 
the  force  pump  to  anything  like  its  present 
degree  of  efficiency.  The  first  attempt  at  a 
scientific  investigation  of  the  motions  of  liquids 
was  made  by  the  consul  Frontinus,  who  was 
inspector  of  the  public  fountains  at  Rome  un 
der  the  reigns  of  Nerva  and  Trajan,  and  whose 
book  De  Aguceductibus  UrMs  Roma  Commen- 
tarius,  describing  the  nine  great  aqueducts  of 
Rome,  to  which  he  afterward  added  five,  con 
tains  all  the  knowledge  of  hydromechanics  pos 
sessed  by  the  ancients.  From  the  statement 
of  Pliny  that  water  will  rise  to  a  level  with  its 
source,  and  that  it  should  be  elevated  in  leaden 
pipes,  it  appears  that  this  metal  was  used  by  the 
ancient  Romans  for  small  conduits.  Frontinus 
was  the  last  of  the  ancients  who  paid  much  at 
tention  to  the  subject,  the  next  investigator 
of  importance  being  Stevinus,  born  about  1550, 
who  was  engineer  of  dikes  for  the  government 
of  Holland.  He  published  a  work  in  Dutch  in 
1586  on  the  "  Principles  of  Statics  and  Hydro 
statics,"  in  which  he  restates  the  principle  of 
Archimedes,  and  deduces  from  it  the  "  hydro 
static  paradox,"  that  the  pressure  of  a  liquid 
on  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  may  be  much  great 
er  than  its  weight.  By  a  method  approaching 
|  the  infinitesimal  calculus,  he  found  the  pres- 
I  sure  on  the  oblique  bottom  of  a  vessel ;  and 
I  Whewell  remarks  that  his  treatment  of  the 
subject  embraces  most  of  the  elementary  sci 
ence  of  hydrostatics  of  the  present  day.  Ga 
lileo,  in  his  "  Discourse  on  Floating  Bodies  " 
(1612),  shows  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  fun- 
,  damental  laws  of  the  science;  but  it  is  to  his 
•  discovery  of  the  uniform  acceleration  in  fall- 
,  ing  bodies  that  we  owe  one  of  the  chief  fouii- 
|  dations  of  hydromechanics.  This  law  was 
I  afterward  more  fully  applied  by  Torricelli  in 
!  his  celebrated  theorem  that  the  velocities  of 
liquid  jets  are  proportional  to  the  square  roots 
I  of  the  depths  at  which  they  issue  below  the 
'  surface,  which  he  published  at  the  end  of  his 
,  treatise  De  Motu  Grarium  naturaliter  accel- 


116 


HYDROMECHANICS 


rato  (1643).  Pascal's  work,  written  ten  years 
•later  and  published  after  his  death,  Swr  Vequi- 
libre  des  liqueurs,  in  which  he  treats  the  sub 
ject  in  a  more  systematic  manner  than  any 
previous  writer,  contains  complete  and  elegant 
demonstrations  of  most  of  the  principles  of  hy 
drostatics,  but  does  not  treat  of  the  motions 
of  liquids.  The  next  great  student  of  hydro 
mechanics  was  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  investi 
gated  the  subject  of  friction  and  viscosity  in 
diminishing  the  velocity  of  flowing  water,  and 
also  of  the  velocity  of  jets;  but  upon  the  latter 
point  he  fell  into  an  error  by  supposing  that 
the  velocity  with  which  water  issues  from  an 
orifice  is  equal  to  that  which  a  body  would  at 
tain  by  falling  through  half  the  vertical  dis 
tance  between  the  surface  of  the  liquid  and 
the  orifice.  His  subsequent  discovery  of  the 
vena  contracta  modified  his  conclusions,  but 
his  theory  of  efflux  is  open  to  objections.  He, 
however,  investigated  the  subject  of  waves, 
one  of  the  most  difficult  in  the  science  of  hy 
drodynamics,  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  ge 
nius.  In  1738  Daniel  Bernoulli  published  IIy-4 
drodynamica,  sen  de  Viribus  et  Motibus  Flu- 
idorum  Commentaria,  in  which  he  founds  his 
theory  of  the  velocity  of  the  motion  of  fluids 
through  orifices  upon  the  supposition  that  the 
surface  of  a  fluid  which  is  discharging  itself  by 
an  orifice  preserves  a  level,  and  that  if  the 
liquid  is  divided  into  an  infinite  number  of 
horizontal  strata,  all  the  points  in  these  strata 
will  descend  with  velocities  inversely  propor 
tioned  to  their  breadth,  or  to  the  horizontal 
section  of  the  reservoir.  To  determine  the 
motion  of  each  stratum,  he  employed  the  prin 
ciple  of  "conservation  of  living  forces;"  and 
from  the  elegance  of  his  solutions  his  work  is 
pronounced  by  the  abbe  Bossut  one  of  the 
finest  productions  of  mathematical  genius.  But 
the  uncertainty  of  the  principle  which  he  em 
ployed  rendered  the  results  of  his  work  of  less 
value  than  their  mathematical  excellence.  The 
science  afterward  received  the  attention  of 
D'Alembert  and  of  Euler,  who  enriched  it  by 
the  application  of  special  mathematical  meth 
ods  of  great  acuteness  and  originality.  The 
abbe  Bossut  also  experimentally  investigated 
the  discharge  of  liquids  by  orifices,  and  added 
much  to  the  stock  of  knowledge  on  the  sub 
ject.  To  the  experiments  of  Venturi,  Eytel- 
wein,  and  others,  the  science  is  indebted  for 
many  facts  in  regard  to  the  flow  of  water 
from  conically  diverging  tubes.  The  flow  of 
water  over  barrages  has  been  from  time  to 
time  investigated  experimentally  by  the  che 
valier  Dubuat,  D'Aubuisson,  Castel,  and  M. 
Prony,  and  also  by  Smeaton,  Brindley,  Robin 
son,  Evans,  Blackwell,  and  others. — Before 
considering  the  separate  branches  of  the  sub 
ject,  we  will  notice  two  important  physical 
properties  of  liquids,  as  upon  them  the  action 
of  hydrostatic  and  hydraulic  forces  depends. 
The  first  important  property  of  a  liquid  is  the 
perfect  mobility  of  its  particles  over  each  other, 
and  one  which  results  from  their  slight  cohe 


sion.  That  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  cohe 
sion  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  liquids  will  form 
drops.  There  is  no  active  repulsion  between 
the  particles  until  they  have  been  heated  to  a 
certain  degree ;  or  the  repulsion,  if  there  is 
any,  on  the  hypothesis  that  both  forces  are 
always  in  action,  is  less  than  the  cohesion. 
A  certain  degree  of  cold,  varying  with  the 
liquid,  will  cause  an  increase  of  the  cohesive 
force,  so  that  the  liquid  will  become  viscous 
and  then  solid;  and  it  is  found  that  the  flu 
idity  of  a  liquid  is  promoted  by  heat,  and 
that  water  when  cold  will  not  flow  through 
pipes  as  rapidly  as  when  warm.  The  second 
important  physical  property  of  liquids  is  their 
great  resistance  to  compression,  so  that  for  a 
long  time  it  was  doubted  whether  water  was 
compressible.  The  experiment  of  Bacon,  who 
hammered  a  leaden  vessel  filled  with  water 
till  it  was  forced  through  the  pores  of  the 
metal,  was  cited  as  a  proof  of  the  incompressi- 
bility  of  water;  but  a  remark  of  Bacon's  to 
the  effect  that  he  estimated  the  diminished 
space  into  which  the  water  was  driven,  indi 
cates  that  he  drew  a  different  conclusion.  The 
experiment  of  the  Florentine  academicians  in 
forcing  water  in  a  similar  manner  through  the 
pores  of  a  silver  vessel  wras  for  some  time  re 
garded  as  indisputably  establishing  the  incom- 
pressibility  of  water;  but  the  apparatus  de 
vised  by  Oersted  proves  in  a  conclusive  man 
ner  that  water  and  all 
other  liquids  are  slight 
ly  c  o  rnp  re  ssibl  e .  C  ant  on 
had  previously  shown 
that  liquids  were  com 
pressible,  but  the  degree 
could  not  be  ascertained 
with  any  accuracy  in 
consequence  of  the  dif 
ficulty  of  determining 
the  amount  of  expansion 
which  had  been  pro 
duced  in  the  containing 
vessel.  This  was  obvi 
ated  by  Oersted  in  pla 
cing  it  within  another, 
so  that  it  would  re 
ceive  equal  pressure  up 
on  equal  surfaces  with 
out  and  within,  and  thus 
preserve  a  uniform  ca 
pacity.  His  apparatus 
is  shown  in  fig.  1.  The 
liquid  to  be  subjected 
to  pressure  is  placed  in 
the  inner  glass  vessel  «, 

FIG>  1>~  ratfs^8  ApPa"     from   *he  toP  of  which 
a    capillary   tube    turns 

downward,  its  open  extremity  dipping  beneath 
the  surface  of  a  layer  of  mercury  contained  in 
the  bottom  of  the  outer  vessel.  Another  tube, 
&,  graduated  and  used  as  a  manometer,  also 
open  at  the  lower  end  and  dipping  in  the  mer 
cury,  is  placed  along  with  the  vessel  a  in  a 
strong  glass  cylinder,  which  is  provided  at  the 


HYDKOMECHANICS 


117 


top  with  a  smaller  metallic  cylinder  which  ad 
mits  the  compressing  screw  c,  and  also  a  funnel, 
d,  for  introducing  the  liquid.  The  vessel  a  with 
its  capillary  stem,  having  been  filled  with  the 
liquid,  is  placed  in  position,  together  with  the 
manometer;  the  outer  cylinder  is  filled  with 
water,  the  stopcock  of  the  funnel  closed,  and 
pressure  produced  by  turning  the  screw  with 
a  lever.  Mercury  will  be  seen  to  rise  in  the 
capillary  tube  connected  with  the  vessel  «, 
showing  that  its  contents  are  diminished  in 
volume.  The  air  contained  \vithin  the  ma 
nometer,  being  reduced  in  bulk  in  proportion  to 
the  force  exerted,  according  to  the  law  of  Boyle 
and  Mariotte,  will  therefore  be  a  measure  of 
that  force.  Oersted  at  first  assumed  that  the 
external  and  internal  pressure  on  the  vessel 
was  precisely  the  same ;  but  the  external  pres 
sure  is  slightly  the  greater,  because  the  exter 
nal  surface  is  greater  than  the  internal,  so  that 
the  capacity  of  the  vessel  is  diminished,  instead 
of  being  increased  as  in  all  preceding  experi 
ments.  Colladon  and  Sturm  with  the  use  of 
this  apparatus  made  very  exact  experiments, 
in  which  they  calculated  the  change  of  capa 
city  of  the  vessel  «•,  and  estimated  that  an 
additional  atmospheric  pressure  would  reduce 
the  volume  of  water  -00005,  mercury  -000005, 
and  sulphuric  ether  -000133.  For  water  and 
mercury  it  was  found  that  within  certain  limits 
the  decrease  in  volume  is  proportional  to  the 
pressure.  I.  HYDROSTATICS.  In  consequence 
of  the  mobility  of  the  particles  of  a  liquid  over 
each  other,  they  yield  to  the  force  of  gravity, 
and  consequently  when  at  rest  present  a  level 
surface ;  and  for  the  same  reason  each  particle, 
and  therefore  each  portion  of  the  liquid,  must- 
exert  and  receive  equal  pressures  in  all  direc 
tions.  If  this  were  not  true,  the  particles  of  a 
liquid  could  not  come  to  a  state  of  rest.  From 
this  principle  it  follows  that  equal  surfaces 
of  the  sides  of  a  vessel  containing  a  liquid  re 
ceive  equal  pressures  at  equal  depths  below  the 
surface ;  and  also  that  if  a  close  vessel  is  filled 
with  a  liquid  which  we  will  suppose  to  have 
no  weight,  and  if  an  aperture  of  the  size  of 
one  square  inch  be  made  in  one  side  of  it  and 
fitted  with  a  piston  upon  which  there  is  exert 
ed  a  pressure  of  10  Ibs.,  there  will  also  be  ex 
erted  the  same  pressure  of  10  Ibs.  upon  every 
square  inch  of  the  internal  surface  of  the  ves 
sel.  Consequently,  if  another  aperture  of  100 
square  inches  area  is  made  in  the  side  of  the 
vessel,  and  a  cylinder  of  the  same  size  is  fitted 
to  it,  a  piston  fitted  to  this  will  receive  a  pres 
sure  of  1,000  Ibs.  Upon  this  principle  (which 
has  been  ascribed  to  Pascal,  but  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  before  his  time  explained  by 
Stevinus)  the  hydraulic  press  is  constructed, 
as  represented  in  fig.  2.  A  suction  and  force 
pump,  «,  supplied  from  the  cistern  B,  forces 
water  through  the  tube  C  into  the  strong  cylin 
der  V,  which  communicates  pressure  to  the 
piston  A.  The  power  gained  is  the  proportion 
which  the  cross  section  of  the  large  piston  or 
plunger  bears  to  the  small  one.  It  will  be  ob 


served  that  the  pistons  do  not  fit  the  cylinders 
in  the  usual  manner,  but  only  fit  tightly  at  the 
collar.  This  mode  of  construction  greatly  in 
creases  the  efficiency  of  the  machine,  which, 
though  described  by  Stevinus  and  by  Pascal, 
remained  practically  useless  in  consequence  of 


FIG.  2.— Hydraulic  Press. 

the  escape  of  water  between  the  cylinder  and 
the  piston,  until  Bramah  invented  the  cupped 
leather  collar,  which  makes  the  apparatus 
equally  water-tight  under  all  pressures.  This 
engine  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  law  in 
mechanics  that  "  what  is  lost  in  velocity  is 
gained  in  power."  If  the  cross  section  of 
the  large  piston  is  equal  to  100  square  inches, 
and  that  of  the  small  piston  to  1  square  inch, 
the  latter  must  be  moved  through  a  space  of 
100  inches  to  cause  the  large  piston  to  move 
through  one  inch,  but  it  will  move  with  100 
times  as  much  power  as  the  small  one.  The 
hydrostatic  bellows,  shown  in  fig.  3,  acts  upon 
the  same  principle  as  the  hydrostatic  press, 
the  cover  of  the  bellows,  upon  which  the 
weight  is  placed,  performing  the  office  of  the 
large  piston,  while  the  column 
of  water  in  the  tall  vertical  pipe 
acts  the  part  of  the  small  pis 
ton  of  the  press.  The  hydro 
static  bellows  also  illustrates  the 
principle  of  the  hydrostatic  par 
adox,  for  the  vertical  pipe  and 
the  bellows  are  virtually  one 
vessel,  wrhose  base  is  the  bottom 
of  the  bellows.  Now  the  pres 
sure  exerted  by  the  liquid  in  the 
pipe  upon  the  upper  plate  of 
the  bellows  is  received  by  the 
lower  plate,  which  also  has  an 
additional  pressure  equal  to  its 
distance  below  the  upper  plate ; 
and  if  the  water  in  the  pipe  is 
ten  times  as  high  as  that  in  the  bellows,  it 
follows  that  the  pressure  on  the  bottom  plate 
will  be  ten  times  as  great  as  that  which  would 
be  produced  by  the  liquid  contained  within 
the  bellows  itself,  for  that  only  is  equal  to 
its  own  weight.  If  a  barrel  of  water  there 
fore  have  a  tall  tube  inserted  in  one  head 


118 


HYDROMECHANICS 


and  standing  vertically,  a  pressure  may  be 
produced  on  its  bottom  several  thousand  times 
that  due  to  the  weight  of  the  water  alone. 
In  accordance  with  this  law  of  hydrostatic 
pressure,  a  liquid  will  rise  to  the  same  height 
in  different  branches  of  the  same  vessel,  wheth 
er  these  branches 
be  great  or  small. 
Thus,  water  con 
tained  in  the  U- 
shaped  vessel,  fig.  4, 
will  rise  to  the  same 
height  in  both 
branches,  which  is 
an  illustration  of  the 
principle  that  the 
pressure  of  a  column 
of  liquid  is  in  pro- 

x1  IG.  **.  i  •  i        •  i       i      •     i   j 

portion  to  its  height 

and  not  to  its  quantity.  This  principle,  how 
ever,  if  it  is  entitled  to  such  a  name,  proceeds 
directly  from  the  principle  of  Archimedes  that 
each  particle  in  a  liquid  at  the  same  depth 
receives  an  equal  pressure  in  all  directions. 
If  however  one  leg  of 
a  U-shaped  tube  con 
tain  mercury  and  the 
other  water,  the  col 
umn  of  water  will 
stand  13|-  times  as 
high  as  that  of  mer 
cury.  It  follows  from 
the  fact  that  a  liquid 
presses  equally  upon 
equal  areas  of  a  con 
taining  vessel  at  the 

same  depth,  that  if  a  hole  is  made  in  one  side 
of  a  vessel,  less  pressure  will  be  exerted  in 
the  direction  of  that  side ;  and  therefore  if  the 
vessel  is  floated  on  water,  as  in  fig.  5,  it  will 
be  propelled  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow. 
Barker's  centrifugal 
mill,  a  small  model  of 
which  is  shown  in  fig. 
6,  acts  upon  the  same 
principle  of  inequality 
of  pressure  on  opposite 
sides.  The  propelling 
force  has  been  ascribed 
to  the  action  of  the 
escaping  liquid  press 
ing  against  the  atmos 
phere,  by  which  a  cor 
responding  reaction  is 
obtained  ;  but  if  the 
machine  is  placed  in 
a  vacuum,  it  will  ro- 
Barkers  Mill.  tate  'with  greater  ve 

locity  than  in  the  open 

air,  which  proves  that  the  propelling  force  is 
the  preponderance  of  pressure  in  one  direction. 
The  two  following  are  important  laws  of  hy 
drostatics  :  1.  The  hydrostatic  pressure  against 
equal  areas  of  the  lateral  surfaces  of  cylindri 
cal  or  prismoid  vessels,  commencing  from  the 
surface  of  the  liquid,  varies  as  the  odd  num- 


FIG.  5. 


bers  1,  3,  5,  7,  &c.  2.  The  hydrostatic  pres 
sure  against  the  entire  lateral  surfaces  of  cylin 
drical  or  prismoidal  vessels  is  proportional  to 
the  square  of  the  depth.  The  first  law  is  de 
monstrated  as  follows :  Hydrostatic  pressure 
in  any  direction  at  any  point  in  a  liquid  is  in 
proportion  to  the  depth,  a  result  due  to  the 
action  of  gravity  ;  therefore  the  mean  pressure 
against  any  rectangular  lateral  area  will  be 
on  a  horizontal  line  midway  between  the  up 
per  and  lower  sides  of  such  area.  The  depth 
of  this  line,  proceeding  from  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  downward,  varies  as  the  odd  numbers 
1,  3,  5,  7,  &c.,  as  will  be  seen  by  an  inspection 
of  the  adjoining  diagram,  fig.  7.  The  figures 
placed  upon  the  dotted  lines  in  the  centre  of 
the  areas  indicate  the  pressures  upon  those 
lines,  and  also  the  propor 
tional  pressures  against  those 
areas.  The  figures  on  the 
right  side  of  the  diagram  in 
dicate  the  pressures  at  points 
of  equal  vertical  distances, 
while  those  upon  the  left  in 
dicate  the  total  lateral  pres 
sures,  which  it  will  be  ob 
served  are  the  squares  of  the 
number  of  areas  included ; 
by  which  is  demonstrated 
the  second  law,  that  the 
total  lateral  pressure  against 
rectangular  areas  is  in  pro 
portion  to  the  square  of  the 
depth.  The  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  water  is  62 '5 
Ibs. ;  therefore  the  lateral 
pressure  against  a  surface 
of  a  square  foot,  whose  upper  side  is  in  the 
surface  of  the  liquid,  is  31-25  Ibs.  From  this 
it  is  easy  to  ascertain  the  pressure  against  a 
square  foot,  or  any  area,  at  any  depth  below 
the  surface.  Simply  multiplying  the  number 
of  feet  below  the  surface  by  2  and  subtracting 
1,  multiplying  the  remainder  by  31 '25  and  this 
product  by  the  number  of  horizontal  feet,  will 
give  the  pressure  of  a  stratum  of  water  a  foot 
deep,  at  any  depth  below  the  surface  and  of 
any  length.  To  ascertain  the  entire  pressure 
against  the  sides  of  a  vertical  cylindrical  or 
prismoidal  vessel,  square  the  depth  of  the  liquid 
in  feet  or  inches,  and  multiply  this  by  the  lat 
eral  pressure  against  an  upper  vertical  square 
foot  or  inch,  as  the  case  may  be,  remembering 
that  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water  is 
•5792  of  an  ounce,  and  therefore  that  the  pres 
sure  against  an  upper  lateral  side  is  -2890  of  an 
ounce.  The  total  pressure  exerted  against  the 
sides  of  a  cylindrical  pipe  60  ft.  high  and  2  in. 
in  diameter  is  found  as  follows:  603x31'25  = 
112,500.  The  diameter  of  the  pipe  being  2 
in.,  the  circumference  of  the  inner  surface  is  2 
x  3-141592  (the  constant  ratio)  =  6-283184  in., 
or  A-i^Lti  of  a  foot.  Therefore,  112,500  x 
J.-IR^I_H±  =  58,904-92  Ibs.  or  29'95  tons.  The 
lateral  pressure  on  the  lower  foot  would  be 
(60  x  2)  —  1  =  119  x  31-25  x  A'iS^ULi  =  1,959'64: 


4- 


9 


16 


25 


FIG.  7. 


HYDROMECHANICS 


119 


Ibs.,  or  a  little  less  than  one  ton.  In  the  con 
struction  of  walls  for  resisting  only  the  hydro 
static  pressure  of  water,  as  that  pressure  is  in 
proportion  to  the  depth,  the  strength  of  the 
wall  should  be  in  the  same  proportion.  If 
strength  were  not  given  to  the  lower  layers  by 
superincumbent  pressure,  the  inclination  of  the 
slope  should  be  45° ;  but  in  consequence  of  this 
pressure  it  may  be  less,  varying  with  the  mate 
rials  and  their  manner  of  being  put  together. 
In  the  construction  of  dams  or  barrages  the 
varying  circumstances  of  cases  allow  of  the  dis 
play  of  a  good  deal  of  engineering  skill.  A 
barrage  suitable  for  restraining  a  body  of  water 
which  is  never  strongly  moved  in  a  lateral  di 
rection  against  it,  as  at  the  outlet  of  a  canal 
or  a  reservoir  fed  by  an  insignificant  stream, 
would  not  be  adapted  to  a  mountain  torrent, 
where  the  surface  of  the  reservoir  can  scarcely 
ever  be  large  enough  to  prevent,  by  the  inertia 
offered  by  a  large  mass  of  water,  the  walls  from 
being  subjected  to  a  strong  lateral  force  from 
the  action  of  the  current.  Under  such  circum 
stances  it  is  usual  to  give  a  curved  surface 
to  the  facings,  in  a  vertical  as  well  as  in  a  hori 
zontal  direction;  the  curves  in  both  directions 
being  calculated  from  the  following  elements  : 
1,  the  ascertained  hydrostatic  pressure ;  2,  the 
nature  of  the  materials,  such  as  the  weight 
of  stone  and  tenacity  of  the  hydraulic  cement 
used;  and  3,  an  estimate  of  the  maximum 
force  of  flowing  water  which  may  at  any  time 
be  brought  against  the  structure  during  a 
freshet.  This  force,  it  will  readily  be  seen, 
will  have  a  different  direction  and  a  differ 
ent  point  of  application  in  different  cases, 
depending  upon  the  depth  and  extent  of  the 
reservoir.  The  top  of  the  dam  is  therefore 
given  a  greater  horizontal  section  than  would 
be  called  for  if  hydrostatic  pressure  alone  had 
to  be  opposed.  The  hydrostatic  pressure  at 
any  point  against  the  surface  of  a  contain 
ing  vessel  is  the  resultant  of  all  the  forces 
collected  at  that  point,  and  is  therefore  at 
right  angies  to  that  surface.  In  a  cylindrical 
or  spherical  vessel  these  resultants  are  in  the 
direction  of  the  radii, 
and  in  the  sphere  vary 
in  direction  at  every 
point, —  Cen  tre  of  Pres 
sure.  The  centre  of 
pressure  is  that  point  in 
a  surface  about  which 
all  the  resultant  pres 
sures  are  balanced. 
The  cases  are  innumer 
able,  and  often  require 
elaborate  mathemati- 
FIG.  S.-Centre  o"f  Pressure.  Cal  investigation.  The 

simplest    case   and    its 

general  application  only  will  be  considered 
here,  viz.,  that  of  the  centre  of  pressure 
against  a  side  of  a  rectangular  vessel.  Let 
any  base  in  the  triangle  A  B  C,  fig.  8,  rep 
resent  the  pressure  at  B  ;  then  will  D  E  rep 
resent  the  pressure  at  E,  and  all  lines  paral- 


lel  to  it  will  represent  the  pressures  at  corre 
sponding  heights.  The  finding  of  the  centre  of 
pressure  now  consists  in  finding  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  triangle  ABC,  which  will  be 
at  II,  the  intersection  of  the  bisecting  lines 
E  C  and  D  B,  and  at  one  third  the  height  of 
the  side  A  B ;  consequently  the  centre  of  hy- 
drostatic  pressure  against  the  rectangular  side 
A  B  is  at  (T,  one  third 
the  distance  from  the 
bottom  to  the  surface 
of  the  liquid.  Theave- 
rage  intensity  of  pres- 
sure  against  A  B  being 
atE,  one  half  the  depth 


FIG.  9.— Principle  of 
Archimedes. 


of  A  B,  therefore  the 
total  pressure  on  the 
rectangular  side  A  $ 
will  be  the  same  as  if  it  formed  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel  and  was  pressed  upon  by  a  column  of 
water  of  half  the  depth  of  A  B.  In  general, 
the  total  pressure  on  any  surface,  plain  or 
curved,  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  liquid  col 
umn  whose  base  is  equal  to  that  surface,  and 
whose  height  is  the  distance  of  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  surface  from  the  surface  of  the 
liquid. — Principle  of  Archimedes.  A  solid  im 
mersed  in  liquid  loses  an  amount  of  weight 
equal  to  that  of  the  liquid  it  displaces.  This 
is  called  the  principle  of  Archimedes,  and  is 
demonstrated  as  follows:  Let  a  I.  fig.  9,  be  a 
solid  immersed  in  a  liquid.  The  vertical  sec 
tion  c  d  will  be  pressed  downward  by  a  force 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  column  of  water 
e  c,  and  it  will  be  pressed  upward  by  a  force 
equal  to  that  exerted  by  a  column  of  water 
equal  to  e  d  ;  therefore  the  upward  or  buoyant 
pressure  exceeds  the  downward  pressure  by 
the  weight  of  a  column  of  water  equal  to  the 
section  c  d.  Xow,  this  section  also  exerts  a 
j  downward  pressure  ;  and  if  the  body  is  denser 
I  than  the  liquid,  the  downward  pressure  will 
be  greater  than  the  excess  of  the  upward  pres- 
;  sure  of  the  liquid,  and  the  body  will  sink  if  not 
supported ;  but  if  the  body  is  less  douse  than 
the  liquid,  the  downward  pressure  of  the  col- 
,  umn  e  d  will  be  less  than  the  upward  pressure 
exerted  against  it, 
and  the  body  will 
float.  This  principle 
may  be  experimen 
tally  demonstrated 
by  the  hydrostatic 
balance,  fig.  1 0.  From 
a  balance,  5,  is  sus 
pended  a  cylindri 
cal  vessel,  «,  from 
which  again  is  sus- 
Fi«.  10.— Experimental  Vorifi-  pended  a  solid  cylin- 

catioM   of   the    Principle   of     der,  C,whicll  ISOf  SUCll 

Archimedes.  in  IT 

bulk  and  dimensions 

i  as  just  to  fill  the  vessel  a  when  introduced. 
i  The  whole  system  is  first  balanced  by  weights 
!  at  the  other  end  of  the  beam,  and  then  c  is 
immersed  in  water.  The  equilibrium  will  bo 
;  destroyed,  and  that  the  body  c  loses  a  portion 


120 


HYDROMECHANICS 


FIG.  11. 
Cartesian  Diver. 


of  its  weight  equal  to  that  of  an  equal  bulk 
of  water  is  proved  by  filling  the  vessel  a  with 
water,  when  the  equilibrium  of  the  balance 
will  be  restored.  It  is  by  means  of  a  similar 
apparatus  that  the  specific  gravities  of  solids 
is  ascertained  (see  GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC)  ;  and 
upon  the  principles  already  laid  down  hy 
drometers,  or  instruments  for  ascertaining  the 
specific  gravity  of  liquids,  are  constructed. 
(See  HYDROMETER.)  It  is  thus  also  shown 
why  it  is  easier  to  raise  weights  in  water 
than  in  air,  and  why  fat  persons  sustain  them 
selves  in  water  more  easily 
than  those  who  are  lean.  The 
air  bladder  in  fishes  is  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  them  to 
rise  or  descend  in  the  element 
in  which  they  live.  This  rise 
and  fall  by  varying  the  specific 
gravity  is  beautifully  illustrated 
by  means  of  the  little  toy  called 
the  bottle  imp  or  Cartesian 
diver,  fig.  11.  A  bottle  is  near 
ly  filled  with  water,  and  a  hol 
low  image  of  glass  or  metal  and 
lighter  than  water,  or  several 
little  balloons  of  glass,  each  of 
them  having  an  opening  below 
through  which  water  may  flow 
in  and  out,  are  introduced  into 
the  bottle  or  jar,  which  then  has  its  mouth  cov 
ered  with  a  sheet  of  caoutchouc,  or  some  elastic 
membrane.  Pressure  upon  this  will  compress 
the  air  beneath  it,  and  to  the  same  degree  the 
air  which  is  contained  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  image  or  the  balloons,  so  that  their  specific 
gravity  is  increased  enough  to  make  them  sink. 
Removal  of  pressure  will  allow  the  confined 
air  to  resume  its  former  bulk,  by  which  the 
specific  gravity  will  again  become  less  than  that 
of  the  water,  and  they  will  again  ascend.  If 
their  surfaces  have  oblique  or  spiral  directions, 
and  the  air  is  properly  distributed,  the  images 
may  be  made  to  perform  various  curious  evo 
lutions. — Stability  of  Floating  Bodies.  There 
are  certain  points  to  be  observed  in  determining 
the  stability  of  floating  bodies ;  these  are :  1, 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  floating  body;  2, 
the  centre  of  buoyancy ;  and  3,  the  metacentre. 
When  a  body  floats  upon  water  it  is  acted  on 
by  two  forces  :  1,  its  own  weight,  acting  verti 
cally  downward  through  its  centre  of  gravity ; 
2,  the  resultant  force  produced  by  the  upward 
pressure  of  the  liquid,  which  acts  through  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  fluid  that  is  displaced, 
which  point  is  called  the  centre  of  buoyancy 
of  the  body.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  these 
two  points,  the  centre  of  gravity  and  the  centre 
of  buoyancy,  must  be  in  the  same  vertical  line 
for  the  body  to  be  in  a  state  of  equilibrium ;  for 
otherwise  the  two  forces,  one  acting  downward 
and  the  other  upward,  would  form  a  couple  i 
which  would  cause  the  body  to  turn.  When  | 
these  two  centres  are  in  the  same  vertical  line, 
but  the  centre  of  gravity  is  above,  the  body,  j 
except  in  some  cases  to  be  noted  presently,  is  j 


in  a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium ;  but  when 
the  centre  of  gravity  is  beneath,  the  body  is  in 
a  state  of  stable  equilibrium.  If  a  body  is 
floating  in  a  liquid  and  is  entirely  immersed,  it 
will  not  come  to  a  state  of  stable  equilibrium 
until  the  centre  of  gravity  is  vertically  below 
the  centre  of  buoy 
ancy.  This  is  shown 
in  fig.  12,  in  the  case 
of  bodies  which  are 
less  dense  at  one  end 
than  at  the  other, 
where  B  and  B'  are 
the  centres  of  buoy 
ancy  and  G  and 
G'  those  of  gravity. 
But  in  many  cases,  when  a  body  is  only  partially 
immersed,  the  centre  of  gravity  may  be  above 
that  of  buoyancy,  and  yet  the  action  of  turn 
ing  cannot  take  place,  so  that  a  condition  of 
stable  equilibrium  will  be  attained  under  these 
circumstances.  If  a  flat  body,  such  as  a  light 
wooden  plank,  is  placed  in  water,  it  will  float, 
and  a  portion  will  be  above  the  surface,  as 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  14. 


shown  in  fig.  13  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  cen 
tre  of  gravity  is  not  below  the  centre  of  vol 
ume,  it  will  be  above  the  centre  of  buoyancy, 
and  yet  the  body  will  be  in  a  state  of  stable 
equilibrium  For  if  it  be  tipped  as  represent 
ed  in  fig.  14,  the  centre  of  buoyancy  will  be 
brought  to  the  position  B',  on  the  depressed 
side  of  the  vertical  passing  through  the  centre 
of  gravity,  and  this  will  cause  the  body  to  re 
turn  to  its  former  position.  But  if  the  body 
has  such  a  shape  that  when  it  is  displaced  the 
centre  of  buoyancy  is  brought  to  that  side  of 
the  vertical  passing  through  the  centre  of 
gravity,  which  is  elevated  as  represented  in  fig. 
15,  then  the  body  will  turn  over.  When  the 
body  is  in  the  new  position,  a  vertical  drawn 
through  the  changed  position  of  the  centre  of ' 
buoyancy  will  intersect  the  line  which  in  the 
first  position  passed  vertically  through  the  cen 
tre  of  gravity,  and  this  point  of  intersection  is 
called  the  metacentre,  represented  at  M  in  figs. 
15  and  16.  When  the  metacentre  is  above  the 
centre  of  gravity,  as  in  fig.  16,  the  body  will 
tend,  by  the  action  of  the  centre  of  buoyancy, 
to  return  to  its  former  position  ;  but  when  it  is 
below,  as  in  fig.  15,  the  action  of  the  centre  of 
buoyancy,  being  upward  on  the  elevated  side, 
will  tend  to  turn  the  body  over.  Its  proper 
place  therefore,  as  its  name  would  indicate,  is 
above  the  centre  of  gravity,  but  it  cannot  be  a 
fixed  point.  In  all  well  built  ships,  however, 
its  position  is  pretty  nearly  constant  for  all 
inclinations.  For  example,  in  fig.  16,  as  long 
as  increase  of  inclination  of  the  vessel  carried 


HYDROMECHANICS 


121 


the  centre  of  buoyancy  B  to  the  left,  the  point 
M  might  remain "  at  nearly  the  same  distance 
from  G,  because  it  would  also  move  to  the 
left.  But  if  the  inclination  of  the  vessel  in  the 
same  direction  carried  the  centre  of  buoyancy 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


to  the  right,  the  height  of  the  metacentre  M 
would  diminish  until  it  would  be  in  G,  when 
the  equilibrium  would  be  indifferent,  and  at 
last  below  G,  when  the  ship  would  turn  over. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  the  metacentre  as  far 
as  possible  above  the  centre  of  gravity,  and 
this  condition  is  secured  by  bringing  the  cen 
tre  of  gravity  to  the  lowest  practicable  point, 
by  loading  the  ship  with  the  heaviest  part  of 
the  cargo  nearest  to  the  keel,  or  by  employing 
ballast.  II.  HYDRODYNAMICS,  although  it  em 
braces  many  of  the  principles  of  hydrostatics, 
treats  more  particularly  of  the  laws  of  liquids 
in  motion.  One  of  the  most  important  prin 
ciples  of  hydrodynamics  is  that  which  deter 
mines  the  velocity  of  jets  which  issue  from 
orifices  at  various  depths  in  the  sides  of  ves 
sels  containing  liquids,  and  depends  upon  the 
laws  of  hydrostatic  pressure.  If  an  orifice  is 
made  in  the  side  of  a  vessel  containing  a  liquid, 
the  liquid  will  issue  from  it  with  a  velocity 
equal  to  that  which  a  heavy  body  would  ac 
quire  in  falling  through  the  vertical  distance 
between  the  surface  of  the  liquid  and  the  ori 
fice.  If  the  jet  is  directed  upward,  it  will  as 
cend,  theoretically,  to  a  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  liquid  ;  but  practically  it  will  fall  short 
of  this  in  consequence  of  friction  at  the  orifice, 
and  of  the  resistance  offered  by  the  air.  At 
first  sight  it  would  appear  that  the  velocity  of 
efflux  would  be  proportional  to  the  pressure, 
but  an  analysis  of  the  case,  aside  from  the  test 
of  experiment,  will  show  that  this  cannot  be, 
for  in  no  instance  can  the  jet  be  projected 
higher  than  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  If,  in 
general  terms,  the  velocity  of  a  jet  were  in  pro 
portion  to  the  pressure  at  the  point  of  issue,  a 
column  of  mercury  would  throw  a  jet  with  13Jr 
times  the  velocity  that  an  equal  column  of  wa 
ter  would ;  but  it  must  be  perceived  that  a 
column  of  mercury  can  only  propel  a  jet  as 
high  (theoretically)  as  the  surface,  and  there 
fore  to  the  same  height  as  an  equal  column  of 
water  can.  Now,  there  can  bo  no  doubt  that 
the  pressure  of  mercury  at  the  same  depth  is 
13£  times  that  of  water;  but  mercury,  being 
also  13^-  times  as  heavy  as  water,  has  13i 
times  as  much  inertia,  and  therefore  requires 
so  many  times  as  much  force  to  give  it  the 
same  initial  velocity.  The  velocity  with  which 
a  liquid  escapes  from  an  orifice  varies  as  the 


square  root  of  the  depth  below  the  surface  ;  so 
that  when  the  points  of  escape  are  1,  4,  9,  and 
1C  ft.  in  depth,  the  initial  velocities  will  be  as 
1,  2,  3,  and  4.  This  is  the  celebrated  theorem 
of  Torricelli,  which  he  deduced  from  the  laws 
of  falling  bodies.  As  the  velocity  of  a  falling 
body  is  in  proportion  to  the  time  of  its  fall,  it 
will  be  in  proportion  to  the  square  root  of  the 
height  fallen  through,  and  is  represented  by 
the  formula  V  =  4/2^,  in  which  g  is  the  ac 
celerating  force  of  gravity  (=  82'2),  and  h  the 
height.  (See  MECHANICS.)  A  jet  issuing  from 
the  side  of  a  vessel  describes,  theoretically,  a 
parabola,  precisely  as  in  the  case  of  a  solid 
projectile  ;  for  the  impelling  force  and  the 
force  of  gravity  act  upon  the  jet  in  the  same 
manner,  and  the  resultant  force  gives  it  the 
same  direction.  The  range,  or  distance  to 
which  the  jet  is  projected,  is  greatest  when  the 
angle  of  elevation  is  45°,  and  is  the  same  for 
elevations  which  are  equally  above  or  below 
45°,  as  60°  and  30°.  The  resistance  of  the  air 
however  alters  the  results,  and  the  statement 
is  only  true  when  the  jet  is  projected  into  a 
vacuum.  If  a  vessel  filled  with  water  have 
orifices  made  in  its  side  at  equal  distances  in  a 
vertical  line  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  u 
stream  issuing  from  an  orifice  midway  between 
the  surface  and  the  bottom  will  'be  projected 
further  than  any  of  the  streams  issuing  from 
the  orifices  above  or  below.  This  may  be  de 
monstrated  by  the  adjoining  diagram,  fig.  17. 
Let  a  semicircle  A  F  E  be  described  on  the 
side  of  a  vessel  of  water,  its  diameter  being 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  liquid.  The  range 
of  a  jet  issuing  from  either  of  the  orifices  B, 
C,  or  D  will  be  equal  to  twice  the  length  of 
the  ordinates  B  F,  C  I,  or  D  K  respectively ; 
and  therefore  jets  issuing  from  B  and  D  will 
meet  at  a  point  II  on  a  level  with  the  bottom, 
and  twice  the  length  of  the  ordinates  B  F  and 
D  Iv.  Now,  as  the  ordinate  C  I  is  the  great 


est,  the  range  of  the  jet  issuing  from  C  will 
be  greater  than  that  of  any  other  jet.  The 
amount  of  water  escaping  in  one  second  from 
an  orifice  would,  theoretically,  be  equal  to  a 
cylinder  having  a  diameter  equal  to  that  of  the 
orifice,  and  a  length  equal  to  the  distance 


122 


HYDROMECHANICS 


FIG.  IS. — Vena  Contracta. 


through  which  a  body  will  move  with  a  uni 
form  velocity  after  it  has  fallen  through  a 
height  equal  to  the  vertical  distance  between 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  and  the  orifice.  If 
this  distance  is  16'1  ft.,  the  velocity  acquired 
will  be  32 '2  ft.  per  second,  and  therefore  the 
theoretical  quantity  discharged  from  an  ori 
fice  4  in.  in  diameter,  whose  centre  is  KM  ft. 
below  the  surface,  would  be  equal  to  a  cylin 
der  4  in.  in  diameter  and  32 -2  ft.  long,  and 
containing  4,828-5  cubic  inches,  or  about  21'83 
gallons.  The  actual  discharge  from  a  thin  ori 
fice  not  furnished  with  an  ajutage  is  however 
much  less,  being  only 
about  two  thirds 
of  the  theoretical 
amount.  The  loss  is 
owing  partly  to  fric 
tion,  but  mainly  to 
the  interference  of 
converging  currents 
moving  within  the 
vessel  toward  the  ori 
fice.  This  interfer 
ence  may  be  shown 
by  employing  a  glass 
vessel  having  a  per 
foration  in  its  bottom,  as  represented  in  fig. 
18.  If  particles  of  some  opaque  substance 
having  nearly  the  same  specific  gravity  as  wa 
ter,  so  that  they  will  remain  suspended  in  it 
for  a  space  of  time,  be  mingled  with  the  wa 
ter,  they  will  be  seen,  to  move  in  the  direc 
tion  indicated  by  the  lines  in  the  figure,  which 
are  nearly  direct.  If  the  jet  is  carefully  ob 
served,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  not  cylin 
drical,  and  that  for  a  distance  from  the  orifice 
of  about  half  its  diameter  it  resembles  a  trun 
cated  cone  with  the  base  at  the  orifice.  This 
contraction  of  the  stream  is 
called  the  vena  contracta,  and 
its  smallest  diameter  is  stated 
to  be  from  0-6  to  0'8  of  that  of 
the  orifice.  When  the  stream 
has  a  direction  downward  near 
ly  vertical,  it  continues  to  dimi 
nish  beyond  the  vena  contracta, 
in  consequence  of  the  increased 
velocity  caused  by  the  force  of 
gravity,  the  size  being  in  the 
inverse  proportion  to  the  velo 
city.  The  increased  velocity  at 
the  vena  contracta  is  due  to  the 
pressure  which  forces  the  par 
ticles  of  water  into  a  narrower 
channel.  As  the  jet  continues  to 
fall,  it  forms  a  series  of  ventral 
and  nodal  segments,  as  shown  in 
fig.  19.  The  ventral  segments 
are  composed  of  drops  elon 
gated  horizontally,  as  shown  at  a  a,  while  the 
nodal  segments  are  elongated  vertically,  as 
seen  at  l>  l> ;  and  as  the  segments  have  fixed 
positions,  it  follows  that  the  drops  in  falling 
are  alternately  elongated  vertically  and  hori 
zontally.  If  the  orifice  is  in  the  side  of  the 


a  [o| 


FIG.  20. 


FIG.  19. 


vessel  and  discharges  horizontally,  the  size  of 
the  stream  does  not  diminish  in  the  same  man 
ner  as  when  fulling  vertically,  and  it  is  sooner 
broken.  If  a  cylindrical  tube  or  ajutage  whose 
length  is  from  two  to  three  times  its  diameter 
is  fitted  to  the  orifice,  the  rate  of  efflux  may  be 
increased  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical 
amount.  The  velocity  will  be  somewhat  di 
minished,  but  the  vena  contracta  will  be  larger 
in  proportion.  If  the  inner  end  of  the  ajutage 
has  a  conical  shape  with  the  base  toward  the 
interior,  the  efflux  may  be  further  increased  to 
95  per  cent. ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  if 
the  outer  end  of  the  tube  is  also  enlarged,  the 
efflux  may  be  still  further  increased  to  very 
nearly  the  theoretical  amount,  say  98  per  cent. 
When  a  cylindrical  ajutage  is  used,  there  will  be 
a  partial  vacuum  formed  between  the  sides  of 
the  tube  and  the 
contracted  vein,  as 
shown  in  fig.  20. 
If  a  pipe  ascending 
from  a  reservoir  of 
water  is  let  into  this 
part  of  the  ajutage, 
the  water  will  rise 
in  the  pipe;  and  if 
the  height  is  not  too 
great,  the  vessel  may 
be  emptied. — The  re 
sistance  offered  by 
conduits  is  a  sub 
ject  of  great  importance  in  practical  hydro 
mechanics,  upon  which  extended  experiments 
have  been  made.  When  the  length  of  the  aju 
tage  bears  more  than  a  certain  proportion  to 
its  diameter,  the  efflux  is  reduced  to  about  the 
same  amount  as  when  the  stream  issues  through 
a  thin  orifice,  that  is,  about  62^>er  cent,  of  the 
theoretical  amount.  With  a  pipe  of  1-J-  in.  in 
diameter  and  30  ft.  long,  the  efflux  will  be  only 
about  half  that  from  a  thin  orifice,  or  31  per 
cent,  of  the  theoretical  amount.  This  reduc 
tion  is  caused  by  friction  between  the  liquid  and 
the  tube,  as  well  as  between  its  particles,  and 
is  greater  with  cold  than  with  warm  liquids. 
This  resistance  to  motion,  or  approach  to  rigid 
ity,  which  is  conferred  by  cold,  is  called  vis 
cosity,  and  is  a  principle  which  has  to  be  taken 
into  account  in  nearly  all  very  careful  hydrau 
lic  calculations. — Resistance' of  Liquids  to  the 
Motion  of  Solid  Bodies.  This  will  depend  upon 
the  form  and  size  of  the  body.  The  following 
are  two  important  laws:  1.  With  the  same  ve 
locity,  the  resistance  is  proportional  to  the  ex 
tent  of  surface  applied  by  the  solid  to  the  li 
quid  in  the  direction  of  motion.  2.  With  the 
same  extent  of  surface,  the  resistance  is  pro- 
i  portional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity.  These 
laws  may  be  demonstrated  experimentally,  but 
their  truth  will  also  be  apparent  from  the  fol 
lowing  considerations.  In  regard  to  the  first 
law,  it  will  be  easily  understood  that  with  the 
same  velocity  the  amount  of  water  displaced 
will  be  the  measure  of  resistance,  and  that  a 
surface  of  two  square  feet  will  displace  twice 


HYDROMECHANICS 


123 


as  much  as  one  of  one  square  foot.  The  sec 
ond  law  is  not  so  evident,  but  will  be  made 
clear  by  considering  that  with  a  given  surface, 
when  the  velocity  is  doubled,  twice  the  quan 
tity  of  liquid  will  move  through  twice  the 
space  in  the  same  time,  and  will  therefore,  ac 
cording  to  the  principles  of  mechanics,  have 
a  fourfold  momentum.  The  resistance,  there 
fore,  offered  to  a  plane  surface  moving,  at 
right  angles  against  a  liquid,  is  measured  by 
the  area  of  the  surface  multiplied  into  the 
square  of  the  velocity.  It  has  been  found 
that  a  square  foot  surface,  moved  through 
water  with  a  velocity  of  32  ft.  per  second, 
meets  with  a  resistance  equal  to  a  weight  of 
1,000  Ibs.  When  the  motion  of  a  body  in  a 
liquid  is  very  slow,  say  less  than  4  in.  per  sec 
ond,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  body,  the 
larger  body  requiring  to  move  more  slowly, 
the  above  laws  are  not  rigidly  followed,  but 
the  resistance  is  divided  into  two  components, 
one  of  which  is  proportional  to  the  simple  ve 
locity,  and  the  other  to  the  square  of  the  ve 
locity.  The  most  accurate  results  in  experi 
menting  with  slow  motions  were  obtained  by 
Coulomb,  who  used  his  torsion  balance.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  problems  in  mathemat 
ics  has  been  to  determine  the  form  of  a  solid 
which  will  meet  with  the  least  resistance  in 
moving  through  water.  This  form  is  called  the 
"solid  of  least  resistance,1'  and  is  approached 
as  near  as  practicable  in  the  construction  of 
ships. —  Theory  of  Wares  in  Liquids.  When 
a  pebble  is  dropped  into  still  water,  a  series 
of  circular  waves  is  formed  upon  its  surface, 
•which  extend  themselves  from  the  centre  in 
all  directions.  These  waves  consist  of  alter 
nate  elevations  and  depressions,  which  have 
the  appearance  of  following  one  another  in  the 
direction  of  the  radii  of  the  circle.  It  is  how 
ever  only  an  appearance,  as  may  be  readily 
proved  by  throwing  a  cork  upon  the  undu 
lating  surface,  when  it  will  be  observed  only 
to  rise  and  fall,  and  the  undulations  will  ap 
pear  to  glide  beneath  it.  The  wave  then  is  an 
oscillation  of  the  liquid  upward  and  down 
ward,  and  the  force  which  causes  it  is  gravity. 
The  pebble  when  it  strikes  the  water  displaces 
a  portion,  which  rises  on  every  side  to  a  cer 
tain  height,  and  then,  its  momentum  being 
lost,  and  being  higher  than  any  portion  of 
liquid  around  it,  it  falls;  but  the  momentum  it 
has  acquired  carries  it  below  the  level,  and 
an  exterior  ring  is  forced  upward,  which  in  j 
descending  also  produces  a  successor;  and 
thus  a  series  of  circular  waves  is  formed  of 
gradually  diminished  height  but  of  increased 
diameter,  until,  at  a  very  great  distance  in 
calm  water,  the  force  of  the  primary  impulse  is 
lost.  When  two  waves  proceeding  from  dif 
ferent  centres  meet  one  another  in  such  a  way 
that  the  elevations  coincide,  a  united  wave  will 
be  produced  having  a  height  equal  to  that  of 
its  two  components,  and  a  depression  equal  to 
that  of  the  other  two ;  but  if  the  elevation  of 
one  corresponds  to  the  depression  of  the  other, 


FIG,  21. 


the  resulting  elevation  and  depression  -will  be 
equal  to  the  difference  of  elevation  and  depres 
sion  respectively  of  the  original  waves.  If 
they  are  equal,  the  result  will  be  the  oblitera 
tion  of  both.  This  phenomenon  is  called  the 
interference  of  waves.  It  is  susceptible  of  de 
monstration  that  the  undulations  of  waves  are 
performed  in  the  same  time  as  the  oscillations  of 
a  pendulum  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  dis 
tance  between  two  eminences,  or  the  technical 
breadth  of  the  wave. — Form  of  Surface  of  Rota 
ting  Liquid.  From  the  principle  of  the  equilib 
rium  of  fluids,  that  the  surface  of  the  liquid  at 
rest  must  be  a  level  which  is 
perpendicular  to  the  direction 
of  the  force  of  gravity,  it  fol 
lows  that  when  two  or  more 
forces  act  upon  a  liquid  to 
change  the  position  of  its  sur 
face,  the  resultant  of  these 
forces  will  be  perpendicular  to 
the  surface.  Therefore,  if  a 
cylindrical  or  conical  vessel, 
fig.  21,  containing  a  liquid, 
is  rotated  on  its  axis  A  B, 
all  the  particles  on  the  sur 
face  will  be  acted  upon  by  two  forces,  that  of 
gravity,  in  a  vertical  direction  represented  by 
A  C  or  C  E,  and  the  centrifugal  force,  repre 
sented  by  C  D  or  E  F,  which  is  horizontal, 
and  varies  in  intensity  with  the  distance  of  the 
particles  from  the  axis  or  centre  of  motion. 
The  surface  of  the  liquid  will  therefore  be  de 
pressed  in  the  middle,  and  will  be  at  every 
point  perpendicular  to  the  resultants  A  D,  C 
F,  &c.,  which  will  therefore  be  normals;  and 
it  may  be  demonstrated  that  the  subnormals 
A  C,  C  E,  &c.,  are  equal,  and  therefore  that 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  is  a  paraboloid. — 
A  Level  Surface.  Let  it  be  assumed  that  if 
the  earth  were  entirely  covered  with  water, 
and  at  rest,  with  no  force  acting  upon  the 
water  except  gravity,  it  would  have  the  form 
of  a  perfect  sphere.  But  it  has  been  found 
to  have  the  form  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  the 
ratio  of  its  polar  to  its  equatorial  diameter 
being  about  299  to  300.  Its  oblate  form  is 
caused  by  its  rotation  on  its  axis.  Let  a  J  c  d, 
fig.  22,  be  the  section  of  a  liquid  sphere,  pass 
ing  through  its  axis 
of  rotation  a  Z>,  and 
let  f  be  any  point 
on  its  surface.  The 
revolution  of  the 
sphere  on  its  axis 
will  generate  a  cen 
trifugal  force  in  the 
direction  of/*?,  par 
allel  to  the  plane  of 
the  equator  c  d,  and 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  a  7).  Now,  if,/  Ji  repre 
sent  the  force  of  gravity  and/<?  the  centrifugal 
force,  f  g  will  represent  the  resultant  of  these 
two  forces,  and  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  being 
free  to  move,  must  become  perpendicular  to 
this  resultant  at  every  point.  The  surface  of  a 


22. 


HYDROMETER 


revolving  body,  like  the  earth,  if  covered  with 
a  liquid,  would  have  a  form  like  that  repre 
sented  in  section  by  the  dotted  line,  and  it  may 
be  demonstrated  that  this  form  is  that  of  a 
spheroid  formed  by  an  ellipse  revolving  about 
its  minor  axis.  Its  surface,  to  which  that  of 
the  earth  approaches,  is  called  a  level  surface. 
HYDROMETER,  or  Areometer,  an  instrument 
for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids. 
It  generally  consists  of  some  buoyant  body,  as 
hollow  glass  or  copper,  weighted  at  the  bot 
tom  and  supporting  a  graduated  stem,  or  one 
having  a  definite  mark.  There  are  two  kinds, 
those  of  constant  and  those  of  variable  im 
mersion.  Those  of  constant  immersion  are 
made  to  sink  in  the  tested  liquid,  whether 
dense  or  light,  to 
the  same  depth, 
by  balancing  with 
weights.  Those 
of  variable  immer 
sion  have  no  mov 
able  weights,  but 
rise  or  fall  accord 
ing  to  the  den 
sity  of  the  liquid. 
Nicholson's  hy 
drometer,  fig.  1,  is 
of  the  first  kind. 
As  usually  con 
structed,  when 
this  instrument  is 
immersed  in  wa 
ter  it  requires  a 
weight  of  1,000 
grains  to  make  it 
sink  to  a  certain 
mark  on  the  stem. 
According  to  the 
principle  of  Archi 
medes  (see  HYDRO 
MECHANICS),  the 

weight  of  the  instrument,  together  with  the 
1,000  grains  which  it  sustains,  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  volume  of  water  displaced.  If  the 
instrument  is  placed  in  a  liquid  lighter  or  heavi 
er  than  water,  and  the  weight  changed  until  it 
sinks  to  the  same  depth,  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  liquid  will  be  indicated  by  the  formula 

?  =  w+iooo'  wliere  w  is  tlie  weight  of  the  in 
strument,  and  w  that  of  the  weights  placed 
upon  the  pan.  If  w  is  less  than  1,000  grains  it 
will  show  that  the  liquid  is  lighter,  and  if  it  is 
more  than  1,000  grains  it  will  show  that  it  is 
heavier  than  water.  This  instrument  may  also 
be  used  to  find  the  specific  gravity  of  solids, 
or  as  a  delicate  balance.  For  these  purposes 
it  has  a  small  cup  or  wire  cage  suspended  at 
the  bottom  to  hold  the  body,  which  may  be 
either  heavier  or  lighter  than  water.  To  find 
the  specific  gravity  of  a  solid,  let  it  be  first 
weighed  in  air,  by  placing  upon  the  pan  a  piece 
of  the  substance  which  weighs  less  than  1,000 
grains.  Suppose  the  substance  to  be  sulphur, 
and  that  440  grains  are  required  to  be  added 


FIG.  1. — Nicholson's  Hydrometer. 


to  make  the  instrument  sink  to  the  mark  on 
the  stem,  the  weight  of  the  sulphur  is,  evi 
dently,  1,000 — 440  =  560  grains.  Now,  what 
it  loses  if  weighed  in  water  will  be  the  weight 
of  an  equal  bulk  of  water,  and  this  will  be 
found  by  placing  it  in  the  cup  or  cage  at  the 
bottom,  and  adding  sufficient  weights  to  those 
in  the  pan  at  the  top  to  bring  the  mark  to  the 
level  of  the  water.  If  it  requires  the  addi 
tion  of  275 '2  grains,  that  amount  will  represent 
the  weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  the 
sulphur ;  consequently  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  sulphur  will  be  -ffifa  =  2 -03. '  If  the  body 
is  lighter  than  water,  it  will  of  course  require 
the  addition  of  more  than  its  weight  to  the 
pan,  and  for  immersion  it  will  require  to  be 
placed  in  the  wire  cage.  Fahrenheit's  hydro 
meter  diners  from  Nicholson's  in  being  con 
structed  of  glass,  and  having  a  constant  weight 
of  mercury  in  a  bulb  at  the  lower  end.  Its 
use  is  therefore  restricted  to  the  weighing  of 
fluids. — Of  hydrometers  of  variable  immersion, 
Baume's  is  the  one  most  frequently  used,  and 
furnishes  a  good  example  of  the  class.  Two 
instruments,  of  different  forms,  are  represent 
ed  in  figs.  2  and  3.  They  are  made  of  glass ; 
their  stems  are  hollow  and  lighter  than  the 
fluid  in  which  they  are  immersed.  Fig.  2  is 
called  a  salimeter,  and  is  used  for  estimating 
the  proportion  of  a  salt  or  other  substance  in 
solution.  It  is  graduated  in  the  following 
manner :  Being  immersed  in  water  at  a  tem 
perature  of  12°  0.,  the  point  to  which  it  sinks 
is  marked  0° ;  it  is  then  placed  in  a  solution 
containing  15  parts  of  common  salt  to  85  of 
water,  the  density  of  which  is  about  1-116, 
and  the  point  to  which  it  sinks  is  marked  15, 
and  the  interval  divided  into  15  equal  parts ; 
the  graduation  is  then 
extended  downward, 
generally  terminating 
at  66°,  which  corre 
sponds  to  the  density  of 
sulphuric  acid.  "When 
the  instrument  is  to  bo 
used  for  liquids  lighter 
than  water,  the  zero  is 
not  placed  at  the  point 
to  which  it  sinks  in 
pure  water,  but  at  a 
point  to  which  it  sinks 
in  a  solution  contain 
ing  10  parts  of  com 
mon  salt  to  90  of  wa 
ter.  The  point  to  which 
it  sinks  in  pure  water 
was  marked  by  Bau- 
me  10°,  and  the  grad 
uation  was  continued 
upward  to  the  high 
est  point  to  which  the  stem  might  bo  immersed 
in  the  lightest  liquid.  Fig.  3  represents  the  in 
strument  for  liquids  lighter  than  water.  The 
graduation  of  these  hydrometers  is  arbitrary, 
and  is  an  indication  of  the  strength  of  the  li 
quid  only  after  trial. — Hare's  hydrometer,  a 


FIG.  2.  Fio.  8. 

ilimeter.     Alcoholimeter. 
Baume's  Hydrometers. 


HYDROPATHY 


125 


FIG.  4. — Hare's 
Hydrometer. 


very  valuable  instrument,  but  one  which  has  not 
been  much  employed,  acts  upon  the  principle 
of  the  barometer,  and  yields  directly  results  of 
definite  comparison;  it  is  represented  in  fig. 
4.  A  n  -shaped  tube  has  its  legs,  of  equal 
length,  placed  in  shallow  ves 
sels,  one  containing  the  liquid 
to  bo  tested,  and  the  other  a 
liquid  taken  as  a  standard,  as 
water.  A  partial  vacuum  is 
then  produced  in  the  tube  by 
exhausting  the  air  by  means  of 
an  air  pump,  the  mouth,  or  oth 
erwise,  making  use  of  the  stop 
cock  to  facilitate  the  opera 
tion.  It  is  evident  that  the 
height  of  the  liquid  column  will 
be  in  the  exact  inverse  propor 
tion  to  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquids. — Hydrometers  have 
various  names,  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  used :  as  lactometers,  for  estimating  the 
amount  of  cream  in  milk,  or  the  quantity  of 
sugar  of  milk  in  the  whey;  vinometers,  for 
estimating  the  percentage  of  alcohol  in  wine 
or  cider;  and  there  are  acidometers  and  sac- 
charometers. 

HYDROPATHY  (Gr.  vdup,  water,  and  Trd6oc, 
affection  or  disease),  a  system  of  treatment  of 
diseases  mainly  or  exclusively  by  the  use  of 
water  and  of  the  known  hygienic  agencies. 
Hygienic  management  in  some  form,  as  a  re 
sort  to  exercise,  or,  in  diseases  induced  by 
luxurious  living,  to  abstemiousness,  dates  from 
the  earliest  conception  of  a  healing  art ;  and  it 
has  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  physiological 
science,  until  within  the  present  century  the 
laws  and  claims  of  hygiene  have  become  ap 
preciated  as  never  before.  The  physicians  of 
very  early  times  seem  also  to  have  employed 
water  as  a  remedy  in  certain  febrile,  inflamma 
tory,  and  surgical  maladies;  a  usage  recom 
mended,  among  other  early  medical  writers, 
by  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and  Avicenna.  In  the 
18th  century  Sir  John  Floyer  and  Dr.  Bay- 
nard,  in  England,  resorted  to  bathing  almost 
exclusively  in  chronic  diseases ;  as  did  F.  Hoff 
mann  and  Hahn  on  the  continent.  Dr.  James 
Currie  in  1797  published  highly  favorable  re 
ports  of  the  effects  of  water,  chiefly  by  affusion, 
in  many  diseases.  But  the  distinctive  u  water 
cure,"  or  hydropathy,  owes  its  origin  to  the 
fertility  of  invention  of  a  Silesian  peasant, 
Vincenz  Priessnitz.  Having  at  the  age  of  13 
sprained  his  wrist,  young  Priessnitz  intuitively 
applied  it  to  the  pump ;  and  afterward,  to  con 
tinue  the  relief  thus  obtained,  ho  bound  upon 
it  an  Umschlag,  or  wet  bandage.  Rewetting 
this  as  it  became  dry,  ho  reduced  the  inflam 
mation,  but  excited  a  rash  on  the  surface  of 
the  part.  Soon  after,  having  crushed  his 
thumb,  he  again  applied  the  bandage,  and  the 
pain  once  more  subsided,  but  the  rash  reap 
peared.  He  inferred  that  the  rash  indicated 
an  impure  blood ;  and  this  conclusion  was 


strengthened  by  the  result  of  experiments 
which  he  was  induced  to  try  upon  injuries 
and  ulcers  in  the  case  of  some  of  his  neigh 
bors,  since  the  rash  in  some  instances  appeared 
after  the  treatment,  and  in  others  did  not. 
Thus  he  was  led  to  frame  for  himself  a  hu 
moral  pathology  of  all  diseases,  and  a  doctrine 
of  the  elimination  of  morbific  matters  by 
"  crisis."  According  to  this  view,  the  cure  of 
disease  is  to  be  effected  by  favoring  the  activity 
of  those  organs  through  which  the  purification 
of  the  system  is  carried  on,  and,  through  a 
regulated  and  pure  dietary  and  correct  regi 
men,  preventing  further  morbid  accumulations. 
In  his  19th  year,  being  run  over  by  a  cart, 
Priessnitz  had  some  ribs  broken  and  received 
severe  bruises  ;  on  learning  that  the  physicians 
pronounced  his  case  hopeless,  he  tore  off  their 
bandages,  and  recovered  under  the  renewed 
application  of  the  Umschlag,  and  replaced  his 
ribs  by  inflating  the  lungs  while  pressing  the 
abdomen  against  a  window  sill.  This  incident 
confirmed  the  idea  and  initiated  the  practice 
of  the  water  cure.  In  the  ne\v  practice,  its  au 
thor  discovered  in  rapid  succession  the  means 
of  securing  either  cooling,  heating,  or  sooth 
ing  effects  by  compresses;  then,  the  sponge 
bath,  the  wet-sheet  packing,  the  sitz,  foot, 
arm,  and  other  partial  baths,  the  douche,  the 
stream  bath,  the  dripping  sheet,  the  plunge,  the 
tepid  shallow  bath,  dry-blanket  packing,  &c. 
The  pail  douche  of  Dr.  E.  Johnson  is  one  of 
the  very  few  additions  since  made  to  this  list 
of  measures.  Unquestionably,  Priessnitz's  ear 
lier  treatment,  especially  after  the  opening  in 
1826  of  the  famous  Grafenberg  cure,  was  too 
incessant  and  severe,  and  often  borne  only 
through  the  vital  tenacity,  whatever  their  mal 
adies,  of  the  class  of  invalids  with  whom  he 
had  to  deal.  Along  with  this  was  introduced 
a  rigorous,  but  in  some  respects  mistaken  hy 
giene,  including  the  very  free  use  of  a  plain 
and  peculiar  diet,  much  walking  in  the  open 
air,  and  the  disuse  of  flannel  undergarments 
and  of  soft  beds.  The  water  appliances  have 
since  been  rendered  more  mild,  and  in  the 
United  States  necessarily  so.  The  number  of 
instances,  however,  of  decided  restoration  to 
health  among  the  invalids  who  flocked  from  all 
parts  of  Europe  and  of  the  United  States  to 
the  Grafenberg  cure,  sufficiently  explains  the 
rapid  spread  of  the  new  system.  This  was 
first  distinctly  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
English  public  about  the  year  1840,  by  a  book 
put  forth  by  a  former  patient  of  Priessnitz, 
Capt.  Claridge,  and  entitled  "Hydropathy,  or 
the  Cold  Water  Cure."  In  Germany,  under 
Francke,  Weiss,  Munde,  and  others,  the  enthu 
siastic  treatise  of  the  first  of  whom  did  much 
to  spread  the  system,  several  new  establish 
ments  had  already  sprung  up.  On  March  17, 
1842,  the  hydropathic  society  was  organized  in 
London,  for  the  purpose,  among  others,  of  cir 
culating  information  in  regard  to  Priessnitz, 
and  the  authenticity  of  the  reported  cures.  Drs. 
Wilson,  Johnson,  and  Gully  were  first  to  em- 


126 


HYDROPHOBIA 


brace  the  practice,  the  first  two  early  lecturing 
before  the  new  society,  and  all  soon  establish 
ing  institutions  of  their  own.  The  writings  of 
Drs.  Gnlly  and  Johnson  contributed  much  to 
spread  the  system  in  England,  and  at  a  later 
day  they  were  ably  seconded  by  Bulwer's 
"  Confessions  of  a  Water  Patient,"  detailing 
incidents  of  his  restoration  to  health  at  the 
Malvern  establishment.  The  earliest  popular 
information  concerning  water  treatment  in  the 
United  States  was  through  a  letter  published 
about  1843,  from  H.  0.  Wright,  himself  at  the 
time  a  patient  under  Priessnitz ;  and  this  was 
soon  followed  by  the  earnest  statements  and 
appeals,  through  a  like  channel,  of  J.  H.  Gray 
of  Boston  and  A.  J.  Colvin  of  Albany.  Drs. 
Schieferdecker,  Wesselhoeft,  and  Shew  seem 
to  have  been  the  first  to  enter  upon  the  new 
practice  in  the  United  States ;  while  the  first 
establishment  appears  to  have  been  that  opened 
in  1844  at  No.  63  Barclay  street,  New  York. 
Of  this,  David  Cambell,  also  the  originator  of 
the  "  Water-Cure  Journal,"  was  proprietor, 
and  Joel  Shew  physician.  In  May,  1845,  an 
establishment  was  opened  at  New  Lebanon 
Springs,  N.  Y.,  under  the  management  of  Dr. 
Shew,  and  another  at  Brattleboro,  Vt,,  under 
the  management  of  Dr.  Wesselhoeft,  who,'hav- 
ing  explored  the  country  from  Florida  to  Maine, 
selected  Brattleboro  on  account  of  the  supe 
rior  purity  of  the  water  of  a  spring  there.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  in  this  country 
and  Europe  several  hundred  establishments  in 
which  the  application  of  water  in  one  form  or 
another  is  the  chief  remedial  agent  relied  upon 
in  the  treatment  of  diseases,  but  medicines  in 
many  cases  are  nsed  to  a  greater  or  less  ex 
tent.  The  name  hydropathy  is  not  in  general 
use  among  its  practitioners,  that  of  u  hygienic 
medicine  "  being  adopted  instead. — Of  books 
upon  the  subject  may  be  mentioned,  besides 
those  above  referred  to,  "  Hydropathic  En 
cyclopaedia,"  by  R.  T.  Trail,  M.  D.  (New  York, 
1852);  uThe  Bath,"  by  S.  R.  Wells  (New 
York) ;  and  u  Water  Cure  in  Chronic  Diseases," 
by  J.  M.  Gully,  M.  D.  (London). 

HYDROPHOBIA  (Gr.  v6up,  water,  and  $6,%$, 
fear ;  Lat.  rabies  canina,  canine  madness),  a 
rare  but  well  marked  disease  in  the  human 
subject,  characterized  by  excessive  nervous 
excitement,  the  secretion  of  an  unusually  viscid 
saliva,  a  difficulty  and  sometimes  a  dread  of 
swallowing  liquids,  and  a  rapidly  fatal  termi 
nation.  It  is  caused  by  inoculation  from  the 
bite  of  a  dog,  already  in  a  similar  rabid  condi 
tion.  Although  hydrophobia  in  the  human 
subject  is  so  infrequent  that  many  practition 
ers  of  considerable  experience  have  never  met 
with  a  case,  it  is  still  of  sufficient  importance 
to  merit  serious  attention,  and  to  demand  every 
possible  precaution  for  its  prevention  ;  particu 
larly  since,  when  once  developed,  it  is  inva 
riably  fatal,  no  single  well  authenticated  case 
of  recovery  having  yet  been  recorded,  and  be 
cause  the  affection  itself  is  so  terrible  in  the 
distress  suffered  by  the  patient,  and  the  horror 


which  it  excites  in  the  minds  of  the  spectators. 
In  France,  with  a  population  of  36,000,000, 
during  the  six  years  from  1853  to  1858  inclu 
sive,  there  were  107  cases  of  hydrophobia,  or 
one  case  annually  for  every  2,000,000  inhabi 
tants.  In  the  department  of  the  Seine,  with  an 
average  population  of  upward  of  1,000,000,  du 
ring  the  40  years  from  1822  to  1862,  there  were 
94  cases,  or  a  little  more  than  2£  per  annum. 
The  greater  proportional  frequency  of  the  dis 
ease  in  the  metropolis  and  its  immediate  vicin 
ity  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  greater  concentration 
of  the  population,  both  human  and  canine, 
which  would  of  course  be  favorable  to  its  com 
munication  from  one  animal  to  another  and 
from  animals  to  man.  In  the  city  of  New 
York,  with  a  population  of  1,000,000,  during 
the  six  years  from  1866  to  1871  inclusive,  there 
were  22  cases,  or  an  average  of  3f  per  annum. 
— When  a  man  is  bitten  by  a  rabid  dog,  the 
wound  does  not  differ  in  any  visible  character 
from  that  inflicted  by  a  healthy  animal.  It  is 
seldom  severe  and  often  slight,  the  animal  fre 
quently  making  only  a  single  momentary  at 
tack.  The  wound  thus  made  heals  without 
difficulty,  and  is  not  especially  painful  or  other 
wise  troublesome.  In  a  majority  of  instances 
no  further  trouble  comes  of  it.  The  danger 
from  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog  consists  in  the 
inoculation  of  the  animal's  saliva,  which,  owing 
to  the  disease  under  which  he  is  suffering, 
contains  a  subtle  but  communicable  organic 
poison.  But  there  are  various  circumstances 
which  may  interfere  with  the  poison's  taking 
effect.  First,  the  individual  may  be,  habitually 
or  at  the  time,  insusceptible  to  its  action.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  human  species 
as  a  whole  are  decidedly  less  susceptible  to  the 
poison  of  hydrophobia  than  dogs  ;  and  accord 
ing  to  the  experiments  of  M.  Renault,  at  the 
veterinary  school  of  Alfort,  the  proportion  of 
dogs  themselves,  bitten  by  a  rabid  animal,  who 
afterward  become  rabid,  is  not  more  than  33 
per  cent.  Secondly,  when  the  bite  is  inflicted 
upon  parts  of  the  body  covered  with  clothing, 
the  saliva,  which  is  the  only  vehicle  of  the 
poison,  may  have  been  arrested  by  the  gar 
ments  and  may  not  have  come  in  contact  with 
the  wound  at  all.  Thirdly,  the  poison  may 
have  been  extracted  from  the  wound  imme 
diately  afterward  by  the  free  discharge  of  blood, 
or  by  the  instinctive  manipulations  of  the 
wounded  person,  or  may  have  been  neutralized 
by  surgical  appliances.  At  all  events,  statis 
tics  seem  to  show  conclusively  that  the  bite 
of  a  rabid  animal  by  no  means  invariably  causes 
hydrophobia.  M.  Bouley,  professor  in  the  vet 
erinary  school  at  Alfort,  estimates  that  in  the 
department  of  the  Seine  no  fewer  than  100 
dogs  annually  become  rabid.  In  25  cases  of 
hydrophobia  recorded  at  Alfort  in  the  year 
1861,  10  of  these  animals  were  known  to  have 
bitten  15  persons;  that  is,  15  bites  had  been 
inflicted  by  25  rabid  dogs.  This  would  give, 
for  100  dogs  annually  affected  by  hydrophobia, 
60  persons  bitten  during  the  same  time.  But 


HYDROPHOBIA 


127 


there  are  only  from  two  to  three  cases  of  death 
from  this  disease  annually  in  the  department 
of  the  Seine;  and,  according  to  these  results, 
not  more  than  3  in  00,  or  5  per  cent,  of  the 
persons  bitten  by  rabid  dogs,  afterward  become 
hydrophobic.  But  even  this  proportion  of  cases 
constitutes  a  terrible  danger,  considering  the 
nature  of  the  disease  with  which  the  individual 
is  threatened. — For  some  time  after  the  inflic 
tion  of  the  wound  no  symptom  manifests  itself. 
The  poison  may  have  found  its  way  into  the 
tissues,  but  it  is  quiescent,  and  it  remains  so 
usually  for  several  weeks.  The  exact  period 
during  which  it  may  thus  lie  dormant,  and 
afterward  become  fully  developed,  undoubtedly 
varies  in  different  cases.  Instances  have  been 
related  in  which  hydrophobia  has  declared 
itself  after  an  interval  of  several  years,  but 
these  statements  are  evidently  wanting  in  au 
thenticity,  and  are  almost  universally  regarded 
as  extremely  doubtful.  It  seems  positive,  how 
ever,  that  the  period  of  quiescence  may  be  ex 
tended  to  one  year,  and  possibly  to  17  or  18 
months.  Nevertheless  these  instances,  if  they 
exist,  are  very  rare  exceptions  ;  and  in  the  im 
mense  majority  of  cases  the  disease  shows  itself, 
if  at  all,  between  the  end  of  the  first  and  the 
end  of  the  third  month  ;  so  that  after  the  lapse 
of  three  months  from  the  date  of  the  injury, 
the  chances  of  escape  increase  rapidly  with 
every  succeeding  week.  By  the  end  of  six 
months  the  patient  may  be  pronounced  prac 
tically  safe.  When,  however,  the  disease  is  to 
show  itself,  usually  during  the  second  or  third 
month,  its  first  manifestation  is  a  sense  of  itch 
ing  or  discomfort  at  the  seat  of  the  wound. 
The  cicatrix  may  become  swollen  and  reddened, 
and  a  red  line,  following  the  course  of  the  lym 
phatic  vessels,  is  said  to  appear  upon  the  limb, 
between  the  cicatrix  and  the  trunk.  This  is 
the  preliminary  period  of  the  disease,  and  may 
last  for  two  or  three  days,  rarely  more  than 
six,  during  which  the  patient  is  only  slightly 
uncomfortable.  Then  the  unmistakable  signs 
of  hydrophobia  come  on  with  great  rapidity, 
and  are  aggravated  from  hour  to  hour.  There 
is  a  feeling  of  stiffness  about  the  neck,  extend 
ing  to  the  jaw  and  the  base  of  the  tongue.  An 
indescribable  anxiety  and  agitation  of  mind 
takes  possession  of  the  patient,  often  accom 
panied  with  paroxysms  of  momentary  delirium 
and  hallucinations.  The  breathing  is  hurried 
and  irregular.  There  is  great  thirst ;  but  there 
is  also  a  difficulty  of  deglutition,  apparently 
consisting  in  an  irresistible  spasm  of  the  pha 
rynx  or  glottis,  which  is  so  distressing  that  the 
patient  sometimes  rejects  fluids  after  vainly 
attempting  to  swallow  them,  with  violent  de- 
j  .monstrations  of  irritation  and  despair.  This 
is  what  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  the  pa 
tient  dreads  the  liquid  itself,  and  has  unfortu 
nately  attached  the  name  hydrophobia  to  the 
disease  in  question.  The  saliva  becomes  re 
markably  viscid  and  tenacious,  and  appears  to 
add  much  to  the  distress  of  the  patient,  who 
endeavors  constantly  to  detach  it  and  expel  it 
VOL.  ix. — 9 


from  his  mouth.  This  condition  of  nervous 
irritation  rapidly  exhausts  the  strength  of  the 
system,  and  death  takes  place,  usually  on  the 
second  or  third  day. — Such  are  the  symptoms 
and  course  of  hydrophobia  in  man.  The  treat 
ment  includes  only  a  single  measure,  but  this 
must  be  adopted  at  once  on  the  receipt  of  the 
injury,  and  must  be  carried  out  in  the.  most 
thorough  manner.  It  consists  in  neutralizing 
the  poison  by  cauterization  of  the  wound.  Some 
authorities  recommend  first  cutting  out  the 
wound  by  an  incision  passing  all  round  it 
through  the  sound  flesh,  and  subsequently  cau 
terizing  the  fresh  surface.  The  objection  to 
the  procedure  is  that  it  requires  seme  time  and 
skill  to  perform  it  thoroughly,  particularly  as 
the  wound  is  generally  narrow  and  deep  ;  and 
also  that  if  the  knife  or  the  blood  happen  to 
penetrate  the  wound  itself,  they  may  become 
themselves  contaminated  with  the  virus  and 
thus  bring  it  in  contact  with  a  new  and  larger 
surface.  It  seems  desirable  to  cauterize  thor 
oughly  the  original  wound  without  delay.  Then, 
if  thought  proper,  the  eschar  may  be  cut  out, 
and  the  caustic  again  applied  tolthc  fresh  sur 
face  of  the  new  wound.  On  rhe  whole,  the 
particular  caustic  which  is  recommended  by 
the  highest  authorities  for  this  purpose  is  a  solid 
stick  of  nitrate  of  silver.  Its  advantages  are  : 
1,  that  it  can  almost  always  be  readily  pro 
cured  ;  2,  that  it  can  easily  be  cut  into  a  form 
adapted  to  penetrate  to  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
and  narrow  wound  ;  3,  that  it  readily  dissolves 
in  the  animal  fluids,  and,  when  held  for  a  few 
minutes  in  contact  with  the  tissues,  forms  a 
tolerably  deep  and  firm  eschar,  and  coagulates 
thoroughly  all  the  organic  matters  which  may 
be  present.  It  has  been  thought  that  during 
the  period  of  quiescence  the  virus  remains  lo 
calized  in  the  original  cicatrix,  and  does  not 
begin  to  disseminate  itself  through  the  sys 
tem  until  the  appearance  of  signs  of  irritation 
in  the  part.  If  this  be  so,  it  would  of  course 
be  highly  proper « to  cut  out  the  cicatrix 
and  cauterize  the  wound,  in  cases  where  this 
operation  had  not  already  been  performed 
at  any  time  between  the  receipt  of  the  in 
jury  and  the  first  manifestations  of  the  dis 
ease. — But  for  the  protection  of  the  communi 
ty  from  hydrophobia,  the  prevention  of  the  bite 
of  a  rabid  animal  is  much  more  important  than 
its  treatment.  Any  well  educated  surgeon,  if 
within  reach  and  called  in  time,  will  apply  the 
proper  remedies  after  the  wound  is  inflicted. 
But  he  may  not  be  applied  to  in  season.  The 
animal  may  not  be  suspected  of  rabies  at  the 
time  of  the  injury  ;  and  even  if  everything  be 
done  for  the  sufferer  which  circumstances  per 
mit,  he  must  still  pass  through  several  weeks 
or  months  of  anxious  uncertainty,  until  the 
extreme  limit  of  possible  incubation  has  been 
reached.  The  most  important  thing,  in  every 
point  of  view,  is  to  diminish  as  far  as  possible 
the  chance  of  a  bite  being  inflicted  at  all ;  and 
by  far  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  this 
object  is  to  put  the  public  on  their  guard  by 


128 


HYDROPHOBIA 


an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  symptoms  of 
hydrophobia  in  the  dog.  The  great  danger  at 
present  consists  in  the  fact  that  these  symp 
toms  are  not  usually  recognized  until  after  a 
wound  has  been  inflicted;  and  animals  may 
thus  propagate  the  disease  among  their  own 
species  and  communicate  it  to  man  at  a  time 
when  they  are  not  themselves  known  to  be 
hydrophobia.  There  are  three  capital  errors, 
commonly  entertained  by  the  public  in  this 
respect,  which  add  very  much  to  the  danger 
spoken  of:  1,  that  the  mad  dog  has  a  horror 
of  water  and  will  not  drink  ;  2,  that  he  is  lia 
ble  to  the  disease  more  especially  or  exclusive 
ly  in  hot  weather  ;  and  3,  that  he  always  man 
ifests  a  ferocious  and  aggressive  disposition. 
Neither  of  these  things  is  true ;  and  the  conse 
quence  is  that  a  dog  in  cool  weather,  who  is 
seen  to  drink  freely,  and  is  not  especially  fero 
cious,  is  looked  upon  without  suspicion  and 
treated  with  familiarity ;  and  yet  he  may  be 
hydrophobic  and  capable  of  inflicting  a  mortal 
wound,  or  of  communicating  a  fatal  disease  by 
licking  an  abraded  spot  upon  the  hand  of  his 
master.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  it  is  of 
the  greatest  consequence  that  the  true  signs  of 
canine  hydrophobia  should  be  recognized  at  an 
early  period ;  for  as  soon  as  a  dog  is  known  to 
be  rabid,  there  is  but  little  danger  of  his  being 
allowed  to  bite.  Rabies  in  the  dog  may  occur 
at  any  season,  and  -is  not  more  likely  to  show 
itself  in  warm  than  in  cool  weather.  Conse 
quently  all  police  regulations  intended  to  sup 
press  or  exterminate  hydrophobia,  which  are 
enforced  in  the  summer  months  and  suspended 
at  other  times,  fail  of  their  object,  and  may 
even  do  harm  by  inducing  a  fancied  security 
during  the  cool  season.  According  to  the  ob 
servations  made  by  Prof.  Rey  at  the  veterinary 
school  of  Lyons,  in  France,  the  number  of  ca 
ses  in  that  district  was  greater  during  the  rainy 
than  during  the  dry  months.  Of  190  cases 
recorded  at  the  veterinary  school  of  Alfort, 
during  the  ten  years  from  1853  to  1863,  the 
following  list  shows  the  aggregate  numbers  in 
each  month  of  the  year,  arranged  in  the  or 
der  of  their  frequency :  In  April,  25  ;  March, 
21  ;  January,  20;  June,  18;  May,  16;  August, 
16;  September,  16;  November,  14;  July,  12; 
December,  12  ;  February,  10  ;  October,  10  ; 
total,  190.  The  first  symptoms  of  hydrophobia 
in  the  dog,  as  described  by  Youatt  and  Bouley, 
consist  in  a  gloomy  and  sombre  disposition, 
together  with  a  nervous  agitation  and  disqui 
etude,  which  is  betrayed  by  frequent  changes 
of  position.  The  animal,  usually  cheerful  and 
desirous  of  companionship,  seeks  to  avoid  his 
master  or  his  playmates.  He  skulks  into  his 
kennel,  into  a  closet,  into  the  corners  of  the 
enclosure,  underneath  pieces  of  furniture,  and 
endeavors  to  escape  notice.  If  called  out,  he 
obeys,  but  slowly  and  unwillingly,  and  as  soon 
as  possible  again  betakes  himself  to  his  retreat. 
In  a  few  minutes  he  is  dissatisfied  with  it,  and 
leaves  it  for  another.  Then  he  goes  back  to 
his  litter,  and  takes  it  apart  or  arranges  it  in  a 


variety  of  ways,  without  being  able  to  suit  him 
self  with  any.  The  expression  of  his  eye  is 
suspicious  and  uneasy ;  and  in  a  few  minutes 
he  is  again  wandering  from  place  to  place. 
Now  these  signs,  when  taken  singly,  are  not 
decisive  indications  of  rabies.  It  is  natural  to 
the  dog,  when  suffering  under  almost  any  tem 
porary  illness,  to  withdraw  himself  from  ob 
servation,  and  seek  a  retreat  in  some  dark  cor 
ner  ;  but  he  generally  remains  there  quiet  un 
til  he  begins  to  recover.  It  is  this  desire  to 
avoid  observation,  combined  with  an  incessant 
restlessness,  which  is  peculiar  to  commencing 
hydrophobia ;  and  whenever  an  animal  shows 
these  two  symptoms  together,  moving  constant 
ly  from  place  to  place,  and  searching  in  every 
corner  as  if  looking  for  something  which  he 
never  finds,  he  should  at  once  be  an  object  of 
suspicion,  and  properly  watched  until  his  mal 
ady  either  disappears  or  becomes  distinctly 
pronounced.  The  next  sign  of  hydrophobia 
is  that  the  animal  has  slight  and  temporary 
attacks  of  hallucination.  He  thinks  he  hears 
a  sound  or  sees  an  object  which  does  not  exist. 
This  condition  is  fully  recognized  by  veteri 
nary  experts,  although  its  signs  are  often  over 
looked  by  others.  The  dog  suddenly  pricks 
up  his  ears  and  runs  to  a  particular  spot,  as  if 
he  had  heard  a  noise  on  the  other  side  of  a 
door  or  partition.  Sometimes  he  will  snap  at 
the  empty  air,  as  if  he  were  catching  a  fly. 
Sometimes  he  will  stand  immovable  and  atten 
tive  for  a  few  moments,  as  if  he  were  listening 
or  watching  for  something  which  is  only  an  illu 
sion.  These  signs  are  exceedingly  important, 
and  should  redouble  the  vigilance  of  those 
having  charge  of  the  animal,  who  should  from 
this  moment  be  kept  in  a  position  to  prevent 
his  doing  an  injury.  All  this  time  the  animal 
may  show  no  disposition  to  bite.  A  rabid  dog 
often  varies  in  this  tendency  according  to  his 
individual  character.  The  evidence  of  all  the 
best  observers  shows  that  a  dog,  naturally 
good-tempered  and  mild  in  disposition,  will 
sometimes  refrain  from  biting  until  very  late 
in  the  disease.  Furthermore,  the  same  dog 
will  often  show  no  tendency  to  bite  his  master, 
for  whom  he  still  retains  his  natural  affection, 
but  may  at  the  same  time  be  easily  provoked 
by  a  stranger.  This  circumstance  forms  one 
of  the  most  insidious  sources  of  danger  in  the 
case  of  a  rabid  dog  not  yet  known  to  be  such. 
Even  the  master  may  be  misled  by  finding  the 
animal  submissive  as  usual  to  his  word,  and 
even  to  a  slight  correction,  while  a  second 
blow  or  a  threatening  gesture  may  be  followed 
by  a  sudden  and  ungovernable  attack  on  the 
part  of  the  animal,  and  the  infliction  of  a  fatal 
wound.  During  all  this  period,  furthermore, 
and  also  during  the  entire  course  of  the  dis 
ease,  there  is  no  hydrophobia  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word.  The  rabid  dog  has  no  hor 
ror  of  water,  and  he  does  not  refuse  to  drink. 
On  the  contrary,  he  drinks  frequently,  and 
when,  the  disease  being  fully  established,  the 
constriction  of  the  fauces  renders  deglutition 


HYDROPHOBIA 


HYDROSTATICS 


129 


difficult,  he  no  less  endeavors  to  satisfy  his 
thirst,  sometimes  by  plunging  his  muzzle  deep 
ly  under  the  surface  of  the  water.  No  sin 
gle  error  in  regard  to  the  disease  is  more  un 
fortunate  than  this;  for  when  a  dog  drinks, 
the  bystanders  conclude  that  he  is  not  hydro- 
phobic,  and  consequently  overlook  the  other 
symptoms  which  might  indicate  the  nature 
of  the  malady.  The  rabid  dog  does  not  at 
first  refuse  his  natural  food,  but  soon  ceases 
to  take  it  with  his  accustomed  relish.  An 
important  sign,  however,,  is  an  unnatural  or 
depraved  appetite.  The  animal  gnaws  and 
even  swallows  all  kinds  of  indigestible  sub 
stances.  Pieces  of  wood,  bits  of  stone,  furni 
ture,  clothing,  the  stuffing  of  cushions,  leather, 
horse  dung,  and  even  his  own  excrements,  are 
torn,  gnawed,  and  swallowed.  This  is  always 
a  very  suspicious  circumstance.  Some  dogs 
are  habitually  mischievous  in  this  respect,  but 
even  they  only  injure  or  destroy  these  sub 
stances;  they  do  not  swallow  them.  And 
particularly  the  disposition  in  question,  mani 
festing  itself  in  an  animal  to  whom  it  is  not 
habitual,  and  who  is  also  evidently  sick  from 
some  cause  or  other,  should  always  put  his 
owners  upon  their  guard.  Another  symptom 
is  now  to  be  spoken  of  which  is  decisive  and 
pathognomonic,  namely,  the  rabid  bark.  It  is 
difficult  to  give  an  accurate  idea  of  this  sound 
by  mere  verbal  description ;  but  the  best  au 
thorities  all  agree  that,  when  once  recognized, 
it  is  entirely  conclusive.  The  natural  voice  of 
the  animal  is  altered.  Instead  of  the  usual 
succession  of  explosive  sounds,  equal  in  in 
tensity  and  duration,  it  is  hoarse,  veiled,  lower 
in  tone,  and  begins  with  a  single  open  bark, 
followed  immediately  by  three  or  four  dimin 
ishing  howls  from  the  bottom  of  the  throat, 
during  which  the  jaws,  instead  of  closing  com 
pletely  at  each  bark,  are  only  partly  approxi 
mated  to  each  other.  Prof.  Bouley  says  that 
both  he  and  his  pupils  have  been  able  to  recog 
nize  distinctly  the  rabid  dog  by  his  bark  alone, 
when  the  animal  was  not  yet  in  sight,  and  was 
still  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  courtyard 
of  the  Alfort  veterinary  school.  The  saliva  is 
at  first  increased  in  abundance ;  but  this  symp 
tom  is  of  short  duration,  lasting,  according  to 
Yotiatt,  not  more  than  12  hours,  and  is  never 
so  abundant  as  in  the  profuse  salivation  which 
attends  an  attack  of  epilepsy,  a  malady  very 
common  in  dogs,  but  perfectly  harmless.  The 
true  salivation  of  hydrophobia  consists  in  a 
secretion  of  saliva  which  is  scanty,  but  viscid 
and  ropy,  and  which  the  animal  endeavors  to 
clear  away  from  the  mouth  by  the  aid  of  his 
paws.  This  often  gives  the  idea  that  he  is  an 
noyed  by  a  bone  accidentally  lodged  in  his 
teeth  ;  and  fatal  accidents  have  happened  from 
attempting  to  aid  the  animal  to  get  rid  of  the 
supposed  annoyance.  This  preliminary  period 
of  the  disease  may  last  for  one  or  two  days. 
Now,  however,  comes  the  second  and  fully 
developed  stage  of  the  disorder,  characterized 
by  sudden  paroxysms  of  fury,  the  true  rabies 


or  canine  madness.  A  very  characteristic  and 
important  fact  is  that  an  animal  in  this  condi 
tion  is  especially  excited  by  the  appearance  of 
one  of  his  own  species.  The  sight  of  another 
dog  drives  him  into  an  excess  of  sudden  and 
immeasurable  fury,  followed  by  an  immediate 
and  aggressive  attack.  This  often  happens 
while  he  is  still  inoffensive  toward  other  ani 
mals,  and  particularly  toward  his  master.  But 
it  is  a  sign  that  the  full  development  of  his  dis 
order  is  at  hand,  and  in  an  hour  or  two  after 
ward  he  may  snap  at  every  bystander  indis 
criminately,  in  the  blind  insanity  of  his  excite 
ment.  At  this  time,  or  even  at  an  earlier  pe 
riod,  he  often  disappears  from  home,  probably 
with  the  instinct  of  finding  some  more  solitary 
place  in  which  to  hide.  But  meeting  constant 
ly  with  new  sources  of  irritation,  and  his  ner 
vous  excitability  increasing  at  the  same  time, 
he  becomes  more  furious,  haggard,  and  threat 
ening  with  every  hour.  He  is  now  at  the 
height  of  the  disease.  Wandering  along  the 
streets  or  open  highways,  with  head  and  tail 
drooping,  his  hide  disordered  and  dusty,  the 
ropy  saliva  hanging  in  strings  from  his  open 
jaws,  every  man  and  animal  that  he  encounters 
provokes  him  to  a  fresh  attack.  After  24  or 
36  hours  of  this  continuous  excitement,  with 
out  food  or  rest,  and  incessantly  upon  his  feet, 
exhaustion  begins  to  come  on ;  his  motions  are 
less  vigorous,  his  steps  grow  vacillating  and 
irregular,  and  he  no  longer  leaves  the  direct 
path,  and  offers  violence  only  to  those  whom 
he  unavoidably  meets.  At  last,  if  not  pursued 
and  killed,  a  general  paralysis  takes  posses 
sion  of  his  system,  and  he  dies  exhausted  by 
the  intensity  and  continuance  of  the  nervous 
agitation.  The  entire  duration  of  the  malady 
in  the  dog,  from  the  first  signs  of  disordered 
health  until  its  fatal  termination,  is  from  two 
to  six  days.  No  distinct  morbid  change  in 
any  of  the  internal  organs  has  ever  been  found 
after  death,  either  in  the  dog  or  in  man,  which 
could  be  regarded  as  the  pathological  cause  of 
this  singular  disease.  Finally,  the  important 
symptoms  of  commencing  hydrophobia  in  the 
dog,  which  should  always  be  borne  in  mind, 
maybe  summed  up  as  follows:  1,  an  unac 
customed  gloomy  and  suspicious  disposition, 
with  nervous  agitation  and  restlessness ;  2, 
momentary  attacks  of  hallucination  both  as  to 
sights  and  sounds ;  3,  an  unnatural  and  de 
praved  appetite  for  indigestible  or  innutritions 
substances ;  4,  a  peculiar  and  unnatural  bark ; 

5,  a  ropy  and  viscid  condition  of  the  saliva, 
with  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  fauces;  and 

6,  an  insane   and    aggressive  irritability  of 
temper,  most  easily  excited  by  the  sight  of 
other  dogs,  and  at  first  manifested  only  toward 
them. — The  best  accounts  of  hydrophobia  are 
to  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "  Hydropho 
bia  "  in  Gross's  "  System  of  Surgery  "  (Phila 
delphia,  1866);  the  chapter  on  "Rabies"  in 
Youatt  "On  the  Dog"  (London,  1859);   and 
Bouley,  Rapport  sur  la  rage  (Paris,  1863). 

HYDROSTATICS.     See  HYDEOMECIIANICS. 


130       HYDROSULPIIURIC  ACID 


HYGIENE 


HYDROSILPHIRIC  ACID,  Snlphydrie  Acid,  or 
Sulphuretted  Hydrogen,  a  gaseous  compound  first 
examined  by  Scheele  in  1777;  symbol,  H2S ; 
chemical  equivalent,  34.  It  consists  of  two 
volumes  of  hydrogen  and  one  of  sulphur  vapor 
condensed  into  two  volumes,  which  form  its 
combining  measure.  Its  density  is  1191-2,  air 
being  1000.  It  is  a  colorless  gas,  has  a  slight 
acid  reaction,  and  a  most  offensive  odor,  rec 
ognized  in  rotten  eggs,  dock  mud,  cesspools, 
many  mineral  waters,  and  putrefying  organic 
matters  containing  sulphur.  It  extinguishes 
flame,  but  burns  itself  in  contact  with  air 
with  a  blue  flame,  depositing  sulphur.  It  is 
condensed  by  a  pressure  of  17  atmospheres  at 
50°  into  a  colorless  liquid,  and  was  solidified 
by  Faraday  by  cooling  to  — 122°  into  a  white 
crystalline  translucent  substance.  Water  ab 
sorbs  2^  times  its  volume  of  the  gas  ;  alcohol 
6  volumes.  It  blackens  the  salts  of  lead  and 
of  many  other  metals,  forming  sulphides  of 
the  metals.  These  being  insoluble  and  made 
readily  visible  by  their  peculiar  colors,  even  in 
minute  quantity,  the  acid  is  a  convenient  test 
for  determining  the  presence  of  the  metals  in 
solutions,  and  distinguishing  them  by  the  color 
of  the  precipitate  and  its  other  properties.  Its 
aqueous  solution  and  its  solution  in  ammonia 
(hydrosulphide  of  ammonium)  are  among  the 
useful  chemical  reagents.  The  gas  is  exceed 
ingly  noxious  to  inhale.  Thenard  found  that 
a  small  bird  would  die  in  air  containing  j-jVo 
part  of  it,  and  a  horse  in  air  that  contained 
Tfl-B  of  it.  The  gas  is  neutralized  and  de 
composed  by  chlorine  and  iodine,  which  unite 
with  its  hydrogen  ;  and  the  former,  furnished 
by  chloride  of  lime  wet  with  strong  vinegar,  is 
a  convenient  antidote  and  disinfectant  of  the 
gas.  Nitrate  of  lead,  chloride  of  zinc,  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  sulphate  of  manganese  are  also 
efficacious  in  this  respect.  The  presence  of 
the  gas  is  detected  by  its  odor,  and  by  its  black 
ening  a  paper  wet  with  a  solution  of  acetate 
of  lead.  It  is  the  cause  of  the  discoloration 
of  white  lead  paint  in  the  apartments  of  houses, 
also  of  the  blackening  of  silver  spoons  when 
these  are  used  with  boiled  eggs,  the  albumen 
of  the  white  of  the  egg  furnishing  the  sulphur 
for  the  production  of  the  gas. — To  prepare 
hydrosulphuric  acid,  the  ingredients  employed 
are  a  ferrous  sulphide,  made  by  exposing  to  a 
low  red  heat  4  pjjrts  of  coarse  sulphur  and  7 
of  iron  filings,  and  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  By 
pouring  the  acid  upon  broken  lumps  of  the 
compound  in  a  gas  bottle,  the  gas  is  evolved, 
and  may  be  collected  in  a  bell  glass  over  water 
at  80°  or  90°,  or  over  brine.  It  is  absorbed 
by  cold  water.  It  may  also  be  obtained  by 
the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid  upon  antimo- 
nious  sulphide.  The  reactions  in  each  case  are 
thus  expressed:  FeS  +  II2SO4  =  FeSO4  +  U2S. 
Sb2S3  +  (I1C1).  =  (SbCl3)2  +  (II2S)3. 

IIYDRl  \TIM.     See  OTKANTO. 

HYERES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Yar,  on  the  S.  declivity  of  a  hill,  9  in. 
E.  of  Toulon,  and  3  m.  from  the  Mediterranean  ; 


pop.  in  1866,  10,878.  The  principal  edifices 
are  the  old  church,  one  of  the  most  singular 
structures  in  France,  and  an  ancient  chateau, 
now  used  as  a  town  hall.  In  the  principal 
square  is  a  column,  surmounted  by  a  white 
marble  bust  of  the  celebrated  Massillon,  who 
was  a  native  of  the  town,  llyeres  is  consid 
ered  one  of  the  healthiest  winter  residences  in 
the  south  of  France,  and  is  much  resorted  to 
by  invalids.  Eemains  of  an  ancient  Roman 
city  exist  in  its  vicinity.  In  the  roadstead  op 
posite  the  town,  and  belonging  to  it,  is  a  group 
of  small  islands  called  the  isles  of  llyeres  (an 
cient  Stoschades),  two  of  which  are  fortified. 
During  the  middle  ages  the  place  was  called 
Hiedera,  and  was  a  favorite  port  of  the  pilgrims 
to  Jerusalem. 

HYGIEA,  or  Hygea,  in  Greek  mythology,  tho 
goddess  of  health,  a  daughter  of  ^Esculapius. 
She  was  represented  by  artists  as  a  virgin  in 
flowing  garments  feeding  a  serpent  from  a  cup ; 
the  poets  speak  of  her  as  a  smiling  goddess 
with  bright  glances,  and  a  favorite  of  Apollo. 
By  the  Romans  she  was  in  time  identified  with 
the  old  Sabine  goddess  Salus. 

HYGIENE  (Gr.  vyieivds,  healthy),  the  science 
and  art  of  preserving  health,  by  the  appro 
priate  nourishment  of  the  body  and  the  proper 
regulation  of  its  surrounding  conditions.  The 
first  subject  of  importance  in  a  hygienic  point 
of  view  is  always  the  location  or  residence 
of  the  individual,  family,  or  community  whose 
interests  are  involved.  Other  conditions  may 
be  altered  or  modified  with  comparative  readi 
ness,  but  the  place  and  character  of  the  habi 
tation,  when  once  fixed,  usually  remain  so  for 
a  considerable  time,  and  thus  exert  a  con 
tinued  influence  for  good  or  evil.  The  habi 
tation,  when  in  the  country,  should  always 
be  placed  upon  such  an  elevation  as  to  secure 
a  thorough  natural  drainage.  This  is  the  first 
requisite ;  for  there  is  no  other  single  cause  of 
disease  so  hurtful  and  insidious  as  the  slow  ac 
cumulation  and  stagnation  of  the  refuse  mat 
ters,  in  however  small  quantity,  which  are 
daily  produced  in  and  about  an  occupied  habi 
tation.  Even  standing  pools,  or  hollow  basins 
without  an  outlet,  the  result  of  a  depression 
in  the  surface  of  the  ground,  should  not  be 
allowed  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
house;  for  although  it  is  only  the  rain  water 
which  at  first  collects  in  them,  yet  there  is 
always  more  or  less  accumulation  of  organic 
matter  from  vegetable  growth  and  from  the 
aquatic  animals  and  birds  which  make  such 
places  their  resort ;  and  as  a  pool  of  this  kind 
is  alternately  filled  and  dried  up,  sometimes 
several  times  a  year,  the  effluvia  exhaled  during 
this  process  will  always  become  more  or  less 
injurious,  and  may  be  even  dangerous  to  life. 
When  a  large  number  of  inhabitants  are  col 
lected  within  a  small  space,  as  in  towns  and 
cities,  the  question  of  drainage  becomes  of 
course  still  more  important.  The  production 
of  refuse  materials  is  here  exceedingly  rapid, 
and  corresponding  provision  should  be  made 


HYGIENE 


IIYGROMETRY 


131 


for  their  immediate  and  complete  removal. 
Besides  the  necessary  provisions  for  drainage, 
the  house  and  apartments  should  also  be  fully 
and  completely  ventilated.  Effluvia  and  or 
ganic  vapors  of  various  kinds  necessarily  be 
come  developed  in  every  occupied  dwelling, 
from  the  daily  culinary  operations  and  the  or 
ganic  matters  of  the  food  and  their  remains. 
These  effluvia  are  harmless  when  fresh ;  but 
they  are  subject  to  early  decomposition,  and 
at  once  become  noxious  if  allowed  to  accumu 
late  and  stagnate.  Every  house,  according-ly, 
should  be  swept  throughout  each  day  by  a  cur 
rent  of  fresh  air,  sufficient  to  renovate  its  at 
mosphere  and  remove  all  vestiges  of  impurity. 
A  free  opening  of  the  windows  on  opposite 
sides,  early  in  the  morning,  is  the  best  way  of 
accomplishing  this.  In  addition,  each  inhabited 
apartment  should  be  constantly  ventilated  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  remove  the  carbonic  acid 
and  other  products  of  respiration,  by  open  fires 
or  other  effectual  means. — Proper  clothing, 
adapted  to  the  season  and  the  degree  of  indi 
vidual  exposure,  is  also  an  important  element 
of  hygiene.  There  are  few  causes  of  disease 
more  prolific  than  undue  exposure  to  cold  and 
dampness,  and  particularly  to  sudden  changes 
of  weather  or  draughts  of  cold  air  upon  un 
protected  parts.  The  clothing  should  be  so 
regulated,  as  a  general  thing,  that  the  ordina 
ry  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  shall  not  be  felt 
by  the  individual  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a 
permanent  impression  upon  the  system.  A 
sufficient  suit  of  Avoollen  underclothing  is  the 
best  protection  in  this  respect.  It  is  important 
to  remember,  however,  that  for  a  person  in 
health  exposure  to  cold  and  dampness  is  sel 
dom  injurious  so  long  as  the  body  is  in  a  state 
of  muscular  activity.  It  is  remaining  in  a  cold 
apartment  in  an  inactive  condition,  or  keeping 
on  the  wet  or  damp  clothing  after  muscular  ex 
ertion  has  ceased,  that  gives  rise  to  dangerous 
consequences. — The  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  food,  and  the  regularity  with  which  it  is 
taken,  are  of  the  next  importance  in  a  hygienic 
point  of  view.  The  food,  as  a  rule,  should  be 
simple  in  character,  but  nutritious,  and  each 
article  of  the  best  possible  quality  and  proper 
ly  cooked.  An  imperfect  or  careless  mode  of 
cooking  may  often  injure  materially  the  nutri 
tious  and  digestible  qualities  of  an  article  of 
food,  originally  of  the  best  kind.  Individual 
peculiarities  are  to  be  consulted  in  regard  to 
the  kind  of  food  used  by  each  person  ;  certain 
articles  being  sometimes  more  or  less  indiges 
tible  for  one  person,  which  are  quite  harmless 
for  another.  The  natural  and  healthy  appe 
tite  is  the  best  general  criterion  in  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  food  to  be  used,  provided  it  be 
simple  and  nutritious  in  character.  It  is  of 
great  importance,  finally,  that  the  food  be 
taken  with  regularity  at  the  accustomed  time, 
that  it  be  properly  masticated,  and  that  its 
digestion  be  not  interfered  with  by  hurry, 
anxiety,  or  any  unusual  mental  or  physical  dis 
turbance  at  and  immediately  after  the  time  of 


meals. — A  regular  and  sufficient  bodily  exer 
cise  should  be  taken  every  day  to  keep  all  the 
organs  in  a  healthy  state  of  activity.  The  ex 
ercise  should  be  neither  deficient  nor  excessive 
in  amount;  for  bodily  exertion  which  is  so 

I  violent  or  so  prolonged  as  to  produce  a  sense 
of  exhaustion  and  fatigue,  instead  of  being 

j  beneficial  to  the  system,  is  positively  injurious 

j  to  it.  Neither  can  a  deficiency  of  muscular 
exertion  during  one  period  be  compensated  by 
an  excessive  amount  taken  at  another.  It  is 
the  necessary  and  appropriate  quantity  of  ex 
ercise,  taken  regularly  day  by  day,  which  pre 
serves  the  vigor  of  the  system,  and  keeps  it 
in  a  condition  to  resist  the  attacks  of  disease. 
The  periods  of  exertion,  furthermore,  should 
alternate  daily  with  periods  of  repose ;  and 
especially  the  natural  amount  of  sleep  should 
always  be  taken  with  regularity,  and  in  apart 
ments  which  are  not  too  confined  and  the  ven 
tilation  of  which  is  properly  provided  for.  It 
is  during  sleep  that  the  main  process  of  the 
nutrition  and  restoration  of  the  nervous  and 
muscular  systems  takes  place ;  and  if  an  indi 
vidual  deprive  himself  of  sleep,  wholly  or  even 
partially,  for  one  or  two  nights  in  succession, 
he  will  invariably  experience  its  damaging  ef 
fects  in  the  consequent  temporary  failure  of 
the  vital  powers.  An  imprudence  or  neglect, 
like  either  of  those  mentioned  above,  may  bo 
counteracted  in  a  strong  and  healthy  person 
by  subsequent  care,  so  that  he  may  recover 
from  its  immediate  and  more  perceptible  ef 
fects  ;  but  it  is  a  principle  which  lies  at  the  basis 
of  hygiene,  that  causes  of  disease,  however 
slight,  by  constant  repetition  day  after  day,  or 
even  at  longer  intervals,  will  certainly  at  last 
undermine  the  health,  and  produce  a  perma 
nent  and  often  irremediable  injury.  The  easi 
est  as  well  as  the  surest  way  of  avoiding  such 
a  result  is  a  constant  and  regular  attention 
to  all  the  necessary  hygienic  conditions.  (See 
ALIMENT,  BATH,  DIETETICS,  and  GYMNASTICS.) 
IIVGROMETRY  (Gr.  vyp6^  moist,  and  /jerpov, 
measure),  the  method  of  determining  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  bodies,  more  especially 
in  atmospheric  air.  A  hygrometer  is  an  in 
strument  used  for  this  purpose ;  and  a  hygro- 
scope  is  any  substance  that  absorbs  moisture 

|  from  the  air,  and  is  in  consequence  changed  in 
form  or  weight.  Various  salts  absorb  moisture 
and  deliquesce,  and  are  consequently  called 
hygroscopic.  These  serve  as  hygrometers  in 
chemical  analysis;  thus  chloride  of  calcium 
placed  in  a  glass  tube  absorbs  the  moisture 
from  the  air  passed  through  the  tube,  and  its 
increase  of  weight  determines  the  quantity. 
The  property  is  exhibited  in  hemp  and  cotton 
ropes,  and  in  small  fibres,  as  those  of  whale 
bone,  and  in  hairs.  Paper  by  absorption  of 
moisture  expands  to  such  a  degree  that  it  is 
an  imperfect  material  for  preserving  accurate 
plans.  Its  variation  in  length  in  extremely 
dry  and  in  moist  air  sometimes  exceeds  1  in 
40.  If  a  substance  could  be  found  which  ab 
sorbed  moisture  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 


132 


HYGROMETRY 


in  the  air,  and  its  form  was  proportionally  af 
fected  thereby,  this  change  could  be  readily 
indicated  upon  a  dial,  the  extreme  points  of 
which  are  determined,  the  one  by  the  least 
length  produced  by  the  greatest  dryness,  and 
the  other  by  the  greatest  elongation  caused  by 
the  most  humid  air  that  could  be  produced,  the 
intermediate  space  being  divided  into  100  or 
other  convenient  number  of  degrees.  Such  an 
instrument  would  be  a  perfect  hygrometer ;  but 
no  such  substance  is  known,  and  the  properties 
of  the  same  body  in  this  respect  are  not  con 
stant  at  all  times.  The  best  instrument  of  this 
sort,  which  is  after  all  only  a  hygroscope,  was 
contrived  by  De  Saussure.  It  is  a  human  hair, 
cleansed  by  boiling  in  alkaline  water.  The 
zero  point  of  the  scale  to  which  it  is  attached 
is  fixed  by  drying  the  hair  in  air  rendered  by 
chemical  absorbents  as  dry  as  possible;  and 
then,  by  exposing  it  in  a  receiver  to  air  satu 
rated  with  moisture,  the  other  extreme  of  the 
scale  is  found.  The  equal  divisions  between 
these  are  assumed  to  indicate  proportional  de 
grees  of  moisture  or  dryness.  One  end  of  the 
hair  is  fixed,  and  to  the  other  is  suspended  a 
small  weight.  A  grooved  wheel  or  pulley  car 
rying  an  index  is  placed  so  as  to  be  moved  by 
the  hair  as  it  contracts  or  expands.  Various 
other  hygrometers  of  this  class  have  been  de 
vised,  some  on  the  principle  of  determining 
the  moisture  by  the  increased  weight  imparted 
to  bodies  by  its  absorption,  and  others  by  the 
torsion  thereby  induced  in  cords  and  in  vege 
table  fibres ;  but  all  these  methods  have  proved 
very  imperfect. — Two  other  methods  are  to  be 
noticed  by  which  the  humidity  of  the  air  is 
ascertained.  The  first  depends  on  the  deter 
mination  of  the  dew  point,  or  the  degree  of 
temperature  to  which  the  air  must  be  reduced 
that  its  moisture  shall  begin  to  separate  and 
condense  upon  cold  surfaces.  This  difference 
alone  is  sometimes  used  to  express  the  dryness 
of  the  air,  as  aifording  an  indication  of  how 
near  it  is  to  its  point  of  saturation.  In  tem 
perate  regions  this  sometimes  amounts  to  30°  ; 
but  in  a  dry  and  hot  climate,  under  the  lee  of 
cold  mountains  which  first  strip  the  air  of  its 
moisture,  it  amounts  to  60°  or  more ;  such  is 
the  case  upon  the  hot  plains  of  the  Deccan,  to 
which  the  air  is  brought  from  the  other  side  of 
the  Ghauts.  Cooled  down  upon  these  to  a  low 
temperature,  its  moisture  is  precipitated  in  rain 
and  sno\v,  and  when  immediately  after  this  it 
is  raised  to  a  temperature  of  90°,  it  is  found 
that  no  deposition  of  moisture  again  takes 
place  until  the  temperature  is  reduced  to  29°. 
The  observation,  however,  is  used  to  furnish 
more  exact  results.  Tables  have  been  prepared 
with  the  utmost  care  which  give  the  elastic 
force  of  aqueous  vapor  at  different  degrees  and 
even  tenths  of  degrees  of  temperature,  ex 
pressed  in  the  height  of  a  column  of  mercury 
sustained  by  the  vapor.  The  temperature  of 
the  dew  point  of  the  air  being  ascertained,  the 
elastic  force  corresponding  to  this  temperature 
in  the  table  represents  the  absolute  humidity 


of  the  air,  and  may  be  converted  into  the  ac 
tual  weight  of  moisture  to  the  cubic  foot  under 
a  given  barometric  pressure  by  the  formulas 
prepared  for  this  purpose,  or  directly  by  the 
tables  constructed  to  reduce  the  labor  of  the 
calculation.  By  comparing  the  elastic  force 
obtained  from  the  table  with  that  correspond 
ing  to  the  temperature  of  the  air  itself,  the 
ratio  between  the  two  expresses  the  relative 
humidity  of  the  air.  This  also  is  ascertained 
at  sight  by  the  tables  specially  constructed  for 
this  object.  The  most  highly  approved  hygro- 
metrical  tables  are  those  derived  from  the  ex 
periments  of  Regnault,  made  by  direction  of 
the  French  government  to  determine  the  ex 
pansive  force  of  steam  at  different  tempera 
tures,  which  is  also  that  of  the  vapor  suspended 
in  the  air  at  the  same  temperatures.  These 
tables  are  published  in  Regnault's  Etudes  sur 
Vhygrometrie,  in  the  Annales  de  cliimie  et  de 
physique  (1845) ;  and  formulas  also  are  given 
from  which  other  tables,  besides  that  of  the 
elastic  forces,  have  been  prepared  by  others. 
The  most  complete  series  of  these  is  furnished 
in  the  volume  of  "Tables,  Meteorological  and 
Physical,"  prepared  for  the  Smithsonian  insti 
tution  by  Arnold  Guyot,  and  published  in  the 
"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  1858. 
In  the  same  series  is  also  presented  the  table 
of  elastic  forces  of  vapor  deduced  from  the  ex 
periments  of  Dalton,  together  with  others  based 
upon  it,  and  in  general  use  in  England.  These 
are  also  found  in  Glaisher's  "  Hygrometrical 
Tables"  (London,  1847),  and  in  the  " Green 
wich  Observations." — Various  forms  of  the 
dew-point  instrument  or  hygrometer  have  been 
devised.  That  of  Prof.  Daniell,  which  has  been 
much  used,  is  of  the  following  construction :  A 
bent  tube,  blown  out  at  each  end  to  a  bulb,  is 
laid  across  the  top  of  a  pillar,  which  serves  as 
a  stand,  the  two  bulbs  hanging  down  one  on 
each  side.  One  arm  of  the  tube  is  long  enough 
to  contain  a  delicate  thermometer,  the  bulb  of 
which  terminates  in  some  ether  contained  in 
the  external  bulb.  By  boiling  the  ether  be 
fore  closing  the  tube  the  air  is  nearly  ex 
pelled.  When  in  use  the  empty  bulb  is  cov 
ered  with  a  piece  of  muslin,  which  is  kept 
wet  with  ether.  The  evaporation  of  this  con 
denses  the  vapor  within,  causing  the  liquid  in 
the  other  bulb  to  evaporate  and  grow  cool. 
The  bulb  becomes  at  last  sufficiently  cool  for 
the  moisture  to  condense  upon  it,  and  the  in 
stant  this  makes  its  appearance  in  the  form 
of  a  ring  of  dew  encircling  the  bulb  at  the 
level  of  the  surface  of  the  ether,  the  temper 
ature  is  to  be  noted  by  the  thermometer  with 
in,  while  that  of  the  air  is  observed  upon 
another  thermometer  attached  to  the  stand. 
Another  observation  of  the  enclosed  thermom 
eter  is  made  as  the  dew  disappears  by  the  bulb 
returning  to  its  former  temperature ;  and  the 
mean  of  the  two  observations  will  give  a  close 
approximation  to  the  dew  point. — A  better  in 
strument  is  that  of  Regnault.  Two  glass  tubes 
are  suspended  by  a  small  tubular  arm  near  the 


IIYGROMETRY 


IIYLJ20SAURUS 


133 


top  of  each,  both  opening  into  the  hollow  stand 
that  supports  the  tubes.  A  pipe  for  exhausting 
the  air  by  means  of  a  sort  of  bellows  or  the 
flow  of  water  connects  with  the  hollow  in  the 
stand  by  an  opening  near  its  base.  The  two 
tubes  are  closed,  each  with  a  cork  through 
which  a  thermometer  tube  is  fitted,  the  bulb  in 
one  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom.  Over  the 
lower  end  of  this  one  a  very  thin  and  highly 
polished  thimble  of  silver  nearly  two  inches 
long  is  fitted,  and  a  fine  tube  open  at  each  end 
is  passed  through  the  cork,  reaching  from  the 
external  air  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 
Ether  is  poured  into  this  bulb,  covering  the 
lower  end  of  the  thermometer,  and  rising  an 
inch  or  two  higher  than  the  upper  edge  of  the 
silver  thimble.  To  determine  the  dew  point, 
the  apparatus  for  exhausting  the  air  from  the 
hollow  stand  is  set  in  action.  This  causes  the 
air  to  pass  through  the  fine  tube,  and  bubble 
through  the  ether,  keeping  it  in  motion  and 
taking  up  its  vapor.  The  liquid,  the  thermom 
eter  bulb,  and  the  silver  coating  of  the  tube 
equally  feel  the  reduced  temperature,  and  the 
instant  this  reaches  the  dew  point,  the  whole 
surface  of  the  silver  is  covered  with  moisture. 
The  temperature  of  the  thermometer  placed  in 
the  ether  is  then  observed,  while  the  other 
marks  the  temperature  of  the  air.  By  stopping 
the  current  of  air  the  temperature  rises,  and  the 
moisture  disappears  from  the  silver.  The  ther 
mometer  is  to  be  noted  again,  and  the  mean  of 
the  two  observations  taken  for  the  dew  point ; 
or  several  trials  may  be  made  in  rapid  succes 
sion.  To  avoid  affecting  the  result  by  the 
warmth  radiated  from  the  body,  a  small  tele 
scope  may  be  used  in  reading  the  thermometer. 
The  instrument  has  been  modified  by  Prof. 
Connell  in  substituting  for  the  tube  a  small  flask 
of  highly  polished  brass  or  silver,  into  the  neck 
of  which  is  secured  an  exhausting  syringe. — The 
second  of  the  two  methods  above  referred  to, 
by  which  the  humidity  of  the  air  is  ascertained, 
involves  the  determination  of  the  temperature 
of  evaporation  ;  and  the  instrument  used  is  the 
wet-bulb  thermometer  or  psychrometer  invent 
ed  by  Prof.  August  of  Berlin,  and  described 
in  his  work  Uebcr  die  Fortschritte  der  llygro- 
metrie  (Berlin,  1830).  It  consists  of  two  deli 
cate  thermometers  placed  mar  together.  The 
bulb  of  one  is  covered  with  muslin,  which  is 
kept  wet  by  water  supplied  from  a  vessel  close 
by  through  capillary  conduction.  The  instru 
ment  is  placed  in  a  light  draught  of  air,  and  as 
evaporation  goes  on  the  mercury  in  the  wet- 
bulb  thermometer  sinks  to  a  certain  point ;  the 
temperature  of  both  is  then  noticed.  If  the  air 
was  nearly  saturated  with  moisture,  the  differ 
ence  will  be  found  to  be  very  slight.  The  baro 
metric  pressure  is  observed  at  the  same  time, 
and  data  are  thus  afforded  for  calculating  the 
elastic  force  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  air.  The 
formula  for  this  calculation,  modified  by  Re- 
gnault,  and  the  psychrometrical  tables  deduced 
from  it,  are  given  in  the  volume  of  tables  re 
ferred  to  above,  and  are  equally  applicable  to 


the  estimation  whether  the  dew-point  instru 
ment  or  wet-bulb  thermometer  is  used.  To 
render  them  more  convenient,  they  have  been 
converted  by  Prof.  Guyot  into  English  measures. 
The  series  also  contains  tables  of  the  weight  of 
vapors  in  a  given  space  at  different  tempera 
tures.  The  method  by  the  wet  bulb,  though 
regarded  as  decidedly  the  most  convenient 
means  of  determining  the  elastic  forces  of  the 
vapor,  and  thence  the  humidity  of  the  air,  is 
still  rendered  somewhat  uncertain  in  its  results 
from  the  impossibility  of  keeping  the  wet  bulb 
uniformly  moist,  and  from  other  causes  also. 
The  uncertainty  of  its  results  is  indeed  in  some 
cases  so  great  that  Regnault  in  1872  recom 
mended  that,  for  accurate  meteorological  pur 
poses,  resort  should  be  uniformly  had  to  the 
chemical  methods  of  extracting  and  weighing 
the  aqueous  vapor  in  a  given  volume  of  air. 
To  this  end  he  has  devised  a  simple  arrange 
ment  by  which  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  may 
be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  and  absorb  its 
aqueous  vapor;  a  method  that  is  specially  ap 
plicable  at  very  low  temperatures. — The  ulti 
mate  object  of  these  hygrometrical  investiga 
tions  is,  by  enabling  the  meteorologist  to  ascer 
tain  at  all  times,  in  all  localities,  and  at  all  ac 
cessible  elevations,  the  true  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  as  to  moisture,  to  furnish  him  with 
accurate  data  for  studying  the  laws  which  con 
trol  its  variations.  The  following  table  of  rela 
tive  humidity  is  prepared  for  every  5°  F.  from 
5°  to  95°  above  zero,  and  for  a  difference  of 
temperature  between  the  air  and  the  dew 
point,  technically  called  the  complement  of  the 
dew  point,  ranging  from  0°  to  18°.  (See  DEW 
POINT,  in  article  DEW.) 

TABLE    OF    RELATIVE    HUMIDITY    OF    THE    AIE. 


TEMP.   OF 

DIFFERENCE   OF  TEMPERATURE   OF  THE   AIK 
AND   OF   THE   DEW  POINT. 

0' 

1°  2°  ,3°  4°  5°J6°  7°  S°9° 

10° 

1-2 

14° 

16° 

47 
47 
48 
48 
4^ 
49 

r.i 
52 
58 
M 
55 
56 
56 
57 
58 
58 
:>;> 
59 
60 

18° 

4:: 
4:: 
14 
14 
45 
45 
46 
48 
49 
Tin 
51 
52 
52 
53 
54 
M 
55 
56 
56 

5°  10 

10                     10 

09691  8783  80'7672'69  66  63 
0  96  91  67  83  80,76  73  70  66]  68 
D  96  91  87838076787066  64 
0,9691  878380,767369  66:  C3 
0  96  91  87  84  80|76  73  70  67^  64 
09692888481:77747067  65 
096928S'8482|777471  68.  66 
0  96  92  89  85  82,78  75  72  69  67 
)  96  93  89  85  83179  75  73  70;  68 
0  96  93  89  86  83  '80  76  74  71  69 
0  96  93  90  86  S3  '80  77  74  72  69 
0  96  93  90  86  84  81  77  75  72  70 
0  97  :  93  90  87  84  '81  787572  70 
0  97  93  90  87  84  81  78  76  73'  71 
0  97'94  91  87  84  82  79  76  73  71 
097  '94  91  88  85  82  79  77  74  72 
0979491  888583807774  72 
0  97,94  91  8S  85  83  80  77  75  73 
0  97  94  91  88  85  83  80  78  75  73 

r.7 

58 
58 
58 
58 
59 
60 
62 
68 
63 
64 
64 
65 
65 
66 
67 
67 
68 
68 

52 
53 
58 

r.:; 
58 
54 
55 
56 
57 
68 
59 
60 
61 
61 
62 
(;•>. 
68 
,;:; 
64 

15     10 
20     10 
25     10 

30                     10 

35     10 

40     .    .            10 
45     10 
50     10 

55                    10 

CO     10 
G5     10 
70     10 
75     10 
80  ..           ..10 

85  ..               10 
90  '10 
95  10 

IIYKSOS,  or  Shepherd  Kings.  See  EGYPT, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  460. 

HILEOSAIRIS  (Gr.  vlaios,  belonging  to  wood, 
and  CTGiipof,  lizard),  the  name  given  by  Dr.  Man- 
tell  to  an  extinct  dinosaurian  reptile,  from  the 
Jurassic  strata  of  Tilgate  forest,  having  the 
usual  mammalian  characters  of  its  tribe,  viz. : 
long  bones  with  a  medullary  cavity,  pachy- 


134: 


IIYLAS 


HYPERBOLA 


derm-like  feet,  and  sacrum  of  five  united  verte 
bra.  It  attained  a  size  of  20  to  25  ft.,  and  was 
believed  by  Mantell  and  Buckland  to  have  had 
an  enormous  dorsal  dermal  fringe  like  the 


JIvlseosaurus. 


horny  spines  on  the  back  of  the  iguana  ;  its  skin 
was  covered  with  circular  or  elliptical  plates. 

IIYLAS)  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Theoda- 
mas,  king  of  the  Dry  opes,  and  the  nymph  Me- 
nodice.  Hercules,  after  slaying  Theodamas, 
adopted  Ilylas,  and  took  him  on  the  Argonau- 
tic  expedition.  When  they  arrived  at  Mysia, 
Ilylas  went  to  a  neighboring  well  for  water, 
but  the  maids  of  that  fountain  became  so  fas 
cinated  with  his  beauty  that  they  drew  him 
into  the  water,  and  he  was  never  seen  again. 
When  Hercules  shouted  for  him,  the  youth's 
voice  was  heard  from  the  well  like  a  faint  echo ; 
and  he  was  so  enraged  at  his  loss  that  he 
threatened  to  ravage  the  country  of  the  My- 
sians  if  they  did  not  produce  Ilylas  dead  or 
alive.  They  sought  him  in  vain,  and  ultimate 
ly  instituted  an  annual  festival,  during  which 
they  roamed  over  the  mountains  calling  out 
the  name  of  Ilylas. 

HYMEN,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  mar 
riage.  According  to  some,  he  was  a  son  of 
Apollo  and  one  of  the  muses;  but  according 
to  others,  he  was  originally  a  mortal,  who, 
having  rescued  some  Attic  maidens  from  Pe- 
lasgic  pirates  or  other  robbers,  had  his  praises 
celebrated  in  token  of  gratitude  in  their  bridal 
songs,  which  after  him  were  called  hymeneal 
songs.  The  practice  of  singing  such  songs  at 
the  nuptial  season  became  in  time  universal, 
and  the  heroic  youth  was  gradually  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  a  divinity.  Hymen  is  represented 
in  works  of  art  as  a  tall  handsome  youth,  car 
rying  in  his  right  hand  a  bridal  torch. 

HYMEXOPTERA  (Gr.  v^v,  membrane,  and 
irrepdv,  wing),  a  suborder  of  insects,  so  named 
from  their  four  membranous,  transparent 
wings.  They  have  upper  horny  jaws  for  biting, 
and  softer  and  longer  lower  jaws  with  the  tip 
adapted  for  collecting  honey  ;  the  females  and 
neuters  have  a  sting  or  piercer.  All  undergo 
complete  metamorphosis ;  the  larva}  of  the 
stingers  are  soft,  without  legs,  resembling 
maggots ;  most  of  the  larval  piercers  resemble 
grubs  and  caterpillars.  They  are  diurnal,  swift 
tiiers,  and  surpass  all  other  insects  in  the  num 


ber  and  variety  of  their  instincts ;  of  the  very 
numerous  species  none  are  aquatic.  They  in 
clude  the  bees,  wasps,  ants,  ichneumons,  gall 
flies,  saw  flies,  &c.,  which  are  described  under 
their  respective  titles. 

HYMETTUS,  a  mountain  range  of  Attica,  form 
ing  the  S.  E.  boundary  of  the  Athenian  plain. 
It  consists  of  two  summits,  the  northern  or 
greater  Hymettus,  the  apex  of  which  is  about 
3,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  the  southern  or 
lesser  Hymettus,  denominated  Anhydrus,  "the 
waterless,"  by  the  ancients.  The  honey  of 
Ilymettus  was  considered  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
as  inferior  only  to  that  of  llybla  in  Sicily ;  but 
at  present,  though  still  abundant,  it  is  said  to 
be  of  very  poor  quality.  The  excellence  of 
its  marble  is  a  favorite  theme  with  classic 
authors.  The  greater  Hymettus  is  now  called 
Trelo-Vuno,  and  the  lesser  Mavro-Vuno. 

HYOSCYAMIS.     See  HEXBANE. 

HYPATIA,  a  Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  born 
in  Alexandria  about  370,  killed  in  415.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Theon,  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  astronomer.  She  went  to 
Athens  near  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  and 
studied  under  the  Neo-Platonist  Plutarch,  who 
expounded  to  a  small  circle  of  disciples  the 
Chaldean  oracles  and  the  secrets  of  theurgy. 
On  her  return  to  Alexandria,  her  talents,  beau 
ty,  eloquence,  and  modesty  made  her  an  object 
of  admiration.  She  revived  the  school  of  Ploti- 
nus,  and  became  its  head.  But  both  as  a  pa 
gan  and  as  a  philosopher  she  provoked  the  hos 
tility  of  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Not  only 
was  her  lecture  room  thronged,  but  she  was 
consulted  by  the  most  considerable  persons  of 
the  city,  among  others  by  the  prefect  Orestes, 
who  was  at  constant  feud  with  the  bishop. 
The  city  was  a  prey  to  the  violence  of  parties, 
and  it  was  to  the  influence  of  Ilypatia  that  Cy 
ril  attributed  the  refusal  of  Orestes  to  come  to 
a  reconciliation.  "  Certain  persons,  therefore," 
says  the  ecclesiastical  historian  Socrates,  "  of 
fierce  and  over-hot  minds,  who  were  headed 
by  one  Peter,  a  reader,  conspired  against  the 
woman,  and  observed  her  returning  home  from 
some  place  ;  and  having  pulled  her  out  of  her 
chariot,  they  dragged  her  to  the  church  named 
Ca3sareum,  where  they  stripped  her  and  mur 
dered  her.  And  when  they  had  torn  her  piece 
meal,  they  carried  all  her  members  to  a  place 
called  Cinaron,  and  consumed  them  with  fire." 
Ilypatia  was  the  author  of  two  mathematical 
treatises,  which  are  lost,  and  there  remains 
from  her  only  an  astronomical  table  inserted 
in  the  manual  tables  of  Theon.  She  is  the 
heroine  of  Charles  Kingsley's  "Ilypatia." 

HYPERBOLA  (Gr.  iirepfl&Xfeiv,  to  transcend), 
one  of  the  conic  sections,  produced  when  the 
cutting  plane  makes  a  smaller  angle  with  the 
axis  of  a  right  cone  than  is  made  by  the  side. 
The  shado\v  of  a  globe  on  a  flat  wall,  when 
part  of  the  globe  is  further  than  the  luminous 
point  is  from  the  wall,  gives  a  hyperbola.  Hy- 
perboloids  are  surfaces  generated  by  moving 
hyperbolas. 


HYPERBOREANS 


HYPERTROPHY 


135 


HYPERBOREANS  (from  Gr.  i^tp,  beyond,  and 
ac,  the  north  wind),  a  legendary  race, 
placed  by  the  Greeks  in  the  remote  regions  of 
the  north.  They  first  appear  in  Hesiod  and  in 
the  traditions  connected  with  the  temples  at 
Delphi  and  Delos.  The  poets  conceived  of 
them  as  dwelling  in  perpetual  sunshine,  pos 
sessing  abundant  fruits,  abstaining  from  the 
flesh  of  animals,  and  living  for  a  thousand 
years.  The  supposed  location  of  the  Hyperbo 
reans  changed  with  the  progress  of  geographi 
cal  knowledge.  At  first  placed  in  the  north 
at  the  sources  of  the  Ister  (Danube),  they  were 
transferred  by  some  to  the  west  when  this  river 
was  supposed  to  proceed  from  the  western  ex 
tremity  of  Europe  ;  while  others  transferred 
them  to  the  extreme  north  of  Europe,  beyond 
the  mythical  Gryps  and  Arimaspi,  who  them 
selves  dwelt  beyond  the  Scythians.  The  latter 
view  at  length  prevailed ;  the  character  of  the 
Hyperboreans  as  a  sacred  nation  was  lost  sight 
of;  and  their  name  became  only  a  geographi 
cal  expression  for  the  extreme  north.  Modern 
ethnologists  designate  as  Hyperboreans  a  sub 
division  of  the  arctic  races,  inhabiting  N.  N. 
E.  Asia.  (See  ETHNOLOGY.) 

HYPERIDES,  one  of  the  ten   famous  Attic 
orators,  born  probably  about  395  B.  C.,  died  in 
yEgina  in  322.     lie  was  a  pupil  of  Plato  in 
philosophy,  of  Isocrates  in  oratory,  began  his 
career  as  an  advocate,  and  was  an  associate  of 
Demosthenes  as  leader  of  the  anti-Macedonian 
party.     In  358  he  and  his  son  equipped  two 
triremes   at   their   own  expense  to  join  the 
expedition  against  Euboea.     He  displayed  an 
equal  interest  in  the  patriotic  cause  on  an  em 
bassy  to  Rhodes  (346),  in  the  expedition  against 
Byzantium  (340),  as  ambassador  with  Demos 
thenes  to  Thebes  after  the  capture  of  Elatea  I 
by  Philip  (338),  and  after  the  battle  of  Chaero- 
neo,  when  he  proposed,  by  a  union  of  the  citi 
zens,  resident  aliens,  and  slaves,  to  organize  a  ' 
desperate  resistance  to  Philip.     For  his  efforts 
on  the  last  occasion  he  was  prosecuted  on  an 
indictment  for  illegal  proposition,  but  was  ac 
quitted.     Of  his  defence  there  remain  only  the 
words :   "  The  Macedonian  army  darkened  my 
vision ;  it  was  not  I  that  moved  the  decree,  but 
the  battle  of  Chceronca."     The  affair  of  Harpa-  { 
lus  (324)  for  the  first  time  broke  his  friendly 
relations  with  Demosthenes,  against  whom  he 
appeared  as  public  prosecutor.     On  the  report 
of  Alexander's  death  (323),  it  was  chiefly  by 
his  exertions  that  the  confederacy  was  formed 
which  brought  about   the   Lamian  war.     lie 
fled  after  the  battle  of  Crannon  to  JEgina,  and 
was  pursued  and  put  to  death  by  the  emissaries  j 
of  Antipater.     The  number  of  orations  attrib-  i 
uted  to  him  was  77,  but  the  ancient  writers  ! 
rejected  25  of  them  as  spurious.     They  agree 
in  extolling  his  genius,  and  commend  him  for 
almost  every  excellence  of  style.     Until  late-  j 
ly  only  unimportant  fragments  of  his  orations 
were  known  to  have  been  preserved.     In  1847  j 
A.  C.  Harris,  an  English  resident  of  Alexan-  j 
dria,  purchased  near  the  ruins  of  Thebes  some  \ 


fragments  of  papyrus  written  over  with  Greek, 
which  were  parts  of  the  oration  of  Hyperides 
against  Demosthenes  on  the  charge  of  having 
been  bribed  by  Harpalus.  He  published  a  fac 
simile  of  them  in  1848.  They  were  edited  by 
Churchill  Babington,  with  an  introduction  and 
commentary,  in  1850.  Another  Englishman, 
Joseph  Arden,  procured  at  the  same  place  and 
nearly  at  the  same  time  other  fragments  of 
papyrus,  which  were  found  to  contain  a  large 
part  of  his  speech  for  Lycophron,  prosecuted 
for  adultery,  and  his  complete  oration  for  Eux- 
enippus,  charged  with  making  a  false  report 
of  the  oracle  of  Amphiaraus.  These  were 
edited  by  Mr.  Babington  in  1853.  Another 
traveller,  Mr.  Stodart,  brought  from  Egypt  in 
1856  another  collection  of  papyrus  fragments, 
among  which  were  a  large  part  of  the  funeral 
oration  on  Leosthenes  and  the  Athenian  soldiers 
who  perished  in  the  Lamian  war.  This  was 
published  by  the  same  editor  in  1858.  His 
orations  have  been  republished  in  Germany  by 
Bockh,  Ivayser,  and  others,  and  in  Paris  in 
Didot's  Billiotheca  Grceca.  The  funeral  ora 
tion  has  been  edited  by  Cobet  (Ley den,  1858). 
HYPERTROPHY  (Gr.  i^tp,  over,  and  rpo<$, 
nourishment),  an  excess  of  growth  of  a  part 
without  degeneration  or  alteration  in  the  struc 
ture  ;  the  exact  opposite  to  atrophy.  Hyper 
trophy  may  depend  on  the  excess  of  the  mate 
rials  of  certain  tissues  in  the  blood  ;  when  this 
fluid  contains  habitually  too  much  fat,  there 
rnay  be  an  abnormal  increase  of  the  adipose 
tissue;  similar  hypertrophy  may  thus  be  in 
duced  in  other  tissues,  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  the  muscles  or  nerves  increase  in  bulk 
from  the  mere  excess  of  their  formative  ma 
terials.  Though  an  increased  supply  of  blood 
is  generally  rather  the  consequence  than  the 
cause  of  excessive  nutrition  in  a  part,  hyper 
trophy  may  arise  from  a  mere  increased  circu 
lation,  and  when  one  kidney  cannot  perform 
its  functions,  the  other  has  been  known  to  in 
crease  in  size,  owing  to  its  increased  activity 
as  an  excreting  organ.  This  must  be  distin 
guished  from  the  augmented  bulk  of  long  con 
gested  parts,  in  which  there  is  not  normal 
hypertrophy,  but  an  addition  of  altered  and 
inferior  tissue.  Hypertrophy  is  in  most  cases 
dependent  on  a  preternatural  formative  capa 
city  in  the  part,  sometimes  congenital  (as  in 
the  abnormal  growths  of  fingers  and  toes,  and 
even  entire  limbs),  but  generally  acquired. 
The  most  striking  instances  of  acquired  nutri 
tive  activity  are  seen  in  the  muscular  system, 
consequent  upon  the  excessive  exercise  of  its 
functional  powers.  Muscular  hypertrophy  is 
most  often  seen  in  the  involuntary  muscles, 
whose  action  is  in  some  way  impeded ;  thus 
stricture  of  the  urethra  or  stone  in  the  bladder, 
obstructing  the  exit  of  the  urine  and  calling 
for  extra  exertion  to  expel  it,  causes  hypertro 
phy  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bladder ;  so  it 
happens  with  the  gall  bladder  when  its  ducts 
are  stopped  by  calculi,  and  with  the  intestines 
when  a  stricture  exists  in  any  portion.  Hyper- 


136 


IIYPHASIS 


HYPOCHONDRIASIS 


trophy  of  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  is  often 
dependent  on  narrowing  of  the  cardiac  orifices 
by  disease  of  the  valves,  giving  the  organ  dou 
ble  work  to  do,  and  increasing  its  activity,  as 
in  other  muscles.  (See  HEART,  DISEASES  OF 
THE.)  When  any  of  the  voluntary  muscles  are 
specially  exercised,  hypertrophy  is  observed  in 
them,  as  in  the  arm  of  the  blacksmith  or  the 
legs  of  a  professional  dancer ;  and  such  hyper- 
trophied  muscles  generally  cause  an  increased 
nutrition  of  the  bones  to  which  they  are  at 
tached,  and  an  enlargement  of  the  points  of 
origin  and  insertion.  There  are  certain  en 
largements  of  glands,  in  which  their  proper 
tissue  is  increased  without  structural  change, 
which  unite  physiological  hypertrophy  with 
pathological  tumors,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mam 
mary,  thyroid,  and  prostate  glands.  Certain 
tumors  of  the  uterus  contain  only  an  excess 
of  the  normal  muscular  and  fibrous  tissues  of 
the  organ,  and  yet  cannot  be  regarded  as  ex 
amples  of  hypertrophy,  as  they  observe  no 
regular  growth,  subserve  no  physiological  pur 
pose,  and  constitute  a  positive  deformity  and 
disease;  sucli  abnormal  growths  may  exist 
upon  a  uterus  itself  hypertrophied  from  in 
creased  functional  activity,  and  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  latter.  Supernumerary 
parts,  as  additional  fingers  and  toes  and  vari 
ous  outgrowths  developed  during  foetal  life, 
must  in  like  manner  be  referred  to  local  hy- 

Sirtrophy  from  excess  of  formative  activity, 
r.  Carpenter  sees  in  this  whole  series  of  ab 
normal  production  the  operation  of  a  similar 
power;  that  which  in  simple  hypertrophy  is 
confined  to  increasing  the  size  of  an  organ  by 
the  development  of  new  tissue  according  to 
the  morphological  type  of  the  part,  in  the  for 
mation  of  supernumerary  tissues  also  imparts 
to  them  an  independent  existence ;  on  the 
other  hand,  while  in  ordinary  hypertrophy  the 
tissues  in  excess  are  incorporated  in  the  affect 
ed  organ,  in  the  structure  of  a  tumor  the  per 
fectly  formed  and  independently  growing  tis 
sues  constitute  a  mass  whose  shape  is  deter 
mined  more  by  surrounding  conditions  than 
by  any  tendency  of  their  own— the  formative 
power  undirected  by  the  normal  morphological 
nisus.  In  malignant  growths,  the  development 
of  tissues  stops  short  of  the  limit  by  which 
formative  power  produces  the  normal  tissues, 
and  their  vital  endowments  are  not  sufficient 
to  resist  the  tendency  to  degeneration. 

HYPIIASIS,  a  river   of  ancient   India.     See 

PUXJAUB. 

HYPOCHOXDRIASIS  (Gr.  M,  under,  and 
X&vSpoq,  cartilage),  a  disease  generally  classed 
among  neuroses,  characterized  by  derangement 
of  various  organic  functions,  and  accompanied 
by  an  habitual  sadness,  often  bordering  on  de 
spair,  and  a  disposition  to  exaggerate  every 
trifiing  symptom  into  a  sign  of  dangerous 
malady ;  probably  so  called  because  it  was 
formerly  attributed  to  disorder  of  the  spleen, 
an  organ  situated  in  the  left  hypochondrium. 
It  occurs  principally  in  persons  of  melancholic 


temperament,  and  in  those  whose  moral  and 
intellectual  faculties  have  received  high  and 
unnatural  development ;  it  is  said  to  be  com 
mon  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  hu 
man  mind  and  to  the  progress  of  civilization. 
Men  of  letters,  overtasked  students  and  men 
of  business,  and  those  whose  naturally  delicate 
constitutions  and  ardent  imaginative  minds 
have  been  abnormally  stimulated,  are  the  most 
frequent  subjects  of  hypochondria  ;  but  it  may 
arise  at  any  age  and  in  the  strongest  persons 
after  profound  grief  or  other  moral  emotion, 
whether  of  love,  hope,  jealousy,  or  fear,  de 
bilitating  excesses  of  any  kind,  the  suppression 
of  any  habitual  discharge,  a  sudden  change  of 
habits  of  life,  or  unceasing  devotion  to  any 
philanthropic,  political,  or  intellectual  pursuit. 
The  symptoms  are  as  various  as  its  causes  and 
the  constitutions  of  men ;  there  is  not  a  part 
of  the  body  which  may  not  be  the  subject  of 
the  hypochondriac's  complaint ;  the  senses  are 
ordinarily  very  acute,  and  the  sight,  hearing, 
smell,  taste,  and  touch  are  preternaturally  ex 
citable,  and  the  sources  of  great  real  or  ima 
ginary  suffering  from  the  slightest  causes ; 
there  is  almost  always  digestive  disturbance, 
which  enters  largely  into  the  explanation  of 
the  causes;  without  fever  or  local  lesion,  the 
sensibility  is  exalted,  with  flatulence,  nausea, 
spasms,  palpitations,  illusions  of  the  senses, 
aches  and  pains  simulating  most  diseases,  fear 
of  trifling  dangers,  exaggeration  of  all  the 
moral  sentiments,  extreme  instability  of  con- 

|  duct,  and  anxiety  in  regard   to  the  health. 

\  The  head  is  full  of  painful  sensations,  as  fugi 
tive  as  passing  clouds,  agonizing  at  one  moment 

!  and  forgotten  the  next;  sleep  is  disturbed  and 
unrefreshing,  and  the  waking  hours  rendered 
miserable  by  imaginary  troubles.  Expressing 
complete  disgust  with  life,  the  sufferers  yet 
run  to  the  physician  with  an  account  of  every 

|  fugitive  pain,  and  consider  themselves  neg 
lected  if  not  listened  to,  and  insulted  if  their 
ailments  be  called  imaginary.  Both  sexes 
suffer  from  hypochondria,  and  the  female 
specially  in  the  reproductive  system.  Though 
in  the  beginning  the  disorder  may  have  been 
wholly  in  the  digestive  organs,  and  that  only 
of  a  functional  and  curable  character,  by  con 
stant  and  morbid  attention  to  these  and  other 
fancied  ailments  real  and  organic  disease  may 
be  produced,  and  a  return  to  health  be  im 
possible.  It  is  generally  slow  in  coming  on 
and  of  long  duration,  and  is  not  incompatible 
with  long  life;  if  the  digestion  be  tolerably 
good,  the  prognosis  is  favorable,  as  such  per 
sons  are  apt  to  observe  most  rigidly  the  or- 

!  dinary  rules  of  hygiene;  in  some  impression- 
able  but  resolute  natures,  it  degenerates  into  a 
settled  melancholy,  which  a  slight  cause  may 
convert  into  temporary  insanity  and  suicidal 
mania.  It  cannot  be  said  to  have  any  special 

!  organic  lesions,  though  in  severe  and  fatal  cases 
there  have  been  found  various  alterations  of 
the  digestive,  circulating,  and  nervous  systems. 

!  There  are  two  opinions  as  to  the  nature  and 


HYPOPHOSPHITES 


HYPOSULPHATES 


137 


seat  of  hypochondria:  one  is  that  it  is  an 
irritation  of  the  nervous  system  which  presides 
over  the  digestive  organs,  with  or  without  gas- 
tro-intestinal  inflammation ;  and  the  other  that 
it  is  a  cerebral  neurosis,  a  kind  of  melancholy, 
as  proved  by  the  constancy  of  the  cerebral 
symptoms  and  the  efficacy  of  moral  methods 
of  treatment.  Some  modify  the  latter  opinion 
by  tracing  it  to  a  disturbance  of  the  intellectual 
powers,  which  acts  upon  and  impedes  the  func 
tions  of  all  the  organs  by  concentrating  the 
whole  nervous  energy  in  turn  upon  each  sys 
tem,  organic  lesions  following  upon  the  neurosis 
and  displaying  the  morbid  symptoms  peculiar 
to  each.  As  a  general  rule  the  disease  is  of  far 
less  moment  than  the  formidable  array  of  symp 
toms,  the  complaints  of  the  patient,  and  the 
expression  of  suffering  would  indicate ;  some 
times  deceitful,  and  their  feelings  misinterpret 
ed  both  by  themselves  and  the  physician,  irrita 
ble,  suspicious,  and  versatile,  hypochondriacs 
are  exceedingly  troublesome  and  unsatisfactory 
patients.  Children  of  hypochondriac  parents, 
if  they  show  any  signs  of  uncommon  nervous 
susceptibility,  should  be  educated  in  a  manner 
calculated  to  diminish  the  preponderance  of 
the  nervous  element,  and  to  increase  the  physi 
cal  strength,  as  by  avoiding  excess  of  study 
and  all  excitement,  cultivating  the  generous 
sentiments,  and  by  gymnastic  exercises;  in 
this  way  the  ranks  of  hypochondriacs  would 
be  much  lessened.  Attention  to  the  causes, 
when  these  can  be  ascertained,  and  their  re 
moval  as  far  as  possible,  the  observance  of 
hygienic  rules  adapted  to  circumstances  and 
constitutions,  avoidance  of  excess  in  eating  and 
drinking,  and  perhaps  an  occasional  laxative 
or  a  tonic  course,  are  probably  all  that  can  be 
done  in  the  way  of  treatment.  But  in  order 
to  be  of  any  benefit  to  his  patient,  the  physi 
cian  must  secure  his  confidence,  and  accustom 
him  to  the  belief  that  his  affection  is  under 
stood,  his  feelings  appreciated,  his  sufferings 
commiserated,  and  his  complaints  attentively 
listened  to ;  having  inspired  this  confidence,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  lead  even  the  most  confirmed 
hypochondriac  to  change  his  stereotyped  way 
of  regarding  men  and  things,  to  interest  him 
in  new  enterprises  and  modes  of  thought,  and 
by  judicious  management  to  put  him  in  the 
way  of  a  return  to  health  by  following  the 
dictates  of  his  own  feelings  and  common  sense. 
HYPOPIIOSPUITES.  The  salts  formed  by  hy- 
pophosphorous  acid  with  lime,  soda,  potash, 
and  ammonia  were  proposed,  mainly  on  theo 
retical  grounds,  as  remedies  for  phthisis,  by  Dr. 
Churchill  of  Paris.  They  have  be<-n  extensively 
used,  and  are  so  still  to  a  much  less  degree. 
Although  possibly  useful  as  tonics  in  some  cases, 
they  are  as  far  as  all  other  drugs  from  being 
specifics  for  consumption.  Their  chief  thera 
peutic  value  is  to  be  found  in  cases  where  the 
phosphates  of  the  system  are  morbidly  deficient. 
This  occasionally  occurs  in  the  debility  that 
sometimes  follows  prolonged  lactation,  in  some 
forms  of  dyspepsia  and  anamiia,  and  now  and 


then  in  the  disturbance  or  fever  of  dentition. 
The  hypophosphites  of  soda  and  lime  are  the 
most  useful  agents,  medicinally,  of  this  class. 
They  are  best  given  in  combination  with  a 
hitter  or  aromatic  tincture  or  infusion.  The 
dose  of  each  of  them  is  from  2  to  12  grains, 
according  to  age  and  other  circumstances. 

HYPOSULPHATES,  and  Hyposulphites,  com 
pounds,  the  one  of  hyposulphuric  and  the 
other  of  hyposulphurous  acid,  with  bases.  Of 
these  salts  the  only  one  of  much  interest  is 
the  hyposulphite  of  soda,  which  possesses  the 
property  of  readily  dissolving  the  chloride, 
bromide,  and  iodide  of  silver.  It  has  been  of 
great  service  in  the  preparation  of  daguerreo 
types  and  photographs,  being  used  to  dissolve 
the  sensitive  salt  of  silver  which  remains  un 
changed  after  its  exposure  in  the  dark  cham 
ber  of  the  camera.  In  chemical  analysis  also 
it  is  employed  to  distinguish  between  the 
earths  strontia  and  baryta,  precipitating  the 
latter  from  its  Solutions,  but  not  the  former. 
It  has  moreover  been  adopted  as  a  medicine, 
and  been  found  beneficial  in  cutaneous  affec 
tions,  in  visceral  obstructions,  and  in  disease  of 
the  stomach  attended  with  yeasty  vomiting. 
The  salt  is  prepared  as  follows :  A  pound  of 
dry  carbonate  of  soda,  finely  pulverized,  is 
mixed  with  five  ounces  of  flowers  of  sulphur. 
and  the  mixture  is  slowly  heated  until  the  sul 
phur  melts.  By  constant  stirring  exposed  to 
the  air  the  sulphide  of  sodium,  which  first  forms, 
is  converted  into  sulphite  of  soda.  This  is  dis 
solved  in  water  and  filtered.  The  hot  solution, 
concentrated  by  boiling,  is  then  saturated  with 
sulphur  and  allowed  to  cool,  when  it  deposits 
large  transparent  crystals,  which  are  the  hy 
posulphite  of  soda,  of  composition  represented 
by  the  formula  KaaSaOs  +  SHaO.  These  are 
soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol.  The 
hyposulphite  of  soda  is  the  anti-chlor  employed 
by  paper  makers  for  removing  the  last  traces 
of  chlorine  from  the  bleached  pulp.  A  deli 
cate  test  for  the  presence  of  hyposulphurous 
acid  is  the  brown  red  color  produced  by  a  few 
drops  of  perchloride  of  iron. — The  hyposul 
phites,  and  especially  the  hyposulphite  of  soda, 
have  been  used  in  medicine  for  the  destruc 
tion  of  animal  and  vegetable  parasites  and 
the  arrest  of  fermentation.  The  diseases  to 
which  they  have  been  applied  are  not  only 
those  which  are  demonstrably  connected  with 
parasitic  growth  or  fermentation,  as  yeasty 
vomiting  and  parasitic  affections  of  the  mouth 
and  skin,  but  also  those  where  similar  process 
es  may  be  supposed  to  be  essential  factors; 
such  are  intermittent  and  other  forms  of  ma 
larial  fevers,  typhoid,  purulent  infection,  glan 
ders,  cholera,  and  the  contagious  exanthemata. 
Although  favorable  reports  have  been  made  of 
their  action,  general  experience  does  not  as  yet 
appear  to  justify  the  hopes  founded  on  theory, 
or  the  confident  expectations  of  the  physician 
most  widely  known  as  the  originator  of  the 
treatment,  Dr.  Polli  of  Milan.  No  harm,  how 
ever,  has  resulted  from  them,  and  the  presump- 


138 


HYPOTHECATION" 


HYRCANUS 


tion  in  their  favor  is  strong  enough  to  justify 
their  employment  in  connection  with  other 
treatment.  The  hyposulphite  of  soda  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  10  or  20  grains,  or  more, 
three  times  a  day,  dissolved  in  water.  The 
action  of  the  sulphite  is  identical  with  or  anal 
ogous  to  that  of  the  hyposulphite,  and  it  has 
been  used  for  the  same  purposes. 

HYPOTHECATION  (Gr.  vxd,  under,  and  Ofay,  a 
chest),  a  word  which,  in  the  Roman  civil  law, 
from  which  it  is  taken,  signifies  more  nearly 
what  we  understand  by  mortgage  than  by 
pledge,  for  which  they  had  a  separate  word, 
pignus;  but  it  is  not  precisely  the  same  as 
either.  It  was  generally  used  whenever  the 
title  to  property  was  transferred  by  the  owner 
to  his  creditor,  by  way  of  security  for  the  debt, 
but  without  that  delivery  of  actual  possession 
which  was  necessary  to  constitute  a  pledge. 
In  English  and  American  law,  the  word  is 
most  frequently  used  in  the  law  of  shipping. 

IIYRAX,  a  small  pachyderm,  corning  nearest 
to  the  rhinoceros  family,  but  looking  much 
like  a  diminutive  hare,  and  in  some  respects 
seeming  to  form  one  of  the  connecting  links 
with  the  rodents,  constituting  the  family  lam- 
nungia  of  Illiger.  The  old  naturalists  had 
always  placed  it  among  the  rodents,  but  Cu- 
vier,  from  its  anatomical  structure,  ranked  it 
with  the  pachyderms,  of  which  Swainson  calls 
it  the  gliriform  type.  The  number  of  ribs  is 
21  pairs,  greater  by  G  than  in  any  rodent,  of 
which  7  are  true;  the  sternum  consists  of  6 
pieces;*  there  are  no  clavicles;  the  suborbit.il 
foramen  is  small ;  the  dental  formula  is :  inci 
sors  |,  canines  none,  molars  -|c-f  or  |c£,  with 
distinct  roots ;  the  extinct  pachyderm  toxodon 
has  long  and  curved  molars,  without  roots,  and 
incisors  with  arched  sockets,  forming  another 
link  in  the  chain  of  rodent  affinities  in  this  order. 
The  toes  are  four  before  and  three  behind,  as 
in  the  tapir;  the  hoofs  are  small  and  flat,  but 
the  inner  toe  of  the  hind  foot  has  a  curved 
claw.  The  genus  Jiyrax  (Hermann)  is  the  only 
one  in  the  family,  and  contains  four  or  five  spe 
cies.  The  body  is  covered  with  short,  thick 
far,  with  a  few  long  bristles  scattered  among 
the  shorter  hair,  and  others  around  the  nos 
trils  and  orbits;  a  tubercle  in  the  place  of  the 
tail.  The  common  name  of  the  species  is  da 
man  ;  it  seems  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
rhinoceros  as  the  existing  sloths  to  the  extinct 
megatherium ;  it  lives  among  rocks,  and  is 
sometimes  called  rock  rabbit  and  Cape  badger. 
The  Syrian  hyrax  (II.  Syriacm,  Schreb.)  is 
about  11  in.  long  and  10  in.  high;  the  upper 
parts  are  brownish  gray,  the  sides  yellowish, 
and  the  lower  parts  white.  Its  movements 
are  quick,  and  its  habits  much  like  those  of 
rodents;  it  delights  in  heat,  in  cold  weather 
rolling  itself  up ;  it  searches  for  narrow  open 
ings  in  which  to  hide  itself,  as  its  soft  feet  are 
not  adapted  for  digging  burrows  like  many  ro 
dents;  its  sense  of  smell  is  acute,  and  by  it  the 
food,  which  is  wholly  vegetable,  is  obtained; 
it  is  of  mild  disposition,  with  little  intelligence 


and  little  fear.  It  is  found  on  the  mountains 
near  the  Red  sea,  and  in  Ethiopia  and  Abys 
sinia  iii  caverns  in  the  rocks,  dozens  being 
seen  at  a  time  warming  themselves  in  the  sun. 
This  animal,  according  to  Bruce,-  is  called  in 
Arabia  and  Syria  Israel's  sheep,  and  is  the 


Hyrax  Capensis. 

shaphan  of  the  Hebrews,  generally  translated 
rabbit  or  cony.  The  Cape  hyrax  (H.  Capen- 
sis,  Pall.)  is  about  the  size  of  the  rabbit,  but 
with  shorter  legs,  more  clumsy  form,  thick 
head,  and  obtuse  muzzle ;  the  color  is  uniform 
grayish  brown,  darkest  along  the  back;  it 
lives  in  the  rocky  regions  of  the  south  of  Af 
rica;  its  flesh  is  delicate  and  savory.  Other 
species  are  described  in  the  woods  of  Africa. 

HYRCANIA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia,  com 
prising  the  western  portion  of  the  mountain 
region  between  the  S.  E.  shores  of  the  Caspi 
an  (sometimes  called  the  Hyrcanian  sea)  and 
the  river  Arius  (now  Heri-rud).  It  consisted 
mainly  of  the  valleys  of  the  Nika,  Gurgan, 
and  Atrek.  It  was  a  most  productive  coun 
try,  capable  of  sustaining  a  dense  population, 
and  deserving  Strabo's  description  of  being 
"highly  favored  of  heaven."  The  Hyrcanians 
seem  to  have  been  a  people  of  Turanian  race, 
intermixed  with  Aryans.  After  a  short  re 
sistance  they  submitted  to  Cyrus.  When  the 
Persian  empire  was  organized  by  Darius  Ilys- 
taspis  into  satrapies,  Ilyrcania  was  added  to 
the  satrapy  of  Parthia.  After  the  Macedonian 
conquest,  Ilyrcania  became  a  part  of  the  em 
pire  of  the  Seleucidre.  The  Parthian  king 
Arsaces  II.,  or  Tiridatcs.  detached  it  from  the 
Syrian  empire  and  added  it  to  his  own  terri 
tories.  Shortly  afterward  it  was  invaded  and 
devastated  by  Scythians.  It  was  also  invaded 
by  Antiochus  the  Great,  in  his  Parthian  war, 
but  seems  to  have  remained  unsubdued.  A 
subsequent  revolt  against  the  Parthian  rule 
was  unsuccessful. 

HYRCANIS.  I.  John,  a  Jewish  high  priest, 
died  in  106  (or  according  to  some  in  105)  B.  C. 
He  succeeded  his  father  Simon  Maccabreus 
in  the  high  priesthood  as  one  of  the  Asmo- 
nean  rulers  of  Judea,  135  B.  C.  In  that  year 
Antiochus  Sidetes  besieged  Jerusalem,  and 
obliged  the  inhabitants  to  dismantle  its  forti 
fications  and  pay  a  tribute;  but  after  the  de 
feat  and  death  of  Antiochus  in  130,  Ilyrcanus 
reestablished  his  independence  and  extended 
his  dominion.  He  razed  the  city  of  Samaria, 


IIYRTL 


HYSTERIA 


139 


took  several  other  cities  from  the  Syrian  king 
dom,  and  not  only  conquered  the  Idumaeans, 
but  compelled  them  to  submit  to  the  Mosaic 
ritual.  He  also  {brined  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  he 
abandoned  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees  for  that 
of  the  Sadducees,  thereby  incurring  much 
odium.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aristo- 
bulus,  who  took  the  title  of  king  of  Judea.  II. 
llyrcauus  II.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born 
about  109  B.  0.,  beheaded  in  30.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Alexander  Janna?us  and  his  wife 
Alexandra,  daughter  of  John  Ilyrcanus.  On 
his  mother's  death  (71)  he  succeeded  to  the 
kingdom,  but  the  power  was  soon  wrested 
from  him  by  his  younger  brother  Aristobulus. 
When  Pompey  made  himself  master  of  Jeru 
salem  in  63,  he  reinstated  Ilyrcanus  in  the  gov 
ernment  as  a  tributary  prince.  Dissensions 
again  deprived  him  of  power,  but  when  Ctesar 
reconstructed  the  state  he  was  once  more  re 
stored  as  high  priest,  Anti pater  having  civil 
authority  as  procurator.  Herod,  the  younger 
son  of  Antipater,  succeeded  his  father  as  pro 
curator,  and  betrothed  himself  to  Mariamne, 
the  granddaughter  of  Ilyrcanus.  In  a  new 
attack  by  Antigonus,  the  only  surviving  son  of 
Aristobulus,  who  was  aided  by  the  Parthians, 
Ilyrcanus  was  taken  prisoner;  his  ears  were 
cut  off  to  render  him  incapable  of  holding  the 
office  of  high  priest,  and  he  was  banished  to 
Babylonia,  where  the  Parthian  monarch  and 
oriental  Jews  treated  him  with  distinction. 
After  some  years  he  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
where  Herod  had  now  established  himself  in 
the  sovereignty  and  had  married  Mariamne. 
Becoming  jealous  of  his  claims  to  the  throne, 
Herod  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death. 

HYRTL,  Joseph,  an  Austrian  anatomist,  born 
at  Eisenstadt,  Hungary,  Dec.  7,  1811.  He  stud 
ied  at  Vienna,  became  in  1837  professor  of  anat 
omy  at  Prague,  and  was  recalled  to  Vienna  in 
1845  in  the  same  capacity,  became  rector  of 
the  university,  and  retired  March  10, 1874.  He 
is  distinguished  for  his  labors  in  comparative 
anatomy,  his  investigations  on  the  organ  of 
hearing,  and  the  invention  of  many  anatomical 
instruments.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
a  knowledge  of  topographical  anatomy  into 
Germany,  and  published  a  n.nmial  relating  to 
this  branch  of  science  (2  vols.,  1847;  5th  ed., 
1865).  His  Lehrl)iicli  der  Anatomic  des  Men- 
Bchen  (1847;  llth  ed.,  1870)  is  a  text  book  in 
German  universities,  and  has  been  translated 
into  many  foreign  languages.  Among  his  other 
principal  works  are  ll«ndl)ucli  der  pralctischen 
Zcrr/Hederunfjskunst  (1860),  an  elaborate  de 
scription  (1865)  of  the  museum  of  comparative 
anatomy,  which  he  had  founded,  and  Das  Nie- 
renkecken  der  Saugethiere  iind  des  Menschen 
(Vienna,  1870).  His  preparations,  famous  for 
many  years,  demonstrate  by  colored  material 
injected  through  some  of  the  principal  arteries 
the  presence  of  the  microscopic  arteries  and 
veins  accompanying  the  lacteal  vessels  in  the 
minute  intestinal  papilla}.  By  the  same  means 


he  demonstrated  in  1874  the  presence  of  a 
vascular  net  in  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  and  after 
many  ineffectual  attempts  he  succeeded  in  fill 
ing  the  arteries  and  veins  of  an  infant  eight 
days  old  from  the  umbilical  vein  with  coloring 
matter  so  perfectly  as  to  reach  and  penetrate 
the  minute  arteries  and  veins  of  both  cornea). 
HYSSOP  (hyssopus  offi-cinalis,  Linn.),  a  per 
ennial  aromatic  plant,  of  the  natural  order 
labiatce,  a  native  of  Europe,  and  cultivated 
there  and  in  the  United  States  in  gardens.  Its 
flowers,  violet-colored  or  blue,  and  its  leaves, 
are  used  in  medicine,  though  but  little  by  reg 
ular  practitioners.  It  is  a  warm  and  gentle 
stimulant,  promotes  expectoration  of  the  mu 
cus,  and  is  used  in  chronic  catarrhs,  especially 
by  old  people.  The  hyssop  of  Scripture  is  the 
caper  tree,  capparis  spinosa  (Linn.),  which 
abounds  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  lower 
Egypt,  and  in  Syria. 

HYSTERIA  (Gr.  wrcpa,  womb),  a  disease  char 
acterized  by  great  excitability  of  the  nervous 
system,  especially  of  the  sensory  ganglia,  with 
out  necessary  structural  lesion,  and  manifest 
ed  by  disordered  states  of  the  emotional  na 
ture,  with  loss  of  the  power  of  controlling 
the  thoughts  and  feelings,  by  spasmodic  symp 
toms,  and  occasionally  by  perversion  or  sus 
pension  of  the  intellectual  faculties.  It  re 
ceived  its  name  from  the  idea  that  it  is  peculiar 
to  the  female  sex,  originating  in  some  disturb 
ance  of  the  uterine  functions  ;  but,  though  by 
far  the  most  common  in  females,  and  generally 
connected  with  disorder  in  the  generative  sys 
tem,  it  may  also  occur  in  males;  a  common 
name  for  it  is  "  the  vapors."  The  nervous 
symptoms  predominate,  varying  in  character 
and  intensity  according  to  the  temperament 
of  the  individual,  the  nature  of  the  causes,  and 
the  persistence  of  the  disease.  In  the  beginning 
it  generally  manifests  itself  by  an  exaggeration 
of  the  ordinary  signs  of  emotional  excitement, 
such  as  smiles  and  tears,  irrepressible  laugh 
ter  and  convulsive  sobs,  brought  on  by  trifling 
causes  ;  the  nervous  excitability  increases,  un 
til  violent  convulsions  of  an  epileptic  or  tetanic 
character  arise  from  slight  stimuli,  with  coma, 
opisthotonos,  trisinus,  paralysis,  cramps,  end 
ing  often  in  monomania  or  moral  insanity.  The 
paroxysms  are  sometimes  of  frightful  intensity, 
requiring  the  strength  of  several  persons  to 
restrain  a  delicate  female  and  prevent  self- 
injury;  after  an  attack  the  patient  may  be  ex 
hausted  and  almost  insensible,  and  in  a  state  of 
double  consciousness,  or  much  agitated,  laugh 
ing  or  crying  at  the  strangest  fancies;  at  times 
the  person  falls  insensible,  breathing  at  long 
intervals,  recovering  with  a  sense  of  fatigue 

I  and  coldness,  or  with  involuntary  emission  of 
limpid  urine.  In  cases  where  the  nervous 

•  symptoms  are  less  prominent,  there  are  pain 
and  a  sense  of  heat  and  fulness  in  the  region 
of  the  uterus,  constriction  of  the  throat  with 

;  difficulty  and  increased  desire  of  swallowing,  a 
feeling  as  if  a  ball  were  rolling  from  the  abdo- 

!  men  up  to  the  epigastrium  and  throat  with  a 


140 


HYSTERIA 


sensation  of  pressure  and  suffocation,  flatulence 
and  tympanitic  distentlon,  hurried  respiration, 
palpitations,  occasional  cramps,  and  great  de 
pression  or  exaltation  of  spirits.  An  attack  of 
hysteria  may  last  for  several  hours,  the  violent 
symptoms  recurring  every  few  minutes,  with 
intervals  of  partial  rest ;  or  it  may  consist  of 
but  a  single  paroxysm  of  20  minutes  or  half 
an  hour  in  duration.  After  the  paroxysm  has 
ceased,  tolerable  health  may  be  enjoyed  for 
some  time,  though  the  nervous  excitability  per 
sists.  In  cases  of  long  duration,  the  intellect 
and  memory  become  enfeebled,  the  strength 
fails,  and  hypochondriasis  and  various  chronic 
irritations  of  the  vital  organs  supervene.  Hys 
teria  is  very  irregular  in  its  march ;  it  is  the 
most  protean  of  diseases,  simulating  almost 
every  morbid  condition  ;  its  duration  is  varia 
ble,  sometimes  terminating  in  health  after  a 
few  attacks  without  medical  treatment,  and  at 
others  lasting  a  lifetime  in  spite  of  the  best 
directed  efforts  to  arrest  it ;  its  most  dangerous 
consequences  are  convulsions,  spasmodic  con 
tractions,  partial  paralysis,  epilepsy,  and  ten 
dency  to  insanity.  The  predisposing  causes  of 
hysteria  are  the  female  sex  and  a  hereditary 
or  acquired  nervous  irritability ;  the  exciting 
causes  are  vivid  moral  emotions,  anything 
which  excites  the  imagination,  especially  dis 
appointed  love,  jealousy,  and  various  excesses 
of  body  or  mind ;  it  is  often  brought  on  by  the 
mere  force  of  imitation  ;  some  irregular  action 
of  the  sexual  functions  is  found  in  nearly  if  not 
quite  all  cases  between  the  ages  of  15  and  50. 
There  has  been  great  diversity  of  opinion  on 
the  nature  and  seat  of  the  disease ;  its  cause 
has  been  located  in  the  uterus,  in  the  brain, 
in  the  spinal  cord,  and  in  the  stomach  and 
other  abdominal  organs.  Whatever  be  its  ori 
gin,  a  disordered  state  of  the  emotional  nature  is 
an  essential  character  of  hysteria,  and  the  con 
trol  of  the  feelings  rather  than  of  muscular 
action  is  lessened  or  lost ;  it  is  partly  a  disease 
of  the  mind,  from  improper  education  or  self- 
abandonment  to  the  power  of  the  emotions. 
The  habitual  indulgence  of  feelings  of  a  pain 
ful  character  or  of  sexual  tendency  affects  the 
nutrition  of  the  nervous  and  genital  systems, 
giving  rise  to  the  peculiar  phenomena  of  this 
affection.  Though  hysteria  may  simulate  the 
phenomena  of  epilepsy,  tetanus,  chorea,  hydro 
phobia,  and  other  nervous  diseases  presented 
to  its  imitative  disposition,  it  is  dependent  on 
a  state  of  much  less  abnormal  character ;  there 
is  generally  no  structural  lesion,  nor  any  seri 
ous  disturbance  of  the  nutritive  functions,  as  is 


evident  from  the  long  duration  of  the  disease, 
and  the  suddenness  with  which  different  forms 
pass  into  each  other  or  disappear  entirely;  the 
strangeness  of  these  combinations  and  sudden 
changes  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  hysteria 
from  the  more  grave  diseases  which  it, imitates. 
According  to  Carpenter,  this  excitability  of  the 
nervous  system,  which  is  only  an  exaggeration 
of  that  characteristic  of  the  female  sex,  is  caused 
by  some  defect  of  nutrition,  the  particular  phe 
nomena  arising  either  from  some  morbid  con 
dition  of  the  blood  acting  upon  the  nervous 
centre  most  susceptible  to  its  influence,  or  from 
irritation  of  the  peripheral  nerves ;  he  believes 
a  gouty  diathesis  is  one  of  the  most  frequent 
sources  of  this  imperfect  nutrition. — The  prin 
ciples  of  treatment  are  threefold :  1,  to  improve 
the  nutrition  of  the  nervous  system  by  bring 
ing  the  blood  up  to  its  healthy  standard  by 
strengthening  diet,  hygienic  means,  and  the 
judicious  employment  of  tonics;  2,  to  remove 
all  irregularities  in  the  menstrual  or  other  func 
tions,  when  they  are  evident  exciting  causes  ; 
3,  to  act  upon  the  mind,  by  leading  the  patient 
to  repress  the  first  emotional  excitement  by 
the  force  of  the  will,  and  to  direct  the  atten 
tion  to  a  different  class  of  objects,  substituting 
a  pleasant  for  a  disagreeable  train  of  thought. 
The  attack  itself  requires  that  the  patient  should 
be  kept  from  injuring  herself,  and  the  removal 
of  all  constricting  garments,  fresh  air,  sprin 
kling  with  cold  water,  inspiration  of  ammonia 
or  other  strong  or  disagreeable  odors,  irritating 
the  nostrils  with  a  feather,  and  other  similar 
domestic  remedies.  To  prevent  a  return,  tran 
quillity  of  mind  and  habits  of  self-control  are 
the  best  remedies ;  any  disappointment,  whe 
ther  in  love,  business,  or  other  affairs  of  life, 
should  if  possible  be  removed  by  the  realiza 
tion  of  the  hopes ;  if  marriage  be  unadvisable, 
the  tendency  to  hysteric  attacks  will  often 
be  removed  by  the  change  of  air,  scene,  and 
habits  resulting  from  a  distant  journey ;  and 
a  similar  course  is  useful  to  distract  the  atten 
tion  from  other  consuming  cares  and  passions. 
HYTHE,  a  town  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  Kent,  England,  on  the  British  channel,  11 
m.  "W.  S.  W.  of  Dover ;  pop.  of  the  municipal 
borough  in  1871,  3,363.  It  is  one  of  the  cinque 
ports,  and  was  formerly  a  place  of  considerable 
importance ;  but  its  harbor  has  been  destroyed 
by  accumulations  of  matter  thrown  up  by  the 
waves,  and  it  is  now  a  fashionable  resort  for 
sea  bathing.  It  has  a  military  school  and  a 
theatre.  The  parliamentary  borough  includes 
Folkestone  and  several  smaller  places. 


I 


I   THE  9th  letter  of  the  Latin  and  of  most 
.  other  European  alphabets,  derived  from 
the  10th  Phoenician,  Hebrew,  &c.,  where  it  is 


named  yod  (Heb.  yad,  hand),  and  considered    the  llth  letter  in  Armenian,  the  28th  and  last 


as  a  consonant.  A  dot  under  other  consonants 
denotes  its  vocality  in  the  Hebrew,  and  other 
marks  in  the  other  Semitic  languages.  It  is 


IAMBLICHUS 


IBERIA 


141 


in  Arabic,  and  the  32d  and  last  in  Persian  and 
Turkish.  The  Greek  'Ifaa  is  the  9th  letter,  but 
10th  numeral  sign,  and  is  sometimes  subscribed 
to  three  vowels,  thus,  a,  y,  cj.  The  sound  of  this 
letter  is  the  highest  in  the  vocal  scale,  the  coun 
terpart  of  that  of  U  (00).  This  sound  (not  as 
pronounced  in  mine,  but  as  in  pique  or  pin)  is 
symbolic,  in  many  words  of  all  languages,  of 
what  is  little,  thin,  slim,  swift,  shrill,  light,  nit- 
ting  ;  this  property  is  mentioned  by  Plato.  It 
is  uttered  through  a  broad  but  very  thin  inter 
stice,  wRich  the  tongue  leaves  between  itself 
and  the  hard  palate  by  being  closely  raised  to 
ward  it  and  pressed  against  the  molar  teeth, 
while  the  larynx  is  raised  higher  than  in  the 
formation  of  any  other  vocal.  Hence  it  is  con 
sidered  as  a  palatal  by  John  Wallis,  and  as  a 
dental  by  C.  Amman.  Modern  Greeks  pro 
nounce  7],  ei,  OL,  v,  and  m  like  i ;  whereas  the 
ancients  made  at,  EL,  01,  and  m  diphthongal,  giv 
ing  to  the  v  a  sound  like  that  of  the  German  il, 
and  to  the  rj  that  of  German  a.  The  Romans 
used  I  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant ; 
since  they,  as  well  as  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews, 
and  Greeks,  knew  no  such  sounds  as  the  French 
and  English  give  to  J  (zli  and  dzli).  The  Ital 
ian  language  is  impaired  in  its  beauty  by  the 
frequency  of  I  in  its  grammatic  formations. 
In  Italian  it  is  also  used  for  softening  the  pro 
nunciation  of  c,  g,  and  sc.  In  Spanish  manu 
scripts  an  initial  I  is  always  written  Y,  for 
which  I  is  substituted  in  printing  except  where 
it  has  the  consonant  sound,  as  in  yerlta.  In 
English  the  diphthongal  sound  in  mine  (Ger. 
meiri)  is  taken  for  the  long  sound  of  I,  and  its 
genuine  long  sound  is  transferred  to  E,  as  in 
mete.  The  latter  sound,  long  and  short,  is 
written  in  many  different  ways,  some  only  in 
single  words ;  as  in  l)e,  lee,  sea,  people,  key,  ccecal, 
foetus,  seize,  mien,  marine;  pin-,  sieve,  forfeit, 
luild,  lynx,  women,  busy,  tortoise.  Its  English 
long  sound  is  written  in  10  ways,  as  in  mile, 
aisle,  lie,  height,  guide,  my,  ay,  eye,  buy,  rye. 
In  many  words,  like  bird,  stir,  I  has  the  sound 
of  U  in  fur.  The  consonantal  sound  of  I  is 
represented  by  J  in  Italian  and  in  German  and 
other  Teutonic  languages,  and  by  Y  in  French, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  English,  &c.  (See  J,  and 
Y.)  It  was  formerly  the  practice  to  class  words 
in  I  and  J  together  in  dictionaries  and  other  al 
phabetical  works ;  but  this  is  now  nearly  aban 
doned  in  all  languages. — In  Latin  abbreviations, 
I  stands  for  inv  ictus,  in,  infer  i,  lulius,  lunius, 
&c. ;  I.  C.  for  iuris  consultus,  &c.  During  the 
lethargy  of  literature  I  was  used  to  denote  100 ; 
but  in  the  Roman  numeration  it  stands  for  1. 
When  placed  before  another  numeral  it  is  sub 
tracted,  and  when  following  is  added;  as  IV, 
4;  VI,  6.  On  French  coins  it  denotes  Li 
moges  as  the  place  of  coinage. — In  music,  I 
is  the  name  of  the  9th  tie  on  the  neck  of  the 
lute  and  of  various  old  musical  instruments. 
Kirnberger,  Fasch,  and  other  organists  deno 
ted  by  it  a  by-tone  between  a  sharp  and  6  flat. 
lAMBLICIirS,  a  Xeo-Platonic  philosopher, 
born  in  Chalcis,  Coele-Syria,  flourished  in  the 


first  half  of  the  4th  century  A.  D.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Anatolius  and  Porphyry,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  latter  became  the  head  of  the 
school  in  Syria.  His  pupils  and  contempora 
ries  styled  him  the  "most  divine  teacher,"  and 
declared  him  the  equal  of  Plato.  Little  is 
known  of  his  life,  except  that  he  made  an  ex 
cursion  annually  to  the  hot  springs  of  Gadara, 
and  that  miraculous  acts  were  ascribed  to  him, 
which  reveal  the  tendency  of  the  Neo-Platonic 
school  at  this  time  to  combine  the  thaumaturge 
with  the  philosopher.  He  had  thoroughly 
studied  the  systems  of  Plato  and  Pythagoras, 
and  the  theology  and  philosophy  of  the  Chal 
deans  and  Egyptians,  and  his  speculations  pre 
sent  a  confusion  of  Hellenic  and  oriental  ideas. 
The  extant  books  of  his  work  on  the  Pytha 
gorean  philosophy  have  been  published  under 
different  titles ;  the  last  edition  of  the  1st 
(which  contains  the  life  of  Pythagoras)  and 
2d  is  by  Kiessling  (Leipsic,  1813-'15),  of  the 
3d  by  Fries  (Copenhagen,  1790),  of  the  4th 
by  Tennulius,  &c.  (Arnhem,  16G8),  and  of  the 
7th  by  Ast  (Leipsic,  1817).  His  work  on 
Egyptian  mysteries  was  published  by  Thomas 
Gale  (Oxford,  1G78).  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Taylor  the  Platonist  (Chiswick, 
1821),  who  also  translated  the  "Life  of  Py 
thagoras"  (London,  1818). 

IBARRA,  an  inland  town  of  Ecuador,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Imbabura,  55  m.  N.  by  E. 
of  Quito;  pop.  about  14,000.  It  is  delightfully 
situated  in  the  fertile  plain  of  Imbabura,  a  short 
distance  X.  of  the  volcano  of  that  name.  The 
streets  are  wide  and  regular,  and  many  of  the 
houses  well  built,  generally  of  adobes.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  governor's  residence, 
the  parish  church  in  the  public  square,  the  hos 
pital,  and  a  beautiful  pantheon.  There  are  a 
college  or  Latin  school  and  a  number  of  pri 
mary  and  grammar  schools  in  buildings  for 
merly  used  as  convents.  Sugar  of  excellent 
quality  is  manufactured;  also  cotton  and  wool 
len  stuffs,  very  tine  laces,  hats,  brandy,  cordials 
or  liqueurs,  and  sweetmeats ;  and  there  are 
extensive  salt  works.  The  city  was  almost 
totally  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1868. 

IBERIA.  I.  The  ancient  Greek  name  of  Spain. 
The  aboriginal  Iberi,  from  whom  the  name  was 
derived,  seem  to  have  occupied  the  entire  pen 
insula  from  the  strait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  Py 
renees,  until  the  date  of  the  Carthaginian  in 
vasion.  They  are  also  said  to  have  occupied 
southern  Gaul  as  far  as  the  Rhone,  where  they 
bordered  upon  the  Ligurians.  Ticknor  in  his 
"History  of  Spanish  Literature  "  says :  "The 
Iberians  are  the  oldest  of  the  occupants  of  the 
Spanish  soil,  and  the  people  who,  since  we  can 
go  back  no  further,  must  be  by  us  regarded  as 
the  original  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula.  They 
appear,  at  the  remotest  period  of  which  tradi 
tion  affords  us  any  notice,  to  have  been  spread 
over  the  whole  territory,  and  to  have  given  to 
its  mountains,  rivers,  and  cities  most  of  the 
names  they  still  bear ;  a  fierce  race,  whose 
power  has  never  been  entirely  broken  by  any 


IBERIA 


IBEX 


of  the  long  line  of  invaders  who  at  different 
times  have  occupied  the  rest  of  the  country." 
The  Iberians  maintained  an  active  commercial 
intercourse  with  the  Carthaginians,  and  dis 
played  great  activity  in  mining  and  much  ar 
tistic  skill  in  the  use  of  the  precious  metals. 
P.  A.  Boudard  has  published  a  work  on  the 
Iberian  alphabet  and  language  and  Iberian 
coins  (4to,  with  40  plates,  Beziers,  1859).  (See 
CELTIBEKI,  and  BASQUES.)  II.  The  ancient 
name  of  the  Caucasian  country  now  known  as 
Georgia.  This  country  was  bounded  by  the 
Caucasus,  Albania,  Armenia,  and  Colchis.  The 
Asiatic  Iberians  were  divided  into  four  castes. 

IBERIA,  a  S.  parish  of  Louisiana,  intersected 
by  Bayou  Teche,  and  partly  occupied  by  Lake 
Chetimaches  and  Vermillion  bay ;  area,  about 
600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,042,  of  whom  4,510 
were  colored.  Part  of  the  parish  consists  of 
an  island  lying  between  Vermillion  and  Cote 
Blanche  bays  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Tbe 
surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  alluvial  and  fer 
tile.  Salt  is  manufactured.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  115,843  bushels  of  In 
dian  corn,  12,414  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,297 
bales  of  cotton,  12,500  Ibs.  of  rice,  1,854  hogs 
heads  of  sugar,  and  102.495  gallons  of  molas 
ses.  There  were  1,271  horses,  834  mules  and 
asses,  6,543  cattle,  3,511  sheep,  and  1,569  swine. 
Capital,  New  Iberia. 

IBERIS.     See  EBRO. 

IBERYILLE,  a  S.  parish  of  Louisiana,  hound 
ed  W.  by  Atchafalaya  bayou  and  S.  E.  by  the 
Mississippi ;  area,  450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
12,347,  of  whom  8,675  were  colored.  It  has 
a  flat  surface,  and  is  frequently  inundated. 
The  lands  lying  near  the  rivers  are  fertile ;  the 
rest  of  the  parish  is  mostly  uncultivated.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  168,645  bush 
els  of  Indian  corn,  1,178  bales  of  cotton,  4,907 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  323,600  gallons  of 
molasses.  There  were  377  horses,  1,938  mules 
and  asses,  1,602  cattle,  1,483  sheep,  and  656 
swine.  Capital,  Plaquemines. 

IBERYILLE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec,  Cana 
da,  bounded  W.  by  Richelieu  river ;  area,  189 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1871,  15,413,  of  whom  13.971 
were  of  French  descent.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  Vermont  Central  and  the  Stanstead,  Shef- 
ford,  and  Chambly  railroads.  Capital,  St. 
Athanase. 

IBERYILLE,  Pierre  le  IHoyne,  si  cur  d',  a  Cana 
dian  naval  and  military  commander,  founder 
of  Louisiana,  born  in  Montreal,  July  16,  1661, 
died  in  Havana,  July  9,  1706.  He  was  one  of 
eleven  brothers,  most  of  whom  were  distin 
guished  in  French  colonial  affairs,  three  being 
killed  in  the  service.  (See  LE  MOYXE.)  Iber- 
ville  entered  tbe  French  navy  as  a  midshipman 
at  14,  became  captain  of  a  frigate  in  1692,  and 
captain  of  a  line-of -battle  ship  in  1702.  In 
1686  he  served  under  De  Troye  in  the  overland 
expedition  from  Canada  against  the  English 
forts  in  Hudson  bay,  was  at  the  taking  of  Fort 
Monsipi,  and,  having  with  his  brother  cap 
tured  two  vessels,  reduced  Fort  Quitchitchon- 


en.  He  was  there  again  in  1688-'9,  capturing 
two  English  vessels.  In  1690  he  was  one  of 
the  leaders  in  the  retaliatory  expedition  against 
Schenectady,  where  he  saved  the  life  of  John 
Sanders  Glen.  In  October,  1694,  he  took  Fort 
Nelson  on  Hudson  bay,  losing  his  brother 
Chateauguay  in  the  assault.  In  May,  1696,  he 
was  operating  on  the  bay  of  Fundy  with  three 
vessels ;  he  defeated  three  English  ships,  cap 
turing  the  .Newport  near  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
John's,  then  besieged,  took,  and  demolished 
Fort  Pemaquid,  and  ravaged  Newfoundland, 
taking  almost  all  the  English  posts.  Proceed 
ing  to  Hudson  bay  in  1697,  with  the  Pelican 
he  engaged  three  English  vessels,  defeated  them, 
and  reduced  Fort  Bourbon.  He  was  then  se 
lected  to  occupy  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
a  point  which  France  had  neglected  after  the 
death  of  La  Salle.  Iberville  sailed  from  Brest 
with  two  frigates,  Oct.  24, 1698,  stopped  at  San 
to  Domingo  and  at  Pensacola,  which  he  found 
occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  and  on  Jan.  31, 
1699,  anchored  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mobile  near 
Massacre  island.  He  then,  with  his  brother 
Bienville,  Pere  Anastase  Douay,  who  had  been 
with  La  Salle  on  his  last  voyage,  and  about  50 
men,  went  in  two  barges  to  seek  the  Missis 
sippi,  and  on  March  2  reached  its  mouth.  He 
ascended  to  the  Bayagoulas  and  Oumas,  and 
became  assured  that  he  was  really  on  the  Mis 
sissippi  by  receiving  from  the  Indians  a  letter 
left  by  Tonty  in  1686  for  La  Salle.  Returning 
to  his  ships,  Iberville  built  old  Fort  Biloxi,  the 
first  post  on  the  Mississippi,  placed  Sauvolle 
in  command,  and  made  his  brother  Bienville 
king's  lieutenant.  Early  in  May,  1699,  he  sailed 
for  France,  but  again  appeared  off  Biloxi  in 
the  Renommee,  Jan.  5,  1700.  He  then  began 
a  new  fort  on  the  Mississippi,  over  which  he 
placed  Bienville.  He  also  sent  Lesueur  with 
a  party  to  establish  a  post  at  the  copper  mines 
on  the  Mankato.  He  was  again  in  Louisiana 
in  December,  1701,  and  finding  the  colony  re 
duced  by  disease  he  transferred  the  settlement 
to  Mobile,  beginning  the  colonization  of  Ala 
bama.  He  also  occupied  Dauphin  or  Massacre 
island.  His  health  was  seriously  undermined 
by  fevers,  and  he  was  called  away  from  his 
Louisiana  projects  by  government.  In  1706, 
with  three  vessels,  he  reduced  the  island  of 
Nevis,  and  was  about  to  operate  on  the  coast 
of  Carolina,  when  he  was  seized  with  a  fatal 
malady  and  died  in  Havana. 

IBEX,  a  species  of  wild  goat,  inhabiting  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Switzerland,  the  Py 
renees,  the  Caucasus,  and  Abyssinia.  The  ge 
neric  characters  are  given  in  the  article  GOAT. 
The  common  ibex  or  steinbock  (capra  ibex, 
Linn.),  the  louquetin  of  the  Swiss  hunters,  is 
about  5  ft.  long  and  2|-  ft.  high  at  the  shoulders ; 
the  horns  are  large,  flat,  with  two  longitudinal 
ridges  at  the  sides  and  numerous  transverse 
knobs ;  at  first  nearly  vertical,  they  curve  back 
ward  and  outward  to  a  length  of  about  30  in. ; 
they  are  dark  colored  and  very  stout.  The 
color  of  the  adult  is  brownish,  with  a  gray  tint 


IBICUI 


IBIS 


143 


in  winter  and  reddish  in  summer;  the  hair  is 
short  and  thick ;  the  under  parts  are  whitish, 
and  the  dorsal  stripe  blackish  brown.  The 
period  of  gestation  is  about  160  days,  and  the 
young  are  usually  born  in  April.  They  prefer 
the  highest  and  most  inaccessible  mountains, 


Ibex  (Capra  ibex). 

near  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  are  ac 
cordingly  hunted  with  great  difficulty  and  dan 
ger.  The  Abyssinian  ibex  (C.  jaela,  II.  Smith), 
known  to  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  writers,  is 
rather  higher  than  the  preceding  species,  with 
longer  horns,  more  circular  and  less  divergent, 
rounded  in  front  and  marked  with  numerous 
transverse  ridges-  the  color  of  the  hair  is 
brownish  fawn,  with  a  dark  dorsal  line ;  under 
the  throat  and  neck  the  hair  is  lengthened.  The 
Caucasian  ibex  (C.  Caucasica,  Guld.)  is  broader 
and  shorter  than  the  European  species ;  the 
horns  are  triangular  with  distant  ridges,  very 
solid,  dark  brown,  and  about  28  in.  long.  The 
color  is  dark  brown  above,  head  grayish,  breast 
and  dorsal  line  blackish,  and  throat  whitish 
gray ;  the  hair  is  coarse,  having  at  the  roots  a 
grayish  wool.  All  these  animals  are  remark 
able  for  strength  and  agility,  making  immense 
bounds  among  the  most  dangerous  precipices ; 
they  are  said  to  fall  from  considerable  heights 
upon  the  horns,  when  pressed  by  the  hunter, 
and  apparently  receive  no  injury  from  the 
shock.  They  are  all  probably  more  or  less 
mixed  with  the  common  wild  goat  (C.  cegagrus} 
of  Europe,  and  have  contributed  largely  to  the 
production  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  the 
domestic  goat.  (See  GOAT.) 

IBItll,  a  river  of  Brazil  which  rises  in  the 
Serra  de  Santa  Anna,  province  of  liio  Grande 
do  Sul,  about  lat.  31°  20'  S.  and  Ion.  54°  30'  W., 
and  flows  first  due  N.,  under  the  name  of  San 
ta  Anna,  then  X.  W.  and  joins  the  Uruguay 
between  La  Cruz  and  Restoracion,  lat.  29°  S., 
after  a  course  of  some  400  m.  It  receives  on 
both  sides  the  waters  of  numerous  tributaries, 
VOL.  ix. — 10 


and  is  navigable  for  300  m.  by  barges  and  ca 
noes.     The  upper  branch  is  called  Ituzaingo. 

IBIS,  a  wading  bird  of  the  family  tantalidce, 
including  the  genera  ibis  (Moehr.)  and  geronti- 
cus  (Wagl.);  j;he  genus  tantalus  (Linn.)  will  be 
noticed  under  WOOD  IBIS.  The  genus  ibis  is 
characterized  by  a  lengthened,  slender  bill, 
curved  for  its  whole  length,  with  the  sides  com 
pressed  and  tip  obtuse ;  the  nostrils  are  in  a 
groove  which  extends  to  the  tip  of  the  upper 
mandible ;  forehead  and  base  of  bill,  to  behind 
the  eyes  and  on  the  chin,  in  most  species  bare ; 
wings  long  and  pointed,  the  first  and  second 
quills  equal  and  longest ;  tail  rather  short  and 
nearly  even ;  tibia  bare  for  half  its  length,  cov 
ered  with  hexagonal  scales ;  tarsi  slender,  longer 
than  the  middle  toe,  with  broad  transverse 
scales  in  front ;  toes  long  and  slender,  the  late 
ral  ones  united  to  the  middle  by  a  small  web ; 
hind  toe  long  and  slender,  claws  curved  and 
rather  weak.  There  are  about  half  a  dozen 
species,  of  which  three  are  found  in  the  United 
States.  The  red  or  scarlet  ibis  (/.  nibra,  Linn.) 
is  about  28  in.  long,  the  extent  of  wings  a  little 
over  3  ft.,  and  the  bill  G^  in.  The  color  is  a  uni 
form  bright  scarlet,  with  the  tips  of  the  outer 
primaries  black ;  in  the  young  the  color  is  ashy, 
darkest  above,  with  the  under  parts  and  rump 
white.  Its  natural  habitat  is  South  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  but  it  has  been  seen  in 
the  southern  states  by  Audubon ;  it  is  some 
times  called,  from  the  length  and  shape  of  the 


\ 


Scarlet  Ibis  (Ibis  rubra). 

bill,  the  pink  curlew.  The  white  ibis,  Spanish 
or  white  curlew  (/.  alba,  Linn.),  is  25  in.  long, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  40  in.,  and  the  bill 
7  in.  The  color  of  the  plumage  is  pure  white, 
with  the  tips  of  the  outer  five  primaries  shining 
greenish  black ;  the  bill  is  red,  entirely  so  in  the 
young  birds,  but  with  the  terminal  half  black 
in  the  adult ;  the  head  in  front  of  the  eye  is 
bare ;  the  young  birds  are  of  a  dull  brown  color, 
with  the  under  parts  and  rump  white.  This 
species  is  very  common  in  the  southern  Atlan 
tic  and  gulf  states,  occasionally  straggling  as 


IBIS 


IBRAHIM  PASHA 


far  north  as  New  Jersey.  They  breed  in  large 
companies  on  the  Florida  keys  on  trees;  the 
nest  is  about  15  in.  in  diameter,  formed  of  twigs 
and  roots,  flat  on  the  inside ;  the  eggs  are  three, 
and  are  laid  only  once  a  year,  2J  by  1%  in.,  dull 
white,  with  pale  yellow  blotches  and  reddish 
brown  spots ;  incubation  generally  takes  place 
between  the  10th  of  April  and  the  10th  of  May ; 
the  eggs  afford  excellent  eating,  though  the 
yolk  is  of  a  reddish  orange  color  when  boiled, 
and  the  white  a  liver-colored  jelly.  When 
breeding,  they  fly  in  liocks  of  several  hundreds 
to  the  mud  Hats,  sometimes  to  great  distances, 
where  they  feed  on  crabs,  crawfish,  and  other 
crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  aquatic  animals,  until 
the  tide  begins  to  come  in,  whether  by  day  or 
night.  The  night  is  rapid  and  well  sustained, 
effected  by  alternate  flappings  and  sailings; 
they  often  rise  very  high,  performing  beautiful 
evolutions.  They  are  fond  of  resorting  to 
ponds  or  lakes  in  the  woods,  and  often  breed 
in  such  localities  more  than  300  m.  from  the 
sea ;  though  not  taking  naturally  to  the  water, 
they  can  swim  tolerably  well  when  forced  to  it ; 
the  walk  is  light  and  graceful.  The  flesh  has  a 
very  fishy  taste,  and  is  rarely  eaten  except  by 
the  Indians.  The  glossy  ibis  (/.  Ordi,  Bonap.) 
is  a  smaller  species,  being  about  21  in.  long, 
with  a  bill  of  4£  in. ;  the  general  color  is  chest 
nut  brown,  with  the  back  and  top  of  head  me 
tallic  green  glossed  with  purple ;  the  feathers 
continue  almost  to  the  bill,  which  is  of  a  dusky 
black  color.  It  exists  in  great  numbers  in  Mex 
ico,  and  it  has  been  procured  as  far  north  as 
Massachusetts.  The  green  ibis  (/.  falcinellus, 
Linn.)  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe  and 
northern  Africa ;  it  much  resembles  the  glossy 
ibis,  bein,g  purplish  brown,  with  a  deep  green 
mantle  ;  in  the  young  birds  the  head" and  neck 
are  pointed  with  whitish.  These  ibises  all  live 
in  warm  climates,  performing  their  annual  mi 
grations,  and  are  generally  seen  on  lands  re 
cently  inundated,  and  on  river  banks,  seeking 
for  worms,  snails,  crustaceans,  insects,  and  the 
roots  of  bulbous  plants,  or  on  the  sea  coast  as 
above  mentioned. — The  genus  yeronticus  has  a 
stronger  bill,  a  longer  and  broader  tail  (the  [ 
third  and  fourth  quills  the  longest),  the  tarsi 
and  toes  stouter,  and  the  head  and  neck  more 
denuded  of  feathers  than  in  the  preceding  ge 
nus;  in  some  of  the  species  the  scapulars  are 
long,  and  consist  of  decomposed  plumes.  There 
are  about  20  species,  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  Africa,  Asia,  and  South  America,  of  which 
only  one  will  be  mentioned  here,  the  sacred 
ibis  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  (G-.  ^Ethiopicus,  I 
Lath.).  It  is  about  as  large  as  a  domestic  fowl ;  j 
the  plumage  is  white,  with  the  ends  of  the 
quills,  the  elongated  barbs  of  some  of  the  wing 
coverts  extending  over  the  wings  and  tail,  bill, 
feet,  and  naked  part  of  the  head  and  neck, 
black ;  it  is  found  throughout  northern  Africa. 
This  bird  was  reared  in  the  temples  of  ancient 
Egypt  with  the  greatest  care,  and  was  em 
balmed  ;  it  was  forbidden  to  kill  one  on  pain 
of  death.  This  superstitious  people  reverenced  \ 


the  ibis,  not  because  they  supposed  that  it  de 
stroyed  noxious  reptiles,  or  that  there  was  any 
relation  between  the  changes  of  its  plumage 
and  the  phases  of  the  moon,  but  because  they 
associated  its  annual  appearance  with  the  pe 
riod  of  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  the  source 


Sacred  Ibis  (Geronticus  ^Ethiopicus). 

of  the  fertility  and  healthfulness  of  the  land ; 
the  crafty  priests  led  the  people  to  believe  that 
the  increase  of  the  river,  which  brought  the 
birds  there  in  search  of  food,  was  the  conse 
quence  instead  of  the  cause  of  their  visit ;  the 
educated  class  regarded  the  ibis  as  the  harbin 
ger  of  the  fruitful  epoch  of  their  year,  as  we 
look  upon  the  coming  of  the  bluebird  and  the 
swallow  as  the  signs  of  spring.  A  black  ibis 
was  also  honored  and  embalmed.  The  flight 
of  these  birds  is  powerful  and  high,  with  the 
neck  and  feet  extended  horizontally,  and  ac 
companied  by  occasional  harsh  cries.  They 
probe  the  mud  with  their  bills  in  search  of  in 
sects,  worms,  mollusks,  &c.,  advancing  by  slow 
steps ;  they  arrive  in  Egypt  when  the  Nile  be 
gins  to  increase,  and  migrate  about  the  end  of 
June,  not  nesting  in  that  country;  they  are 
caught  in  great  numbers  by  the  modern  Egyp 
tians  in  nets,  and  their  bodies  are  frequently 
exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets.  Both  species 
usually  go  in  small  flocks.  All  the  species 
have  the  same  habits,  frequenting  both  over 
flowed  lands  and  dry  open  plains;  they  some 
times  devour  frogs  and  small  aquatic  lizards, 
but  do  not  destroy  serpents  as  Herodotus  and 
many  writers  since  have  maintained ;  when 
satiated  with  food  they  perch  on  high  trees, 
and  are  very  watchful ;  the  nest  is  either  on  a 
decayed  tree  or  on  the  ground,  and  the  eggs 
are  two  or  three  in  number.  For  full  details 
on  the  sacred  ibis,  see'Savigny's  Histoire  natu- 
rclle  de  rib  is  (8vo,  Paris,  1805). 

IBN  BATITA.     See  BATUTA. 

IBRAHIM  PASHA,  an  Egyptian  viceroy,  the 
son,  or  according  to  some  the  adopted  son,  of 


IBRAHIM  PASHA 


ICA 


145 


Mehemet  Ali,  born  at  Kavala,  a  village  of  Rou- 
melia,  in  1789,  died  in  Cairo,  Nov.  9,  1848. 
His  youth,  from  his  16th  year,  was  spent  in 
command  of  the  troops  in  Upper  Egypt,  and 
in  lighting  the  wild  tribes  of  that  region.  In 
1812  he  reduced  by  famine  the  fortress  of  Ibrim 
in  Nubia,  the  refuge  of  the  last  remnants  of 
the  Mamelukes.  In  September,  1810,  he  in 
vaded  Arabia  at  the  head  of  the  third  army 
sent  to  reduce  the  Wahabees,  and  displayed 
equal  skill,  courage,  perseverance,  and  cruelty 
in  organizing  his  heterogeneous  forces,  and 
creating  victory  out  of  defeat.  After  taking 
many  strongholds,  he  laid  siege  to  the  Wahabee 
capital,  which  he  compelled  to  surrender.  He 
returned  to  Cairo  in  1819,  and,  under  the  gui 
dance  of  a- French  officer,  created  an  army  dis 
ciplined  and  equipped  after  the  European 
fashion.  In  August,  1824,  he  set  sail  with  a 
formidable  fleet  and  IT, 000  troops  for  Greece, 
to  aid  in  suppressing  the  insurrection  there. 
His  army  gained  many  successes,  and  devasta 
ted  the  Peloponnesus  with  great  cruelty.  The 
European  powers  intervened,  and  his  fleet  was 
destroyed  at  Navarino,  Oct.  20,  1827,  by  the 
combined  squadrons  of  Russia,  France,  and 
England ;  and  in  1828  he  was  recalled  to  Egypt 
by  the  peremptory  order  of  Mehemet  Ali. 
There  again  he  busied  himself  in  organizing  an 
army,  and  in  creating,  with  the  aid  of  French 
engineers,  a  fleet  superior  to  that  which  he  had 
lost  at  Navarino.  Both  were  ready  in  1831, 
when  the  disobedience  of  the  pasha  of  Acre 
furnished  Mehemet  Ali  the  desired  opportunity 
of  invading  Syria.  Ibrahim,  to  whom  the  ex 
pedition  Avas  intrusted,  lost  5,000  men  by  chol 
era  before  he  could  leave  Egypt.  On  Nov.  29 
he  laid  siege  to  Acre,  having  terrified  into  sur 
render  Gaza,  Jaffa,  and  K'aiffa.  A  Turkish 
army  came  to  the  relief  of  Acre,  and  was  sur 
prised  and  routed  by  Ibrahim  near  Tripoli,  and 
on  May  27,  1832,  he  carried  Acre  by  storm. 
He  pushed  on  immediately  for  Aleppo.  Da 
mascus  opened  its  gates  to  him.  The  Turks 
were  again  defeated  at  Horns,  and  afterward  at 
Hamah,  and  finally  the  fall  of  Aleppo  left  him 
master  of  Syria.  Pursuing  the  Turks,  he  over 
took  and  routed  them  at  Adana.  Meanwhile 
his  fleet  had  driven  that  of  the  Turks  to  seek 
refuge  beneath  the  forts  o^  Constantinople. 
Having  obtained  another  brilliant  victory  at 
TJlu  Kislak,  he  marched  to  Konieh,  where  on 
Dec.  20  he  found  himself  confronting  00,000 
Turks  commanded  by  Reshid  Pasha.  Though 
the  Egyptians  were  not  half  as  numerous,  they 
routed  the  Turks  completely,  and  the  grand 
vizier  himself  was  taken  prisoner  with  im 
mense  booty.  His  father's  commands  obliged 
him  to  wait  for  reinforcements,  instead  of 
marching  on  Constantinople.  This  delay  ena 
bled  the  sultan  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  czar ; 
and  on  Feb.  20,  1833,  a  Russian  fleet  cast  an 
chor  in  the  Bosporus.  The  western  powers 
interfered,  and  a  peace  was  concluded,  leaving 
to  Mehemet  Ali  the  government  of  Syria  and 
the  pashalic  of  Adana.  Ibrahim  governed  these 


provinces  with  firmness,  repressed  disorders, 
and  encouraged  agriculture,  industry,  and  com 
merce.  The  resentment  of  the  sultan  led  in 
1839  to  a  renewal  of  hostilities,  which  resulted 
in  another  crushing  defeat  by  Ibrahim  of  the 
Turkish  forces,  at  Nizib,  on  June  24.  Here 
again,  obedient  to  his  father's  order,  and  in 
compliance  with  the  request  of  the  French 
government,  he  stopped  short  in  his  course  of 
victory.  A  treaty  concluded  July  15,  1840, 
between  the  Porte  and  the  western  powers 
(without  the  knowledge  of  France),  stipulated 
that  Mehemet  Ali  should  either  consent  to  limit 
his  authority  to  Palestine,  or  be  compelled  to 
do  so  by  the  united  forces  of  England  and 
Austria.  An  insurrection  broke  out  among 
the  mountain  tribes  of  the  Lebanon  and  spread 
rapidly  on  every  side.  Beyrout,  after  a  bom 
bardment  of  nine  days,  was  evacuated  by  the 
Egyptian  garrison,  Sidon  yielded  without  re 
sistance,  St.  Jean  d'Acre  surrendered  after 
three  hours'  fire ;  the  whole  coast  of  Syria  was 
in  possession  of  the  English,  and  Commodore 
Napier,  anchoring  in  the  bay  of  Alexandria, 
sent  an  ultimatum  which  Mehemet  Ali  accept 
ed.  Ibrahim,  who  had  fallen  back  to  Damas 
cus,  and  found  his  position  extremely  difficult, 
was  now  commanded  to  evacuate  Syria.  This 
retreat,  conducted  with  consummate  ability, 
but  with  great  losses,  closed  his  military  career. 
Thereafter  he  devoted  his  whole  time  to  the 
culture  of  his  immense  estates  on  the  plain  of 
Ileliopolis,  until  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
government  on  the  retirement  of  his  father  in 
1844.  His  own  infirmities,  however,  compelled 
him  to  seek  a  more  temperate  climate  and  the 
medical  skill  of  western  Europe.  Returning 
to  Egypt,  he  began  several  reforms  suggested 
by  what  he  had  observed  during  his  travels; 
but  a  violent  attack  of  dysentery  again  forced 
him  to  a  change  of  climate,  and  he  spent  the 
winter  of  1847-'8  in  Italy.  He  went  to  Con 
stantinople  in  July,  1848,  where  he  was  con 
firmed  in  his  rank  of  viceroy. 

IBKAILA.     See  BRAILA. 

IBYCUS,  a  Greek  lyric  poet  who  lived  in 
the  middle  of  the  Oth  century  B.  C.  He  was 
a  native  of  Rhegium  in  Italy,  and  lived  at  the 
court  of  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Samos.  It  is 
narrated  that  while  travelling  near  Corinth 
he  was  mortally  wounded  by  robbers,  and  in 
voked  a  flock  of  cranes,  then  passing  over 
head,  to  avenge  his  death.  The  cranes  directed 
their  flight  to  Corinth,  and  hovered  over  the 
people  in  the  theatre.  The  murderers  were 
present,  and  one  of  them  on  seeing  the  cranes 
exclaimed  involuntarily,  "  Behold  the  avengers 
of  Ibycus."  This  led  to  an  inquiry,  and  to  the 
punishment  of  the  assassins.  The  poetry  of 
Ibycus  was  mostly  erotic,  but  sometimes  myth 
ical  and  heroic.  But  a  few  fragments  of  his 
works  are  in  existence,  the  best  edition  of  which 
is  that  of  Schneidewin  (Gottingen,  1835). 

ICA,  an  inland  town  of  Peru,  capital  of  a  dis 
trict  of  the  same  name,  in  the  department  and 
170  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Lima ;  pop.  about 


146 


ICARUS 


ICE 


7,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  sandy  plain,  and  the 
heat  is  excessive  ;  nevertheless,  lea  exports  im 
mense  quantities  of  wheat  and  other  grains, 
exquisite  olive  oil,  and  superior  wines  and 
brandies,  through  its  port,  Pisco,  48  m.  JST.  N.W., 
to  which  place  a  railway  has  been  in  operation 
since  1872.  The  cost  of  the  line  was  $1,364,- 
062  50.  An  extensive  trade  is  also  carried  on 
in  fish  taken  on  the  Pacific  coast.  There  are 
several  schools,  which  are  well  attended.  In 
the  adjacent  district  are  found  species  of  stones 
called  dentritis,  which  when  polished  present 
curious  views  of  trees,  plants,  edifices,  &c. 

ICARl'S.     See  DAEDALUS. 

ICE,  water  or  other  fluid  solidified  by  freez 
ing.  Various  liquids  become  partially  solid  at 
low  temperatures,  but  this  is  commonly  owing 
to  the  water  of  which  they  are  in  part  com 
posed  ;  and  none  of  them  produce  a  clear  uni 
form  solid  like  that  of  frozen  water.  At  32° 
F.  under  ordinary  circumstances  water  begins 
to  crystallize.  Slender  prisms,  usually  of  six 
sides,  and  terminated  by  six-sided  pyramids, 
form  in  it,  and  arrange  themselves  in  lines 
crossing  each  other  at  angles  of  60°  and  120°. 
The  presence  of  salts  in  solution  impedes  this 
process,  and  when  at  last  it  takes  place  at  a 
temperature  below  32°,  the  greater  portion  of 
the  foreign  matter  is  excluded  from  the  ice, 
which  consequently  is  nearer  the  composition 
of  pure  water.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this  in 
some  operations  designed  to  concentrate  the 
strength  of  liquors,  as  of  vinegar,  the  portion 
that  first  crystallizes  by  cold  being  removed, 
and  leaving  the  residue  less  diluted.  Pure 
water  contained  in  a  polished  vessel  and  kept 
perfectly  quiet  may  be  reduced  to  several  de 
grees  below  the  freezing  point  without  freez 
ing;  but  agitation  or  the  introduction  of  for 
eign  bodies  will  cause  congelation  to  take  place 
suddenly,  and  as  the  ice  is  formed  latent  heat 
is  liberated,  and  the  temperature  rises  to  32°. 
Saline  solutions  sometimes  exhibit  a  similar 
reluctance  to  deposit  their  salts  in  crystalline 
form  even  when  reduced  by  evaporation  below 
their  point  of  saturation;  and  in  these  cases 
crystallization  is  often  suddenly  induced  by 
the  same  methods  that  cause  the  water  to  con 
geal.  From  about  39°  water  expands  as  its  tem 
perature  is  reduced,  with  the  exertion  of  pro 
digious  force.  A  hollow  globe  of  brass  with  a 
cavity  only  an  inch  in  diameter,  filled  with  wa 
ter,  has  been  burst  by  the  freezing  of  this,  ex 
erting  a  force,  as  estimated,  of  27,720  Ibs.  The 
effect  of  this  property  is  seen  in  the  tenden 
cy  of  ice  to  plough  up  the  banks  of  ponds,  to 
split  off  masses  of  rock  from  mountain  cliffs, 
and  to  loosen  and  pulverize  the  soil  through 
which  it  is  diffused.  The  effect  last  named  is 
not  perceived  till  the  thaws  of  spring,  when 
the  frost  is  said  to  come  out  of  the  ground. 
This  force  has  been  artificially  applied  to  split 
ting  rocks  and  trunks  of  trees  by  allowing 
water  to  freeze  in  their  fissures.  This  expan 
sion,  estimated  by  Boyle  at  one  ninth  the  ori 
ginal  volume,  gives  to  ice  less  density  than  that 


of  water,  so  that  it  floats.  Its  specific  gravity 
by  this  estimate  should  be  0*9 ;  M.  Brunner  in 
his  series  of  experiments  found  it  to  vary  from 
0-918  at  0°  C.  to  0-92025  at  —20°  0.  But  for 
this  exception,  which  is  however  not  a  singu 
lar  one,  to  the  usual  law  of  increase  of  density 
by  reduction  of  temperature,  ice  as  it  forms 
would  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  there  accumu 
late  beyond  the  reach  of  atmospheric  heat; 
great  collections  of  water  would  be  chilled 
throughout,  and  their  fitness  for  sustaining  life 
in  cold  regions  be  entirely  destroyed.  But  as 
the  ice,  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  covers  the 
water,  it  serves  as  a  protecting  sheet  to  retain 
the  warmth  below,  and  preserve  the  water 
from  the  extreme  temperature  that  prevails 
above.  As  the  cold  increases,  the  solid  ice  is 
found  to  be  subject  to  the  usual  law,  contract 
ing  as  found  by  .Brunner  more  than  other 
solids ;  and  upon  ponds  in  excessively  cold 
weather  it  contracts,  and  in  shrinking  parts 
asunder  in  the  weakest  places  with  loud  re 
ports.  A  form  of  ice  called  anchor  ice  is  often 
seen  in  cold  weather  attached  to  objects  at  the 
bottom  of  streams.  Its  character  is  explained 
by  Prof.  Dewey  on  the  supposition  that  the 
whole  body  of  water  is  cooled  below  the  freez 
ing  point,  but  under  conditions  of  quietness 
opposed  to  the  formation  of  ice.  The  sub 
stances  at  the  bottom  serve  as  points  of  con 
gelation,  like  those  introduced  into  saline  solu 
tions  to  cause  crystallization  to  take  place,  and 
ice  forms  upon  them.  It  is  observed  to  gather 
in  a  clear  cold  night,  when  the  surface  of  the 
water  is  not  frozen,  and  its  temperature  is  at 
the  freezing  point,  that  of  the  air  being  still 
lower.  The  layers  of  ice  are  sometimes  3  in. 
thick ;  and  as  soon  as  they  are  detached  from 
the  bodies  which  hold  them  down  they  rise  to 
the  surface.  In  some  of  the  crevasses  of  the 
Alpine  glaciers  immense  icicles  from  20  to  30 
ft.  long  were  found  by  Tyndall,  hanging  from 
the  coping  of  snow  which  lines  the  edges  of 
the  chasms.  Near  the  poles,  and  on  moun 
tains  at  a  certain  height  in  all  latitudes,  there 
are  immense  masses  of  what  may  be  considered 
permanent  ice ;  and  there  are  said  to  be  places 
in  Siberia,  even  where  there  is  a  limited  cul 
ture  of  the  ground,  where  ice  is  always  found 
at  a  certain  depth  below  the  surface.  In  a 
well  which  was  sunk  at  Yakutsk  the  earth  was 
found  firmly  frozen  to  the  depth  of  382  ft., 
some  of  the  strata  being  entirely  of  ice.  From 
the  exposed  polar  ice  fields  and  glaciers  great 
masses  become  detached  and  form  icebergs. 
(See  ICERERGS.) — The  regelation  of  ice,  a  phe 
nomenon  first  distinctly  observed  by  Faraday, 
has  recently  attracted  much  attention,  espe 
cially  in  regard  to  a  controversy  on  the  subject 
of  glaciers.  Regelation  takes  place  between 
blocks  of  ice  where  they  are  strongly  pressed 
together,  even  in  warm  water,  and  in  cold 
water  it  will  take  place  when  the  masses  only 
touch  each  other.  When  fragments  of  ice  are 
subjected  to  pressure  in  a  mould,  they  may  be 
formed  into  a  solid  block.  When  but  little 


ICE 


147 


pressure  is  used,  it  is  necessary  that  the  ice 
should  be  but  little  below  the  freezing  point. 
This  is  the  explanation  of  snow-ball  making. 
As  the  freezing  point  of  water  is  lowered  by 
pressure,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  this  for 
mation  of  solid  blocks  from  fragments  may 
take  place.  A  certain  degree  of  viscosity,  ap 
proaching  liquefaction,  is  produced,  by  which 
the  particles  are  reunited,  and  are  firmly  held 
as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  removed  or  lessened. 
The  motions  of  glaciers,  attended  as  they  are 
by  alterations  in  the  form  of  immense  masses 
of  ice,  is  explained  by  this  property  that  ice 
has  of  liquefying  under  enormous  pressure. 
Mountains  of  ice  squeezed  into  crevasses  must 
exert  a  force  which  we  probably  cannot  pro 
duce  by  any  artificial  means,  and  as  a  conse 
quence  the  ice  may  be  made  viscous  when  at 
a  temperature  considerably  below  the  freezing 
point.  For  other  properties  of  ice,  see  GLA 
CIER,  Sxow,  and  FREEZING,  ARTIFICIAL. — ICE 
TRADE.  Ice  was  little  known  as  an  article  of 
commerce  until  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century.  In  the  17th  century  its  use  was  so 
common  in  France  that  many  dealt  in  it  and  in 
snow,  gathering  these  in  winter  and  packing 
them  closely  in  pits  surrounded  with  straw  or 
other  non-conducting  substances  and  protected 
from  the  air.  The  Italian  peasants  also  have 
long  found  a  profitable  business  in  collecting 
the  snow  upon  the  Apennines  and  storing  it 
in  the  caves  of  these  mountains  to  supply  the 
large  demand  at  Naples.  The  bodies  of  ice 
found  in  the  recesses  of  Mount  Etna,  and  ex 
cavated  sometimes  from  beneath  beds  of  lava 
which  have  flowed  over  them,  are  noticed  in 
the  article  ETNA.  In  the  last  century  the 
gathering  and  storing  of  ice  for  summer  use  is 
known  to  have  been  practised  in  some  of  the 
middle  states  of  the  American  Union,  the  re 
ceptacles  for  preserving  it  being  deep  cellars, 
placed  so  as  to  be  readily  drained,  or  from 
which  the  water  was  pumped  out  as  it  collect 
ed  ;  but  though  most  wanted  in  countries 
where  it  is  not  naturally  produced,  no  attempts 
had  been  made  to  transport  it  by  sea.  This 
was  first  done  by  Mr.  Frederick  Tudor  of  Bos 
ton,  who  sailed  with  a  cargo  of  130  tons  in 
his  own  brig  to  Martinique  in  1805.  lie  perse 
vered  in  the  business,  though  making  little  or  no 
profit,  till  after  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812.  In 
1815  he  obtained  the  monopoly  of  the  Havana 
business  and  important  privileges  from  the 
Cuban  government.  In  1817  lie  introduced 
the  trade  into  Charleston,  S.  C.,  the  next  year 
into  Savannah,  and  in  1820  into  New  Orleans. 
Frequent  disasters  attended  his  enterprises,  and 
in  1832  his  entire  shipments  amounted  to  only 
4,352  tons,  the  whale  of  which  came  from 
Fresh  pond  in  Cambridge.  In  May,  1833,  he 
sent  the  first  cargo  of  ice  to  the  East  Indies, 
which  was  delivered  at  Calcutta  in  the  autumn 
of  that  year.  Of  180  tons,  one  third  was  wast 
ed  on  the  voyage,  and  20  tons  more  in  going 
up  the  Ganges.  It  was  packed  in  large  blocks 
closely  fitted  together  between  a  double  plank 


casing  filled  in  with  dry  tan.     The  ice  was  sold 
immediately  at  half  the  cost  of  that  prepared 
by  the  natives.     At  the  present  time  a  waste 
of  about  one  half  is  generally  expected  on  this 
voyage.     In  1834  the  first  cargo  was  shipped 
by  Mr.  Tudor  to  Brazil.    Until  1836  he  conduct 
ed  the  whole  trade ;  but  as  it  became  profitable 
others  began  to  enter  into  it,  and  from  other 
!  ports  besides  Boston.     That  port,  however,  still 
I  has  the  great  bulk  of  the  trade,  the  shipments 
I  having  been  as  follows,  according  to  the  incom 
plete  returns  that  have  been  preserved : 


In  1805  
'•  1816 

130  tons. 
1  200  " 

In  1866  
"  1S68  

.  124,751  tons. 
.  105.818  u 

"  1826 

4  000  " 

"  1870 

73  803  " 

"  1836 

.  12  000  " 

"  1871  

.  109.298  " 

"  1846  
"  1856  

.  65,000  " 
.  146,000  " 

"  1872  
"  1873  

.  98,659  " 
.  81,266  lt 

Of  the  amount  shipped  in  1873,  30,333  tons 
went  to  coastwise  and  50,933  tons  to  foreign 
ports.  The  total  exports  from  the  United  States 
to  foreign  ports  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1873,  were  53,553  tons,  valued  at  $188,095,  of 
which  48,890  tons,  valued  at  $175,848,  were 
from  Boston ;  14,449  tons  were  shipped  to 
Cuba,  13,342  to  the  East  Indies,  10,186  to  the 
British  West  Indies  and  British  Honduras,  4,392 
to  British  Guiana,  and  the  rest  to  other  por 
tions  of  the  West  Indies,  South  America,  &c. 
Into  the  interior  ice  has  been  carried  by  rail 
road  in  considerable  quantity  as  far  as  Knox- 
ville,  Tenn.  Some  ice  was  formerly  shipped 
to  England,  but  the  British  market  is  now  en 
tirely  supplied  from  Norway,  the  Norwegian 
ice  being  cheaper  than  the  American,  though  of 
inferior  quality.  The  imports  into  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1872  amounted  to  139,421  tons, 
valued  at  £128,251.  The  chief  difficulty  in  es 
tablishing  the  ice  business  in  warm  countries 
has  been  the  necessity  of  constructing  houses 
especially  adapted  for  preserving  the  ice  ;  and 
these  to  be  profitable  must  be  upon  a  large 
scale.  One  of  these  erected  in  1845  at  Cal 
cutta,  by  Mr.  Wyeth  of  Cambridge,  covered 
more  than  three  fourths  of  an  acre,  and  was 
capable  of  holding  30,000  tons  of  ice.  Its  walls 
of  brick  were  triple,  with  flues  or  air  spaces 
between;  their  length  was  198  by  178  ft.,  and 
their  height  40  ft.  The  building  was  covered 
by  five  roofs,  and  between  every  two  contigu 
ous  ones  wrere  air  spaces. — New  York  city  is 
supplied  with  ice  chiefly  from  small  lakes  near 
the  Hudson  river,  or  from  the  river  itself  above 
Newburgh.  The  whole  amount  gathered  when 
the  season  is  favorable  is  about  1,160,000  tons, 
of  which  200,000  tons  are  from  the  lakes  (Rock- 
land  lake  in  Orange  co.  supplying  80,000  tons), 
and  the  rest  from  the  river.  Deducting  one 
third  for  wastage,  Ave  have  774,000  tons,  the 
amount  required  to  supply  the  present  demand 
of  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  The  demand  in 
creases  at  the  rate  of  about  70,000  tons  a  year. 
With  the  growth  of  the  business  upon  the  coast 
it  has  also  spread  in  the  interior,  where,  espe 
cially  near  the  large  towns,  the  gathering  of 
ice  is  now  an  important  business.  The  great 


148 


ICE 


ICEBERGS 


lakes  furnish  supplies  which  are  carried  by  rail 
road  to  the  cities  lying  south,  and  through 
the  Illinois  river  ice  is  sent  down  the  Missis 
sippi.  In  the  autumn  the  ice  boats  come  up 
to  the  vicinity  of  Peru,  111.,  where  they  are 
allowed  to  be  frozen  in.  In  the  winter  they 
are  filled,  and  in  the  spring  when  the  ice  breaks 
up  they  float  down  with  their  freight.  The  ice 
produced  in  deep  ponds  by  the  severe  cold 
weather  of  New  England  is  particularly  adapt 
ed  by  its  hardness  and  compactness  to  keep 
well,  while  the  purity  of  the  water  gives  it 
clearness  and  renders  it  especially  agreeable. 
The  ice  obtained  from  the  Kennebec  river  is 
most  celebrated.  That  formed  upon  the  shal 
low  waters  of  Great  Britain  is  found  to  be 
porous  and  very  inferior  in  durability  to  that 
from  the  United  States  of  the  same  thickness. 
— The  methods  of  gathering  and  storing  ice  ar6 
entirely  American.  When  the  ice  is  9  in.  to  a 
foot  thick,  or  if  for  exportation  20  in.  thick, 
the  snow,  if  there  be  any,  is  cleared  off  the 
surface  with  wooden  scrapers,  each  drawn  by 
one  horse.  Another  scraper  armed  *vith  a 
steel  blade  planes  off  the  porous  upper  layer  to 
the  depth  of  3  in.  or  more  if  necessary.  The 
surface  is  then  marked  off  in  large  squares  by 
a  sort  of  plough  drawn  by  a  horse,  which  cuts 
a  groove  about  3  in.  deep.  A  machine  some 
what  like  a  harrow,  with  three  or  more  paral 
lel  rows  of  teeth,  which  may  be  22  in.  apart,  is 
next  drawn  along  the  lines  already  made,  one 
row  of  teeth  running  in  the  grooves  as  a  guide ; 
and  as  many  more  cuts  are  made  as  there  are 
more  rows  of  teeth.  This  is  repeated  upon  the 
cross  lines,  and  the  whole  area  is  thus  cut  into 
small  squares.  If  necessary,  a  deeper  plough 
is  afterward  run  through  all  the  grooves  to  in 
crease  their  depth.  A  row  of  blocks  is  then 
sawn  out  by  hand,  and  being  taken  out  or 
thrust  under  the  others,  room  is  made  for 
splitting  off  the  adjoining  squares,  which  is 
done  by  an  ice  spade  dropped  into  the  grooves. 
In  very  cold  weather  the  ice  yields  readily  to  a 
slight  wedging  force.  The  blocks  are  some 
times  floated  through  the  canals  opened  in  the 
ice  to  the  shore,  where  they  are  hoisted  out ; 
and  they  are  also  sometimes  jerked  with  a 
hook  at  the  end  of  a  pole  up  a  slide  upon  a 
platform  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  opening, 
and  from  this  platform  they  are  slid  along  on 
the  sleds  which  convey  them  away.  At  the 
ice  houses  the  blocks  are  raised  often  by  steam 
power  up  an  inclined  plane  to  the  top  of  the 
building,  and  thence  let  down  another  plane  to 
any  part  within  where  it  is  required  for  pack 
ing.  The  storehouses,  huge  wooden  buildings 
without  windows  standing  around  the  edges 
of  the  ponds  or  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers, 
present  a  very  singular  appearance.  They  are 
from  100  to  200  ft.  long  and  very  broad,  with 
a  capacity  sometimes  exceeding  20,000  tons. 
One  at  Athens  on  the  Hudson  holds  58,000 
tons,  and  two  at  Eockland  lake  in  Orange 
co.,  N.  Y.,  hold  40,000  tons  each.  Around 
Fresh  pond  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  there  is  a 


large  number  of  these  buildings.  Between 
their  walls  they  are  filled  in  with  saw  dust.  As 
the  season  of  the  ice  harvest  is  short  and  uncer 
tain,  the  gathering  of  the  crop  is  conducted 
with  the  greatest  activity  at  favorable  times. 

ICEBERGS,  and  lee  Islands,  floating  masses  of 
ice  gathered  on  the  coast  of  polar  regions,  and 
set  adrift  by  force  of  winds  and  currents. 
Many  icebergs  are  produced  from  glaciers, 
which,  thrust  down  from  the  elevated  snowy 
lands  in  the  interior,  are  moved  onward  into 
the  deep  waters,  where  the  fragments  broken 
off  from  the  advance  border  are  floated  away. 
The  edges  of  glaciers  extending  many  miles 
along  a  precipitous  coast  have  been  seen  to  fall 
with  terrific  violence  into  the  sea  beneath,  and 
at  once  be  transformed  into  floating  islands  of 
ice.  These  carry  with  them  the  masses  of  rock 
gathered  up  by  the  ice  in  its  progress  as  a  gla 
cier,  and  transport  them  to  new  localities  in 
warmer  latitudes.  (See  DILUVIUM,  and  GLA 
CIER.)  Ice  islands  of  vast  extent  are  also  pro 
duced  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  great  fields 
of  sea-made  ice  which  accumulate  along  the 
shores  of  the  frigid  waters.  In  1817  the  ice 
covering  several  thousand  square  miles  of  the 
sea  1ST.  of  Iceland,  and  chiefly  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Greenland,  most  of  which,  it  is  believed,  had 
not  been  moved  for  nearly  400  years,  was  sud 
denly  broken  up  and  dispersed  over  the  waters 
of  the  North  Atlantic.  Portions  of  it  were 
carried  far  to  the  eastward  of  the  usual  range 
of  icebergs  from  the  north,  and  approached 
within  800  m.  of  Ireland,  or  to  Ion.  32°  W. 
The  breaking  up  of  this  ice  led  to  the  expedi 
tion  of  Capt.  Eoss,  the  second  of  the  present 
century  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage,  the 
opinion  prevailing  that  the  climate  had  essen 
tially  changed,  and  that  the  northern  seas 
would  continue  open.  The  drift  of  the  north 
ern  icebergs  is  with  the  great  polar  currents, 
one  of  which  sets  in  a  S.  S.  W.  direction  between 
Iceland  and  Greenland,  and  another  along- the 
W.  side  of  Baffin  bay,  meeting  the  former  near 
the  coast  of  Labrador.  They  are  brought 
against  the  American  continent  and  the  W. 
shores  of  its  bays  in  consequence  of  not  catch 
ing  at  once  the  more  rapid  rotating  motion  of 
the  earth  as  they  pass  upon  larger  parallels, 
and  so  allowing  this  to  slip  from  under  them. 
The  greatest  numbers  are  produced  on  the  "W. 
side  of  Greenland;  and,  as  observed  by  Dr. 
Kane,  "perhaps  the  most  remarkable  place  for 
the  genesis  of  icebergs  on  the  face  of  the  globe  " 
is  at  Jacob's  bight,  an  inlet  a  little  N.  of  Disco 
island,  in  about  lat.  71°  and  Ion.  56°.  From 
Labrador  the  ice  is  floated  with  the  current 
past  Newfoundland,  and  meeting  near  the 
Great  Bank  the  warming  influences  of  the 
Gulf  stream,  it  usually  disappears  about  lat. 
42°.  The  extreme  limit  is  in  lat.  40°.  Some 
times  the  ice  is  carried  as  far  to  the  eastward  as 
the  Azores.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  ice 
bergs  drift  still  nearer  to  the  equator,  being 
occasionally  seen  off  the  cape  of  Good  Hope. 
As  they  reach  their  southern  limit  in  the  north- 


ICEBERGS 


ICELAND 


ern  hemisphere  their  influence  is  felt  in  sensibly 
cooling  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  stream  for  40  to 
50  ra.  around,  and  on  approaching  them  the 
thermometer  has  heen  known  to  fall  17°  or  18°. 
When  driven,  as  they  sometimes  are,  in  large 
numbers  into  Hudson  bay,  they  diffuse  intense 
cold  over  the  northern  portion  of  the  conti 
nent.  The  iioating  masses  assume  a  variety  of 
forms.  Some  spread  out  into  sheets,  which 
cover  hundreds  of  square  miles  and  rise  only  a 
few  feet  above  the  water.  These  are  called 
fields,  or,  when  their  whole  area  can  be  de 
fined  from  the  mast  head,  floes.  A  number  of 
sheets  succeeding  each  other  in  one  direction 
constitute  a  stream,  or  lying  together  in  great 
collections,  a  pack.  The  surface  of  the  sheets 
is  often  diversified  by  projections  above  the 
general  level,  which  are  called  hummocks; 
thev  are  forced  up  by  the  floes  pressing  against 
each  other,  and  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
great  slabs  supported  by  one  edge.  Dr.  Kane 
noticed  that  these  become  bent  by  their  own 
weight,  even  when  the  thermometer  continues 
far  below  the  freezing  point.  The  most  solid 
clear  ice  exhibits  this  yielding  property  of  its 
particles.  The  surface  of  the  ice  fields  is 
usually  covered  with  snow,  and  when  the  ice 
is  no  more  than  2  ft.  thick  it  gives  no  trace  of 
salt  on  the  surface.  The  thicker  ice  contains 
open  pools  of  fresh  water.  The  bergs  are  real 
floating  mountains  of  ice,  rugged  and  pictu 
resque,  with  peaks  jutting  high  into  the  air, 
and  strange  forms  in  the  glittering  hard  blue 
ice,  which  one  easily  converts  into  imaginary 
castles  and  grotesque  architectural  designs. 
They  are  occasionally  seen  in  great  numbers 
moving  on  together.  Dr.  Kane  in  his  first 
cruise  counted  280  in  sight  at  one  time,  most 
of  which  exceeded  250  ft.  in  height,  and  some 
even  exceeded  300  ft.  The  dimensions  of  the 
largest  are  measured  by  miles.  Lieut.  Parry 
in  the  first  expedition  of  Ross  encountered  one 
in  Baffin  bay,  7  leagues  from  land,  the  length 
of  which  was  4,109  yards,  its  breadth  3,809, 
and  its  height  51  ft.  It  was  aground  in  01 
fathoms.  Its  cliffs  recalled  those  of  the  chalk 
on  the  coast  of  England  W.  of  Dover.  Dr. 
Kane  saw  one  aground  in  soundings  of  520  ft. 
which  with  every  change  of  tide  swung  round 
upon  its  axis ;  and  Capt.  RO&.S  describes  several 
he  saw  aground  together  in  Baffin  bay  in  water 
1,500  ft.  deep.  The  officers  of  the  French  ex 
ploring  expedition  in  the  Southern  ocean  mea 
sured  several  bergs  from  2  to  5  m.  each  in 
length,  and  from  100  to  225  ft.  high.  Capt. 
Dumont  d'Urville  reports  one  in  the  Southern 
ocean  13  m.  long,  with  vertical  walls  100  ft. 
high.  The  portion  of  these  masses  of  ice  seen 
above  the  water  is  only  about  an  eighth  part 
of  their  entire  bulk.  Such  bodies,  weighing 
hundreds  of  millions  of  tons,  moved  on  by  a 
broad  current  of  water,  exert  a  power  against 
obstacles  of  which  we  can  form  little  idea.  In 
their  action  upon  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  as  ex 
plained  in  the  article  DILUVIUM,  many  geolo 
gists  recognize  a  repetition  of  the  phenomena 


accompanying  the  distribution  of  the  drift 
formation,  and  the  production  of  its  sands  and 
gravel  and  rounded  bowlders.  Dr.  Kane  re 
marks  of  the  display  of  power  exhibited  by  the 
movements  of  these  huge  bodies  as  follows: 
' k  Nothing  can  be  more  imposing  than  the  ro 
tation  of  a  berg.  I  have  often  watched  one, 
rocking  its  earth-stained  sides  in  steadily  deep 
ening  curves,  as  if  to  gather  energy  for  some 
desperate  gymnastic  feat;  and  then  turning 
itself  slowly  over  in  a  monster  somerset,  and 
vibrating  as  its  head  rose  into  the  new  element, 
like  a  leviathan  shaking  the  water  from  its 
crest.  It  was  impossible  not  to  have  sugges 
tions  thrust  upon  me  of  their  agency  in  modi 
fying  the  geological  disposition  of  the  earth's 
surface." — Icebergs  occur  in  great  numbers  in 
the  North  Atlantic  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer,  and  form  the  chief  danger  which  then 
besets  the  navigation  between  Europe  and 
North  America.  These  mountains  and  fields 
of  ice,  however,  have  sometimes  served  as  a 
means  of  safety  to  persons  who  have  taken 
refuge  on  them,  or  floated  off  with  them  acci 
dentally.  Several  members  of  Hall's  exploring 
expedition  were  in  1872  rescued  from  a  floe  on 
which  they  had  drifted  196  days  and  a  distance 
of  2,000  miles.  (See  ARCTIC  DISCOVERY.) 

ICELAND,  a  large  island  in  the  North  Atlantic 
ocean,  subject  to  the  Danish  crown,  geograph 
ically  belonging  to  the  western  hemisphere, 
about  160  m.  E.  of  Greenland,  600  m.  W.  of 
Norway,  500  m.  N.  W.  of  the  Shetlands,  and 
250  m.  N.  "W.  of  the  Faroe  islands.  It  is  situa 
ted  between  lat.  63°  24'  and  66°  33'  N.,  and  Ion. 
13°  31'  and  24°  17' TV. ;  greatest  length  325  ni., 
greatest  breadth  200  rn. ;  area,  including  ad 
jacent  islands,  39,758  sq.  m.,  of  which  16,243 
are  habitable.  The  population  of  Iceland  in  its 
most  flourishing  period  exceeded  100,000;  re 
cent  censuses  give  it  as  follows:  1864,  68,084; 
1869,  69,506;  J870,  69,763.  Reykjavik,  the 
capital,  has  a  population  of  about  1,400.  In 
shape  Iceland  somewhat  resembles  a  heart  with 
its  apex  to  the  south.  The  coast  line  on  the 
south  is  but  little  broken,  several  of  its  open 
ings  having  been  filled  up  during  eruptions  of 
the  neighboring  volcanoes ;  but  in  all  other  di 
rections  it  is  deeply  indented  with  bays,  fiords, 
and  jutting  promontories.  The  fiords  extend 
far  inland  between  lofty  mountains,  whose 
sides  are  carved  into  gigantic  terraces.  The 
principal  of  these  is  Isatiord  in  the  N.  ~\V.  pen 
insula.  The  western  fiords  are  studded  with 
rocky  islets,  and  open,  like  those  of  the  north 
and  northeast,  to  enormous  ice  drifts.  The 
chief  islands  on  the  coast  are  the  Vestmanna 
isles  in  the  south,  which  form  a  county  by 
themselves.  The  best  harbors  are  those  of 
Reykiavik,  in  a  bight  of  Faxafiord,  in  the 
southwest,  Ilafnarfiord  in  the  west,  Akureyri 
on  the  Eyjafiord  in  the  north,  and  Vopna- 
fiord  in  the  east. — Iceland  is  apparently  of  vol 
canic  origin ;  its  surface  in  the  interior  is  com 
posed  of  an  elevated  band  of  palagonite  tufa 
pierced  by  trachyte,  and  having  basalt  on  either 


150 


ICELAND 


side.  This  basalt,  the  oldest  formation,  under 
lies  the  other  two,  the  palagonite,  which  is 
next  in  age,  and  the  lava,  comprising  all  the 
strata  due  to  recent  volcanic  action.  Although 
the  "N".  "W.  peninsula  is  composed  of  lofty  ridges 
with  here  and  there  an  extinct  volcano,  the 
chief  mountain  system  is  in  the  south.  It 
forms  a  triangular  mass,  with  its  apex  at 
Thrandar  Jokull  in  the  east,  and  its  base  ex 
tending  from  Ok  in  the  west  to  Eyjafjalla  in 
the  south.  Toward  the  apex  the  great  Vatna 
Jokull  group  covers  an  area  of  3,500  sq.  m. 
with  its  gigantic  glaciers  and  snow  fields.  The 
mountains  are  distinguished  into  fells,  which 
are  generally  free  from  snow  in  summer,  and 
jokulls  or  ice  mountains,  which  are  shrouded 
in  perpetual  snow.  The  name  of  skal  is  given 
to  perfectly  symmetrical  mountains.  The  prin 
cipal  jokulls  are  the  Orsefa,  6,405  ft.,  the  east 
ern  Snsefell,  5,958  ft.,  and  the  western  Snosfell, 
4,699  ft.  The  volcanoes  belong  to  all  three 
classes.  Beyond  the  mountain  masses  lies  the 
great  central  table  land,  from  1,500  to  2,000 
ft.  above  the  sea,  and  forming  a  wilderness 
covered  with  vast  lava  beds,  barren  heights  or 
rolling  rocky  uplands,  tracts  of  black  volcanic 
sand,  hillsides  and  valleys  dotted  with  hot 
springs  and  sulfataras,  and  bottom  lands  filled 
with  bog  and  mud.  Over  this  desert  three 
main  roads,  or  rather  tracks,  connect  the  set 
tlements  near  the  fiords  and  the  rare  low  plains 
and  valleys  extending  inland  along  the  water 
courses.  The  most  remarkable  and  fertile  val 
leys  are  those  clustering  around  Eyjafiord  in 
the  north,  that  of  Lagarfljot  in  the  cast,  and 
those  of  the  Ilvita  and  Thjorsa  in  the  south.. 
Volcanic  action  has  manifested  itself  over  a 
broad  belt  of  country,  extending  from  Cape 
Reykjanes  in  the  southwest  to  Krafla  in  the 
north.  Within  this  belt  are  the  principal  vol 
canoes,  including  Hecla.  (See  HECLA.)  From 
27  different  spots,  counting  volcanic  craters 
in  the  sea  off  Cape  Reykjanes,  86  eruptions 
have  occurred  since  874,  the  last  being  those 
of  Skapta  in  1861  and  of  Trolladyn-gja  in  1862. 
The  lava  has  been  thrown  out  from  grassy 
plains  in  the  north  as  well  as  from  the  enor 
mous  double  chasm  of  Katla  in  the  south 
ern  uplands.  Of  the  lava  beds,  the  Odatha 
Hraun  covers  1,160  sq.  m.,  a  second  extends 
73  m.  from  Skjaldbreith  and  Klothufell  to 
Reykjanes,  and  a  third,  around  Hecla,  is  25 
m.  long  and  10  m.  broad.  Another  peculiarity 
is  what  is  called  the  gjd  or  rifts  in  the  deep 
lava  beds,  which  are  zigzag  rents  running  from 
northeast  to  southwest.  The  most  remarkable 
are  the  Almanna-gja  and  Hrafna-gja  at  Thing- 
vellir,  and  the  rift  into  which  pours  the  Jokulsa 
at  Dettifoss. — The  principal  lakes  in  Iceland 
are  the  Myvatn  (Midge  lake)  in  the  north,  much 
diminished  in  depth  and  extent  by  the  lava 
streams  from  Krafla  in  1724-'30,  and  Thing- 
vallavatn  in  the  southwest,  10  m.  long  by  4 
wide.  There  are  besides  two  principal  groups 
of  lakes,  those  of  the  Arnarvatn  (Eagle  tarns) 
dotting  a  large  district  N.  and  W.  of  Eyriks 


Jokull,  and  Fiskivatn  (Fish  tarns)  at  the  foot 
of  Skapta,  which  are  the  remains  of  a  large 
lake  that  existed  previous  to  the  eruption  of 
1783.  The  larger  rivers  take  their  rise  in  the 
southern  mountains.  The  Jokulsa,  reputed  the 
largest,  rises  at  the  foot  of  Vatna,  and  flows  N. 
to  the  Axafiord.  About  30  m.  from  the  sea  it 
falls  over  a  perpendicular  wall  in  its  lava  bed, 
forming  a  magnificent  waterfall.  The  Skjal- 
fandafljot  has  its  source  between  Vatna  and  Ar- 
nasfell,  and  flows  N.  into  Skjalfandi  bay.  The 
Jokuldalsa  and  the  Lagarfljot  flow  N.  E.  from 
the  snow  fields  of  Vatna.  The  most  impor 
tant  rivers  in  the  west  and  south  are  the  Hvita 
(or,  as  it  is  called  near  its  mouth,  the  Olfusa), 
Thjorsa,  and  Kudafijot.  The  most  celebrated 
feature  of  Iceland  scenery  is  the  great  number 
of  intermittent  hot  springs,  chiefly  in  the  S.  W. 
division,  which  have  given  the  name  of  geysers 
to  similar  springs  elsewhere.  (See  GEYSEES.) — 
The  climate  of  Iceland  seems  to  have  changed 
greatly  since  its  first  settlement.  The  ice  drifts 
from  Greenland,  which  formerly  visited  its 
shores  only  every  other  year,  have  of  late  come 
for  15  years  in  succession,  surrounding  two 
thirds  of  the  island  with  a  compact  mass,  and 
remaining  from  three  to  five  months.  When  it 
comes  in  January  or  February,  it  goes  away  in 
March  or  April ;  then  it  affects  the  ensuing  vege 
tation  but  little,  while  it  brings  a  welcome  sup 
ply  of  whales.  If  it  comes  in  April  or  May,  it 
remains  until  the  end  of  July,  stopping  vegeta 
tion  and  destroying  all  the  crops.  The  average 
winter  temperature  at  Reykiavik,  29'3°  F.,  is 
higher  than  at  Aberdeen,  26°  F. ;  the  average 
summer  temperature  is  53-6°,  and  that  of  the 
whole  year  39'4°,  being  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Moscow  the  whole  year  round.  At  Aku- 
reyri,  in  the  north,  the  average  summer  heat 
is  45*5°,  that  of  winter  20'7°,  and  the  mean  for 
the  year  is  32°.  The  difference  of  climate  be 
tween  the  north  and  south  of  the  island  is  at 
tributed  to  the  Gulf  stream,  which  sweeps 
round  the  S.  and  S.  W.  coasts.  In  the  south 
great  quantities  of  rain  fall  in  winter  and  sum 
mer,  and  sharp  winds  are  frequent;  thunder, 
except  in  winter,  is  very  seldom  heard.  The 
climate  of  the  north  is  much  more  dry  and 
regular. — The  lowlands  and  protected  valleys 
afford  excellent  pasturage,  where  the  soil  con 
tains  all  the  elements  of  fertility.  "  The  moun 
tains,"  says  Baring-Gould,  "are  generally  des 
titute  of  herbage,  and  the  valleys  are  filled 
with  cold  morasses.  Grass  springs  on  the 
slight  elevations  above  the  swamps,  in  the 
dells,  and  around  the  lakes.  By  drainage  a 
large  percentage  of  marsh  might  be  reclaimed ; 
but  some  must  always  remain  hopeless  bog. 
The  extraordinary  amount  of  swamp  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  ground  is  frozen  at  the  depth 
of  6  or  8  ft.,  so  that  when  there  is  a  thaw  the 
valleys  are  flooded,  and  the  water,  unable  to 
i  drain  through,  rots  the  soil."  Many  bottoms 
I  are  filled  with  an  amazing  depth  of  rich*  soil, 
i  yet  the  prevalent  ignorance  of  agricultural 
i  methods  prevents  their  being  turned  to  any  ad- 


ICELAND 


151 


vantage.  The  luxuriant  herbage  on  the  sloping 
sides  of  the  fields  consists  of  several  kinds  of 
grasses  mingled  with  the  leaves  of  stunted 
willow,  which  is  greedily  devoured  by  the 
sheep,  and  with  dwarf  mountain  birch.  On  the 
marshes  grow  several  kinds  of  sedge,  and  the 
tun  or  home  field  is  overstrewn  with  the  yel 
low  ranunculus.  Iceland  is  almost  a  treeless 
country;  'in  certain  spots  are  low  coppices  of 
birch,  the  trees  being  mere  shrubs  10  or  12  ft. 
high,  and  in  one  or  two  protected  places  only 
a  few  mountain  ashes  about  30  ft.  high  excite 
the  admiration  of  the  natives.  Hay  raised  in 
the  lowlands  is  the  chief  crop  ;  a  few  patches 
of  oats  are  occasionally  seen  in  sheltered  situ 
ations,  but  even  these  do  not  always  ripen.  No 
other  kind  of  grain  is  raised  ;  but  a  species  of 
wild  corn  (elymus  arenarius)  growing  on  the 
sand  flats  by  the  sea  affords  a  much  prized  har 
vest  ;  the  straw  is  used  for  thatching  and  fod 
der,  and  the  meal,  flavored  with  cinnamon,  is 
made  into  very  palatable  thin  cakes.  Pota 
toes,  carrots,  cabbage,  lettuce,  spinach,  pars 
ley,  cresses,  and  radishes  are  cultivated  in  small 
patches.  The  only  other  valuable  vegetable 
production  is  the  Iceland  moss  of  commerce. 
Agriculture  has  greatly  improved  of  late  years. 
— Among  the  wild  animals  are  several  kinds 
of  foxes  which  are  hunted  for  their  skins,  the 
blue  fox  especially.  Bears  are  frequent  visi 
tors,  borne  to  the  island  on  the  ice  drifts  from 
Greenland.  Reindeer  were  imported  from 
Denmark  about  1770,  and  now  roam  in  large 
herds  in  the  solitudes  of  the  interior;  though 
so  valuable  for  locomotion,  their  utility  is  al 
together  overlooked.  The  seal  breeds  every 
where  on  the  coast  and  its  numerous  islands ; 
the  whale  is  also  seen,  sometimes  in  flocks,  in 
the  fiords  and  bays,  as  well  as  a  shark  indi 
genous  to  these  waters  (scymnm  microceplia- 
lm).  The  cod,  herring,  haddock,  halibut, 
trout,  salmon,  and  eels  abound  in  the  fiords 
and  the  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers.  Shell 
fish,  the  mussel  especially,  are  present  in  enor 
mous  quantities.  There  arc  in  Iceland  7  fam 
ilies  and  34  species  of  mammals,  of  which  24 
live  in  the  water,  and  13  varieties  of  cetacea. 
Birds  swarm  everywhere  ;  among  the  indige 
nous  ones  are  the  Iceland  falcon,  ptarmigan, 
goldeneye,  harlequin  duck,  and  northern  wren. 
The  eider  duck  is  jealously  protected  by  the 
inhabitants.  There  are  6  families  and  about  00 
species  of  birds,  of  which  54  are  water  fowl. 
No  reptiles  have  ever  been  discovered.  Of 
fish,  which  are  as  yet  but  little  known,  Faber 
mentions  49  varieties,  of  which  7  are  fresh 
water  fish.  Domestic  animals  constitute  the 
great  wealth  of  the  Icelander ;  these  are  cows, 
horses,  and  sheep,  and  goats  in  the  north.  In 
1870  there  were  in  the  island  352,443  slice]), 
30,078  horses,  and  18,189  cattle.  The  early 
colonists  introduced  geese  and  swine;  but  the 
geese  are  now  all  wild,  and  the  hog  has  dis 
appeared.  The  dog  is  of  the  Esquimaux  type, 
and  of  great  use  to  the  farmer. — Mineral  de 
posits,  showing  the  presence  of  copper,  iron, 


lead,  and  silver,  are  found  in  many  places; 
but,  from  their  poorness  and  the  absence  of 
fuel,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  work  them. 
Plumbago  was  discovered  near  Krafla  by  Ba 
ring-Gould,  and  magnetic  iron  abounds  among 
the  volcanic  rocks.  The  chief  sulphur  depos 
its  are  at  the  vapor  springs  of  Ilengill  near 
Thingvalla  lake,  at  Krisuvik,  and  in  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Myvatn.  In  the  latter  region  is 
"Obsidian  mountain,"  a  ridge  in  many  places 
composed  of  pure  obsidian,  which  might  be 
a  source  of  public  wealth.  There  are  feld 
spar,  chalcedonies,  zeolites,  amethysts,  topaz, 
opal,  porpyhry,  and  malachite.  One  of  the 
most  singular  formations  of  Iceland  is  a  kind 
of  brown  coal  called  surturbrandr,  which  lies 
in  beds  between  clinkstone  and  trap  ;  it  con 
sists  partly  of  carbonized  stems  of  trees,  partly 
of  a  more  coherent  layer  of  coal  mixed  with 
schist,  and  is  of  no  importance  as  a  source  of 
national  wealth. — The  modern  Icelanders  are 
the  descendants  of  the  Norwegians  who  settled 
in  that  country  in  874  and  the  following  years ; 
a  few  colonists  from  Ireland  and  Scotland  had 
also  settled  in  the  country  previous  to  the  Nor 
wegian  discovery,  or  came  thither  afterward. 
The  language  spoken  by  all  is  the  purest  Norse. 
The  men  are  tall,  fair-complexioned,  and  blue- 
eyed,  with  frames  hardened  by  constant  expo 
sure  to  the  weather.  Recent  travellers  com 
plain  of  their  tendency  to  idleness  and  intem 
perance  ;  but  they  are  strictly  upright,  truth 
ful,  generous,  and  hospitable.  The  women  are 
industrious  and  chaste.  Religious  faith  and 
the  domestic  virtues  are  traditional  in  every 
household.  Education  is  universal  ;  it  is  al 
most  impossible  to  find  an  adult  unable  to  read 
and  write.  The  settlements  are  chiefly  scat 
tered  along  the  coast,  and  in  certain  sheltered 
valleys  and  lowlands,  the  most  populous  dis 
trict  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  Skagafiord 
in  the  north.  Social  as  well  as  commercial 
intercourse  is  extremely  limited.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  whole  island  that  can  be  called 
a  road  ;  no  vehicle  of  any  kind  is  used  on  land ; 
locomotion  both  for  man  and  merchandise  is 
only  practicable  on  horseback  and  at  certain 
seasons.  A  very  few  houses  are  of  stone,  a 
few  of  wood,  but  the  greater  number  are  part 
ly  of  turf  and  partly  of  lava  blocks  pointed 
with  moss  and  thatched  with  sod.  Coal  is 
only  to  be  had  in  the  towns ;  elsewhere  the- 
only  fuel  consists  of  sheep  dung  mixed  with 
fish  bones.  No  fire  is  made  save  in  the  small 
kitchen  even  in  winter,  and  that  only  to  pre 
pare  food,  the  other  rooms  in  the  farm  house 
remaining  damp  and  foul.  In  the  Yestmanna 
islands  and  in  many  places  on  the  mainland, 
portions  of  the  sea  parrot  and  petrel  are  dried, 
mixed  with  manure,  and  used  for  fuel.  The 
main  staple  of  food  is  stock  fish,  which  is  eaten 
with  sour  butter.  The  only  meat  is  mutton, 
which  is  boiled,  then  pressed  dry,  cut  into 
lumps,  and  laid  by  without  salt;  sometimes 
it  is  also  stewed  in  milk.  The  first  necessaries 
of  life  are  imported.  The  least  mortality  (128) 


152 


ICELAND 


is  in  February,  the  coldest  month,  and  the 
highest  (205)  in  July,  the  warmest.  Cutaneous 
diseases,  occasioned  by  want  of  cleanliness  and 
proper  nourishment,  are  most  prevalent ;  diar 
rhoea  is  frequent  in  spring;  typhus  and  small 
pox  have  often  swept  away  multitudes ;  lep 
rosy  is  not  uncommon,  especially  on  the  isl 
ands,  where  it  takes  the  form  of  elephantiasis. 
Consumption  is  unknown,  owing  probably  to 
the  purity  of  the  air  and  its  being  charged  with 
ozone. — There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  kind, 
only  the  simplest  articles  of  consumption  being 
woven  in  the  homestead.  Several  of  these, 
such  as  guernseys  and  mittens,  are  exported. 
The  commerce- of  Iceland  had  been  quite  nour 
ishing  during  the  period  of  its  independence ; 
active  commercial  relations  were  kept  up  with 
Norway,  England,  and  Germany  till  the  union 
of  Norway  with  Denmark  in  1387,  when  the 
Danish  crown  began  usurping  a  complete  mo 
nopoly,  and  finally  (in  1602)  farmed  out  the 
trade  with  Iceland  to  a  Copenhagen  company. 
This  monopoly  was  abolished  in  1853,  and  at 
present  the  only  restriction  to  free  intercourse 
is  the  taking  out  a  trade  license  amounting  to 
about  50  cents  per  ton  of  the  ship's  burden. 
Foreigners  enjoy  the  same  rights  of  residence, 
holding  property,  and  trading,  which  belong 
to  the  natives.  The  fisheries  of  Iceland,  if  car 
ried  on  with  a  proper  degree  of  intelligence, 
would  prove  an  exhaustless  source  of  wealth ; 
but  only  10  per  cent,  of  the  population  are 
fishermen,  and  the  methods  used  are  inefficient. 
Along  the  coast  are  34  authorized  trading  posts, 
of  which  only  27  are  used ;  of  these,  6  are  in 
the  south,  11  in  the  west,  and  10  in  the  north 
east ;  62  merchants  reside  in  these,  26  being 
Icelanders,  the  others  Danes  or  representatives 
of  Danish  houses.  There  are  no  banks.  The 
trade  is  by  barter  ;  the  Icelander  is  entirely  in 
the  merchant's  power  and  must  accept  his 
prices.  Attempts  to  break  up  this  monopoly 
have  recently  been  made  by  a  Norwegian  com 
pany  of  Bergen,  which  has  an  establishment 
at  Reykiavik,  and  branches  in  Ilafnarfiord  and 
other  places.  There  is  but  one  native  ship  in 
the  foreign  trade.  In  1869  the  number  of  for 
eign  vessels  which  visited  the  trading  stations 
was  99  from  Denmark,  with  a  tonnage  of  9,358, 
and  50  from  other  countries,  with  a  tonnage 
of  4,555.  The  principal  imports  are  cereals, 
wheaten  bread,  coffee,  sugar,  spirits,  snuff,  and 
tobacco.  A  decrease  is  perceptible  of  late  in 
the  quantity  of  brandy  imported,  although 
even  now  it  amounts  to  24  quarts  annually  for 
every  adult  male,  besides  rum,  punch  extracts, 
and  other  spirituous  drinks.  The  principal  ex 
ports  are  fish,  both  salted  and  dried,  salt  roe, 
liver  oil,  salt  meat,  tallow,  sheepskins,  wool, 
guernseys,  stockings,  mittens,  coarse  woollen 
stuff  called  vadmel,  eider  down,  feathers,  and 
horses;  the  whole  valued  for  1869  at  about 
$700,000.  Formerly  considerable  quantities  of 
sulphur  were  exported;  but  owing  to  the  ab 
sence  of  fuel  and  the  inaccessibility  of  the  mines, 
as  well  as  the  want  of  remunerative  demand, 


they  have  not  been  worked  for  many  years.  An 
Englishman  has  lately  obtained  a  50  years'  lease 
of  .the  sulphur  mines  near  Myvatn,  which  may 
acquire  commercial  importance  when  those  of 
Sicily  are  exhausted. — There  are  but  few  pri 
mary  schools  in  the  island,  but  parents,  besides 
teaching  their  children  all  they  know  them 
selves,  are  careful  to  send  them  for  further  in 
struction  to  better  informed  neighbors.  All 
the  books  and  manuscripts  in  the  house,  as  well 
as  those  to  be  found  within  a  radius  of  50  miles, 
are  read  aloud  over  and  over  again  to  the  family 
and  discussed  by  them.  Moreover,  there  is  a 
law  enabling  the  pastor  or  overseer  of  the 
parish  to  remove  the  children  of  careless  pa 
rents,  and  board  them  with  others  who  will 
teach  them.  This  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
parish  when  the  parents  are  too  poor  to  pay. 
At  Reykjavik  there  is  a  college  with  six  pro 
fessors,  embracing  a  complete  classical,  literary, 
and  scientific  course ;  there  is  also  a  school  of 
theology  with  three  professors,  and  a  school 
of  medicine  with  two.  Students  in  law  and 
philology  go  to  Copenhagen.  Recently  a  library 
has  been  formed  in  Reykiavik,  which  com 
prised  10,000  volumes  in  1866.  Two  political 
journals  were  published  in  Reykiavik  in  1866 : 
the  Thjotholfr  or  u  National,"  weekly,  and 
the  Mendingur,  fortnightly.  The  Northanfari, 
a  weekly,  was  published  at  Akureyri.  The  new 
royal  charter  granted  on  Jan.  5,  1874,  which 
went  into  operation  on  Aug.  1  of  that  year, 
gives  to  Iceland  a  minister  residing  in  Copen 
hagen  and  responsible  to  the  althing  for  the 
acts  of  the  administration  in  Iceland.  The  ex 
ecutive  government  of  the  island  is  vested  in 
the  stiftamtmand  or  governor  general,  resi 
ding  at  Reykiavik,  and  having  under  him  three 
deputy  governors,  residing  respectively  in  the 
northern,  western,  and  eastern  amts,  while 
the  stiftamtmand  himself  has  immediate  charge 
of  the  southern.  The  amts  are  divided  into 
counties  or  sysla,  each  having  its  own  chief 
officer  or  sysclman.  All  these  officials  are  ap 
pointed  by  the  crown.  In  each  county  there 
is  a  court  presided  over  by  the  syselman  and 
two  assessors ;  and  from  its  decisions  there  is 
an  appeal  to  the  supreme  court  and  the  chief 
justice  at  Reykiavik.  For  the  revenue  there 
is  a  landfoged,  who  is  both  collector  general  for 
the  whole  country  and  town  collector  for  the 
capital.  Akureyri,  recently  created  a  commer 
cial  town,  has  also  its  local  collector  or  foged. 
The  legislative  authority,  in  every  tiling  that 
does  not  relate  to  the  general  interests  of  the 
monarchy,  is  vested  in  the  althing,  composed 
of  36  members,  30  of  whom  are  elected  by 
popular  suffrage  and  6  nominated  by  the  crown. 
The  ecclesiastical  establishment,  which  is  ex 
clusively  of  the  Lutheran  faith,  consists  of  the 
j  bishop  of  Reykiavik,  who  with  the  governor 
general  forms  the  spiritual  court,  and  20  arch 
deaconries,  subdivided  into  196  livings.  At 
tached  to  this  is  the  pastoral  seminary  at  Reyk 
iavik.  The  clergy  are  appointed  by  the  crown, 
subject  to  the  consent  of  the  bishop.  Their 


ICELAND 


153 


parishes  for  tlie  most  part  embrace  very  large 
districts,  and  their  revenues  being  utterly  in 
sufficient  for  their  support,  they  have  recourse 
to  farming ;  they  have  the  reputation  of  being 
the  best  blacksmiths  in  Iceland.  There  are 
six  medical  districts,  with  medical  officers  sta 
tioned  at  Reykjavik,  Vatnsdalr,  and  Akureyri, 
a  fourth  in  the  west,  a  fifth  in  the  south,  and  a 
sixth  in  the  Vestmanna  islands.  Quite  recently 
three  missionary  stations  have  been  established 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  Christianity 
was  voted  the  national  religion  in  1000  by  the 
althing.  The  island  was  afterward  divided 
into  the  two  bishoprics  of  Ilolar  and  Skalholt. 
"  The  bishops,"  says  Baring-Gould,  u  were  elect 
ed  by  the  althing,  and  even  the  saints  were 
canonized  by  popular  acclamation."  With  the 
introduction  of  the  church  came  the  knowl 
edge  of  Latin  letters.  In  the-  year  1057, 
Isleif,  bishop  of  Skalholt,  introduced  the  art 
of  writing  with  the  Latin  alphabet.  Monas 
teries,  hospitals,  and  schools  were  established. 
Several  monks,  especially  the  Benedictines  of 
Thingeyra  monastery,  contributed  largely  to 
the  literature  of  Iceland's  golden  era.  In  1551 
the  Lutheran  form  of  worship  was  introduced 
by  Christian  III.,  and  after  much  bloodshed 
became  the  only  established  religion ;  but  much 
of  the  old  ceremonial  still  remains.  There  is 
no  evening  service,  and  the  morning  service 
is  still  known  as  "the  mass;"  the  minister 
retains  the  old  chasuble  and  cope,  and  over 
the  altar  can  be  seen  triptych s,  crucifixes,  and 
pictures  of  saints. — Iceland  was  discovered  in 
8(50  by  Naddoddr,  a  Norwegian  viking,  who 
called  it  Snjaland  (Snowland).  In  864  it 
was  visited  by  Garthar  Svafarsson,  a  Swede, 
who  sailed  around  it  and  wintered  on  the  east 
shore  of  Skjalfandi  bay,  and  called  his  discov 
ery  Garth askolmr.  Enticed  by  the  description 
which  he  gave  of  it,  Floki,  another  viking, 
sailed  into  Vatnsfiord  in  the  west,  and  took 
possession  of  a  portion  of  land.  But  the  loss 
of  his  cattle  during  the' winter  compelled  him 
to  break  up  his  settlement.  After  spending 
another  winter  at  Hafnarfjorthr,  he  returned 
to  Norway  in  the  summer.  The  island  received 
its  present  name  from  him ;  and  the  glowing 
account  given  of  it  by  soire  of  his  companions 
induced  two  Norwegian  chieftains,  Iljorleifr 
and  Ingolfr,  to  visit  it.  They  formed  the  first 
permanent  settlement  in  874  at  Reykjavik, 
and  other  chiefs  with  their  retainers  and  thralls 
soon  followed  them.  The  Islendinga  l>6k,  the 
earliest  monument  of  Icelandic  literature,  says 
that  the  first  colonists,  who  were  all  pagans, 
found  that  they  had  been  preceded  by  Culdee 
anchorites  and  Irish  settlers,  who  abandoned 
the  island  on  the  arrival  of  the  pagan  Norse 
men.  The  report  of  an  Irish  monk  had  first 
led  several  of  his  brethren  to  sail  for  the  north, 
touching  at  the  Faroe  islands,  and  reaching 
Iceland  in  725,  where  they  settled  on  the  islet 
of  Papoen  on  the  E.  coast,  and  at  Papyle  in 
the  south.  They  were  called  Papar  by  the 
Norsemen,  and  left  behind  them  bells,  crosiers, 


[  and  Irish  books.  The  oppression  of  Harold 
llarfagr  drove  a  large  number  of  Norwegian 
chiefs  and  their  families  to  Iceland,  and  this 
was  further  increased  under  the  reign  fcf  St. 
Olaf.  About  928  Iceland  became  a  republic, 
and  so  remained  for  300  years.  In  930  a  code  of 
laws  was  adopted,  and  an  annual  meeting  of 

I  the  bonders  was  fixed  for  midsummer  on  the 

|  plains  of  Thingvalla ;  this  gathering  was  called 

|  althing.  In  1262  the  majority  of  the  people 
took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Haco,  king  of 
Norway,  Iceland  remaining  independent,  with 
her  own  laws  and  constitution,  and  the  althing 
continuing  to  be  the  supreme  legislative  au 
thority.  After  the  union  of  the  Danish  and 
Norwegian  monarchies  in  1387  the  king  •  of 
Denmark  was  acknowledged  sovereign  of  Ice 
land.  A  provision  in  the  act  of  union  of  1262 
stipulated  that  the  king  should  annually  sup 
ply  the  inhabitants  with  six  ship  loads  of  goods. 
This  gradually  made  the  commerce  of  Iceland 
a  royal  monopoly,  and  in  1602  it  was  farmed 
out  to  a  Copenhagen  company,  in  whose  hands 
it  remained  till  1787.  As  Iceland  only  raises 
cattle  and  chiefly  exports  dried  fish  and  wool, 
its  people  were  thus  placed  at  the  mercy  of 
the  traders  for  the  bare  necessaries  of  life.  The 
price  of  goods  rose  four  fold  during  the  next 
three  years,  while  the  price  of  fish  fell,  the 
domestic  industries  dwindled  away,  poverty 
increased,  and  the  population  decreased  in  the 
same  ratio.  During  these  three  years  800  per 
sons  died  of  starvation  in  one  district,  and 
9,000  perished  in  the  whole  island.  Notwith 
standing  these  facts,  the  Danish  government 
continued  to  enforce  its  own  trade  laws,  and 

|  in  1684  a  royal  proclamation  enacted  that  all 
traffic  must  pass  through  the  Copenhagen  com 
pany,  and  that  on  no  conditions  should  the 
Icelanders  trade  with  others,  "neither  on  land, 
nor  on  sea,  nor  in  the  harbors  or  fiords,  cr 
in  any  other  place  whatsoever."  In  the  18th 
century  volcanic  eruptions  repeatedly  desolated 
the  land,  converting  some  of  the  most  fertile 
and  populous  districts  into  hideous  wastes,  and 

I  followed  by  famine  and  disease.  In  1762  an 
epidemic  broke  out  among  the  sheep,  and  280,- 
000  died  or  had  to  be  slaughtered.  In  1783, 
the  year  of  the  most  fearful  eruption,  11,000 
cows,  27,000  horses,  and  186,000  sheep  died. 
The  population,  which  had  steadily  decreased 
since  1602,  had  sunk  in  1785  to  39,000,  and 
was  further  diminished  by  9,000  deaths  from 
starvation.  In  1786  the  project  was  seriously 
entertained  of  removing  the  remnant  of  the 
population  from  the  country,  but  the  royal 
commissioners  demanded  instead  a  relaxation 
of  the  trade  laws.  Commercial  freedom  came 
by  slow  degrees,  prosperity  returned,  and  the 

!  population  increased.  In  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  when  absolute  monarchy  was  intro 
duced,  it  was  expressly  stipulated  by  the  Ice- 

|  landers  that,  while  acknowledging  the  sover 
eignty  of  the  Danish  crown,  they  should  retain 
their  own  national  laws,  rights,  and  freedom. 
By  degrees,  however,  the  legislative  powers  of 


ICELAND   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


the  Icelandic  althing  were  allowed  to  fall  into 
desuetude.  It  was  formally  abolished  in  1800, 
but  restored  in  1843.  Subsequent  attempts 
to  supersede  it  by  giving  Iceland  representa 
tives  in  the  Danish  rigsdag,  and  to  make  Ice 
landic  taxes  flow  directly  into  the  Danish  ex 
chequer,  met  with  unconquerable  resistance. 
At  present,  under  the  royal  charter  of  Jan.  5, 
1874,  the  constitution  of  Iceland  is  closely 
modelled  on  that  of  Denmark,  and  its  national 
independence  under  the  Danish  crown  is  ac 
knowledged.  It  enjoys  an  independent  judi 
cial  as  well  as  legislative  system,  individual  and 
religious  freedom,  municipal  self-government, 
and  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law. 
Interesting  events  in  the  history  of  Iceland 
were  the  discovery  of  Greenland  by  Eric  the 
Red,  and  the  establishment  there  of  Flourishing 
but  short-lived  colonies,  and  that  of  America 
by  Leif  and  others,  without  any  practical  re 
sults.  The  one  thousandth  anniversary  of  the 
first  permanent  settlement  of  Iceland  was  cel 
ebrated  in  August,  1874.— The  Landndmabok 
records  the  colonization  of  Iceland  from  870 
to  930;  the  Sturlunga  saga  contains  its  histo 
ry  from  1100  to  1264;  its  church  history  is 
found  in  the  Kristin  saga  and  in  the  Bisku- 
pa  sdgur,  or  lives  of  the  bishops  of  Iceland. 
See  "An  Historical  and  Descriptive  Account 
of  Iceland  "  (Edinburgh  "  Cabinet  Library  ") ; 
S.  Baring-Gould's  "Iceland,  its  Scenes  arid  Sa 
gas"  (London,  1863);  and  C.  W.  Pajkull's  "A 
Summer  in  Iceland"  (London,  1869). 

ICELAND,  Language  and  Literature  of.  Menzka, 
or  Islenzk  tunga,  the  Icelandic  tongue,  is  the 
language  of  the  Scandinavians  who  settled  in 
Iceland  in  the  9th  century.  The  earliest  name 
given  to  it  in  the  old  writings  of  the  north,  in 
the  11  th  and  12th  centuries,  was  either  the 
"Danish  tongue  "  (Donsk  tunga)  or  "  Northern 
language  "  (Norrcena,  or  Norrmnt  mdl).  While 
the  language  became  much  altered  in  Denmark 
and  Scandinavia,  it  remained  essentially  the 
same  in  Iceland,  and  the  names  of  Danish, 
Norwegian,  and  Northern  being  no  longer  ap 
plicable  to^it,  the  term  Icelandic  came  into 
use.  By  Norwegian  philologists  it  is  called 
old  Norse  or  old  Norwegian  (gammel  Norsk), 
while  the  Danisli  and  German  philologists  fre 
quently  style  it  old  Northern  (old  nordisk,  alt- 
nordisch).  Icelandic  is  a  daughter  of  the  old 
Norse  proper,  the  dialect  spoken  as  late  as  the 
llth  century  in  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  a  sister  of  the 
old  Norse  dialect  which  is  the  parent  of  mod 
ern  Swedish  and  Danish.  It  still  preserves, 
with  very  slight  inflectional  and  orthographi 
cal  changes,  its  earliest  known  form,  and  is  the 
oldest  living  language  of  the  Teutonic  family. 
(See  GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.)  Al 
though  its  literary  monuments,  in  their  exist 
ing  shape,  do  not  date  quite  as  far  back  as  the 
Gothic  version  of  the  Bible,  it  has  yet  kept  | 
many  old  Teutonic  forms  which  the  Gothic  ! 
had  lost  even  in  the  days  of  Ultilas.  Hence  its  ! 
importance  in  Teutonic  philology.  In  conse-  j 


quence  of  the  invasions  of  the  Northmen,  it 
influenced  to  a  considerable  extent  the  devel 
opment  of  the  English,  and  has  furnished  to 
the  English  vocabulary  such  words  as  are,  take, 
call,  law,  till,  to  the  exclusion  of  Anglo-Saxon 
forms.  The  stationary  character  of  the  lan 
guage  is  partly  explained  by  its  secluded  posi 
tion  in  an  island,  and  partly  by  the  zealous 
study  by  the  Icelanders  of  the  ancient  songs 
and  sagas.  The  first  characters  in  which  Ice 
landic  was  written  were  the  runes  (runir), 
which  are  supposed  to  be  adaptations  from 
the  Phoenician  alphabet.  Each  letter  consisted 
of  an  upright  stroke,  to  which  various  cross 
strokes  were  added.  The  letters  were  at  first 
only  16  in  number.  It  cannot  be  ascertained 
when  these  characters  were  introduced.  They 
were  chiefly  used  for  inscriptions  on  stones, 
wooden  sticks,  weapons,  and  household  uten 
sils,  and  hardly  for  literary  purposes  proper. 
At  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
they  were  superseded  by  the  Roman  alphabet, 
in  the  form  then  used  by  the  Anglo-Saxons 
and  Germans.  The  alphabet,  including  ac 
cented  vowels,  consists  of  36  letters,  and  differs 
from  the  English  in  not  using  c,  g',  and  w,  and 
in  having  the  letters  -g  and  )',  the  former  with 
the  sound  of  th  in  this,  the  latter  with  that  of 
th  in  thin;  the  double  letter  <E,  sounded  like 
English  i  in  pine  ;  and  lastly  the  letter  o.  Un 
til  recently  also  c  and  q  formed  part  of  the  Ice 
landic  alphabet,  but  they  were  dropped,  as 
their  sounds  are  fully  represented  by  *  and  k. 
Vowels  are  either  accented  or  unaccented,  and 
are  accordingly  either  long  or  short.  Mascu 
line  and  feminine  nouns  have  four  declensions 
each,  of  which  the  first  two  have  three  varia 
tions  and  the  last  two  only  two.  The  neuters 
have  three  declensions,  with  four  variations 
for  the  first  and  two  for  the  second  and  third. 
There  are  two  numbers  and  four  cases,  nomi 
native,  accusative,  dative,  and  genitive.  Ad 
jectives  have  a  definite  and  an  indefinite  de 
clension,  which  resemble  the  old  and  new  de 
clensions  of  the  substantives.  Icelandic  has 
only  a  definite  article,  which  is  suffixed  to 
nouns  and  precedes  adjectives,  and  is  inflected 
in  all  cases  and  genders.  The  first  and  second 
personal  pronouns  have  also  a  dual  form. 
Verbs  have  active  and  passive  forms ;  the  in 
dicative,  infinitive,  subjunctive,  and  imperative 
moods ;  an  active  and  a  passive  participle  ;  and 
a  supine.  They  have  only  two  simple  tenses, 
past  and  present ;  the  other  tenses  are  formed 
with  auxiliary  verbs.  The  language  has  a 
great  facility  for  forming  new  words.  It  does 
not  adopt  the  common  foreign  names  of  sci 
ence  and  new  inventions,  but  a  telegraph  is 
called  either  frettafleygir,  bearer  of  news,  or 
rafsegulthrddr,  electric  thread,  and  a  telegram 
hradfrett,  quick  news.  The  foreign  words  for 
merly  introduced  into  Icelandic,  chiefly  by  the 
clergy,  are  now  so  transformed  that  their  ori 
gin  can  hardly  be  recognized.  The  dialect  of 
the  old  Norse  spoken  in  the  Faroes,  which 
has  been  illustrated  in  collections  of  ballads 


ICELAND   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


155 


and  folk-lore  made  by  Hammershaimb  and 
others,  differs  from  the  Icelandic  chiefly  in  or 
thography  and  in  the  admixture  of  Danish 
words.  The  best  Icelandic  grammar  is  the 
German  edition  of  Wimmer's  Altnordische 
Grammatik  (Halle,  1871) ;  the  best  lexicons 
are  Cleasby  and  Vigfiisson's  "  Icelandic-Eng 
lish  Dictionary  "  (Oxford,  1868-'T4),  to  which 
an  excellent  grammar  is  prefixed,  and  for  the 
early  skald ic  and  eddaic  poetry  Sveinbjorn 
Egilsson's  Lexicon  Poeticum  antiques  Lingua 
Septentrionalis  (Copenhagen,  1800)  ;  the  best 
chrestomathy  is  Dietrich's  AltnordiscJies  Lcse- 
luch  (Leipsic,  1864). — The  Icelandic  literature, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  unimpor 
tant  Norwegian  productions,  was  written  whol 
ly  in  Iceland  or  by  Icelanders,  may  be  divided 
into  two  very  marked  periods,  the  ancient  and 
the  modern.  The  first  terminated  a  century 
after  the  fall  of  the  republic ;  the  other  com 
prises  the  period  intervening  between  that  date 
and  the  present  time.  Soon  after  the  settle 
ment  of  the  island  the  genial  influence  of  free 
government  caused  a  marked  development  of 
the  national  spirit,  which  was  early  exhibited 
in  the  field  of  letters.  The  climate,  as  well  as 
the  isolated  position  of  the  island,  had  also 
much  to  do  with  it.  In  the  long  evenings  of 
a  long  winter,  an  intelligent  people  would  nat 
urally  have  recourse  to  literature  ;  and  as  soon 
as  the  introduction  of  Christianity  brought 
with  it  the  knowledge  and  use  of  the  Latin 
alphabet,  the  earliest  employment  of  the  new 
gift  was  in  writing  out  the  pagan  songs  which 
had  been  orally  transmitted  from  one  genera 
tion  to  another.  In  such  a  manner  the  priest 
Sicmund  Sigfusson,  called  "the  learned"  (1056 
-1133),  or  some  other  early  scholar,  compiled 
the  elder  or  poetic  Edda,  (See  EDDA.)  Be 
sides  these,  the  poetry  that  lias  come  down  to 
us  from  the  days  of  the  republic  consists  gen 
erally  of  songs  of  victory  or  of  praise,  elegies, 
and  epigrams,  in  which  latter  the  old  skalds 
especially  excelled.  The  most  noted  skalds  of 
the  10th  century  are  Bersi  Torfusson,  Egill  Skal- 
lagrimsson  (904-990),  Eyvind  Finsson,  Glum 
Geirason,  Kormak  Oegmundarson  (died  967), 
Gunnlaug  Hromundarson  (983-1012),  Hallfred 
Ottarson  (died  1014),  Tho-d  Sigvaldaskald,  and 
Thorleif  Ilakonarskald.  The  llth  century  was 
very  prolific  of  poets;  we  have  Arnor  Thor- 
darson,  Einar  Ilelgason,  Eirik,  Gisli  Illuga- 
son,  Odd,  Ottar,  Sigh  vat,  Skuli  Thorsteinsson, 
Sneglu-IIalli,  Ilallar-Steinn,  Stein  Skaptason, 
Stufur  Blindi,  Thjodolf  Arnorsson,  Thorarin, 
and  Thord  Kolbeinsson.  The  12th  century 
presents  the  names  of  Bodvar,  Einar  Skiilason, 
Hall,  Hallbjorn,  Ivar  Ingimundarson,  and  a  host 
of  others.  In  the  13th  century  we  find  scarce 
ly  any  names  but  those  of  Einar  Gilsson,  Gud- 
mund  Oddsson,  Jngjald  Geirmundarson,  and 
Olaf  Thordarson,  showing  that  the  loss  of  lib 
erty  had  begun  to  affect  the  labors  of  the 
muse.  The  14th  century  has  little  of  value  to 
show  except  the  singular  poem  Lilja  ("  The 
Lily  "),  a  song  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  by  Ey- 


steinn  Asgrimsson.  Nor  were  the  historians 
and  romancers  less  numerous.  The  sagas 
properly  fall  into  two  classes,  fictitious  and 
historical.  Among  the  former  are  the  Vvl- 
sunga  saga,  Nornargests  saga,  the  Vilkina 
|  saga  (narrating  the  exploits  of  Diederich  of 
Bern,  and  thus  belonging  to  the  same  heroic 
cycle  as  the  Heldenbuch  and  Nibelungenlied\ 
Hdlfs  saga,  "  Saga  of  King  Hrolf  Knika  and 
his  Champions,"  "  Saga  of  King  Kagnar  L6d- 
brok "  (which  contains  the  celebrated  Lod- 
tbrokarfcmda,  or  "  Death  Song  of  Lodbrok "), 
Frithiofs  saga,  Hervarar  saga,  Ocrxar  Odds 
saga,  the  sagas  connected  with  the  Arthurian 
and  Carlovingian  cycles  of  romance,  and 
Snorri  Sturlason's  "Younger  or  Prose  Edda." 
Some  of  these  are  in  part  historical,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the  false. 
Far  more  valuable  as  well  as  more  numerous 
are  the  sagas  of  the  historical  class.  They  con 
sist  of  histories  in  the  largest  sense  of  the 
word,  of  local  and  family  histories,  and  of  bi 
ographies.  Of  those  which  relate  to  Iceland, 
the  most  noted  are  the  Islendingalok,  by  Ari 
Thorgilsson  (1068-1148) ;  the  Landndmabofc,  a 
detailed  account  of  the  settlement  of  the 
island ;  the  Kristin  saga,  a  narrative  of  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  Iceland ; 
Njdh  saga,  a  classic  composition;  Gunnlavf/8 
Ormstunga  saga;  Viga  Glums  saga;  Egih 
saga,  the  biography  of  a  renowned  poet  and 
chieftain;  Kormaks  saga;  Eyrbyggja  saga,  an 
abstract  of  which  has  been  published  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott;  Laxdcela  saga ;  Sturlunga  saga, 
a  history  of  the  race  of  the  Sturlungar,  so 
important  in  Icelandic  history,  by  one  of  its 
members,  Sturla  Thordarson;  and  Grcttis  saga. 
The  chief  sagas  relating  to  other  countries  are: 
the  Orkneyinga  saga,  a  history  of  the  Ork- 
neian  jarls;  the  Fareyinga  saga,  relating  to  the 
Faroes;  the  Jomamkinga  saga,  an  account  of 
the  sea  rovers,  whose  seat  was  at  Jomsburg 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Oder;  the  Knytlinga 
saga,  a  history  of  the  Danish  kings  from  liar- 
aid  Blaatand  to  Canute  VI. ;  the  sagas  of  Olaf 
Tryggvason,  one  by  Odd  (died  1200),  and  the 
other  by  Gunnlaug ;  the  saga  of  St.  Olaf ;  the 
Tleimskringla,  or  "  Chronicle  of  the  Norwegian 
Kings,"  by  the  celebrated  statesman  and  histo 
rian  Snorri  Sturlason  ;  and  various  minor  sagas 
relating  to  Scandinavia,  Russia,  Great  Britain, 
and  Greenland.  The  most  elaborate  codes  of  law 
were  the  Grtigds,  Jdrnstda,  Jonsbok,  and  Kris- 
tinrt'ttur.  Many  of  the  works  enumerated  in 
this  list  are  masterpieces  of  style,  and  are  still 
read  with  delight  by  modern  Icelanders.  This 
list  (and  it  contains  but  a  few  of  the  published 
sagas)  shows  the  attention  paid  to  the  culture 
of  letters  in  a  remote  corner  of  the  world,  at  a 
time  when  the  whole  continent  of  Europe  was 
sunk  in  barbarism  and  ignorance. — The  second 
or  modern  period  of  Icelandic  literature  by  no 
!  means  commences  with  the  termination  of  the 
I  old  literature ;  a  long  time  of  utter  mental  in 
activity  followed,  and  the  15th  and  16th  cen 
turies  produced  scarcely  anything  but  a  few 


156 


ICELAND   (LANGUAGE  AXD  LITEEATUEE) 


unimportant  religions  books.  In  the  17th 
century  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  litera 
ture  and  glory  of  the  island  hegan  to  re 
vive.  Foremost  in  the  movement  were  Arn- 
grim  Jonsson  (Jonas,  1568-1648),  Gudrnund 
Andra  (died  1654),  Eunolf  Jonsson  (died 
1654),  Ami  Magniisson  (Magnaeus,  died  1730), 
and  Thormod  Torfason  (1636-1719).  The 
last  named,  better  known  under  his  Latin 
ized  name  of  Torfteus,  was  especially  zealous 
in  his  efforts  to  disseminate  a  knowledge  of  the 
early  history  of  Iceland.  In  theology,  Gud- 
brand  Thorlaksson  (died  1627),  under  whose 
direction  the  tirst  complete  edition  of  the  Ice 
landic  Bible  was  issued,  Bishop  Thorlak  Skul- 
son,  and  Jon  Vidalin  (1666-1720),  the  author 
of  a  popular  collection  of  homilies,  were  the 
eminent  names ;  while  jurisprudence  was  rep 
resented  by  Pal  Vidalin  (1667-1727).  But 
the  true  revival  of  letters  dates  from  the.  mid 
dle  of  the  18th  century,  and  was  coincident 
with  the  commencement  of  an  increase  in  pop 
ulation.  During  the  last  hundreu  years  no 
other  nation  can  show  so  large  a  proportion 
of  literary  men.  Finn  Jon/fson  (1704-'89), 
author  of  an  elaborate  ecclesiastical  history  of 
the  island,  which  has  beenyContinued  by  Petur 
Petursson  (born  1808),  Ilannes  Finsson  (1739- 
'96),  Jon  Jonsson  (1759-1846),  and  Ami  Ilel- 
gason  (born  1777),  were  eminent  theologians. 
Antiquities,  philology,  and  the  old  literature 
have  been  largely  illustrated  by  Half  dan  Einar- 
son  (died  1785),  the  author  of  an  Icelandic  lit 
erary  history,  Bjorn  Ilaldorsson  (died  1794), 
the  compiler  of  a  large  Icelandic-Latin  lexicon, 
which  was  edited  by  Bask,  Jon  Olafsson  (1731- 
1811),  S.  T.  Thorlacius  (1741-1815),  G.  J.  Thor- 
kelin  (1752-1829),  Ilallgrim  Scheming  (1781- 
1861),  Finn  Magnusson  (1781-1847),  Konrad 
Gislason  (born  1808),  H.  K.  Fridriksson  (born 
1819),  Jon  Thorkelsson  (born  1822),  Gunnlaug 
Thordarson  (died  1861),  and  by  Gudbrand  Vig- 
fiisson,  now  (1874)  the  foremost  Icelandic 
philologist.  An  elaborate  history  of  the  island, 
in  continuation  of  the  Sturlunga  saga,  has 
been  written  by  Jon  Espolin  (1769-1836), 
while  an  extensive  collection  of  folk  lore  has 
been  made  by  Jon  Arnason.  The  poetical 
literature  of  the  period  has  been  rendered  re 
markable  by  the  names  of  Ilallgrim  Petursson 
(1614-'74),  the  author  of  the  popular  passion 
hymns,  Jon  Thorlaksson  (1744-1819),  transla 
tor  of  "Paradise  Lost"  Bjarni  Thorarensen 
(1786-1841),  Jonas  Ilallgri'msson  (18f>7-'45), 
Sveinbjorn  Egilsson  (1791-1852),  translator  of 
the  Odyssey,  Benedikt  Grondal  (born  1826), 
translator  of  the  Iliad,  and  many  others.  But 
the  attention  of  the  Icelanders  has  been  large 
ly 'given  to  political  economy,  and  the  result 
has  been  a  rapid  and  marked  improvement  in 
the  economical  condition  of  the  country.  Par 
ticularly  active  in  this  respect  have  been  Jon 
Eyriksson  (1728-'87),  Stepluin  Thorarinsson 
(1754-1823),  Magnus  Stephensen  (1762-1833), 
Bjarni  Thorsteinsson,  Thord  Sveinbjarnarson, 
Baldvin  Einarsson  (1801-133),  Jon  Jonsson 


(born  1806),  Pal  Melsted  (1791-1861),  and  Jon 
Sigurdsson  (born  1811),  equally  noteworthy  as 
an  archaeologist  and  statesman.  In  natural  his 
tory  we  find  recorded  the  names  of  Eggert 
Olafsson  (!726-'68),  whose  tour  through  Ice 
land  in  company  with  Bjarni  Palsson  is  still 
one  of  the  most  interesting  works  on  the  sub 
ject,  O.  J.  Hjaltalin  (1782-1840),  Jon  Thor 
steinsson  (1794-1855),  and  J.  J.  Hjaltalin  (born 
1807).  Among  the  younger  writers,  most  of 
whose  political  opinions  are  liberal,  are  Gisli 
Brynjiilfsson  (born  1827),  Jon  Thordarson 
(born  1819),  Magnus  Grimsson,  Steingrim 
Thorsteinsson,  Sveinn  Skulason,  and  E.  Mag 
nusson,  who  has  published  English  transla 
tions  of  several  old  Icelandic  works.  The 
series  of  transactions  published  by  the  Lcer- 
doms-lista  Felag  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century,  and  the  numerous  volumes  issued 
within  the  past  25  years  by  the  Islenzka  Bdk- 
menntqfelag,  or  society  of  literature,  are  of 
great  value. — The  best  sources  of  information 
in  regard  to  the  old  literature  are  Peterson's 
Bidrag  til  den  oldnordiske  literaturs  historic 
(Copenhagen,  1866);  Gudbrand  Vigfusson's  Urn 
timatal  i  Islendinga  sijgum  ("  On  the  Chro 
nology  of  the  Sagas  of  Icelanders,"  Kaupman- 
nahofn,  1855);  the  introductions  to  Keyser's 
"Pteligion  of  the  Northmen,"  translated  by 
Pennock  (New  York,  1854),  to  Laing's  version 
of  Snorri  Sturlason's  Heimskringla  (London, 
1844),  and  in  Dasent's  translation  of  "  The  Sto 
ry  of  Burnt  oSrjal"  (London,  1861).  The  best 
saga  texts  are  those  edited  by  Munch,  Keyser, 
linger,  and  Bugge  in  Christiania,  and  by  the 
Arni-Magnrean  commission  in  Copenhagen. 
A  few  valuable  texts  have  been  published  by 
Mobius  and  Maurer  in  Germany,  and  by  the 
professors  in  the  college  at  Reykiavik. 

ICELAND  MOSS  (cetraria  Mandica,  Acha- 
rius),  a  lichen  common  in  the  north  of  Europe 
and  America.  It  consists  of  a  tuft  of  deeply 
divided  and  dentate-ciliate  margined,  leaf -like, 
cartilaginous  fronds,  flattened  out  and  of  a 
lighter  color  at  their  base,  but  above  incurved 
at  their  edges,  so  as  to  render  them  channelled ; 
in  general  color  they  are  of  a  dark  olive  brown. 
The  fruit  (apothecia)  is  borne  upon  the  extrem 
ities  and  sides  of  the  broadest  branches,  and 
is  very  broad  and  flat  with  elevated  borders. 
This  fruitful  condition  is  only  to  be  met  with 
in  the  alpine  regions  of  our  northern  moun 
tains;  when  the  plants  occur  upon  the  lower 
hills,  and  more  especially  in  dry  exposed  pas 
tures,  they  are  uniformly  infertile.  It  is  pos 
sible  that  these  last  mentioned  forms  may  yet 
prove  to  be  distinct  species ;  to  settle  this 
point,  the  occurrence  of  the  apothecia  is  very 
desirable.  A  very  bitter  principle  is  resident 
in  the  alpine  forms  as  well  as  in  the  Iceland 
moss  of  the  shops ;  but  this  is  almost  wanting 
in  the  campestral  sorts.  As  an  alleviative  to 
j  pulmonary  complaints  the  Iceland  moss  is  well 
j  known ;  the  principal  part  of  the  stock  used  in 
medicine  is  brought  from  Iceland  and  Norway. 
After  the  intense  bitterness,  which  readily 


ICE  PLANT 


ICHNEUMON 


157 


yields  to  cold  water,  has  been  extracted,  boil 
ing  water  is  to  be  poured  upon  the  mass, 
when,  by  keeping  up  a  considerable  heat  and 
by  several  hours'  steeping,  an  abundant  and 
soothing  mucilage  is  given  out,  and  can  be 
used  with  freedom,  the  drink  being  made  pala- 


Iceland  Moss  (Cotraria  Islandica). 

table  with  a  little  sugar.  Hooker  says  that 
after  being  purged  of  its  bitterness  the  lichen 
"is  dried,  reduced  to  powder,  and  made  into  a 
cake  or  boiled  and  eaten  with  milk,  and  eaten 
with  thankfulness  too,  by  the  poor  natives" 
of  those  countries  where  it  grows  abundantly, 
"  who  consider  that  the  very  stones  yield  them 
bread."  The  mucilaginous  character  is  owing 
to  a  great  abundance  of  lichen  starch.  Even 
the  bitter  principle  is  tonic  and  useful  in  the 
treatment  of  disease.  Similar  alimentary  sub 
stances  are  found  in  other  lichens,  resulting 
from  the  presence  of  this  kind  of  starch. 

ICE  PLANT  (mesembryanthemum  crystalll- 
num,  Linn.),  the  common  name  of  a  plant  origi 
nally  brought  from  the  Canary  islands  and 
Greece.  In  the  Canaries  it  used  to  be  largely 
cultivated  in  order  to  procure  alkali  for  making 
glass.  Each  plant  spreads  over  the  ground 
from  a  small  annual  root,  and  has  numerous 
succulent  branches  covered  with  large  heart- 
shaped  or  ovate,  tender,  c  ad  succulent  leaves, 
the  cuticle  of  both  being  elevated  into  many 
crystalline  vesicles  which  contain  a  gummy  prin 
ciple  insoluble  in  water ;  they  give  the  plant  the 
appearance  of  being  covered  with  hoar  frost, 
and  suggested  the  specific  and  coinmon  name. 
Cowper  calls  it  the  "  spangled  beau!"  The  ses 
sile  flowers  are  about  half  an  inch  across,  and 
have  numerous  linear,  white  or  purplish  petals, 
but  are  of  little  beauty,  and  only  produced  in 
the  middle  of  bright  days.  It  is  raised  from 
seed  which  should  be  started  in  a  pot  or  hot 
bed,  and  the  young  plants  set  out  in  a  dry 
warm  place.  It  was  formerly  much  more  cul 
tivated  than  at  present.  In  southern  Califor 
nia  the  ice  plant  is  naturalized,  and  grows  in 
great  quantities ;  the  Spanish  inhabitants  burn 
the  stems  for  the  sake  of  the  ashes  to  use  in 


soap  making.  Lender  the  name  of  glaciale  the 
ice  plant  is  cultivated  in  the  French  kitchen  gar 
dens,  and  is  used  as  an  ingredient  of  soups,  as 
a  garnishing  for  salads,  and  as  a  substitute  for 
spinach.  (See  MESEMBRYANTHEMUM.) 

ICHNEUMON  (Gr.  Ixvefaiv,  to  track),  a  viver- 
rine  carnivorous  animal,  of  the  genus  herpestes 
(Illiger).  The  cheek  teeth  are  £i-f ;  the  body 
is  long  and  the  legs  short ;  head  small  and 
pointed ;  ears  short  and  rounded ;  feet  five- 
toed,  with  sharp  semi-retractile  claws  ;  a  large 
anal  pouch,  in  which  the  vent  opens.  Of  the 
several  species  described,  the  best  known  is 
the  ichneumon  of  Egypt  (H.  ichneumon,  Linn.), 
known  also  as  Pharaoh's  rat.  It  is  a  little 
larger  than  a  cat,  with  a  gait  more  like  a  mar 
ten,  and  the  long  tail  ending  in  a  divergent 
tuft ;  the  muzzle  and  paws  are  black,  and  the 
fur  of  the  body  has  each  hair  alternately 
ringed  with  brown  and  dirty  yellow.  It  is  an 
inhabitant  of  N.  E.  Africa,  especially  Egypt. 
It  was  adored  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  its 
antipathy  to  the  crocodile,  whose  eggs  it  de 
stroys  in  great  numbers;  they  saw  in  it  the 


Egyptian  Ichneumon  (Herpestes  ichneumon). 

representative  of  a  benign  power  engaged  in 
the  destruction  of  one  of  their  most  trouble 
some  enemies.  Its  natural  food  consists  of 
rats,  reptiles,  birds,  and  eggs,  but  it  has  no 
special  antipathy  to  the  crocodile.  It  is  itself 
destroyed  by  foxes  and  jackals.  The  ichneu 
mon  is  frequently  domesticated  in  Egypt, 
where  it  is  used  like  the  cat  in  ridding  houses 
of  rats  and  smaller  pests ;  it  forms  attach 
ments  to  persons  and  places,  and  recognizes 
with  signs  of  pleasure  the  caresses  of  its  mas 
ter.  The  mongous  of  India  (If.  mungos,  Linn.) 
is  a  little  smaller  than  the  ichneumon,  paler 
and  more  grayish,  and  with  a  pointed  tail ;  it 
has  a  singular  antipathy  to  serpents,  which  it 
destroys  whenever  it  can,  not  hesitating  to  at 
tack  even  the  deadly  cobra  de  capello ;  against 
the  bite  of  the  latter  it  is  said  to  find  an  anti 
dote  in  the  ophiorrhiza  mungos,  a  root  which 
is  considered  in  Ceylon  as  a  specific  against 
the  cobra's  bite  in  man.  It  is  as  mischievous, 
and  in  the  same  way,  as  the  polecat  and  wea 
sels.  The  garangan  of  Java  (H.  Javanicus, 
GeofFr.)  is  chestnut  brown,  with  yellowish 


158 


ICHNEUMON  FLY 


ICHTHYOLOGY 


white  spots ;  its  habits  are  the  same  as  in  the 
other  species,  and  it  is  expert  in  burrowing ; 
it  is  easily  domesticated,  and  is  used  for  de 
stroying  rats. 

ICHXEIMON  FLY,  an  extensive  tribe  of  the 
pupivorous  family  of  hymenopterous  insects,  of 
great  importance  in  the  economy  of  nature  on 
account  of  their  destruction  of  insects  injurious 
to  vegetation,  and  very  interesting  from  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  this  purpose  is  ef 
fected.  They  are  perfect  parasites,  depositing 
their  eggs  within  the  body  of  living  insects, 
which  are  devoured  by  the  larvae  hatched  with 
in  them.  Their  forms  are  various,  but  they 
generally  have  an  elongated  body,  with  a  ter 
minal,  long,  divided,  bristle-like  appendage, 
and  filiform  antennas  which,  have  a  constant  vi 
bratory  motion ;  the  prevailing  colors  are  black, 
rufous,  and  yellow,  with  lines  and  spots  of 
white.  The  head  is  prominent ;  the  mandibles 
corneous;  the  wings  four,  of  thin  membrane 
and  horny  ribs  or  nervures,  the  anterior  long 
est,  narrow  at  the  base  and  dilated  at  the  ex- 


Ichneumon  Fly. 

tremity ;  the  abdomen  begins  between  the  two 
posterior  legs ;  the  feet  are  long  and  slender. 
It  is  difficult  to  detect  the  sexes  except  by  the 
ovipositor ;  this  instrument  is  short  or  long  ac 
cording  as  the  eggs  are  to  be  deposited  in  the 
bodies  of  caterpillars  on  the  surface  of   the  | 
ground  or  to  be  thrust  down  into  their  living 
nidus  through  a  nest  or  deep  crevice ;  in  the 
former  it  is  retractile  and  lodged  in  a  groove 
on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  in  the  latter  of 
ten  longer  than  the  body,  consisting  of  a  cen 
tral  oviduct  and  two  lateral  protecting  appen 
dages  coming  from  the  last  abdominal  segment. 
The  eggs  are  hatched  in  the  body  of  the  larva, 
and  the  young  consume  the  fatty  matters  in  ! 
the  interior  of  the  victim,  without  injuring  the  ! 
vital  organs;    many  eggs  are  often  deposited  i 
within    the    same    larva  ;    the  young  undergo  | 
transformation  within  the  living  insect,  or  eat  j 
their  way   through    the    skin  and   spin  their 
pupa  cases  on  the  outside,  from  which  after  a 
time  they  come  out  perfect  insects.     The  lar-  , 
vte  selected  for  this  deposition  are  so  enfeebled 
by  the  parasites  that  they  perish  without  going  , 


into  the  pupa  state.  A  common  example  is 
met  with  in  the  large  green  caterpillar,  with  a 
horn  on  the  last  segment,  generally  called  the 
potato  worm ;  this  is  a  favorite  nidus  for  the 
eggs  of  a  minute  black  ichneumon  fly;  the 
young,  hatched  within  its  body  and  devouring 
its  substance,  eat  through  the  skin,  and  spin 
their  pupa  cases  so  thick  upon  the  outside  as 
almost  to  cover  the  back  and  sides  of  this  four- 
inch  caterpillar;  each  case  is  attached  to  the 
skin  by  a  short  delicate  filament,  and  the  place 
of  exit  of  each  larva  is  indicated  by  a  black 
dot ;  this  caterpillar  is  often  seen  crawling 
about  and  eating,  almost  covered  with  a  colony 
of  these  tiny  silvery  wrhite  pupa  cases,  from 
which  in  about  a  week  the  shining  ichneumon 
flies  appear ;  the  caterpillar  does  not  enter  the 
pupa  state,  but  dies  exhausted.  These  flies  are 
generally  rapid  in  their  movements,  and  are 
taken  with  difficulty  except  when  depositing 
their  eggs ;  they  occur  in  flowers,  on  trees  and 
walls,  in  houses,  and  wherever  the  desired  lar- 
va3  are  found.  The  perfect  insects  live  upon 
the  pollen  and  honey  of  flowers,  and  do  not 
attack  other  insects  except  to  make  a  deposit 
of  eggs ;  they  are  of  all  sizes,  from  a  fraction 
of  a  line  to  more  than  an  inch  long ;  the  spe 
cies  are  exceedingly  numerous,  there  being 
about  1,500  in  Europe  alone.  The  larva)  are 
without  feet,  parasitical  and  carnivorous.  The 
chalcidians,  allied  to  the  ichneumon  flies,  are 
extremely  small ;  they  puncture  the  eggs  of 
other  insects  and  deposit  their  own  tiny  ones 
in  them.  We  can  hardly  estimate  the  benefits 
conferred  upon  man  by  these  apparently  insig 
nificant  insects ;  their  instincts  lead  them  to  do 
for  man's  advantage  what  all  his  contrivances 
could  not  effect;  the  best  known  destructive 
insects  kept  in  check  by  them  are  the  pine 
weevils,  the  lackey  caterpillars,  the  grubs  of 
many  wood  eaters  of  their  own  order,  the  gall 
insects,  the  Hessian  fly,  and  hosts  of  others 
which  would  overrun  the  forests  and  fields 
were  it  not  for  these  diminutive  creatures. 

ICIDiOLOGY  (Gr  ixvos,  a  footprint,  and  A<tyoc, 
discourse),  the  name  applied  to  the  modern  sci 
ence  of  fossil  footprints,  or  ichnolites.  See 
FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS,  and  HITCHCOCK,  EDWARD. 

ICHTHYOLOGY  (Gr.  ixftv^  a  fish,  and  /<5yof, 
discourse),  the  branch  of  zoology  which  treats 
of  fishes,  the  lowest  of  the  great  divisions  of 
the  vertebrate  animals.  The  class  of  fishes  can 
not  be  said  to  have  been  arranged  in  a  strictly 
natural  manner  by  any  systematist,  and  such  an 
arrangement  is  impossible  until  their  external 
and  internal  structure  and  embryonic  develop 
ment  are  better  understood ;  and  until  zoolo 
gists  are  better  agreed  as  to  what  constitutes 
family,  ordinal,  generic,  and  specific  characters, 
little  harmony  of  arrangement  can  be  expect 
ed.  Most  classifications  of  fishes  up  to  the  time 
of  Cuvier  (including  his)  were  based  on  the  or 
gans  of  locomotion  and  the  external  integu 
ment;  after  him  appeared  the  anatomical  ar 
rangement  by  J.  Miiller.  The  older  systems 
were  very  imperfect  from  the  ignorance  of  fos- 


ICHTHYOLOGY 


159 


sil  forms,  which  supply  many  links  otherwise 
wanting  in  the  chain  of  ichthyological  charac 
ters.  Aristotle,  in  the  4th  century  B.  C.,  first 
reduced  ichthyology,  as  he  did  the  other  branch 
es  of  zoology,  to  scientific  form ;  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  structure  and  external  char 
acters  of  fishes,  which  he  distinguishes  from 
cetaceans,  laying  special  stress  upon  the  organs 
of  respiration  and  locomotion  and  the  scaly 
covering;  he  gives  the  names  of  117  species, 
entering  into  interesting  details  on  their  habits. 
The  system  of  compilation  without  observa 
tion  prevailed  until  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen 
tury,  when  Belon,  Rondelet,  and  Salviani  laid 
the  foundations  of  modern  ichthyology!  Be 
lon  gives  rude  figures  of  110  species,  Salviani 
excellent  engravings  on  copper  of  99,  and  Ron 
delet  woodcuts  of  234  species,  in  all  three 
mostly  fishes  of  the  Mediterranean.  Gesner  in 
the  same  century  borrowed  the  descriptions  of 
the  last  mentioned  authors,  and  added  some  of 
his  own,  in  his  Historia  Animalium  (1551-'6), 
all  arranged  in  alphabetical  order  without  any 
attempt  at  method,  embracing  however  many 
foreign  fishes.  Ray  and  his  pupil  Willughby, 
English  naturalists  of  the  17th  century,  in  their 
Historia  Piscium  (1686),  gave  the  first  attempt 
at  a  natural  classification  of  fishes,  founded 
upon  the  consistence  of  the  skeleton,  the  form, 
the  teeth,  presence  or  absence  of  ventral  fins, 
number  of  dorsals,  and  character  of  the  fin 
rays.  They  divided  fishes  into  cartilaginous 
and  osseous ;  though  their  genera  are  not  well 
defined,  the  species  are  so  well  described  that 
it  is  generally  easy  to  refer  them  to  their  prop 
er  place  in  subsequent  systems;  the  whole 
number  of  species  is  420.  The  second  volume 
consists  of  well  executed,  tolerably  accurate 
plates.  This  work  forms  an  epoch  in  the  his 
tory  of  ichthyology,  which  from  this  time  be 
gan  to  assume  a  methodical  arrangement.  Pass 
ing  over  Plumier,  Ruysch,  Kiimpfer,  Sloane, 
Catesby,  and  many  scientific  voyagers  of  this 
period,  we  come  to  Artedi  in  the  first  third 
of  the  18th  century.  This  Swedish  naturalist 
completeM  the  scientific  classification  of  fishes 
commenced  by  Willughby  and  Ray,  defining 
genera  and  giving  them  appropriate  names.  In 
his  PhilosopMa  he  divides  the  class  into  four 
orders,  founded  on  the  consistence  of  the  skel 
eton,  the  branchial  coverings,  and  the  nature  of 
the  fin  rays,  as  follows:  1,  malacopterygians ; 
2,  acanthopterygians ;  3,  branchiostegous  fish 
es  ;  and  4,  chondropterygians  (sharks,  rays,  and 
sturgeons).  He  made  a  fifth,  including  cetaceans, 
which  is  inadmissible,  and  the  third  is  badly 
characterized ;  the  three  others  are  to  a  certain 
degree  natural.  In  his  Genera  Piscium  he 
gives  names  .and  distinctive  characters  of  45 
genera,  founded  on  the  number  of  branchioste 
gous  rays  (of  which  he  was  the  first  to  see  the 
value),  on  the  position  and  number  of  the  fins, 
on  the  parts  supplied  with  teeth,  on  the  form 
of  the  scales,  and  on  the  shape  of  the  stomach 
and  cpeoal  appendages;  most  of  these  genera 
stand  at  the  present  day.  In  his  Synonymia  Pis- 
VOL.  ix. — 11 


cium  he  gives  the  synonymy  of  274  species;  his 
works  were  published  after  his  death  by  Lin- 
nreus,  his  early  friend,  at  Leyden,  in  1738. — Lin 
naeus,  in  the  first  edition  of  the  Systcma  Natures 
(1735),  followed  Artedi;  but  in  the  next  (1740) 
he  began  to  give  the  number  of  the  fin  rays,  a 
method  of  distinguishing  since  found  of  great 
value.  In  his  10th  edition  (1758)  he  trusted  to 
his  own  knowledge,  creating  a  new  system,  de 
fining  genera  more  clearly,  and  using  a  scientific 
nomenclature ;  the  most  important  change  was 
in  removing  cetaceans  from  the  class  of  fishes, 
in  which  since  the  time  of  Aristotle  they  had 
been  placed,  and  in  uniting  them  with  viviparous 
quadrupeds  in  the  class  mammalia.  Brisson, 
in  1756,  had  already  separated  them  from  fishes. 
Linnaeus,  however,  committed  the  error  of 
placing  the  chondropterygians  among  reptiles, 
under  the  title  of  amphibia  nantes,  to  which 
in  the  12th  edition  (1766)  he  added  the  bran- 
cJiiostegi  of  Artedi  (ostracion,  lophius,  tetro- 
dous,  &c.).  He  also  Suppressed  the  division 
of  fishes  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fin 
rays,  and  substituted  one  founded  on  the  pres 
ence  or  absence  of  the  ventral  fins  and  their 
position  in  reference  to  the  pectorals,  a  method 
which  violates  many  of  the  true  relations  of 
these  animals.  Though  Linnseus  neglected 
some  of  the  genera  of  his  contemporaries,  and 
distributed  his  orders  in  an  unnatural  manner, 
describing  only  480  species,  his  precision  of 
definition  and  the  excellence  of  his  binary  no 
menclature  were  of  great  advantage  to  the 
progress  of  ichthyology,  and  his  division  into 
apodes,  jugulares,  thoracici,  and  altdominalcs 
for  a  long  time  held  its  place  in  the  science. 
Linna3us  gave  an  impetus  to  the  study  of  natu 
ral  history,  which  resulted  in  making  it  in 
teresting  to  all  classes,  and  in  inspiring  princes 
with  a  desire  to  extend  its  domain ;  national 
expeditions  were  fitted  out  by  England,  France, 
Denmark,  and  Russia,  which  came  back  laden 
with  treasures  of  the  deep  for  naturalists; 
among  the  workers  in  this  great  field  we  can 
only  mention  the  names  of  Commerson,  Son- 
nerat,  Pennant,  Banks,  Solander,  the  Forsters, 
Forskal,  Steller,  Otho  Fabricius,  O.  F.  Miiller, 
and  Thunberg;  the  scientific  journals  teemed 
with  descriptions  of  new  species  of  fishes  from 
all  parts  of  the  globe. — The  next  great  con 
tributor  to  ichthyology  was  the  German  natu 
ralist  Bloch,  whose  celebrated  work  on  the 
''Natural  History  of  Fishes "  consists  of  two 
parts  essentially  distinct;  the  first,  the  "Eco 
nomic  History  of  the  Fishes  of  Germany,"  ap 
peared  at  Berlin  in  l782-'4,  in  3  vols.  4to,  with 
108  folio  plates;  the  second,  the  "History  of 
Foreign  Fishes,"  in  1785-'95,  in  9  vols.  4to, 
with  324  folio  plates;  both  were  translated 
into  French  in  a  few  years  after  each  volume 
appeared.  Of  German  fishes  he  describes  115 
species,  mostly  observed 'by  himself.  As  he 
was  little  conversant  with  the  anatomy  of 
fishes,  some  of  his  genera  are  based  on  purely 
artificial  characters,  while  others  are  remark 
ably  correct.  He  follows  the  method  of  Lin- 


160 


ICHTHYOLOGY 


na?us,  bringing  back  the  amphibia  nc,ntes,  how 
ever,  into  the  class  of  fishes,  and  dividing  them, 
with  Artedi,  into  branch  iostegi  and  chondropte- 
ri/gii. — Comparative  anatomy  had  made  con 
siderable  progress  toward  the  end  of  the  18th 
century,  when  Lacepede  began  his  researches 
(1798-1803).  He  divides  the  class  into  cartila 
ginous  and  osseous  fishes,  in  each  of  which 
subclasses  he  makes  four  divisions:  1,  with 
neither  opercula  nor  branchial  membrane;  2, 
without  opercula,  and  with  a  branchial  mem 
brane  ;  3,  with  opercula  and  without  branchial 
membrane;  and  4,  with  both  opercula  and 
branchial  membrane.  In  each  of  the  eight  di 
visions  he  adopts  the  orders  of  apodes,  jugu- 
lares,  tlwracici,  and  abdominales,  according  to 
the  absence  of  ventrals,  or  their  position  on 
the  throat,  thorax,  or  abdomen.  The  natural 
history  of  fishes  in  Sonnini's  Buff  on  (ISOS-^) 
is  essentially  a  copy  of  Lacepede  without  ac 
knowledgment.  These  works  of  Bloch  and 
LacepeJe  supplied  the  principal  foundation 
for  most  subsequent  systems.  The  classifica 
tion  of  M.  Dumeril,  in  his  Zoologie  analytique 
(1806),  resembles  that  of  Lacepede,  inasmuch 
as  it  lays  stress  upon  the  supposed  absence  of 
opercula  and  branchial  rays  and  the  position  of 
the  ventrals.  Pallas,  in  the  third  volume  of  the 
Zooqrapliia  Russo-Asiatica  (1811),  gives  a  list 
of  240  species,  distributed  into  38/genera,  with 
the  exception  of  three  taken  from  Linnaeus; 
he  makes  two  orders,  spiraculata  or  chondro- 
pterygians,  and  Iranchiata,  forming  with  rep 
tiles  (pulmonatct)  the  class  monocardia  (single- 
hearted  or  cokl-blooded  animals).  In  1815 
Kafinesque  published  a  second  ichthyological 
system  in  his  u  Analysis- of  Nature,  or  Tableau 
of  the  Universe  "  (1  vol.  8vo,  Palermo) ;  though 
containing  many  errors,  this  system  is  valuable 
for  several  true  affinities  between  fishes  before 
and  since  regarded  as  widely  separated,  as  for 
instance  that  of  the  polypterus  with  the  stur 
geon  family. — De  Blainville  in  1816  (Journal 
de  Physique,  vol.  Ixxxiii.)  published  a  classifi 
cation  in  which  fishes  are  divided  into  gnatho- 
dontes  or  osseous  and  dermodontcs  or  cartilagi 
nous,  the  latter  distinguished  by  having  teeth 
adherent  only  to  the  skin;  the  former  include 
the  heterodermes  or  lranchio$tegi,  and  the 
squammodermes  or  common  fishes;  in  the 
subdivisions  the  Linnrean  character  of  the  posi 
tion  of  the  ventrals  is  adopted,  and  the  families 
are  established  principally  on  the  form  of  the 
body;  it  doss  not  employ  the  Lacepedean 
characters  taken  from  the  opercula  and  bran 
chial  rays.— Cuvier  in  1817,  in  his  Ecgne  cuii- 
mal,  divides  fishes  into  chondropterygian  and 
osseous.  The  former  contain  the  families  of 
suckers  (lampreys),  selachians  (sharks  and 
rays),  with  fixed  branchise,  and  the  stnrionians 
(sturgeons),  with  free  branchire.  In  the  osse 
ous  fishes  he  suppresses  the  branch  ioxter/i,  form 
ing  of  a  portion  of  them  the  order  plcctognathi, 
from  a  peculiar  mode  of  articulation  of  the 
jaws,  including  the  families  gymnodonts,  scle- 
roderms,  and  lophobranchs.  The  remaining 


osseous  fishes  he  separates  into  the  orders  mala- 
copterygians  and  acanthopterygians,  after  Ar 
tedi,  according  as  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  are 
soft  or  spiny.  The  soft-rayed  order  he  dis 
tributes  into  families  according  to  the  Linnrean 
method  of  the  position  of  the  ventrals,  disre 
garding  entirely  characters  drawn  from  the 
opercula  and  branchial  rays.  The  spiny-rayed 
fishes  form  a  single  order,  with  the  families 
teenioids  (ribbon  fishes),  gobioids  (blennies  and 
gobies),  labroids  (bass),  percoids  (perches,  a 
very  extensive  family),  scomberoids  (mackerel- 
like,  also  numerous),  squammipenncs  (chreto- 
dons,  &c.),  and  the  flute-mouths  (fistularia, 
&c.).  He  thus  makes  in  all  22  families,  found 
ed  on  direct  observation  and  comparison,  and 
not  simply  compiled  from  previous  authorities. 
Goldfuss  (u Manual  of  Zoology"),  in  1820, 
adopted  the  four  orders  of  Gmelin,  giving  to 
them  Greek  names,  and  subdividing  them  into 
four  families,  each  according  to  the  shape  of 
the  head,  mouth,  or  body,  or  other  external 
character. — Thus  far  the  systems  have  been 
little  more  than  repetitions  of  the  combinations 
of  Artedi,  Linnoeus,  and  Lacepede.  Compara 
tive  and  philosophical  anatomy  began  to  be 
studied  with  zeal  from  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century.  Oken,  Cams,  Geoff roy  Saint- 
Hilaire,  Spix,  Weber,  Van  der  Iloeven,  Meckel, 
EVerard  Home,  Hunter,  Tiedemann,  and  others, 
wrote  upon  different  portions  of  the  structure 
of  fishes,  and  the  results  of  their  studies  began 
to  modify  ichthyological  classifications.  Be 
fore  mentioning  the  anatomical  and  embryo- 
logical  systems,  the  classification  adopted  in 
the  Hutoire  naturelle  dcs  poissons,  by  Cuvier 
and  Valenciennes,  beginning  in  1828  and  com 
ing  down  to  1868,  may  be  alluded  to.  In  this, 
fishes  are  divided  into  osseous  and  cartilagi 
nous,  the  latter  (or  chondropterygians)  inclu 
ding  the  families  sturionians,  plagiostomes, 
and  cyclostomes.  The  osseous  fishes  have  the 
branchios  pectinated  or  laminated,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lophobranchs,  which  have 
them  in  the  form  of  tufts ;  all  the  acanthopte 
rygians  have  the  tipper  jaw  free,  including  13 
families,  and  all  themalacopterygians  except  the 
scleroderms,  gymnodonts,  and  lophobranchs; 
the  malacopterygians  are  divided  into  abdomi 
nals,  subbrachians,  and  apodes.  Cuvier  had 
very  abundant  materials  at  his  command,  em 
bracing  the  collections  of  Peron,  and  those  of 
the  expeditions  under  Baudin,  Freycinet,  Du- 
perrey,  Dumont  d'Frville,  and  other  French 
naval  officers. — Oken,  in  his  "Physiophiloso- 
phy  "  (Ray  society  edition),  calls  the  class  glos- 
sozoa,  as  those  animals  in  which  a  true  tongue 
makes  its  appearance  for  the  first  time,  and  os- 
tcozoa,  because  in  them  also  the  bony  system 
first  appears.  He  makes  four  divisions,  the 
cartilaginous  and  apodal  jngulares,  thoracici, 
and  ab'lominales,  the  first  two  having  an  irregu 
lar  and  the  last  two  a  regular  body.  Among 
the  systems  based  upon  that  of  Cuvier  are 
those  of  Bonaparte,  Swainson,  Straus-Durck- 
heim,  and  Pvymcr  Jones.  The  classification  of 


ICHTHYOLOGY 


161 


C.  L.  Bonaparte  (Rome,  1831)  comprised  the  or 
ders:  L,  acanthopterygii,  with  17  families;  II., 
malacopterygii,  with  12  families;  III.,  plecto- 
gnathi,  with  2  families;  and  IV.,  cartilaginei, 
with  5  families;  including  in  all  nearly  3,600 
species.  The  principal  improvement  on  the 
system  of  Cuvier  is  in  the  series  in  which  the 
genera  are  placed.  Swainson  ("  Monocardian 
Animals,1'  inLardner's  "  Cyclopaedia,"  1838-'9), 
true  to  his  quinary  system,  divides  fishes  into 
the  five  orders  acanthopteryges,  malacoptcryges, 
cartilagines,  plcctognatlics,  and  apodes.  Straus- 
Durckheim  (Traite  d\matomie  comparative, 
Paris,  1843)  adopts  the  eight  orders  of  Cuvier, 
but  subdivides  the  choridropterygians  with  fixed 
branchias  into  three  orders,  and  separates  the 
sharks  as  the  order  selaciens,  the  rays  as  the 
order  Itatoides,  and  the  cyclostomes  as  the  order 
galexiens  (from  Or.  yafa6e,  lamprey),  the  term 
cyclostoma  having  been  used  for  a  gasteropod 
mollusk ;  he  thus  makes  ten  orders.  Rymer 
Jones  (in  the  article  "  Pisces  "  in  the  "  Cyclo 
paedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  1847) 
adopts  a  modification  of  Cuvicr's  system.  lie 
makes  three  divisions:  L,  chondropterygii  or 
cartilaginous  fishes;  II.,  osteopterygii  or  bony 
fishes;  III.,  dermapterygii,  with  skeleton  car 
tilaginous  or  membranous,  and  with  orders 
cyclostomata  (lampreys)  and  IrancMoatomata. 
— About  1830  Prof.  Agassiz,  principally  from 
the  study  of  fossil  fishes,  established  a  classifi 
cation  based  on  the  characters  of  the  scales, 
as  follows :  order  1,  placoids,  corresponding 
to  the  cartilaginous  fishes  of  authors,  but  ex 
cluding  the  sturgeons;  2,  ganoids,  including 
the  sturgeons,  and  especially  the  fossil  genera 
with  enamelled  scales;  3,  ctenoids,  comprising 
bony  fishes  with  scales  pectinated  on  the  pos 
terior  border,  and  corresponding  generally  to 
the  acanthopterygians  of  Artedi,  exclusive  of 
the  scomberoids,  labroids,  arid  pleuronectes ;  4, 
cycloids,  including  the  malacopterygians  with 
the  above  exceptions,  and  exclusive  of  the 
blennioids  and  lophioids.  This  system,  soon 
abandoned  as  an  exclusive  one  by  its  author 
from  its  placing  too  much  stress  on  external 
characters,  was  valuable  as  connecting  in  a 
continuous  series  living  and  fossil  fishes,  and 
led  to  the  discovery  of  many  important  rela 
tions  between  the  scales  and  the  internal  or 
gans. — The  system  of  Johannes  M tiller,  as 
given  in  the  Berlin  "Transactions"  for  1844, 
derives  its  characters  from  anatomical  struc 
ture,  leading  often  to  combinations  without  re 
gard  to  zoological  differences.  He  makes  six 
subclasses-;  L,  dipnoi ;  II.,  tclcostci ;  III.,  ga- 
noidei ;  IV.,  elasmo-brandiii  or  scluchii ;  V., 
marxipolirancJiii  or  cyclostomi ;  VI.,  lepto- 
cardii.  Siebold  and  Stannius  adopt  this  clas 
sification  in  their  "Comparative  Anatomy;" 
and  a  slight  modification  of  it  may  be  found 
in  the  third  volume  of  the  "Organic  Nature" 
in  Orr's  "  Circle  of  Sciences,"  1855.  Owen's 
classification,  mentioned  below,  and  adopted 
by  Sir  John  Richardson  in  the  article  "  Ich 
thyology"  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 


is  based  partly  on  that  of  Mtiller. — Vogt,  in 
his  Zoologisclie  Briefe  (1851),  divides  fishes  into 
the  orders  leptocardia,  cyclostomata,  selachia, 
ganoidea,  and  teleostia.  Van  Beneden's  em- 
bryological  system  (1855)  is  nearly  the  same ; 
his  orders  are  plagiostomi,  ganoidei,  teleostci, 
cyclostomi,  and  Icjjtocardii.  Van  der  Hoeven's 
classification  (as  given  in  the  English  transla 
tion  of  his  "  Handbook  of  Zoology,"  1858) 
makes  fishes  the  14th  class  of  the  animal  king 
dom,  and  divides  them  into  5  sections,  with  11 
orders  and  46  families.  The  sections  are  dcr- 
mopterygii,  chondrojJerygii,  g<cnchpidoti,  os- 
teoi)terygii,  and  protopteri.  Milne-Edwards, 
in  his  Cours  elementaire  d'histoire  naturelle 
(1855),  divides  fishes  into  osseous  and  cartila 
ginous;  the  former  includes  the  orders  acan- 
thopterygii,  altdominalcs,  subliracliii,  apcdcs, 
lophobranchii,  and  plectognathi ;  and  the  lat 
ter,  the  orders  sturioncs,  selachii,  and  cyclosto- 
mi. — Owen's  classification  in  his  "  Lectures  on 
Comparative  Anatomy"  (1855)  made  the  or 
ders  dermopteri,  malacoptcri,  pharyngognatld, 
anacantMni,  acanthoptcri,  plectognathi,  lopho- 
Iranchii,  ganoidci,  protoptcri,  Iwlcccpliali^  and 
pl<igiostomi  (sharks  and  rays).  His  classifica 
tion  of  1866  is  somewhat  different,  as  follows: 
In  the  division  lia'matocrya,  or  cold-blooded 
animals,  including  fishes,  batrachians,  and  rep 
tiles,  in  the  fishes  he  makes  subclasses:  1,  dcr- 
mopteri,  with  orders  cirrostomi  (lancelet)  and 
cyclostomi  (lampreys);  2,  tcleostomi,  with  or 
ders  malacopteri  (soft-rayed  fishes),  anacan- 
tJiini  (cod),  acantltoptcri  (spiny-rayed  fishes), 
plcctognatld  (ostraccans),  loplidbrancTiii  (pipe 
fish),  and  ganoidei ;  3,  plagiostomi,  with  or 
ders  liolocepltali  (chima?ra),  plagiostomi  (sharks 
j  and  rays),  and  protopttri  (lepidosiren). — Prof. 
Huxley  places  fishes  in  the  lowest  of  his  three 
great  divisions  of  vertebrates,  the  iclithyopsi- 
da,  including  also  the  batrachians,  from  the 
possession  of  gills,  either  permanent  or  tempo 
rary  ;  hence  he  calls  them  also  branchiate  ver 
tebrates.  He  divides  the  class  piscctt  into  six 
orders:  1,  pliarynrjolrancliii  (amphioxus) ;  2, 
;  mars'tpoltrancldi  (lampreys  and  hags);  3,  tele- 
\  ostci,  ordinary  fishes ;  4,  ganoidei  ;  5,  clasmo- 
IrancJiii,  sharks  and  rays;  6,  dipnoi  (lepido 
siren). — A  new  classification  was  published 
by  Prof.  Agassiz  in  his  "  Essay  on  Classifica 
tion,"  ]>.  187  (1857),  the  result  of  the  systems 
of  Cuvier  and  Mtiller  and  of  his  own  scale 
method,  with  additional  light  from  his  exten 
sive  anatomical  and  embryological  researches. 
He  divides  the  old  class  of  fishes  into  four; 
his  1st  and  lowest  class  is  myzonts,  with  two 
orders,  myxinoids  and  cyclostomes;  2d,  fishes 
proper,  with  two  orders,  ctenoids  and  cycloids ; 
3d,  ganoids,  with  three  orders,  coelacanths, 
acipenseroids,  and  sauroids,  and  doubtful,  the 
siluroids,  plectognaths,  and  lophobranchs ;  he 
was  then  doubtful  whether  this  class  should  he 
separated  from  ordinary  fishes ;  and  4th,  sela 
chians,  with  three  orders,  chimcerce^  galtodes, 
and  latidcs.  These  classes  he  regards  as  equiv 
alent  to  amphibians,  reptiles,  birds,  and  mam- 


1G2 


ICHTHYOLOGY 


ICHTHYOSAURUS 


mals. — The  following  have  been  the  principal 
cultivators  of  this  science  in  America:  Dr. 
Samuel  L.  Mitchill  published  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
u  Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophi 
cal  Society  of  New  York"  (1815)  a  history  of 
149  species  of  New  York  fishes,  with  many  il 
lustrations  ;  he  adopts  the  Lirmaean  system ; 
other  descriptions  of  his  species  are  in  the 
''Proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy" 
and  in  the  "Annals  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natu 
ral  History  of  New  York."  Lesueur  has  de 
scribed  and  exactly  figured  many  species  in 
the  Philadelphia  academy's  "  Proceedings." 
Rafinesque  published  in  the  same  work,  and 
in  his  Ichthyologia  Ohiemis  (1820),  descrip 
tions  of  many  species  which  had  escaped  his 
predecessors.  Dr.  Kirtland  (1838)  described 
the  fishes  of  the  Ohio  river,  and  Dr.  Holbrook 
several  years  later  those  of  South  Carolina. 
Dr.  De  Kay  in  1842,  in  his  "Zoology  of  New 
York,"  divides  fishes  into  bony  and  cartilagi 
nous,  the  former  having  the  sections:  1,  pec- 
tinibranchii,  with  spiny-rayed  and  soft-rayed 
abdominal,  subbrachial,  and  apodal  orders ;  2, 
lophobrancliii,  and  3,  plectognathi ;  the  latter 
include  the  sections  eleutlieropomi,  plagiosto- 
mi,  and  cyclostomi.  Dr.  D.  H.  Storer,  in  his 
"Report  on  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts" 
(1839),  and  in  the  illustrated  edition  of  the 
same  in  the  "  Memoirs  of  the  American  Acad 
emy  "  (1855-'60),  and  also  in  his  "  Synopsis  of 
the  Fishes  of  North  America"  ("Memoirs  of 
the  American  Academy,"  vol.  ii.,  1846),  fol 
lows  the  arrangement  of  Cuvier.  These  works 
are  of  great  value  to  the  student  of  North 
American  ichthyology.  The  Wilkes,  North 
Pacific,  and  Japan  expeditions  sent  out  by  the 
United  States  government,  and  the  various  ex 
plorations  by  land  for  the  survey  of  the  Mex 
ican  boundary,  the  Pacific  railroad  route,  and 
military  and  civil  roads,  have  added  largely  to 
the  materials,  both  foreign  and  native,  at  the 
disposition  of  American  ichthyologists;  these 
have  been  worked  up  principally  by  Messrs. 
Baird  and  Girard  of  the  Smithsonian  institu 
tion,  where  the  collections  are  deposited.  The 
results  are  published  in  the  government  re 
ports  on  the  naval  expeditions,  in  vol.  x.  of 
the  "Pacific  Railroad  Reports,"  in  vol.  ii.  of 
the  "Mexican  Boundary  Survey,"  and  in  the 
publications  of  the  Philadelphia  academy. — 
The  disposition  to  make  new  genera  and  subdi 
vide  old  ones  is  carried  to  a  puzzling  extreme 
in  ichthyology  as  well  as  in  other  departments 
of  zoology ;  and  the  prevalent  system  of  placing 
the  name  of  the  genus  maker  after  the  species, 
by  whomsoever  and  whenever  described,  offers 
a  premium  for  naturalists  to  make  the  greatest 
number  possible  of  new  genera.  In  getting 
rid  of  the  too  great  condensation  of  Linnaeus, 
naturalists  have  fallen  into  the  worse  extreme 
of  too  extensive  subdivision.  For  details  on 
the  structure  and  physiology  of  fishes,  see 
FISHES. — FOSSIL  ICHTHYOLOGY.  Fishes  are  by 
far  the  most  numerous  of  the  vertebrates 
found  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  extending 


from  the  Silurian  epoch  to  the  tertiary ;  their 
number,  excellent  state  of  preservation,  and 
remarkable  forms,  render  fossil  fishes  of  great 
interest  in  explaining  the  changes  of  our  plan 
et's  surface,  and  in  completing  the  chain  of 
ichthyic  relations.  The  classic  work  on  fossil 
fishes  is  the  Recherches  sur  les  poissom  fossiles, 
by  Prof.  Agassiz  (1833-'43);  in  this  magnifi 
cent  work  about  1,000  species  are  described, 
with  accurate  and  elegant  illustrations,  the  re 
sult  of  his  examinations  of  more  than  20,000 
specimens  in  the  cabinets  of  Europe.  He  di 
vides  fossil  fishes  into  the  four  orders  of  ga 
noids,  placoids,  ctenoids,  and  cycloids,  accord 
ing  to  the  structure  and  form  of  the  scales, 
these  portions  of  the  external  skeleton  being 
generally  well  preserved ;  the  orders  he  divides 
into  families  according  to  the  structure  and  po 
sition  of  the  fins,  the  form  of  the  bones  of  the 
head  and  of  the  teeth,  and  the  structure  of  the 
gill  covers  and  of  the  spinous  fin  rays.  His 
classification  is  as  follows :  order  L,  ganoidei, 
characterized  by  osseous  plates  covered  with 
enamel  (see  GANOIDS)  ;  order  II.,  placoidei, 
with  tabular  scales,  like  sharks  and  rays ;  or 
der  III.,  ctenoidei,  having  many  living  repre 
sentatives,  with  s.cales  serrated  on  their  poste 
rior  margins ;  order  IV.,  cycloidei,  with  ellip 
tical  or  circular  scales  without  serrations.  The 
first  order  is  most  abundant  from  the  old  red 
sandstone  to  the  chalk  formation ;  the  second 
extends  from  the  Silurian  through  the  tertiary 
epochs ;  the  last  two  are  not  found  anterior  to 
the  chalk,  from  which  they  extend  through  the 
tertiary  strata.  For  details  on  fossil  fishes,  see 
the  geological  works  of  Hugh  Miller. 

ICHTHYOSAURUS  (Gr.  ix6i>g,  fish,  and  cavpog, 
lizard),  a  gigantic  fossil  marine  reptile,  belong 
ing  to  the  order  enaliosaurians  of  Conybeare. 
The  body  was  fish-like  in  form,  with  a  large 
head,  neck  of  equal  width  with  occiput  and 
thorax;  the  vertebra}  had  biconcave  articular 
surfaces,  as  in  fishes  and  the  perennibranchiate 
reptiles;  the  paddles,  four  in  number,  were 
comparatively  small,  resembling  in  form  those 
of  cetaceans,  but  in  the  number  of  digits  and 
of  their  constituent  bones  and  appended  bifur 
cated  rays  they  came  near  the  structure  of  the 
fins  of  fishes ;  the  tail  was  long,  the  vertebrae 
gradually  becoming  smaller  and  flatter  toward 
the  end,  and  probably  margined  with  a  tegu- 
mentary  fin  expanded  or  in  a  vertical  direc 
tion  ;  the  tail  was  doubtless  the  principal  organ 
of  locomotion,  and  presented  the  saurian  char 
acter  of  length  and  gradual  diminution,  being 
cetacean  in  its  partially  tegumentary  nature, 
and  fish-like  in  its  vertical  position.  Accord 
ing  to  Dr.  Buckland,  the  skin  was  scaleless  and 
finely  wrinkled,  as  in  cetaceans.  The  skull  is 
like  that  of  the  dolphin,  with  a  smaller  cere 
bral  cavity  and  an  unanchylosed  condition  of 
the  cranial  bones ;  the  intermaxillaries  are 
greatly  developed,  and  the  orbits  immense,  sur 
rounded  by  numerous  large  sclerotic  plates ;  in 
the  convex  articulating  surface  of  the  occiput, 
the  solid  structure  of  the  back  part  of  the  skull, 


ICHTHYOSAURUS 


ICONOCLASTS 


163 


and  the  massive  proportions  of  the  jaws  and 
the  bones  with  which  they  are  articulated,  we 
see  crocodilian  affinities.  The  nostrils  are  a 
short  distance  in  front  of  the  orbits ;  the  teeth 
are  situated  in  an  alveolar  groove  with  their 
bases  free,  and  separated  by  partial  ridges,  the 
roots  being  implanted  much  as  in  the  croco 
dile;  hence  this  reptile  is  placed  by  Prof. 
Agassiz  in  the  order  of  rhizodonts.  The  struc 
ture  of  the  hyoid  apparatus  indicates  that  it 
was  an  air  breather,  with  a  slightly  developed 
tongue,  and  that  it  obtained  its  food  in  the 
water,  having  an  apparatus,  as  in  the  crocodile, 
to  shut  off  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  from  the 
larynx.  The  ribs  are  well  developed,  extend 
ing  from  near  the  head  to  the  tail,  and  attached 
to  a  large  sternum  ;  the  clavicles  and  shoulder 
blades  are  strong;  the  resulting  pectoral  arch 
resembles  much  that  of  the  mammalian  orni- 
thorhynchus,  and  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  cetaceans,  indicating  that  the  anterior  limbs 
were  used  not  only  in  swimming  but  in  crawl 
ing  up  the  shores  of  the  ocean  for  the  purpose 
of  depositing  their  eggs,  &c.  The  arm  and 
forearm  are  very  short  and  broad ;  after  these 
come  the  bones  of  the  wrist  and  fingers,  ar 
ranged  as  flattened  ossicles  in  series  of  from 
three  to  six,  so  dovetailed  together  at  the  sides 


Skeleton  of  Ichthyosaurus. 

as  to  form  one  powerful  framework.  The 
pelvic  arch  is  not  articulated  to  the  spine,  but 
was  merely  suspended  in  the  muscles,  as  in 
fishes ;  the  posterior  limbs  or  paddles  are  gen 
erally  considerably  smaller  than  the  anterior, 
and  would  seem  to  have  been  more  serviceable 
in  terrestrial  progression  than  in  swimming. 
The  best  known  species,  /.  communis  (Cony- 
beare),  grew  to  a  length  of  20  ft. ;  the  large 
conical,  longitudinally  furrowed  teeth  are  from 
40  to  50  above  on  each  side,  and  25  to  30  be 
low  ;  the  jaws  are  prolonged  and  compressed, 
the  vertebrae  about  140,  with  the  anterior  pad 
dles  three  times  as  large  as  the  posterior ;  like 
all  the  species,  this  is  found  in  the  secondary 
formations,  principally  in  the  lias  and  oolite  of 
England.  The  /.  in  termedius  (Conyb.),  the  most 
common  and  generally  distributed  of  the  spe 
cies,  does  not  much  exceed  7  ft.  in  length ;  the 
teeth  are  more  acutely  conical,  and  about  |jl|§ ; 
the  vertebras  are  about  130,  and  the  fore  pad 
dles  are  much  the  larger.  The  /.  platyodon 
(Conyb.),  so  called  from  the  greater  smooth 
ness  and  flatness  of  the  crowns  of  the  teeth, 
must  have  attained  a  length  of  more  than 
30  ft. ;  the  head  is  longer  than  in  the  prece 
ding  species,  and  the  jaws  broader  and  more 
powerful;  the  teeth  are  about  £-$-!&  and  are 
frequently  found  broken  as  if  from  its  own 


violence;  the  vertebrae  are  about  120;  the 
most  remarkable  character  is  the  equality  in 
size  of  the  fore  and  hind  paddles,  and  the  com 
parative  simplicity  of  their  structure.  The  /. 
tenuirostris  (Conyb.)  is  characterized  by  the 
length  and  slenderness  of  the  jaws,  as  in  the 
gavial ;  this,  with  the  flat  head  and  large  orbits, 
gives  to  the  skull,  as  Owen  says,  the  appear 
ance  of  that  of  a  gigantic  snipe  with  its  bill 
armed  with  teeth ;  the  teeth  are  slender  and 
very  numerous,  about  !,$lg#,  and  directed  ob 
liquely  backward ;  it  attained  a  length  of  about 
15  ft.,  and  was  rather  slender  in  its  propor 
tions.  Six  other  species,  and  details  on  all, 
will  be  found  in  Prof.  Owen's  "  Report  on 
British  Fossil  Reptiles  to  the  British  Associa 
tion,"  in  1839.  Their  remains  extend  through 
the  whole  of  the  oolitic  period,  including  the 
lias  and  oolite  proper  to  the  Wealden  and  chalk 
formations,  in  Great  Britain  and  central  Eu 
rope.  For  fuller  details  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  writings  of  Conybeare,  Cuvier,  and 
Buckland.  These  reptiles,  of  gigantic  size  and 
marine  habits,  must  have  been  very  active  and 
destructive ;  their  food,  as  indicated  by  the 
bones  and  scales  found  with  their  remains,  con 
sisted  principally  of  fishes.  From  the  great 
size  of  the  eyes,  they  could  probably  see  well 
by  night ;  being  air 
breathers,  like  the 
crocodiles,  they  no 
doubt  seized  their 
prey  near  the  sur 
face  ;  the  immense 
cuttle  fishes  of  the 
secondary  epoch 
probably  furnished 

a  portion  of  their  food.  These  strange  crea 
tures  formed  the  connecting  link  between  rep 
tiles  and  fishes,  as  do  the  perennibranchiate 
amphibia  in  the  actual  creation  ;  and  by  some 
they  have  been  considered,  like  the  latter,  as 
possessors  of  both  gills  and  lungs,  at  least  in 
some  stage  of  their  existence,  and  therefore  to 
a  certain  extent  amphibious.  This  reptile, 
with  the  muzzle  of  a  dolphin,  the  teeth  of  a 
crocodile,  the  head  of  a  lizard,  the  paddles  of 
a  whale,  and  the  vertebras  of  a  fish,  buried  for 
myriads  of  years,  was  introduced  to  the  sci 
entific  world  by  Sir  Everard  Home,  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1814. 
ICOLMKILL.  See  IONA. 
ICOMIM.  See  KONIEH. 
ICONOCLASTS  (Gr.  kutwoKh&aTW,  from  ktK&v, 
an  image,  and  K/£V,  to  break),  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  the  violent  opponents  of  the  venera 
tion  of  images  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries. 
The  use  of  images  which  led  to  the  iconoclas 
tic  troubles  dates  from  very  remote  antiquity. 
The  paintings  which  adorn  the  Roman  cata 
combs  are  now  attributed  by  such  archaeolo 
gists  as  Lenormant  and  Marchi  to  the  first 
three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era ;  and  those 
recently  discovered  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Cal- 
listus  are  thought  by  De'  Rossi  to  belong  to  the 
1st  century.  But  it  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute 


164 


ICONOCLASTS 


when  images  were  first  introduced  by  Chris 
tians  into  public  worship.  The  prevailing 
opinion  is  that  they  passed  from  the  family 
into  the  temple  at  the  end  of  the  3d  century, 
and  that  their  public  use  became  general  at  the 
close  of  the  4th.  The  visible  representation  of 
the  cross  found  its  way  earlier  both  into  eccle 
siastical  and  domestic  life.  This  custom  and 
the  feeling  out  of  which  it  grew  varied  widely 
among  diil'erent  nations.  In  Egypt  and  through 
out  Africa  the  use  of  images  met  with  but  lit 
tle  favor.  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  Augustine  discountenanced  it.  Both  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  favored  the  fine  arts,  but 
there  always  existed  among  Christians  an  aver 
sion  toward  anything  which  resembled  the  old 
pagan  union  of  art  and  religion.  The  first  note 
of  the  iconoclastic  warfare  came  from  Mar 
seilles,  where  the  bishop,  Serenus,  caused  all 
images  to  be  demolished  and  cast  out  of  church 
es.  For  this  he  was  twice  censured  by  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  who,  while  blaming  the 
superstitious  use  of  images,  advised  their  em 
ployment  as  a  means  of  instruction  for  the  un 
lettered  who  could  not  read  the  Holy  Scrip 
tures.  In  the  East,  Constantine  had  embel 
lished  the  public  monuments  and  churches 
erected  by  himself  in  his  new  imperial  city 
with  representations  of  religious  objects  taken 
from  the  circle  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa 
ments.  Very  soon  this  use  became  interwoven 
with  the  whole  domestic  and  public  life  of  the 
Greek  and  Asiatic  Christians.  Churches,  to 
gether  with  their  books,  furniture,  and  vest 
ments,  private  houses  and  public  edifices, 
household  utensils  and  wearing  apparel,  were 
profusely  ornamented  with  images  of  Christ, 
the  martyrs,  and  Biblical  personages.  Statues 
of  costly  materials  adorned  the  public  squares 
and  the  approaches  to  the  imperial  palaces. 
The  people  were  not  slow  in  going  to  extrava 
gant  lengths.  Reports  of  miraculous  eifects 
produced  by  some  images  attracted  crowds  of 
pilgrims.  In  the  course  of  the  6th  century  it 
became  a  custom  in  the  Greek  church  to  make 
prostrations  before  images  as  a  token  of  rever 
ence  to  the  persons  whom  they  represented. 
The  Manichreans  had  already  characterized  these 
practices  as  idolatry,  and  the  Jews  denounced 
them  as  an  apostasy  from  the  divine  law. 
About  the  year  600  Leontius,  a  Cyprian  bish 
op,  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  Jews  and  in 
vindication  of  the  lawfulness  of  the  custom. 
In  the  next  century  the  Mohammedans  wher 
ever  they  prevailed  forbade  the  worship  of 
images. — Moved  by  these  circumstances,  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian  issued  a 
first  ordinance  in  756,  directed  not  against  the 
images  themselves,  but  against  such  signs  of 
an  idolatrous  homage  as  prostration  and  kneel 
ing  down  before  them.  This  measure,  coun 
selled  by  Constantine,  bishop  of  Nacolia  in 
Phrygia,  and  countenanced  by  a  large  number 
of  other  eastern  prelates,  met  with  resistance 
from  Germanus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  from  the  mass  of  the  people.  Besides  se 


rious  disturbances  in  many  places,  the  inhabi 
tants  of  the  Cyclades  rebelled  against  the  em 
peror  and  equipped  a  fieet.  This  was  destroy 
ed  by  means  of  Greek  fire,  and  a  new  impe 
rial  edict  was  issued  in  730,  forbidding  the 
use  of  all  images  for  religious  purposes.  Ger 
manus  now  resigned  his  office  and  retired  into 
solitude.  Leo  caused  the  statues  in  churches 
to  be  burned  and  the  paintings  on  the  walls  to 
be  effaced,  and  fearful  riots  and  massacres  oc 
curred  in  consequence.  Pope  Gregory  II.  re 
monstrated  in  vain  with  the  emperor,  and  the 
Romans  refused  to  comply  with  the  imperial 
edict.  In  732  a  council  assembled  in  Rome  by 
Gregory  III.,  condemned  Leo  and  his  abettors, 
and  decreed  the  validity  of  the  relative  honor 
paid  to  images.  The  emperor  pursued  his  pur 
pose  with  relentless  severity  until  his  death  in 
741,  when  it  was  taken  up  with  no  less  zeal  by 
his  son  Constantine  Copronymus.  lie  was  op 
posed  by  his  brother-in-law  Artavasdes,  who 
possessed  himself  of  the  throne  and  restored 
the  worship  of  images.  His  death  in  Novem 
ber,  743,  restored  Constantine  to  power,  which 
he  used  to  exterminate  images  and  finish  the 
work  begun  by  his  father.  lie  assembled  at 
Constantinople  in  754  a  council  of  338  bishops, 
who  after  a  deliberation  of  six  months  pro 
nounced  all  visible  symbols  of  Christ,  except  in 
the  cucharist,  to  be  either  blasphemous  or  he 
retical,  and  the  use  of  images  in  churches  to  be 
a  revival  of  paganism.  This  decision  was  car 
ried  out  by  Constantine,  one  of  whose  last  acts 
was  to  compel  every  inhabitant  of  Constanti 
nople  to  take  an  oath  never  again  to  worship 
an  image.  Leo  IV.,  who  succeeded  him  in 
775,  was  no  less  energetic  in  putting  down  im 
age  worship ;  but  at  his  death  in  780  the  em 
press  regent  Irene  concerted  measures  with 
Pope  Adrian  I.  for  the  restoration  of  images. 
In  787  the  second  ecumenical  council  of  Nice 
decreed  that  "bowing  to  an  image,  which  is 
simply  the  token  of  love  and  reverence,  ought 
by  no  means  to  be  confounded  with  the  adora 
tion  which  is  due  to  God  alone."  The  same 
was  also  true  of  the  cross,  the  books  of  the 
evangelists,  and  other  sacred  objects.  The  con 
test  was  prolonged  in  the  East  under  successive 
emperors  till  Theodora  assembled  a  council  at 
Constantinople  (842),  which  confirmed  the  de 
cisions  of  the  Nicene  council,  and  established 
the  veneration  of  images  among  the  Greeks, 
though  subsequently  the  Greek  church  took 
the  position  which  it  holds  to  this  day  that  no 
carved,  sculptured,  or  molten  images  of  holy 
persons  or  things  are  allowable,  but  only  pic 
tures,  which  are  held  to  be  not  images  but  rep 
resentations.  Rome  and  Italy  had  already  ac 
cepted  the  decree  of  the  Nicene  council,  which 
the  Latin  church  accounts  the  seventh  of  the 
general  councils. — The  term  iconoclasts  is  also 
applied  in  history  to  those  Protestants  of  the 
Netherlands  who  at  the  commencement  of  the 
troubles  in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  tumultuous- 
Iv  assembled  and  destroyed  the  images  in  many 
Roman  Catholic  churches.  These  tumults  be- 


ICONOCLASTS 


IDAHO 


1G5 


gan  Aug.  14,  1506,  at  St.  Omer  in  Flanders, 
where  several  churches  were  desecrated,  the 
images  overturne.d  and  broken,  and  the  pictures 
ruined.  The  insurgents  next  attacked  the  ca 
thedral  at  Ypres,  which  they  also  stripped. 
The  excitement  speedily  spread  all  over  Flan 
ders,  Hainant,  and  Brabant,  and  the  churches, 
chapels,  and  convents  of  Valenciennes,  Tour- 
nay,  Menin,  Comines,  and  many  other  cities 
and  towns  were  sacked.  At  Antwerp  shortly 
afterward  a  mob  ravaged  the  cathedral,  de 
stroyed  the  statues,  cut  into  pieces  the  paint 
ings,  the  pride  of  Flemish  art,  demolished  the 
great  organ,  the  most  perfect  in  the  world, 
overthrew  the  TO  altars,  and  carried  off  the 
vestments  and  sacred  vessels.  The  devastation 
of  the  cathedral  occupied  them  till  midnight, 
when  they  sallied  forth  to  deal  in  the  same 
way  with  the  other  churches  of  the  city  and  its 
suburbs.  For  three  days  these  scenes  contin 
ued  at  Antwerp,  when  they  were  stopped  by  a 
few  knights  of  the  golden  fleece,  who  with 
their  retainers  attacked  and  dispersed  the  riot 
ers.  From  Antwerp  the  excitement  against 
images  spread  over  the  northern  provinces, 
and  throughout  Holland,  Utrecht,  and  Fries- 
land  the  churches  were  ravaged.  At  Rotter 
dam,  Dort,  Haarlem,  and  some  other  places, 
the  magistrates  averted  the  storm  by  quietly 
removing  the  images  from  the  buildings.  u  The 
amount  of  injury  inflicted  during  this  dismal 
period,"  says  Prescott,  "it  is  not  possible  to 
estimate.  Four  hundred  churches  were  sacked 
by  the  insurgents  in  Flanders  alone.  The  dam 
age  to  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp,  including  its 
precious  contents,  was  said  to  amount  to  not 
less  than  400,000  ducats.  The  loss  occasioned 
by  the  plunder  of  gold  and  silver  plate  might 
be  computed ;  the  structures  so  cruelly  defaced 
might  be  repaired  by  the  skill  of  the  architect ; 
but  who  can  estimate  the  irreparable  loss  occa 
sioned  by  the  destruction  of  manuscripts,  stat 
uary,  and  paintings?"  Motley,  in  his  "His 
tory  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,"  main 
tains  that  the  iconoclasts  committed  no  act  of 
plunder  nor  of  outrage  on  persons.  He  says : 
u  Catholic  and  Protestant  writers  agree  that  no 
deeds  of  violence  were  committed  against  man 
or  woman.  It  would  be  also  very  easy  to  accu 
mulate  a  vast  weight  of  testimony  as  to  their  for 
bearance  from  robbery.  They  destroyed  for  de 
struction's  sake,  not  for  purposes  of  plunder. 
Although  belonging  to  the  lowest  classes  of  so 
ciety,  they  left  heaps  of  jewelry,  of  gold  and  sil 
ver  plate,  of  costly  embroidery,  lying  unheeded 
upon  the  ground.  They  felt  instinctively  that 
a  great  passion  would  be  contaminated  by  ad 
mixture  with  paltry  motives.  In  Flanders  a 
company  of  rioters  hanged  one  of  their  own 
number  for  stealing  articles  to  the  value  of  five 
shillings.  In  Valenciennes  the  iconoclasts  were 
offered  large  sums  if  they  would  refrain  from 
desecrating  the  churches  of  that  city,  but  they 
rejected  the  proposal  with  disdain.  The  hon 
est  Catholic  burgher  who  recorded  the  fact,  ob 
served  that  he  did  so  because  of  the  many  mis 


representations  on  the  subject,  not  because  he 
wished  to  flatter  heresy  and  rebellion."  The 
whole  time  occupied  by  this  remarkable  out 
break  was  less  than  a  fortnight.  It  was  warm 
ly  disapproved  of  at  the  time  by  William  of 
Orange,  Egmont,  and  the  other  statesmen  of 
the  patriotic  party  in  the  Netherlands.  Its 
immediate  effect  was  to  detach  the  Catholics 
from  the  national  cause,  and  it  was  probably 
the  principal  means  of  preventing  the  southern 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands  from  becoming 
independent  of  Spain  in  concert  with  the  seven 
northern  provinces. 

IC1IMS,  a  Greek  architect,  contemporary 
with  Pericles.  He  was  chief  architect  of  the 
Parthenon,  and  built  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epi- 
curius  near  Ptiigalia  in  Arcadia.  The  former 
was  completed  in  438  B.  C.,  and  the  hitter  prob 
ably  about  431.  He  also  built  the  fane  at  Eleu- 
sis  in  which  the  mysteries  were  celebrated. 
All  these  edifices  were  in  the  Doric  style.  No 
details  of  his  life  remain. 

IDA,  a  W.  county  of  Iowa,  drained  by 
branches  of  Little  Sioux  river ;  area,  482  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  226.  Grain,  potatoes,  and 
sorghum  are  the  principal  crops  ;  cattle  raising 
is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  The 
productions  in  1870  were  9,239  bushels  of 
wheat,  8,510  of  Indian  corn,  6,058  of  oats,  2,511 
of  potatoes,  and  1,887  tons  of  hay.  The  value 
of  live  stock  was  $34,867.  Capital,  New  Ida. 

IDA.  I.  A  mountain  range  (now  Kas  Dagh) 
of  Mysia,  forming  the  S.  boundary  of  the 
Trend.  Its  highest  peak  was  Mt.  Gargarus,  about 
5,750  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  principal  rivers 
flowing  from  Mt.  Ida  were  the  Simois,  Sca- 
immder,  and  Granicus.  From  Mt.  Ida  Gany 
mede  was  stolen  ;  here  Paris  pronounced  judg 
ment  on  the  beauty  of  the  rival  goddesses  ;  and 
here  the  celestials  stationed  themselves  to  be 
hold  the  battles  for  Troy  on  the  plain  below. 
II.  A  mountain  (now  Psiloriti)  of  Crete,  the 
loftiest  of  the  range  which  traverses  that  isl 
and,  of  which  it  occupies  the  centre,  termi 
nating  in  three  peaks  crowned  with  snow  for 
eight  months  of  the  year.  Its  highest  summit 
is  said  to  be  about  8,0(JO  ft.  Of  the  legends  with 
which  its  name  is  connected,  those  relating  to 
the  infancy  of  Zeus  are  the  most  celebrated. 

IDAHO,  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
situated  between  lat.  42°  and  49°  N.,  and  Ion. 
111°  and  117°  10'  AY.,  bounded  N.  by  British 
Columbia,  E.  by  Montana  and  Wyoming,  S.  by 
Utah  and  Nevada,  and  W.  by  Oregon  and  Wash 
ington.  The  extreme  length  N.  and  S.  on  the 
W.  boundary  is  485  m.  and  along  the  "Wyo 
ming  border  140  m.,  and  the  breadth  varies 
from  less  than  50  m.  on  the  north  to  nearly 
300  m.  on  the  south ;  area,  86,294  sq.  m. 
The  eastern  boundary  line  is  irregular.  Com 
mencing  at  the  north,  it  runs  S.  along  the 
116th  meridian  to  the  crest  of  the  Bitter  Root 
mountains  (about  lat.  47°  45') ;  thence  it  fol 
lows  S.  E.  and  E.  the  crest  of  those  and  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  to  the  lllth  meridian 
on  the  Wyoming  border,  and  thence  runs  S. 


166 


IDAHO 


to  the  Utah  border.  The  territory  is  divided 
into  nine  counties :  Ada,  Alturas,  Boise,  Idaho, 
Lemhi,  Nez  Perce,  Oneida,  Owyhee,  and  Sho- 
shone.  The  principal  towns  are  Bois6  City 
(the  capital),  Idaho  City,  Malade  City,  and  Sil 
ver  City  in  the  S.  part,  each  having  in  1870 
less  than  1,000  inhabitants,  and  Lewiston  at 
the  junction  of  the  Snake  and  Clearwater  rivers. 
The  population  of  the  territory  in  1870,  exclu 
sive  of  tribal  Indians,  was  14,999,  including 
4,274  Chinese,  60  colored,  and  47  Indians ;  12,- 
184  were  male  and  2,815  female;  7,114  native 
and  7,885  foreign  born;  897  males  and  798  fe 
males  were  between  5  and  1 8  years  of  age,  9,431 
males  (3,288  native  and  6,143  foreign)  from  18 
to  45,  and  10,313  (3,680  native  and  6,633  for 
eign)  21  years  old  and  upward.  *  Of  the  natives, 
946  were  born  in  the  territory,  804  in  New 
York,  550  in  Ohio,  536  in  Missouri,  479  in 
Utah,  416  in  Pennsylvania,  400  in  Illinois, 
348  in  Oregon,  and  312  in  Iowa.  Of  the  for 
eigners,  1,984  were  natives  of  Great  Britain, 
of  whom  986  were  Irish,  599  of  Germany,  and 
334  of  British  America.  There  were  553  per 
sons  born  in  Idaho  living  in  other  parts  of  the 
Union ;  5,557  male  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
21  years  old  and  over,  in  the  territory ;  3,293 
persons,  10  years  old  and  upward,  unable  to 
read,  and  3,388  unable  to  write,  including  2,872 
Chinese;  4,104  families  and  4,622  dwellings; 
10,879  persons,  10  years  old  and  over,  engaged 
in  occupations,  of  whom  1,462  were  employed 
in  agriculture,  1,423  in  professional  and  per 
sonal  services,  721  in  trade  and  transportation, 
and  7,273  in  manufactures  and  mechanical  and 
mining  industries.  The  tribal  Indians  in  1872 
numbered  about  5,800.  The  Nez  Perces,  2,807 
in  number,  occupy  a  reservation  of  1,344,000 
acres  in  the  N.  part  of  the  territory  ;  they  are 
well  advanced  in  civilization,  extensively  en 
gaged  in  agriculture,  and  had  two  schools  in 
operation,  attended  by  124  pupils.  The  Boise 
and  Bruneau  Shoshones,  numbering  516,  and 
the  Bannacks,  521,  have  a  reservation  of  1,568,- 
000  acres  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  territory,  near 
the  Snake  river.  These  reservations  receive 
limited  annuities  from  the  United  States,  and 
are  in  charge  of  the  Presbyterians.  The  Cceur 
d'Alenes,  Spokanes,  Kootenays,  and  Pend 
d'Oreilles,  about  2,000  in  the  aggregate,  oc 
cupy  a  reservation  of  256,000  acres,  30  or  40  m. 
N.  of  the  Nez  Perces.  They  receive  no  annui 
ties,  and  are  largely  under  the  influence  of  the 
Catholic  missionaries  of  the  Coeur  d'Alene  mis 
sion. — The  general  surface  of  the  territory  is 
a  table  land,  with  an  elevation  of  from  2,000 
to  5,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  but  containing  nu 
merous  depressed  valleys,  each  watered  by  a 
considerable  stream,  and  crossed  by  mountain 
ranges  or  spurs,  with  peaks  rising  above  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow.  These  spurs,  branch 
ing  from  the  Bitter  Root  and  main  chain  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  and  traversing  the  whole 
w^idth  of  the  territory,  are  mostly  named  from 
the  streams  that  rise  in  them  or  flow  along  the 
valleys  at  their  base.  In  the  north,  near  the 


international  boundary,  are  the  Kootenay  moun 
tains  ;  S.  of  these  is  the  Coeur  d'Alene  range, 
and  further  S.  and  along  the  Clearwater  river 
and  its  tributaries  are  the  Clearwater  moun 
tains.  Along  the  upper  Salmon  river  and  at  its 
head  waters  is  the  lofty  and  rugged  Salmon 
River  range,  and  further  up  the  Snake  from  the 
mouth  of  Salmon  river  are  successively  found 
the  Weiser,  Payette,  Boise,  Owyhee  (in  the  S. 
W.  portion  of  the  territory),  and  Saw  Tooth 
mountains.  The  Bear  River  mountains  are  in 
the  S.  E.  corner,  and  along  the  N.  portion  of 
the  Wyoming  border  is  the  Teton  range.  The 
Three  Buttes  are  isolated  peaks  in  the  S.  part, 
N.  and  W.  of  the  Snake.  The  Snake  river  or 
Lewis  fork  of  the  Columbia  and  its  branches 
drain  the  entire  territory,  except  a  portion 
about  120  m.  long  in  the  extreme  north,  which 
is  watered  by  Clarke's  fork,  the  Spokane,  and 
the  Kootenay,  and  a  small  tract  in  the  S.  E. 
corner,  which  is  intersected  by  Bear  river.  The 
Snake  river,  rising  in  the  W.  part  of  Wyoming, 
after  entering  Idaho,  flows  N.  W.,  then  bends 
S.  W.,  and  again  N.  W.,  making  an  immense 
curve  through  the  S.  part  of  the  territory, 
and  strikes  the  Oregon  boundary  in  about 
lat.  43°  40',  after  which  it  flows  N.  forming  the 
W.  boundary  of  Idaho  to  about  lat.  46°  30', 
where  it  turns  W.  and  enters  Washington  ter 
ritory.  Steamers  ascend  to  Lewiston  in  Nez 
Perce  co.,  just  above  the  point -where  it  as 
sumes  a  W.  course.  For  more  than  100  m. 
above  Lewiston  the  river  is  shallow  and  rapid, 
and  navigation  is  difficult  and  dangerous  ;  but 
above  the  mouth  of  Powder  river  it  is  again 
navigable  for  150  or  200  m.  The  principal 
tributaries  are  the  Bruneau  from  the  south,  the 
Malade  from  the  north,  and  from  the  east  the 
Boise,  the  Payette,  the  Weiser,  the  Salmon,  the 
Clearwater,  and  the  Palouse.  The  Boise"  enters 
the  Snake  just  below  the  point  where  it  as 
sumes  a  N.  course  ;  the  Payette  and  Weiser  lie 
between  it  and  the  Salmon.  The  Salmon  river 
rises  in  the  Salmon  River  mountains  near  the 
centre  of  the  S.  portion  of  the  territory,  and 
flows  N.  along  the  base  of  the  Rocky  moun 
tains,  turns  abruptly  W.,  and  after  traversing 
the  entire  width  of  the  territory  joins  the  Snake 
near  the  middle  of  the  W.  boundary.  The 
Clearwater  rises  by  several  forks  in  the  Bitter 
Root  mountains,  and  flows  W.,  joining  the  Snake 
at  Lewiston.  The  Palouse  rises  N.  of  the 
Clearwater,  and  empties  into  the  Snake  in 
Washington  territory.  The  Spokane,  flowing 
W.  and  joining  the  Columbia  in  Washington 
territory,  forms  the  outlet  of  Coeur  d'Alene 
lake,  a  navigable  body  of  water  of  irregular 
shape,  about  24  m.  long  by  2  or  3  m.  wide, 
which  receives  the  Cceur  d'Alene  and  St.  Jo 
seph's  rivers  from  the  Bitter  Root  mountains. 
Further  N.  Clarke's  fork  crosses  the  territory 
from  E.  to  W.,  expanding  into  a  lake  about 
30  in.  long  and  5  m.  wide  near  the  E.  bound 
ary,  called  Pend  d'Oreille.  The  river  and  lake 
are  navigable  by  steamers  through  Idaho.  The 
N.  E.  corner  is  crossed  by  the  Kootenay,  a  trib- 


IDAHO 


16T 


ntary  of  the  Columbia.  Lake  Kaniskn,  about 
30  m.  long  and  0  m.  wide,  which  occupies  the 
N.  W.  corner  of  the  territory,  empties  into 
Clarke's  fork.  Bear  river  enters  the  S.  E.  cor 
ner  from  Utah,  flows  N.,  and  bending  sharply 
S.  reenters  Utah,  and  empties  into  Great  Salt 
lake.  The  S.  W.  corner  is  watered  by  Jordan 
creek  and  other  affluents  of  the  Owyhee,  an 
Oregon  tributary  of  the  Snake.  Three  falls  in 
the  Snake  deserve  mention.  The  American 
falls  are  in  about  Ion.  112°  45',  and  have  a  per 
pendicular  descent  of  60  or  70  ft.  The  Sho- 
shone  falls  further  down  the  stream,  and  just 
below  the  Malade,  are  surpassed  only  by  those 
of  Niagara  and  the  Yosemite.  The  river,  here 
200  or  300  yards  wide,  is  divided  about  400 
yards  above  the  main  fall  into  six  nearly  equal 
parts  by  five  islands,  and  in  the  passage  be 
tween  them  is  precipitated  25  or  30  ft.  Uni 
ting  below  the  islands,  the  water  passes  in  an 
unbroken  sheet  over  the  great  fall,  a  descent 
of  about  200  ft.  The  Salmon  falls,  about  45  m. 
below  the  Shoshone,  are  20  ft.  high. — Idaho  is 
rich  in  the  precious  metals.  The  principal 
quartz  mines  are  in  the  S.  W.  part,  in  Owyhee, 
Idaho,  Boise,  and  Alturas  counties.  In  the 
Owyhee  mines,  which  are  the  richest,  situated 
S.  of  the  Snake  and  chiefly  on  Jordan  creek, 
silver  predominates.  The  other  mines,  the 
most  productive  of  which  are  in  Boise  basin, 
an  elliptical  depression  in  Bois6  co.,  25  m. 
long  from  N.  to  S.  and  18  m.  from  E.  to  W., 
produce  gold.  Placer  diggings  occur  in  va 
rious  parts  of  the  territory ;  the  most  im 
portant  are  those  of  Boise  basin  and  along 
the  head  waters  of  the  Salmon  and  Clearwater 
rivers.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in  paying 
quantities  in  Idaho  on  Oro  Fino  creek,  a  N. 
tributary  of  the  Clearwater,  in  18(50.  The  Boise 
basin  mines  were  discovered  in  1862,  and 
the  Owyhee  mines  in  1863.  The  product  of 
the  territory  prior  to  1868  is  stated  in  J.  Ross 
Browne's  u  Resources  of  the  Pacific  Slope  "  at 
$45,000.000.  The  subsequent  yield,  according 
to  R.  W.  Raymond,  United  States  commis 
sioner  of  mining  statistics,  has  been  as  fol 
lows :  1868,  $7,000,000;  1869,  $7,000,000; 
1870,  $6,000,000;  1871,  $5,000,000;  1872, 
$2,695,870;  1873,  $2,500000;  making  the  to 
tal  product  more  than  $75,000,000.  Of  the 
yield  in  1872,  $2,272,261  was  gold  and  $423,- 
609  silver;  in  1873,  $1,571,733  gold  and  $928,- 
267  silver.  The  gold  from  Idaho  deposited  at 
the  United  States  mint,  branches,  and  assay 
offices  to  June  30,  1873,  amounted  to  $18,389,- 
785  84;  silver,  $300,401  74.  The  census  of 
1870  returns  254  mines,  having  5  steam  engines 
of  82  horse  power  and  2  water  wheels  of  52 
horse  power;  hands  employed,  1,692;  capital 
invested,  $1,088,640;  wages  paid,  $503,266; 
value  of  materials,  $231,763 ;  of  products, 
$1,989,341.  Of  these  mines  244  were  for  the 
production  of  gold,  of  which  7  were  hydraulic, 
232  placer,  and  5  quartz  ;  10  were  quartz  mines, 
producing  gold  and  silver.  The  returns,  how 
ever,  are  admitted  to  be  imperfect.  A  United 


States  assay  office  was  established  at  Boise 
City  in  1872.  There  are  extensive  deposits  of 
salt,  coal,  and  iron  ore. — In  spring,  summer, 
and  autumn  the  climate  is  delightful ;  the  days 
are  never  sultry  and  the  nights  are  cool.  The 
winters  on  the  high  mountains  are  accompa 
nied  with  extreme  cold  and  heavy  snow  ;  on 
the  plains  and  lower  mountains  they  are  gen 
erally  less  severe  than  in  N.  Iowa,  Wisconsin, 
or  central  Minnesota.  The  valleys  are  mild, 
visited  with  little  snow,  and  cattle  winter  in 
them  without  shelter.  The  average  tempera 
ture  in  the  W.  part  of  the  territory  is  about 
the  same  as  in  central  Illinois,  Indiana,  and 
Ohio,  and  S.  Pennsylvania,  while  in  the  east 
it  is  more  nearly  that  of  N.  Massachusetts  and 
S.  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire.  About  the 
sources  of  the  rivers  in  the  Bitter  Root  and 
Rocky  mountains  the  fall  of  rain  and  snow  is 
considerable,  but  in  the  lower  valleys  in  the 
west  it  is  much  less,  and  agriculture  is  not  gen 
erally  successful  without  irrigation.  In  the 
extreme  north  the  climate,  though  less  dry,  is 
colder  and  not  well  adapted  to  agriculture ; 
but  the  temperature  does  not  vary  in  propor 
tion  to  the  difference  of  latitude.  The  lower 
slopes  of  the  mountains  are  furrowed  with 
numerous  streams,  and  alternately  covered 
with  forests  (mostly  pine,  fir,  and  cedar)  and 
nutritious  grasses.  The  plains  generally  pro 
duce  good  pasturage,  and  the  valleys  contain 
broad  stretches  of  meadow  land,  extending  on 
both  sides  of  the  streams  by  which  they  are 
watered  to  the  first  rise  of  table  land  or  moun 
tain,  and  with  irrigation  producing  good  crops 
of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  the  common  fruits 
and  vegetables.  The  climate  is  not  well  adapt 
ed  to  Indian  corn.  The  valleys  of  the  Clear- 
water,  Salmon,  Payette,  and  Boise  rivers  are 
large,  and  generally  have  good  facilities  for 
irrigation;  and  there  are  well  sheltered  and 
fertile  bottom  lands  on  the  Weiser,  St.  Jo 
seph,  and  Cceur  d'Alene,  and  fertile  tracts  on 
the  shores  of  Lakes  Coeur  d'Alene  and  Pend 
d'Oreille.  Other  important  valleys  are  those 
of  the  Bruneau  in  the  southwest,  of  Wood 
river  in  the  south,  and  of  Bear  river,  which 
contains  thriving  Mormon  settlements.  The 
extreme  north  is  well  timbered  and  has  much 
fertile  land.  The  basin  of  the  Snake  is  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  through  it  the  river  has 
cut  a  vast  canon,  varying  in  depth  from  100  to 
1,000  ft.  The  streams  that  empty  into  the 
Snake  for  some  distance  below  the  Shoshone 
falls  sink,  and,  passing  under  the  strata  of  lava, 
fall  from  the  sides  of  the  cafion  into  the  main 
stream.  The  greater  portion  of  the  basin, 
though  much  of  it  might  be  rendered  produc 
tive  by  irrigation,  is  a  barren  waste,  producing 
only  sage  brush,  but  along  the  streams  are  val 
leys  containing  arable  land,  and  the  surround 
ing  foot  hills  are  generally  covered  with  bunch 
grass,  affording  excellent  pasturage.  Of  the 
total  area  of  55,228,160  acres,  16,925,000,  ac 
cording  to  the  estimate  of  the  commissioner 
of  the  United  States  general  land  office,  are 


168 


IDAHO 


suited  to  agriculture;  5,000,000  to  grazing; 
14,328,160  are  sterile,  producing  only  wild  sage 
and  occasional  tufts  of  buffalo  grass,  but  most 
ly  reclaimuble  into  pasture  and  agricultural 
land  by  irrigation ;  18,400,000,  mountains,  in 
cluding  7,500,000  acres  of  timber  land  and 
8,000,000  of  mineral  land  ;  and  575,000  acres 
are  covered  by  lakes.  In  1870  there  were 
77,139  acres  in  farms,  of  which  26,603  were 
improved.  The  cash  value  of  farms  was  $492,- 
860 ;  of  farming  implements  and  machinery, 
$59,295  ;  amount  of  wages  paid  during  the 
year,  including  the  value  of  board,  $153,007 ; 
estimated  value  of  all  farm  productions,  in 
cluding  betterments  and  additions  to  stock, 
$637,797  ;  value  of  orchard  products,  $725  ;  of 
produce  of  market  gardens,  $24,577  ;  of  home 
manufactures,  $34,730  ;  of  animals  slaughtered 
or  sold  for  slaughter,  $57,932  ;  of  live  stock, 
$520,580.  There  wero  2, 151  horses,  371  mules 
and  asses,  4,171  milch  cows,  522  working  oxen, 
5,763  other  cattle,  1,021  sheep,  and  2, 316  swine, 
besides  624  horses  and  49,540  cattle  not  on 
farms.  The  productions  were  73,725  bushels 
of  winter  and  1,925  of  spring  wheat,  1,756  of 
rye,  5,750  of  Indian  corn,  100,119  of  oats,  72,- 
316  of  barley,  64,534  of  Irish  potatoes,  610  of 
peas  and  beans,  14  of  grass  seed,  3,415  Ibs.  of 
wool,  111,480  of  butter,  4,464  of  cheese,  21  of 
hops,  11,250  gallons  of  milk  sold,  and  6,985 
tons  of  hay.  The  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments  was  101,  having  11  steam  en 
gines  of  311  horse  power  and  16  water  wheels 
of  295  horse  power ;  number  of  hands  em 
ployed,  265  ;  capital  invested,  $742,300  ;  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  $112,372;  value  of  ma 
terials  used,  $691,785;  of  products,  $1,047,- 
624.  The  only  important  establishments  were 
8  quartz  mills  (value  of  products,  $523,100),  3 
tlouring  and  grist  mills,  10  saw  mills,  7  brew- 
cries,  and  2  distilleries.  The  United  States 
commissioner  of  mining  statistics  in  1871  states 
the  number  of  quartz  mills,  including  those 
not  in  operation,  at  30,  having  344  stamps  and 
4  arastras,  and  mostly  run  by  steam ;  9  were 
for  the  production  of  gold  alone,  and  21  for 
the  production  of  gold  and  silver.  There  is 
a  national  bank  at  Boise  City,  with  a  capital  of 
$100,000.  No  railroads  are  in  operation  in 
the  territory,  but  the  Northern  Pacific  is  to 
cross  the  N.  part. — The  government  is  similar 
to  that  of  other  territories.  The  executive 
officers  are  a  governor  and  a  secretary,  ap 
pointed  by  the  president,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  senate,  for  four  years ;  also  a 
treasurer,  comptroller,  prison  commissioner, 
and  superintendent  of  public  instruction  crea 
ted  by  local  law.  Legislative  authority  is  vest 
ed  in  a  council  of  13  members  and  a  house  of 
representatives  of  26,  elected  biennially  by  the 
people.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  su 
preme  court,  'district  courts  probate  courts, 
and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  supreme  court 
consists  of  three  judges  appointed  by  the  presi 
dent  with  the  consent  of  the  senate  for  four 
years,  and  has  appellate  jurisdiction.  A  dis 


trict  court,  with  general  original  jurisdiction, 
is  held  in  each  of  the  three  judicial  districts 
into  which  the  territory  is  divided,  by  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court.  There  is  a  probate 
court  for  each  county,  with  the  ordinary  pow 
ers  of  such  courts.  Justices  of  the  peace  have 
jurisdiction  of  inferior  cases.  The  assessed 
value  of  real  estate  in  1870  was  §1,926,565 ; 
of  personal  property,  $3,365,640;  total  as 
sessed  value,  $5,292,205  ;  true  value  of  real 
and  personal,  $6,552,681 ;  taxation  not  nation 
al,  $174,711,  of  which  $40,594  was  territorial, 
$132,171  county,  and  $1,946  town,  city,  &c. ; 
public  debt,  $222,621,  of  which  $218,522  ($33,- 
739  bonded)  was  county  and  $4,099  ($2,542 
bonded)  town,  city,  &c.  The  receipts  into  the 
territorial  treasury  for  the  two  years  ending 
Nov.  30,  1872,  according  to  the  treasurer's  re 
port,  were  $101,102,  including  $16,607  24  on 
hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  period ;  expen 
ditures,  $89,817  18;  balance,  $11,284  82.  The 
receipts  are  derived  from  taxes  on  property 
and  polls  and  from  licenses.  The  floating  debt 
at  the  above  date,  less  cash  in  the  treasury, 
was  $58,239  73  ;  bonded  debt  in  coin,  $65,- 
058  51,  payable  Dec.  1,  1875  and  1876,  upon 
which  interest  to  the  amount  of  $4,471  31  was 
unpaid.  In  1870  there  were  25  schools,  of 
which  21  were  public,  with  33  teachers,  1,208 
pupils,  and  an  annual  income  of  $19,938.  In 
1872  the  number  of  school  districts  was  37; 
public  schools,  32  ;  school  houses,  26 ;  teachers, 
60,  of  whom  26  were  males  and  34  females; 
children  of  school  age,  1,898  ;  number  enrolled, 
1,416;  total  expenditures,  $17,219  56.  The 
census  of  1870  returns  43  libraries,  containing 
10,625  volumes,  of  which  11  with  2,800  volumes 
were  not  private ;  6  newspapers  (1  tri-weckly, 
1  semi- weekly,  and  4  weekly),  issuing  200,- 
200  copies  annually  and  having  an  average 
circulation  of  2,750  ;  and  15  church  organiza 
tions  (2  Baptist,  6  Episcopal,  2  Mormon,  1 
Presbyterian,  and  4  Roman  Catholic),  having 
12  edifices  with  2,150  sittings,  and  property  to 
the  value  of  $18,200.— Idaho  was  created  a 
territory  by  the  act  of  congress  of  March  3, 
1863,  from  portions  of  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and 
Washington  territories,  comprising  an  area  of 
326,373  sq.  m.,  and  embracing  the  present  ter 
ritory  of  Montana  and  nearly  all  of  Wyoming. 
The  region  within  its  present  limits  is  a  portion 
of  the  Louisiana  purchase  of  1803,  and  was 
included  first  in  Oregon  and  subsequently  in 
Washington  territory.  The  Coeur  d'Alene  mis 
sion  was  established  in  1842,  and  is  situated 
about  15  in.  E.  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 
The  permanent  settlement  of  the  territory  did 
not  begin  until  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1860. 

IDAHO,  a  W.  central  county  of  Idaho  territo 
ry,  bounded  N.  by  Salmon  river,  W.  by  Oregon, 
and  watered  by  the  Little  Salmon  and  other 
streams;  area,  8,500  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  849, 
of  whom  425  were  Chinese.  A  large  portion 
of  the  surface  is  covered  with  forests  of  pine. 
There  are  several  fertile  valleys  containing 
good  land.  On  the  tributaries  of  the  Salmon 


IDELER 


IDIOCY 


1G9 


arc  rich  placer  mines  of  gold.  The  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  1,111  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,580  of  Indian  corn,  1,075  of  oats,  0,310  of 
potatoes,  and  03  tons  of  hay.  There  were  285 
horses  and  003  cattle.  Capital,  Washington. 

IDELEK,  Christian  Lndwfg,  a  German  mathe 
matician,  born  at  Gross-Brese,  in  Brandenburg, 
Sept.  21,  1700,  died  Aug.  10,  1840.  His  earliest 
work  was  the  editing  in  1794  of  an  astronomi 
cal  almanac  for  the  Prussian  government.  He 
taught  mathematics  and  mechanics  in  the  school 
of  woods  and  forests,  and  also  in  the  military 
school,  and  in  1821  became  professor  in  the 
university  of  Berlin.  His  works  include  Ilis- 
torische  Untersuchungcn  iiler  die  astro  nomi- 
schen  Beobachtungen  der  Alien  (Leipsic,  1800) ; 
Handbuch  der  mathematiscJien  und  technischen 
Chronologic  (Berlin,  1825-'G);  and  Die  Zeit- 
Technung  der  Chincsen  (Berlin,  1830). 

IDES,  in  the  Roman  calendar,  the  15th  day 
of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  and  the 
13th  day  of  the  other  months.  The  eight  days 
preceding  the  ides  were  named  from  it,  and 
styled  the  1st,  2d,  3d,  &c.,  day  before  the  ides. 
Under  the  empire  the  senate  sat  regularly  on 
the  ides  and  on  the  calends,  with  the  exception 
of  the  ides  of  March,  the  anniversary  of  Caesar's 
death,  which  was  regarded  as  a  dies  atcr. 

IDIOCY,  or  lilictcy,  a  term  now  used  to  ex 
press  a  condition  of  mental  imbecility,  though 
this  idea  was  not  originally  contained  in  the 
root  from  which  it  is  derived.  The  idiot 
(l<5i(jT7;(f)  among  the  Greeks  was  primarily  the 
private  individual,  in  distinction  from  the  man 
who  participated  in  public  affairs ;  next,  as  the 
educated  classes,  especially  in  Sparta,  where 
the  word  is  believed  to  have  originated,  alone 
took  part  in  pilblio  life,  IdiA-?;?  came  to  mean 
an  ignorant  or  unlettered  man ;  and  finally,  as 
ignorance  tended  to  mental  degradation,  it  was 
applied  to  one  who  did  not  possess  the  capa 
city  to  learn.  Numerous  attempts  have  been 
made  to  define  idiocy,  but  none  of  them  have 
been  perfectly  satisfactory.  Dr.  II.  P.  Ay  res 
defines  it  as  "  that  state  of  human  existence 
which  continuously  manifests  no  signs  of  in 
telligence  nor  instinct,"  "  The  type  of  an 
idiot,"  says  Dr.  Seguin,  "is  one  who  knows 
nothing,  can  do  nothing,  wishes  for  nothing; 
and  each  idiot  approaches  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree  this  standard  of  idiocy."  In  a  later 
work  he  writes  more  definitely:  "Idiocy  is  a 
specific  infirmity  of  the  cranio-spinal  axis,  pro 
duced  by  dclicicncy  of  nutrition  in  iitero  and 
in  neo-nati.  It  incapacitates  mostly  the  func 
tions  which  give  rise  to  the  reflex,  instinctive, 
and  conscious  phenomena  of  life ;  consequent 
ly,  the  idiot  moves,  feels,  understands,  wills, 
but  imperfectly;  does  nothing,  thinks  of  noth 
ing,  cares  for  nothing  (extreme  cases)."  This 
deficiency  of  nutrition,  occurring  before  birth, 
arrests  the  foetal  progress,  and  gives  perma 
nence  to  the  transitory  type  through  which 
the  foetus  was  passing;  a  similar  arrest  of  de 
velopment  takes  place  after  birth.  The  whole 
being  may  be  affected,  or  more  commonly  one 


set  of  organs,  as  those  of  speech,  &c.  In  this 
aspect  idiocy  may  be  considered  as  a  prolonged 
infancy,  in  which,  the  infantile  grace  and  in 
telligence  having  passed  away,  the  feeble  mus 
cular  development  and  mental  weakness  of  that 
earliest  stage  of  growth  alone  remain.  Dr. 
Sagert  of  Berlin,  a  high  authority  en  the  sub 
ject,  on  the  other  hand,  regards  it  as  depend 
ing  upon  a  faulty  organization  of  the  brain; 
and  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe  considers  "the  pure  type 
of  idiocy  to  be  a  person  whose  lack  of  under 
standing  arises  from  the  smallness  of  his  brain," 
though  acknowledging  that  for  one  person  in 
whom  idiocy  is  caused  by  this  circumstance 
there  arc  many  in  whom  it  is  occasioned  by 
other  causes.  It  occurs  in  various  degrees, 
separated  by  no  definite  line  of  demarkaticn, 
from  the  typical  condition  to  a  state  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  normal  humanity.  Idiocy 
has  been  variously  classified,  according  to  the 
point  of  view  or  object  aimed  at.  Dr.  Seguin 
recognizes,  in  different  aspects,  eight  classes, 
viz. :  endemic,  when  connected  with  some  form 
of  cretinism  .(see  CEETINISM)  ;  hereditary,  when 
ancestors  or  collateral  relatives  have  been  af 
fected  by  idiocy  or  insanity ;  parental,  when 
referred  to  certain  conditions  of  the  father  or 
mother;  accidental,  when  occasioned  by  va 
rious  post-natal  causes;  profound,  when  tho 
ganglia  are  altered ;  superficial,  when  only  the 
peripheral  termini  of  contractility  and  sensa 
tion  appear  to  be  affected ;  organic,  when  the 
organs  arc  sensibly  altered ;  and  functional, 
when  no  organic  lesion  is  observable.  The 
terms  "  profound  "  and  "  superficial "  are  by 
others  used  simply  to  indicate  the  degree  of 
idiocy.  No  particular  physical  trait  is  a  crite 
rion  of  this  infirmity.  It  is  accompanied  by 
no  special  shape  of  the  body,  though  a  certain 
want  of  proportion  is  generally  observable. 
The  size  of  the  head,  except  in  extreme  cases 
of  hydrocephaly  or  microcephaly,  is  commonly 
quite  normal,  though  appearing  in  infancy  too 
large  and  later  in  life  too  small;  nor  is  its 
shape  a  test,  though  generally  somewhat  de 
formed.  But  any  deviation  in  the  relative  de 
velopment  of  the  segments  of  the  brain  from 
the  type  of  a  race,  or  any  imperfection  in  tho 
mod^  of  union  of  the  segments  of  the  skull, 
indicates  a  priori  some  anomaly  or  imperfec 
tion  of  the  faculties.  Idiocy  in  infancy  is  dif 
ficult  to  detect,  and  can  generally  be  determined 
only  by  comparison  with  a  healthy  child  in  tho 
advance  toward  certain  powers  that  mark  tho 
progress  of  ordinary  infancy,  as  the  ability  to 
hold  up  the  head,  to  sit  erect,  to  use  the  hands, 
to  take  notice,  &c. ;  the  lapse  of  time  leaving 
tho  idiot  further  and  further  behind  in  the 
race.  In  many  case,s  premature  senility  is  ex 
hibited,  which  is  believed  to  be  peculiar  to 
idiots.  The  symptoms  of  this  condition  are 
various.  The  body  is  generally  feeble,  the  cir 
culation  particularly  in  the  extremities  imper 
fect,  the  respiration  not  deep,  and  the  appetite 
sometimes  abnormal.  The  gait  is  accompanied 
by  a  sidewise  swinging  or  by  forward  plunges, 


170 


IDIOCY 


or  there  is  an  inability  to  walk  at  all.  The 
power  of  prehension  is  wanting  or  imperfect, 
while  spasmodic,  mechanical,  or  automatic  mo 
tions  are  common.  The  touch  is  dull,  less  fre 
quently  over-sensitive.  The  taste  and  smell 
are  oftener  indifferent  than  abnormal.  The 
hearing  is  passive  and  limited,  sometimes  only 
certain  sounds  or  classes  of  sounds  being  heed 
ed,  while  at  others,  though  the  organs  are  per 
fect,  no  sounds  are  attended  to,  and  the  patient 
becomes  practically  deaf  and  consequently 
mute,  from  inattention  of  the  Avill  or  absence 
of  any  desire  to  hear.  The  sight  is  sometimes 
fixed  and  vacant,  sometimes  wandering,  and 
the  child  may  be  practically  blind  from  ina 
bility  of  the  will  to  control  the  vision  or  from 
indifference  of  the  mind  to  the  image  on  the 
retina.  Speech  is  sometimes  wholly  wanting ; 
otherwise,  more  or  less  imperfect.  Idiocy  is 
most  frequently  complicated  with  epilepsy  and 
chorea,  less  frequently  with  paralysis  and 
contractures,  and  less  frequently  still  with 
deafness  and  blindness ;  the  degree  of  men 
tal  infirmity  diminishing  in  the  same  order. 
Perhaps  the  great  feature  of  idiocy  is  the  in 
action  or  absence  of  the  will,  though  there  is 
a  vis  inertia,  by  some  called  a  negative  will, 
which  opposes  itself  to  every  attempt  to  draw 
the  idiot  from  his  indifference  and  isolation, 
or  from  the  external  trifles  upon  which  he  ex 
pends  the  little  energy  he  has.  "When  the  dis 
ease  is  not  complicated  with  epilepsy,  &c.,  the 
idiot  is  harmless  and  mild;  he  has  no  hallu 
cinations  or  delusions;  he  does  not  perceive 
wrongly,  but  only  imperfectly  or  not  at  all. 
In  some  cases,  even  when  the  general  condition 
is  very  low,  an  extraordinary  power  in  a  par 
ticular  direction,  as  in  music  or  calculation,  is 
manifested.  Idiocy,  which  is  congenital  or  has 
its  origin  in  the  earlier  years,  is  to  be  distin 
guished  from  dementia,  or  the  loss  of  the  men 
tal  powers  resulting  from  disease  or  the  disor 
ganization  of  the  brain  in  adults.  The  latter, 
though  resembling  idiocy  in  its  apparent  re 
sults,  is  incapable  of  amelioration.  The  term 
imbecility  is  commonly  employed  to  denote  a 
mild  form  of  idiocy,  but  by  Dr.  Seguin  it  is 
used  to  designate  an  arrest  of  the  mental 
development  in  youth  (which  may  result  in 
dementia),  when  vices,  habits,  and  tendencies 
have  been  formed  to  complicate  the  disease. 
The  causes  assigned  for  idiocy  are  numerous, 
and  not  all  of  them  well  ascertained.  Inter 
marriage  of  near  relatives,  intemperance  in 
eating  or  drinking,  and  especially  sexual  con 
gress  leading  to  conception  while  one  or  both 
parties  are  intoxicated,  excess  of  sexual  in 
dulgence  or  solitary  vice,  grief,  fright,  or  sud 
den  and  alarming  sickness  on  the  part  of  the 
mother  during  gestation,  the  habitual  use  of 
water  impregnated  with  magnesian  salts,  bad 
and  insufficient  food,  impure  air,  hereditary 
insanity,  and  scrofulous  or  syphilitic  taint,  are 
the  most  commonly  alleged  causes  of  congenital 
idiocy.  The  effect  on  women  of  the  excite 
ments  and  anxieties  of  modern  life,  and  of  a 


false  system  of  education,  is  stated  as  the  cause 
of  a  progressive  increase  of  idiocy  noticed  by 
most  persons  engaged  in  the  treatment  of  idiots. 
Convulsions,  epileptic  fits,  hydrocephalus,  and 
other  diseases  of  the  brain,  smallpox,  scarlatina, 
and  measles,  blows  on  the  head,  or  the  transla 
tion  of  scrofulous  or  other  eruptive  diseases  to 
the  brain,  are  the  usual  influences  which  arrest 
mental  development  in  children.  The  condi 
tion  of  the  mother  during  lactation  likewise 
has  an  important  bearing  on  this  question. — 
While  among  some  nations  idiots  have  been 
regarded  with  a  certain  awe  as  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  Deity,  until  a  com 
paratively  recent  period  they  were  not  deemed 
capable  of  improvement,  and  their  condition 
was  generally  forlorn.  They  were  suffered  to 
grow  up  in  neglect  at  home,  or  were  thrown 
into  the  alrnshouses,  insane  asylums,  or  houses 
of  correction,  and  often  treated  with  cruelty. 
No  attempt  is  known  to  have  been  made  to  im 
prove  their  condition  till  the  17th  century. 
When  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  took  charge  of  the 
priory  of  St.  Lazarus,  he  gathered  a  few  idiots, 
and,  fitting  up  a  room  in  the  priory  for  their 
accommodation,  took  charge  of  them  in  per 
son,  and  attempted  to  instruct  them.  His  la 
bors,  though  continued  for  many  years,  seem 
not  to  have  been  very  successful.  The  next 
effort  was  made  by  the  eminent  philosopher 
and  surgeon  Itard,  the  friend  and  disciple  of 
Condillac.  In  1799  a  wild  boy  ("the  sav 
age  of  Aveyron "),  found  in  the  forests  of 
Aveyron,  was  brought  to  Itard,  who  hoped  to 
find  in  his  instruction  the  means  of  solving 
"  the  metaphysical  problem  of  determining 
what  might  be  the  degree  of  intelligence  and 
the  nature  of  the  ideas  in  a  lad  who,  deprived 
from  birth  of  all  education,  should  have  lived 
entirely  separated  from  the  individuals  of  his 
kind."  For  more  than  a  year  he  followed  a 
psychological  method,  but  subsequently  adopted 
a  system  founded  on  physiology,  and  labored 
to  develop  the  intellectual  faculties  of  his  sub 
ject  by  means  of  sensations.  The  young  savage 
proved  to  be  an  idiot  of  low  grade,  and  hence 
unfit  for  the  philosophical  experiment ;  but  the 
attempt  to  instruct  him  had  satisfied  Itard  that 
it  was  possible  to  elevate  the  mental  condi 
tion  of  idiots.  His  immense  practice,  and  the 
severe  suffering  induced  by  the  malady  which 
finally  caused  his  death,  prevented  him  from 
devoting  much  time  to  the  subject ;  but  he  had 
gathered  many  facts,  and  these  he  committed 
to  his  pupil,  Dr.  Seguin,  who  entered  upon  the 
work  as  a  labor  of  love,  and  devoted  several 
years  to  a  thorough  research  into  the  causes 
and  philosophy  of  idiocy,  and  the  best  methods 
of  treating  it.  Meantime  others  had  become 
interested  in  the  subject.  In  1818,  and  for 
several  years  subsequently,  the  effort  was  made 
to  instruct  idiot  children  at  the  American  asy 
lum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Hartford,  Conn. ; 
the  measure  of  success  was  not  large,  but  their 
physical  condition  was  improved,  and  some  of 
them  were  taught  to  converse  in  the  sign  Ian- 


IDIOCY 


171 


guage.  In  1819  Dr.  Richard  Pool  of  Edin 
burgh,  in  an  essay  on  education,  advocated  the 
establishment  of  an  institution  for  imbeciles. 
In  1824  Dr.  Belhomme  of  Paris  published  an 
essay  on  the  possibility  of  improving  the  con 
dition  of  idiots;  and  in  1828  a  few  were  in 
structed  for  a  short  time  at  the  Bicetre,  one  of 
the  large  insane  hospitals  of  Paris.  In  1831 
M.  Falret  attempted  the  same  work  at  the 
Salpetriere,  another  hospital  for  the  insane  in 
the  same  city.  Neither  of  these  efforts  met 
with  sufficient  success  to  be  continued.  In 
1833  Dr.  Voisin,  a  French  physiologist  and 
phrenologist,  organized  a  school  for  idiots  in 
Paris,  but  it  was  not  of  long  duration.  In 
1838  Dr.  Seguin  opened  a  school  in  the  hospi 
tal  for  incurables  of  the  rue  du  Faubourg  St. 
Martin,  and  was  soon  so  successful  that  the 
idiots  in  the  Bicetre  were  placed  under  his 
charge;  and  within  three  years  he  received 
from  the  French  academy,  whose  committee 
had  carefully  tested  his  system  of  instruction, 
a  testimonial  of  their  approval.  The  previous 
efforts  for  the  instruction  of  idiots  had  been 
made  upon  no  definite  plan,  or  with  a  view  of 
testing  some  philosophical  theory  of  the  nature 
of  mind  or  the  original  constitution  of  man. 
Dr.  Seguin,  starting  with  the  postulate  that 
idiocy  is  only  a  prolonged  infancy,  consulted 
nature  as  to  the  mode  by  which  the  physical 
powers  are  cultivated  and  the  mind  educated 
in  the  infant,  and  ended  by  adopting  the 
physiological  system  of  education.  This  sys 
tem,  considering  all  the  manifestations  of  life 
as  expressions  of  functions,  and  all  functions 
as  resultant  from  a  certain  organism,  assumes 
that  if  we  could  take  hold  of  an  organ  we 
should  be  able  to  make  it  perform  its  function ; 
and  teaches  that  as  the  organs  of  sensation  are 
within  our  reach  and  those  of  thought  beyond 
it,  the  physiological  education  of  the  senses 
must  precede  the  psychical  education  of  the 
mind.  Applying  this  method  to  the  varying 
phases  of  idiocy,  eacli  function  is  to  be  trained 
with  especial  reference  to  the  peculiarities  and 
deficiencies  of  the  individual,  and  also  in  its 
relation  to  all  other  functions,  with  a  view  to 
a  harmonious  whole.  Important  agencies  are 
pure  air  and  good  food,  to  strengthen  and  in 
vigorate  the  system ;  gymnastic  appliances,  to 
exercise  the  various  functions  and  correct  ab 
normal  manifestations ;  music,  imitation,  anal 
ogy,  contrast;  the  play  ground,  the  workshop, 
and  the  farm,  which  furnish  a  definite  object 
and  lend  reality  to  the  exercises,  while  they 
initiate  the  pupil  into  the  actual  operations  of 
life.  The  legs,  if  they  do  not  bend,  may  be 
made  to  yield  by  placing  the  child  in  a  baby- 
jumper  ;  if  the  feet  refuse  to  step,  they  may 
be  taught  by  making  them  encounter,  with  the 
regularity  of  a  walk,  a  spring  board  which 
alternately  receives  and  throws  them  back; 
the  gait  is  regulated  by  the  use  of  dumb-bells 
and  by  conducting  the  child  between  the 
rounds  of  a  horizontal  ladder  or  over  planes 
of  various  inclinations  and  conditions  of  sur 


face,  representing  the  principal  difficulties 
likely  to  be  encountered  in  nature.  The  hands 
are  taught  to  grasp  by  clasping  them  about  the 
rounds  of  an  inclined  ladder  and  requiring 
them  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body,  or  by 
the  use  of  the  balancing  pole,  which  is  thrown 
back  and  forth  between  the  child  and  the 
teacher.  The  sense  of  hearing,  when  wanting, 
is  aroused  by  music,  by  surprise  sounds,,  or  by 
sounds  connected  with  some  natural  desire,  as 
the  dripping  of  water  when  the  pupil  is  thirsty ; 
the  vacant  or  wandering  sight  is  fixed  and 
awakened  by  the  steadfast  gaze  of  the  teacher, 
by  the  admission  of  light  at  intervals  into  a 
dark  room,  or  by  the  use  of  the  kaleidoscope ; 
the  touch,  the  taste,  the  smell  are  trained  by 
appropriate  exercises,  and  the  refractory  or 
gans  of  speech  are  moulded  and  manipulated 
until  they  can  utter  the  desired  sounds.  The 
operations  are  at  first  passive  and  in  obedience 
to  the  will  of  the  teacher ;  an  active  perform 
ance  of  the  functions  is  .gained  by  the  presen 
tation  of  motives  within  the  understanding  of 
the  pupil.  As  each  sense  or  organ  is  carried 
progressively  toward  the  normal  performance 
of  its  function,  new  avenues  from  without  are 
opened  by  which  ideas,  at  first  concrete,  but 
afterward  more  abstract,  are  instilled  into  the 
mind.  Finding  in  idiots  the  infantile  fondness 
for  bright  colors,  teachers  avail  themselves  of 
it  to  teach  them  the  distinctions  of  color  and 
form  ;  noticing  their  liking  for  playthings, 
they  furnish  them  with  builders'  blocks,  cups 
and  balls,  and  other  toys,  by  which  they  are 
instructed  in  number,  form,  and  size ;  words, 
not  letters  (these,  except  as  a  training  for  the 
eye,  come  later),  and  the  meaning  of  words  are 
taught  by  pictures  and  objects.  Throughout 
these  processes  individual  training  is  alternated 
with  instruction  in  groups.  Simultaneously 
with  the  physical  and  mental  training,  the 
idiots  are  instructed  as  far  as  practicable  in  the 
social  and  moral  relations  and  duties  by  practice 
and  example.  The  system  thus  briefly  sum 
marized  is  the  one  now  followed  or  aimed  at 
in  the  principal  institutions  both  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  The  enthusiasm  of  phi 
lanthropists  has  perhaps  in  some  cases  led  to 
the  expectation  of  higher  results  than  have 
been  or  are  likely  to  be  realized.  A  consider 
able  proportion  of  those  under  instruction  will 
make  little  or  no  intellectual  progress;  the  mind 
is  too  thickly  shrouded  for  the  light  to  reach 
it.  The  condition  of  those  suffering  from  ep 
ilepsy  is  still  more  hopeless.  The  training 
school  may  slightly  improve  their  physical  con 
dition,  but  that  is  all.  There  is  however  a 
large  number,  and  those  often  apparently  the 
worst  cases  when  admitted,  who  will  attain  to 
a  considerable  degree  of  intelligence  under  ju 
dicious  instruction,  and  will  develop  sufficient 
ability  to  be  capable,  under  the  direction  of 
others,  of  acquiring  a  livelihood.  A  consid 
erable  number  learn  to  add,  subtract,  multiply, 
and  divide,  in  numbers  below  100 ;  but  in 
most  cases  they  grasp  the  idea  of  numbers 


1T2 


IDIOCY 


\vitli  great  difficulty.  In  geography  they  make 
more  progress.  In  penmanship  and  drawing 
many  of  them  are  very  expert,  and  most  of 
the  girls  and  some  of  the  boys  exhibit  consid 
erable  skill  in  needle  work.  In  moral  training 
they  have  generally  exhibited  a  remarkable  sus 
ceptibility  for  improvement.  It  is  estimated 
that  of  idiots  not  affected  by  epilepsy,  who 
are  bvought  under  instruction  in  childhood, 
from  one  third  to  one  fourth  may  be  made 
capable  of  performing  the  ordinary  duties  of 
life  with  tolerable  ability.  They  may  learn  to 
read  and  write,  to  understand  the  elementary 
facts  of  geography,  history,  and  arithmetic,  to 
labor  in  the  mechanic  arts  under  proper  super 
vision,  and  to  attain  sufficient  knowledge  of 
government  and  morals  to  fulfil  many  of  the 
duties  of  a  citizen.  A  larger  class,  probably 
one  half  of  the  whole,  will  become  cleanly, 
quiet,  able  perhaps  to  read  and  write  imper 
fectly,  and  to  perform  under  the  direction  of 
others  many  kinds  of  work  requiring  little 
thought.  This  class,  if  neglected  after  leaving 
school,  Avill  be  likely  to  relapse  into  many  of 
their  early  habits.  A  small  number,  perhaps  the 
most  promising  at  entering,  Avill  make  little  or 
no  progress.  Nor  can  the  result  in  any  par 
ticular  case  be  predicted  beforehand,  and  no 
methods  of  instruction  yet  adopted  will  in 
variably  develop  the  slumbering  intellect,  and 
confirm  and  correct  the  enfeebled  or  depraved 
will.  According  to  Dr.  Seguin,  "  not  one  in  a 
thousand  has  been  entirely  refractory  to  treat 
ment  ;  not  one  in  a  hundred  who  has  not  been 
made  more  happy  and  healthy ;  more  than 
30  per  cent,  have  been  taught  to  conform  to 
social  and  moral  law,  and  rendered  capable  of 
order,  of  good  feeling,  and  of  working  like  the 
third  of  a  man ;  more  than  40  per  cent,  have  be 
come  capable  of  the  ordinary  transactions  of 
life  under  friendly  control,  of  understanding 
moral  and  social  abstractions,  of  working  like 
two  thirds  of  a  man ;  and  25  to  30  per  cent, 
come  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  standard  of 
manhood,  till  some  of  them  will  defy  the 
scrutiny  of  good  judges  when  compared  with 
ordinary  young  women  and  men."  The  insti 
tutions  generally,  under  the  pressure  of  appli 
cations,  do  not  receive  those  afflicted  with  epi 
lepsy,  congenital  insanity,  paralysis,  &c.,  and 
retain  only  those  that  promise  improvement. 
The  age  of  admission  in  most  instances  is  from 
0  to  11,  and  the  term  of  instruction  from  5  to 
7  years. — Dr.  Seguin  continued  the  instruction 
of  idiots  in  Paris  till  1848,  a  part  of  the  time 
in  a  private  establishment.  In  1889  he  pub 
lished  with  Esquirol  his  first  pamphlet,  and  in 
1840  his  treatise  on  the  treatment  of  idiocy, 
which  placed  him  at  once  in  the  front  rank  of 
living  psychologists.  In  1848  he  visited  the 
United  States,  and  assisted  in  the  organization 
and  improvement  of  several  institutions  for 
idiot  instruction ;  and  he  now  resides  in  New 
York.  (See  SEGFIX.)  In  1839  Dr.  Gucrgen- 
Luhl  began  the  study  of  cretinism  in  Switz 
erland,  and  in  1842  opened  his  school  on 


the  Abendberg.  In  the  latter  year  Sagert,  a 
teacher  of  deaf  mutes  at  Berlin  (now  im 
perial  councillor  and  general  inspector  of  tho 
department  of  instruction  of  unfortunates  in 
Prussia),  began  to  receive  idiotic  pupils,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  medicine  in 
order  the  better  to  understand  their  physiolo 
gical  condition.  The  school  of  Dr.  Guggen- 
buhl  was  discontinued  at  his  death  in  1863. 
It  is  generally  considered  that  his  system  was 
a  failure.  At  present  (1874)  there  are  three 
schools  in  France :  that  at  the  Bicetre,  under 
the  supervision  of  M.  De  Laporte,  with  about 
20  inmates;  that  in  the  Salpetriere,  under  Dr. 
Delasiauve  and  Mile.  Nichol,  with  50  inmates ; 
and  that  in  the  insane  asylum  at  Clermont 
in  the  department  of  Oise,  superintended  by 
Dr.  Labitte,  and  having  15  inmates.  In  Bel 
gium  there  are  separate  departments  for  idiots 
in  the  insane  asylums  at  Gheel  and"  at  Ghent ; 
the  former,  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr. 
Bulckens,  having  15  idiotic  youth,  and  the  lat 
ter,  under  Dr.  Inghels,  about  40.  In  Switzer 
land  there  are  two  private  training  schools  for 
idiots :  one  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Dr.  Appenzeller,  opened  in 
1868,  and  having  12  pupils  in  1874;  the  other 
near  Basel,  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  Iselin, 
opened  in  1850,  and  having  15  pupils.  In 
1863  there  were  15  institutions  in  Germany, 
mostly  private,  viz. :  at  Bendorf,  Berlin  (t\vo), 
Hasserode,  Neinstedt,  and  Schreiberhau,  in 
Prussia;  Ecksberg  and  Neudettelsau,  in  Ba 
varia  ;  Bnschbad,  Hubertsburg  (two),  and 
Miickern,  in  Saxony ;  Mariaberg  and  Winter- 
bach,  in  Wlirtemberg;  and  Langenlftigen,  in 
Hanover.  At  present  there  are  10  schools 
for  idiots  in  Prussia,  some  of  which  are  main 
tained  by  the  state  and  others  by  the  prov 
inces.  The  only  asylum  for  idiots  in  the 
Netherlands  is  the  medical  asylum  for  idiotic 
youth  at  the  Hague,  opened  in  1858,  which 
took  its  origin  from  the  day  school  for  idiots, 
opened  in  1 855.  The  number  of  inmates  March 
23,  1874,  was  48  (25  boys  and  23  girls),  while 
the  day  school,  which  is  continued  in  con 
nection  with  the  asylum,  and  only  receives 
children  residing  at  the  Hague,  has  25  pu 
pils.  These  institutions  are  supported  by  sub 
sidies,  by  contributions,  and  by  fees  of  pupils. 
They  are  under  the  charge  of  A.  S.  Moesveld 
as  director  or  superintendent,  who  with  his 
wife  has  12  assistants,  and  of  Dr.  C.  W.  Eiken- 
dal  as  physician.  The  number  of  teachers  is 
12,  including  one  instructor  in  gymnastics  and 
two  in  handicraft.  In  Sweden  there  are  three 
schools  for  idiots  in  operation,  viz. :  at  Skofde 
in  the  province  of  West  Gothland,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Miss  E.  Carlbeck,  opened 
in  1868,  and  in  1874  having  32  pupils;  at 
Stockholm,  under  the  superintendence  of  Miss 
W.  Lundell,  opened  in  1870,  and  having  20  pu 
pils  ;  at  Stromsholm,  in  the  province  of  West- 
manland,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  R. 
Bruce,  opened  in  1871,  and  having  10  pupils. 
These  schools  .receive  only  congenital  idiots 


IDIOCY 


173 


who  give  hope  of  improvement.  Two  oth 
ers  are  about  to  be  opened,  at  Strengniis 
and  Gefle.  There  is  a  training  school  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  also  one  at  Newcastle,  New 
South  Wales,  which  in  1872  had  132  pupils. 
The  first  schools  in  England  were  small,  and 
were  sustained  by  some  benevolent  ladies,  in 
the  towns  of  Lancaster,  Bath,  Ipswich,  and 
Brighton.  In  1847  an  effort  was  made  to  es 
tablish  an  institution  in  some  degree  commen 
surate  with  the  wants  of  the  class  for  whom  it 
was  intended.  In  this  movement  Dr.  John 
Con  oily,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Andrew  Reed,  the  Rev. 
Edwin  Sidney,  and  Sir  S.  Morton  Peto  distin 
guished  themselves  by  their  zeal  and  liberality. 
They  first  rented  a  nobleman's  residence,  called 
Park  house,  at  Ilighgate,  near  London,  in  1848, 
and  two  years  subsequently  Essex  hall  at  Col 
chester.  In  1853  the  foundation  stone  of  the 
present  capacious  and  admirably  appointed  in 
stitution  at  Earlswood,  near  Redhill,  Surrey, 
was  laid,  and  it  was  opened  in  1855.  It  now 
has  about  700  inmates,  and  is  under  the  super 
intendence  of  Dr.  G.  W.  Grabham.  With  it  is 
connected  a  farm  of  about  100  acres,  and  many 
of  the  pupils  are  instructed  in  farming  and 
gardening,  while  others  are  taught  mat  making, 
basket  making,  tailoring,  carpentering,  and  sim 
ilar  emplovments.  Upon  its  opening  the  in 
mates  of  Park  house  were  removed  to  it,  and 
ultimately  those  of  Essex  hall,  which  was 
closed  in  1858.  The  latter  was  reopened  in 
1859  as  the  eastern  counties  asylum  for  idiots 
and  imbeciles,  and  now  has  about  70  inmates. 
The  western  counties  asylum  was  established 
in  18(54  at  Starcross,  near  Exeter;  and  the 
Dorridge  Grove  idiot  asylum  at  Knowle,  now 
known  as  the  midland  counties  asylum,  was 
opened  in  1866.  More  recently  the  Royal  Al 
bert  asylum  (northern  counties)  has  been  es 
tablished  near  Lancaster,  occupying  a  fine  build 
ing  surrounded  with  ample  grounds,  and  capa 
ble  of  accommodating  500  inmates ;  it  is  un 
der  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Shuttleworth. 
These  institutions  are  supported  chiefly  by  sub 
scriptions  and  donations;  pupils  are  admitted 
upon  payment,  and  may  enjoy  the  benefits  of 
instruction  gratuitously  by  the  nomination  of 
the  boards  of  directors  or  the  election  of  the 
subscribers.  The  private  institution  of  Dr. 
Langdon  Down,  formerly  superintendent  of 
Earlswood,  at  Nonnansfield,  near  London,  has 
about  50  inmates,  and  is  designed  only  for  the 
wealthy.  Besides  these  training  schools,  there 
are  two  large  asylums  near  London  maintained 
by  the  poor-law  boards  for  keeping  and  feed 
ing  idiots  and  dements.  In  Scotland,  besides 
the  institution  established  in  ISo'l-on  the  estate 
of  Sir  John  and  Lady  Ogilvic  atBaldovan,  near 
Dundee,  there  is  the  u  Scottish  national  insti 
tution  for  the  education  of  imbecile  children," 
founded  by  a  society  organized  for  that  pur 
pose,  and  opened  in  1862  at  Larbert,  Stirling 
shire,  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  David 
Brodie,  who  for  several  years  previously  had 
been  in  charge  of  a  school  for  idiots  in  Edin 


burgh.  The  present  superintendent  is  Dr.  W. 
W.  Ireland,  arid  the  number  of  pupils  is  about 
90.  In  Ireland  an  establishment  lias  recently 
been  endowed  by  Dr.  Stewart,  to  which  it  was 
intended  to  remove  the  inmates  of  the  asylum 
for  lunatics  and  idiots  at  Lucan,  near  Dublin. 
The  only  idiot  asylum  in  Canada  was  opened 
in  July,  1872,  at  London,  Ontario.  It  occupies 
a  separate  building,  accommodating  40  patients, 
in  the  grounds  of  the  asylum  for  the  insane, 
and  is  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  Henr^  Landon, 
the  superintendent  of  that  institution.  It  is  as 
yet  merely  a  house  of  refuge,  but  the  present 
building  is  to  be  enlarged,  and  another  provi 
ded  elsewhere  for  a  training  school.  In  the 
United  States,  where  there  are  now  10  insti 
tutions,  the  movement  for  the  instruction  of 
idiots  commenced  almost  simultaneously  in 
New  York  and  Massachusetts.  Efforts  had 
been  made,  in  isolated  cases  (apart  from  the 
attempts  at  the  American  asylum  already  re 
ferred  to),  to  instruct  idiot  children  in  the  Per 
kins  institution  for  the  blind  in  Boston,  and  in 
the  New  York  deaf  and  dumb  institution,  as 
early  as  1838  or  1839 ;  but  the  feasibility  of  or 
ganizing  an  institution  for  their  treatment  and 
training  does  not  seem  to  have  been  thought  of 
till  the  attention  of  philanthropists  was  drawn 
to  it  by  the  eloquent  letters  of  Mr.  George 
Sumner,  describing  his  visits  to  the  schools  in 
Paris.  These  letters  were  published  in  1845, 
and  Dr.  S.  B.  Woodward,  long  known  as  the 
superintendent  of  the  hospital  for  the  insane  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  Dr.  Frederick  F.  Backus 
of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  soon  after  corresponded 
upon  the  subject.  Dr.  Backus  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  New  York  state  senate  in  the  au 
tumn  of  1845,  and  in  January,  1846,  read  a  re 
port  which  he  had  drawn  up  on  the  subject  of 
idiot  instruction,  and  the  necessity. of  an  insti 
tution  for  the  purpose.  A  few  weeks  later  he 
reported  a  bill  for  such  an  institution.  During 
the  same  month  a  bill  passed  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  appointing  a  commission  to  inves 
tigate  the  condition  of  the  idiots  of  Massachu 
setts,  and  report  on  the  necessity  of  measures 
for  their  instruction.  The  result  was  the  es 
tablishment  of  an  experimental  school  in  Octo 
ber,  1848,  in  a  wing  of  the  institution  for  the 
blind  at  South  Boston.  Dr.  Hervey  B.  Wil 
bur,  a  young  physician  of  Barre,  Mass.,  open 
ed  a  school  for  idiot  children  there  in  July, 
1848.  The  school  at  South  Boston  was  incor 
porated  in  1850  as  the  ''Massachusetts  school 
for  idiotic  and  feeble-minded  youth."  and  lir.s 
remained  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  S.  G. 
Howe.  The  state  makes  an  annual  jippropria- 
tion  of  $16,500,  and  poor  children  are  admitted 
without  charge  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  governor,  besides  which  there  are  some  pay 
ing  pupils  and  a  few  supported  by  the  states  of 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Jind  Rhode 
Island.  Facilities  are  afforded  here  for  employ 
ing  the  inmates  in  the  simpler  branches  of  man 
ufacture.  The  number  under  instruction  in  1 873 
was  122  ;  number  remaining  at  the  close  of  the 


IDIOCY 


year,  119;  expenditures,  $17,500  38.  In  1851 
the  institution  whose  organization  Dr.  Backus 
had  sought  in  1846  was  finally  established,  first 
as  an  experimental  school  at  Albany,  and  sub 
sequently  as  a  permanent  state  institution,  the 
u  New  York  asylum  for  idiots,"  at  Syracuse. 
The  state  in  1855  erected  a  fine  edifice  for  it  in 
the  latter  city,  at  a  cost  of  between  $80,000  and 
890,000,  with  accommodations  for  150  pupils. 
It  has  been  from  the  first  under  the  charge  of 
Dr.  Hervey  B.  Wilbur,  who  was  called  from 
Barre  to  organize  the  experimental  school.  It 
has  an  extensive  farm,  and  has  been  enlarged 
to  accommodate  225  inmates.  The  number  of 
pupils  in  1871  was  155,  of  whom  90  were  males 
and  65  females.  The  number  under  instruc 
tion  in  1872  was  164,  of  whom  132  were  whol 
ly  supported  by  the  state,  the  rest  paying  whol 
ly  or  in  part  for  their  maintenance;  number 
remaining  at  the  close  of  the  year,  163  ;  num 
ber  of  teachers,  5;  other  officers,  &c.,  6;  ex 
penditures,  $34,049  59.  In  1852  a  private 
school  was  established  at  Gerrnantown,  Pa., 
by  Mr.  J.  B.  Richards,  which  resulted  in  the 
incorporation  in  the  following  year  of  the 
"  Pennsylvania  training  school  for  feeble 
minded  children."  In  1857,  having  received 
a  grant  from  the  state,  and  liberal  subscrip 
tions  from  individuals,  its  trustees  purchased  a 
tract  of  land  about  a  mile  from  Media,  Dela 
ware  co.,  and  12  m.  from  Philadelphia,  and 
commenced  the  erection  of  the  building  which 
is  now  occupied.  This  institution  has  a  farm 
of  more  than  100  acres,  and  was  at  first  under 
the  supervision  of  Dr.  J.  Parish,  who  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Dr.  Isaac  N.  Kerlin,  the  present  su 
perintendent.  The  number  under  instruction 
in  1873  was  249  ;  remaining  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  222,  of  whom  123  were  males  and  99 
females ;  84  were  supported  wholly  and  24 
partly  by  the  state,  27  by  New  Jersey,  3  by 
Delaware,  12  by  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  58 
by  parents  or  guardians,  and  14  by  the  institu 
tion  ;  expenditures,  $53,985  40.  There  are 
four  departments.  The  asylum  embraces  a  dis 
tinct  portion  of  the  building  and  grounds,  ac 
commodating  about  25  male  inmates,  who  are 
only  susceptible  of  habit-training,  and  only  a 
small  proportion  of  whom  can  be  advantage 
ously  employed  at  work  of  any  kind.  A  fund 
has  been  started  to  erect  a  separate  building 
for  an  asylum.  The  nursery,  also  distinct  from 
the  other  departments,  accommodates  32  chil 
dren  of  helpless  condition,  who  are  attended 
by  experienced  nurses.  The  school  depart 
ment  is  divided  into  five  classes,  and  at  the 
close  of  1873  included  117  children,  who  re 
ceive  from  three  to  five  hours'  instruction 
daily.  The  exercises,  while  having  especial 
reference  to  training  in  articulation,  move 
ments,  and  ideas,  differ  little  from  those  in 
schools  of  the  primary  and  secondary  grade 
for  intelligent  children.  The  industrial  depart 
ment  embraced  29  boys  and  20  girls,  who  j 
either  were  only  capable  of  being  taught  man-  I 
ual  labor,  or  had  been  through  the  school  \ 


training  and  could  with  advantage  to  them 
selves  be  instructed  and  kept  in  usefulness. 
Of  the  whole  number  (701)  admitted  to  the 
close  of  1873,  there  were  mutes,  138;  semi- 
mutes,  176  ;  defective  in  articulation,  204;  de 
fective  in  sight,  142 ;  defective  in  hearing, 
139;  unable  to  walk,  19;  of  imperfect  gait, 
344 ;  unable  to  feed  themselves,  74 ;  unable  to 
dress  themselves,  158 ;  uncleanly  in  habits, 
269 ;  of  destructive  habits,  374 ;  epileptic, 
157 ;  malformed,  90 ;  scrofulous,  575.  Up  to 
July  1,  1872,  the  improvement  had  been  as  fol 
lows  :  taught  to  speak,  53 ;  articulation  im 
proved,  253 ;  taught  to  read,  254 ;  to  write, 
146 ;  to  feed  themselves,  61 ;  to  dress  them 
selves,  94 ;  to  walk,  5  ;  gait  improved,  286  ; 
reformed  from  bad  habits,  164;  from  destruc 
tive  habits,  302 ;  accustomed  to  some  employ 
ment,  241 ;  epilepsy  cured,  23 ;  epilepsy  im 
proved,  78.  From  the  report  for  1870  "it  ap 
pears  that  of  500  who  had  enjoyed  the  bene 
fits  of  the  institution,  81  became  capable  of 
earning  their  own  support  in  domestic  service, 
farming,  or  certain  shop  employments,  under 
the  guidance  of  friends  ;  140  were  able  to  earn 
a  half  support;  118  could  perform  small  ser 
vices  of  no  great  value;  while  161  were  whol 
ly  dependent,  earning  nothing,  and  evincing  an 
improvement  only  in  their  personal  habits,  in 
delicacy,  language,  or  movement;  267  proved 
to  be  adapted  to  schools,  and  233  were  not  sus 
ceptible  of  scholastic  improvement.  In  1857 
the  "  Ohio  state  asylum  for  the  education  of 
idiotic  and  imbecile  youth  "  was  organized  at 
Columbus  as  an  experimental  school,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Dr.  R.  J.  Patterson,  who 
was  succeeded  in  1860  by  Dr.  G.  A.  Doren, 
the  present  superintendent.  It  was  perma 
nently  established  in  1864,  when  a  farm  of  130 
acres,  about  2  in.  W.  of  the  city,  was  pur 
chased,  and  the  erection  of  a  building  to  accom 
modate  250  inmates  (since  somewhat  enlarged) 
commenced,  which  was  occupied  in  1868.  The 
number  under  instruction  in  1872  was  312; 
remaining  at  the  close  of  the  year,  288 ;  teach 
ers,  11;  other  officers,  &c.,  4;  expenditures, 
$84,425  58.  This  institution  is  entirely  sup 
ported  by  the  state,  and  all  pupils  are  main 
tained  and  educated  free  of  charge,  except  for 
clothing.  The  "  Connecticut  school  for  im 
beciles  "  was  established  at  Lakeville  in  1858, 
and  incorporated  by  the  legislature  in  1861 ; 
it  is  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  H.  M. 
Knight.  The  number  under  instruction  during 
the  year  ending  May  1,  1872,  was  55;  remain 
ing  on  that  date,  48,  of  whom  20  were  bene 
ficiaries  of  the  state  to  the  amount  of  $3  a 
week.  The  state  has  also  appropriated  money 
for  the  erection  and  enlargement  of  buildings. 
The  "  Kentucky  institution  for  the  education 
of  feeble-minded  children  and  idiots"  was  es 
tablished  at  Frankfort  in  1860,  and  is  under 
the  superintendence  of  Dr.  E.  II.  Black.  The 
number  of  inmates  in  1874  was  104.  The 
"  Illinois  institution  for  the  education  of  fee 
ble-minded  children  "  was  established  at  Jack- 


IDIOCY 


175 


sonville  in  1865  as  an  experimental  school, 
under  the  charge  of  the  board  of  directors  of 
the  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  was 
incorporated  under  its  own  board  of  trustees 
in  1871.  It  has  been  from  the  first  under 
the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Charles  T.  Wilbur, 
brother  of  the  superintendent  of  the  New 
York  institution.  The  number  under  instruc 
tion  in  1873  was  126;  remaining  at  the  close 
of  the  year,  100,  of  whom  66  were  males  and 
34  females ;  teachers,  4 ;  other  officers,  &c., 
3 ;  expenditures,  $25,777  49.  The  pupils  are 
divided  into  seven  classes.  The  expenses  of 
the  institution,  except  for  clothing  of  pupils, 
are  defrayed  by  the  state.  The  idiot  asylum 
on  Randall's  island,  supported  by  the  city  of 
New  York,  is  under  the  charge  of  Mrs.  Her 
bert,  matron,  and  in  1874  had  167  inmates,  of 
whom  91  were  males  and  76  females ;  44  were 
unimprovable  cases;  the  remaining  123  were 
receiving  instruction  in  a  school  opened  in  Oc 
tober,  1867,  and  conducted  by  Miss  Mary  C. 
Dunphy  (who  has  been  principal  from  the  first), 
with  three  assistants.  The  private  institution 
at  Barre,  Mass.,  has  since  1851  been  carried 
on  by  Dr.  George  Brown.  It  embraces  ample 
grounds,  handsomely  laid  out,  with  several 
buildings,  in  which  the  patients  are  classified 
according  to  their  condition  and  the  pecunia 
ry  ability  or  inclination  of  the  parents.  The 
number  of  inmates  is  about  60,  of  whom  part, 
as  epileptics,  &c.,  are  received  for  medical 
treatment,  part  for  custody,  and  part  for  in 
struction.  A  private  school  was  opened  in 
1871  at  Fayville,  Worcester  co.,  Mass.,  by 
Mrs.  O.  H.  Knight  and  Mrs.  M.  A.  F.  Green, 
formerly  teachers  at  South  Boston.  The  num 
ber  of  pupils  is  limited  to  12. — The  num 
ber  of  idiots  in  the  United  States,  according 
to  the  census  of  1870,  was  24,527,  of  whom 
14,485  were  males  and  10,042  females;  3,188 
were  colored,  and  1,645  foreign-born ;  140 
were  also  deaf  and  dumb,  105  blind,  and  11 
both  deaf  and  dumb  and  blind.  There  were 
437  under  5  years  of  age,  1,616  from  5  to  10, 
3,088  from  10  to  15,  3,706  from  15  to  20,  6,476 
from  20  to  30,  3,938  from  30  to  40,  2,571  from 
40  to  50,  2,676  of  50  and  upward,  and  19  of 
unknown  age.  The  number  in  each  state  is 
shown  in  the  following  table  : 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 100 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana l,8f>0 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 1,141 

Louisiana 286 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 778 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 4S5 

Missouri "" 

Nebraska 

TOL.  IX. — 12 


721 
289 
87 
841 
69 
100 
871 
,244 
,860 
633 
109 
,141 
286 
628 
8»>2 
778 
613 
134 
485 
779 
25 

New  Hampshire  
New  Jersey  

825 
4-36 
2,486 
1*76 
2,88* 
66 
2,2SO 
123 
465 
1,091 
451 
825 
1,130 
427 
560 
50 
46 
23 

15 

New  York  

North  Carolina  
Ohio 

Orepon.  

Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina  

Texas 

Vermont  
Virginia 

West  Virginia  

Wisconsin  
District  of  Columbia... 
New  Mexico  
Utah  
Other  territories  and 

The  number  of  idiots  and  their  proportion  to 
the  population  cannot,  however,  be  ascertained 
with  any  satisfactory  degree  of  accuracy.  The 
census  statistics  are  untrustworthy,  both  from 
the  different  standards  adopted  by  enumera 
tors,  and  from  the  difficulty  of  persuading 
parents,  from  whom  the  returns  are  usually 
obtained,  that  their  children  are  idiots.  Some 
of  the  worst  cases  in  idiot  asylums  were 
brought  there  by  their  friends,  not  as  idiots, 
but  as  being  a  little  peculiar  in  their  habits. 
The  effort  has  been  made  in  several  states  to 
obtain  returns  from  physicians,  clergymen,  and 
town  officers,  but  with  very  moderate  success. 
So  far  as  these  returns  go,  however,  they  show 
a  much  greater  prevalence  of  idiocy  than  has 
been  commonly  supposed  ;  and  it  is  now  gen 
erally  conceded  by  competent  judges  that  the 
number  of  idiots  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb  or  of  the  blind,  and  as  great  as 
that  of  the  insane,  the  proportion  being  not 
less  than  1  in  1,000  of  the  population.  As 
suming  this  ratio,  the  number  of  idiots  in  the 
United  States  would  be  more  than  38,000.  Ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1871,  the  number  of 
idiots  and  imbeciles  in  England  and  Wales  in 
that  year  was  29,452,  of  whom  14,728  were 
males  and  14,724  females;  but  the  actual  num 
ber  in  those  two  countries  has  been  estima 
ted  as  high  as  50,000.  The  number  in  Scot 
land  is  stated  at  3,000;  in  Ireland  as  high  as 
7,000.  The  number  of  idiots  in  the  Nether 
lands,  according  to  Dutch  authorities,  is  be 
tween  3,000  and  4,000  ;  the  census  of  Norway 
in  1865  enumerated  2,039.  The  number  of 
idiots  and  cretins  in  Switzerland  was  estimated 
in  1868  at  3,800,— Under  the  common  law,  "  an 
idiot  or  natural  fool,"  according  to  Blackstone, 
"  is  one  that  hath  had  no  understanding  from 
his  nativity,  and  therefore  is  by  law  presumed 
never  likely  to  attain  any."  "  A  man  is  not 
an  idiot  if  he  hath  any  glimmering  of  reason, 
so  that  he  can  tell  his  parents,  his  age,  or  the 
like  common  matters."  His  custody  and  the 
care  of  his  lands  were  at  first  vested  in  the 
lord  of  the  fee,  but  subsequently  in  the  crown, 
and  exercised  through  the  lord  chancellor. 
The  sovereign  took  the  profits,  supplied  the 
idiot  with  necessaries,  and  upon  his  death  re 
stored  the  estate  to  his  heirs.  There  was  a 
writ  de  idiota  inquirendo,  to  inquire  whether 
a  man  was  an  idiot.  The  jury,  however,  rare 
ly  found  a  person  an  idiot  from  nativity,  but 
in  most  cases  only  non  compos  mentis,  in  which 
case  a  different  rule  applied.  For  the  present 
legal  status  of  idiots  see  LUNACY. — See  u  Essay 
on  Education,"  by  Dr.  Richard  Poole  (first 
published  in  the  ''Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia," 
1819,  afterward  in  a  separate  volume,  1825); 
Traitement  moral,  Jiygiene  ct  education  des 
idiots,  by  Dr.  E.  Segui'n  (Paris,  1846) ;  "  Re 
ports  of  Commissioners  on  Idiocy  in  Massachu 
setts  "  (Boston,  1848-'9) ;  "  Statistical  Studies 
on  Idiocy,"  by  M.  Hubertz  (Copenhagen, 
1851);  "Mental  Alienation  and  Idiocy  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,"  by  Dr.  Stark 


176 


IDOCRASE 


IGLESIAS  DE  LA  CASA 


(vol.  xiv.  of  statistical  society's  "Journal," 
1851);  Traite  du  goitre  et  du  cretinisme,  by 
Dr.  Niepce  (2  vols.,  Grenoble,  1852) ;  "  Essay 
on  Idiocy,"  by  Dr.  Coldstream  (Edinburgh, 
1852)  ;  Die  Ileilung  und  Verhatung  des  Cre 
tin  ismus  und  Hire  neuestcn  FortscJiritte,  by 
Dr.  Guggenbiihl  (Bern  and  St.  Gall,  1853); 
"  Report  of  Commissioners  on  Idiocy  in  Con 
necticut  "  (New  Haven,  1856);  "Essay  on 
Idiot  Instruction,"  by  Dr.  Ferd.  Kern  (Allge- 
meine  Zcitschrift  far  Psychiatric,  1857j;  Die 
gegenwartige  Lage  der  Cretinen,  Blddsinnigen 
und  Idioten  in  den  cliristlicJien  Landern,  by 
Julius  Desselhoff  (Bonn,  1857) ;  "  Report  on 
the  Education  of  Imbecile  and  Idiotic  Chil 
dren,"  by  Dr.  II.  P.  Ayres  (vol.  xiii.  of  the 
"  Transactions" of  the  American  medical  asso 
ciation,  1862) ;  Uebersiclit  der  offentliclien  und 
pricaten  Irren  und  Idioten- Anstalten  aller 
europaischen  Staaten,  by  Dr.  Albrecht  Erlen- 
meyer  (Neuwied,  1863) ;  "  Lunacy  and  Law, 
together  with  Hints  on  the  Treatment  of  Idi 
ots,"  by  F.  E.  D.  Byrne  (London,  1864) ;  "  The 
Training  of  Idiotic  and  Feeble-minded  Chil 
dren,"  by  Dr.  Cheyne  Brady  (Dublin,  1864); 
"  Idiocy  and  its  Treatment  by  the  Physiological 
Method,"  with  bibliography,  by  Dr.  Seguin 
(New  York,  1866) ;  "  New  Facts  and  Remarks 
concerning  Idiocy,"  by  the  same  (New  York, 
1870) ;  "  On  Idiocv,  especially  in  its  Physical 
Aspects,"  by  Dr.  W.  W.  Ireland  (Edinburgh, 
reprinted  from  the  "  Edinburgh  Medical  Jour 
nal  "  for  January  and  February,  1874) ;  and 
the  annual  reports  of  the  various  institutions. 

IDOCRASE  (Gr.  ddeiv,  to  resemble,  and  Kpdai^ 
a  mixture),  a  mineral  species  of  the  garnet  sec 
tion  of  the  silicates,  resembling  other  species 
in  its  crystalline  forms.  It  occurs  variously 
colored,  as  brown,  sulphur  yellow,  green,  and 
blue ;  and  of  vitreous,  frequently  somewhat 
resinous  lustre.  Its  hardness  is  6'5 ;  specific 
gravity,  3-35-3-45.  It  was  first  observed  in 
the  lavas  of  Vesuvius,  and  was  called  Vesu- 
vian.  Numerous  localities  of  it  are  known  in 
gneiss  rocks,  serpentine,  and  granular  lime 
stone.  It  is  particularly  abundant  at  Parsons- 
field  and  Phippsburg,  Me.,  occurring  in  mas 
sive  forms  as  well  as  in  crystals. 

IDRIA,  a  mining  town  of  Austria,  in  the 
duchy  of  Carniola,  28  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Trieste ; 
pop.  in  1869,  3,960.  The  town  is  in  a  deep, 
narrow  Alpine  valley,  on  a  small  river  of  the 
same  name.  Its  quicksilver  mines  are  the 
second  in  importance  in  Europe,  and  in  1871 
produced  6,700  cwt.,  besides  about  1,100  cwt. 
of  artificial  cinnabar.  The  rich  hepatic  mer 
curial  ore  is  found  in  a  formation  of  clay  slate 
forming  a  bed  in  compact  limestone.  The  ex 
cavations  are  horizontal  galleries  diverging 
from  a  shaft  which  has  been  sunk  to  a  depth 
of  more  than  1,000  ft.  The  entrance  is  from 
the  Schloss,  a  building  within  the  town.  De 
scent  is  accomplished  partly  by  about  800  steps 
cut  in  the  rock,  and  partly  by  ladders.  The 
miners  are  a  uniformed  corps,  500  in  number, 
and  the  service  is  eagerly  sought  for,  the  high 


er  rate  of  wages  and  contingent  advantages 
being  balanced  against  the  unhealthiness  of 
the  occupation.  The  mines  were  discovered 
in  1497,  and  are  the  property  of  the  crown. 

I W  MA.     See  EDOM. 

IESI.     See  JESI. 

IFFLAND,  August  Wilhelm,  a  German  drama 
tist,  born  in  Hanover,  April  19,  1759,  died  in 
Berlin,  Sept.  22,  1814.  At  the  age  of  18  he 
made  his  debut  upon  the  stage  at  Gotha,  in 
one  of  Engel's  comedies,  in  which  he  took  the 
part  of  an  old  Jew.  In  1779  he  joined  the 
theatrical  company  at  Mannheim,  and  was  the 
leading  actor  there  when  in  the  latter  part  of 
1781  Schiller  put  into  his  hands  the  manuscript 
of  the  "Robbers."  The  play  was  produced  in 
the  succeeding  January,  with  Iriiand  in  the 
part  of  Franz  Moor,  and  the  success  which  at 
tended  the  representation  at  once  brought 
Schiller  into  notice,  and  confirmed  the  reputa 
tion  of  Iffiand.  The  latter  remained  in  Mann 
heim  till  1796,  when  he  assumed  the  direction 
of  the  national  theatre  of  Berlin.  In  1811  he 
was  appointed  general  director  of  all  the  royal 
plays,  and  about  the  same  time  made  an  ex 
tended  professional  tour  through  Germany.- 
His  plays,  chiefly  of  the  class  known  as  the  do 
mestic  drama,  were  very  successful  in  their  day, 
and  are  still  occasionally  performed.  Among 
the  best  of  his  works  are  Die  Jager,  Der  Spie 
ler,  and  Die  Hagestolzcn.  A  collection  of  47 
of  them  was  published  in  16  vols.  in  Leipsic  in 
1798-1802,  including  a  memoir  of  his  theatrical 
career.  Volumes  containing  other  pieces  were 
published  in  1807-'9  and  in  1827;  and  in  1844 
his  select  works  appeared. 

IGLAU,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Moravia,  on 
the  Iglawa,  46  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Brunn ;  pop.  in 
1869,  20,112.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper, 
which  is  walled,  and  three  suburbs,  and  con 
tains  a  military  school,  a  gymnasium,  and  sev 
eral  charitable  institutions.  It  has  manufac 
tories  of  woollen  goods,  tobacco,  glass,  and 
paper,  and  spinning  and  dyeing  works.  On 
July  5,  1436,  the  convention  was  concluded 
here,  by  which  the  emperor  Sigismund  was  ac 
knowledged  king  of  Bohemia. 

IGLESIAS,  a  to\fn  of  Sardinia,  in  the  prov 
ince  and  32  m.  W.  N.  "W.  of  the  city  of  Cagliari ; 
pop.  about  6,500.  It  derives  its  name  from  its 
great  number  of  churches.  So  many  gardens 
adjoin  it  that  the  Sardinians  call  it  Jiore  di 
mundu  (flower  of  the  world).  The  finest  of 
these  gardens  is  at  the  Dominican  convent. 
The  richest  lead  mine  of  the  island  is  on  Monte 
Pone,  1,100  ft.  high,  1  m.  S.  W.  (if  the  town. 

IGLESIAS  DE  LA  CASA,  Josef,  a  Spanish  poet, 
born  in  Salamanca  in  1753,  died  in  1791.  lie 
early  published  ballads  and  satirical  effusions 
which  made  him  famous,  but  his  didactic  po 
ems  subsequent  to  his  joining  the  priesthood 
were  less  popular.  The  best  editions  of  his 
works  are  those  of  Barcelona  (1820)  and  Paris 
(1821),  and  among  the  later  editions  there  is 
one  in  4  small  vols.  (1840),  which  includes  a 
number  of  poems  by  other  authors. 


IGNATIUS 


IGNIS  FATTJUS 


ITT 


IGXATHS,  Saint,  of  Antioch,  surnamed  Thco- 
phorus,  one  of  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
church,  died  Dec.  20,  107  or  115,  at  Rome  ac 
cording  to  some,  but  most  probably  at  Antioch, 
as  others  have  it.  He  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
apostolic  fathers.  Eusebius  says  that  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Antioch  in  69.  Baronius 
and  Natalis  Alexander  make  him  bishop  of  the 
gentile  Christians  residing  in  that  city,  Evo- 
dius  being  at  the  same  time  bishop  of  the  Jew 
ish  converts.  The  Marty riitm  Ignatii,  which 
professes  to  have  been  written  by  an  eye-wit 
ness  of  his  martyrdom,  affirms  that  he  was  a 
disciple  of  St.  John,  and  ordained  by  the  apos 
tles  themselves.  After  having  watched  over 
the  steadfastness  of  his  flock  during  the  per 
secution  of  Domitian,  he  was  condemned  by 
Trajan  to  be  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts  in  the 
Roman  amphitheatre,  where,  according  to  the 
Martyrium,  he  suffered.  The  Greeks  celebrate 
his  feast  on  Dec.  20,  and  the  Latins  on  Feb.  1. 
During  his  journey  to  Rome  Ignatius  wrote 
seven  epistles  enumerated  by  Eusebius  and  Je 
rome.  They  are  addressed  to  the  Romans,  to 
Polycarp,  and  to  various  Asiatic  churches.  At 
present  there  are  fifteen  letters  extant  ascribed 
to  Ignatius.  The  seven  mentioned  by  Eusebius, 
according  to  the  shorter  Greek  recension,  are 
generally  accepted  as  genuine  by  Roman  Cath 
olic  theologians ;  the  others  arc  considered 
spurious.  But  a  warm  controversy  has  long 
existed  between  the  learned  of  various  Protes 
tant  denominations  regarding  the  genuineness 
of  all  or  some  of  the  first  seven.  A  Syriac 
version  of  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Ro 
mans,  and  Polycarp  was  brought  from  a  con 
vent  in  the  Nitrian  desert  to  the  British  mu 
seum  in  1843,  and  edited  in  1845  by  Cureton. 
It  was  maintained  by  the  editor  that  these  are 
the  only  genuine  epistles  of  Ignatius  ;  and  this 
conclusion  was  adopted  by  Dr.  R.  A.  Lipsius, 
Bnnsen,  and  some  eminent  Presbyterian  au 
thorities.  Episcopal  writers  for  the  most  part 
contend  that  all  of  the  seven  epistles  are  genu 
ine.  The  best  editions  of  the  Ignatian  writings 
are  in  Cautelier's  Patres  sEvi  Apostolici  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  1672;  2d  and  more  complete  ed., 
Amsterdam,  1724),  those  by  Jacobson  (Oxford, 
1838)  andPetermann  (Leip^ic,  1849),  and  Cure- 
ton's  Corpus  Ifjnatiamim  (London,  1849). 

IGXATHS,  Saint,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
born  about  798,  died  Oct.  23,  878.  lie  was  the 
youngest  son  of  the  emperor  Michael  I.,  and 
his  original  name  was  Nicetas ;  but  on  the  de 
position  of  his  father  by  Leo  the  Armenian,  he 
was  made  a  eunuch  by  Leo  and  entered  a  mon 
astery,  assuming  the  name  of  Ignatius.  lie 
was  raised  to  the  patriarchate  in  846.  lie  was 
an  enemy  of  the  iconoclasts,  and  would  not 
suffer  Gregorius  Asbestus,  bishop  of  Syracuse, 
to  be  present  at  his  consecration,  because  of 
his  heterodoxy.  In  857  he  refused  to  admit 
Bardas,  brother  of  the  empress  Theodora,  as  a 
communicant,  on  account  of  his  reported  im 
morality,  whereupon  the  offender  caused  him 
to  be  deposed,  and  Photius  to  be  elected  patri 


arch  in  his  place.  After  his  deposition  he  was 
treated  with  the  greatest  cruelty,  and  banished 
to  Mitylene ;  but  when  Basil  the  Macedonian 
ascended  the  throne  in  867,  he  was  recalled. 

IGNATRS  BEAN.     See  STKYCIIXIA. 

IGNIS  FATITS,  a  flickering  light  seen  at  night 
over  the  surface  of  marshy  grounds  or  grave 
yards.  Sometimes  it  moves  quietly  along,  re 
sembling  the  light  of  a  lantern  carried  in  the 
hand ;  and  again  it  appears  not  alone,  but  two 
or  three  together  dancing  merrily  together  up 
and  down.  In  the  night  mists  it  seems  like 
the  light  from  some  neighboring  house ;  and 
many  a  traveller  has  been  led  by  it  into  dan 
gerous  bogs,  from  which  he  found  no  escape 
till  the  appearance  of  the  morning  light.  It  is 
not  strange  that  a  character  of  mystery  should 
have  attached  to  this  luminous  appearance,  and 
that  the  ignorant  should  have  ascribed  it  to 
some  evil  spirit.  They  called  it  "  Will  o'  the 
wisp"  and  "Jack  with  a  lantern,"  and  this 
imaginary  person  is  often  alluded  to  by  the  old 
English  poets.  It  is  commonly  believed  that 
the  light  retires  before  one  who  pursues  it ; 
this  notion  is  confirmed  by  the  statements  of 
some  observers,  and  disproved  by  those  of 
others.  In  Milner's  "Gallery  of  Nature,"  p. 
544,  is  recorded  a  statement  of  Mr.  Blesson, 
who  carefully  investigated  the  phenomena  in 
the  forest  of  Gorbitz,  in  Brandenburg.  On  a 
marshy  spot  he  observed  bluish  purple  flames 
at  night,  where  bubbles  of  air  issued  during 
the  day.  These  flames  retired  as  he  approach 
ed,  in  consequence,  he  supposed,  of  the  air  be 
ing  agitated  by  his  movement.  When  he  stood 
perfectly  still  they  soon  appeared  within  reach ; 
and  then,  carefully  guarding  against  disturbing 
the  air  by  his  breath,  he  succeeded  in  singeing 
a  piece  of  paper,  which  became  covered  with  a 
viscous  moisture.  At  last  a  narrow  slip  of  pa 
per  took  fire.  By  disturbing  the  air  over  the 
spot  he  caused  the  flames  to  disappear  entirely, 
but  in  a  few  minutes  after  quiet  was  restored 
they  appeared  again  over  the  air  bubbles,  ap 
parently  without  having  communication  with 
any  known  source  of  flame.  On  suddenly  in 
troducing  a  torch  after  extinguishing  the  flame, 
a  kind  of  explosion  Avas  heard,  and  a  red  light 
was  seen  over  8  or  9  sq.  ft.  of  the  marsh,  which 
diminished  to  a  small  blue  flame  from  2£  to  3 
ft.  high.  lie  concluded  that  the  cause  of  the 
ignis  fatnus  was  the  evolution  of  inflammable 
gas  from  the  marsh,  and  that  the  flames  existed 
by  day  as  well  as  at  night,  though  not  then  visi 
ble.  The  lights  seen  occasionally  over  church 
yards  are  of  similar  appearance  to  those  de 
scribed.  These  meteors  are  supposed  to  be  the 
result  of  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  in 
flammable  gases  generated  by  the  decomposi 
tion  of  vegetable  or  animal  bodies.  Phosphu- 
retted  hydrogen,  it  is  well  known,  bursts  into 
flame  as  it  is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air 
from  the  vessels  in  which  it  is  prepared.  It  is 
produced  by  the  decay  of  animal  matters,  and, 
if  thinly  diffused  here  and  there  over  the  sur 
face  of  a  marsh,  may  present  the  changing, 


ITS 


IGUALADA 


IGUANA 


flickering  light  of  the  ignis  fatuns,  as  difficult 
to  locate  as  the  illumination  of  the  fireflies, 
for  which  it  has  been  mistaken  by  several  em 
inent  naturalists.  What  is  known  as  marsh 
gas  is  a  highly  inflammable  carburetted  hy 
drogen,  which  bubbles  up  through  the  water 
that  covers  boggy  places,  and  may  be  inflamed 
on  the  surface.  Tliis  may  be  ignited  by  phos- 
phuretted  hydrogen,  and  add  to  the  extent  and 
permanence  of  the  flames.  The  small  quantity 
of  these  combustible  matters  present  in  the  air 
will  account  for  the  feebleness  of  the  flames, 
which  have  rarely  been  known  to  set  fire  to 
other  substances ;  and  the  varying  quantity  and 
purity  of  that  exhaled  would  explain  the  con 
stantly  shifting  brightness  of  the  light.  Ac 
cording  to  the  account  in  the  "  Gallery  of  Na 
ture"  referred  to,  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  the  snow  on  the  summit  of  the  Apen 
nines  appeared  enveloped  in  flame  ;  and  in  the 
winter  of  1693  hay  ricks  in  Wales  were  set  on 
fire  by  burning  gaseous  exhalations. 

IGUALADA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
and  33  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Barcelona ;  pop. 
about  11,500.  It  stands  on  high  ground,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Noya.  The  streets 
are  narrow,  and  the  buildings  packed  closely 
together,  with  little  regard  to  elegance,  com 
fort,  or  cleanliness.  Woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
paper,  and  firearms  are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  fairs  in  January  and  August. 

IGUANA,  a  lizard  constituting  the  type  of  the 
family  iguanidce.  The  family  characters  are : 
a  body  covered  with  horny  scales,  without 
bony  plates  or  tubercles,  not  disposed  in  circu 
lar  imbricated  series,  and  without  large  square 
plates  on  the  abdomen;  there  is  generally 
a  crest  along  the  back  or  the  tail ;  no  large 
polygonal  scutes  on  the  head ;  the  teeth  some 
times  in  a  common  alveolus,  and  sometimes 
united  to  the  free  edge  of  the  jaws ;  tongue 
thick,  free  only  at  the  point,  and  without 
sheath ;  eyes  with  movable  lids ;  toes  distinct, 
free,  and  all  unguiculated.  The  very  numerous 
genera  of  this  family  have  been  conveniently 
divided  into  two  subfamilies  by  Dumeril  and 
Bibron,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
teeth  are  implanted.  In  the  pleurodonts,  all 
but  one  American,  the  teeth  are  arranged  in  a 
groove  of  the  jaws,  are  attached  to  their  inner 
surface,  and  are  often  curiously  flattened  and 
serrated  on  the  free  edge ;  in  the  acrodonts,  all 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  there  is  no  such 
groove,  and  the  teeth  grow  upon  the  edge  of 
the  jaws.  For  the  characters  of  the  second 
subfamily,  having  15  genera  and  about  GO  spe 
cies,  see  DIIAGOX,  STELLIO,  and  the  genus  agama, 
below.  The  pleurodonts  comprise  31  genera 
and  more  than  100  species ;  anoUs  and  basiliscus 
have  been  already  noticed  under  those  titles, 
and  the  only  genus  here  described  will  be  iguana 
(Laurent!).  The  characters  of  this  genus  are : 
a  very  large  thin  dewlap  under  the  throat ; 
cephalic  plates  flat,  unequal,  and  irregular ;  a 
double  row  of  small  palate  teeth ;  a  crest  on 
the  back  and  tail ;  fingers  and  toes  five,  long, 


of  unequal  lengths,  the  fourth  of  the  hind  foot 
very  long ;  a  single  row  of  femoral  pores ;  tail 
very  long,  slender,  compressed,  and  covered 
with  small,  regular,  imbricated,  ridged  scales. 
The  common  iguana  (/.  tuberculata,  Laur.)  at 
tains  a  length  of  4  or  5  ft.,  of  which  the  tail  is 
about  two  thirds ;  it  is  found  in  tropical  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  nasal  open 
ings  are  at  the  end  of  the  obtuse  muzzle ;  the 
teeth  are  about  50  in  each  jaw,  with  card-like 
ones  on  the  palate  in  two  series ;  the  dewlap 
is  about  as  deep  as  the  head,  triangular,  having 
about  a  dozen  serrations  on  its  anterior  border ; 
along  the  neck  and  back  is  a  comb-like  crest  of 
about  55  scales,  highest  in  this  species,  extend 
ing  on  to  the  tail,  where  it  becomes  a  simple 
serrated  ridge ;  the  femoral  pores  are  14  or  15, 
widest  and  opening  in  a  single  scale  in  the 
males.  The  color  above  is  greenish,  with  blu 
ish  and  slaty  tints,  and  greenish  yellow  below ; 
on  the  sides  are  generally  brown  zigzag  bands 


Iguana  tuberculata. 

with  a  yellow  border,  with  a  yellowish  band 
on  the  front  of  the  shoulder ;  some  are  dotted 
with  brown,  with  yellow  spots  on  the  limbs ; 
the  tail  is  ringed  broadly  with  alternate  brown 
and  yellowish  green.  The  flesh  of  the  iguana 
is  considered  a  great  delicacy,  though  it  is  not 
peculiarly  wholesome.  It  passes  most  of  its 
time  in  trees,  in  which  it  is  caught  by  slip 
nooses ;  it  is  said  to  be  a  good  swimmer,  and 
some  of  the  subfamily,  as  amblyrliynchus,  pass 
most  of  their  time  in  the  water,  and  even  in 
the  sea. — The  iguanas  of  the  eastern  hemis 
phere,  of  the  acrodont  subfamily,  are  often 
called  agamas,  from  one  of  the  principal  genera. 
The  genus  agama  (Daudin)  has  a  flat  triangular 
head,  neck,  and  sometimes  the  ears  spiny,  body 
covered  with  small  imbricated  scales,  no  dorsal 
crest,  tail  long,  slender,  and  rounded,  anal  but 
no  femoral  pores,  a  longitudinal  fold  along  the 
throat,  and  sometimes  a  transverse  one;  the 
teeth  are  united  to  the  edge  of  the  jaw,  and 
may  be  distinguished  into  posterior  or  molars 


IGUANODOX 


ILINIZA 


179 


and  anterior  or  canines  and  incisors ;  no  teeth  on 
the  palate.  None  of  this  subfamily  are  found 
in  America.  The  common  agama  (A.  colono- 
rum,  Daudin)  is  the  largest  of  the  genus,  being 
from  12  to  16  in.  long,  of  which  the  tail  is 
more  than  half ;  it  is  found  on  the  Guinea  and 


Agama  colonorum. 

Senegal  coasts.  The  spiny  agama  (A.  spinosa, 
Seba)  is  short  and  thick,  with  short  tail  and 
spiny  scales ;  it  is  about  7  in.  long,  and  inhabits 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Some  of  the  acro- 
donts  in  Asia  and  Australia  are  of  very  strange 
forms ;  the  habits  and  general  appearance  are 
like  those  of  the  American  iguanas. 

IGUANQBON,  a  gigantic  fossil  saurian  reptile, 
discovered  by  Dr.  Mantell  in  the  Wealden  for 
mation  of  Great  Britain  in  1822,  and  so  named 
from  the  teeth  resembling  in  shape  those  of 
the  iguana.  The  teeth  of  the  iguanodon  re 
semble  those  of  the  iguana  also  in  the  elonga 
tion  and  contraction  of  the  base,  the  expansion 


Iguanodon. 

of  the  crown,  the  serration  of  the  edges,  and 
the  thin  coating  of  enamel ;  but  the  crown  is 
relatively  thicker,  with  a  more  complicated  ex 
ternal  and  internal  structure,  and  the  roots  are 
placed  in  separate  sockets  as  in  the  crocodile. 
The  vertebra)  have  slightly  concave  articular 


surfaces  on  the  body,  with  nearly  flat  sides; 
the  neural  arch  of  the  dorsals  is  high  and  ex 
panded,  as  in  other  dinosaurians ;  the  antero- 
posterior  diameter  is  from  4-  to  4£  in.;  the 
spinal  canal  is  completely  enclosed  by  the  neu 
ral  arches ;  the  sacral  region  is  of  considerable 
extent,  and  widely  embraced  by  the  iliac  bones; 
in  the  tail  the  spinous  processes  increase  for 
some  distance  below  the  sacrum  and  then  di 
minish,  and  this  organ  was  probably  relatively 
shorter  than  in  the  iguana;  the  ribs  are  largely 
developed  in  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  re 
gions,  and  connected  both  with  the  body  and 
the  transverse  process  of  each  vertebra,  as  in 
other  dinosaurians  and  in  crocodiles,  and  unlike 
the  iguana  and  other  lizards ;  the  scapular  arch 
is  intermediate  between  the  crocodilian  and 
lizard  type,  the  clavicle  being  more  than  3  ft. 
long ;  the  pelvic  arch  has  rather  a  lacertian 
character  ;  the  thigh  bones  are  stout,  and  about 
3  ft.  long,  with  the  head  rounded  and  produced, 
as  in  mammals,  over  the  inner  side  of  the  shaft, 
and  a  singularly  flattened  trochanter,  and  must 
have  supported  the  heavy  body  in  a  manner 
like  that  of  the  large  pachyderms ;  the  bones 
of  the  leg  are  robust  and  about  2£  ft.  long,  and 
the  whole  extremity  bears  little  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  iguana ;  the  feet  resemble  those  of 
saurians.  This  reptile  has  been  estimated  by 
Owen  as  about  28  ft.  in  length,  of  which  the 
head  was  3  and  the  tail  13  ft. ;  it  stood  higher 
on  the  legs  than  any  existing  saurian,  and  was 
terrestrial  in  its  habits ;  the  worn  condition  of 
the  teeth  indicates  that  it  was  a  herbivorous 
animal.  It  belongs  to  the  family  of  dinosan- 
rians  with  mcgalosaurns,  hylceosaurm,  and 
pelorosaurus,  and  is  found  in  the  Wealden  and 
cretaceous  formations.  The  /.  ManteHi  (Cuv.), 
from  the  characters  of  the  worn  dental  surfaces, 
must  have  performed  a  true  process  of  masti 
cation,  and  the  glenoid  cavity  must  have  per 
mitted  a  lateral  movement  of  the  lower  jaw ; 
the  large  facial  foramina  indicate  more  fleshy 
cheeks  and  lips  than  in  any  existing  saurians. 
Dr.  Mantell  was  of  opinion  that  it  had  a  nasal 
integumental  horn. 

IHRE,  Johan,  a  Swedish  philologist,  born  in 
Lund,  March  3,  1707,  died  Dec.  1,  1780.  His 
father,  of  Scotch  descent,  was  for  a  time  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Upsal.  lie  graduated  at 
the  university  in  1730,  and  in  1738  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  and  political  science. 
His  Glossarium  Sueco-Gothicum  (2  vols.,  Upsal, 
1769)  was  prepared  under  the  patronage  of  the 
government,  which  allowed  him  in  1756  a  grant 
of  10,000  Swedish  dollars.  His  dissertations 
on  the  Eddas  and  on  Ultilas  are  important. 

ILI,  or  Eeleo,  a  river  of  central  Asia,  which 
rises  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  mountains 
of  Thian-shan-nan-lu,  traverses  a  part  of  east 
ern  Turkistan,  and  flows  into  Lake  Tengiz  or 
Balkash,  near  the  borders  of  Siberia.  Its 
length  is  about  450  m. 

ILIAD.     See  HOMER. 

ILIMZA,  Illntesa,  or  Illinissa,  Pyramids  of,  cer 
tain  peaks  of  the  Cordilleras  of  Quito,  in  South 


ISO 


ILION 


ILLINOIS 


America,  about  10  m.  S.  of  Quito.  They  are 
about  17,380  ft.  high,  and  seem  originally  to 
have  constituted  a  single  mountain,  which  has 
been  rent  apart  by  volcanic  forces.  They  are 
visible  not  only  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
intervening  between  the  Cordilleras  of  Quito 
and  the  Pacific,  but  from  great  distances  at  sea. 

ILION,  a  village  in  the  town  of  German  Flats, 
Ilerkimer  co.,  New  York,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Mohawk  river,  and  on  the  New  York  Cen 
tral  railroad  and  Erie  canal,  TO  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  Albany;  pop.  in  1870,  2,876.  It  contains 
two  hotels,  a  national  bank,  a  brewery,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  and  several  schools  and 
churches.  It  is  chiefly  noted  as  the  seat  of  E. 
Remington  and  sons'  firearms  manufactory,  of 
the  Remington  empire  sewing-machine  com 
pany,  and  the  Remington  agricultural  works, 
which  employ  a  large  number  of  men.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1865. 

ILISSIS,  a  river  of  Attica,  rising  near  the 
N.  extremity  of  Mt.  Hymettus,  and  flowing 
through  the  S.  part  of  Athens  toward  the 
Phaleric  bay,  which  it  rarely  reaches  even  in 
the  rainy  season,  while  in  summer  it  always 
dries  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city.  The 
spreading  plane  trees  and  verdant  banks  of 
the  Ilissus,  which  Plato  immortalized  in  his 
''Phcedrus,"  have  given  place  to  pigmy  bushes 
and  sunburnt  rocks. 

ILIOI.     See  TEOT. 

ILIYATS,  or  Eeliauts,  a  nomadic  tribe  of  Per 
sia,  Kkiva,  and  Turkistan.  The  name  Iliyat  is 
the  plural  of  id  (eel),  a  tribe,  equivalent  to  the 
Arabic  kabilah.  The  Iliyats  are  mostly  of 
Turkish,  Arabic,  and  Kurdish  descent,  and 
form  an  important  portion  of  the  population 
of  Persia  and  adjacent  countries ;  their  actual 
numbers  are  not  known,  but  it  is  said  that  the 
Iliyat  tribes  tributary  to  Khiva  numbered  195,- 
000.  They  live  in  tents  and  have  no  settled 
habitations,  changing  their  places  of  encamp 
ment  with  the  season  or  climate.  Some  tribes 
live  solely  by  rapine  and  plunder ;  others  re 
sort  only  occasionally  to  such  means.  They 
have  large  flocks  and  herds,  which  they  often 
augment  by  taking  those  of  their  neighbors; 
they  are  therefore  much  dreaded  by  the  settled 
and  civilized  population.  The  distances  that 
some  of  the  Iliyat  tribes  travel  in  their  annual 
migrations  are  wonderful.  From  the  southern 
shores  of  Fars,  the  Kashkai  tribe  of  Iliyats  ar 
rive  in  spring  on  the  grazing  grounds  of  Ispa 
han,  where  they  are  met  by  the  Bakhtiars 
from  the  northern  shores  of  the  Persian  gulf. 
At  the  approach  of  winter  both  tribes  return. 
The  Iliyats  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Sunni 
sect,  but  are  not  very  strict  in  their  religious 
observances,  and  are  not  ruled  like  the  towns 
men  by  the  mollah.  In  each  province  of  Per 
sia  there  are  two  chiefs  acknowledged  by  all 
the  tribes.  The  chief  of  the  Kashkai  tribe, 
which  numbers  more  than  25,000  tents,  is 
obliged  by  the  government  to  reside  at  Shiraz, 
as  a  hostage  for  the  good  behavior  of  his  clan, 
though  otherwise  free  to  live  as  he  pleases. 


The  Iliyat  women  are  said  to  be  chaste,  and 
many  of  the  best  families  in  Persia  are  of  Iliyat 
origin.  The  present  royal  family  is  of  the  Ka- 
jar  tribe,  a  Turkish  iel,  which  came  into  Per 
sia  with  Tamerlane. — See  Mounsey's  "Journey 
through  the  Caucasus  and  the  Interior  of  Per 
sia"  (London,  1872),  and  Markham's  "History 
of  Persia"  (London,  1874). 

ILKESTON,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  England,  9 
m.  N.  E.  of  Derby,  on  the  Erwash  Valley  rail 
way;  pop.  in  1871,  9,662.  It  is  rapidly  in 
creasing  in  population,  and  contains  a  fine  old 
parish  church  and  a  mechanics'  institute  and 
library.  Hosiery  and  silk  fabrics  are  manu 
factured,  and  coal  is  mined. 

ILLE-ET-VILAINE,  a  N.  W.  department  of 
France,  in  Brittany,  bounded  N.  by  the  Eng 
lish  channel,  and  bordering  on  the  departments 
of  Manche,  Mayenne,  Loire-Inferieure,  Morbi- 
han,  and  Cotes-du-Nord ;  area,  2,596  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  589,532.  It  is  named  after  its 
principal  rivers,  the  Ille  and  Vilaine,  the  latter 
flowing  W.  and  S.  W.  through  this  department 
and  Morbihan  to  the  Atlantic,  and  partly  navi 
gable,  and  the  former  joining  it  from  the  north 
at  Rennes.  It  is  traversed  from  W.  to  E.  by 
the  Armoric  hills  or  Menez  mountains.  The 
surface  is  irregular,  and  the  soil  generally  poor. 
Flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  cultivated ;  to 
bacco  is  grown  to  some  extent,  as  are  grapes 
and  other  fruit.  The  fisheries  are  important, 
and  excellent  oysters  are  found  in  the  bay  of 
Cancale.  Several  iron  mines  are  worked ; 
slate,  quartz,  limestone,  and  granite  are  quar 
ried  ;  lead  and  copper  ore  are  found ;  mineral 
springs  are  numerous.  The  manufactures  con 
sist  chiefly  of  coarse  linen  and  sail  cloth.  The 
coasting  trade  is  active.  It  is  one  of  the  poor 
est  French  departments.  It  is  divided  into  the 
arrondissements  of  Rennes,  Fougeres,  Mon1> 
fort,  St.  Malo,  Vitre,  and  Redon.  The  princi 
pal  seaport  is  St.  Malo.  Capital,  Rennes. 

ILLINOIS,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians, 
of  the  Algonquin  family,  comprising  the  Peo- 
rias,  Moingwenas,  Kaskaskias,  Tamaroas,  and 
Cahokias.  At  an  early  period,  aided  perhaps 
by  the  Delawares  on  the  east,  they  drove  the 
Quapaws,  a  Dakota  tribe  whom  they  styled 
Arkansas,  from  the  Ohio  to  the  southern  Mis 
sissippi.  About  It340  they  nearly  exterminated 
the  Winnebagoes.  They  were  at  war  with  the 
Iroquois  from  about  1656,  and  with  the  Sioux 
soon  after.  The  French,  by  their  missionaries, 
first  met  the  Illinois  af  Chegoimegon  on  Lake 
Superior  in  1667;  in  1672  Marquette  found 
the  Peorias  and  Moingwenas  in  three  towns 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  near  the  Des  Moines, 
as  well  as  Peorias  and  Kaskaskias  on  the  Illi 
nois.  The  Tamaroas  were  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  a  tribe  called  the  Michigameas,  who  seem 
to  have  been  really  Quapaws,  also  belonged  to 
the  confederacy.  The  Illinois  at  this  time 
were  numerous  and  brave,  expert  bowmen, 
but  not  canoe  men.  They  moved  off  to  the 
plains  beyond  the  Mississippi  in  villages  for  a 
short  summer  hunt,  and  for  a  winter  hunt  of 


ILLINOIS 


181 


four  or  five  months.  Then  they  would  gather 
in  a  large  town,  of  arbor-like  cabins  covered 
with  double  water-proof  mats,  with  generally 
four  fires  to  a  cabin,  and  two  families  to  a  fire. 
Allouez,  Membre,  and  other  missionaries  found 
the  chief  Illinois  town  consisting  of  300  to  400 
cabins  and  8,000  people.  They  were  badly 
defeated  by  the  Iroquois  in  1679,  shortly  after 
La  Salle  reached  there,  and  in  the  war  lost  300 
or  400  killed  and  900  prisoners ;  but  they  re 
covered  and  aided  the  French  in  their  opera 
tions  against  the  Iroquois,  sending  their  con 
tingent  to  the  expeditions  of  De  la  Barre  and 
Denonville.  Although  constantly  at  war  and 
greatly  addicted  to  vices,  they  listened  to  the 
French  missionaries  Marquette,  Allouez,  Gra- 
vicr,  and  others,  who  finally  converted  them 
all,  and  greatly  improved  their  condition.  In 
1700  Chicago,  their  great  chief,  visited  France, 
and  was  highly  esteemed.  His  son  of  the 
same  name  retained  the  great  influence  of  his 
father  till  his  death  in  1754.  In  1700  the 
Kaskaskias  removed  from  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Illinois  to  the  spot  that  bears  their  name,  led 
by  their  chief  Roinsac,  who  wished  to  emi 
grate  to  Louisiana.  In  1712  they  marched  to 
Detroit  to  relieve  that  post,  then  besieged  by 
the  Foxes.  In  the  war  with  that  tribe  they 
suffered  severely,  and  the  Illinois  of  the  Rock 
and  of  Pimiteouy  were  driven  from  their  vil 
lages.  In  1719  the  whole  nation  was  reduced 
to^3,000  souls.  They  remained  faithful  to  the 
French  in  the  Natchez  troubles,  and  sent  a 
force  on  D'Artaguette's  fatal  expedition  against 
the  Chickasaws.  Although  they  lost  constant 
ly  in  their  war  with  the  Foxes,  their  head  chief 
Papape  Changouhias  led  a  force  with  Villiers 
against  some  of  the  frontier  posts  in  Virginia 
in  April,  1756,  and  captured  a  small  fort. 
They  took  no  part  in  Pontiac's  war ;  but  when 
that  chieftain  was  killed  in  one  of  their  towns, 
the  Foxes  renewed  the  war.  They  joined  the 
Miamis  in  their  war  against  the  United  States, 
but  made  peace  at  Greenville,  Aug.  3,  1795. 
By  act  of  March  3,  1791,  350  acres  were  se 
cured  to  the  Kaskaskias,  and  the  right  of  loca 
ting  1,280  acres  in  addition.  Gen.  Harrison  in 
1803  negotiated  a  treaty  at  Vincennes,  in  which 
their  decline  was  recited,  an  annuity  of  $1,000 
given,  and  provision  made  for  building  a  house 
for  the  chief  and  a  Catholic  church,  as  well  as 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  priest.  The  Peorias, 
who  were  not  parties  to  this  treaty,  joined  in 
that  of  Edwardsville,  Sept.  25,  1818,  by  which 
the  Illinois  ceded  all  their  lands  in  the  state 
for  $2,000  in  goods  and  a  12  years'  annuity 
of  $300.  The  Peorias,  to  the  number  of  100, 
were  on  Blackwater  river,  Missouri,  and  36 
Kaskaskias  remained  in  Illinois.  By  the  treaty 
of  October,  1832,  they  again  ceded  lands,  re 
ceiving  a  large  tract  further  west,  with  some 
cash  and  an  outlay  for  erecting  dwellings  and 
supplying  agricultural  implements.  They  were 
placed  within  the  limits  of  the  present  state  of 
Kansas,  where  they  remained  till  1867.  They 
seemed  to  improve,  but  lost  in  numbers,  so 


that  in  1854  they  confederated  with  the  Weas 
and  Piankeshaws.  In  1867  they  were  again 
removed,  and  placed  southwest  of  the  Qua- 
paws,  on  a  reservation  of  72,000  acres.  Here 
they  remain,  but  the  whole  Illinois  nation  had 
dwindled  in  1872  to  some  40  souls;  the  com 
bined  tribe  of  Weas,  Piankeshaws,  Peorias,  and 
Kaskaskias  numbering  only  160  in  all.  The 
United  States  government  in  1873  held  stocks 
for  their  benefit  amounting  to  $124,747  94,  and 
a  balance  at  interest  of  $64,164  69.  The  lan 
guage  of  the  Illinois  was  reduced  to  grammati 
cal  rules  by  Pere  Gravier,  and  Pere  le  Boulanger 
drew  up  a  very  full  grammar  and  dictionary. 

ILLINOIS,  one  of  the  interior  states  of  the 
American  Union,  the  eighth  admitted  under 
the  federal  constitution,  and  now  the  fourth 
in  population.  It  is  situated  between  lat.  36° 
59'  and  42°  30'  K,  and  Ion.  87°  35'  and  91°  40' 
W. ;  extreme  length  N".  and  S.  385  m.,  extreme 
breadth  E.  and  W.  218  m. ;  area,  55,410  sq.  m. 
It  is  bounded  X.  by  Wisconsin,  N.  E.  by  Lake 


State  Seal  of  Illinois. 

Michigan,  E.  by  Indiana,  from  which  it  is  sepa 
rated  in  part  by  the  W abash  river,  S.  E.  and  S. 
by  Kentucky,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Ohio,  and  S.  W.  and  TV.  by  Missouri  and  Iowa, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mississippi. 
The  state  is  divided  into  102  counties,  viz. :  Ad 
ams,  Alexander,  Bond,  Boone,  Brown,  Bureau, 
Calhoun,  Carroll,  Cass,  Champaign,  Christian, 
Clark,  Clay,  Clinton,  Coles,  Cook,  Crawford, 
Cumberland,  De  Kalb,  De  Witt,  Douglas,  Du 
Page,  Edgar,  Edwards,  Effingliam,  Fayette,  Ford, 
Franklin,  Fulton,  Gallatin,  Greene,  Grundy, 
Hamilton,  Hancock,  Ilardin,  Henderson,  Henry, 
Iroquois,  Jackson,  Jasper,  Jefferson,  Jersey,  Jo 
Daviess,  Johnson,  Kane,  Kankakee,  Kendall, 
Knox,  Lake,  La  Salle,  Lawrence,  Lee,  Living 
stone,  Logan,  McDonough,  McIIenry,  McLean, 
Macon,  Macoupin,  Madison,  Marion,  Marshall, 
Mason,  Massac,  Menard,  Mercer,  Monroe,  Mont 
gomery,  Morgan,  Moultrie,  Ogle,  Peoria,  Perry, 
Piatt,  Pike,  Pope,  Pulaski,  Putnam,  Randolph, 
Richland,  Rock  Island,  St.  Clair,  Saline,  Sanga- 
mon,  Schuyler,  Scott,  Shelby,  Stark,  Stephen- 
son,  Tazewell,  Union,  Vermilion,  W abash,  War- 


182 


ILLINOIS 


ren,  Washington,  Wayne,  White,  Whitesides, 
Will,  Williamson,  Winnebago,  and  Woodt'ord. 
Springfield,  near  the  geographical  centre  of 
the  state,  lat.  39°  48'  N.,  Ion.  89°  45'  W.,  is  the 
seat  of  government ;  it  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  fine  agricultural  district,  and  has  an  active 
trade,  being  well  supplied  with  railroad  trans 
portation.  Chicago  is  the  commercial  metropo 
lis,  and  the  largest  city  on  the  northern  lakes. 
Kaskaskia  and  Oahokia  are  the  oldest  towns  in 
Illinois,  having  been  founded  by  the  French 
some  time  between  1680  and  1690.  Kaskaskia 
was  the  first  capital,  and  so  remained  till  1818, 
when  the  government  was  removed  to  Vanda- 
lia,  and  thence  to  Springfield  in  1836.  Ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  cities  of  Illi 
nois  were:  Alton,  pop.  8,665;  Amboy,  2,825; 
Anna,  1,269;  Aurora,  11,162;  Belleville,  8,146; 
Bloomington,  14,590;  Bushnell,  2,003;  Cairo, 
6,267;  Centralia,  3,190;  Champaign,  4,625; 
Chicago,  298,977;  Danville,  4,751;  Decatur, 
7,161;  Dixon,  4,055;  Elgin,  5,441 ;  El  Paso, 
1,564;  Freeport,  7,889;  Galena,  7,019;  Gales- 
burg,  10,158 ;  Jacksonville,  9,203 ;  Joliet,  7,263 ; 
La  Salle,  5,200;  Litchfield,  3,852;  Macornb, 
2,748;  Mendota,  3,546;  Monmouth,  4,662; 
Morris,  3,138;  Mount  Carmel,  1,640;  Olney, 
2,860;  Ottawa,  7,736;  Pekin,  5,696;  Peoria, 
22,849;  Peru,  3,650;  Quincy,  24,052;  Rock- 
ford,  11,049;  Rock  Island,  7,890;  Shelbyville, 
2,051;  Springfield,  17,364;  Sterling,  3,998; 
Watseka,  1,551;  and  Waukegan,  4,507.  The 
population  of  Illinois  has  been  as  follows : 


CENSUS 
YEARS. 

White. 

Free 

colored. 

Slaves. 

Total. 

Rank. 

1810  
IS'20  

11.501 

53,783 

613 

457 

168 
917 

12,282 
55.211 

23 
24 

1830  
1840  
1850  
1860  
1870  

155,061 
472,2-54 
846,034 
1,704.291 
2,511,096 

1,637 
8,598 
5,436 

7,628 
28,762 

747 
331 

157.445 
476,183 
851,470 
1,711,951 
2.539,891 

20 
14 
11 
4 
4 

Of  the  total  population  in  1870, 1,316,537  were 
males  and  1,223,354  females;  2,024,693  were 
of  native  and  515,198  of  foreign  birth.  Of 
the  former,  1,189,503  were  born  in  the  state; 
of  the  foreigners,  32,550  were  born  in  British 
America,  3,711  in  Denmark,  10,911  in  France, 
203,758  in  Germany,  53,871  in  England,  120,- 
162  in  Ireland,  15,737  in  Scotland,  3,146  in 
Wales,  4,180  in  Holland,  11,880  in  Norway, 
29,979  in  Sweden,  and  8,980  in  Switzerland. 
The  density  of  population  was  45-84  to  the 
square  mile.  There  were  474,533  families,  with 
an  average  of  5 '35  persons  to  each,  and  464,- 
155  dwellings,  with  an  average  of  5*47  persons 
to  each.  The  increase  of  population  from  1860 
to  1870  was  48-36  per  cent.  The  number  of 
male  citizens  21  years  old  and  upward  was 
542,833.  There  were  in  the  state  818,766  per 
sons  from  5  to  18  years  of  age;  the  number 
that  attended  school  was  548,225;  86,368,  10 
years  of  age  and  over,  could  not  read,  and 
133,584  could  not  write.  Of  the  latter,  90,595 
were  of  native  and  42,989  of  foreign  birth; 


54,671  were  white  males,  and  69,053  white 
females;  4,924  were  colored  males,  and  5,024 
colored  females;  12,525  were  from  10  to  15 
years  old.  15,340  from  15  to  21,  and  105,709 
21  and  over,  of  whom  40,081  were  white  males, 
56,857  white  females,  3,969  colored  males,  and 
4,082  colored  females.  The  proportion  of  illit 
erates  10  years  of  age  and  upward  to  the  total 
population  of  the  same  age  was  7'38  per  cent, 
being  6 -29  for  males  and  8*59  for  females. 
The  proportion  of  illiteracy  among  adults  was 
7*16  per  cent,  for  males  and  11 '16  for  females. 
The  number  of  persons  supported  by  public 
charity  during  the  year  ending  June  1,  1870, 
was  6,054,  at  a  cost  of  $556,061 ;  there  were 
receiving  support  June  1,  1870,  2,363,  of  whom 
1,254  were  native  and  1,109  foreign  born. 
The  number  of  persons  convicted  of  crime 
during  the  year  was  1,552.  Of  the  total  num 
ber  (1,795)  in  prison  June  1,  1870,  1,372  were 
native  born  and  423  foreigners.  There  were 
1,042  blind,  833  deaf  and  dumb,  1,625  insane, 
and  1,244  idiotic.  Of  the  total  population  10 
years  old  and  over  (1,809,606),  there  Avere  en 
gaged  in  all  occupations  742,015 ;  in  agricul 
ture,  376,441,  including  133,649  agricultural 
laborers,  240,256  farmers  and  planters,  and 
2,162  gardeners  and  nurserymen;  in  profes 
sional  and  personal  services,  151,931,  of  whom 
3,192  were  clergymen,  44,903  domestic  ser 
vants,  431  journalists,  63,130  laborers  not  spe 
cified,  2,683  lawyers,  4,861  physicians  and  sur 
geons,  8,869  teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade  and 
transportation,  80,422 ;  and  in  manufactures 
and  mechanical  and  mining  industries,  133,221, 
of  whom  9,412  were  blacksmiths,  6,279  boot  and 
shoe  makers,  and  23,040  carpenters  and  joiners. 
The  total  number  of  deaths  from  all  causes,  as 
reported  by  the  census  of  1870,  was  33,672,  the 
percentage  of  deaths  to  the  population  being 
1-33 ;  from  consumption,  3,641,  there  being  9-2 
deaths  from  all  causes  to  1  from  consumption. 
There  were  2,882  deaths  from  pneumonia,  2,162 
from  scarlet  fever,  888  from  intermittent  and 
remittent  fevers,  and  2,551  from  diarrho?a, 
dysentery,  and  enteritis. — Illinois  occupies  the 
lower  part  of  that  inclined  plane  of  which  Lake 
Michigan  and  both  its  shores  are  the  higher  sec 
tions.  Down  this  plane  in  a  very  nearly  S.  W. 
direction  the  principal  rivers  have  their  courses 
to  the  Mississippi.  The  lowest  section  of  this 
plane  is  also  the  extreme  S.  angle  of  the  state, 
and  is  only  340  ft.  above  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  greatest  elevation  of  the  country  is  1,150 
ft.,  and  the  mean  elevation  about  550  ft., 
above  tide  water.  Next  to  Louisiana  and  Dela 
ware,  indeed,  Illinois  is  the  most  level  state  of 
the  Union.  A  small  tract  in  the  N.  W.  corner 
of  the  state  around  Galena,  which  includes  the 
lead  mines,  is  hilly  and  somewhat  broken,  and 
there  are  bluffs  on  the  Mississippi  and  Illinois 
rivers ;  but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the 
surface  consists  of  vast  level  or  gently  undula 
ting  prairies.  A  low  mountain  ridge  extends 
across  the  S.  end  of  the  state,  from  Grand 
Tower  on  the  Mississippi  to  Shawneetown 


ILLINOIS 


183 


on  the  Ohio,  constituting  the  fruit  region  of 
southern  Illinois.  The  chief  rivers  within  the 
state  are  the  Rock,  Illinois,  and  Kaskaskia, 
affluents  of  the  Mississippi ;  the  Embarras  and 
Little  Wabash,  tributaries  of  the  W abash ; 
and  the  Saline  and  Cash,  which  fall  into  the 
Ohio.  The  Illinois  is  much  the  largest  of 
these ;  its  constituents  are  the  Kankakee  from 
Indiana  and  the  Des  Plaines  from  Wiscon 
sin,  and  in  its  entire  course  of  nearly  500  m. 
(245  navigable)  to  the  Mississippi  it  receives 
the  Fox  and  Spoon  rivers  and  Crooked  creek 
from  the  right,  and  the  Vermilion,  Mack 
inaw,  Sangamon,  &c.,  from  the  left.  It  has  a 
wide  deep  bed,  and  in  some  parts  opens  into 
broad  and  lake-like  expanses.  Rock  river 
also  rises  in  Wisconsin,  and  has  a  course  of 
300  m.  to  the  Mississippi;  it  is  imperfectly 
navigable  for  75  m.,  and  its  upper  course  is 
impeded  by  rapids.  The  Kaskaskia  has  its 
sources  in  Champaign  co.  (in  which  also  rise 
the  Sangamon,  Embarras,  and  the  southern 
constituents  of  the  Vermilion),  and  pursues 
a  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  Illinois; 
it  has  a  length  of  250  m.  The  Big  Muddy, 
an  affluent  of  the  Mississippi,  between  the 
Ohio  and  the  Kaskaskia,  is  also  a  considerable 
stream.  The  rivers  flowing  into  the  Ohio  and 
Wabash  are  generally  of  less  volume  than  the 
smaller  class  of  streams  flowing  into  the  Mis 
sissippi,  but  several  are  navigable.  Chicago 
river  falls  into  Lake  Michigan;  it  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  its  1ST.  and  S.  branches  about  1 
m.  from  the  lake.  Both  branches  are  deep 
(12  to  15  ft.),  and  in  connection  with  the  main 
river  form  a  spacious  harbor,  which  has  been 
much  improved  by  the  extension  of  piers  far 
into  the  lake.  The  S.  branch  is  connected 
with  the  navigable  Illinois  at  Peru  by  the  Illi 
nois  and  Michigan  canal,  96  m.  long. — Not 
withstanding  the  general  uniformity  of  the 
surface,  Illinois  is  not  destitute  of  interesting 
scenery.  The  river  bluffs  contrast  strikingly 
with  the  smooth  prairies.  The  most  remark 
able  of  these  elevations  are  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  are  from  100  to  400  ft,  high.  Fountain 
bluff  in  Jackson  co.  is  oval,  0  m.  in  circuit 
and  300  ft.  high ;  the  top  is  full  of  sink  holes. 
Starved  Rock  and  Lover's  Leap  are  eminences 
on  the  Illinois;  the  first  named  is  a  perpendic 
ular  mass  of  limestone  and  sandstone,  8  m.  be 
low  Ottawa,  rising  156  ft.  above  the  river,  and 
the  latter  a  ledge  of  precipitous  rocks  some 
distance  above  Starved  Rock.  Nearly  oppo 
site  Lover's  Leap  is  Buffalo  Rock,  60  ft.  high, 
precipitous  toward  the  river,  but  sloping  in 
land.  The  Cave  in  the  Rock,  in  Ilardin  co., 
on  the  Ohio,  presents  on  approach  a  vast  mass 
of  rocks,  some  resembling  castellated  ruins, 
and  others  jutting  out  in  a  variety  of  forms. 
The  entrance  to  the  cave,  which  is  little  above 
high  water,  is  a  semicircular  hole  80  ft.  wide 
and  25  ft.  high,  and  the  cave  so  far  as  explored 
consists  of  a  chamber  80  ft.  long,  at  the  end  of 
which  is  a  small  opening  which  probably  leads 
into  a  second  chamber.  In  the  earlier  days  of 


settlement  it  was  the  abode  of  bands  of  rob 
bers  and  river  pirates. — The  unbroken  surface 
of  Illinois  affords  a  drainage  extending  from 
the  borders  of  Lake  Michigan  toward  the  west 
and  southwest  across  the  entire  state.  The 
post-tertiary  clay  and  sands  containing  fresh 
water  shells  of  living  species,  found  a  few  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  lake,  and  forming  its 
banks,  indicate  that  at  no  remote  geological 
period  the  land  was  somewhat  less  elevated 
than  at  present ;  and  the  valley  of  the  Illinois 
with  its  strongly  marked  terraced  walls  of 
limestone,  so  disproportioned  to  the  small 
river  that  flows  between  them,  would  seem  to 
owe  its  origin  to  mightier  currents,  and  to 
point  to  a  time  when  the  great  lakes  found 
an  outlet  by  this  way  to  the  Mississippi  and 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  state  has  been  de 
scribed  and  mapped  as  one  great  coal  field ; 
but  as  the  arrangement  of  the  strata  has  been 
more  carefully  studied,  this  statement  is  to  be 
received  with  some  modifications.  Still,  the 
prevailing  rocks  throughout  the  state  are 
those  of  the  coal  measures.  They  occupy 
most  of  the  country  lying  S.  of  a  line  traced 
from  the  mouth  of  Rock  river  E.  to  La  Salle 
co.,  and  thence  S.  E.,  crossing  the  line  of  In 
diana.  The  formation  covers  a  large  portion 
of  the  W.  part  of  Indiana,  and  stretches  S.  into 
Kentucky.  Its  W.  margin  is  near  the  Missis 
sippi  river,  along  which  a  belt  of  the  under 
lying  carboniferous  limestone  comes  up,  and 
cuts  off  the  coal  formation  on  that  side.  The 
included  area,  reckoned  as  one  coal  field,  covers 
about  40,400  sq.  m.,  of  which  30,000  are  in  Illi 
nois.  The  most  important  veins  are  from  6  to 
8  ft.  thick.  (See  COAL,  vol.  iv.,  p.  738.)  The 
importance  of  the  coal  beds  in  Illinois  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  their  position,  conveniently  near 
the  Mississippi  or  the  Ohio,  and  to  the  railroads, 
which  traverse  the  state  from  N.  to  S.  and  from 
E.  to  W. ;  and  more  than  2,000,000  tons  per  an 
num  are  now  mined  in  the  state.  The  iron 
ores  found  in  the  coal  measures  are  of  little 
value.  The  N.  W.  corner  of  Illinois  includes  a 
I  portion  of  the  great  western  lead-hearing  belt, 
1  Though  in  Illinois  but  a  small  district,  compri 
sing  part  of  Jo  Davicss  co.,  contains  the  lower 
Silurian  limestones  in  which  the  lead  ores  are 
found,  the  mines  have  proved  so  productive 
that  the  metal  ranks  as  one  of  the  important 
products  of  the  state.  Salt  is  chiefly  a  product 
of  the  southern  section,  and  is  found  in  springs 
about  the  head  waters  of  Big  Muddy  river, 
Saline  creek,  and  the  Little  Wabash.  Sulphu 
rous  and  chalybeate  springs  exist  in  several 
localities. — The  soils  of  Illinois  nre  of  diluvial 
origin,  and  it  is  probable  that  in  the  early  geo 
logical  ages  the  whole  state  was  a  portion  of 
the  bed  of  a  great  lake.  The  prnirie  soils  are 
deep,  fertile,  and  rockless,  and  produce  a  luxu 
riant  growth  of  native  grasses  nnd  vegetation, 
which  formerly  sustained  countless  herds  of 
buffaloes.  The  largest  of  the  prairies  is  that 
between  the  streams  flowing  into  the  Wabash 
and  those  which  enter  the  Mississippi.  This 


ILLINOIS 


is  called  the  Grand  Prairie,  but  is  properly  a 
combination  of  small  prairies  partially  sepa 
rated  by  tracts  or  groves  of  timber.  The  bar 
rens,  or  oak  openings,  as  they  are  here  called, 
have  frequently  a  thin  soil.  In  the  bottoms 
or  alluvial  borders  of  the  rivers  the  soil  is 
chiefly  formed  from  the  deposits  of  the  waters 
during  floods.  In  some  cases  the  mould  so 
formed  is  more  than  25  ft.  deep,  and  of  inex 
haustible  fertility.  One  fifth  of  the  alluvial 
land,  however,  is  unfit  for  present  cultivation, 
but  is  productive  of  timber.  A  tract  called 
the  American  bottom,  extending  along  the 
Mississippi  for  90  m.,  and  about  5  m.  in  aver 
age  breadth,  is  of  this  formation.  About  the 
French  towns  it  has  been  cultivated  and  pro 
duced  Indian  corn  every  year  without  being 
manured  for  nearly  two  centuries.  In  every 
part  of  the  state  the  plough  may  pass  over 
thousands  of  acres  without  meeting  even  so 
much  as  a  pebble  to  impede  its  course. — The 
native  animals  are  now  almost  extinct,  but 
Illinois  still  has  abundance  of  game,  and  its 
northern  rivers  abound  in  trout  and  other  fish. 
The  kinds  of  timber  most  abundant  are  oak, 
black  walnut,  ash,  elm,  sugar  maple,  locust, 
linden,  hickory,  pecan,  and  persimmon.  In 
the  south  and  east  yellow  poplar  and  beech  are 
the  peculiar  growths,  and  near  the  Ohio  are 
clumps  of  a  yellow  pine  and  cedar.  The  bot 
toms  produce  cottonwood,  sycamore,  &c.  Il 
linois  indeed  is  abundantly  supplied  with  tim 
ber,  but  it  is  unequally  distributed,  and  im 
mense  tracts  are  entirely  bare.  The  fruit  trees 
embrace  the  apple,  peach,  cherry,  plum,  &c., 
and  the  grape  is  largely  cultivated.  The  pre 
vailing  winds  are  N.  and  N.  W.  and  S.  and  S. 
AV.,  the  former  in  the  winter  months,  and  the 
latter  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  The 
evenness  of  the  surface  allows  of  their  free 
passage,  and  the  atmosphere  is  in  constant  mo 
tion.  Hence  the  winters  are  excessively  cold, 
and  the  summers  more  than  usually  hot.  The 
summer  heat,  however,  is  greatly  modified  and 
refreshed  by  the  ever  present  breezes ;  and  on 
the  whole  the  climate  is  favorable  for  outdoor 
occupations,  the  proportion  of  clear  and  cloudy 
days  being  about  245  of  the  former  to  120  of 
the  latter.  The  mean  annual  temperature  on 
the  40th  parallel  is  about  54°,  that  of  summer 
77°  and  that  of  winter  33^°  F.  These  figures, 
however,  will  vary  considerably  N.  and  S.  of 
the  parallel  indicated ;  at  Beloit  on  the  X.  line 
the  mean  temperature  is  47i°,  and  at  Cairo,  the 
S.  angle  of  the  state,  58£°.  Vegetation  begins 
with  April,  and  the  first  killing  frosts  occur 
near  the  end  of  September.  The  general  salu 
brity  of  the  climate  is  well  attested;  but  fe 
vers  and  fluxes  are  frequently  prevalent  in  the 
river  bottoms  and  in  the  swamps  which  cover 
a  large  part  of  the  southern  section.  The  up 
land  prairies  are  almost  free  from  endemic  dis 
orders. — Illinois  is  in  the  front  rank  of  agri 
cultural  states.  According  to  the  census  of 
1870,  it  contained  more  acres  of  improved 
land,  and  produced  more  wheat,  Indian  corn, 


and  oats,  than  any  other  state.  In  the  pro 
duction  of  barley  it  ranked  next  to  California 
and  New  York ;  of  flax, 'next  to  Ohio  and  New 
York ;  of  rye,  next  to  Pennsylvania  and  New 
York ;  and  of  wool,  next  to  Ohio,  California, 
New  York,  Michigan,  and  Pennsylvania,  In 
the  value  of  all  live  stock  on  farms  it  was  sur 
passed  only  by  New  York,  and  contained  more 
swine  and  horses  than  any  other  state,  more 
milch  cows  than  any  other  except  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  and  more  sheep  than 
any  other  except  Ohio,  California,  New  York, 
Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  and  Indiana.  The 
state  contained  10,329,952  acres  of  improved 
land,  5,061,578  of  woodland,  and  1,491,331  of 
other  unimproved  land.  The  total  number 
of  farms  was  202,803,  including  53,240  having 
from  20  to  50  acres,  68,130  from  50  to  100, 
65,940  from  100  to  500,  1,367  from  500  to 
1,000,  and  302  containing  1,000  acres  and  over. 
The  cash  value  of  farms  was  $920,506,346  ;  of 
farming  implements  and  machinery,  $35,576,- 
587;  total  amount  of  wages  paid  during  the 
year,  including  value  of  board,  $22,338,767; 
total  estimated  value  of  all  farm  productions, 
including  betterments  and  additions  to  stock, 
$210,860,585;  orchard  products,  $3,571,789; 
produce  of  market  gardens,  $765,992;  forest 
products,  $1,087,144;  home  manufactures, 
$1,408,015 ;  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for 
slaughter,  $56,718,944;  value  of  all  live  stock, 
$149,756,698.  There  were  853,738  horses,  85,- 
075  mules  and  asses,  640,321  milch  cows,  19,- 
766  working  oxen,  1,055,499  other  cattle, 
1,568,286  sheep,  and  2,703,343  swine.  The 
chief  productions  were:  10,133,207  bushels  of 
spring  and  19,995,198  of  winter  wheat,  2,456,- 
578  of  rye,  129,921,395  of  Indian  corn,  42,780,- 
851  of  oats,  2,480,400  of  barley,  168,862  of 
buckwheat,  115,854  of  peas  and  beans,  10,944,- 
790  of  Irish  and  322,641  of  sweet  potatoes, 
10,486  Ibs.  of  clover  seed,  153,464  of  grass  seed, 
280,043  of  flax  seed,  2,747,339  tons  of  hay, 
465  bales  of  cotton,  5,249,274  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
5,739,249  of  wool,  36,083,405  of  butter,  1,161,- 
103,  of  cheese,  104,032  of  hops,  2,204,406  of 
flax,  136,873  of  maple  sugar,  1,547,178  of 
honey,  146,262  of  wax,  1,960,473  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses,  10,378  of  maple  molasses, 
111.882  of  wine,  and  9,258,545  of  milk  sold. 
In  1872  there  were  2,093,308  acres  of  wheat 
under  cultivation;  Indian  corn,  7,087,040; 
oats,  1,817,463;  meadows,  2,178,237;  other 
field  products,  886,166;  in  enclosed  pasture, 
3,807,082;  in  orchard,  320,702;  and  in  wood 
land,  6,289,236.  There  were  930,947  horses, 
assessed  at  $48. 790, 933;  2,014,801  cattle,  $35,- 
742,563;  98,316  mules  and  asses,  $5,809,494; 
1,092,080  sheep,  $2,140,474;  hogs,  3,560,083, 
$11,285,464. — In  manufacturing  industry,  Illi 
nois  is  also  classed  among  the  first  states  of  the 
Union.  According  to  the  census  of  1870  it 
ranked  sixth  both  in  the  amount  of  capital  in 
vested  in  manufactures  and  in  the  value  of 
products.  In  the  total  amount  of  capital  it  was 
surpassed  by  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Massa- 


ILLINOIS 


185 


chusetts,  Ohio,  and  Connecticut;  in  the  value 
of  products  by  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Mas 
sachusetts,  Ohio,  and  Missouri.  Jn  the  value 
of  the  products  of  butchering,  distilled  liquors, 
planed  lumber,  and  pork  packed,  Illinois  ranked 
first.  The  relation  of  the  state  to  the  United 
States  in  these  industries  is  shown  in  the  fol 
lowing  statement  of  the  total  value  of  products  : 


March  1,  1874,  was  5,383,810,  the  aggregate 
gross  weight  of  which  was  1,444,311,304  Ibs. ; 
of  these,  1,870,855,  weighing  in  the  aggregate 
511,807,475  Ibs.,  were  packed  in  Illinois.  The 
aggregate  cost  of  the  hogs  was  $22,694,399,  and 
the  total  product  of  lard  69,808,163  Ibs.  The 
chief  centres  of  this  industry  for  two  years 
are  shown  in  the  following  statement : 


INDUSTRIES. 

United  States. 

Illinois. 

Butchering  

$13,686.001 

$4,251,712 

Liquors,  distilled  
Lumber  planed 

3(5,191,133 
42  179  702 

7,888,751 
7  290  465 

I'ork,  packed  

50  429,331 

19,818,851 

In  the  production  of  grease  and  tallow  Illi 
nois  ranks  next  to  New  York;  in  agricultural 
implements,  next  to  Ohio  and  New  York ;  in 
carriages  and  wagons,  next  to  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania;  in  oil,  next  to  Missouri  and 
Ohio ;  in  saddlery  and  harness,  next  to  Mis 
souri,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania ;  in  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  next  to  New  York,  Pennsyl 
vania,  Ohio,  and  Missouri;  in  men's  clothing, 
next  to  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Massachu 
setts  and  Ohio.  From  the  above  table  it  ap 
pears  that  more  than  one  third  in  value  of 
all  the  pork  packed  in  the  United  States  in 
1870  was  contributed  by  Illinois.  Formerly 
the  supremacy  in  this  respect  was  held  by 
Ohio,  in  consequence  of  the  magnitude  of  this 
industry  in  Cincinnati ;  but  since  1862-'3  that 
supremacy  has  been  held  by  Chicago.  Accord 
ing  to  a  careful  report  prepared  for  the  Cincin 
nati  chamber  of  commerce  by  Sidney  D.  Max 
well,  the  number  of  hogs  packed  in  the  south 
ern  and  western  states  from  Nov.  1,  1873,  to 


PLACES  WHERE  PACKED. 

NUMBER  OF  IIOG8  PACKED. 

1S72-13. 

1873-'4. 

Barrv 

9,607 
10,200 
1,425.079 
29.000 
17.01H 
4.983 
6,000 
102.500 
51,983 

11,000 
11,808 
1,520.024 
20.000 
10.327 
16,451 
12.000 
68,150 
54,293 

Charleston  

Chicago  

Galena 

Lacon  .              

Mattoon  

Pekin 

Peoria                

Quiucy 

Total 

1,834,218 

1,870,855 

The  growth  of  this  industry  in  Illinois  has 
been  very  rapid ;  thus  the  number  of  hogs 
packed  was  805,843  in  1868-'9,  862,412  in 
1869-'70,  1,240,959  in  1870-'71,  and  1,631,026 
in  1871 -'2.  The  total  number  of  manufactu 
ring  establishments  reported  by  the  census  of 
1870  was  12,597,  using  2,330  steam  engines  of 
73,091  horse  power,  and  528  water  wheels  of 
12,593  horse  power,  and  employing  82,979 
hands,  of  whom  73,045  were  males  above  16, 
6,717  females  above  15,  and  3,217  youth.  The 
capital  invested  amounted  to  $94,368,057; 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  $31,100,244;  value 
of  materials,  $127,600,077;  of  products,  $205,- 
620,672.  The  chief  industries  are  exhibited  in 
the  following  table : 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 
establish 
ments. 

Steam 
engine*, 
horse 
power. 

Water 
wheels, 
horse 
power. 

Hands 
emiluyed. 

Capital 
invested. 

Wajres 

paid. 

Value  of 
materials. 

Value  of 

products. 

Agricultural  implements  

Boots  and  shoes 

294 
1,210 

2,575 

91 

3.035 
4.600 

$5.850.978 
2,190.615 

$1,813.835 
I,0s4,164 

13,598,897 
2.079.047 

$8,880.390 
4.443  794 

Butcherin"1 

25 

60 

883 

575.800 

150.608 

8,375.07!) 

4  251  712 

Carpentering  and  building  

1,089 

227 

3.555 

1,097,035 

1.867,752 

3.809.002 

6,785.264 

Carriages  and  wagons                

1,165 

606 

100 

4,847 

3.429,426 

1.775,946 

2,213.297 

0  019  291 

Cars,  freight  and  passenger  
Clothing,  men's  
"        women's         .                  ... 

5 
873 

85 

205 

849 
5,939 
713 

959.000 
2.556.810 
229,945 

501.978 
1,706.210 
181.845 

4H2.285 
4.564.196 
614.08S 

1,010.007 
7,429,863 

977  042 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products  
Furniture,  not  specified  

941 
850 
19 

28,877 
1,087 
126 

8,903 
76 

4.457 
2,059 

450 

14.826,562 
1,655,156 
4  581  550 

1,881.475 
851.140 
441  737 

35.430.716 

888,956 
596  ^.87 

43,876,775 
2.614.141 
2  C07  1*3 

Grease  and  tallow        

5 

20 

130 

284,500 

42,420 

1.270.480 

1  412  900 

Iron,  forged  and  rolled  
"     nails  and  spikes,  cut  and  wrought. 
"     castings,  not  specified  
Leather  tanned 

8 
4 
109 
53 

8,721 
115 

1,540 
529 

'"9 
217 
5 

1,749 
192 
1,793 
418 

2,390.000 
156,200 
2.167.885 
89  0  750 

1,068,082 
110.785 
957.927 
203315 

1.917.422 
554.750 
2,0514.020 
1  492  078 

3,430.746 
804.644 
8,7x\!'58 
2  018  "74 

"          curried  
Liquors,  distilled.                

44 

45 

89 

2.308 

834 

958 

880.550 
2513000 

169.129 
550,116 

1.748.299 
4.875011 

2.134.389 
7  b8*  751 

"          malt 

149 

1,261 

997 

4  884  900 

481  0^6 

2  0°3  306 

4154-W4 

Lumber,  planed  
sawed  
Machinery,  not  specified  
u          railroad  repairing  
"          steam  engines  and  boilers. 
Meat,  packed,  pork 

69 

511 
80 
15 
86 
83 

2.069 
12,382 
735 
51!) 
78 
663 

68 

606 

"20 

1,920 
3.100 
1,097 
2.16!) 
837 
22H6 

2.238,200 
2.542,530 
2.449.000 
2.068.800 
'957.800 
6  921  000 

851.021 
817.212 
1,062.378 
1,228.506 
469.S91 
448  500 

5.412.1U2 
2,163.055 
1.23Mi*8 
921.0^7 
6  15.(  '51 
10836541 

7.2510.465 
4.546.769 
2.MN797 
2.183.1113 
1.896.SM 
19,*1\*51 

Oil  animal 

8 

30 

121 

20(i  500 

1  301  M)0 

1  4**  7('0 

"                linseed  
Saddlery  and  harness    

9 
687 

834 

40 

155 
1  932 

545.500 
1  086815 

64.050 
515400 

924.282 
1  341  002 

1.154.033 
2.581.416 

Bash  doors  and  blinds 

94 

1  902 

298 

1  407 

1  14(  1  350 

(566,765 

9903115 

2  316  020 

Soap  and  candles  
Tobacco,  chewing,  smoking,  and  snuff. 
"          cigars 

24 
87 
237 

417 
240 

205 
1.650 
1  0'?5 

740.500 
917.550 
1  04"  070 

83.530 
436.475 
845  *?09 

937.998 

1.517.945 
5->8  <)77 

1.250.D80 
8.005,769 
1.318.947 

"Woollen  goods  

85 

2.132 

475 

1680 

2>23'.193 

581,154 

1.610,6J>2 

2,725.690 

186 


ILLINOIS 


— Illinois  possesses  remarkable  commercial  fa 
cilities  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers  on  its 
borders,  besides  numerous  internal  streams  of 
importance.  Bordering  for  about  70  m.  on 
Lake  Michigan,  it  is  favorably  situated  for  the 
immense  lake  commerce  which  centres  at  Chi 
cago.  This  comprises  not  only  the  vast  do 
mestic  trade  for  which  this  city  is  noted,  but 
also  a  considerable  foreign  trade  carried  on 
with  Canada  and  European  ports.  Provision 
was  made  for  direct  commercial  relations  be 
tween  Chicago  and  foreign  ports  by  the  act  of 
July  14,  1870,  which  authorizes  the  transship 
ment  in  bond  of  exports  and  imports  to  and 
from  the  ports  of  first  arrival,  without  ap 
praisement  and  payment  of  duties  at  such 
ports.  The  value  of  foreign  imports  received 
at  Chicago  under  this  system  during  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1873,  was  $3,160,756.  'The 
total  value  of  foreign  imports  subject  to  duty 
during  the  year  was  $3,699,852,  on  which  the 
duties  collected  amounted  to  $1,535,631.  The 
value  of  domestic  produce  exported  from  Chi 
cago  to  Canada  by  lake  was  $7,107,468;  the 
most  important  items  were  wheat,  $5,737,022, 
and  Indian  corn,  $1,069,586.  The  leading 
article  of  import  from  Canada  is  lumber,  of 
which  7,516,000  ft.  was  imported  in  1873. 
The  total  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the 
customs  district  of  Chicago  in  1873  was  743, 
having  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  148,595  ;  of 
these,  101  were  sailing,  131  steam,  and  511  un 
rigged  vessels.  The  aggregate  number  of  ves 
sels  that  arrived  was  11,858,  having  a  tonnage 
of  3,225,911;  of  these,  22  were  American  ves 
sels  from  foreign  ports,  189  foreign  vessels 
from  foreign  ports,  and  11,647  were  in  the 
coasting  trade.  The  number  of  clearances  was 
11,876,  of  which  483  were  for  foreign  and  11,- 
398  for  domestic  ports.  Illinois  has  four 
ports  of  delivery,  which,  with  the  number  and 
tonnage  of  vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and 
licensed  in  1873,  were :  Galena,  60  vessels,  7,781 
tons ;  Quincy,  23  vessels,  2,443  tons ;  Alton,  5 
vessels,  893  tons;  Cairo,  36  vessels,  8,221  tons. 


Ship  building  is  carried  on  at  Chicago,  Cairo, 
and  Quincy.  In  1873,  21  vessels  of  5,499  tons, 
including  10  sailing  and  8  steam  vessels,  were 
built  at  Chicago,  4  at  Cairo,  and  1  at  Quincy. 
— Illinois  contains  more  miles  of  railroad  than 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  In  1850  the 
number  of  miles  was  111.  In  the  following 
year  the  construction  of  the  Illinois  Central, 
from  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Illinois  and 
Michigan  canal  to  Cairo,  was  begun,  thus  open 
ing  a  channel  of  communication  between  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  Mississippi  river.  The  sub 
sequent  growth  of  the  railroad  system  of  the 
state  was  rapid.  In  1855  there  were  887  m. ; 
in  1860,  2,790;  in  1865,  3,157;  in  1870,  4,823; 
in  1871,  5,904;  and  in  1872,  6,361.  In  1873 
the  total  mileage  of  main  track  completed  and 
in  operation,  exclusive  of  double,  side,  and 
turnout  tracks,  was  6,496  ;  in  addition  to  which 
numerous  lines  were  projected  and  in  progress. 
The  aggregate  cost  of  the  roads  and  equip 
ments  was  reported  by  the  railroad  commis 
sioners  at  $238,584,541  in  1872,  and  $278,386,- 
784  in  1873.  In  1872  the  capital  stock  paid 
in  was  $140,126,064;  funded  debts,  $111,456,- 
325;  floating  debts,  330,173;  amount  of  paid- 
up  stock  and  debts,  $254,912,563.  In  August, 
1873,  the  length  of  main  track  was  returned  by 
the  state  board  of  equalization  at  5,064  m. ; 
assessed  at  $36,271,184;  side,  second,  or  turn 
out  track,  863  m.,  valued  at  $4,008,818;  value 
of  rolling  stock,  $15,892,015  ;  total  value  of 
property  denominated  railroad  track  and  roll 
ing  stock,  $59,317,409;  right  of  way  and  im- 
prov.ement,  64,733  acres,  valued  at  $3,145,173. 
This  statement  does  not  include  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad,  705  m.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  names  of  the  lines  lying  wholly  or 
partly  within  the  state,  together  with  the  ter 
mini,  the  number  of  miles  completed  and  in 
operation  within  the  state  limits  in  1873,  the 
capital  stock  as  reported  by  the  commission 
ers,  and  the  assessed  value  of  the  track  and 
rolling  stock  as  returned  by  the  state  board  of 
equalization  in  August,  1873  : 


Total 

1 

1'iii'th 

when 

Total  assessed 

Capital  stock 

NAME  OF  CORPORATION. 

TERMINI. 

pleted 

different 

value  of  rail 
road  track  and 

paid  in, 

mil   s. 

from 
pre 

rolling  stock. 

ceding. 

Cairo  and  St.  Louis  

48 

151 

$343  949 

$S3  000 

Cairo  and  Vincennes  

155 

1  134  757 

Carbondale  and  Shawneetown 

17 

135  003 

355  500 

Chester  and  Tamaroa  

40 

2>5  097 

1,000,000 

Chicago  and  Alton  (main  line)  

Joliet  and  Fast  St  Louis 

242 

4  0(50  7S4 

11  000  000 

Branches  J 

TKvight  to  Washington  and  Lacon  .  .  . 

80 

Roodhouse  to  Louisiana,  Mo  

37 

Leased  by  Chi-  j  Joliet  and  Chicago  

Joliet  and  Chicago  

83 

535,452 

cago  and  Alton.]  St.Louis,Jacksonville.&Chicago 

Bloomington  and  Godfrey 

151 

1,560.937 

Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  (main  line)  .  -J 

Chicago  to  Burlington,  la  
;  Galesbur"  to  Quincy 

207 
99 

10,148,147 

18,652,910 

Galesbur"  to  Peoria 

53 

•  Aurora  to  Galena  Junction  

13 

,  Geneva  to  Streator  

67 

Branches  - 

i  Mendota  to  Clinton  

64 

.... 

Galva  to  Keithsburg.. 

56 

Burlinirton.  la.,  to  Quincy.  .  . 

72 

Shabbona  to  Hock  Falls.  .  . 

47 

ILLINOIS 


1ST 


NAME  OF   CORPORATION. 

TERMINI. 

Length 
com 
pleted 
in  state, 
mllei. 

Total 
length 
when 
different 
from 
pre 
ceding. 

Total  assessed 
value  of  rail 
road  trick  and 
rolling  stock. 

Capital  stock 
paid  in, 

1672. 

Dalton  and  Danville 

108 

$1,045817 

Chicago  and  Iowa  

Aurora  and  Foreston  

80 

781.207 
5,723,641 

$6,103962 

242 

Wisconsin  division  < 

Eockford  and  Kenosha,  Wis  
Chicago  and  Clinton  la 

45 
137 

72 

Chicago  and  Freeport  

121 

Madison           "      
Milwaukee       " 

Elgin  and  Geneva  Lake,  Wis  
Bel  videre  and  Elroy,  Wis  
Chicago  and  Milwaukee,  Wis 

35 

26 

48 

43 
141 

85 





Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  
Peoria  branch  

Chicago  and  Council  Bluffs,  la  
Bureau  to  Peoria  

182 
46 

493 

3,145,859 

7,877,382 

Chicago  and  Pacific  

Chicago  to  Mississippi  river  

35 

i35 

142.0S8 

146,020 

128 

200 

511330 

1  350  000 

Chicago  Pekin  and  Southwestern 

Streator  and  Pekin  

63 

357,350 

240  000 

Cincinnati,  Lafayette,  and  Chicago  
Columbus,  Chicago,  and  Indiana  Central  

Lafayette,  Ind.,  and  Kankakee  
Columbus,  O.,  and  Chicago  
Torre  Haute  Ind    and  Danville 

33 
22 
6 

75 
314 
55 

359.218 
2CO,629 
62,572 

581,8i6 

Oilman,  Clinton,  and  Springfield  
Grand  Tower  and  Carbondalo 

Oilman  and  Springfield  
Grand  Tower  and  Carbondale 

110 
24 

913.361 
269,523 

2,000,000 

Illinois  Central                                                   -^ 

Cairo  and  Dunleith  

455 

25,441,140 

Illinois  and  St.  Louis  
Indianapolis  Bloomuvton,  and  Western 

Centralia  and  Chicago  
East  St.  Louis  and  Belleville  
Indianapolis   Ind.,  and  Pekin  

249 
14 
133 

202 

218.616 
1,016,764 

618,000 

3,052,381 

Champaign  to  Keokuk  la 

102 

185 

Branches  in  progress  -j 

White  Heath  to  Decatur  
Indianapolis  Ind.  and  St  Louis  Mo 

iss 

32 
261 

1,881,947 

Indiana  and  Illinois  Central. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,  and  Decatur  

80 

152 

55S.850 

976,973 

Jacksonville  and  Mt.  Vernon 

30 

125 

245,3SO 

Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 

Buffalo.  N.  Y.,  and  Chicago  

14 

539 

818.484 

473,000 

Louisville,  New  Albany,  and  St.  Louis  

New  Albany,  Ind.,  and  Mt.  Vernon.  . 

29 

150 

110,203 

Michigan  Central                      .       .   . 

Detroit,  Mich.,  and  Chicago  

6 

2S4 

153,936 

Branch.  Joliet  and  Northern  Indiana  
Ohio  and  Mississippi  
Pans  and  Danville 

Lake  Station,  Ind.,  to  Joliet  
Cincinnati,  O.,  and  St.  Louis,  Mo  
Paris  and  Danville  

28 
146 
34 

44 
340 

163.509 
1,802,448 
268,575 

9,018,89i 

Paris  and  Decatur 

76 

746,659 

1,600,000 

33 

Peoria  and  Jacksonville 

83 

775,338 

1,239,700 

Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  . 

Pittsburgh.  Pa.,  and  Chicago  

14 

463 

259,417 

1.015,405 

Eockford,  Rock  Island,  and  St.  Louis  

Sterling  and  East  St.  Louis  

262 

281 

2,146,932 

6,490,579 

Branch        

Sagetown  to  Keithsburg  

18 

St.  Louis  Alton  and  Terre  Haute 

East  St  Louis  and  Du  Quoin  

71 

823,174 

4,76S,400 

St.  Louis  and  Southeastern  
Branch 

East  St.  Louis  and  Nashville,  Tenn.  . 
McLeansboro  to  Shawneetown     .... 

132 
42 

316 

2,020,533 

8,458,500 

St.  Louis,  Vandalia,  and  Terre  Haute  

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

159 

239 

1,916,274 

2,377,450 

Springfield  and  Illinois  Southeastern  

Shawneetown  and  Beardstown  

228 

1,350.897 

8,776,500 

Springfield  and  Northwestern 

Springfield  and  Rock  Island  

29 

150 

1  SI.  858 

Toledo,  Peoria,  and  Warsaw  

Warsaw  t<>  Indiana  state  line  

287 

2,629,807 

5,700,000 

10 

Toledo  W  abash  and  Wrestern 

Toledo  O.,  and  Camp  Point  

209 

454 

8,703,131 

9,840,000 

Decatur  to  East  St.  Louis  

108 

,    (  Pekin,  Lincoln,  nnd  Decatur  

Ceased   j  ]jannj{>^i  an(\  Niples 

Clayton  to  Hamilton  
Pekin  and  Decatur  

42 
67 

50 

77Y.553 
472  404 

1/00.666 
457  000 

lines.     |  Laf.,yette,  Bloomington,  &  Mississippi. 

Bloomington  and  Lafayette.  Ind  
Rock  Island  and  Racine  Wis 

77 

126 

118 
197 

876,1570 
1,114.905 

1.000,000 
4,000,000 

The  state  exercises  a  general  supervision  over 
the  railroad  companies  within  its  limits.  In 
the  constitutional  convention  of  1870  the  sub 
ject  of  railroad  corporations  was  thoroughly 
considered,  and  a  provision  was  incorporated 
in  the  new  constitution  requiring  the  legisla 
ture  to  pass  laws  establishing  reasonable  maxi 
mum  rates  of  charges  for  the  transportation  of 
passengers  and  freight.  In  the  following  year 
a  general  railroad  law  was  passed,  which,  hav 
ing  been  pronounced  in  part  unconstitutional 
by  the  state  supreme  court,  was  repealed,  and 
a  new  one  was  passed  in  1873.  To  secure  the 
enforcement  of  such  laws  the  legislature  pro 
vided  for  the  appointment  by  the  governor  of 
three  railroad  and  warehouse  commissioners, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  into  and  report 
annually  concerning  the  railroad  and  ware 


house  interests  of  the  state.  By  the  act  of 
1873  every  railivoad  company  in  the  state  is 
prohibited,  under  penalty  of  fines  reaching  as 
high  as  $25,000  for  the  fourth  offence,  from 
charging  more  than  a  reasonable  rate  for  the 
transportation  of  passengers  or  freight,  and 
from  making  unjust  discriminations  in  freight 
schedules.  The  companies  are  required  to  re 
port  in  writing  and  under  oath  to  the  commis 
sioners,  and  to  comply  with  the  schedules  of 
reasonable  maximum  rates  for  transporting  pas 
sengers  and  freight  prepared  by  the  commis 
sioners.  The"  latter  are  required  to  see  that 
the  law  is  obeyed,  and  to  bring  actions  against 
the  companies  in  case  of  violation.  The  navi 
gation  of  Lake  Michigan  is  connected  with  that 
of  the  Illinois  river  by  the  Illinois  and  Michi 
gan  canal,  completed  in  1848,  which  extends 


188 


ILLINOIS 


from  Chicago  to  La  Salle,  96  m.  The  immense 
commerce  which  passes  through  this  channel  is 
indicated  by  the  statement  that  in  1873  not  less 
than  8,000,000  bushels  of  grain  and  50,000,000 
ft.  of  lumber,  besides  20,000,000  shingles  and 
laths,  passed  over  the  canal.  Illinois  in  1873 
contained  9,545  m.  of  telegraph  lines.  The 
number  of  national  banks  in  operation  was 
137,  having  a  paid-in  capital  of  $20,843,000 
and  a  circulation  outstanding  of  $16,326,059. 
The  circulation  per  capita  was  $7  02 ;  ratio  of 
circulation  to  wealth,  0*9  per  cent. ;  to  banking 
capital,  77 '4  per  cent. — By  the  constitution  of 

1870,  the  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  gen 
eral  assembly  composed  of  a  senate  and  house 
of  representatives.     The  senate  consists  of  51 
members  elected  for  four  years,  and  the  house 
of  representatives  of  153  chosen  for  two  years. 
A  decennial  apportionment,   beginning  with 

1871,  is  held.     Senators  must  have  attained 
the  age  of  25   years,  and  representatives  21 
years.     Elections  for  members  of  the  general 
assembly  are  held  biennially,  in  even  years,  on 
the  Tuesday  next  after  the  first  Monday  of 
November.     The   sessions   are  biennial,  com 
mencing  on  the  Wednesday  next  after  the  first 
Monday  of  January  next  following  the  elec 
tion.     Members  receive  $5  a  day  and  10  cents 
for   each  mile   necessarily  travelled  in  going 
to  and  from  the  seat  of  government,  and  $50 
a  session  for  stationery,  &c.     Special  legisla 
tion,  which  was  a  source  of  much  mischief  un 
der  the  old  constitution,  is  prohibited  in  many 
enumerated  cases,  and  "  in  all  other  cases  where 
a  general  law  can  be  made  applicable."     The 
executive  department  consists  of  a  governor, 
lieutenant  governor,  secretary  of  state,  auditor 
of  public  accounts,  treasurer,    superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  attorney  general,  all 
of  whom  are  elected  for  four  years,  except  the 
treasurer,  whose  term  of  office  is  two  years, 
and  who  is  ineligible  to  the  same  office  for  two 
years  next  after  the  expiration  of  his  term.     A 
two-thirds  vote   of   each  house  is  necessary 
to  pass  a  bill  over  the  veto  of  the  governor. 
The  .judicial  powers  are  vested  in  a  supreme, 
circuit,  and  county  courts,  justices  of  the  peace, 
police  magistrates,  and  certain  special  courts. 
The  supreme  court  consists  of  seven  judges, 
who  are  elected  by  the  people  for  nine  years, 
and  receive  a  salary  of  $4,000  a  year.     The 
chief  justice  is  chosen  by  his  associates.     There 
are  three  grand  divisions  of  the  state,  southern, 
central,  and  northern,  in  each  of  which  one  or 
more  sessions  of  the  supreme  court  are  held 
annually.     The   judges   of   the   circuit   courts 
are  elected  by  the  people  for  six  years,  and 
receive  an  annual  salary  of  $3,500.     The  con 
stitution  further  provides  for  the  establishment 
of  inferior  appellate  courts  to  be  held  by  judges 
of  the  circuit  courts.     To  these  courts  appeals 
and  writs  of    error  in  certain  cases  may  be 
taken  from  the  circuit  courts,  and  from  them 
to  the  supreme  court.     Each  county  has  a  coun 
ty  court,  the  judge  of  which  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  four   years.      These  courts  have  original 


jurisdiction  in  all  matters  of  probate,  but  pro 
bate  courts  may  be  established  in  any  county 
having  a  population  of  over  50,000.  There 
are  special  courts  in  Cook  county,  of  which 
Chicago  is  the  county  seat.  Imprisonment  for 
debt  is  prohibited  except  upon  the  refusal  of 
the  debtor  to  deliver  up  his  estate  for  the  bene 
fit  of  his  creditors,  or  in  cases  where  there  is 
strong  presumption  of  fraud.  In  trials  for 
libel,  the  truth  may  be  pleaded  as  a  defence  in 
justification.  The  legal  rate  of  interest,  in  ab 
sence  of  agreement,  is  6  per  cent.,  but  10  per 
cent,  may  be  agreed  upon  and  collected.  The 
penalty  of  usury  is  forfeiture  of  all  the  interest. 
Illinois  is  represented  in  congress  by  two  sena 
tors  and  19  representatives,  and  is  entitled  to 
21  votes  in  the  electoral  college.  The  receipts 
into  the  state  treasury  for  the  two  years  end 
ing  Dec.  1,  1872,  were  $9,899,603,  and  the  ex 
penditures  $12,351,746.  The  chief  purposes 
for  which  the  public  money  was  used  during 
this  period  were :  legislative,  $693,062 ;  execu 
tive,  $180,158;  judicial,  $394,252 ;  educational, 
$2,208,264;  educational  and  charitable,  $205,- 
316;  charitable,  $918,784;  penal  and  reform 
atory,  $369,338;  agriculture,  $39,007;  com 
merce,  $238,661;  state  indebtedness,  $4,983,- 
379;  new  state  house,  $793,641.  In  1872  the 
general  assembly  provided  that  the  amount  of 
revenue  to  be  raised  on  the  assessment  of  that 
and  subsequent  years  should  be  $1,500,000  for 
general  purposes,  to  be  designated  the  revenue 
fund,  and  $200,000  for  payment  of  interest  on 
the  state  debt.  The  governor  and  auditor  are 
required  annually  to  compute  such  rates  as  will 
produce  these  amounts.  The  rates  computed 
on  the  equalized  valuation  for  1872  were  3'53 
mills  for  revenue  purposes  and  0'47  mill  for 
interest  on  the  state  debt.  Besides  these,  pro 
vision  was  made  for  an  annual  levy  of  2 
mills  for  the  support  of  common  schools  and 
1-5  mill  for  "canal  redemption  fund;"  making 
the  total  levy  for  state  purposes  7'5  mills  on 
the  assessment  of  1872.  The  total  levy  for 
1873  was  3-6  mills,  being  2-7  mills  for  general 
revenue  purposes  and  0*9  mill  for  school  fund. 
The  state  debt  in  1863  was  $12,280,000;  in 
1870,  $4,890,937;  and  in  1874,  $1,706,750. 
The  valuation  of  property  for  the  purposes  of 
taxation,  for  a  series  of  years,  has  been : 


YEARS. 

Real  estate. 

Personal 
property. 

Railroad 
property. 

Total 
valuation. 

1  840  .  .  . 

$58,752,163 

1850.. 

$86,582.237 

$33,335,799 

119,868.336 

I860.. 

2<;r«,258,155 

88.884,115 

$12.085.472 

367.227.742 

1661.. 

23^.858,839 

80.720.918 

11,243,722 

330,823,479 

1862.. 

228,087,996 

73.509,758 

11,326.595 

312,924.349 

1863.. 

232,913,619 

87,560,697 

11.525.555 

331.999.871 

1864.. 

242,534.332 

102,057,865 

12.285.640 

356.K77.837 

1865.. 

262,114,308 

11  6.302.295 

13.911,303 

392.327.906 

1866.. 

273.122.106 

122.966.672 

14,707,097 

410.795.876 

1*67.. 

351.807,034 

136.021.879 

16,854.640 

504.683.5,58 

1868.. 

337.331.762 

122.234.718 

14,914.397 

474.4^0.877 

1^69 

346.587,734 

126.136.081 

16.280.960 

4«9,(>04.775 

1870.. 

347.876.690 

113.545.227 

19.242.141 

480.664.058 

1871.. 

366.244.708 

113.915.561 

25.516.042 

505.676.311 

1872.. 

371.619.940 

113.607.959 

25.658.7P4 

510,«6.6>3 

1873.. 

899,434.748 

308,119,271 

133,807,823 

1,341,361,842 

ILLINOIS 


189 


Included  in  the  valuations  of  personal  property 
for  1873  is  $20,826,462  assessed  as  valuation 
on  corporations  other  than  railroads.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  valuations  for  1873  are 
largely  in  excess  of  any  previous  year ;  these 
results,  however,  do  not  represent  a  corre 
sponding  increase  in  the  value  of  property,  but 
are  attributed  in  a  large  measure  to  the  opera 
tions  of  a  new  revenue  law.  The  valuations 
for  1873  are  believed  to  be  about  0'65  per  cent, 
of  the  cash  value  of  real  and  personal  property, 
and  still  nearer  the  entire  value  of  railroad 
property. — The  charitable  and  correctional  in 
stitutions  are  under  the  general  supervision 
of  the  board  of  state  commissioners  of  public 
charities,  consisting  of  five  members  appoint 
ed  by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the 
senate,  whose  duty  it  is  annually  to  inspect 
the  state  institutions  under  their  charge,  to 
gether  with  the  various  county  jails  and  alms- 
houses,  and  report  upon  their  condition.  The 
statistics  showing  the  extent  and  condition 
of  the  correctional,  charitable,  and  educational 
institutions  of  the  state  are  generally  for  1872, 
the  date  of  the  most  recent  biennial  reports. 
The  state  penitentiary,  which  has  been  at  Joliet 
since  1859,  was  organized  in  1827,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  1873  contained  1,255  convicts,  the 
average  number  for  the  year  being  1,283.  It 
has  recently  become  self-sustaining  under  the 
system  of  leasing  the  labor  of  the  convicts; 
the  total  earnings  in  1872  were  $214,593,  while 
the  expenses  were  $36,218  less.  Instruction 
is  afforded  to  the  inmates,  and  there  is  a  li 
brary  of  about  4,000  volumes.  The  reform 
school  at  Pontiac,  opened  in  1871,  has  accom 
modations  for  about  150  inmates,  which  are 
inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  state.  About 
900  pupils  have  been  admitted  to  the  institu 
tion  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
at  Jacksonville  since  its  opening  in  1845,  and 
about  300  were  receiving  instruction  from 
16  instructors  at  the  beginning  of  1874.  The 
course  of  instruction  occupies  eight  years. 
Pupils  within  the  state  are  admitted  to  the 
school  free  of  charge,  and  are  supplied  with 
all  necessaries  except  clothing.  A  prominent 
feature  of  the  institution  is  its  industrial  de 
partment.  The  annual  ?ost  to  the  state  for 
each  pupil  is  about  $250.  Its  accommodations 
are  entirely  inadequate.  The  building  used  for 
the  instruction  of  the  blind,  also  at  Jacksonville, 
wis  destroyed  by  fire  in  1869;  new  buildings 
for  purposes  of  instruction  and  workshops  are 
in  process  of  construction,  with  grounds  com 
prising  18  acres.  In  1874  about  70  pupils 
were  receiving  instruction  from  four  teachers; 
the  course  of  instruction  is  five  years.  The 
charitable  eye  and  ear  infirmary,  created  in 
1865,  is  an  efficient  institution,  affording  gra 
tuitous  medical  treatment  to  all  applicants  who 
are  citizens  of  the  state.  The  foundations  for 
a  neat,  substantial  edifice  for  this  institution 
have  been  laid  in  the  West  Division  of  Chicago. 
Provision  is  made  for  the  insane  by  the  hos 
pital  at  Jacksonville,  the  northern  asylum  at 


Elgin  opened  in  1872,  and  the  southern  asylum 
at  Anna  opened  in  1873;  the  two  latter  are 
in  process  of  construction.  At  the  close  of 
1872  the  northern  asylum  had  183  inmates 
and  the  southern  75.  The  hospital  at  Jack 
sonville  is  constructed  on  the  corridor  plan,  is 
five  stories  high,  and  comprises  a  central  build 
ing  with  two  wings.  The  accommodations 
were  intended  for  about  400  patients,  though 
the  average  number  for  two  years  has  been 
450.  The  grounds  comprise  160  acres.  The 
whole  number  of  patients  admitted  since  the 
opening  of  the  hospital  in  1851  has  been  4,527, 
of  whom  1,685  were  discharged  recovered, 
606  improved,  and  400  unimproved;  328  im 
proved  and  unimproved  were  discharged  by 
order  of  the  trustees,  and  467  died.  The  su 
perintendent  of  this  institution  estimates  the 
number  of  insane  in  the  state  at  2,529,  or  1  in 
every  1,000  inhabitants.  The  hospital  accom 
modations  of  the  state  are  greatly  inadequate 
to  this  number.  Those  under  treatment  cost 
the  state  about  $250  a  year  each.  The  manner 
of  committing  insane  persons  to  the  hospital 
is  by  jury  trial  in  the  county  courts.  Accord 
ing  to  the  state  board  of  public  charities,  the 
proportion  of  idiots  in  the  state  is  at  least  as 
large  as  that  of  the  insane.  The  institution 
for  the  education  of  feeble-minded  children 
at  Jacksonville  was  created  in  1865,  and  has 
accommodations  for  about  100.  Only  those 
whose  condition  can  be  improved  are  admitted. 
The  success  of  the  institution  and  the  impor 
tance  of  providing  this  kind  of  instruction 
have  recently  led  to  efforts  which  will  result 
in  largely  increased  facilities  for  improving 
this  class  of  unfortunates.  The  home  for  the 
children  of  deceased  soldiers,  at  Normal,  opened 
in  1867,  comprises  three  main  buildings  and 
80  acres  of  land.  Here  support  and  instruc 
tion  are  afforded  to  children  of  this  class  under 
16  years  of  age.  The  average  attendance  du 
ring  1873  was  306,  while  the  number  of  in 
mates  at  the  close  of  the  year  was  326.  The 
current  expenses  for  the  year  amounted  to 
$58,389.  Besides  supporting  this  institution, 
the  state  has  aided  the  soldiers'  college  at 
Fulton  and  the  soldiers'  home  in  Chicago, 
both  of  which  are  private  institutions. — An 
efficient  system  of  free  schools  is  provided  for 
all  the  children  of  the  state,  but  the  constitu 
tion  prohibits  appropriations  of  public  money 
for  sectarian  schools.  The  educational  inter 
ests  of  the  state  are  under  the  general  supervi 
sion  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruc 
tion.  The  tax  that  may  be  levied  in  any  dis 
trict  for  all  current  school  expenses  is  limited 
to  2  per  cent,  for  educational  and  3  per  cent, 
for  building  purposes  upon  the  assessed  value 
of  the  taxable  property  of  the  district.  Every 
district  is  required  to  maintain  a  free  school 
at  least  five  months  in  the  year  as  a  condition 
of  receiving  a  share  of  the  state  school  funds. 
'  Examinations  of  teachers  are  held  and  certifi- 
\  cates  issued  by  the  county  superintendents,  and 
i  only  teachers 'having  such  certificates  are  em- 


190 


ILLINOIS 


ployed  in  the  public  schools.  A  marked  fea 
ture  recently  introduced  into  the  educational 
system  of  this  state  is  the  requirement  making 
the  elements  of  natural  science  a  part  of  the 
common-school  course.  The  permanent  school 
funds  of  the  state  comprise  :  1,  the  school  fund 
proper,  being  3  per  cent,  upon  the  net  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  the  public  lands  in  the  state,  one 
sixth  part  excepted ;  2,  surplus  revenue,  de 
rived  from  the  distribution  in  1836  of  the  sur 
plus  revenue  of  the  United  States  ;  3,  the  col 
lege  fund,  being  one  sixth  of  the  3  per  cent, 
fund  originally  required  by  congress  to  be  de 
voted  to  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
a  state  college  or  university ;  4,  the  seminary 
fund,  derived  from  sales  of  lands  granted  to  the 
state  by  the  general  government  for  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  state  seminary  ;  5,  county  funds, 
created  by  the  legislature  in  1835  ;  6,  township 
funds,  arising  from  the  sales  of  public  lands 
granted  by  congress  for  common-school  pur 
poses.  The  aggregate  amount  of  these  funds 
on  Sept.  30,  1872,  was  $6,382,248,  as  follows : 
school  fund  proper,  $613,363;  surplus  revenue, 
$335,592;  college  fund,  $156,613;  seminary 
fund,  $59,839  ;  county  funds,  $348,285  ;  town 
ship  funds,  $4,868,555.  The  total  income  for 
school  purposes  in  1872  from  these  funds  and 
the  current  school  funds  was  $7,500,122;  the 
chief  items  of  the  income  from  current  funds 
being  $900,000  from  the  two-mill  tax,  and 
$5,292,942  raised  by  ad  valorem  tax  in  the  dis 
tricts  for  general  purposes.  The  condition  of 
the  common  schools  in  1872,  according  to  the 
latest  biennial  report  of  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  was  as  follows  : 

Dumber  of  school  districts 11,231 

"         "        "     houses 11,289 

"         "  public  schools  (high  83,  graded  611,  un 
graded  10.697) 11,376 

Average  duration  of  schools 6  months,  27  days. 


Persons  between  6  and  21  years  of  age. 
Number  enrolled  in  schools. 


882, 6U8 
662,049 
329,799 
20,924 
$50  00 
$39  00 
$5  61 
$7  48 


Average  daily  attendance 

Number  of  teachers  (male  9,094.  female  11,830).. . . 

Average  monthly  salaries  of  male  teachers 

"  female  teachers 

Total  annual  cost  per  pupil  on  school  census 

"         enrollment 

"         average  daily  atten 
dance $15  02 

Total  income  for  school  purposes $7,500,122 

Total  expenditures $7,480,889 

Total  approximate  value  of  school  property,  inclu 
ding  houses,  land,  furniture,  libraries,  &c $19,876,708 

Number  of  private  schools 436 

pupils  in  private  schools 34.784 

volumes  in  district  libraries 54,286 

persons  between  12  and  21  years  of  ago 
unable  to  read  and  write 6,753 

The  state  normal  university,  for  the  training 
of  teachers,  at  Normal,  was  organized  in  1857, 
and  comprises,  besides  the  usual  departments, 
a  model  school.  The  course  of  instruction  is 
three  years,  upon  the  completion  of  which  a 
diploma  is  conferred.  In  1873  there  were  13 
instructors,  besides  a  large  number  of  pupils 
acting  as  teachers,  and  730  pupils,  of  whom  437 
were  in  the  normal  and  293  in  the  model  school. 
The  southern  Illinois  normal  university,  at  Car- 
bondale,  was  completed  in  1874.  In  addition 


to  these  state  institutions,  there  are  county 
normal  schools  in  Cook  and  Peoria  counties,  a 
German-English  normal  school  at  Galena,  and 
normal  departments  connected  with  several 
other  institutions.  For  the  further  instruction 
of  teachers,  numerous  county  institutes  are 
held,  besides  occasional  sessions  of  the  state 
teachers'  institute.  The  Illinois  industrial  uni 
versity,  opened  in  1868,  is  both  state  and  na 
tional,  having  been  organized  by  the  legisla 
ture,  and  having  received  the  national  grant  of 
lands  intended  for  the  establishment  of  colleges 
of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  This  in 
stitution  is  situated  at  Urbana,  where  it  has 
one  of  the  finest  buildings  of  the  kind  in  the 
country,  being  four  stories  high  and  214  ft. 
long,  with  a  depth  on  the  wings  of  122  ft. 
The  grounds  comprise  623  acres,  including 
stock  farm,  experimental  farm,  orchards,  gar 
dens,  nurseries,  forest  plantations,  arboretum, 
botanic  garden,  ornamental  grounds,  and  mili 
tary  parade  ground.  The  property  and  funds 
of  the  university  amount  to  nearly  $800,000. 
Students  of  both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  uni 
versity  embraces  a  college  of  agriculture,  com 
prising  a  school  of  agriculture  proper  and  a 
school  of  horticulture  and  fruit  growing ;  a 
college  of  engineering,  with  schools  of  mechani 
cal  science,  civil  and  mining  engineering,  and 
architecture  ;  a  college  of  natural  science,  with 
schools  of  chemistry  and  natural  history  ;  and 
a  college  of  literature  and  science,  Avith  a  school 
of  English  and  modern  languages  and  one  of 
ancient  languages  and  literature.  There  are 
also  schools  of  commerce,  military  science, 
and  domestic  science  and  arts.  Entire  free 
dom  in  the  choice  of  studies  is  allowed  to 
each  student;  but  the  completion  of  one  of 
these  courses  or  the  prescribed  equivalents  is 
necessary  to  graduation.  The  number  of  pu 
pils  in  1873  was  402,  of  whom  74  were  fe 
males.  The  Illinois  agricultural  college,  at  Ir- 
vington,  organized  in  1866,  had  226  students 
and  6  instructors  in  1873.  The  course  of  in 
struction  is  four  years.  Besides  the  buildings 
in  use,  the  institution  has  550  acres  of  land. 
According  to  the  census  of  1870,  Illinois  had 
26  colleges,  with  223  instructors  and  4,657 
pupils  ;  32  academies,  with  201  instructors 
and  4,690  pupils ;  2  law  schools,  with  3  instruc 
tors  and  61  students;  2  medical  schools,  with 
19  instructors  and  358  pupils  ;  9  theological 
schools,  with  28  instructors  and  575  pupils; 
besides  2  schools  of  agriculture,  2  of  commerce, 
and  2  of  art  and  music.  Six  of  these  institu 
tions  were  classified  as  universities.  Besides 
the  above  named,  there  were  531  private  day 
and  boarding  schools,  with  1,526  teachers, 
of  whom  1,035  were  females,  and  41,456  pu 
pils,  of  whom  21,044  were  females.  The  total 
number  of  schools,  public  and  private,  was  11,- 
835,  having  24,056  teachers,  of  whom  13,645 
were  females,  and  767,775  pupils,  including 
377,820  females.  The  total  income  of  all  the 
educational  institutions  was  $9,970,009,  of 
which  $252,569  was  derived  from  endowments, 


ILLINOIS 


191 


$6,027,510  from  taxation  and  public  funds, 
and  $3,639,930  from  other  sources,  including 
tuition.  The  most  important  facts  concern 
ing  the  colleges  and  universities  of  Illinois  are 
given  in  the  article  COLLEGE.  The  following 


statement  shows  the  extent  and  condition  of 
the  institution  for  the  advanced  instruction 
of  females  and  professional  schools,  as  report 
ed  by  the  United  States  bureau  of  education 
in  1873  : 


NAME  OF  INSTITUTION. 

Where  situated. 

Denomination. 

Date  of 
organiza 
tion. 

Number 
of 
teachers. 

Number 
of 
pupils. 

FOE  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  OF  FEMALES: 
Seminary  of  the  Sacred  Heart 

Chicago.     . 

Roman  Catholic 

1858 

27 

1^0 

Woman's  college,  Northwestern  university  

Evanston  

Methodist  Episcopal 

1873 

11 

119 

Ahnira  college 

Greenville  

Bap  ist 

1800 

9 

103 

Illinois  fVmale  college  

Jacksonville  .  .  . 

Methodist  Episcopal 

184T 

12 

SJ3 

Jacksonville  female  academy  

u 

Presbyterian 

1&30 

14 

144 

Lake  Forest  university 

Lake  Forest 

Presbyterian 

1869 

15 

75 

Ih57 

10 

190 

Mount  Cirroll  seminary 

Mount  Carroll  .  . 

Non-  sectarian 

1S53 

12 

200 

liockford  female  seminary  

Kockford  

Cong,  and  Presb  

1850 

10 

89 

THEOLOGY  : 
Theological  department  of  Shurtleff  college       

Alton  

Baptist 

1SC3 

4 

12 

Theological  department  of  Blackburn  university  .  . 
Chicago  theological  seminary  

Carlinville  
Chicago  

Presb}'  terian  
Congregational 

186T 
1855 

4 
G 

13 
42 

Baptist  union  theological  seminary  

Baptist 

1867 

5 

49 

Theobgical  seminary  of  the  northwest  

u 

Presbyterian  .  . 

1858 

29 

Girrett  Biblical  institute      .           

Evanston  .  . 

Methodist  Episcopal 

1855 

16 

68 

Bib'ical  deuartment  of  Eureka  college 

Eureka 

Is64 

2 

22 

United  Presbyterian 

1&89 

3 

12 

Autrustana  seminary  

Paxton 

Lutheran 

I860 

3 

13 

1841 

LAW: 
Law  school  of  university  of  niiicago  

Chicago 

1859 

4 

^8 

Law  department  of  McKendree  college  

Lebanon 

1S59 

1 

1 

MEDICINE  : 
Chicago  medical  college  (Northwestern  university). 

Chicago  .  .  . 

1859 

19 

1§0 

Rush  medical  college 

l'-43 

22 

1()(> 

"Woman's  hospital  medical  college  

u 

1870 

16 

32 

Bennet  college  of  eclectic  medicine  and  surgery.  .  . 

u 

1808 

12 

180 

Chicago  college  of  pharmacy  

u 

1W59 

4 

50 

Ilahnemann  medical  college  (homoeopathic)  

u 

Is59 

16 

65 

— According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  number 
of  libraries  was  13,570,  containing  3,323,914 
volumes.  Of  these,  9,865  with  2,399,369  vol 
umes  were  private,  and  3,705  with  924,545 
volumes  other  than  private,  including  79  cir 
culating  libraries  containing  75,352  volumes. 
The  largest  libraries  in  the  state  were  destroyed 
by  the  great  Chicago  fire  in  1871.  The  chief 
libraries  reported  by  the  United  States  bureau 
of  education  in  1872  were  that  of  the  North 
western  university  at  Evanston,  containing 
22,000  volumes ;  the  state  library  in  Spring 
field,  15,000  ;  that  of  the  Baptist  union  theo 
logical  seminary  in  Chicago,  15,000  ;  the 
Hengstenberg  library  (university  of  Chicago), 
13,000  ;  that  of  the  Illinois  industrial  university 
at  Champaign,  10,000 ;  Illinois  college,  Jack 
sonville,  8,000 ;  McKendree  college,  Lebanon, 
8,000  ;  Augustana  college,  Paxton,  7,000  ;  and 
the  mercantile  library,  Peoria,  7,000.  The 
state  law  library  in  Springfield  contains  3,000 
volumes,  and  the  Chicago  public  library  (1874) 
about  40,000.  The  total  number  of  newspa 
pers  and  periodicals  reported  by  the  census  of 
1870  was  505,  with  an  aggregate  circulation 
of  1,722,541,  and  issuing  113,140,492  copies 
annually.  There  were  39  daily,  circulation 
166,400*;  10  tri-weekly,  40,570;  4* semi-weekly, 
2,950;  364  weekly,  890,913;  11  semi-month 
ly,  107,900 ;  72  monthly,  490,808  ;  2  bi-month- 

VOL.  IX. — 13 


ly,  11,000;  and  3  quarterly,  12,000.  In  the 
same  year  the  state  contained  4,298  religious 
organizations,  having  3,459  edifices  with  1,201,- 
403  sittings,  and  property  valued  at  $22,064,- 
283.  The  leading  denominations  were  : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi 
zations. 

Edi 
fices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist 

722 

571 

181  454 

$2  C01  612 

Catholic  Apostolic  
Christian  

1 
850 

1 

251 

3™ 
F5.115 

2,000 

621,450 

Congregational  

212 

188 

66.1S7 

1.807.800 

Episcopal  (Protestant)...  . 
Evangelical  Association..  .  . 

105 

5S 

87 
55 

30.3<I5 
20.170 

1,420.800 
82D.650 

Friends  

5 

4 

1.000 

13.400 

Jewish  .  .   . 

10 

9 

3.!)50 

271.500 

Lutheran  

230 

207 

74.301 

1.048.476 

Methodist  

1,426 

1,124 

357,073 

5,--05,620 

Moravian  (United   Breth 

ren)    

4 

4 

1,600 

11.000 

Mormon  

5 

2 

688 

8,500 

New  Jerusalem  (Sweden- 

borgian)  

18 

7 

1.F55 

100.500 

Presbyterian,  regular  

489 

880 

140.147 

3.196.3H1 

Presbyterian,  other  

156 

137 

44,702 

441,  '234 

Reformed  Church  in  Amer- 

icp(lateDutohReform'd). 

14 

14 

4,680 

150,200 

Informed   Church  in   the 

United  States  (late  Ger 

man  Reformed)  

82 

80 

7.170 

93.000 

Roman  Catholic  

290 

249 

130.!iO() 

4,010.050 

Second  Advent  

8 

5 

1.800 

7,100 

Spiritualist  

7 

1 

500 

700 

Unitarian  

23 

17 

5,<)60 

492.<iOO 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

125 

53 

1  7.905 

1'2G>00 

Universalist  

52 

44 

15.2:-'5 

548.300 

Unknown  (union)  

10 

7 

1,770 

8,600 

192 


ILLINOIS 


— Illinois  takes  its  name  from  its  principal 
river.  According  to  Albert  Gallatin,  the  term 
is  derived  from  the  Delaware  word  leno, 
leni,  or  illini,  meaning  real  or  superior  men, 
the  termination  being  of  French  origin.  The 
first  settlements  were  made  by  the  French,  and 
were  the  consequence  of  the  enterprises  of 
Marquette  (1673)  and  La  Salle.  The  latter 
traveller  set  out  from  Canada  in  1679,  and 
passing  across  the  lakes  descended  the  Illinois 
river.  After  examining  the  country,  with 
which  he  was  highly  pleased,  he  returned  to 
Canada,  leaving  the  chevalier  de  Tonti  in  com 
mand  of  a  small  fort  he  had  built  at  the  foot 
of  Lake  Peoria  and  named  Crevecoeur.  In 
1682  he  returned  to  Illinois  with  a  colony  of 
Canadians,  and  founded  Kaskaskia,  Cahokia, 
and  other  towns.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century  the  settlements  in  Illinois  are  repre 
sented  to  have  been  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
and  the  country  was  described  by  French  wri 
ters  as  a  new  paradise.  As  the  colonies  of 
France  and  England  extended,  disputes  arose 
respecting  boundaries,  and  these  ultimately  led 
to  the  war  which  virtually  ended  with  the  cap 
ture  of  Quebec,  and  which  in  1763  terminated 
the  French  dominion  over  any  part  of  the 
country  E.  of  the  Mississippi.  During  the  con 
tinuance  of  Illinois  as  a  British  dependency 
nothing  of  importance  appears  to  have  occur 
red,  nor  were  the  French  settlements  molest 
ed.  After  the  peace  of  1783,  which  closed  the 
American  revolution,  the  Illinois  country  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States ;  and  by  the  ordi 
nance  of  July  13,  1787,  the  whole  of  the  public 
domain  N.  of  the  Ohio  river  was  erected  into 
the  Northwest  territory  under  a  single  govern 
ment.  In  1800  the  territory  contained  a  pop 
ulation  of  50,240,  and  in  the  same  year  Ohio 
was  erected  into  a  separate  territory.  A  fur 
ther  severance  was  made  in  1805,  when  the 
territory  of  Michigan  was  formed,  and  again 
in  1809  Indiana  was  divided  off.  The  Illinois 
territory  at  this  time  included  what  are  now 
the  states  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  and  a  part 
of  Minnesota,  and  by  the  census  of  1810  was 
found  to  contain  12,282  inhabitants.  Hitherto 
the  settlement  of  these  territories  had  been 
greatly  impeded  by  Indian  hostilities,  and  in 
deed  the  early  history  of  Illinois  is  one  con 
tinued  narrative  of  contests  with  the  savages. 
Among  the  prominent  events  of  this  period  is 
the  massacre  near  Fort  Chicago,  Aug.  15,  1812. 
When  hostilities  finally  ceased,  population  be 
gan  to  flow  in  from  the  eastern  states.  On 
Dec.  3,  1818,  Illinois  with  its  present  limits  was 
admitted  as  a  state  into  the  Union.  The  census 
of  1820  returned  55,211  inhabitants.  During 
the  succeeding  decade  immigration  increased 
rapidly,  and  in  1830  the  population  was  ascer 
tained  to  be  157,445,  or  an  increase  of  185*2 
per  cent,  over  that  of  1820.  In  1831  the  Sac 
and  other  Indian  tribes  began  to  be  trouble 
some,  and  in  1832  the  Black  Hawk  war  broke 
out.  The  alarm  caused  by  these  hostilities  was 
great,  but  the  result  was  ultimately  beneficial 


to  the  state ;  not  only  was  a  permanent  peace 
conquered,  but  the  officers  of  the  army  on  their 
return  reported  so  favorably  of  the  character 
and  resources  of  the  country,  that  general  at 
tention  was  directed  to  the  state.  Shortly  af 
terward  congress  granted  an  appropriation  for 
the  improvement  of  Chicago  harbor,  and  about 
this  time  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  was 
projected,  and  the  state  bank  brought  into  suc 
cessful  operation.  On  July  4,  1836,  the  con 
struction  of  the  canal  was  commenced.  The 
succeeding  year  brought  the  greatest  financial 
revulsion  in  our  history,  and  in  this  no  state 
was  more  seriously  involved  than  Illinois. 
Every  interest  was  prostrated,  and  all  works 
of  internal  improvement  abandoned.  The  pro 
gress  of  the  state,  however,  had  been  rapid,  and 
by  the  census  of  1840  the  population  numbered 
476,183,  being  an  increase  of  203'4  per  cent, 
over  that  of  1830.  In  this  year  the  Mormons 
established  themselves  at  Nauvoo,  and  were 
from  the  first  disliked  by  their  neighbors.  Mu 
tual  hatred  ended  in  open  hostilities,  and  at 
length  the  brothers  Joseph  and  Ilyrum  Smith 
(the  first  named  the  founder  of  Mormonisrn) 
were  arrested,  and  while  confined  in  Carthage 
jail  were  murdered  by  a  mob,  June  27,  1844. 
This  was  soon  followed  by  a  general  exodus  of 
the  Mormons,  who  now  numbered  about  20,- 
000,  toward  Utah.  In  1847  a  new  constitu 
tion  was  framed,  which  went  into  operation  in 
the  following  year.  The  census  of  1850  show 
ed  a  population  of  851,470,  an  increase  of  80'7 
per  cent,  in  the  decade.  This  was  a  much 
lower  rate  of  increase  than  had  hitherto  been 
maintained,  but  was  still  a  rapid  growth.  In 
the  mean  while  emigration  had  been  directed 
to  Iowa  and  Wisconsin.  But  a  new  era  of 
prosperity  was  now  opening  for  Illinois.  In 
the  same  year  congress  made  a  munificent 
grant  of  land  in  aid  of  the  construction  of  the 
Central  railroad,  which  was  completed  in  1856. 
The  country  along  both  sides  of  its  route  has 
been  rapidly  settled,  cities  and  towns  have 
risen  with  remarkable  rapidity,  and  the  pros 
perity  of  the  state  through  the  influence  of  this 
and  other  great  works  simultaneously  comple 
ted  has  become  so  general  that  the  last  acre  of 
government  land  in  Illinois  has  been  disposed 
of.  In  December,  1869,  a  constitutional  con 
vention  assembled,  and  in  May  following 
agreed  upon  the  present  constitution,  which 
was  ratified  July  2.  In  this  instrument  the  sys 
tem  of  "  minority  representation  "  in  the  elec 
tion  of  members  of  the  house  of  representatives 
was  incorporated,  it  being  provided  that  "in 
all  elections  of  representatives  aforesaid,  each 
qualified  voter  may  cast  as  many  votes  for  one 
candidate  as  there  are  representatives  to  be 
elected,  or  may  distribute  the  same,  or  equal 
parts  thereof,  among  the  candidates,  as  he  shall 
see  fit ;  and  the  candidates  highest  in  votes  shall 
be  declared  elected." — A  "  History  of  Illinois, 
1673-1873,"  by  Alexander  Davidson  and  Ber 
nard  Stuve,  Avas  published  in  1874,  and  is  au 
thority  for  some  of  the  statements  here  made. 


ILLINOIS 


ILLYRIA 


193 


ILLINOIS,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  largest  in  the  state  to  which  it  gives  its 
name.  It  is  formed  in  Grundy  co.,  in  the  N. 
E.  part  of  the  state,  about  45  m.  S.  W.  of  Lake 
Michigan,  by  the  union  of  Kankakee  and  Des 
Plaines  rivers,  the  former  of  which  rises  in  the 
N.  part  of  Indiana  and  the  latter  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  Wisconsin.  The  Kankakee  receives 
the  Iroquois,  and  from  that  point  to  its  junc 
tion  with  the  Des  Plaines  is  sometimes  known 
as  the  Iroquois.  The  Illinois  flows  nearly  W. 
to  Ilennepin,  in  Putnam  co.,  and  thence  S.  W. 
and  finally  S.  until  it  unites  with  the  Mississip 
pi  between  Calhoun  and  Jersey  counties,  20  m. 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  is  about 
500  m.  long,  and  is  navigable  at  high  water  for 
245  m.  It  is  deep  and  broad,  in  several  places 
expanding  into  basins  which  might  almost  be 
called  lakes.  Peoria,  the  most  important  city 
on  its  banks,  is  built  on  the  shore  of  one  of 
these  basins.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the 
Fox,  Spoon,  Crooked  creek,  the  Mackinaw, 
Sangamon,  and  Vermilion.  Above  the  mouth 
of  the  Vermilion,  in  La  Salle  co.,  it  is  obstruct 
ed  by  rapids,  and  a  canal  has  been  built  from 
this  point  to  Chicago,  a  distance  of  96  m. 
Uninterrupted  water  communication  is  thus  se 
cured  between  the  lakes  and  the  Mississippi. 
The  Illinois  was  ascended  by  Marquette  in 
1073,  and  explored  in  1679-'80  by  La  Salle  and 
Ilennepin,  who  entered  it  by  the  Kankakee, 
which  they  reached  from  Lake  Michigan  by 
means  of  the  St.  Joseph  river  and  a  short  por 
tage,  and  sailed  in  canoes,  La  Salle  as  far  as  the 
present  site  of  Peoria,  and  Hennepin  to  the 
Mississippi.  In  1682  La  Salle  navigated  the 
whole  course  of  the  river. 

ILLOIIXATI  (Lat.,  the'  enlightened),  a  name 
supposed  to  have  been  given  to  the  newly  bap 
tized  in  the  early  Christian  church,  because  a 
lighted  taper  was  put  into  their  hands  as  a 
symbol  of  enlightenment;  subsequently  annme 
assumed  at  different  periods  by  sects  of  naystics 
or  enthusiasts  who  claimed  a  greater  degree 
of  illumination  or  perfection  than  other  men. 
The  most  famous  of  these  sects  were  the 
Alombrados  or  Alumbrados  (the  enlightened) 
in  Spain  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century;  the 
Gue'rincts,  named  after  their  founder  Pierre 
Guerin,  in  France  in  the  IVth  century  ;  and  an 
association  of  mystics  in  Belgium  in  the  18th. 
The  most  celebrated  society  of  the  name  was 
that  founded  in  1 776  by  Adam  Wcishaupt,  a  Ger 
man  professor  of  canon  law  at  Ingolstadt,  and 
a  man  of  great  originality  and  depth  of  thought, 
with  the  ostensible  object  of  perfecting  human 
nature,  of  binding  in  one  brotherhood  men  of 
all  countries,  ranks,  and  religions,  and  of  sur 
rounding  the  persons  of  princes  with  trustwor 
thy  advisers.  Apostles,  styled  areopngites, 
were  sent  to  various  parts  of  Europe  to  make 
converts,  and  before  the  existence  of  the  socie 
ty  became  generally  known  branches  had  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  Germany,  in 
Holland,  and  in  Milan.  Young  men  from  18 
to  30  years  of  age,  and  Lutherans  rather  than 


Roman  Catholics,  were  preferred  as  members. 
The  illuminati  gained  much  influence  by  the 
accession  to  their  ranks  of  Knigge  the  author, 
and  by  the  sympathy  of  many  freemasons. 
At  the  height  of  its  prosperity  the  society  had 
2,000  members.  The  order  was  divided  into 
three  classes  and  several  subdivisions.  The 
flrst,  or  preparatory  class,  was  divided  into 
novices,  minervals,  and  illuminati  minores. 
The  second  class  was  that  of  the  freemasons, 
who  were  ranked  as  apprentices,  assistants, 
and  masters;  it  included  two  higher  grades, 
that  of  the  illuminatus  major,  or  of  the  Scottish 
novice,  and  that  of  the  illuminatus  dirigcns, 
also  called  the  Scottish  knight.  The  class  of 
mysteries  was  divided  into  major  and  minor 
mysteries,  of  which  the  latter  included  the  two 
grades  of  priests  and  regents.  The  major  mys 
teries  comprised  the  grades  of  magus  and  rex. 
The  mysteries  related  to  religion,  which  was 
transformed  into  naturalism  and  free  thought, 
and  to  politics,  which  inclined  to  socialism  and 
republicanism.  The  order  corresponded  in 
cipher,  and  used  a  peculiar  phraseology ;  Jan 
uary  was  called  Dimeh  ;  February,  Beumeh  ; 
Germany,  the  Orient ;  Bavaria,  Achaya ;  and 
Munich,  Athens.  Every  illuminatus  received 
a  new  name ;  Weishaupt  was  Spartacus,  and 
Knigge  was  Philo.  But  Knigge  and  Weishaupt 
could  not  agree,  and  this,  as  well  as  the  oppo 
sition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  proved 
fatal.  The  society  was  prohibited  by  the  Ba 
varian  government  in  1784,  and  its  papers 
were  seized  and  published  under  the  title  Ei- 
nige  Originalschriften  den  IHuminatenordcns, 
avflukJisten  Befekl  gedruclct  (Munich,  1767). 
Works  on  the  subject  were  published  by  Weis 
haupt,  Knigge,  Nicolai,  and  Voss  (1786-'99). 

ILLYUIA  (anc.  lUyricum  and  ILlyris ;  Ger. 
Illyrien),  a  name  anciently  applied  to  all  the 
countries  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  the 
adjacent  islands,  and  western  Macedonia,  inhab 
ited  by  the  Illyrians,  a  tribe  believed  to  have  had 
a  common  origin  with  the  Thracians.  Philip 
of  Macedon  subdued  the  Illyrians  east  of  the 
river  Drilo  (now  Drin),  359  B.  C.  Illyricum 
was  subsequently  divided  into  Illyris  Grseca 
and  Illyris  Barbara.  The  latter  soon  became  a 
Roman  province,  designated  as  Illyris  Romana, 
and  included  a  part  of  the  modern  Croatia,  the 
whole  of  Dalmatia,  almost  the  whole  of  Bosnia, 
and  a  part  of  Albania.  The  principal  tribes 
after  whom  the  districts  were  called  were  the 
Japydes,  Liburni,  and  Dalmatians.  TheLiburni 
wrere  the  first  subdued  by  the  Romans;  and 
after  the  conquest  of  the  Dalmatians,  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  the  entire  country  became 
a  Roman  province.  After  that  time  the  Illyr 
ians,  and  particularly  the  Dalmatians,  formed 
an  important  part  of  the  Roman  legions,  and 
were  esteemed  the  most  warlike  of  the  empire. 
Illyris  Grtcca,  or  Illyria  proper,  embraced  the 
greater  part  of  the  modern  Albania.  The  ter 
ritory  of  this  division  consisted  principally  of 
mountain  pastures,  with  some  fertile  valleys. 
The  various  tribes  of  the  Grecian  Illyrians 


194 


ILLYRIA 


IMMACULATE   CONCEPTION 


were  generally  poor,  rapacious,  and  fierce ;  in 
earlier  times  the  tribe  of  the  Autariatse  held 
the  first  rank  as  warriors.  They  had  the  cus 
toms  of  tattooing  and  of  offering  human  sacri 
fices,  and  were  always  ready  to  sell  their  mili 
tary  services  to  the  highest  bidder,  like  the 
modern  Albanian  Shkipetars,  in  whom  probably 
their  blood  yet  flows.  The  Illyrians  supplied 
the  Greeks  with  cattle  and  slaves,  often  in  ex 
change  for  salt.  Grecian  exiles  found  their 
way  into  Illyria,  and  Grecian  myths  became 
localized  there.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great  most  of  the  tribes  recovered  their 
independence.,  but  their  piracies  gave  umbrage 
to  the  Romans.  The  Roman  ambassadors  who 
protested  against  their  depredations  were  mur 
dered  by  the  Illyrian  queen  Teuta,  The  first 
Illyrian  war  was  commenced  in  230  B.  C.,  and 
the  queen  was  obliged  in  229  to  make  peace  by 
the  surrender  of  part  of  her  dominions.  The 
second  war,  commenced  by  Demetrius  of  Pha 
ros,  the  guardian  of  the  Illyrian  prince  Pineus, 
was  successfully  terminated  by  the  consul  L. 
./Emilius  Paulus  in  219.  Pleuratus,  the  succes 
sor  of  Pineus,  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the 
Romans,  but  his  son  Gentius  formed  an  alli 
ance  with  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon.  lie  was 
conquered  in  the  same  year  as  Perseus,  and  Il 
lyria  as  well  as  Macedon  became  subject  to 
Rome  (168).  In  the  new  organization  under 
Constantine,  Illyricum  was  one  of  the  great 
divisions  of  the  empire,  and  was  divided  into 
Occidentale,  including  Illyricum  proper,  Pan- 
nonia,  and  Noricum,  and  Orientale,  comprising 
Dacia,  Mcesia,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace.  On  the 
fall  of  the  western  empire  (A.  D.  476)  it  re 
mained  a  part  of  the  eastern.  About  two  cen 
turies  later  the  Slavic  settlers  from  northern 
Europe  separated  themselves  from  the  Byzan 
tine  government,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  governments  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia.  At 
the  end  of  the  llth  century  some  portions  of 
the  Illyrian  territory  were  taken  by  Venice 
and  Hungary.  About  a  century  later  the  king 
dom  of  Rascia  was  created,  out  of  which  Servia 
and  Bosnia  were  subsequently  formed.  Dal 
matia  passed  successively  through  the  hands  of 
the  Venetians,  Hungarians,  and  Turks.  Venice 
retained  only  a  small  portion  of  Dalmatia, 
while  Hungary  kept-Slavonia  and  part  of  Croa 
tia.  Austria  obtained  Dalmatia  and  adjacent 
islands  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  in 
1797. — The  name  Illyria,  which  had  gradually 
disappeared,  was  revived  in  1809  by  the  or 
ganization  of  the  Illyrian  provinces  by  Napo 
leon,  comprising  the  territories  of  Carniola, 
Carinthia,  Istria,  part  of  Croatia,  Dalmatia, 
Ragusa,  and  a  military  district,  with  a  popula 
tion  of  1,275,000.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
they  were  reunited  to  the  Austrian  government, 
which  in  1816  raised  Illyria  to  the  nominal  dig 
nity  of  a  kingdom.  It  embraced  the  duchies 
of  Carniola,  Carinthia,  Friuli,  and  Istria,  the 
Hungarian  Coastland,  part  of  Croatia,  and  the 
islands  in  the  gulf  of  Quarnero,  having  an  area 
of  about  11,000  sq.  in.  The  Coastland  and 


Croatia  were  separated  from  it  in  1822,  and 
reunited  with  Hungary,  where  they  have 
formed  since  1849  part  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 
The  kingdom  was  dissolved  in  the  same  year 
into  the  crownlands  of  Carinthia,  Carniola, 
and  the  Littorale.  The  Illyrian  language  is  one 
of  the  southern  branches  of  the  Slavic  family 
of  languages.  (See  SERVIAN  LANGUAGE  AND 
LITERATURE.) 

ILOPANGO,  a  lake  of  Central  America,  in  the 
republic  and  6  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  San  Sal 
vador.  It  is  about  14  m.  long  by  6  broad,  and 
is  clearly  of  volcanic  origin.  On  all  sides  it  is 
surrounded  by  high,  abrupt  hills,  composed  of 
scoriae  and  volcanic  stones.  It  receives  no 
tributary  streams,  although  it  has  a  small  out 
let,  flowing  through  a  dark  narrow  ravine  into 
the  Rio  Jiboa,  near  the  base  of  ths  volcano  of 
San  Vicente.  The  surface  of  the  water  is  not 
less  than  1,200  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  sur 
rounding  country.  When  the  surface  is  ruffled 
by  a  breeze,  it  takes  a  brilliant  green  color,  and 
exhales  a  disagreeable  sulphurous  odor. 

IMAGE  WORSHIP.     See  ICONOCLASTS. 

1MBERT,  Barthelemi,  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Nimes  in  1747,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  23,  1790. 
His  poem  entitled  Jugemcnt  de  Paris  (1772) 
passed  through  many  editions,  and  he  also 
published  fables,  plays,  arid  novels,  the  best  of 
the  latter  being  Les  egarements  de  Vamour 
(1776).  His  (Evvres  poetiques  appeared  in  2 
vols.,  1777;  his  (Euvres  diverses  in  1782;  and 
his  (Euvres  choisies  en  vers  in  4  vols.,  1797. 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION,  a  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  which  teaches  that 
the  Virgin  Mary  was  in  her  conception  exempt 
from  all  stain  of  original  sin.  Though  this  be 
lief  had  been  held  in  the  eastern  and  western 
churches  from  a  remote  antiquity,  it  was  not 
defined  as  an  article  of  faith  until  Dec.  8,  1854. 
It  is  formally  stated  in  the  constitution  of 
Pius  IX.,  Ineffalnlis  Deus,  in  the  following 
words:  "  We  define  the  doctrine  which  holds 
the  most  blessed  Virgin  Mary  in  the  first  in 
stant  of  her  conception  to  have  been  preserved 
free  from  all  stain  of  original  sin,  by  the  sin 
gular  grace  and  privilege  of  Almighty  God  and 
through  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  the  Saviour 
of  the  human  race,  to  be  a  doctrine  revealed 
by  God,  and  therefore  to  be  firmly  and  con 
stantly  held  by  all  the  faithful."  The  decree 
itself  is  further  explained  by  the  annexed 
passage  from  the  constitution  Sollicitudo  om 
nium  Ecclesiarum  of  Alexander  VII. :  u  It  is 
an  ancient  belief  of  Christ's  faithful  with  re 
gard  to  his  virgin  mother,  that  her  soul  in  the 
first  instant  of  its  creation  and  union  with  the 
body  was,  by  a  special  grace  and  privilege  of 
God,  .  .  .  preserved  free  from  the  stain  of  ori 
ginal  sin;  and  it  is  in  this  belief  that  they  hon 
or  and  celebrate  the  feast  of  her  conception." 
The  defined  doctrine  therefore  refers  not  to 
the  active  but  to  the  passive  conception,  that 
is,  to  the  soul  and  body  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
first  instant  of  their  creation  and  union ;  at 
I  that  instant,  in  view  of  the  merits  of  the  Son, 


IMMACULATE   CONCEPTION 


195 


the  mother,  in  body  and  soul,  was  exempt 
from  the  common  law  of  fallen  humanity. 
The  controversy  within  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  on  the  immaculate  conception  was  more 
in  regard  to  the  terms  of  the  doctrine  and  the 
mode  and  time  of  the  immaculateness  than  to 
the  Virgin's  freedom  from  the  effects  of  ori 
ginal  sin,  which  for  the  most  part  was  not 
denied.  The  establishment  of  the  feast  of  the 
conception  witnesses  to  the  fact;  as  the  church 
could  not  celebrate  a  festival  in  honor  of  a 
conception  in  sin.  This  festival  was  celebrated 
at  a  very  early  day  in  the  East,  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  fix  the  precise  date  of  its  intro 
duction  in  the  West;  it  was  probably  during 
the  8th  and  9th  centuries.  In  the  East  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  discussion  in  regard  to 
the  observance  of  this  festival.  In  the  West  it 
began  to  be  observed  by  the  devotion  of  partic 
ular  churches  before  the  sanction  of  the  apos 
tolic  see  had  made  it  universal.  St.  Bernard 
reproved  the  canons  of  Lyons  because  they  had 
established  this  feast  without  waiting  for  the 
decree  of  the  supreme  pontiff.  The  agitation 
of  the  question  led  to  long  disputes  among 
theologians,  and  especially  among  the  Francis 
cans  and  Dominicans;  the  latter  have  been 
ranked  among  the  pronounced  opponents  of 
the  doctrine.  The  disagreement  was,  however, 
one  of  terms  rather  than  of  doctrine.  Tims 
Thomas  Aquinas,  who  is  most  eminent  among 
the  Dominican  theologians,  expressly  declares 
the  exemption  of  the  Virgin  Mary  from  origi 
nal  sin:  u  Talis  fuit  puritas  13.  Virginis,  qvw 
pec-cato  orifjinali  et  actuali  immunis  fuit" 
(Com.  in  I  Liber.  Sent.,  List.  44,  §  3.)  The 
objections  of  St.  Bernard  also  are  against  the 
immaculate  conception  "  actively  "  considered, 
which  is  no  part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  dogma. 
The  discussion  of  the  subject  in  the  schools  led 
to  repeated  declarations  in  its  favor.  Duns 
Scotus  in  1307,  in  a  disputation  before  the 
university  of  Paris,  maintained  the  doctrine 
of  the  Virgin's  immaculateness  in  its  highest 
sense;  and  the  whole  Franciscan  order  thence 
forward  zealously  defended  it.  The  university 
itself  in  1387  condemned  certain  propositions 
of  John  de  Montesano,  a  Dominican,  in  which 
the  doctrine  was  denied,  and  in  1497  passed  a 
decree  that  no  one  should  be  admitted  to  any 
academic  honor  who  did  not  bind  himself  by 
oath  to  defend  it.  In  1439  the  council  of 
Basel,  during  its  schismatic  period,  declared 
the  u  belief  of  the  immaculate  conception  of 
the  Virgin  to  be  conformable  to  the  doctrine 
and  devotion  of  the  church,  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  right  reason,  and  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  to  be  held  by  all  Catholics."  The  council 
of  Trent,  in  its  decree  concerning  original  sin, 
expressly  declared  that  it  did  not  intend  to  in 
clude  the  immaculate  Virgin,  and  ordered  the 
decrees  of  Sixtus  IV.  to  be  observed.  During 
all  the  controversy  the  holy  see  interfered  only 
occasionally,  but  these  interferences  were  suc 
cessive  steps  toward  the  formal  definition  of 
the  doctrine.  Sixtus  IV.,  in  the  apostolic  let 


ter  entitled  Grave  nimis,  published  in  1480, 
imposes  excommunication  upon  any  one  who 
accuses  of  heresy  either  the  advocates  or  the 
opponents  of  the  immaculate  conception,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  condemns  all  who  affirm 
as  the  truth  the  opinion  that  the  Blessed  Vir 
gin  was  conceived  in  sin.  lie  also  granted  in 
dulgence  to  those  who  should  assist  at  mass  or 
office  on  the  feast  of  her  conception.  Pius  V., 
in  the  bull  114,  Super  Spcculam,  in  1570,  pro 
hibited  the  public  discussion  of  the  question, 
renewing  also  the  decree  of  his  predecessor. 
Paul  V.  in  1016  forbade  any  one  to  affirm  by 
any  public  act  whatever  that  the  Virgin  was 
conceived  in  sin,  while  he  also  prohibited  the 
open  condemnation  of  this  opinion.  Gregory 
XV.  in  1622  prohibited  either  the  public  or 
private  denial  of  the  immaculate  conception, 
allowing  no  discussion  whatever  on  the  sub 
ject  except  to  the  Dominicans,  to  whom  an 
especial  privilege  was  reserved.  The  office 
and  mass  of  the  conception  were  however 
made  binding  upon  them  as  upon  all  Catholics. 
In  1661  Alexander  VII.,  in  the  constitution 
Sollicitudo  omnium  Ecclesiarum,  declares  the 
opinion  that  the  Virgin  was  conceived  without 
original  sin  to  be  almost  universal  in  the 
church ;  therefore  he  renews  the  decrees  of 
his  predecessors,  commanding  that  they  be 
observed  in  favor  of  the  feast  and  cultus  of 
the  conception,  and  moreover  deprives  of  the 
faculty  of  teaching  or  preaching  any  one  who 
should  call  into  doubt  or  misinterpret  the  favor 
shown  to  this  opinion  by  asserting  anything 
against  it,  or  even  by  bringing  forward  argu 
ments  against  it.  After  that  time  the  congre 
gation  of  rites  repeatedly  interposed  its  man 
date  in  favor  of  the  doctrine.  The  word  im 
maculate  was  added  in  the  office  and  mass  of 
the  conception,  and  its  use  made  binding  upon 
all  priests,  even  those  of  the  Dominican  order. 
Pius  IX.  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  sent 
letters  to  all  patriarchs  and  bishops,  requesting 
their  opinion  upon  the  propriety  of  defining 
the  doctrine.  Answers  were  given  by  620 
bishops  and  archbishops,  of  whom  only  four 
were  opposed  to  the  definition  on  dogmatic 
grounds,  and  even  these  gave  testimony  that 
their  clergy  and  people  were  united  in  the 
belief  of  the  doctrine.  When  replies  were 
received  from  nearly  the  whole  Catholic  epis 
copate,  as  many  of  the  bishops  as  possible 
were  invited  to  be  present  in  Koine  to  assist 
at  the  solemn  definition  of  the  doctrine.  This 
ceremony  took  place  with  great  pomp  in  the 
basilica  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  presence  of  more 
than  300  archbishops,  bishops,  and  prelates, 
on  the  feast  of  the  immaculate  conception, 
Dec.  8,  1854.  In  September,  1857,  a  monu 
ment  was  inaugurated  by  the  pope  at  Koine 
in  commemoration  of  the  decree.  On  this  oc 
casion  he  also  established  the  "  Archconfrater- 
nity  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,"  which 
now  has  branches  in  all  Catholic  countries. — In 
1618  a  military  order  of  the  Conception  was 
established  in  'Italy  by  Duke  Ferdinand  I.  of 


196 


IMMERMANN 


IMMORTELLES 


Mantua,  for  promoting  peace  among  Christian 
princes;  this  order  was  continued  in  1625  by 
Urban  VIII.,  who  gave  to  the  members  the 
rule  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis.  It  was 
composed  of  noblemen,  and  rapidly  acquired 
great  importance;  but  political  events  caused 
its  dissolution.  In  Portugal  John  VI.  founded, 
Feb.  6,  1818,  the  military  order  of  "  Our  Lady 
of  the  Conception  of  Villa viciosa." 

IU.UEBDI.4XiV,  Karl  Lcbreclit,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Magdeburg,  April  24,  1796,  died  in 
Dusseldorf,  Aug.  25,  1840.  He  qualitied  him 
self  at  Jena  for  the  Prussian  judiciary  service, 
in  which  he  found  employment,  and  became  at 
the  same  time  known  as  a  dramatist  and  poet. 
He  received  a  judicial  appointment  at  Dusseldorf 
in  1827,  and  resumed  his  professional  duties 
after  having  incurred  heavy  losses  in  a  disinter 
ested  attempt  to  manage  the  Dusseldorf  theatre 
in  conformity  with  high  conceptions  of  art.  He 
published  admirable  tragedies,  such  as  Alexis 
and  Merlin,  and  fine  comedies,  but  they  were 
not  adapted  for  the  stage.  His  other  produc 
tions  comprise  an  entertaining  fairy  tale,  Tuli- 
fantchen,  several  volumes  of  poetry  and  mis- 
cellanous  writings,  and  a  novel  in  imitation  of 
Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meister entitled  Die  Epigonen 
(2  vols.,  1836);  but  his  great  fame  chiefly  rests 
upon  his  Miuichhausen  (4  vols.,  1838-'9),  which 
passed  through  several  editions.  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  14  volumes  (Dussel 
dorf,  1834-'43).  See  his  Memoralilien  (Ham 
burg,  1840,  unfinished);  Freiligrath's  Karl 
Immermann,  Blatter  cler  Erinnerung  an  ihn 
(Stuttgart,  1842);  and  his  biography  by  Putlitz 
(2  vols.,  Berlin,  1870). 

DDIOIITELLES,  a  name  given  by  the  French 
to  those  flowers  which  from  their  papery  nature 


Ilelichrysum  orientale. 

do  not  wither  on  drying,  known  in  this  country 
as  "everlasting  flowers,"  and  are  furnished 
by  plants  in  widely  different  families.  The 
immortelle  so  largely  used  by  the  French,  made 


up  into  wreaths,  crosses,  and  other  designs,  is 
lielichrysum  orientale,  a  perennial  composite 
from  the  island  of  Crete  (and  formerly  called 
gnaphalium),  which,  upon  stems  about  a  foot 
high,  bears  dense  clusters  of  bright  yellow 
globular  flower  heads,  about  the  size  of  a  large 
pea;  as  far  north  as  Paris  this  is  a  tender 
plant,  but  in  the  south  of  France  large  quanti 
ties  are  raised  to  supply  the  demand.  The 
usual  French  immortelle  wreath  consists  of 
these  in  their  natural  color,  made  into  a  heavy 
circle  with  a  motto  worked  in  of  the  same 
flowers  dyed  black.  There  are  several  annual 
species  and  varieties  of  helichrysum,  with  much 
larger  flowers  and  of  various  colors,  that  are 
common  in  our  gardens,  where  they  are  culti 
vated  for  making  winter  bouquets.  These  and 
all  other  everlasting  flowers  should  be  gathered 
before  they  have  fully  expanded,  tied  in  small 
bunches,  and  hung  up  to  dry.  Other  plants  of 
the  comjtoaita  used  for  the  same  purpose  arc 


Ammobium  alatum. 

acroclinium  roseum,  with  a  white  variety; 
ammobium  alatum,  small  white;  helipterum 
Sanfordii  and  //.  corym~bosum,  yellow  and 
white;  rhodantJie  Manglesii  and  its  varieties, 
from  white  to  dark  purple,  the  most  beautiful 
and  delicate  of  all,  whether  fresh  or  dry; 
Waitzia  aurea  and  xeranthemum  annurtm,  with 
white,  blue,  and  purple  varieties.  Besides  these, 
the  globe  amaranths  (gomphrena),  several  spe 
cies  of  statice,  and  gypsophila  are  cultivated  for 
drying.  Quite  as  pretty  as  any  of  these  exotics 
is  our  pearly  everlasting,  antennaria  margari- 
tacea,  which  is  common  all  over  the  northern 
states  on  dry  knolls  and  in  woods ;  this  if  gath 
ered  sutiiciently  early  makes  a  fine  immortelle, 
and  being  white,  may  be  colored  according  to 
fancy.  Considerable  quantities  of  immortelles 
are  imported  by  American  seedsmen,  both  in 
bunches  and  made  up  in  bouquets,  baskets,  and 
designs.  One  establishment  in  Prussia  has  100 
j  acres  devoted  entirely  to  their  cultivation. 


IMOLA 


IMPEACHMENT 


197 


They  are  sent  out  in  their  natural  colors,  or 
more  frequently  dyed ;  most  of  them  have  to 
be  bleached  before  dyeing,  which  is  done  by 
sulphur  fumes,  chlorine,  or  acids,  according  to 


Ehodanthe  Manglesii. 

the  kind,  and  afterward  colored,  usually  with 
aniline  dyes.  Of  late  years  there  have  ap 
peared  among  the  immortelles  larkspurs,  roses, 
and  other  flowers  not  ordinarily  so  classed ; 
these  are  preserved  by  exposing  them  thor 
oughly  to  sulphur  fumes  and  afterward  drying 
them,  when  most  flowers  regain  the  color  that 
sulphur  has  temporarily  removed. 

IMOLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  and 
20  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Bologna,  on  a  small 
island  of  the  Santerno,  on  the  road  from  Bologna 
to  Faenza;  pop.  in  1872,  28,398.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  has  an  ancient  castle,  a  cathe 
dral,  a  gymnasium,  a  technical  school,  noted 
manufactories  of  tartar,  and  an  active  trade  in 
wine,  flax,  hemp,  rice,  and  corn.  Imola  is  be 
lieved  to  be  the  ancient  Forum  Cornelii,  which 
was  founded  by  Sulla.  Pius  VII.  and  Pius  IX. 
were  bishops  of  Imola  before  becoming  popes. 

IMOLA,  Innocenzio  dn,  a  Bolognese  painter, 
whose  real  name  was  Francucci,  born  at  Imola 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  died 
about  1550.  lie  was  a  pupil  of  Francia,  and 
resided  chiefly  in  Bologna,  where  his  painting 
oi  the  archangel  Michael  subduing  Satan  is 
now  preserved.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
lie  imitated  Raphael,  and  some  of  his  works 
have  been  mistaken  for  his. 

IMPEACHMENT  (Fr.  empecliemertt,  hindrance, 
obstruction),  the  accusation  and  prosecution, 
in  a  legislative  body,  of  a  person  for  treason 
or  other  high  crimes.  By  the  law  of  England, 
any  member  of  the  house  of  commons  may 
impeach  any  other  member  of  the  house,  or 
any  lord  of  parliament,  or  indeed  any  other 
officer  of  the  realm.  Upon  such  impeachment 
being  made,  the  house  of  commons,  if  they  see 
lit,  exhibit  articles  of  impeachment  before  the 


house  of  lords,  and  appoint  managers  to  sus 
tain  the  charge  and  conduct  the  trial ;  and 
upon  the  trial,  the  same  rules  of  evidence,  in 
general,  are  in  force  as  in  trials  in  the  ordinary 
courts  of  justice.  This  is  a  very  solemn  pro 
cedure,  it  being  a  prosecution  before  the  su 
preme  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction  for  the 
whole  realm,  by  the  grand  inquest  thereof.  It 
has  been  most  frequently  used  against  the 
king's  ministers;  and  in  order  to  take  the  trial 
from  the  power  of  the  king,  it  is  provided  by 
law  that  the  impeachment  is  not  abated  either 
by  the  prorogation  or  dissolution  of  parlia 
ment.  The  latest  and  best  known  cases  are 
those  of  Warren  Hastings  (1788)  and  of  Lord 
Melville  (1800).  In  the  United  States,  im 
peachment  is  a  written  charge  and  accusation 
by  the  house  of  representatives  of  the  United 
States,  made  to  the  senate  of  the  United  States, 
against  an  officer  thereof ;  or,  in  a  state,  it  is 
such  an  accusation  of  an  officer,  by  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  state,  before  the  senate.  The 
proceedings,  rules,  and  practice  in  cases  of 
impeachment  in  this  country  are  borrowed 
from  the  common  law  of  England,  excepting 
so  far  as  they  are  afl'ected  by  the  constitution 
or  statutes  of  the  United  States,  or  of  the  sev 
eral  states.  The  constitution  of  the  United 
States  declares  (art.  i.,  sec.  2)  that  the  house 
of  representatives  shall  have  the  sole  power 
of  impeachment,  arid  (art.  i.,  sec.  3)  that  the 
senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  im 
peachments.  By  art.  ii.,  sec.  4,  the  persons 
made  liable  to  impeachment  are  the  president, 
the  vice  president,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States.  The  offences  for  which  a  per 
son  may  be  impeached  are  (art.  ii.,  sec.  4) 
"treason,  bribery,  and  other  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors."  The  constitution  defines  trea 
son,  but  what  acts  are  impeachable  offences 
under  the  other  words  employed  must  be  de 
termined  by  the  judgment  of  the  two  houses. 
They  would  probably  be  guided,  but  not  gov 
erned,  by  the  rules  of  the  common  law  and 
the  practice  of  parliament. — The  method  of 
procedure  is  substantially  as  follows :  A  reso 
lution  is  offered  by  some  member  of  the  house, 
charging  the  party  to  be  impeached  with  his 
supposed  offence,  and  either  demanding  at  once 
his  impeachment,  or,  what  is  more  common, 
providing  for  a  committee  of  inquiry.  If  the 
resolution  is  passed,  and  if  a  committee  of  in 
quiry  reports  in  favor  of  an  impeachment,  and 
their  report  is  adopted,  a  committee  (the  same 
or  another)  is  instructed  to  impeach  the  ac 
cused  before  the  senate,  and  demand  that  that 
body  make  due  provision  for  the  trial,  and  in 
form  the  senate  that  articles  of  impeachment 
will  be  prepared  by  the  house  and  exhibited 
before  the  senate.  The  same  or  another  com 
mittee  is  intrusted  to  prepare  articles  of  im 
peachment,  which,  being  approved  by  the 
house,  are  transmitted  to  the  senate  by  a  com 
mittee  appointed  to  conduct  the  trial  on  the 
part  of  the  house,  who  are  usually  styled  the 
managers  of  the  impeachment.  L>ue  process 


198 


IMPIIEE 


INDEPENDENCE 


summoning  the  accused  then  issues  from  the 
senate,  and  is  served  by  its  sergeant-at-arms ; 
and  on  the  day  therein  appointed,  the  senate 
resolves  itself  into  a  court  of  impeachment, 
all  the  senators  being  sworn  to  do  justice  ac 
cording  to  the  constitution  and  the  laws.  The 
person  thus  impeached  is  then  called  upon  to 
appear  and  answer.  If  he  makes  default,  the 
senate  proceeds  ex  parte.  If  he  appears  and 
denies  the  charges,  and  puts  himself  on  trial 
(and  he  may  appear  by  attorney),  an  issue  is 
formed,  and  a  time  is  appointed  for  the  trial, 
which  thereafter  proceeds  according  to  law 
and  usage,  and  much  in  the  same  way  as  in 
common  judicial  trials.  If  any  questions  arise 
among  the  senators,  who  now  act  as  judges, 
they  are  considered  with  closed  doors,  and  are 
decided  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  only  the  decision 
is  made  public.  Art.  i.,  sec.  2,  of  the  consti 
tution  of  the  United  States,  provides  that  no 
person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur 
rence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members.  The 
most  noted  cases  of  impeachment  in  the  United 
States  are  those  of  Judge  Samuel  Chase,  of  the 
federal  supreme  court  (1804),  and  President 
Andrew  Johnson  (1868). 

IMPIIEE.     See  SOEQUM. 

INACHl'S,  a  mythical  king,  represented  as 
the  first  ruler  and  priest  of  Argos,  which,  as 
well  as  the  river  Inaclms,  was  often  called  after 
him.  When  Neptune  and  Juno  contended  for 
the  possession  of  that  country,  he  decided  in 
favor  of  the  latter,  and  thus  incurred  the  anger 
of  Neptune,  who  caused  a  dearth  of  water  in 
his  dominions.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made,  even  by  the  ancients,  to  explain  the 
stories  about  Inachus;  and  it  is  considered 
probable  that  he  was  the  leader  of  an  Egyptian 
or  Libyan  colony  which  came  across  the  sea 
and  united  with  the  Pelasgians. 

INCASt     See  PERU,  and  QUICIIUA. 

INCENSE.     See  FRANKINCENSE. 

INCEST,  carnal  commerce  between  a  man 
and  woman  who  are  related  to  each  other  in 
any  of  the  degrees  within  which  marriage  is 
prohibited  by  law.  It  rests  with  positive  law 
to  determine  these  degrees ;  for  although  mar 
riages  between  those  nearly  related  are  clearly 
opposed  to  the  law  of  nature,  yet  it  is  difficult 
to  fix  the  point  at  which  they  cease  to  be  so. 
With  rare  exceptions  all  civilized  communities 
have  agreed  in  regarding  marriage  between 
brother  and  sister  and  between  those  lineally 
related  as  unnatural  and  offensive;  but  beyond 
this  point  the  invalidity  must  depend  upon 
positive  statutes.  The  fact  that  one  of  the 
parties  is  illegitimate  is  immaterial,  as  it  is  the 
nearness  in  blood  that  is  regarded,  and  the  re 
pulsive  nature  of  the  relation  is  not  diminish 
ed  by  the  circumstance  that  the  relationship 
comes  through  unlawful  intercourse.  Incest 
is  a  criminal  offence  in  all  civilized  countries, 
and  in  England  and  the  United  States  is  pun 
ished  as  a  felony. 

INCHBALD,  Elizabeth,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  at  Standingtield,  near  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 


Suffolk,  Oct.  15,  1753,  died  in  Kensington, 
Aug.  1,  1821.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  far 
mer  named  Simpson,  who  died  when  she  was 
in  her  18th  year.  She  then  sought  an  engage 
ment  at  the  London  theatres,  but  without  suc 
cess.  Recounting  her  troubles  to  Mr.  Inchbald, 
a  comedian  of  Drury  Lane,  much  her  senior, 
he  married  her,  instructed  her  in  the  art,  and 
performed  with  her  for  several  seasons  at  Lon 
don,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  elsewhere.  He 
died  in  1779,  and  she  played  successfully  at 
Co  vent  Garden  from  1780  to  1789,  when  she 
retired  from  the  boards  and  devoted  herself  to 
literature.  In  this  new  pursuit  she  was  equally 
successful.  She  wrote  19  plays,  and  edited  the 
"British  Theatre,"  a  collection  of  plays  (47 
vols.,  London,  1808-'15).  A  few  of  her  own 
pieces,  as  "  The  Wedding  Day "  and  "  Wives 
as  They  Are,"  still  hold  their  place  on  the 
English  stage.  Her  novels,  "A  Simple  Story" 
and  "Nature  and  Art,"  once  enjoyed  even  a 
higher  popularity  than  her  dramatic  writings, 
and  are  still  admired.  She  wrote  an  autobiog 
raphy,  which  she  caused  to  be  destroyed.  The 
"Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Inchbald,"  by  Boaden  (2 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1833),  was  compiled  from 
her  journal,  covering  a  period  of  50  years. 

INCLEDON,  Benjamin  Charles,  an  English  sing 
er,  born  at  St.  Keverne,  Cornwall,  in  1764, 
died  in  Worcester,  Feb.  11, 1826.  He  acquired 
his  earliest  musical  education  in  the  choir  of 
Exeter  cathedral,  and  made  his  debut  in  Lon 
don  in  1790  in  "The  Poor  Gentleman,"  with 
great  success,  and  for  25  years  remained  un 
rivalled  as  a  ballad  singer.  His  voice  was  a 
fine  tenor,  and  his  favorite  part  upon  the  stage 
was  Macheath.  In  1817  he  made  a  musical  tour 
in  the  United  States,  but  his  voice  was  begin 
ning  to  yield  to  age  and  irregular  living,  and 
the  enterprise  was  not  very  successful. 

INCUNABULA  (Lat.,  cradle),  in  bibliography, 
books  printed  prior  to  about  1500,  of  which 
there  are  estimated  to  be  about  15,000.  The 
fullest  account  of  them  is  found  in  Ludwig 
I  Iain's  Repertorium  BibliograpMcnm,  in  quo 
Libri  omnes  ab  Arte  Typographica  inventa 
usque  ad  Annum  MD  Typis  expres&i  Ordine 
Alphaltetico  recementur  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1826-'38).  For  French  incunabula  see  G.  Bru- 
net's  La  France  litteraire  au  XVe  siecle  (Pa 
ris,  1865). 

INDEPENDENCE,  a  N.  county  of  Arkansas, 
bounded  E.  by  Black  river,  and  traversed  from 
N.  W.  to  S.  E.  by  White  river;  area,  1,050  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,566,  of  whom  908  were 
colored.  It  has  a  very  uneven  surface,  well 
wooded  with  pine  and  other  timber.  The  soil 
is  fertile.  Black  marble  is  found  here.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  Avere  38,653  bushels 
of  wheat,  508,005  of  Indian  corn,  30,820  of 
oats,  17,574  of  Irish  potatoes,  21,483  of  sweet 
potatoes,  21,336  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  139,225  of 
butter,  and  5,613  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
3,370  horses,  4,059  milch  cows,  1,496  working 
oxen,  5,677  other  cattle,  5,387  sheep,  22,787 
swine,  and  8  Hour  mills.  Capital,  Batesville. 


INDEPENDENCE 


INDEX  LIBRORUM 


199 


INDEPENDENCE.  I.  A  town  of  Washington 
co.,  Texas,  80  m.  E.  of  Austin,  18  m.  from 
Navasota  on  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central 
railroad,  and  12  in.  from  Brenham  on  the  "W. 
branch  of  that  line;  pop.  about  1,000.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  in  the  midst  of  diversified 
scenery,  and  contains  several  public  schools, 
and  Baptist,  Episcopal,  and  Methodist  churches. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Baylor  university,  chartered 
in  1845,  and  Baylor  female  college,  under  the 
control  of  the  Baptists.  The  university  had 
at  first  a  collegiate  and  a  law  department  (at 
present  suspended);  in  186(5  a  theological  de 
partment  was  added.  In  1873-'4  it  had  5  pro 
fessors,  2  assistants,  80  students  (11  theologi 
cal),  and  a  library  of  2,700  volumes.  II.  A  city 
and  the  capital  of  Buchanan  co.,  Iowa,  on  the 
Wapsipinicon  river,  and  at  the  intersection  of 
the  Iowa  division  of  the  Illinois  Central  rail 
road  with  the  Milwaukee  division  of  the  Bur 
lington.  Cedar  Rapids,  and  Minnesota  line,  107 
m.  N.  E.  of  Des  Moines;  pop.  in  1870,  2,945. 
It  contains  a  national  bank,  10  public  schools, 
including  two  high  schools,  two  weekly  news 
papers,  and  eight  churches.  It  is  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  state  insane  hospitals,  recently  es 
tablished,  which  in  November,  1873,  had  113 
patients.  The  building,  when  completed,  will 
accommodate  500.  III.  A  city  and  the  capi 
tal  of  Jackson  co.,  Missouri,  on  the  Missouri 
Pacific  railroad,  10  m.  from  Kansas  City,  4 
rn.  S.  of  the  Missouri  river,  and  130  m.  W. 
N.  W.  of  Jefferson  City;  pop.  in  1870,  3,184. 
It  contains  a  national  bank,  three  hotels,  three 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  two 
colleges,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  It  was 
settled  in  1827,  and  formerly  derived  great 
importance  from  its  position  as  an  entrepot 
between  New  Mexico  and  Utah  and  the  east 
ern  states,  and  a  place  of  outfit  for  emigrant 
trains  to  Oregon  and  California.  The  Mor 
mons  settled  there  in  1837,  but  were  expelled, 
and  took  refuge  in  Illinois  and  afterward  in 
Utah.  Members  of  one  branch  of  the  church 
have  purchased  the  grounds  designed  by  Jo 
seph  Smith  as  the  site  of  the  grand  temple,  and 
intend  to  erect  the  edifice  at  an  early  day. 
They  are  assembling  here  quite  rapidly. 

INDEPENDENTS,  a  Protestant  sect  which  arose 
in  England  in  the  Kith  century.  The  Puritan 
element,  which  began  to  appear  within  the  An 
glican  church  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  of  Edward  VI.,  gave  rise  in  Mary's 
reign  to  secret  dissenting  congregations,  essen 
tially  independent  in  church  organization  and 
government.  Although  in  one  or  two  instances 
there  are  earlier  traces  of  separate  congrega 
tions,  the  first  open  movement  toward  local 
churches  distinct  from  the  established  church 
was  under  the  leadership  of  Robert  Brown, 
about  1586.  At  first  they  were  called  Brown- 
ists ;  but  their  discipline  having  been  modified 
by  John  Robinson  and  Henry  Jacob,  who  had 
been  connected  with  him,  they  took  the  name 
of  Independents,  and  rapidly  spread  over  Eng 
land.  From  Holland  a  body  of  them  carried 


their  tenets  to  America  in  1620.  They  flour 
ished  in  England  during  the  commonwealth, 
Cromwell  himself  being  in  their  communion ; 
but  on  the  restoration  the  act  of  uniformity, 
passed  in  16(52,  excluded  1,900  of  their  minis 
ters  from  office.  The  act  of  toleration,  1689, 
freed  dissenters  from  the  pains  and  penalties 
imposed  on  the  exercise  of  their  worship,  and 
in  1691  a  temporary  union  was  effected  be 
tween  the  English  Presbyterians  and  Indepen 
dents.  '  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  repeal  of  the 
test  and  corporation  acts  in  1828  that  the  Eng 
lish  Independents,  with  other  dissenters,  were 
freed  from  all  civil  disabilities.  Robinson,  under 
whom  they  were  called  Independents,  is  gener 
ally  esteemed  the  father  of  modern  Congrega 
tionalism.  In  their  subsequent  history  the  In 
dependents  in  England  and  the  Congregation- 
alists  in  America  have  held  practically  the  same 
ecclesiastical  views.  Thus  the  Independent 
churches  of  England  formed  a  Congregational 
union  in  1831,  and  an  article  of  their  constitu 
tion  formally  recognizes  the  fellowship  of  the 
churches.  Less  use  of  councils  is  made,  how 
ever,  than  by  the  Congregationalists  in  America. 
The  name  Independent  is  sometimes  used  in 
ecclesiastical  discussion  to  designate  those  Con 
gregationalists  who  incline  toward  the  princi 
ples  of  independency. — In  Scotland  there  is  a 
body  called  New  Independents.  It  originated 
in  a  separation  from  the  church  of  Scotland 
about  the  end  of  the  last  century,  r.nder  the 
lead  of  Robert  and  James  Haldane,  from  whom 
its  members  were  called  Haldanites.  Large 
places  of  public  worship  were  erected  at  Robert 
Haldane's  expense  in  several  towns,  and  acade 
mies  for  the  education  of  prea<  hers  were  es 
tablished  in  Edinburgh,  Dundee,  and  Glasgow. 
The  New  Independents  increased  rapidly,  and 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  had  86 
churches;  they  have  at  present  about  120. 
They  utterly  reject  any  connection  of  church 
and  state,  and  make  little  distinction  between 
the  laity  and  clergy,  considering  it  not  irregu 
lar  that  a  layman,  in  the  absence  of  a  clergy 
man,  should  administer  the  Lord's  supper, 
which  they  celebrate  weekly.  In  other  re 
spects  they  differ  little  in  doctrine  or  worship 
from  other  Independents.  (See  CONGREGA 
TIONALISM.) 

INDEX  LICKORIM,  a  catalogue  of  books  cen 
sured  by  the  supreme  authority  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  as  prejudicial  to  faith  and  good 
morals.  This  catalogue  is  twofold  :  that  of 
books  absolutely  forbidden  to  be  read,  Index 
Librorvm  Prohiliitorum ;  and  that  of  books 
forbidden  only  until  they  are  expurgated  or 
corrected  by  their  author,  Index  Libroriim  Ex- 
pvrgandorvm.  It  is  published  by  the  "Con 
gregation  of  the  Index,"  composed  of  cardinals 
designated  by  the  pope,  with  a  secretary,  who 
is  by  right  a  Dominican  monk,  and  a  body  of 
examining  theologians,  usually  belonging  to  the 
other  religious  orders,  and  called  the  consultvm. 
To  the  corisnltum  are  submitted  the  suspected 
books,  and  they  report  back  to  the  cardinals, 


200 


INDIA 


who  hold  their  deliberations  either  in  presence 
of  the  pope,  or  in  the  house  of  the  senior  car 
dinal  of  their  number.  All  books  that  treat 
ex  professo  of  faith  or  morals,  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  or  of  civil  society,  fall  within  their 
jurisdiction ;  and  the  judgment  of  the  congre 
gation  either  suppresses  the  book  altogether, 
or  commands  it  to  be  corrected,  or  permits  it 
to  be  read  under  certain  conditions,  or  by  a 
certain  class  of  persons  only.  The  first  official 
index  or  catalogue  was  prepared  by  the  inqui 
sition  at  Rome,  and  published  in  1557  by  order 
of  Pope  Paul  IV.  This,  enlarged  and  reduced 
to  a  regular  form  by  a  committee  of  the  coun 
cil  of  Trent,  was  published  anew  in  1564,  with 
the  sanction  of  Pius  IV.,  and  enlarged  by 
Clement  VIII.  in  1595.  The  latest  official  edi 
tion  is  that  of  1819.  The  index  is  continually 
enlarged  by  the  supplementary  lists  of  each 
year.  The  congregation  of  the  index  origina 
ted  with  the  council  of  Trent  under  Pius  IV., 
and  its  official  establishment  is  due  to  Pius  V. 
INDIA,  or  Hindustan  (Hindu,  and  stem  or  sthan, 
settled  habitation),  a  country  of  Asia,  consist 
ing  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  great  southern 
peninsula  of  that  continent,  and  the  adjacent 
territories  S.  of  the  Himalaya  mountains  and 
W.  of  Burmah  and  Siam,  and  forming  the  rich 
est  and  most  populous  foreign  dependency  of 
Great  Britain.  It  is  situated  between  lat.  8° 
and  35°  N.  (or  36°  30'  if  Cashmere  is  included), 
and  Ion.  60°  30'  and  99°  E.,  and  is  bounded  N". 
by  Chinese  Turkistan  and  Thibet,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Himalaya  range,  E.  by 
Burmah  and  Siam,  and  W.  by  Beloochistan  and 
Afghanistan.  The  entire  coast  of  the  country 
E.  of  Cape  Comorin,  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  peninsula,  is  washed  by  the  bay  of  Bengal, 
while  the  S.  TV.  coast  extends  along  the  Indian 
ocean  and  the  Arabian  sea.  The  extent  of 
coast  line  is  upward  of  4,000  m.  in  all,  of 
which  more  than  half  is  on  the  bay  of  Bengal. 
The  extreme  length  of  India  from  N.  to  S.  is 
about  1,900  m.,  and  its  extreme  breadth  from 
E.  to  W.,  exclusive  of  British  Burmah,  about 
1,700  m.  According  to  Dr.  W.  W.  Hunter,  di 
rector  general  of  statistics  to  the  government 
of  India,  the  empire  and  its  feudatory  states 
embrace  a  territory  of  1,556,836  sq.  m.^  with  a 
population  of  not  less  than  200,000,000.  The 
country  is  naturally  divided  into  several  great 
regions.  In  the  north  are  the  extensive  de 
pressed  river  basins  of  the  Indus  and  the  Gan 
ges.  The  central  portion  is  occupied  by  a  dia 
mond-shaped  table  land  having  its  greatest 
length  from  N.  to  S.  An  elevated  wedge-like  i 
district  forms  the  termination  of  the  peninsula,  j 
sloping  from  its  centre  to  the  E.  and  W.  coasts, 
and  southward  to  Cape  Comorin.  The  Vindhya  ! 
mountains  stretch  across  the  central  plateau  j 
from  near  the  W.  coast,  in  lat.  22°  10',  to  the  ! 
Ganges  valley  near  lat.  25°.  N.  of  this  range  is  j 
the  northern  portion  of  the  diamond-shaped  ta-  | 
bleland.  Its  apex  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Delhi ;  the  j 
Aravulli  mountains,  an  offshoot  of  the  Vindhya, 
bound  it  on  the  west,  and  its  X.  E.  margin  is 


parallel  with  the  Ganges.  The  Vindhya  range 
and  its  continuations  to  the  Rajmahal  hills, 
where  the  Ganges  turns  southward  toward  the 
delta,  form  the  northern  boundary  of  the  south 
ern  part  of  the  central  table  land.  It  is  fringed 
on  the  west  by  the  Western  Ghauts  and  on  the 
east  by  the  lower  Eastern  Ghauts,  the  two 
ranges  converging  at  the  south  in  the  Neil- 
gherry  hills,  long  supposed  to  be  the  highest 
mountain  mass  S.  of  the  Himalaya.  A  peak 
in  the  Animalley  hills,  further  S.,  is  now 
known  to  be  8,837  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
higher  than  Mt.  Dodabetta,  the  loftiest  sum 
mit  of  the  Neilgherries.  The  Western  Ghauts 
rise  from  3,000  to  upward  of  5,000  ft.  (in  some 
parts  to  7,000  ft.),  but  the  Eastern  Ghauts  rare 
ly  exceed  3,000  ft.  A  more  detailed  examina 
tion  of  the  physical  configuration  of  India  pre 
sents  the  following  clearly  defined  geographical 
divisions:  1.  The  Himalaya  mountains,  fully 
treated  under  their  own  title.  2.  The  plain  of 
the  Indus,  which  comprises  the  Purijaub,  or  fan- 
shaped  "  country  of  the  five  rivers,"  Indus,  Jhy- 
lum,  Chenaub,  Ravee,  and  Sutlej;  the  great  In 
dian  desert ;  and  the  valley  of  Sinde.  The  Sulei 
man  and  Ilala  mountains  separate  this  region 
from  Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan.  The  gen 
eral  surface  of  the  Punjaub  slopes  southward 
from  the  Himalaya  range.  In  the  north  is  a  nar 
row  but  well  watered  agricultural  belt  of  great 
fertility ;  to  this  succeeds  a  region  where  rain  is 
less  plentiful,  and  where  cultivation  is  confined 
to  the  valleys,  from  4  to  10  m.  in  width,  which 
the  rivers  have  worn  down  below  the  level  of 
the  adjacent  sterile  country,  to  depths  of  from 
10  to  50  ft.  The  alluvial  plain  of  Sinde  is 
arid,  rainless,  and  absolutely  unproductive  with 
out  artificial  irrigation.  It  is  bordered  on  the 
east  by  the  great  desert,  frequently  termed  the 
Thurr,  a  formation  of  hard  clay  overspread 
with  shifting  sand,  which  extends  to  the  basin 
of  the  Ganges,  being  itself  bounded  S.  E.  by 
the  Aravulli  mountains.  The  principal  coun 
tries  of  the  plain  of  the  Indus  are:  the  province 
of  the  Punjaub,  which  includes  the  former  king 
dom  of  Lahore;  the  native  state  of  Bhawal- 
poor;  the  western  portion  of  Rajpootana;  and 
the  commissionership  of  Sinde,  under  the  Bom 
bay  government.  3.  The  plain  of  the  Ganges, 
which,  together  with  all  central  India  nearly 
as  far  S.  as  the  Nerbudda  river,  constitutes 
Hindostan  proper,  the  name  not  having  been 
applied  originally  to  the  whole  country.  This 
region  is  densely  populated,  teems  with  fertil 
ity,  and  is  especially  rich  in  historical  interest. 
On  the  east  the  basin  of  the  Ganges  unites  with 
that  of  the  Brahmapootra,  beyond  which  rise 
the  Cossyah  and  Garrow  hills  and  the  Burmese 
mountaiqs.  The  slope  of  the  Gangetic  plain 
from  the  base  of  the  Himalayas  to  the  bay  of 
Bengal  is  very  gentle,  not  greatly  exceeding 
1,000  ft.  of  descent.  The  British  administra 
tive  divisions  of  this  part  of  India  are:  the 
Northwest  Provinces,  in  which  is  the  territory 
known  as  Rohilcund ;  Oude;  and  Bengal,  of 
which  the  garden-like  state  of  Behar  forma 


f 


• 


INDIA 


201 


the  western  portion.  4.  The  highlands  of  cen 
tral  India.  In  the  most  extensive  sense  these 
comprehend  the  whole  of  the  interior  plateau 
not  included  in  the  Deccan.  On  the  northern 
slope  is  the  table  land  of  Malwa,  with  an  ele 
vation  of  from  1,300  to  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
It  is  occupied  by  a  number  of  principalities 
ruled  by  native  chiefs,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  British  government.  On  the  W.  side 
are  Guzerat  and  Cutch.  A  part  of  Rajpootana 
falls  within  this  geographical  division.  The 
territory,  which  owes  its  name  to  the  former 
rule  of  Rajpoot  princes  over  most  of  it,  con 
sists  of  18  separate  subject-allied  states  of 
various  dimensions,  with  a  collective  area  es 
timated  at  80,000  sq.  m.,  and  about  8,500,000 
inhabitants.  Strictly  speaking,  the  Nerbudda 
valley  is  the  northern  limit  of  the  Deccan ;  but 
the  region  comprising  the  Satpoora  hills,  S.  of 
the  river,  and  lying  between  Ion.  76°  and  82° 
E.  along  the  22d  parallel,  is  generally  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  highlands  of  central  India. 
Here  culminates  the  elevated  ridge  which  has 
been  referred  to  as  crossing  the  peninsula,  in 
peaks  nearly  5,000  ft.  high,  rising  above  numer 
ous  lower  plateaus  and  flat-topped  hills,  below 
which  lies  the  general  surface  of  the  plain, 
which  has  an  elevation  of  about  1,000  ft.  above 
the  sea.  In  this  section  are  the  head  waters 
of  the  Sone,  which  flows  into  the  Ganges,  of 
the  Mahanuddy,  running  directly  into  the  bay 
of  Bengal,  and  of  the  parallel  westward-flow 
ing  Nerbudda  and  Taptee.  There  is  also  a 
southern  drainage  into  the  Godavery.  The 
country  was  anciently  called  Gondwana,  from 
the  Gonds,  its  aboriginal  inhabitants.  It  is  now 
incorporated  politically  within  11  of  the  19  ad 
ministrative  districts  of  the  Central  Provinces. 
5.  The  Deccan,  a  term  originally  applied  to  the 
whole  peninsula  of  India  S.  of  the  Nerbudda 
river,  but  now  restricted  to  the  country  ex 
tending  from  the  Nerbudda  on  the  north  to  the 
Kistnah  on  the  south,  or  from  near  lat.  23°  to 
10°  N.  It  consists  chiefly  of  an  elevated  table 
land,  enclosed  by  low  plains  extending  to  the 
seashore,  the  E.  and  W.  Ghauts  forming  its 
buttresses.  This  t:ible  land  extends  beyond  the 
Kistnah  to  the  Neilgherries,  and  gradually  in 
creases  in  height,  as  it  trends  southward,  from 
1,500  to  2,000  ft,  in  Hyderabad  to  4,000  ft.  in 
Mysore.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Godavery, 
draining  an  area  of  92,800  f-.q.  m.,  the  Kistnah, 
with  a  drainage  basin  of  81,000  sq.  m.,  and  the 
Mahanuddy.  These,  as  well  as  the  Cavery, 
which  waters  Mysore,  flow  to  the  S.  E.  coast. 
The  centre  of  the  N.  portion  of  the  Deccan  is 
occupied  by  the  territories  of  the  nizam  or 
rajah  of  Hyderabad,  a  Mohammedan  prince 
whose  dominions  were  formerly  called  the 
kingdom  of  Golconda,  from  the  city  of  that 
name,  famous  for  its  traffic  in  diamonds.  The 
rest  of  the  Deccan,  with  inconsiderable  excep 
tions,  is  subject  directly  to  British  rule,  under 
the  governments  of  Madras  and  Bombay; 
while  Mysore  is  now  administered  as  a  Brit 
ish  province.  The  narrow  strip  of  land  which 


lies  between  the  Western  Ghauts  and  the  In 
dian  ocean  is  called  the  Malabar  coast,  but  the 
name  properly  belongs  only  to  the  portion  S. 
of  Canara.  The  opposite  coast  of  the  penin 
sula,  on  the  bay  of  Bengal,  is  called  Coroman- 
del.  All  the  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula 
between  the  Kistnah  and  the  southern  boun 
dary  of  Mysore  is  called  the  Carnatic.  6. 
The  triangular  block  in  which  India  termi 
nates  at  the  south.  Here  the  Palnai  hills  con 
front  the  Neilgherries,  and  like  them  over 
look  the  gap  of  Coimbatore,  which  separates 
the  two  ranges.  Extensions  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghauts  stretch  southward  nearly 
to  Cape  Comorin.  Cochin  and  Travancore  are 
subject-allied  territories  in  the  west ;  the  rest 
of  the  region  is  a  part  of  the  Madras  presiden 
cy.  The  entire  tract  is  fertile,  well  wooded, 
and  abundantly  supplied  with  water.  7.  Brit 
ish  Burmah,  described  under  its  own  title,  is 
a  province  geographically  distinct  from  the 
rest  of  India. — For  purposes  of  political  ad 
ministration  under  British  rule,  India  washing 
divided  into  the  three  presidencies  of  Fort  Wil 
liam  in  Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bombay;  but  this 
mode  of  division  has  been  abandoned.  The 
following  table  shows  the  existing  arrangement 
of  provinces,  and  the  area  and  population  of 
each,  according  to  the  official  statement  fur 
nished  to  parliament  by  the  secretary  of  state 
for  India  in  1873.  In  the  case  of  Bengal,  the 
area  is  exclusive  of  waste  and  forest  lands  and 
great  rivers;  and  the  Bannu  district  is  not  in 
cluded  in  the  area  of  the  Punjaub : 


DIVISIONS. 

Dnte  of 
census. 

Area  in  sq. 
mtlei. 

Population. 

Bengal  
N'thwest  Provinces.. 
Oude 

1872 
1672 
18C9 

230.832 
80.!  01 

O'.i  (>7Q 

60.856,859 
80.709.056 
11  2i0747 

Punjaub  
Central  Provinces.  .  . 

1S72 
1872 
1807 

101.752 
64.162 
169(i() 

17,61  1.4JI8 
9.066.038 
2  281  505 

British  Burmah  
Madras  .. 

lS71-'2 
1872 

93.C04 
141  746 

2.562.323 
81.311  142 

Mysore 

1872 

27  077 

5055412 

Coorp  
Bombay  

1872 
1872 

2.100 
127,582 

10J-.312 
14,042,596 

Total  British  India. 

930..'99 

190  8P5  548 

Native  states  

040.147 

46,245,888 

Total  

1,570,746 

237,141,436 

The  statistics  as  to  British  Burmah  are  merely 
estimates  from  the  administration  report  of 
that  province  for  187l-'2.  A  census  was  ta 
ken  there  in  1872,  but  its  results  have  not  yet 
been  published.  Bengal  proper,  Behar,  Orissa, 
Assam,  and  Chota  Nagpore  make  up  the  pres 
ent  province  of  Bengal,  and  together  with  the 
Northwest  Provinces  formerly  constituted  the 
presidency  of  Fort  William  in  Bengal.  Mysore 
and  Coorg  are  under  one  provincial  administra 
tion.  The  chief  executive  authority  of  the  In 
dian  government  is  the  governor  general,  or 
viceroy,  who  is  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  re 
ceives  a  salary  of  £25,000  per  annum,  besides 
allowances.  He  acts  under  the  direction  of  the 
secretary  of  state  for  India,  a  member  of  the 


202 


INDIA 


British  ministry,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council  of 
15  persons,  1)  of  whom  must  have  had  at  least 
10  years'  experience  in  India.  Originally  7  of 
these  councillors  were  appointed  by  the  East 
India  company,  but  the  secretary  of  state  for 
India  has  the  power  to  fill  future  vacancies. 
Their  term  of  office  is  10  years.  The  law- 
making  power  is  vested  in  the  governor  gen 
eral  in  council.  The  seat  of  government  is  at 
Calcutta.  The  governors  of  Madras  and  Bom 
bay  are  appointed  directly  by  the  crown,  but 
the  lieutenant  governors  and  commissioners  of 
the  other  provinces  are  appointed  by  the  vice 
roy  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  crown.  The 
governor  general's  council  consists  of  five  or 
dinary  members,  and  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  as  an  extraordinary  member.  The 
military  force  maintained  by  the  British  govern 
ment  in  India  in  1872  numbered  190,2(54  men, 
of  whom,  exclusive  of  officers,  G0,632  were 
English,  stationed  chiefly  in  the  Punjaub  and 
along  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  All  appoint 
ments  to  the  civil  service  are  m:ide  upon  com 
petitive  examination.  The  district  is  the  unit 
of  the  general  civil  administration  of  the  Brit 
ish  in  India.  The  districts  vary  greatly  in 
area  and  population,  as,  for  example,  from 
1,200  to  12,000  sq.  m.,  and  from  500,000  to 
1,000,000  inhabitants.  The  chief  government 
official  in  each  district  is  the  collector  and 
magistrate.  He  receives  the  revenue,  is  in 
trusted  with  magisterial  powers  and  certain  ju 
dicial  functions,  and  is  generally  responsible 
for  the  public  welfare.  He  is  usually  aided  by 
several  deputies  and  assistants.  The  highest 
judicial  authority  in  the  district  is  vested  in 
the  district  judge,  who  exercises  original  juris 
diction  in  criminal  cases,  reviews  the  judicial 
determinations  of  the  collector  and  magistrate, 
and  hears  appeals  from  the  numerous  civil 
courts  held  by  native  judges.  There  are  high 
courts  at  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and  Madras,  with 
general  appellate  jurisdiction,  special  powers 
concerning  cases  affecting  Europeans,  and  origi 
nal  local  jurisdiction.  A  code  of  criminal  pro 
cedure  regulates  the  administration  of  the  laws 
relating  to  offences. — With  the  exception  of 
Nepaul  and  Bootan  in  the  north,  the  native 
states  of  India  are  all  more  or  less  subject  to 
British  control  or  interference.  Estimates  of 
the  area  and  population  of  these  states  appear 
in  the  following  table: 


NATIVE  STATES  UNDER 

Ar.a  1:1  eq.  m. 

Population. 

Government  of  In  lia  

88">.20G 

27,716.852 

JJeniral  

71U56 

2.13.i.f)(55 

Vhwest  Provinces          5890 

1,264.6.  »1 

Punjaub  

43.877 

5.08C.502 

Central  Provinces. 

28.8!»9 

1.1)95,275 

"             Madras  

81.958 

2.371.38,3 

Bombay  

72,076 

6.552.170 

Total  native  states  

(146.147           40  245,888 

in  Cashmere,  although  that  country  is  not  in 
cluded  in  the  above  estimates.     Bhawalpoor  is 


the  next  in  importance  of  the  states  supervised 
by  the  Punjaub  government,  which  also  super 
intends  the  Sikh  districts  lying  between  the 
Sutlej  and  the  Jumna.  Further  S.  is  Rajpoot- 
ana,  the  agent  for  which  resides  at  Ajmeer,  in 
the  small  British  district  of  that  name,  in  the 
centre  of  the  country.  The  native  states  of 
central  India  form  what  is  called  the  Indore 
agency.  Among  them  are  Gwalior,  Bhopal, 
and  the  Mahratta  country.  Guzerat,  Catty- 
war,  and  Cutch  are  under  the  Bombay  admin 
istration.  In  the  Decsan,  the  chief  dependen 
cy  is  Hyderabad.  The  Madras  government 
presides  over  Cochin  and  Travancore  in  the 
extreme  south.  The  French  possess  Pondi- 
cherry  and  Carical  on  the  Coromandel  coast, 
and  Mahe  on  the  Malabar  coast,  as  well  as  the 
town  of  Chandernagore,  17  m.  N.  of  Calcutta; 
but  the  aggregate  area  of  the  French  colonial 
possessions  in  India  is  estimated  at  only  196 
sq.  m.,  and  the  population  at  about  260,000. 
The  territory  of  Goa,  on  the  Bombay  coast, 
Damaun,  a  seaport  of  North  Concan,  and  Diu 
island  off  the  southern  coast  of  Catty  war,  are 
colonies  of  Portugal.  Goa  has  an  area  of  about 
1,030  sq.  m.  and  contains  about  418,000  inhab 
itants. — The  principal  mountains  and  rivers  of 
India  have  been  referred  to  in  the  general 
description  of  the  country.  The  respective 
lengths  of  the  chief  rivers  are :  the  Indus,  1,960 
m. ;  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  each  over 
1,500  m.,  if  the  latter  be  regarded  as  including 
the  Sanpo ;  Jumna,  a  tributary  of  the  Ganges, 
800 ;  Sutlej,  a  branch  of  the  Indus,  900 ;  Clie- 
naub,  a  tributary  of  the  Indus,  750 ;  Gunduck, 
a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  400 ;  Godavery,  900 ; 
Kistnah,  800;  Nerbudda,  800;  Mahanuddy, 
550;  Cavery,  470;  and  Taptee,  450.  India, 
considering  its  great  extent,  is  singularly  de 
ficient  in  lakes.  In  the  province  of  Orissa  is 
the  Chilka  lake,  44  m.  long  and  from  5  to  20 
m.  broad;  and  on  the  Coromandel  coast  is 
the  Pulicat  lake,  33  m.  long  and  llm.  broad. 
These,  however,  are  salt,  and  are  in  fact  little 
I  more  than  lagoons  formed  by  the  sea  breaking 
i  over  the  low  sandy  shore.  There  are  a  few 
j  other  lakes,  but  none  of  much  size. — The  cli 
mate  of  India  varies  from  that  of  the  temper 
ate  zone  in  the  Himalaya  to  the  tropical  heat  of 
the  lowlands.  On  the  central  and  southern  ta 
ble  lands  the  climate  is  comparatively  mild,  the 
thermometer  falling  as  low  as  the  freezing 
point  in  winter ;  but  on  the  great  plains  which 
contain  the  principal  cities  and  the  bulk  of  the 
population  the  heat  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  is  excessive,  the  thermometer  fre 
quently  rising  to  100°  and  110°  F.  A  marked 
influence  is  exercised  on  the  climate  and  sea 
sons  of  Hindostan  by  the  winds  called  mon 
soons,  which  blow  half  the  year  from  the  S. 
W.  and  the  other  half  from  the  N.  E.  The  S. 
W.  monsoon  begins  in  the  south  of  Ilindostan 
early  in  June,  and  in  the  north  somewhat  later. 
It  brings  with  it  from  the  Indian  ocean  floods 
j  of  rain,  which  continues  to  fall  at  intervals  un- 
i  til  the  end  of  September.  During  this  rainy 


INDIA 


203 


season  the  fall  of  rain  is  in  Bengal  from  50  to 
80  in.  The  N.  E.  monsoon  begins  about  the 
middle  of  October,  and  brings  rain  from  the 
bay  of  Bengal,  which  falls  in  torrents  on  the 
Coromandel  coast  until  the  middle  or  end  of 
December,  during  which  period  the  opposite 
coast  of  the  peninsula  enjoys  fair  weather  and 
northerly  breezes.  From  December  to  June  is 
the  dry  season,  during  which  little  rain  falls. — 
The  great  plain  of  the  Ganges  is  a  rich,  black, 
diluvial  mould.  In  some  parts  of  Bengal  ex 
tensive  tracts  of  clayey  soil  are  found.  In  the 
Punjaub  a  black  fertile  soil  prevails,  which  to 
the  southwest  in  Sinde  and  Guzerat  becomes 
sandy.  On  the  table  land  of  Malwa  the  soil 
is  a  deep,  rich,  black  mould.  On  the  great 
northern  table  land  it  is  generally  a  fertile 
loam  on  a  substratum  of  rock.  On  the  Malabar 
coast  a  red  clay  soil  is  found.  On  the  Coro 
mandel  coast  the  soil  is  mostly  sandy  from  the 
sea  to  the  foot  of  the  Ghauts.  A  complete  ge 
ological  survey  of  India  was  commenced  22 
years  ago,  and  is  still  in  progress.  Coal,  iron, 
and  salt  are  the  most  important  and  abundant 
mineral  products.  The  principal  coal  fields  are 
in  the  valley  of  the  river  Dammooda,  N".  W. 
of  Calcutta,  where  they  occupy  an  area  of 
1,500  sq.  m.  Of  497,000  tons  of  coal  mined  in 
India  in  18G8,  493,000  tons  were  obtained  from 
the  Raniganj  bed  in  this  district.  Other  coal- 
bearing  localities  are  Chota  Nagpore,  South 
Rewah,  and  the  upper  Sone  valley,  where  seams 
are  known  to  exist,  although  they  have  never 
been  thoroughly  explored ;  the  Nerbudda  val 
ley  and  the  Satpoora  hills  in  central  India ;  and 
the  sandstone  region  which  forms  the  basin  of 
the  Godavery  and  its  affluents  the  Pranhita  and 
Wurdah.  Coal  of  good  quality  is  also  found 
in  the  Cossyah  hills,  and  in  the  wild  and  dense 
ly  timbered  tracts  of  eastern  Assam.  The 
average  proportion  of  fixed  carbon  in  Indian 
coal  is  52  per  cent.,  and  there  is  from  10  to  30 
per  cent,  of  ash.  Iron  is  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  country,  the  sources  of  supply 
being  red  hematite,  magnetic,  specular,  and 
clay  ores,  and  surface  deposits.  It  has  been 
manufactured  in  India  for  centuries.  Salt  is 
procured,  in  immense  quantities  and  of  remark 
able  purity,  from  the  salt  range  of  the  Pun 
jaub.  In  India  the  amount  of  salt  consumed 
bears  a  greater  proportion  to  other  articles  of 
food  than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 
Gold  is  found  in  the  gravel  of  streams,  but  on 
ly  in  small  quantities.  It  occurs  in  the  north 
western  Himalaya  districts,  where  silver  asso 
ciated  with  lead  is  also  found,  and  in  Chota 
Nagpore,  Assam,  the  valley  of  the  Godavery, 
and  many  other  parts.  Lead  is  obtained 
from  the  same  portion  of  the  Himalaya,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  yield  of  copper  in  j 
Gurwhal,  Nepaul,  and  Sikkim,  and  near  Sing- 
bhoom  in  Bengal.  Antimony  occurs  abun 
dantly  in  northern  India,  and  cobalt  in  small 
quantities  near  Jeypoor  in  Rajpootana.  There 
are  valuable  tin  mines  in  British  Burmah,  and 
petroleum  has  been  discovered  in  the  Pegu  dis 


trict  of  that  province,  as  well  as  in  some  parts 
of  the  Punjaub.  Among  the  gems  found  in 
India  are  the  diamond,  ruby,  topaz,  beryl,  car- 
nelian,  and  garnet.  The  yield  of  Indian  dia 
monds  has  largely  diminished,  but  some  are 
still  obtained  in  the  Central  Provinces  and  in 
southern  India.  Beautiful  agates  are  exported 
from  Guzerat, — The  characteristics  of  Indian 
vegetation  vary  with  the  zones  of  elevation. 
The  flora  of  the  mountain  region  of  the  north 
corresponds  closely  with  that  of  Europe.  This 
section  is  the  home  of  the  pine  and  other  coni 
fers.  No  species  of  pine  is  native  to  the 
peninsula,  but  on  the  mountains  of  British  Bur 
mah  grow  forests  of  the  pimis  Klasiana. 
Along  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya  range  from 
Sikkim  to  Assam  is  found  the  jicus  clastica, 
which  yields  caoutchouc.  Below  the  conifer 
ous  forests  are  tracts  of  bamboo,  whence  mil 
lions  of  bamboos  are  annually  exported  down 
the  Ganges.  Here  also  grows  the  saul  (shorca 
robusta),  second  in  value  only  to  the  teak 
among  the  timber  trees  of  India.  There  are 
extensive  teak  forests  on  the  trap  formations 
of  the  highlands  of  central  India.  In  Sinde  and 
the  Punjaub,  the  babul  (acacia  Arabica)  and 
a  leafless  caper  shrub  (capparis  aphylld)  cover 
broad  belts  of  country.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  timber  growth  of  the  Northwest  Provinces 
consists  of  the  deodar  tree,  from  which  rail 
way  sleepers  are  made.  The  sissu  is  another 
important  Indian  timber  tree.  There  are  plan 
tations  of  sandalwood  in  Mysore,  and  the  valu 
able  ironwood  tree  occurs  in  the  Burmese  com- 
missionership  of  Aracan.  The  Indian  govern 
ment  maintains  a  thorough  system  of  forest 
conservancy.  Among  the  characteristic  forms 
of  vegetation  are  the  celebrated  banian  tree 
and  the  sacred  peepul  (ficus  religiosa).  The 
palm  family  is  represented  by  the  cocoanut 
and  betelnut.  Rice  is  the  staple  cereal  pro 
duction  of  the  plains,  which  also  yield  cotton, 
sugar  cane,  indigo,  jute,  and  opium.  Maize, 
millet,  peas,  beans,  and  many  varieties  of  grain 
peculiar  to  the  country  are  also  raised.  Wheat 
and  barley  are  cultivated  on  the  higher  grounds. 
There  are  extensive  tea  gardens  in  Assam  and 
the  mountainous  districts  of  the  north,  and 
the  cultivation  of  coffee  is  carried  on  among 
the  hills  of  southern  India.  The  cinchona 
plant  was  introduced  into  India  from  South 
America  in  1860,  and  has  been  grown  with 
great  success  among  the  Neilgherries,  and  in 
other  sections.  Pepper  is  produced  in  Mala 
bar.  The  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  are 
found  in  the  elevated  regions,  while  those  of  the 
tropics,  prominent  among  which  is  the  mango, 
grow  in  the  lower  and  warmer  parts  of  the  coun 
try. — In  the  geographical  distribution  of  ani 
mals,  the  fauna  of  India  belongs  to  the  zoological 
province  including  southern  Asia  and  the  west 
ern  portion  of  the  Indian  archipelago.  Ten 
species  offelidce  are  found  S.  of  the  Himalaya, 
including  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  cheetah,  and 
the  true  cats  (F.  catus).  The  Indian  lion  is 
characterized  by  a  very  short  mane.  Of  all 


204 


INDIA 


mammals,  the  so-called  royal  or  Bengal  tiger  is 
the  most  destructive  to  human  life.  The  Asiatic 
elephant  (E.  Indicus)  is  captured  for  purposes 
of  domestication;  the  tame  animals  will  not 
breed,  so  that  the  supply  has  to  be  kept  up 
from  the  forests.  There  are  two  species  of 
rhinoceros  whose  range  includes  India,  both 
single-horned.  Of  these  the  larger  (R.  Indi 
cus)  is  met  with  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya 
and  in  Assam;  the  smaller  (R.  Sondaicus)  was 
formerly  called  the  Javan  rhinoceros,  but  is 
now  known  to  frequent  the  mainland,  extend 
ing  into  western  Bengal.  The  dromedary  is 
enumerated  by  Blyth  in  his  catalogue  of  Indian 
mammals ;  the  Bactrian  camel  has  been  intro 
duced.  Two  genera  of  four-horned  antelopes 
occur  in  the  Sivalik  hills.  Several  species  of 
deer  are  met  with.  Most  of  the  Indian  mon 
keys  belong  to  the  gcuussemnopithecus,  having 
a  long  tail,  which,  however,  is  not  prehensile. 
The  sacred  monkey  of  the  Hindoos  (S.  entellus) 
is  the  species  best  known.  Bears,  wild  boars, 
foxes,  and  squirrels  are  numerous,  and  hares 
and  porcupines  abound.  The  Indian  hyrena  is 
the  striped  species,  and,  like  the  jackal,  is  very 
common.  The  buffalo  is  found  wild  through 
out  the  peninsula,  and  is  also  domesticated; 
other  domestic  animals  are  the  horse,  the  ass, 
the  yak,  and  the  goat.  Frugivorous,  insecti 
vorous,  and  leaf-nosed  bats  are  all  denizens  of 
India.  Many  of  the  birds  of  the  country  are 
distinguished  by  the  most  gorgeous  plumage ; 
such  are  the  various  species  of  cuckoos  and 
parrots,  the  kingfishers,  and  the  pigeons. 
Among  the  birds  of  prey  we  find  eagles,  fal 
cons,  hawks,  and  vultures;  and  among  the 
waders  are  cranes,  herons,  and  storks.  Crows 
and  owls  are  numerous  in  many  districts.  The 
gallinaceous  birds  are  represented  by  par 
tridges,  pheasants,  quails,  wild  peacocks,  and 
the  common  domestic  fowls  of  Europe  and 
America,  which  originally  were  derived  from 
southern  Asia.  India  abounds  in  dangerous 
reptiles.  Nearly  150  species  of  snakes  inhabit 
the  peninsula,  many  of  which  are  fatally  venom 
ous.  Thos3  most  dreaded  are  the  celebrated 
cobra  de  capello ;  the  hamadryad  (opliiopliagm 
elaps),  a  hooded  tree  snake ;  the  krait  (bunga- 
rus  ccerulcus) ;  and  the  daboia  (viper a  Russel- 
lii),  known  in  Ceylon  as  the  tic  polon^a.  In 
1869,  14,521)  persons  lost  their  lives  in  India  in 
consequence  of  snake  bites;  and  in  1871  the  to 
tal  number  of  deaths  known  to  have  been  caused 
by  dangerous  animals  of  all  kinds  was  18,078. 
Crocodiles  haunt  the  rivers  in  great  numbers, 
and  in  many  districts  tortoises  and  turtles  are 
plentiful.  The  rivers  swarm  with  fish,  which 
form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  people  in 
Orissa  and  other  portions  of  Bengal,  British 
Bunnah,  the  Northwest  Provinces,  the  Pun- 
jaub,  and  Canara.  The  varieties  of  insects  are 
innumerable. — The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  social  life  of  India  is  the  Hindoo  insti 
tution  of  caste,  for  an  account  of  which  see 
INDIA,  RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE 
OF.  The  condition  of  the  people  is  as  various 


as  are  the  different  regions  they  inhabit.  For 
the  most  part  they  are  comfortably  housed. 
The  system  of  townships  or  villages  has  pre 
vailed  for  ages,  and  has  survived  through  innu 
merable  revolutions  and  conquests.  Each  town 
ship  manages  its  own  internal  affairs,  levies 
upon  its  members  the  taxes  demanded  by  the 
state,  organizes  its  own  police,  and  is  responsi 
ble  for  all  property  taken  by  thieves  within  its 
limits.  Jt  administers  justice  to  its  own  mem 
bers,  punishing  small  offences  and  deciding 
petty  lawsuits.  It  also  keeps  in  repair  the 
roads  and  public  edifices,  and  provides  for  the 
maintenance  of  public  worship  and  the  support 
of  the  poor.  For  all  these  duties  it  provides 
the  proper  officers,  who  are  paid  by  fees,  some 
times  in  money,  but  more  often  in  produce. 
Cultivation  is  laboriously  though  not  very  skil 
fully  pursued  by  the  natives,  whose  implements 
are  usually  of  a  rude  kind.  Manure  is  little  em 
ployed,  as  the  bulk  of  the  people  use  little  or 
no  animal  food  and  keep  scarcely  any  stock. 
The  religious  prejudices  of  the  people  also  pre 
vent  them  from  using  as  manure  the  dung  of 
cattle,  which  is  considered  holy  and  devoted  to 
religious  purposes.  The  climate  and  sanitary 
condition  of  India  make  the  country  peculiarly 
subject  to  pestilence  and  famine ;  bad  water  and 
bad  drainage  give  rise  to  disease,  and  the  rav 
ages  of  the  periodical  epidemics  are  aggrava 
ted  by  the  immense  congregations  of  people  on 
long  pilgrimages.  Medical  dispensaries  and 
hospitals  have  been  established  by  the  gov 
ernment  in  most  of  the  provinces.  Civil  or 
der  is  maintained  by  a  police  force  of  about 
190,000  constables,  in  addition  to  the  watch 
men  of  the  village  communities.  The  inhabi 
tants  of  India  are  the  most  litigious  people 
in  the  world  ;  1,088,153  civil  suits  were  pend 
ing  in  the  country  in  187l-'2. — In  none  of  the 
fine  arts  except  architecture  have  the  Hindoos 
attained  much  eminence.  Their  paintings  are 
of  very  little  merit,  though  the  walls  of  tem 
ples,  of  palaces,  and  of  the  better  class  of  pri 
vate  dwellings  are  often  ornamented  at  great 
cost  with  pictures  illustrating  the  characters 
and  events  of  their  mythology.  More  atten 
tion  has  been  paid  to  sculpture  than  to  paint 
ing,  and  in  the  temples  cut  from  the  living 
rock  great  numbers  of  statues  are  contained, 
some  single  figures  and  others  large  groups. 
Many  of  these  are  bold  and  spirited  in  design, 
though  the  human  form  is  not  exhibited  in  good 
proportion  or  with  its  parts  well  developed. 
In  many  districts  of  India  splendid  monu 
ments  of  architecture  abound,  mostly  the  work 
of  past  ages,  and  many  of  remote  antiquity. 
Such  are  the  Jain  temples  at  Ajmeer  and  else- 
!  where,  some  of  which  were  built  long  before 
|  the  Christian  era,  and  are  distinguished  not 
only  for  size  and  splendor  of  ornamentation, 
but  for  symmetry,  beauty  of  proportion,  and 
refinement  of  taste.  The  mosques,  palaces, 
and  tombs  erected  by  the  Mohammedan  empe 
rors  are  the  finest  specimens  in  the  world  of 
the  Saracenic  style  of  architecture.  Those  at 


INDIA 


205 


Agra,  Delhi,  and  Lucknow  are  especially  re 
markable  for  their  delicacy,  beauty,  and  taste. 
The  most  wonderful  structures  in  the  country 
are  perhaps  the  great  rock  temples  in  the  west 
ern  part  of  the  Deccan,  and  those  near  Born- 
bay.  (See  ELEPIIANTA,  and  ELLORA.) — Among 
the  most  important  cities  of  India  are  Calcutta, 
the  capital,  on  the  Iloogly,  in  Bengal ;  Bom 
bay,  the  chief  seaport  on  the  "W.  coast;  Ma 
dras,  on  the  Coromandel  coast;  Benares,  the 
holy  city  of  the  Hindoos,  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges ;  Patna, 
an  important  centre  of  the  opium  trade  in  Be- 
har  ;  Allahabad,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Gan 
ges  and  the  Jumna ;  Lucknow,  the  capital  of 
Oude ;  Delhi,  the  metropolis  of  the  Moham 
medan  empire  in  India;  Lahore  and  Amritsir, 
in  the  Punjaub ;  Baroda,  in  Guzerat ;  Poonah, 
in  the  territory  of  Bombay ;  Nagpore,  in  the 
heart  of  central  India;  and  Hyderabad,  the 
capital  of  the  Nizam's  Dominions.  Almost 
all  of  these  cities  contain  upward  of  100,000 
inhabitants,  as  do  also  Agra,  Ahmedabad, 
Bangalore,  and  several  others. — A  vast  net 
work  of  railways,  constructed  by  the  Brit 
ish,  is  rapidly  overspreading  the  entire  land. 
Lines  are  already  completed  running  up  the 
Gangetic  valley  from  Calcutta  to  Allahabad 
and  Delhi,  with  a  continuation  to  Lahore,  and 
a  branch  to  Lucknow ;  from  Bombay  to  Allah 
abad,  thus  connecting  the  former  city  with 
Calcutta;  also  from  Bombay  northward  to 
Baroda,  and  southward  across  the  peninsula  to 
Madras.  Many  other  lines  are  in  progress  of 
construction.  In  1873,  5,478f  m.  of  railway 
were  in  operation.  Telegraph  lines,  with  an 
aggregate  length  of  15,102  m.  in  1871,  connect 
all  the  important  places  in  India.  There  are 
three  routes  of  telegraphic  communication  with 
England :  one  consisting  of  land  lines  from  Con 
stantinople  to  Bagdad,  and  thence  to  Fao  at  the 
head  of  the  Persian  gulf,  whence  a  submarine 
cable  leads  to  the  port  of  Kurrachee  near  the 
mouths  of  the  Indus ;  a  second,  by  means  of  the 
same  cable  to  Bushire,  which  is  one  of  its  re 
peating  stations,  and  thence  to  the  European 
system  by  way  of  Teheran,  Tim's,  and  Kertch ; 
and  the  third  being  the  submarine  cable  be 
tween  Suez  and  Bombay.  A  submarine  cable 
also  extends  from  Madras  to  Singapore,  and 
the  latter  port  is  similarly  connected  with 
Hong  Kong.  The  chief  public  works  of  na 
tive  construction  are  reservoirs  or  tanks  for 
purposes  of  irrigation,  which  exist  in  immense 
numbers  and  frequently  of  great  size  and  cost, 
being  often  magnificently  built  of  stone.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  canals  constructed  by  the 
native  princes  in  former  ages,  but  these  have 
mostly  fallen  into  neglect  and  disuse.  The 
British  government  has  conducted  an  extensive 
and  systematic  course  of  internal  improvement. 
Immense  canals,  inferior  to  none  in  the  world, 
have  been  constructed,  the  chief  of  which  are 
those  of  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges,  to  facili 
tate  not  only  irrigation  but  the  navigation  of 
those  rivers.  These  great  systems  of  irriga 


tion  comprehend  not  only  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Ganges  basin,  but  the  valley  of  the  In 
dus,  and  districts  in  Orissa,  Madras,  Bombay, 
and  other  parts  of  the  country. — Silk,  cotton, 
and  woollen  goods  are  the  leading  manufac 
tures  of  India.  Sericulture  is  extensively  car 
ried  on  in  Bengal  and  Mysore,  and  both  these 
provinces  are  the  seats  of  silk  manufacture. 
Delhi  is  celebrated  for  its  silk  embroideries, 
and  Benares  and  Ahmedabad  for  their  gold 
brocades.  The  manufactures  of  the  Punjaub 
comprise  silks,  woollens,  and  white  and  colored 
cotton  goods,  the  estimated  value  of  the  annual 
production  being  £4,850,000.  Cotton  is  also 
manufactured  in  Oude,  the  Central  Provinces, 
and  Mysore.  In  the  latter  country  there  are 
cutlery  works  and  manufactories  of  gold  and 
silver  lace.  As  the  great  bulk  of  the  products 
is  consumed  in  the  country  itself,  the  internal 
trade  is  very  large,  but  there  are  only  meagre 
statistics  concerning  it.  Silver  is  the  standard 
of  value,  and  the  monetary  unit  is  the  rupee, 
which  is  worth  about  two  shillings  sterling. 
The  foreign  trade  of  India  has  for  centuries 
been  famous  for  its  lucrative  nature.  There 
were  said  to  be  1,230  square-rigged  vessels,  948 
steamers,  and  over  50,000  native  craft  engaged 
in  its  carriage  in  1871-'2.  In  that  year  the  val 
ues  of  some  of  the  principal  exports  were  as 
follows:  coffee,  £1,380,409;  cotton,  £21,272,- 
430;  grains,  including  rice,  £4,805,748;  indi 
go,  £3,705,475;  jute,  £4,117,308;  opium,  £13,- 
365,228;  seeds, '£2,728,127;  tea,  £1,482,185; 
and  wool,  £906,699.  The  chief  articles  import 
ed  in  the  same  year  were :  cotton  twist  and 
yarn,  £2,473,353  ;  cotton  piece  goods,  £15,009,- 
981 ;  machinery,  £405,835  ;  manufactured  met 
als,  £925,839;  raw  metals,  £1,464,936 ;  railway 
materials  and  stores,  £516,996;  salt,  £913,- 
915;  raw  silk,  £651,595;  silk  goods,  £480,948; 
wines  and  liquors,  £1,381,961.  Of  gold  and 
silver  £11,573,813  were  imported  in  1871-'2, 
and  £1,476,093  exported,  leaving  a  balance  of 
£10,097,720  remaining  in  India.  This  flow  of 
the  precious  metals  into  India  has  for  ages 
been  a  remarkable  feature  of  the  commerce  of 
that  country.  A  considerable  foreign  traffic, 
amounting  to  more  than  £1,000,000  in  value 
annually,  is  carried  on  over  the  Himalayan 
passes,  with  Afghanistan,  Turkistan,  and  Thi 
bet. — The  main  sources  of  government  revenue 
are  the  land  tax,  opium  sales,  salt  duties,  cus 
toms,  and  excise  and  stamp  tax.  More  than 
two  fifths  of  the  receipts  are  derived  from  the 
land  settlements.  The  terms  of  these  vary  in 
different  provinces,  but  the  principle  generally 
sought  to  be  applied  is  that  the  government  is 
entitled  to  receive  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
net  produce  of  the  land.  Three  modes  of  set 
tlement  are  in  vogue:  the  zemindary,  in  which 
proprietors  known  as  zemindars  are  responsi 
ble  for  the  assessments  of  given  districts,  thus 
standing  in  the  position  of  landlords  them 
selves;  the  village  system,  in  which  the  vil 
lagers  hold  the  land  collectively  as  toward 
the  government ;  and  the  ryotwar  system,  in 


206 


INDIA 


which  the  individual  cultivators,  known  as 
ryots,  pay  assessments  directly  to  the  govern 
ment.  Bengal  is  for  the  most  part  subject  to 
a  permanent  settlement  made  on  a  fixed  basis 
for  ever  with  the  zemindars  in  1793;  so  that 
the  land  revenue  of  Bengal  proper,  Behar,  and 
Orissa  yields  but  little  more  now  than  it  did 
then.  Generally  throughout  the  rest  of  the 
country,  however,  the  government  demand  is 
a  certain  percentage  of  an  assumed  rental, 
which  rental  is  fixed  for  a  term  of  years,  quite 
commonly  30.  In  northern  India  the  tenure 
by  village  communities  prevails,  but  Madras 
and  Bombay  are  subject  to  the  ryotwar  sys 
tem.  The  government  has  a  monopoly  of  the 
opium  grown  in  Bengal,  which  it  buys  of  the 
cultivator  at  a  fixed  price,  and  sells  in  the  fol 
lowing  year.  A  heavy  duty  is  levied  on  Malwa 
opium,  which  can  be  legally  exported  only 
through  the  port  of  Bombay.  There  is  a  duty 
on  imported  salt  in  Bengal,  a  government  salt 
monopoly  in  Madras,  and  an  excise  on  the  salt 
works  in  Bombay.  In  the  year  ending  March 
31,  18T2,  the  revenue  included  £20,520,337 
from  land,  £9,253,859  from  opium,  £5,966,595 
from  salt,  £2,575,990  from  customs,  £2,369,109 
from  excise  on  spirits  and  drugs,  and  £2,476,- 
333  from  stamps.  The  total  ordinary  revenue 
of  the  Indian  government  for  that  year  was 
£50,110,215,  and  the  total  ordinary  expendi 
ture  £46,986,038.  For  1872-'3  the  revenue 
was  £50,220,360,  and  the  total  expenditure 
was  £50,641,052,  of  which  £2,184,570  was  ex 
traordinary  expenditure  for  public  works.  Ex 
cluding  the  latter  item,  there  was  a  surplus  of 
£1,763,878;  including  it,  the  deficit  for  the 
year  amounted  to  £420,692.  The  regular  es 
timates  for  1873-'4  were  as  follows  :  Revenue, 
£49,476,000  ;  ordinary  expenditure,  £51,577,- 
300,  which  included  £3,920,000  for  the  relief 
of  the  famine  in  Bengal ;  extraordinary  expen 
diture  upon  public  works,  £3,541,000;  total 
expenditure,  £55,118,300;  surplus,  excluding 
expenditures  on  account  of  the  famine  and  for 
public  works,  £1,818,700 ;  deficit,  excluding 
expenditure  for  public  works,  £2,101,300  ;  de 
ficit,  including  it,  £5,642,300.  The  prelimi 
nary  estimates  of  the  governor  general  for  the 
fiscal  year  1874-'5  show  a  revenue  of  £48,984,- 
000  and  a  total  expenditure  of  £54,9:]5,000, 
thus  leaving  a  deficit  of  £5,951,000.  The  ex 
penditure  comprises  £2,580,000  for  famine  re 
lief,  and  £4,563,000  for  public  works  ;  if  these 
items  were  excluded,  there  would  be  a  surplus 
of  £1,192,000.  The  deficit  would  be  reduced 
to  £1,388,000  if  the  amount  laid  out  on  public 
works  were  excluded  from  the  total  expendi 
ture. — A  well  graded  system  of  education, 
providing  instruction  for  all  classes,  has  been 
in  process  of  organization  and  development 
in  India  since  1854.  There  are  three  univer 
sities,  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay  re 
spectively.  With  each  of  these  is  affiliated  a 
certain  number  of  colleges,  which  fit  the  uni 
versity  undergraduates  for  the  higher  exami 
nations  ;  and  next  below  in  the  scale  are  the 


high  schools  where  students  are  prepared  to 
enter  the  university.  These  institutions  com 
plete  the  scheme  for  the  education  of  the 
wealthier  classes.  After  them  come  the  mid 
dle  schools,  where  the  course  of  instruction  is 
intermediate  between  that  of  the  primary  and 
the  high  schools.  Elementary  education  is  af 
forded  by  the  primary  or  village  schools,  of 
which  the  several  provinces  contain  37,544, 
there  being  9,701  in  receipt  of  government 
aid.  Of  colleges  there  are  28  in  Bengal,  7  in 
the  Northwest  Provinces,  1  in  Oudc,  3  in  the 
Punjaub,  13  in  Madras,  and  8  in  Bombay.  The 
total  number  of  high  schools  is  349,  of  middle 
schools  3,096,  of  female  schools  2,011,  and  of 
normal  schools  132.  The  professional  schools 
comprise  civil  engineering  colleges  at  Roorkee, 
Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Poonah ;  medical  col 
leges  at  Bombay,  Madras,  Lahore,  and  Calcut 
ta  (the  attendance  of  students  at  the  last  in 
1871-'2  numbering  1,046  persons) ;  and  schools 
of  design  and  decorative  art  at  Calcutta  and 
Madras.  There  are  museums  in  many  of  the 
principal  cities.  From  the  outset  it  has  been 
the  object  of  the  Indian  educational  system, 
while  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  the  Eng 
lish  language,  to  diffuse  a  knowledge  of  Euro 
pean  science,  art,  and  philosophy  by  means  of 
the  native  languages.  There  is  an  iniluential 
native  press,  and  several  hundreds  of  books  in 
various  tongues  are  published  annually.  Sci 
entific  and  literary  societies,  including  both 
Europeans  and  natives  in  their  membership, 
flourish  in  many  of  the  cities.  Prominent 
among  them  is  the  Bengal  Asiatic  society  at 
Calcutta,  founded  in  1784  by  Sir  William 
Jones. — Of  the  earliest  period  of  the  history 
of  India  little  is  known  with  certainty.  The 
sacred  writings  of  the  Hindoos  give  to  their 
ancient  history  an  incredible  chronology,  ex 
tending  over  millions  of  years,  and  treat  of 
heroes,  kings,  and  dynasties,  in  most  instan 
ces  probably  merely  mythical  or  fabulous.  It 
is  the  general  opinion  of  the  best  authorities 
that  the  Hindoos  were  not  the  first  inhabitants 
of  the  country,  but  were  an  invading  race  who 
subdued  and  enslaved  the  aborigines,  who  are 
still  represented  by  rude  tribes  in  the  central 
and  southern  parts  of  India,  such  as  the  Bhccls, 
the  Kolees,  the  Gonds,  and  the  Shanars.  The 
distinction  of  castes  did  not  exist  among  these 
people,  and  their  religion  seems  to  have  con 
sisted  of  the  worship  of  a  variety  of  spiritual 
deities.  The  Aryan  Hindoos  are  supposed  to 
have  entered  the  country  from  the  northwest, 
probably  from  regions  between  the  Hindoo 
Koosh  and  the  Caspian  sea.  They  brought 
with  them  the  Brahmanical  religion,  and 
formed  the  institution  of  caste  by  dividing 
themselves  into  the  three  higher  castes  of 
Brahmans,  Kshatriyas,  and  Vaisyas,  while  the 
conquered  people  constituted  the  Sudras  or 
servile  caste.  It  is  not  known  at  what  pe 
riod  this  invasion  took  place,  but  it  was  un 
doubtedly  prior  to  the  14th  century  B.  C.  The 
language  of  the  conquerors  was  probably  the 


IXDIA 


207 


Sanskrit,  in  which  their  sacred  books  were 
written.  The  Yeclas,  supposed  to  have  been 
compiled  about  the  14th  century  B.  C.,  are  es 
teemed  the  holiest.  Two  great  dynasties,  the 
kings  of  the  race  of  the  sun,  who  reigned  in 
Ayodha,  the  modern  Oude,  and  the  race  of 
the  moon,  who  reigned  in  Pruyag,  the  modern 
Allahabad,  figure  in  the  legends  of  their  early 
history,  and  their  contests  are  recorded  in  the 
poem  known  as  the  Mahabharata.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  sovereigns  was  Rama  or 
Ramchunder,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  12th  or  13th  century  B.  C.  His  deeds 
are  the  subject  of  the  great  epic  poem  the 
Ramayana.  Subsequently  long  civil  wars 
raged  among  the  princes  of  the  lunar  race, 
which  culminated  in  a  great  battle  where  the 
armies  of  56  kings  fought  for  18  days.  But 
the  first  event  in  the  history  of  India  of  which 
we  have  an  authentic  account  was  the  inva 
sion  by  the  Persians  under  King  Darius,  about 
518-521  B.  C.  The  Persian  monarch  conquer 
ed  and  annexed  to  his  empire  provinces  on  the 
Indus  so  rich  and  extensive  that,  according  to 
the  Grecian  historians,  their  tribute  furnished 
one  third  of  the  revenues  of  the  Persian  crown. 
In  327  B.  C.  Alexander  the  Great,  having  over 
thrown  the  Persian  empire,  invaded  India,  de 
feated  Poms,  one  of  the  kings  of  the  country 
now  called  the  Punjaub,  and  penetrated  with 
his  army  as  far  as  the  Ilyphasis  (the  Sutlej  or 
its  upper  branch,  the  Beas).  The  historians  of 
his  expedition  describe  the  manners,  customs, 
and  pursuits  of  the  Hindoos  in  a  way  that  shows 
they  have  changed  but  little  since.  In  the 
division  of  the  Macedonian  empire  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  Seleucus,  one  of  his  gene 
rals,  obtained  the  eastern  part,  and  founded 
the  Bactrian  kingdom,  which  included  the  prov 
inces  on  the  Indus.  lie  attempted  conquests 
beyond  that  river,  and  was  involved  in  war 
with  Chandragupta,  king  of  Maghada,  whom 
the  Greeks  called  Sandracottus.  With  this 
monarch  Seleucus  made  a  treaty  by  which  the 
Greeks  relinquished  all  claim  to  any  posses 
sions  east  of  the  Indus.  The  kingdom  of  Ma 
ghada  comprised  the  greater  part  of  northern 
and  central  India,  and  lasted  till  about  195  B. 
C.  Its  capital,  Palibothra,  was  on  the  Ganges, 
but  its  precise  site  is  unknown.  After  its 
downfall  India  was  divided  into  a  number  of 
kingdoms,  of  whose  history  little  is  known,  and 
that  little  has  been  gathered  principally  from 
inscriptions  and  coins.  India's  relations  with 
the  external  world  were  again  renewed  about 
A.  D.  715,  when  the  Mohammedan  governor 
of  Bassorah  sent  by  sea  an  army  not  exceeding 
8,000  in  number,  commanded  by  Mohammed 
Kasim,  to  obtain  restitution  of  an  Arab  vessel 
which  had  been  taken  near  the  mouths  of 
the  Indus  not  long  previously.  Kasim  landed 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and  succeeded 
in  conquering  Sinde  and  the  southern  part 
of  the  Punjaub,  where  the  Mohammedans 
retained  power  for  about  forty  years,  when 
they  were  expelled  by  the  Rajpoots.  India  re- 
VOL.  ix. — 14 


mained  unmolested  from  that  time  till  977, 
when  Subooktugeen,  the  Afghan  sultan  of 
Ghuzni,  invaded  a  portion  of  the  Punjaub 
and  took  possession  of  Peshawur,  but  did  not 
long  retain  his  conquests.  His  son  Mahmoud 
made  his  first  expedition  into  India  in  1001, 
at  the  head  of  an  army  of  42,000  men,  and 
conquered  a  portion  of  the  north.  In  the 
course  of  his  reign  of  33  years,  which  ended  in 
1030,  he  made  10  expeditions  into  India  for 
conquest  and  plunder,  lie  left  extensive  pos 
sessions  in  western  India  to  his  successors, 
one  of  whom,  Masaoud  III.,  greatly  extended 
the  Mohammedan  rule.  He  carried  his  con 
quests  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  transferred  his 
court  from  Ghuzni  to  Lahore.  He  was  the 
first  Mohammedan  sovereign  whose  capital  was 
within  the  limits  of  Hindostan.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  12th  century  a  civil  war  among  the 
Mohammedan  conquerors  resulted  in  placing 
the  house  of  Ghore  on  the  throne  of  Lahore. 
One  of  the  monarchs  of  this  dynasty,  Shahab 
ud-I)in,  better  known  as  Mohammed  Ghore, 
overthrew  the  kings  of  Delhi  and  Ajmeer, 
conquered  Benares,  Gwalior,  Guzerat,  and 
many  other  cities  and  provinces,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  in  1205  was  master  of  near 
ly  all  the  country  north  of  the  Nerbmlda, 
including  Bengal,  Sinde,  and 'Guzerat.  Under 
his  successor,  Kuttub  ud-Din,  a  Turkish  slave 
who  had  been  educated  by  Shahab  ud-Din,  the 
Mohammedan  dominions  in  India  were  sepa 
rated  from  the  Afghan  empire  and  formed  an 
independent  kingdom,  the  capital  of  which 
was  Delhi.  Kuttub  ud-Din  was  the  founder 
of  a  dynasty  known  as  the  slave  kings,  ten 
in  number,  five  of  whom  were  violently  de 
posed,  and  the  last,  Kei  Kobad,  was  murdered 
in  1288.  The  most  eminent  of  these  sov 
ereigns,  Altmish,  extended  his  dominions  by 
conquests  southward,  and  at  the  end  of  his 
reign  all  India  N.  of  a  line  running  from 
Surat  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  acknowl 
edged  the  authority  of  the  court  of  Delhi.  Kei 
Kobad  was  succeeded  by  Jelal  ud-Din,  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  known  as  the  house  of 
Khilji.  During  his  reign,  his  nephew  Alia  ud- 
Din,  an  able  and  ambitious  general,  invaded  and 
conquered  a  large  part  of  the  Dec-can,  and  on 
his  return  from  this  expedition  caused  his  un 
cle  the  emperor  to  be  assassinated,  and  usurped 
the  throne  in  1290.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  Mohammedan  rulers  of  Ilindo- 
stan,  and  in  his  reign  of  20  years  considerably 
enlarged  the  empire,  maintained  a  brilliant 
court,  patronized  learning  and  the  arts,  and 
successfully  repelled  several  great  invasions  of 
the  Moguls  or  Tartars  who  had  established 
themselves  in  the  countries  west  of  the  Indus. 
He  died  in  1316,  poisoned,  it  was  generally 
thought,  by  his  vizier.  His  three  successors 
died  by  violence,  and  in  1321  the  house  of 
Khilji  became  extinct.  Five  emperors  of  that 
dynasty  had  reigned  33  years,  and  all  had 
perished  by  poison  or  the  sword.  Togluk  Shah, 
!  the  founder  of  the  house  of  Togluk,  ascended 


208 


INDIA 


the  vacant  throne  in  1321.  He  was  one  of  the 
best  of  the  Mohammedan  sovereigns,  but  his 
reign  lasted  only  four  years,  when  he  was 
killed  by  the  fall  of  a  pavilion  which  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  intentionally  caused  by  his 
son,  who  succeeded  him  under  the  name  of 
Mohammed  Togluk,  and  after  a  reign  of  about 
27  years  died  in  1351,  leaving,  says  a  historian, 
"  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  most  accom 
plished  princes  and  most  furious  tyrants  that 
ever  adorned  or  disgraced  human  nature." 
During  this  disorderly  reign  Bengal  and  several 
of  the  provinces  of  southern  India  became  in 
dependent.  Mohammed  Togluk  was  succeeded 
after  a  short  civil  war  by  his  cousin  Feroze 
Togluk,  the  founder  of  Ferozabad,  near  Delhi, 
who  reigned  for  36  years,  and  was  distin 
guished  for  humanity  and  for  the  vast  num 
ber  of  public  works  which  he  constructed  and 
endowed  with  revenues.  In  the  reign  of  his 
grandson  Mahmoud  Togluk,  in  1398,  India  was 
invaded  by  the  famous  Tartar  conqueror  Tam 
erlane,  who  captured  Delhi,  plundered  and 
slaughtered  the  inhabitants  with  frightful  bar 
barity,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
emperor  of  India.  At  the  end  of  15  days, 
however,  he  abruptly  quitted  Delhi  and  re 
turned  to  his  own  country,  "marking  his  way 
with  fire  and  sword,  and  leaving  anarchy,  fam 
ine,  and  pestilence  behind  him."  The  gov 
ernors  of  the  various  provinces  of  the  empire 
proclaimed  their  independence  of  Delhi,  and 
assumed  royal  titles,  so  that  only  a  small  dis 
trict  remained  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
imperial  capital.  Half  a  century  of  anarchy 
succeeded,  during  which  there  were  five  titu 
lar  emperors  in  Delhi,  who  however  had  no 
real  authority  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city. 
The  Togluk  dynasty  ceased  with  the  death  of 
Mohammed  Togluk  in  1414.  At  length  in 
1450  Beylol  Lodi,  an  Afghan  military  chief  of 
talent  and  energy,  made  himself  the  actual 
sovereign,  though  nominally  acting  as  vizier 
to  one  of  the  titular  monarchs,  whom  he 
finally  succeeded  in  1478.  Before  his  death 
in  1488,  he  succeeded  in  recovering  many 
of  the  provinces  which  had  formerly  be 
longed  to  the  empire.  His  son  Sikunder  still 
further  enlarged  his  dominions  in  a  reign  of 
29  years,  during  the  latter  part  of  which  he 
made  Agra  his  capital.  Sikunder  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  Ibrahim,  in  whose  reign 
India  was  again  invaded  by  the  Moguls,  led 
by  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane,  the  cele 
brated  Baber,  sultan  of  Cabool.  Ibrahim  was 
defeated  and  slain  in  a  battle  on  the  plains 
of  Paniput  in  1520,  and  Baber  ascended  the 
throne  with  little  further  opposition,  the  im 
perial  cities  of  Delhi  and  Agra  surrendering 
without  resistance.  In  the  course  of  his  reign 
of  five  years,  Baber,  who  had  remained  in 
India,  made  himself  master  of  all  the  provinces 
which  had  belonged  to  his  predecessor.  He 
died  in  December,  1530,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Humayun,  who  allowed  one  of  his 
brothers  to  hold  Cabool  and  the  rest  of  Af 


ghanistan  as  an  independent  kingdom,  and 
contented  himself  with  his  Indian  dominions. 
These  he  AY  as  deprived  of  at  the  end  of  nine 
years  by  Shere  Khan,  the  governor  of  Bengal, 
a  man  of  great  military  talents,  who  rebelled, 
defeated  the  emperor  in  several  battles,  and 
finally  compelled  him  to  fly  for  refuge  to  Per 
sia.  Shere  Khan  was  then  proclaimed  empe 
ror  of  Delhi,  with  the  title  of  Shere  Shah.  He 
reigned  with  wisdom  and  success  for  about  five 
years,  when  he  was  killed  by  the  explosion  of 
a  magazine  while  directing  the  siege  of  a  re 
bellious  fortress.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Selim  Shah  Soor,  and  by  his  grandson 
Feroze  Khan,  the  latter  of  whom  after  a  few 
days'  reign  was  murdered  by  his  uncle  Mubari, 
who  usurped  the  throne  and  took  the  name  of 
Mohammed  Shah.  In  the  mean  time  the  exiled 
Humayun,  by  the  aid  of  the  king  of  Persia, 
had  made  himseli'  master  of  Cabool,  and  now 
resolved  on  attempting  the  recovery  of  the 
throne  of  Delhi.  This  he  successfully  accom 
plished  by  the  aid  of  his  heroic  son  Akbar,  and 
lie  reentered  the  city  of  Delhi,  whence  he  had 
been  driven  15  years  before,  in  July,  1555. 
lie  did  not  survive  his  restoration  to  power 
more  than  a  few  months,  being  killed  by  an 
accidental  fall  from  the  terrace  of  his  palace 
at  Delhi.  Akbar,  who  succeeded  his  father 
in  1556,  reigned  for  51  years,  lie  is  reputed 
the  ablest,  most  liberal,  and  most  powerful  of 
the  Mogul  emperors  of  India.  He  restored 
the  empire  to  its  former  bounds,  reorganized 
the  army  and  the  finances  in  a  statesmanlike 
manner,  so  that  his  revenues  were  largely  in 
creased  while  the  burdens  of  the  people  were 
diminished,  and  treated  all  religions  with  re 
spect  and  impartiality,  freely  admitting  the 
Hindoos  to  a  share  in  the  administration  of 
public  affairs,  from  which  they  had  hitherto 
been  jealously  excluded  by  their  Mohammedan 
masters.  Akbar  was  succeeded  in  1605  by  his 
son  Selim,  who  took  the  title  of  Jehanghir,  or 
"  conqueror  of  the  world."  In  the  early  part 
of  his  reign  he  was  intemperate,  capricious, 
and  cruel ;  but  his  habits  and  conduct  greatly 
improved  after  his  marriage  with  the  cele 
brated  Xourmahal,  "the  light  of  the  harem," 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  accom 
plished  women  known  to  history,  whose  influ 
ence  over  the  emperor  was  so  great  that  it  is 
said  he  took  no  step  without  consulting  her, 
and  that  in  every  affair  in  which  she  took  an 
interest  her  will  was  law.  The  last  years  of 
Jehanghir  were  embittered  by  the  quarrels  of 
his  four  sons,  each  of  whom  aimed  at  the  suc 
cession,  and  who  were  at  times  in  open  rebel 
lion  against  their  father,  lie  died  in  1627,  in 
the  22d  year  of  his  reign.  He  Avas  succeeded 
by  his  favorite  son  Shah  Jehan,  in  Avhose  reign 
the  Dcccan  was  completely  subdued  and  ren 
dered  tributary,  and  a  long  and  eventually  un 
successful  war  was  waged  with  the  Persians  and 
the  Afghans.  In  1657  he  fell  very  ill,  and  being 
thought  to  be  dying,  his  son  Dara,  the  heir  ap 
parent,  assumed  the  reins  of  government.  The 


INDIA 


209 


other  sons,  Shuja,  Murad,  and  Aurimgzebe, 
who  had  each  been  appointed  viceroys  over 
important  provinces,  immediately  revolted  and 
prepared  by  force  of  arms  to  assert  their  pre 
tensions  to  the  succession.  Shuja  was  defeated, 
but  Aurungzebe  by  stratagem  obtained  posses 
sion  of  his  father's  person,  and  kept  him  in 
seclusion  till  he  died,  seven  years  afterward. 
Murad  was  also  soon  seized  and  imprisoned  by 
Aurungzebe,  who  caused  himself  to  be  pro 
claimed  emperor.  Dara  continued  the  contest 
for  some  time  longer,  but  was  finally  captured 
and  put  to  death.  Shuja  was  driven  with  his 
family  into  exile,  where  they  all  perished.  The 
reign  of  Aurungzebe,  though  it  began  with  civil 
war  and  confusion,  was  more  peaceful  and  or 
derly  than  that  of  any  of  his  successors.  The 
Mogul  empire  in  India  attained  under  him  its 
greatest  extent,  including  nearly  all  that  is  now 
known  as  Hindostan.  lie  died  in  1707  in  the 
89th  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  49  years. 
He  was  an  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  mon 
arch,  possessed  of  great  talents,  and  eminent 
both  as  a  statesman  and  a  soldier.  The  Mo 
hammedan  historians  regard  him  as  the  great 
est  of  all  the  Mogul  emperors.  During  his 
reign  the  foundation  of  the  Mahratta  empire 
was  laid  in  the  Deccan  by  an  adventurer  named 
Slievajee.  (See  MAHRATTAS.)  Aurungzebe's 
eldest  son,  who  succeeded  him  under  the  title 
of  Bahadoor  Shah,  was  involved  at  the  begin 
ning  of  his  reign  in  civil  war  with  two  of  his 
brothers,  both  of  whom  were  killed  in  bat 
tle,  and  toward  the  end  in  a  contest  with  the 
Sikhs,  who  were  just  beginning  to  acquire  im 
portance  in  the  northwest  of  India.  He  died 
in  1712,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son 
Jehandar  Shah,  a  weak  and  profligate  ruler, 
who  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign  was  de 
feated  in  battle  and  afterward  strangled  to 
death  by  his  rebellious  nephew  Ferokshere. 
The  reign  of  the  latter  lasted  six  years,  and  was 
remarkable  only  for  conspiracies,  insurrections, 
and  general  disorders  in  the  capital  and  the 
provinces,  lie  was  at  length  put  to  death  by 
his  vizier  and  commander-in-chief,  who  in  the 
course  of  the  next  eight  months  successively 
placed  on  the  throne  three  infant  descendants 
of  Aurungzebe,  the  last  of  whom,  Mohammed 
Shah,  a  youth  of  17,  soon  became  impatient 
of  their  control,  of  which  he  got  rid  by  causing 
one  to  be  assassinated  and  the  other  deprived 
of  office.  The  emperor,  however,  was  fickle 
and  dissolute,  and  his  dominions  were  invaded 
on  one  side  by  the  Mahrattas,  now  rapidly  be 
coming  formidable,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
Persians,  whose  warlike  monarch,  Nadir  Shah, 
passed  the  Indus  with  a  great  army,  and,  over 
throwing  the  imperial  forces,  took  posses 
sion  of  Delhi  in  1739.  He  remained  sev 
eral  weeks  in  the  Mogul  capital,  which  he 
plundered  of  treasure  amounting,  according  to 
the  lowest  estimate,  to  $100,000,000,  after  mas 
sacring  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants.  He 
then  returned  to  his  own  country,  leaving  Mo 
hammed  Shah  in  possession  of  his  throne,  and 


depriving  him  only  of  the  provinces  west  of 
the  Indus.  Mohammed  Shah  died  in  1748,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ahmed  Shah,  who 
after  a  reign  of  six  years  was  deposed,  and 
Alumghir  raised  to  the  throne,  in  the  third 
year  of  whose  reign  Hindostan  was  invaded  by 
the  Afghans  and  again  plundered.  The  Mah 
rattas,  who  were  now  at  the  height  of  their 
power,  took  advantage  of  the  distress  of  the 
empire,  and  carried  their  arms  into  the  north 
ern  provinces.  The  Afghans,  under  their  sov 
ereign  Ahmed  Shah  Abdalli,  met  them  at 
Paniput  in  January,  1761,  and  a  great  battle 
was  fought,  the  forces  on  both  sides  amounting 
to  400,000  men.  The  Mahrattas  were  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  it  is  said  that  200,000 
of  them  perished  in  the  battle  and  the  pursuit. 
The  Afghans  returned  to  their  own  country 
after  this  great  victory,  and  left  the  govern 
ment  of  Delhi  to  take  care  of  itself.  From 
this  time,  however,  the  Mogul  empire  was 
practically  at  an  end.  The  English  had  now 
become  the  most  important  power  in  India. 
(See  EAST  IXDIA  COMPANIES.) — The  first  of  the 
nations  of  modern  Europe  who  obtained  terri 
torial  possessions  in  Hindostan  were  the  Portu 
guese,  who  early  in  the  16th  century  seized 
some  ports  on  the  western  coast,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  century  made  themselves  masters 
of  Diu,  Damaun,  Bassein,  Salsette,  Bombay, 
Choul,  Dabul,  Goa,  Mangalore,  Cananore,  Cran- 
ganore,  Calicut,  Cochin,  and  Quilon.  Their 
capital  was  Goa,  where  they  maintained  a  vice 
roy  and  an  archbishop.  During  the  union 
of  Portugal  with  Spain,  from  1580  to  1640, 
these  distant  possessions  were  neglected,  and 
many  of  them  were  taken  by  the  Dutch  or 
regained  by  the  native  powers.  Goa  and  a  few 
small  places  of  no  political  or  commercial  im 
portance  are  all  that  now  remain  of  the  Portu 
guese  empire  in  India.  The  English  East  India 
company,  which  was  chartered  at  London  in 
1600,  obtained  permission  of  the  Mogul  empe 
ror  Jehangir  in  1613  to  erect  a  factory  at  Su- 
rat.  In  1628  they  established  a  trading  post 
at  Armegoor,  70  m.  north  of  Madras,  and 
erected  the  first  English  fortifications  in  India 
there.  They  were  allowed  to  build  a  factory 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hoogly,  by  a  firman  from 
the  emperor  Shah  Jehan  granted  in  1634.  In 
1669  the  island  of  Bombay  was  ceded  to  them 
by  Charles  II.,  who  had  acquired  it  as  part 
of  the  dowry  of  his  wife,  the  infanta  of  Portu 
gal.  It  was  in  Bengal,  however,  that  the  com 
pany  first  began  to  acquire  military  and  politi 
cal  power.  They  moved  the  factories  on  the 
Hoogly  to  Calcutta  in  1698.  They  took  into 
their  pay  bodies  of  native  soldiers  who  were 
called  sepoys,  and  were  armed  and  trained 
in  the  European  manner,  and  with  the  aid  of 
these  mercenaries  they  soon  acquired  a  con 
siderable  degree  of  influence  in  the  country. 
In  1744,  France  and  England  being  at  war  in 
Europe,  hostilities  broke  out  between  the  Eng 
lish  and  French  in  India.  The  capital  of  the 
French  possessions  was  Pondicherry,  which 


210 


INDIA 


had  dependent  on  it  three  factories,  one  at 
Mahe  on  the  Malabar  coast,  one  at  Karikal  on 
the  Coromandel  coast,  and  one  at  Chander- 
nagore  in  Bengal.  The  contest  in  India, 
though  conducted  with  great  energy  and  abil 
ity  by  Dupleix  and  Bussy  on  the  part  of  the 
French,  and  by  Laurence  and  Clive  on  the 
part  of  the  English,  led  at  that  time  to  no  im 
portant  results,  but  was  renewed  in  1756.  In 
that  year  Surajah  Dowlah  became  subahdar  or 
viceroy  of  Bengal,  and,  having  always  disliked 
the  English,  soon  found  a  pretext  for  making 
war  upon  them.  Commencing  hostilities  sud 
denly,  while  the  English  were  yet  unprepared, 
he  captured  Calcutta ;  and  the  English  portion 
of  the  garrison  of  Fort  William,  amounting 
to  146  persons,  of  whom  Mr.  Hoi  well  was 
the  chief,  were  shut  up  in  the  "Black  Hole," 
where  all  but  23  of  them  perished  in  a  single 
night  by  suffocation.  (See  BLACK  HOLE.)  Clive 
soon  retook  Calcutta  with  a  force  from  Ma 
dras,  captured  Chandernagore  and  its  French 
garrison,  and  after  various  other  successes  de 
feated  the  subahdar's  army  in  the  decisive  bat 
tle  of  Plassey,  June  23,  1757.  In  the  Carnatic 
the  French  were  completely  defeated  by  the 
English  on  Jan.  22,  1760,  in  the  battle  of  Wan- 
diwash.  After  Plassey  Surajah 'Dowlah  was 
dethroned  and  put  to  death,  and  his  vizier 
Meer  Jaffier  raised  to  the  vacant  throne.  The 
new  sovereign  granted  to  the  English,  as  the 
price  of  their  support,  an  immense  sum  of 
money,  a  large  accession  of  territory,  and  per 
mission  to  keep  such  of  the  French  posts  and 
factories  as  they  could  conquer.  These  trans 
actions  involved  the  English  in  a  war  with  the 
emperor  of  Delhi,  and  with  his  vassal  the  na- 
waub  of  Oude..  Both  the  emperor  and  the  na- 
waub  succumbed  after  a  brief  contest,  and  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  the  emperor  ceded  to  the 
British  the  provinces  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and 
Orissa,  together  with  the  maritime  districts 
known  as  the  Northern  Circars.  The  real  sov 
ereign  of  the  Northern  Circars  was  a  potentate 
called  the  nizam  of  the  Deccan,  who  gave  to 
the  emperor  of  Delhi  only  a  nominal  allegiance. 
At  first  the  nizam  declined  to  acquiesce  in  the 
cession,  but  subsequently  he  consented  to  it 
on  condition  that  the  English  should  aid  him 
with  troops  against  Ilyder  Ali,  the  warlike 
and  politic  sovereign  of  Mysore.  In  the  war 
that  ensued  the  English,  notwithstanding  some 
successes,  were  so  hard  pressed  that  they  sought 
to  stop  the  progress  of  Ilyder  by  negotiation, 
and  at  last  concluded,  in  April,  1769,  a  treaty 
with  him  which  resulted  in  a  mutual  restitution 
of  conquests.  In  1772  Warren  Hastings  as 
sumed  the  administration  of  the  East  India 
company's  affairs  in  Bengal,  and  in  177-4  re 
ceived  the  title  of  governor  general,  being  the 
first  officer  so  designated.  In  return  for  the 
cession  of  Benares,  he  furnished  troops  to  aid 
the  nawaub  of  Oude  in  the  subjugation  of  Ro- 
hilcund.  The  first  war  with  the  Mahrattas  soon 
broke  out,  and  considerable  conquests  were 
made,  which  were  nearly  all  given  up  by  a 


peace  hastily  concluded  with  them  in  conse 
quence  of  the  breaking  out  in  1780  of  a  war 
with  Ilyder  Ali,  who  died  Dec.  V,  1782,  while 
the  war  yet  raged,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  his 
son  Tippoo  Sahib,  who  in  1784  agreed  to  a  trea 
ty  of  peace.  In  1781  Hastings  aided  the  na 
waub  vizier  of  Oude,  then  deeply  in  debt  to  the 
Bengal  government,  in  exacting  from  the  be 
gums  or  princesses  of  that  state  at  least  £760,- 
000  of  the  apanages  which  had  been  allotted 
to  them  for  their  maintenance  on  the  nawaub 
vizier's  accession  in  1756.  Having  resigned, 
he  was  succeeded  as  governor  general  by  Sir 
J.  McPherson  in  1785 ;  but  before  he  embarked 
for  England  he  caused  the  nawaub  to  restore 
most  of  the  amount  extorted  from  the  begums. 
In  December,  1789,  Tippoo  again  became  in 
volved  in  war  with  the  English  by  an  attack 
upon  the  kingdom  of  Travancore,  which  was 
under  their  protection.  Lord  Cornwallis,  con 
spicuous  in  the  history  of  the  American  revo 
lution,  became  governor  general  of  India  in 
1786,  and  conducted  the  contest  with  such 
energy,  that  in  1792  Tippoo  was  compelled  to 
agree  to  a  treaty  by  which  he  ceded  to  the 
English  about  half  of  his  dominions,  and  paid 
them  £3,300,000  in  money.  Sir  John  Shore, 
afterward  Lord  Teignmouth,  became  governor 
general  in  1793,  and  in  1798  was  succeeded  by 
the  earl  of  Mornington.  In  the  latter  year 
Tippoo  was  incited  by  emissaries  of  the  French 
republic,  then  engaged  in  hostilities  with  Great 
Britain,  again  to  make  war  on  the  British,  which 
resulted  in  the  storming  of  his  capital,  Serin- 
gapatam,  and  his  own  death  in  the  coniiict,  May 
3,  1799.  His  dominions  were  divided  between 
the  English  and  their  ally  the  nizam,  and  the 
earl  of  Mornington  was  created  Marquis  TTel- 
lesley  in  recognition  of  his  successful  adminis 
tration.  In  1803  a  war  broke  out  between  the 
English  and  the  Mahrattas,  which  proved  to  be 
the  most  serious  ever  waged  by  them  in  India. 
It  was  conducted  by  Gen.  Lake  and  by  Sir  Ar 
thur  Wellesley,  afterward  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton,  and  by  the  brilliant  success  of  these  great 
commanders  was  terminated  in  December  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Mahratta  power  and  a 
vast  acquisition  of  territory  by  the  East  India 
company.  In  consequence  of  border  forays  and 
outrages,  war  was  declared  against  the  Gorka 
state  of  Nepaul  in  1814,  which  resulted  in  a 
further  augmentation  of  British  territory.  The 
same  result  followed  the  war  of  181 7-' 18  with 
Ilolkar,  the  peishwa,  and  other  powerful  chiefs, 
in  which  the  Mahratta  power  was  finally  sub 
dued.  Much  trouble  at  this  period  was  expe 
rienced  in  central  and  southern  India  from  a 
formidable  force  of  mounted  marauders  called 
Pindarries,  who  acted  as  allies  of  the  hostile 
Mahratta  chiefs,  and  were  defeated  with  them. 
A  war  with  the  Burmese  in  1824-'5  led  to  large 
accessions  of  territory  on  the  eastern  frontier, 
comprising  Assam,  Aracan,  and  Tenasserim. 
The  Afghan  war,  which  began  in  1839,  after 
great  disasters  to  the  English  arms,  amply  re 
deemed  by  subsequent  successes,  terminated  in 


INDIA 


211 


the  withdrawal  of  the  British  from  Afghanis 
tan.  The  annexation  of  Sinde  in  1843  was 
followed  by  the  wars  with  the  Sikhs,  who  had 
been  organized  into  a  powerful  military  state 
by  their  great  sovereign  Rnnjeet  Singh.  Hos 
tilities  began  in  1845,  six  years  after  his  death, 
and  finally  resulted  in  the  annexation  of  the 
Punjaub  by  the  English  in  1849.  A  second 
war  with  the  Burmese  terminated  after  a  short 
contest,  in  December,  1852,  with  the  acquisi 
tion  of  the  extensive  province  of  Pegu.  In 
1850  the  kingdom  of  Oude,  which  had  for 
some  years  been  in  a  state  of  confusion,  was 
annexed  to  the  British  dominions  on  account 
of  its  extreme  and  scandalous  misgovernment. 
From  1805  to  1855  the  governors  general  of 
India,  with  the  respective  dates  of  their  acces 
sion,  were  as  follows:  Marquis  Cornwallis, 
1805;  Sir  G.  Barlow,  1805;  earl  of  Minto, 
1807;  Earl  Moira  (marquis  of  Hastings),  1813; 
Earl  Amherst,  1823;  Lord  W.  Bentinck,  1828; 
Lord  Auckland,  1835 ;  Lord  Ellenborough, 
1841;  Sir  II.  (Lord)  Ilardinge,  1844;  Earl 
(marquis  of)  Daihousie,  1848;  and  Lord  Can 
ning,  1855.  The  next  important  event  was 
one  which  attracted  the  attention  of  mankind 
in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  forms  unques 
tionably  the  most  impressive  incident  in  the 
annals  of  British  India.  This  was  the  great 
sepoy  revolt.  The  year  1857-'8  was  the  Hin 
doo  Sumbut  1914,  in  which  fell  the  centenary 
of  the  battle  of  Plassey ;  and  Hindoo  astrolo 
gers  had  long  predicted  that  in  this  year  the 
power  of  the  East  India  company  would  ter 
minate  for  ever.  In  the  early  part  of  1857  it 
became  apparent  that  a  mutinous  spirit  had 
crept  into  the  Bengal  army.  The  military  au 
thorities  had  resolved  to  arm  the  sepoys  with 
Enfield  rifles,  and  a  new  kind  of  cartridge, 
greased  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  rifle  bore, 
was  introduced  into  many  of  the  schools  of 
musketry  instruction.  A  report  spread  among 
the  native  troops  that,  as  the  cartridges  in  load 
ing  had  to  be  torn  with  the  teeth,  the  govern 
ment  was  about  to  compel  them  to  bite  the  fat 
of  pigs  and  of  cows,  the  former  of  which  would 
be  defilement  to  a  Mussulman,  and  the  latter 
would  be  sacrilege  in  the  eyes  of  a  Hindoo.  The 
wildest  excitement  prevailed  for  a  time,  but  the 
substitution  of  the  old  for  the  new  cartridges 
temporarily  prevented  an  outbreak.  Mean 
while,  though  the  greased  cartridges  had  not 
been  used  elsewhere,  the  cry  of  danger  to  caste 
and  creed  was  raised  in  many  other  stations. 
Disturbances  occurred  on  Feb.  19  at  Burram- 
poor ;  March  29  at  Barrackpoor,  where  the  first 
blood  of  the  revolt  was  shed,  the  leader  in  the 
revolt  being  a  private  sepoy  in  the  34th  native 
regiment,  named  Mungul  Pandy  ;  and  April  24 
at  Meerut.  On  May  10  a  formidable  rising  took 
place  at  the  latter  station.  The  Europeans 
were  massacred,  and  the  mutineers  marched  to 
Delhi,  where  the  garrison  fraternized  with  them 
and  a  second  butchery  was  committed.  The 
rebels  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  Mogul 
dynasty,  and  thenceforth  acted  in  the  name  of 


the  king  of  Delhi,  though  without  much  defer 
ence  to  his  orders.  The  king  thenceforward 
took  an  active  part  in  the  revolt,  and  Delhi  be 
came  a  rallying  point  for  the  mutineers  from 
other  quarters.  In  the  Northwest  Provinces 
risings  took  place  almost  simultaneously  at  Al- 
lyghur,  Boolundshahur,  Minporee,  Shahjehan- 
poor,  Etawah,  and  Bareilly.  The  sacred  city 
of  Benares  on  the  Ganges  was  in  revolt  on 
June  4,  and  on  the  next  day  at  the  military 
station  of  Cawnpore  several  thousand  sepoys 
revolted  and  placed  themselves  under  the  com 
mand  of  the  Nana  Sahib,  rajah  of  Bithoor,  and 
on  June  27  the  terrible  massacre  at  Cawnpore 
took  place.  (See  BFJTIOOR,  and  CAWXPOKE.) 
About  the  same  time  the  ferocious  ranee  (prin 
cess)  of  Jhansi  in  Bundelcund  took  the  field  at 
the  head  of  two  regiments  which  mutinied  at 
Jhansi  June  4.  In  the  course  of  June  and  July 
Jounpoor,  Allahabad,  Futtehpoor,  Nowgong, 
Bandah,  Mozuffernugger,  Agra,  Jhylum,  Saugor, 
Sealkote,  Segowlie,  Dinapoor,  and  Ramgurh 
became  the  theatres  of  commotion,  and  in 
many  instances  of  massacre.  In  the  recently 
annexed  kingdom  of  Oude,  from  which  a  large 
proportion  of  the  sepoys  in  the  Bengal  arm}* 
had  been  recruited,  the  rising,  Avhich  elsewhere 
was  purely  military,  partook  of  the  character 
of  a  popular  insurrection,  the  people  generally 
favoring  and  assisting  the  rebels.  The  native 
troops  at  Lucknow,  the  capital,  mutinied  May 
30  and  31,  and  nearly  every  sepoy  regiment  in 
Oude  soon  followed  their  example.  The  troops 
proclaimed  allegiance  to  the  ex-king  of  Oude, 
and  gradually  closed  around  Lucknow,  where 
they  began  to  besiege  the  Europeans  about  July 
1.  The  Punjaub  was  saved  by  the  administra 
tive  capacity  of  Sir  John  Lawrence ;  a  few 
risings  took  place,  "but  the  rebels  were  nearly 
all  cut  to  pieces,  and  the  suspected  regiments 
seasonably  disarmed.  The  presidency  of  Bom 
bay  was  but  little  disturbed,  and  that  of  Madras 
was  tranquil  with  scarcely  an  exception.  Low 
er  Bengal  was  also  comparatively  quiet,  the 
insurrection  assuming  the  most  serious  aspect 
in  Behar,  Rohilcund,  Bundelcund,  the  Doab, 
Malwa,  Rajpootana,  and  Oude.  The  two  prin 
cipal  Mahratta  chiefs,  Sindia  at  Gwalior  and 
Holkar  at  Indore,  remained  faithful,  but  the  re 
volt  of  their  respective  contingents  was  one  of 
the  most  serious  disasters  to  the  British  during 
the  war.  In  May,  1857,  the  Bengal  army  com 
prised  22,698  Europeans  (including  the  officers 
of  native  regiments)  and  118,603  natives.  The 
native  force  was  disposed  in  107  regiments  and 
irregular  corps,  of  which  by  the  end  of  Decem 
ber  76  had  mutinied  and  27  had  been  disarmed 
or  disbanded.  As  soon  as  the  revolt  broke  out 
the  British  made  strong  efforts  to  suppress  it ; 
but  the  resources  of  treachery,  the  paucity  of 
European  troops,  and  the  absence  of  means  of 
transport  gave  the  rebels  an  immense  advan 
tage.  In  a  number  of  instances,  mutineers  de 
tected  or  captured  by  the  British  garrisons 
were  executed  by  being  blown  away  from  the 
mouths  of  cannon.  Gen.  the  Hon.  George 


212 


INDIA 


Anson,  the  commander-in-chief,  died  May  27, 
1857,  soon  after  taking  the  field,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  provisionally  by  Sir  Henry  Barnard. 
The  first  movements  were  against  Delhi,  which 
\vas  stormed  Sept.  14,  after  a  siege  of  three 
months,  which  was  conducted  successively  by 
Gens.  Barnard,  Reed,  and  Wilson.  The  troops 
entered  the  city,  and  occupied  a  part  of  it 
on  the  first  day,  but  did  not  subdue  the  last 
stronghold  until  Sept.  20.  The  king  was  cap 
tured  and  ultimately  sentenced  to  perpetual 
exile,  but  most  of  the  rebels  escaped.  Two 
sons  and  a  grandson  of  the  king  were  made 
prisoners  a  short  distance  outside  the  city  by 
Capt.  Hodson,  who  shot  them  all  with  his  own 
hand.  Meanwhile  Gen.  Ilavelock,  having  col 
lected  a  small  force  at  Allahabad,  moved  to 
ward  Cawnpore,  where  more  than  200  women 
and  children,  who  had  escaped  the  previous 
massacre,  were  cruelly  put  to  death,  July  16, 
shortly  before  he  entered  the  city.  He  fol 
lowed  the  Nana  Sahib  to  Bithoor,  defeated 
him,  and,  having  been  joined  by  Gens.  Outram 
and  Neill,  crossed  into  Oude  to  relieve  Luck- 
now,  where  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  the  chief 
commissioner  of  Oude,  had  died  of  a  wound  on 
July  4,  and  the  garrison  under  Col.  Inglis  was 
now  reduced  to  extremities.  He  fought  his 
way  into  the  city  Sept.  25,  Gen.  Neill  being 
killed  in  the  action ;  but  beyond  an  accession 
of  numbers  his  arrival  did  not  benefit  the  be 
sieged.  Sir  James  Outram  assumed  command, 
and  their  condition  remained  unchanged  until 
Sir  Colin  Campbell,  who  had  arrived  in  In 
dia  Aug.  14,  with  the  rank  of  commander- 
in-chief,  relieved  them,  Nov.  14-19,  and  en 
abled  them  to  withdraw  to  Cawnpore.  Gen. 
Ilavelock  died  Nov.  24.  On  Dec.  6  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  defeated  the  Nana  Sahib  with  25,- 
000  rebels  at  Cawnpore,  and,  making  that 
city  a  centre  of  operations,  proceeded  to  attack 
the  rebels  of  the  Northwest  Provinces  in  seve 
ral  quarters  at  once,  with  a  view  of  driving 
them  into  Oude,  where  a  combined  movement 
could  subsequently  crush  them  all  together. 
The  brigades  of  Lugard,  Hope  Grant,  Sir  Hugh 
Rose,  Roberts,  Steuart,  Showers,  Stuart,  and 
others,  did  good  service  in  the  disturbed  dis 
tricts,  and  Gen.  Outram  continued  to  hold  the 
Alumbagh  fort  near  Lucknow,  which  had  not 
been  evacuated  with  the  city.  By  Jan.  1,  1858, 
23  European  regiments  had  arrived  at  Calcut 
ta,  besides  those  which  landed  at  Madras  and 
Bombay;  the  Nepaulese  chieftain  Jung  Ba- 
hadoor  furnished  a  valuable  subsidiary  force 
of  Gorkhas,  the  Sikhs  were  enlisted,  and  Law 
rence  was  able  to  supply  troops  from  the  Pun- 
jaub.  Lucknow  was  gradually  retaken  by 
Campbell  and  Jung  Bahadoor  (March  2-21), 
and  the  army  which  had  been  concentrated 
for  this  purpose  was  then  broken  up  into  de 
tachments  for  service  in  Rohilcund  and  other 
districts.  Sir  Hugh  Rose,  with  a  detachment 
from  the  Bombay  army,  stormed  Jhansi,  April 
2,  and  pursued  the  ranee  or  chieftainess  and 
the  noted  rebel  leader  Tantia  Topee  to  Cal- 


pee,  where  he  defeated  them,  and  thence  to 
Gwalior,  which  had  now  become  the  strong 
hold  of  the  mutiny,  as  Delhi  and  Lucknow  had 
been  before  it.  Gwalior  was  taken,  June  20, 
after  the  ranee  had  been  killed.  This  was  the 
last  great  battle  of  the  campaign,  although  the 
rebels,  headed  by  the  Nana  Sahib,  the  begum 
of  Oude,  Tantia  Topee,  Maun  Singh,  and  Fe- 
roze  Shah,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Delhi, 
maintained  an  obstinate  resistance  throughout 
1858-'9.  Though  repeatedly  beaten  in  the 
field,  they  always  escaped  destruction  to  re 
appear  in  another  quarter.  Oude  was  grad 
ually  pacified,  however,  in  the  autumn,  and 
about  Feb.  1,  1859,  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  whose 
services  had  been  recognized  by  the  bestowal 
upon  him  of  a  peerage,  under  the  title  of  Lord 
Clyde,  declared  the  campaign  there  at  an  end. 
The  whole  population  was  disarmed  in  the 
course  of  the  spring  and  summer,  1,327  forts 
being  destroyed  and  1,367,406  arms  of  all 
kinds  surrendered.  Tantia  Topee  was  captured, 
tried  by  court  martial,  and  hanged.  Of  the 
number  of  Europeans  massacred  or  killed  in 
battle  during  this  mutiny  no  accurate  estimate 
can  be  formed.  Hundreds  of  English  women 
and  children  were  put  to  death  after  horrible 
outrages,  many  stories  of  which  were  perhaps 
fictions  or  exaggerations,  though  unhappily  the 
substantial  truth  of  the  accounts  of  these  atro 
cities  cannot  be  doubted.  The  rigor  evinced 
by  the  English  in  punishing  the  rebels  was  in 
many  cases  almost  equally  shocking.  One  very 
important  result  of  the  mutiny  was  the  trans 
fer  of  the  government  of  India  from  the  East 
India  company  to  the  direct  authority  of  the 
British  crown.  This  was  accomplished  by  an 
act  of  parliament,  providing  substantially  for 
the  system  of  administration  which  now  exists. 
Lord  Canning,  who  had  continued  in  office 
during  the  whole  mutiny,  resigned  in  1862, 
and  Lord  Elgin  succeeded  him;  but  the  new 
viceroy  died  in  the  following  year,  and  Sir  John 
(subsequently  Lord)  Lawrence  was  appointed. 
A  badly  conducted  war  with  Bootan,  growing 
out  of  territorial  disputes,  was  the  most  impor 
tant  event  of  1864  and  1865 ;  its  result  was  not 
very  satisfactory  to  the  British.  Owing  to  the 
deficient  rainfall  of  the  previous  year,  a  terri 
ble  famine  broke  out  in  Orissa  in  1866,  and  is 
believed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  2,000,000 
persons.  Sir  John  Lawrence  was  succeeded  in 
1868  by  the  earl  of  Mayo,  who  was  assassinated 
by  a  prisoner  at  Port  Blair,  in  the  Andaman 
islands,  while  on  a  visit  to  the  penal  colony 
there,  Feb.  8,  1872.  No  political  significance 
appeared  to  attach  to  the  crime.  His  succes 
sor,  Lord  Northbrook,  is  the  present  governor 
general  (1874).  The  resources  of  his  adminis 
tration  have  been  severely  taxed  to  avert  the 
famine  with  which  Bengal  was  threatened  in 
consequence  of  the  lack  of  rain  in  1873. — The 
annual  "  Statement  exhibiting  the  Moral  and 
Material  Progress  and  Condition  of  India," 
which  has  been  furnished  to  parliament  by 
the  authority  of  the  secretary  of  state  for  In- 


IXDIA   (RACES   AND  LANGUAGES) 


213 


dia  since  1864— '5,  and  the  various  official  pub 
lications  of  the  Indian  government  itself,  are 
the  principal  sources  of  recent  statistics  con 
cerning  the  country.  A  complete  general  ac 
count  of  a  single  province,  such  as  the  statis 
tical  survey  is  designed  to  obtain  of  every  part 
of  India,  is  contained  in  "  Orissa,"  by  Dr.  AV. 
AV.  Hunter  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1872).  The 
following  arc  noteworthy  among  the  numerous 
historical  and  political  works  relating  to  India: 
"History  of  British  India,1'  by  James  Mill, 
with  continuation  by  Wilson  (9  vols.  8vo,  Lon 
don,  1858) ;  "  History  of  India,"  by  Mount- 
stuart  Elphinstone  (5th  ed.,  I860);  " History 
of  the  British  Empire  in  India,"  by  Edward 
Thornton  (6  vols.,  1842-'5)  ;  AVilkes's  "  Histo 
ry  of  Mysore"  (3  vols.  4to,  1810-'l7);  "His 
tory  of  the  Mahrattas,"  by  James  Grant  Duff 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1826) ;  "  Memoir  of  Central  In 
dia,"  by  Sir  John  Malcolm  (2  vols.,  1832); 
"Life  of  Lord  Clive,"  by  the  same  (3  vols., 
1836);  "History  of  the  British  Empire  in  In 
dia,  from  the  Appointment  of  Lord  Hardingc 
to  the  Death  of  Lord  Canning,"  by  Lionel  J. 
Trotter  (2  vols.,  1866) ;  "  The  Administration 
of  the  East  India  Company,"  by  J.  AV.  Kaye 
(1853);  "The  Sepoy  AVar"in  India,"  by  the 
same  (2  vols.,  18G9-'70) ;  "Lives  of  Indian 
Officers,"  by  the  same  (2  vols.,  1867);  "In 
dian  Polity,"  by  Major  George  Chesney  (1868) ; 
"Annals  of  Rural  Bengal,"  by  AV.  AV.  Hunter 
(5th  ed.,  1872);  "Life  of  S"ir  Henry  Law 
rence,"  by  Sir  Herbert  Edwardes  and  Herman 
Merivale  (2  vols.,  1872) ;  "  The  Administration 
of  India  from  1859  to  1868,"  by  J.  T.  Prich- 
ard  (2  vols.,  1869);  and  "History  of  the  Ad 
ministration  of  Lord  Ellenborough,"  by  Lord 
Colchester  (1874).  A  concise  account  of  In 
dian  history  is  contained  in  "  A  Student's 
Manual  of  the  History  of  India,"  by  Meadows 
Taylor  (12mo,  London,  1870).  In  Alexander 
Cunningham's  work  on  the  ancient  geogra 
phy  of  India  (vol.  i.,  London,  1870)  is  an  elabo 
rate  description  of  the  earlier  divisions  of  the 
country.  For  an  account  of  the  botany  of 
India,  see  the  "First  Book  of  Indian  Bota- 
n7?"  hy  Prof.  Daniel  Oliver  (16mo,  London, 
1869),  where  it  is  stated  that  there  is  no  good 
work  on  the  general  botany  of  India.  A  list 
of  the  mammalia  of  India  S.  of  the  Himalaya 
can  be  found  in  Blyth's  "Catalogue  of  Mam 
mals  in  the  Museum  of  the  Asiatic  Society  " 
(1863),  extracted  into  Andrew  Murray's  "  Geo 
graphical  Distribution  of  Mammals"  (4to,  Lon 
don,  1866).  As  to  Indian  natural  history,  see 
also  "AVanderings  of  a  Naturalist  in  India," 
by  A.  Leith  Adams  (Edinburgh,  1867),  and 
"'The  Highlands  of  Central  India,"  by  Capt. 
J.  Forsyth  (London,  1871). 

INDIA,  Races  and  Languages  of.  The  popula 
tion  of  India,  without  special  reference  to  the 
latest  intruders  who  have  preserved  their  origi 
nal  characteristics  and  imposed  their  own  in 
stitutions,  may  be  divided  into  Aryans  and 
Dravidians.  The  testimony  of  history  and  the 
internal  evidence  of  Sanskrit  literature  seem 


to  establish  that  the  Aryans  invaded  the  land 
earlier  than  1500  B.  C.  from  a  N.  AV.  direction, 
being  the  kin  of  the  Iranian  or  Persian  races. 
They  first  became  possessed  of  the  Punjaub, 
and  through  long  ages  of  warfare  advanced 
ultimately  to  the  lower  course  of  the  Ganges. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  original  population 
was  in  a  great  measure  Dravidian,  though,  as 
Huxley  says,  whether  it  was  already  mixed 
with  a  Mongoloid  element  from  the  north 
east  or  not  does  not  appear.  Thus,  ethno- 
logically  considered,  the  Aryan  races  of  India 
form  the  most  eastern  branch  of  the  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  family  of  mankind,  and  the 
Dravidians  or  aboriginal  races  are  a  group 
either  entirely  distinct,  or  more  or  less  re 
motely  related  to  the  Mongolians  or  Turanians. 
Comparing  the  former  with  the  latter,  it  is 
found  that  constant  commingling  has  rendered 
them  almost  undistinguishable ;  and  judging 
from  physical  characteristics  alone,  disregard 
ing  the  totally  distinct  forms  of  speech,  both 
divisions  are  to  all  appearance  nearly  the  same. 
They  are  rather  small,  lithe,  delicate,  and  most 
ly  of  a  yellowish  complexion.  The  aristocracy 
among  them,  however,  are  almost  white,  and 
the  Deccanese  nearly  brown.  The  hair  is  long, 
straight,  and  black ;  the  eyes  are  black  and  sha 
ded  by  long  eyelashes ;  the  ears  are  well  form 
ed;  the  mouth  is  not  very  large;  the  lips  are 
thin ;  and  the  hands  and  feet  are  small.  The 
various  classes  of  the  Aryan  population  are  enu 
merated  as  follows  by  Sherring  and  Campbell : 
a,  Brahmans,  originally  priests,  now  of  diverse 
avocations;  &,  Jats,  agriculturists;  c,  Rajpoots, 
originally  the  conquerors  of  western  India,  now 
agriculturists;  rf,  Koorbees  or  Koonbees,  like 
wise  agriculturists ;  e,  Goojars,  mostly  shep 
herds;  y,  Aheers,  shepherds;  g,  Gwalas,  shep 
herds;  #,  Khatrees,  tradesmen;  i,  Banyans  or 
Baniyas,  merchants ;  j,  Kayasth,  secular  scribes  ; 
£,  Parbhu,  clerks ;  Z,  artisans ;  ;z,  helots,  in  part 
rendering  menial  services,  and  in  part  leading 
a  nomadic  life. — The  Cashmerians  are  probably 
the  best  representatives  of  the  early  Hindoos; 
the  bulk  of  them  are  now  Mohammedans,  but 
all  who  have  adhered  to  their  own  faith  are 
Brahmans.  In  the  western  hill  country  are 
the  Mahratta  Brahmans,  who  are  mentally  and 
physically  very  similar  to  the  Cashmerians. 
Further  south,  along  the  slopes  of  the  Ghauts, 
are  Brahmans  who  follow  agricultural  pursuits. 
They  are  not  as  numerous  on  the  upper  Ganges 
as  in  the  lower  Doab;  they  are  numerically 
strong  in  their  famous  seat  Kashee  or  Benares. 
Beyond  Benares  is  a  race  of  bastard  Brahmans 
called  Bamums  or  Bhalbuns.  Brahmans  are 
the  dominant  people  in  Behar  and  the  adjacent 
countries,  and  also  in  the  furthest  east  of  Ben 
gal.  The  Cingalese  or  inhabitants  of  Ceylon 
are  in  many  respects  like  the  Bengalese.  They 
are  supposed  to  be  a  mixed  race,  descendants 
of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  and  of  an  ancient 
Brahmanical  emigration  from  Bengal.  The 
Khatrees  of  the  Punjaub  are  supposed  to  bo 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Kshatriyas ;  they  are 


214 


INDIA  (RACES  AXD  LANGUAGES) 


few  in  number,  but  they  are  intellectually 
and  physically  fine  men ;  and  it  has  been  said, 
"Name  a  distinguished  Hindoo,  and  there  is  a 
very  great  probability  that  he  will  turn  out  to 
be  a  Khatree."  They  are  now  principally  en 
gaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  in  the  Punjaub. 
Although  the  Rajpoots  are  now  quite  Hindoo- 
ized,  it  is  not  generally  supposed  that  they  are 
of  a  pure  Hindoo  origin ;  they  have  no  tribal 
or  caste  name,  Rajpoots  being  a  title,  signify 
ing  "sons  of  rajahs,"  and  their  other  appella 
tion  of  Thakoors  signifies  "  chiefs."  They  were 
probably  in  former  times  in  possession  of  the 
Punjaub,  but  they  have  been  submerged  there 
by  the  advancing  Jats.  A  Rajpoot  tribe  called 
Dogras  still  possess  the  lower  hills  to  the  north, 
and  their  chief  is  now  lord  of  Cashmere.  The 
Gangetic  basin  is  the  great  Rajpoot  country 
of  history,  and  they  are  still  very  numerous 
there.  They  have  never  actually  conquered 
the  aboriginal  people,  but  Rajpoot  families 
have  by  mere  force  of  character  established 
themselves  as  chiefs  over  many  of  the  hill 
tribes,  and,  adopting  a  feudal  system  similar  to 
that  which  once  prevailed  in  Europe,  they  now 
rule  all  the  races  of  Rajpootana.  The  Jats 
probably  arrived  in  the  country  later  than  the 
Rajpoots ;  they  seem  to  have  entered  by  the 
Bolan  pass  in  the  north,  where  some  of  their 
people  settled  among  the  hills,  and  have  thence 
gradually  overspread  the  whole  country.  They 
are  extremely  robust  and  warlike,  excellent 
subjects,  admirable  agriculturists,  and  good 
revenue  payers.  Physically  there  is  no  finer 
race  in  India;  they  are  tall  and  strong,  with 
fine  features,  fine  teeth,  and  very  fine  beards. 
In  their  institutions  they  are  democratic,  and 
every  village  is  a  complete  little  republic.  Most 
of  the  remaining  modern  divisions  may  be  de 
scribed  as  mixed,  though  Aryan  features  and 
institutions  prevail  among  them.  The  Koor- 
bces  or  Koonbees  are  a  great  agricultural  race, 
occupying  large  parts  of  Guzerat,  and  scattered 
to  some  extent  over  the  whole  Mahratta  coun 
try.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  the  quiet 
and  unwarlike  Mahratta  cultivators  could  ever 
have  been  the  warlike  people  so  famous  in  re 
cent  history.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  hardy 
military  Mahrattas  came  exclusively  from  the 
S.  W.  parts  of  the  country,  where  they  had 
largely  mixed  with  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  the 
Western  Ghauts.  The  ruling  Mahrattas  of 
Nagpore  come  from  the  Sattara  country.  The 
remainder  of  the  Mahratta  armies  were  made 
up  of  adventurers  of  every  caste  and  creed.  In 
this  they  differed  from  the  Sikhs,  whose  forces 
were  mainly  their  own  free  people,  the  Jats. 
Other  Aryan  races  are  probably  represented 
by  the  more  pastoral  or  cowherd  tribes  ;  they 
are  the  Goojars  of  the  north,  the  Aheers  of 
Ilindostan  proper,  the  Gwalas  of  Bengal,  and 
the  Goordees  of  central  India.  The  last  three 
are  of  a  type  less  alloyed  than  that  of  most 
tribes.  Local  tradition  and  general  consent  at 
tribute  to  them  the  old  ruins  and  remains  of 
former  greatness  so  common  in  this  part  of  the 


country,  and  the  curious  cairns  and  stone  cir 
cles  are  also  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by 
them.  In  every  part  of  India,  and  forming  an 
essential  part  in  the  social  structure,  are  found 
helot  races  among  the  free;  they  are  not 
slaves,  but  politically  and  socially  they  are  the 
lowest  class  of  subjects.  In  the  Punjaub  they 
are  the  Chooras ;  in  Ilindostan,  the  Choomars ; 
in  the  Mahratta  country,  the  Mhars.  The 
Chooras  are  of  a  fair  Aryan  type ;  the  Choo 
mars  generally  have  round  faces,  small  feat 
ures,  and  dark  complexions,  and  possess  only  a 
very  slight  infusion  of  aboriginal  blood ;  in  the 
Mhars,  and  in  some  of  the  lower  castes  of 
Bengal,  the  aboriginal  features  are  more  de 
cidedly  represented.  A  very  remarkable  race 
are  the  traders  known  as  Banyans,  Banees, 
Wanees,  Baniyas,  Bunneahs,  or  Bunijugas; 
they  form  an  important  class  of  the  population 
of  the  western  countries  of  India.  The  North 
western  Provinces  are  in  respect  of  commerce 
entirely  in  their  hands;  Guzerat,  Malwa,  and 
the  Bombay  district  are  full  of  them,  and  they 
are  numerous  also  in  the  Canarese  country. 
They  are  famous  for  their  trading  acuteness. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  Jains  also  belong  to  the 
Banee  caste ;  they  are  a  mercantile  body,  and 
conduct  almost  exclusively  the  entire  banking 
business  of  India. — The  name  of  the  Dravidians 
or  Dravidas,  who  are  considered  to  be  the  abo 
rigines  of  India,  is  derived  from  Dravida,  the 
Sanskrit  name  of  the  southern  portion  of  the 
peninsula.  The  native  Sanskrit  lexicons  define 
a  Dravida  as  "a  man  of  an  outcast  tribe,  de 
scended  from  a  degraded  Kshatriya."  The  term 
Dravidian,  therefore,  seems  to  have  been  applied 
by  the  Aryan  invaders  to  the  inhabitants  of 
southern  India  at  a  very  early  period,  probably 
about  the  6th  century  B.  C.  They  may  also 
be  divided  into  Kols  or  Mundas,  inhabiting  the 
northern  districts,  Dravidians  proper  or  those 
of  the  south,  and  Cingalese  or  inhabitants  of 
Ceylon.  The  Brahooees  of  Beloochistan  are  a 
Dravidian  race.  Hodgson  designates  the  Dra 
vidians  proper  as  Tamulians.  Campbell  has 
given  to  the  northern  Dravidians  the  name  of 
Kolarians,  from  the  name  Kolar  by  which  India 
was  known  in  ancient  times.  The  term  Kol  is 
specially  applied  to  the  non- Aryan  inhabitants 
of  the  hill  country  of  Chota  Nagpore,  Mirza- 
poor,  and  Rewah.  Mundas  is  used  instead  of 
Kol  by  other  authorities,  as  the  Mundas  were 
the  prior  occupants  of  this  region.  To  the 
Kols  or  Mundas  belong  the  Santals,  Singhbhoom 
Kols,  Ramoosees,  Bheels  or  Bhillas,  Kolees,  and 
other  tribes.  To  the  Dravidians  proper  be 
long  the  Tamils,  Telugus  or  Telingas,  Canarese, 
Malayalas,  Gonds,  Kolhs  of  the  Rajmahal  hills, 
and  many  others.  The  Santal  or  Sonthal  tribe 
appears  to  be  very  widely  spread  ;  it  is  found 
in  Chota  Nagpore  and  in  the  skirts  and  valleys 
of  the  Rajmahal  hills;  according  to  Capt.  Sher- 
well,  its  range  is  from  Cuttack  through  Chota 
Nagpore  to  Rewah.  The  Kols  in  the  Singh 
bhoom  district  are  termed  Lurka  Kols.  The 
tradition  among  the  people  is  that  they  came 


INDIA   (RACES  AND  LANGUAGES) 


215 


originally  from  Chota  Nagpore,  and  are  de 
scendants  of  the  old  Mundas  of  that  district ; 
they  have  also  the  same  cast  of  countenance  as 
the  Mundas,  though  perhaps  with  a  wilder  and 
fiercer  expression.  The  Kamoosee  tribes  are 
spread  over  the  central  and  western  parts  of 
the  peninsula,  and  are  partly  predatory.  The 
Bheels,  as  a  distinct  tribe,  are  found  chiefly  on 
the  hills  surrounding  the  fortress  of  Asirgurh 
in  the  Central  Provinces.  The  Bheels  of  Berar 
occupy  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Gawilgur  range 
to  its  western  extremity  and  reaching  far  into 
Candeish.  The  same  people  are  also  in  posses 
sion  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Western  Ghauts, 
and  all  the  branches  that  run  out  from  it  to 
ward  the  east  as  far  south  as  Poonah;  they 
have  even  spread  over  the  plains  to  the  east, 
especially  north  of  the  Godavery,  and  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Wurda.  Latham  says  that 
the  Bheels  seem  to  have  been  the  aborigines  of 
the  hills  near  Mount  Aboo,  but  at  some  time 
or  other  they  mixed  with  marauding  Rajpoots 
from  the  plains,  and  with  the  workmen  who 
were  so  long  engaged  in  building  the  Dilwarra 
temples.  The  Kolees  are  a  numerous  race  on 
the  western  side  of  India,  being  the  laborers 
and  low  cultivators  in  Guzerat ;  they  are  also 
in  large  numbers  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Nizam's  Dominions.  Kolee  is  also  the  name 
given  to  the  lower  class  of  cultivators  in  the 
Simla  hills.  The  same  race  is  scattered  over  a 
great  portion  of  the  Bombay  presidency,  from 
the  Thur  and  the  neighborhood  of  Sinde  south 
ward  to  Goa  and  eastward  along  the  banks  of 
the  Beema,  the  Kistnah,  and  Tumbuddra,  into 
the  centre  of  the  peninsula  as  far  as  Kurnool, 
where  they  act  as  ferrymen.  The  Kolees  and 
Bheels  seem  to  have  a  similar  if  not  a  com 
mon  origin.  In  some  portions  of  India  they 
are  mixed,  and  Kolees  frequently  marry  Bheel 
wives.  The  most  important  race  of  the  Dra- 
vidians  proper  are  the  Tamils  or  Tamuls,  and 
the  name  of  Tamulian  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  whole  Dravidian  group.  Their  number  is 
estimated  at  10,000,000;  they  inhabit  princi 
pally  the  extreme  southeast  of  the  peninsula  and 
N".  and  E.  Ceylon.  They  are  dark  brown,  very 
small,  lithe,  active,  social,  and  more  given  to 
seafaring  and  emigration  than  any  other  Indian 
race.  They  wander  along  the  coast  and  to  re 
mote  islands  for  employment,  and  have  given 
the  name  cooly  (Tamil,  lull,  hire)  to  the  whole 
class  of  Indian  laborers.  The  Telugu  or  Telin- 
ga  people  are  estimated  at  about  14,000,000  ; 
they  inhabit  the  eastern  borders  of  the  penin 
sula.  They  are  a  taller  and  fairer  race  than 
the  Tamil,  and  equally  energetic,  though  less 
restless.  They  are  the  Andhra  of  Sanskrit 
writers,  a  name  mentioned  by  ancient  Greek 
geographers  as  that  of  a  nation  dwelling  on 
or  near  the  Ganges.  They  are  good  farmers, 
and  many  of  them  were  formerly  seafaring 
men,  undertaking  long  voyages.  They  held  at 
one  time  large  islands  in  the  eastern  archipel 
ago,  where  the  people  of  India  are  still  called 
Kling,  from  the  former  Kalinga  dynasty.  The 


people  called  Canarese  are  about  5,000,000  in 
number,  and  are  found  chiefly  in  the  centre 
of  the  peninsula.  They  are  a  tall  and  sin 
gularly  graceful  race.  Their  avocations  are 
mostly  those  of  civil  life,  cultivators  and  shop 
keepers.  People  speaking  Canarese  are  spread 
over  the  plateau  of  Mysore  and  the  western 
districts  of  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  extend 
ing  as  far  north  as  the  neighborhood  of  Beder. 
The  Kotar,  who  speak  a  dialect  of  Canarese 
have  seven  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  Kota- 
gherry,  and  are  supposed  to  number  a  little 
more  than  1,000.  Dead  cattle  and  carrion  of 
every  kind  find  acceptance  among  them  as 
food.  They  are,  however,  the  most  industrious 
of  the  hill  tribes,  giving  much  attention  to  ag 
riculture,  and  finding  employment  as  carpen 
ters,  smiths,  basket  makers,  and  menders  of 
ploughs.  They  are  well  built,  of  a  tolerable 
height,  rather  good-featured,  copper-colored, 
and  may  be  considered  among  the  fairest  tribes 
of  this  portion  of  the  country.  In  the  low 
country  and  along  the  Western  Ghauts,  from 
Cape  Comorin  to  the  Chandagiri  river,  live  a 
people  speaking  the  Malayalam  or  Malealam 
language.  These  inhabitants  of  Malabar,  who 
probably  number  about  2,500,000,  have  from 
their  situation  in  the  extreme  southwest  been 
little  exposed  to  external  influences.  They  are 
of  an  exclusive  disposition,  avoid  contact  with 
foreigners,  and  live  isolated  with  their  families 
in  their  high-walled  paraml)ii,  even  where  the 
enterprising  Tamil  people  have  opened  lines  of 
communication.  The  race  speaking  the  Tulti 
or  Tuluva  tongue  live  in  a  small  tract  of  coun 
try  in  the  vicinity  of  Mangalore,  and  prob 
ably  number  no  more  than  150,000.  Malaya- 
lam  and  Tulu  are  considered  to  be  in  a  grad 
ual  course  of  extinction.  The  Toda,  properly 
Tuda  or  Tudavera,  are  a  primitive  tribe  hard 
ly  500  in  number,  occupying  the  Neilgherry 
mountains  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Indian 
peninsula,  and  commonly  believed  to  be  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  these  hills.  Logan 
styles  their  physical  appearance  Indo-Semitic. 
The  Kotar  tribe  ranks  next  to  the  Toda  in 
priority  of  occupation  of  the  hills,  but  the 
Badakar,  also  called  Budugur,  Budaga,  and 
Vadakar,  are  the  most  numerous.  The  other 
tribes  on  these  hills  live  in  isolated  communi 
ties,  but  the  Badakar  dwell  in  villages  with 
streets  running  in  parallel  lines,  and  in  thatched 
houses  built  of  stone  and  mud,  and  divided 
into  separate  compartments,  but  strangely 
enough  with  no  other  opening  than  a  doorway 
about  40  inches  high  and  25  broad.  The  Ba 
dakar  is  smaller  in  stature  and  lighter  in  com 
plexion  than  the  Toda.  The  district  of  Coorg 
is  inhabited  by  about  40,000  natives  called 
Koodaga.  They  are  a  tall,  muscular,  some 
what  civilized  and  intelligent  race.  The  Coorgs 
divide  themselves  into  Coorgs  and  Amma 
Coorgs.  They  have  a  fair  complexion,  and 
wear  whiskers  and  mustaches,  but  never  a 
full  beard.  A  very  important  aboriginal  tribe 
is  that  of  the  Gonds.  (See  GOXDS.)  Mr.  J. 


216 


INDIA   (RACES   AND  LANGUAGES) 


Murdock  estimates  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  the 
northeast  at  about  300,000,  those  of  central 
India  at  about  7,000,000,  and  the  hill  tribes 
of  southern  India  at  about  700,000.— Altogeth 
er  the  population  of  India  comprises  more 
than  50  different  races,  and  is  characterized 
by  the  greatest  diversity  of  appearance,  man 
ners,  language,  and  religion.  In  1871  the 
British-born  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  soldiers, 
numbered  64,001.  The  main  division  of  the 
native  people  as  to  religion  is  into  Hindoos, 
who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population,  and  Mo 
hammedans,  of  whom  the  estimated  number 
in  the  entire  country  is  40.000,000.  There  are 
also  several  millions  of  Buddhists  and  about 
200,000  Parsces.  The  Mohammedans  are  chief 
ly  found  in  the  plain  of  the  Ganges,  where 
for  several  centuries  they  held  dominion  as 
conquerors  and  masters  of  the  country,  un 
til  their  power  was  overthrown  by  the  Eng 
lish.  They  entered  Hindostan  in  the  begin 
ning  of  the  llth  century  from  Afghanistan, 
and  their  numbers  were  swelled  by  successive 
invasions  for  several  centuries  afterward.  In 
character  the  Mohammedans  are  distinguished 
from  the  Hindoos,  and  especially  from  the 
Hindoos  of  Bengal,  by  greater  energy  and 
frankness,  by  pride  and  arrogance,  and  by  their 
luxurious  and  dissolute  habits.  They  are  of  a 
hasty,  revengeful,  and  fanatical  disposition,  and 
do  not  submit  with  patience  to  the  domination 
of  their  English  conquerors.  The  Parsees  are 
but  little  darker  in  complexion  than  the  in 
habitants  of  the  south  of  Europe.  They  are 
descendants  of  the  ancient  fire  worshippers, 
who  fled  from  Persia  several  centuries  ago  in 
consequence  of  persecution  by  the  Mohamme 
dans,  and  are  now  numerous  in  Bombay  and 
in  some  other  cities  in  western  India.  They 
form  an  intelligent,  enterprising,  and  prosper 
ous  portion  of  the  native  population.  The 
Sikhs,  a  peculiar  religious  sect,  are  numerous 
in  the  northwest,  and  have  acted  an  important 
part  in  the  history  of  India.  After  an  exist 
ence  of  400  years,  their  numbers  are  only  es 
timated  at  from  half  a  million  to  a  million. 
(See  SIKHS.)  The  estimated  number  of  Jews 
in  India  is  10,000;  some  of  those  who  inhab 
it  Malabar  have  perfectly  black  complexions. 
There  is  also  a  large  body  of  native  Christians 
in  Malabar,  who  are  believed  to  be  descended 
from  converts  made  at  a  very  early  period  of 
our  era.  (See  CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS.) 
The  native  Protestant  converts  to  Christianity 
in  India  probably  exceed  250,000;  and  accord 
ing  to  a  statement  prepared  for  the  council  of 
the  Vatican  in  1870,  there  are  1,070,102  Roman 
Catholics  in  India.  The  number  of  Christians 
in  the  provinces  directly  subject  to  British 
control  is  197,880,  according  to  the  latest  enu 
merations,  which  were  made  from  1807  to  1872 
inclusive.  For  special  accounts  of  some  other 
classes  of  the  people  of  India,  see  FAKIRS,  PA 
RIAHS,  and  THUGS.  For  an  account  of  the  di 
vision  of  the  people  into  castes,  see  INDIA, 
RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE  OF. — 


LANGUAGES.  The  early  Aryan  invaders  spoke 
a  language  which  has  been  preserved  in  the 
Vedas,  and  which  bears  the  name  of  Sanskrit 
•(sanskrta,  perfect),  as  it  is  considered  to  be 
the  most  cultivated  and  perfected.  (See  SAN 
SKRIT.)  When  this  language  came  to  be  spe 
cially  used  for  literary  purposes,  colloquial 
speech  soon  departed  from  the  standard  which 
was  set  up  for  it.  It  is  probable  that  even  in 
the  most  remote  historical  age  of  the  Aryan 
people  different  tribes  were  characterized  by 
dialectical  differences  of  speech.  These  uncul 
tivated  forms  of  the  language  received  from 
the  Hindoos  the  name  of  Prakrit  (pralcrti, 
nature),  in  distinction  from  Sanskrit.  Pra 
krit  is  therefore  the  general  term  for  the  va 
rious  dialects  which  arose  during  the  cen 
turies  immediately  preceding  our  era.  The 
rock  inscriptions  of  King  Asoka,  which  record 
names  of  Greek  princes  of  about  200  B.  C., 
and  the  legends  on  the  bilingual  coins  of 
Bactria,  are  written  in  this  language.  It  also 
plays  an  important  part  in  ancient  Hindoo 
dramas ;  for  while  the  heroes  speak  Sanskrit, 
the  women  and  attendants  use  various  forms 
of  the  popular  dialects,  which  again  appear 
more  or  less  regular,  or  like  the  literary  lan 
guage,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  speaker. 
In  course  of  time  it  became  customary  to  put 
the  same  dialectical  variation  always  into  the 
mouths  of  certain  classes  of  the  population. 
Whether  these  dialects  were  used  on  the  stage 
in  imitation  of  the  real  speech  of  the  people, 
and  whether  they  were  strongly  intermixed 
with  Sanskrit  in  order  to  make  them  more 
easily  understood  by  the  public,  cannot  be  de 
cided.  The  rise  of  Buddhism,  which  was  main 
ly  a  religion  of  the  people,  rendered  one  of  the 
popular  dialects  spoken  by  Buddha  himself  of 
special  importance.  This  Prakrit  language  is 
called  Pali,  but  the  precise  meaning  of  this 
word  is  not  known.  Pali  has  long  ceased  to  be 
spoken,  but  is  still  used  in  the  Buddhist  scrip 
tures  of  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  Siam.  '"Pra 
krit,"  says  E.  B.  Cowell,  "  almost  always  uses 
the  Sanskrit  roots ;  its  influence  being  chiefly 
restricted  to  alterations  and  elisions  of  certain 
letters  in  the  original  word.  It  everywhere 
substitutes  a  slurred  and  indistinct  pronuncia 
tion  for  the  clear  and  definite  utterance  of  the 
older  tongue."  All  the  modern  Sanskrit  idi 
oms  of  India  are  related  to  the  Prakrit  dialects, 
and  they  differ  from  the  ancient  mother  tongue 
rather  in  grammatical  forms  than  in  roots  and 
themes.  Fr.  Miiller  classifies  them  into  six 
groups.  The  eastern  group  comprises  Bangali 
or  Bengalee,  the  language  of  the  province  of 
Bengal,  Assami  or  Assamese,  and  Oriya.  To  the 
northern  group  belong  the  Nipali  or  Nepaulese, 
the  language  of  Nepaul,  Kacmiri  or  Cashmerian, 
and  Panjabi  or  Punjaubee,  the  language  of  the 
Punjaub.  The  western  group  embraces  the  Sin- 
dhi,  which  is  spoken  in  the  valley  of  the  lower 
Indus,  the  Multani,  and  several  minor  idioms. 
The  central  group  includes  the  Hindi,  the  lan- 
i  guage  of  the  native  Hindoo  population  of  the 


INDIA   (RACES   AND   LANGUAGES) 


217 


central  portion  of  northern  India;  Urdu,  also 
called  Hindustani,  an  offshoot  of  Hindi,  the 
language  of  the  Mohammedan  population  of 
the  whole  of  India,  and  spoken  by  all  the  culti 
vated  classes  of  the  peninsula;  and  Dakhani 
or  Deccaiiese,  also  a  Hindi  dialect.  The  south 
western  group  comprises  Guzarati  or  Gujarati, 
the  language  of  Guzerat  and  the  dialects  related 
to  it.  The  last  and  southern  group  is  formed 
by  the  Marathi. — All  these  languages  with  one 
exception  make  use  of  graphic  systems  differ 
ing  from  each  other,  but  in  common  derived 
from  the  old  Indie  Devanagari  alphabet,  which 
in  its  turn  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Semitic  char 
acters,  and  especially  of  the  Ilimyaritic.  Urdu 
or  Hindustani,  and  often  also  Sindhi,  is  written 
with  the  Arabic-Persian  Taliq  characters.  All 
the  languages  possess  the  same  five  classes  of 
consonants,  corresponding  with  those  of  San 
skrit  :  gutturals,  palatals,  cerebrals,  dentals,  and 
labials.  They  have  also  in  common  the  peculiar 
semi- vowels  i>,  y,  r,  and  £,  as  well  as  the  aspi 
rate  h.  The  vowels  are  «,  i,  and  u,  with  the 
extended  «,  i,  and  u;  the  closed  diphthongs 
are  e  and  6,  and  the  open  diphthongs  ai  and  au. 
Several  of  these  languages  also  reckon  r  and  I 
as  vowels.  The  following  are  the  four  princi 
pal  graphic  systems,  arranged  according  to  the 
sounds  ;  the  method  of  transcription  employed 
is  that  given  in  Lepsius's  "  Standard  Alpha 
bet,"  for  which  see  WRITING: 


Devanagari. 


Gutt,  37  &, 
Pal.  £[  t, 
Cer.  Z  ?, 
Dent.  (^  t, 
Lab.  CT  p. 

Semi-vow 
els.., 


-g-  fa 


l^Vi 

3r> 


d, 


gh, 


ah, 


/'fc,    35  1- 


Sib.  and  asp.     ^f  «, 


Vowels 


Gutt. 

Pal. 

Cer. 

Dent, 

Lab. 

Semi-vow-  j    >T  ^' 

els [5  r, 


A. 


V*,     jf 

<T'',     5=T 


Sib.  and  asp.     7(  *, 


Vowels  ...  \    ^  u, 


8*. 


31  m. 
«ic. 


O  w. 


Gutt.     yj  lc,  iH.  IcJi, 

Cer.       2*,  Zth,  \Sd,  1odh, 

Dent,    n  t,  q,  th,  %d,  $1  dh, 

Lab.      ^  p,  *5{ph,  V{  5,  <7)  Ih, 

Semi-vowels,  1\y,  5.  r,  61  I 

Sib.  and  asp.  ^  5,  %[  ^  ^  ^. 

Vowels  •  •  •  •]  ^ 

Arabic  of  the  Urdu. 

Gutt.   ^3  ^?  ^  1th)  ^j  {!•,  <u   $~h, 

Cer.     O  ^,  £  tli,  §  fl,  5J  dh, 

Dent.  O  t,  &  th,  J  d,  3J  dh, 

Semi-vow-   )  &  ^»  J  7'»  J  ^' 

els I        ::  ,,  ::     , 

Sib.  and  asp.  ^  «,  4  A. 

[  U  U     U 

Vowels  . . .  I      \  u,  J  A  L  Cte, 


— Bangali  or  Bengalee  distinguishes  the  mas 
culine,  feminine,  and  neuter  genders,  and  the 
singular  and  plural  number.  Nouns  possess 
nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  voca 
tive,  ablative,  instrumental,  and  locative  cases. 
The  mode  of  declension  is  as  follows :  sin 
gular — nom.  fialad  (^f^^T),  an  ox,  gen.  l>ala- 
der  ( ^"J-^Vj  &  ),  dat.  and  ace.  baladke,  voc. 
lalad,  abl.  baladhaite,  instr.  ~baladctc,  loc.  la- 

{ 

ladete  ;   plural — nom.  fialaderd 

r- 

gen.  laladerdiger 


ace.  T)aladerdigke,  voc.  laladerd,  abl.  lalader- 
diyete,  instr.  baladerdigete,  loc.  laladerdigete. 
Adjectives  agree  with  their  nouns  only  in  gen 
der,  but  not  in  number  and  case.  The  sign  of 
the  feminine  is  a,  and  sometimes  i.  Bangali 
is  the  only  modern  language  of  India  which 


218 


INDIA   (RACES  AND  LANGUAGES) 


has  special  forms  for  the  comparative  and  su 
perlative,  and  they  have  been  borrowed  from 
Sanskrit.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person 
singular  is  ami,  plural  dmrd;  second  person 
singular,  tumi,  plural  tomrd ;  third  person 
singular,  set,  plural  tdhdrd.  The  relative  pro 
noun  is  yini  in  the  singular  and  yendrd  in  the 
plural.  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers  are  ek, 
did,  tin,  tdri,  pac,  6hay,  sat,  at,  nay,  and  dac. 
No  distinction  is  made  between  transitive  and 
intransitive  verbs.  The  present  participle  ends 
in  -it,  which  receives  in  the  present  tense  an 
e,  making  it  -ite,  for  euphony.  The  participle 
of  the  aorist  ends  in  -la,  that  of  the  past  in 
-i/a.  The  termination  for  the  future  is  -iba. 
The  different  persons  are  indicated  by  suffixes. 
The  languages  of  Assam  and  Orissa,  Assam! 
and  Oriya,  are  closely  related  to  Bangali.  The 
former,  however,  has  incorporated  many  ele 
ments  pertaining  to  the  speech  of  the  neigh 
boring  population  of  Burmah  and  Thibet, 
while  the  latter  has  a  strong  admixture  of 
Arabic. — Nipali  or  Nepaulese,  the  language  of 
Nepaul,  also  possesses  many  Thibetan  ele 
ments.  The  neuter  gender  has  disappeared ; 
the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  hern,  col 
lection,  assembly,  and  the  genitive  of  nouns 
is  considered  an  adjective,  and  has  an  inflec 
tion  of  its  own.  The  general  character  of 
the  declension  may  be  seen  from  the  follow 
ing  example  :  singular,  nom.  mdnis  (  ±\  \\  ~\  t\  ), 

a  man,  gen.  mdnisko  (  ^  |  MH°i  11  )>  dat.  ma~ 
nisldi,  ace.  mdnisTcan,  voc.  he  mdnis,  abl.  md- 
nisdesivdto,  instr.  mdnisle,  loc.  mdnismsema  ; 

plural — nom.  mdnisheru  ( 


mdnisheruM  (  >H  I 


)> 


t.  mam- 

sheruldi,  ace.  mdnisherukan,  voc.  hemdnisheru, 
abl.  mdnisherudesivdto,  instr.  mdnisherule,  loc. 
mdnisheruvisema.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  per 
son  singular  is  ma,  plural  hdmiheru;  second  per 
son  singular,  td,  plural  timiheru ;  third  person 
singular,  tun,  plural  tiniheru.  The  relative  pro 
noun  is  gnn  in  the  singular  and  gunheru  in  the 
plural. — Kaciniri  and  Panjabi  (Cashmerian  and 
Punjaubee)  has  embodied  many  Arabic  and 
Persian  elements.  Only  the  masculine  and 
feminine  genders  are  distinguished.  Feminines 
generally  end  in  ni  or  dni.  Nouns  are  de 
clined  like  the  following  example :  singular — 

nom.  ghord  (  Q\^\  ),  a  horse,   gen.  ghoredd 

(  y  [  x^<*T)'  9h°Tvdi,  ghorede,  dat.  ghoretai,  ace. 
ghorenu,,  abl.  ghorete,  instr.  ghorene,  loc.  gho- 
revitf;  plural — nom.  ghore  (  'y  |  3' ),  gen.  gho- 
riMd  (  wl  Q  ±y  \  £  |  ),  ghoriadi,  ghoriade,  dat. 


ghnriatai,  ace.  ghorianu,  abl.  ghoriate,  instr. 
ghoridne,  loc.  ghnriavic.  The  pronoun  of  the 
first  person  singular  is  mal,  plural  asi ;  second 


person  singular,  tu,  plural  tusi  ;  third  person 
singular  and  plural,  so.  The  relative  pronoun 
is  go  both  in  the  singular  and  plural.  Verbs 
form  the  present  participle  by  adding  -ant, 
and  the  past  participle  by  -ta.  —  Sindhi  has  been 
maintained  in  a  comparatively  close  relation  to 
ancient  Sanskrit,  and  is  of  great  importance  for 
the  investigation  of  modern  Indian  forms  of 
speech.  This  language  also  has  lost  the  neuter 
gender.  The  plural  case  is  not  formed  in  it 
as  in  the  other  languages  by  adding  some  word 
signifying  collection  or  assembly,  but  by  a  gen 
uine  case  ending  u,  or  sometimes  a.  The  gen 
itive  case  of  nouns  is  also  used  here  as  a  sort 
of  adjective  admitting  of.  special  inflection, 
Declension  is  generally  according  to  the  fol 
lowing  example  :  singular  —  nom.  macharu 


)>  a  gnat,  gen.  macharago 


sf  ), 


macharagi,  rnatfharagd,  macharagu,  dat.  and 
ace.  macharakhe,  voc.  e  machara,  abl.  ma- 
61iaraklio,  instr.  machara,  loc.  macharame  ; 

plural  —  nom.  mathara  (  H^^  ),  gen.  macha- 
ranigo  («^££  ^  \*\  ^fl"),  mctdliaranigi,  matfha- 

ranig"d,  ma^haranigU,  dat.  and  ace.  matfha- 
ranikhe,  voc.  e  macharo,  abl.  matfharanikho, 
instr.  macharani,  loc.  macharanime.  Adjec 
tives  are  put  in  perfect  agreement  with  their 
nouns  in  number,  gender,  and  case.  The 
pronoun  of  the  first  person  singular  is  au,  a, 
or  md,  plural  asl  ;  second  person  singular,  tfi, 
plural  tavhl  or  tahl  ;  third  person  singular,  so, 
feminine  sd,  plural  se.  The  relative  pronoun 
is  go  in  the  singular  masculine,  gd  feminine, 
and  g~e  in  the  plural.  There  are  pronominal 
suffixes  which  are  probably  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  Persian.  When  added  to  a  noun  they 
have  the  force  of  a  genitive.  They  are  :  mi, 
first  person  singular  ;  i,  second  ;  si  or  al,  third  ; 
su,  si,  or  u,  first  person  plural  ;  va,  second  ;  n  i 
or  au,  third.  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers 
are  Jiiku,  ba,  te,  cdri,  paga,  cha  or  thdha,  sata, 
atha,  nava,  and  raha.  The  corresponding  ordi 
nals  are  perhyo,  Tjio,  tio,  cotho,  pdgo,  chaho, 
satD,  atJid,  nav8,  and  raho.  The  present  parti 
ciple  of  intransitive  verbs  ends  in  ado,  of  tran 
sitive  verbs  in  uU.  The  past  participle  is 
formed  by  adding  -yd.  Urdu  or  Hindustani  is 
a  dialect  of  Hindi,  whose  origin  dates  back  to 
the  llth  century  A.  D.  It  is  strongly  mixed 
with  Persian  and  Arabic,  and  also  to  some 
degree  with  Tartaric  Mongolian  elements.  It 
is  the  current  administrative  language  of  In 
dia,  and  spoken  by  all  connected  with  official 
circles.  It  was  called  Urdu  from  its  having  been 
developed  in  the  camps  (nrdu}  of  the  Moslem 
conquerors  of  the  country.  The  best  authori 
ties  believe  that  it  did  not  take  form  as  a  speci 
fic  variety  of  Indian  speech  before  the  16th  cen 
tury.  It  distinguishes  a  masculine  and  femin 
ine  gender,  and  the  latter  is  generally  indica 
ted  by  i,  as  "beta,  son,  leti,  daughter;  larfai, 
boy,  larki,  girl  ;  or  by  dni,  ni,  and  ni,  as  Itdgh, 


INDIA   (RACES   AXD   LANGUAGES) 


219 


tiger,  Idahni,  tigress.  The  plural  of  nouns  in 
oblique  oases  is  formed  by  adding  3  ;  the  nomi 
native  of  masculine  nouns  remains  unchanged 
if  it  ends  in  a  consonant  or  in  i,  but  if  in  d  or 
ah  it  receives  an  e.  Feminines  in  i  take  a, 
others  c.  The  sign  for  the  genitive  is  hi  mas 
culine,  ki  feminine.  This  case  has  also  the 
force  of  an  adjective,  and  its  own  oblique 
cases  end  in  ~ke  ;  as  rdtfdkd  beta,  the  son  of  the 
king  ;  rdgdke  beteM,  to  the  son  of  the  king. 
The  form  of  the  other  cases  will  appear  from 
the  following  paradigm  :  singular  —  nom.  ddhd 

(  U  J^  \  ),  a  blind  man,  gen.  adhekd  ( 

adheke,  itdheki,  dat.  and  ace.  ddheko,  voc. 
ai  ddhe,  abl.  ddhese,  instr.  ddhene,  loc.  dd- 

heme;  plural  —  nom.  ddM  (jj  I),  gen.  dd- 


hokd  (        ^bjJl),  ddhoke,  ddhDki,   dat,  and 

ace.  ddhdko,  voc.  ai  ddho,  abl.  ddhose,  instr. 
ddJtDne,  loc.  ddhdme.  Adjectives  always  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  gender  and  case,  but  not 
always  in  number;  as  ace  hi  larki,  the  good 
girl;  ace  he  larke,  the  good  boys;  ace  hi  lar- 
kiyH,  the  good  girls.  The  pronoun  of  the  first 
person  singular  is  mai,  plural  ham;  second 
person  singular,  tu,  plural  turn  ;  third  person 
singular  and  plural,  so.  The  relative  pronoun 
is  go  in  both  singular  and  plural.  The  first  ten 
cardinal  numbers  are  ek,  do,  tin,  tfdr,pdc,  c'hah, 
sat,  dth,  nau,  das.  The  corresponding  ordinals 
are  pahld,  dusrd,  tisrd,  c'avthd,  pdcvd,  ehathta, 
sdthi'd,  dthvd,  naid,  dasrd.  The  present  par 
ticiple  of  verbs  ends  in  ant,  the  past  participle 
in  ta.  —  Guzarati  or  Gujarati  distinguishes  all 
three  genders.  Nouns  are  declined  as  follows  : 

CS 

singular  —  nom.  dcv  (  £H  ),  a  god,  gen.  masc. 


sing,  devnd  (  £H«tl  )>  gen-  fem.  sing,  devni,  gen. 

neut.  sing,  devnv,  gen.  masc.  pi.  dhnd,  gen. 
fern.  pi.  devni,  gen.  neut.  pi.  devna,  dat.  and 
ace.  devne,  voc.  are  der,  abl.  devthi,  dcrcthi, 
instr.  devthi,  devethi,  deve,  deiiekari,  deveka- 
rine,  loc.  deve,  devmd  ;  plural  —  nom.  deed 


),  gen.  masc.  sing,  dcvdno  ( 


),  gen. 


fern.  sing,  devoni,  gen.  neut.  sing,  devdnu,  gen. 
masc.  pi.  devdnd,  gen.  fern.  pi.  decani,  gen. 
neut.  pi.  devond,  dat.  and  ace.  devdne,  voc.  olio 
devd,  abl.  devdthi,  instr.  devdthi,  devde,  devoe- 
Icari,  devoekarine,  loc.  devoe,  devomd.  The 
genitive  of  nouns  can  thus  be  employed  as 
an  adjective  and  made  to  agree  in  gender 
and  number  with  the  substantive.  Adjectives 
agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and 
case.  The  nominative  singular  masculine  ends 
in  o,  feminine  in  i,  neuter  in  u  ;  the  nomina 
tive  plural  masculine  in  d,  feminine  in  i,  neu 
ter  in  a.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person  sin 
gular  is  hu,  plural  ami  '  ;  second  person  singular, 
t&,  plural  tame  ;  third  person  singular,  te,  plu 
ral  teo.  The  relative  pronoun  singular  is  ^, 
plural  (jeo.  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers  are 


ek,  be,  tan,  (far,  pdcf,  c*ha,  sat,  dth,  nav,  and 
das.  The  corresponding  ordinals  are  pehelo, 
Mfjo,  tiyo,  &thd,  pac'amo,  chato,  sdtamo,  atliamo, 
navamo,  and  dasamo.  The  present  participle 
ends  in  to,  ti,  tu.  The  past  participle  is  formed 
by  yd,  i,  yu.  —  Marathi  also  distinguishes  three 
genders.  Nouns  are  declined  as  follows  :  sin 
gular  —  nom.  dev  (  ^T^f  ),  a  god,  gen.  devdc'd 


(  ^  cf  IrJ  I  )?  devdci,  devdrfa,  devdc'e,  dat.  and 
ace.  devds,  devdld,  abl.  devdpdsun,  instr.  derane, 
devdna,  loc.  demt;  plural  —  nom.  deva  (  5^)5 


gen.  devdc'd  ( 


),  devde'e,  devaca,  derate, 


dat.  and  ace.  dexds,  devdld,  abl.  dempdsun, 
instr.  devdne,  derdna,  loc.  devat.  Adjectives 
end  when  masculine  in  d,  feminine  in  i,  and 
neuter  in  a,  and  are  connected  with  their  nouns 
as  if  they  formed  a  compound  word  with  them. 
Number  and  case  are  indicated  only  when  ad 
jectives  are  used  as  nouns.  The  pronoun  of 
the  first  person  singular  is  ml,  plural  dmhi; 
second  person  singular,  tu,  plural  tumid;  third 
person  singular,  masculine  to,  feminine  ti,  neu 
ter  te  ;  plural  for  the  three  genders,  te.  The 
relative  pronoun  singular  masculine  is  go,  femi 
nine  tfi,  neuter  ge  ;  plural  for  the  three  gen 
ders,  ye<  but  the  feminine  appears  sometimes  as 
gyd.  The  present  participle  of  transitive  verbs 
ends  in  it,  of  intransitive  verbs  in  at.  There  is 
another  form  ending  in  ta.  The  past  partici 
ple  of  transitives  ends  in  ild,  of  intransitives 
in  aid.  —  DEATIDIAX  LANGUAGES.  Excepting 
Cingalese,  or  Singhalese,  the  language  spoken 
on  the  island  of  Ceylon  (which,  though  possess 
ing  some  points  of  similarity  with  the  Dravidian 
languages,  is  nevertheless  treated  by  several 
eminent  scholars  as  a  language  entirely  distinct 
by  itself),  the  Dravidian  group  must  be  divided 
into  five  sections  or  languages,  to  which  may 
be  added  a  sixth,  comprising  the  idioms  still 
imperfectly  known  and  spoken  by  the  races 
which  occupy  the  innermost  parts  of  the  moun 
tainous  regions.  The  Tamil  language  is  the 
Sanskrit  of  the  whole  group.  It  is  spoken 
mainly  in  the  so-called  Carnatic,  or  the  eastern 
coastland  below  the  Ghauts  of  Palicat  as  far 
as  Cape  Comorin,  and  from  the  Ghauts  to  the 
bay  of  Bengal.  It  is  heard  also  in  the  West 
ern  Ghauts  and  in  the  northern  portion  of 
Ceylon.  There  are  two  dialectical  variations 
of  it.  One  is  the  so-called  classic  or  Sen- 
Tamil,  and  the  other  the  colloquial  or  Kodun- 
Tamil.  The  next  highest  rank  must  be  assign 
ed  to  Telugu,  formerly  called  Gentoo.  It  was 
once  spoken  as  far  N.  as  the  Ganges,  but  now 
reaches  only  from  Cicacole  on  the  E.  coast  to 
Palicat,  and  thence  as  far  as  Mysore.  The 
next  in  order,  and  nearest  related  to  the  two 
preceding,  is  Canarese,  whose  territory  extends 
over  Mysore  and  the  eastern  districts  of  the 
Nizam  as  far  as  Beder;  it  is  spoken  also  in 
the  district  of  Canara,  on  the  Malabar  coast. 
The  fourth  language  is  Malayalam  or  Mala- 
yalma,  spoken  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  on  tho 


220 


INDIA   (RACES  AND  LANGUAGES) 


•western  side  of  the  Ghauts,  between  Manga- 
lore  and  Trivandrum.  The  fifth  and  least  rep 
resented  language  is  Tula  or  Tuluva,  formerly 
spoken  in  Canara,  now  only  in  the  vicinity  of 
Mangalore,  and  rapidly  dying  out.  The  speech 
of  the  Todavars,  Kotars,  Gonds,  Koos,  and 
other  races  occupying  the  mountains,  is  ex 
pected  to  show  on  further  acquaintance  an  in 
timate  relation  with  these  languages.  Max 
Miiller  considers  the  Dravidian  languages  as 
a  branch  of  the  Uralo-Altaic,  Mongolian,  or 
Turanian ;  but  Fr.  Miiller  and  other  great  au 
thorities  consider  them  a  totally  distinct  and 
primitive  division  of  human  speech.  These 
languages  are  written  in  peculiar  graphic  sys 
tems,  which  are  derived  like  those  of  the 
Aryan  languages  of  India  from  the  Devana- 
gari  alphabet,  but  less  directly,  coming  through 
the  Kistnah  and  Nerbudda  characters.  The 
sounds  may  be  grouped  in  Tamil  as  follows : 


Gutturals  . . . 

Palatals 

Cerebrals,  I. . 
Cerebrals,  II 
Dentals  ...... 

Labials . . 


Liquids. 
Sibilant 

Vowels. 


Tamil. 

Surd.  Sonant. 


d, 


Oo   &j  ^TT  /, 

^    8. 

pp  *,  2_  ^, 


Nasal. 


cccr  n. 
CCT  n. 

v$n. 

ID  m. 

IT  T, 


The  cerebrals  are  pronounced  with  a  decided 
palatalization.  The  Tamil  characters  probably 
represent  the  oldest  of  the  south  Indian  gra 
phic  systems.  In  all  the  Dravidian  languages, 
but  especially  in  Tamil  and  Malayalam,  there  is 
the  peculiar  law  of  beginning  with  surd  sounds 
every  word  and  syllable  following  one  that  is 
closed ;  and  of  beginning  with  sonants  every 
syllable  which  succeeds  another  that  is  open,  or 
that  is  closed  with  a  nasal  or  a  liquid  sound. 
Tamil  adds  to  this  the  difficulty  of  employing  the 
same  sign  either  as  a  surd  or  a  sonant,  leaving 
it  to  the  reader  to  decide  how  it  is  to  be  pro 
nounced.  Another  difficulty  arises  from  the 
fact  that  the  Dravidian  languages  absorbed 
many  Aryan  words  belonging  to  different  pe 
riods  of  the  ancient  and  modern  Indian  lan 
guages.  Some  of  these  words  were  appropri 
ated  without  alteration,  called  tatsama  by  na 
tive  grammarians,  and  others  have  been  assimi 
lated  with  Dravidian  forms,  called  tadbhava. 
As  the  Dravidian  alphabets  do  not  represent 


all  the  Indian  sounds,  it  was  found  necessary 
either  to  invent  others,  which  was  done  in 
Telugu,  Kannadi,  and  Malayalam,  or  to  change 
the  words  so  that  the  alphabet  would  suffice, 
which  is  done  in  Tamil.  Originally,  therefore, 
the  Dravidian  languages  made  use  only  of  the 
number  of  characters  still  employed  in  Tamil ; 
but  at  present  Telugu,  Kannadi,  and  Malayalam 
have  a  system  of  signs  which  represent  also 
the  sounds  of  the  Aryan  languages,  and  which 
may  be  grouped  in  a  similar  manner.  Canarese 
characters  are  similar  to  the  Telugu  ;  hence  we 
subjoin  only  the  latter  and  the  Malayalam  : 


Telugu. 


th, 

th, 


dh, 
dh, 


Gutt.  ^  ^, 

Pal.  tf  (?, 

Cer.  ^  f, 

Dent,  o^  ^, 

Lab.  ^  jt>, 


Sib.  and  asp. 


Vowels  . . 


Gutt.  d&>  £,  QJ  M,  C/)  g,  "S-fiJ  gh,  03  n. 

Pal.  oj  <f,  a/>  (fA,  ^   <j,  ^^XJO  fa  &&)  7i, 

Cer.  S  t,  O  th,  c\jj  (?, 

Dent.  (7)  £,  LjQ  ^,     O  <?,  oO  6?7i, 

Lab.  n_i  p,  o  n  ph.ttAl),  3  5  A, 

Liq.  CQy  2/,  1J  «,       (D  r,  £A  I. 

Sib.  and  asp.  09 


Vowels  .  .  . 


gfO  w, 


These  systems  enable  the  Telugu,  Kannadi, 
and  Malayalam  to  give  Indian  words  in  their 
own  orthography,  while  Tamil  must  transform 
them  according  to  the  necessities  of  its  insuffi 
cient  alphabet.  A  sentence  is  in  all  the  Dra 
vidian  languages  an  absolute  whole.  The  words 
are  closely  connected,  and  the  junction  of  vow 
els  or  consonants,  vowel  and  consonant,  or  con 
sonant  and  vowel,  at  the  end  and  beginning  of 
two  words,  produces  various  euphonic  changes. 
The  accent,  however,  remains  always  on  the 
root  syllable,  which  is  in  all  cases  the  first  syl 
lable  of  a  word.  The  parts  of  speech  may  be 
reduced  to  only  two  groups  of  nouns  and 
verbs.  There  is  hardly  what  is  called  a  gram- 


INDIA   (RACES  AND  LANGUAGES) 


221 


matic.il  gender,  excepting  in  the  pronoun  of 
the  third  person,  which  belongs  mostly  to  the 
verb.  Nouns  are  distinguished,  however,  as 
belonging  either  to  the  higher  or  to  the  lower 
caste,  the  one  comprising  rational  and  the 
other  irrational  beings;  men,  gods,  demigods, 
spirits,  arid  the  like,  forming  one  group,  and 
animals,  inanimate  objects,  and  subjective  ideas, 
the  other.  Singular  and  plural  numbers  are 
distinguished,  the  latter  by  means  of  high-  or 
low-caste  suffixes.  The  former  was  originally 
called  mar,  and  is  now  chiefly  employed  as  an 
honorific  plural ;  otherwise  it  is  reduced  to  ar, 
dr,  ir,  and  ir,  appearing  in  Tclugu  and  Kannadi 
as  aru,  uru,  ru,  ri,  dru,  and  eru.  The  latter 
was  originally  called  Jsal  and  gal,  as  still  clearly 
seen  in  Tamil  and  Malayalam.  In  Canarese  it 
is  galu.  The  cases  are  indicated  by  means  of 
suffixes.  The  declension  of  nouns  is  shown  in 
the  following  examples :  1.  Tamil.  Singular — 
nom.  rdyau  (  rrriLLJOT),  a  king,  ace.  rdyayfr 
gen.  rdyaqudiya  (rrriLLJ^CSH-LLl),  dat.  rd- 
yanukku  (  IT  nLU £2^35^0)) ,  abl.  rdyanilirundu, 
instr.  rdyandl,  loc.  rdya^il,  rdyaqidattil ;  plu 
ral — nom.  rdyar  (  rrnLurr)i  acc-  rdyarL  gen. 
rdyarudiya  (rrniJJ(J3<^5)L-LL')?  dat.  rdyarukku, 
abl.  rdyarilirundu,  instr.  rdyardl,  loc.  rdyaril, 
rdyaridattil.  2.  Telugu.  Singular — nom.  gur- 
ramu  (  ?tf^6,c3j3  ),  a  horse,  acc.  gurramunu,  gen. 
gurramuyokka  ( p^SSoWU ),  dat.  gurramu- 
ku,  gurramunaku,  instr.  gurramuceta,  loc.  gur- 
ramulo  ;  plural — nom.  gurramulu,  acc.  gurra- 
mulanu,  gen.  gurramula,  dat.  gurramulaku, 
instr.  gurramulateta,  loc.  gurramulalo.  3. 
Malayalam.  Singular — nom.  mala,  a  moun 
tain,  acc.  malaye,  gen.  malayute,  dat.  malekka, 
abl.  malayilninna,  instr.  malaydl,  loc.  mala- 
yil ;  plural — nom.  malakal,  acc.  malakale,  gen. 
malaJcalute,  dat.  malakalukka,  abl.  malakal- 
iloninna,  instr.  malakaldl,  loc.  malakalil.  4. 
Kannadi  or  Canarese.  '  Singular — nom.'  mara- 
vu,  a  tree,  acc.  marava,  gen.  marada,  dat.  ma- 
rakke,  abl.  maradadeseinda,  instr.  maradinda, 
loc.  maradalli;  plural — nom.  maragalu,  acc. 
maragala,  gen.  maragala,  dat.  maragalige, 
abl.  maragaladeseinda,  instr.  maragalinda,  loc. 
maragalalli.  5.  Tulu.  Singular — nom.  mara,  a 
tree,  acc.  marana,  gen.  marada,  dat.  maraka, 
instr.  maradda,  loc.  marada;  plural — nom. 
marakulu,  acc.  marakuluna,  gen.  marakula, 
dat.  marakuluka,  instr.  marakuliiflda,  loc. 
marakuluda'  Adjectives  remain  'always  un 
changed*  in  the  Dravidian  languages,  and  al 
ways  precede  their  nouns.  Personal  pronouns, 
however,  are  capable  of  inflection.  The  pro 
noun  of  the  first  person  singular,  nominative, 
is  in  Tamil  ndfy,  Telugu  nenu,  Kannadi  ndnu, 
Malayalam  nan,  Tulu  ydn  ;  plural,  Tamil  ndm, 
Telugu  memu,  Kannadi  nd.m,  dm,  and  ndvu, 
Malayalam  nan,  Tulu  namma.  In  Sen-Tamil 
the  suffix  gal  is  added  to  produce  a  pure  plural 
form ;  hence  ndngal  instead  of  ndm.  The 
first  ten  cardinal  numbers  in  Tamil  are  on$ii, 
irandu,  muq$u,  ndlu,  indu,  d<$u,  elu,  etfa, 
or^badu,  and  pattu.  In  Telugu  there  is  no 


word  for  one  ;  the  others  are  rendu,  mudu, 
ndlugu,  aidu,  dm,  ycdu,  yenimidi,  tommidi, 
and  padi  ;  in  Kannadi  the  ten  are  ondu,  eradu, 
muru,  ndlku,  aidu,  dru,  elu,  entu,  om  lliaitu, 
and  hattu  ;  and  in  Malayalam,  onna,  ranta, 
munna,  nala,  aritfa,  dra,  ela,  etta,  onpata,  and 
patta.  The  most  peculiar  constituent  of  the 
Dravidian  languages  is  the  verb,  which  is  a 
mere  compound  of  a  form  of  the  noun  with 
a  personal  pronoun.  Caldwell  says  of  it: 
"  When  case  signs  are  attached  to  a  root,  or 
when,  without  the  addition  of  case  signs,  it 
is  used  as  the  nominative  of  a  verb,  it  is  re 
garded  as  a  noun  ;  the  same  root  becomes  a 
verb  without  any  internal  change  or  forma 
tive  addition,  when  the  signs  of  tense  and  the 
pronouns  or  their  terminal  fragments  are  suf 
fixed  to  it."  Further  on  he  says  :  "  The  struc 
ture  of  the  Dravidian  verb  is  strictly  aggluti 
native.  The  particles  which  express  the  ideas 
of  mood  and  tense,  transition,  intransition, 
causation,  and  negation,  together  with  the  pro 
nominal  fragments  by  which  person,  number, 
and  gender  are  denoted,  are  annexed  or  ag 
glutinated  to  the  root  in  so  regular  a  series 
and  by  so  quiet  a  process,  that  generally  no 
change  whatever,  or  at  most  only  a  slight 
euphonic  change,  is  effected  either  in  the  root 
or  in  any  of  the  suffixed  particles.  As  the 
Dravidian  noun  has  but  one  declension,  so  the 
Dravidian  verb  has  only  one  conjugation  and 
but  very  few  irregular  forms."  —  Cingalese  or 
Singhalese,  the  language  of  the  Elu,  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Ceylon,  incorporated  a  large 
number  of  Pali  and  Sanskrit  words,  while  the 
modern  modifications  of  it  are  tinged  with  Ma 
lay.  (See  CINGALESE  LANGUAGE.)  The  Elu 
alphabet  has  34  consonants  and  12  vowels. 
This  alphabet  may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

Gutt.     25)  k,     £)  l-h,    CD  g,      63  gt,    £)  n. 
Pal.        Qt,      tfth,    tf 


Dent.      ^r>  t,  (5  t7i,  $  d,  Q  dli,  ^O  n. 

Lab.        Qp,  &pli,  g>&,  *S)   Wi,    9  m. 

Semi  -  vow-  j  CD  y,  (f  r,  Q  I,       &  I 
(      D^- 


els 


Sib.  and  asp.        CO  p  ,      ®  s,       £3  s,      &  h. 
Vowels 


There  is  no  grammatical  gender,  though  gram 
marians  distinguish  between  male  and  female, 
restricted  however  to  animate  beings,  and  even 
this  is  very  vaguely  applied.  Feminines  are  in 
dicated  by  the  Sanskritic  termination  i,  inni, 
or  inna.  "The  plural  is  formed  either  by  substi 
tuting  6  for  the  final  d,  or  by  dropping  the  final 
vowel,  and  further  by  one  of  the  four  affixes 


222 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AXD  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE) 


varu,  Id,  hu,  and  val.  There  are  eight  cases, 
and  nouns  are  inflected  as  follows :  singular — 

nom.  purusayd  ( OtfiC3O3 ),  a  man,  acc.puru- 

cJ 

sayd,  voc.  purusayo,  gen.  purusaydge,  d&t.puru- 
saydta,  abl.  purwaydgen,  instr.  purusay  amain, 

loc.    purusahukerehi    (  O(5LCSC5)(9£5>@(5o5  )  ; 

c_-  **M 

plural — nom.    purusayo    (O(5z/D<9C}3)>    ace. 

QJ 

purusay  an,  voc.  purusayeni,  gen.  purusayange, 
dat.  purusay  anta,  abl.  purusayangen,  instr. 

purusay  anviain    ( 

pur usay anker ehi.  This  inflection  of  nouns 
varies  according  to  the  final  vowel.  Adjec 
tives  precede  the  substantive,  and  remain  un 
changed.  The  comparative  is  formed  by 
vadd,  xediya,  or  xediyen,  and  the  superlative 
byati  or  itd,  whicli  particles  are  always  pre 
fixed  to  adjectives.  In  comparing  two  objects, 
the  object  compared  with  another  is  put  in 
the  dative.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person 
singular  is  mama,  plural  api ;  second  person 
masculine  singular  to,  plural  topi;  feminine 
singular  ti,  plural  tild.  But  there  are  several 
other  forms  of  this  pronoun  in  use,  which  are 
employed  according  to  the  rank  of  the  person 
addressed.  The  pronoun  of  the  third  person 
singular  is  ohu  or  u,  plural  uld  ;  the  abbrevia 
tion  u  being  mainly  used  in  formal  discourse. 
The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers  are  eka,  deka, 
tuna,  Jiatara,  paha,  Jiaya,  Jiata,  ata,  nevaya  or 
namaya,  and  daJiaya.  Ordinals  are  formed  by 
suffixing  veni.  Verbs  are  divided  into  transi- 
tives  and  intransitives,  and  are  distinguished 
as  active  and  passive.  The  tenses,  of  which 
there  are  eight,  viz.,  two  of  the  present,  an 
imperfect,  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future, 
are  formed  by  means  of  participial  formatives 
and  auxiliaries.  Number  and  person  are  in 
dicated  merely  by  the  personal  pronouns  used 
in  conjunction  with  the  verbs. — See  Reise  der 
Novara ;  LinguistiscJier  Theil,  by  Friedrich 
Miiller  (Vienna,  1867),  and  Ethnographischer 
Theil,  by  Miiller  and  Scherzer  (1868)  ;  Beames, 
"  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Modern  Aryan 
Languages  of  India"  (London,  1872  et  seq.}-, 
and  the  journals  of  the  royal  Asiatic  society 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  of  the  royal 
Asiatic  society  of  Bengal. 

INDIA,  Religions  and  Religions  Literature  of. 
In  the  present  state  of  uncertainty  in  regard 
to  their  chronological  order,  it  seems  advi 
sable  to  treat  the  comparatively  few  monu 
ments  of  the  literature  of  India  with  which 
we  have  become  acquainted  in  connection  with 
the  various  periods  of  the  religious  history  of 
the  country  for  which  they  form  the  sources 
of  our  information.  The  character  of  the  first 
two  periods  is  depicted  in  several  writings 
which  may  be  classified  as  monuments  of  Vedic 
and  of  Sanskrit  literature.  The  first  embraces 
the  hymns  of  the  Veda,  the  Brahmanas,  and 


the  Sutras.  The  Veda-Sanhitas  or  Veda  texts 
exist  in  four  collections  :  Rig- Veda,  Sama- Ve 
da,  Yajur-Veda,  and  Atharva-Veda.  The  Rig- 
Veda  is  the  largest  and  most  valuable  collec 
tion.  The  hymns  are  grouped  in  it  chiefly  ac 
cording  to  their  asserted  authors.  They  com 
prise  1,028  suTcta,  hymns,  and  10,580  rib,  verses, 
which  are  divided  into  10  mandala,  circles  or 
books.  The  Sama-Veda-Sanhita  is  a  body  of 
verses  culled  from  the  hymns  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
along  with  a  few  others,  arranged  into  forms 
suitable  for  chanting.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
older  than  the  compilation  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
as  it  does  not  contain  any  of  the  verses  in  the 
latter  which  appear  to  be  of  a  late  date.  The 
Yajur-Veda  gives  the  verses  and  formulas 
of  words  to  be  recited  during  the  progress 
of  the  ceremonies  attending  sacrifice.  There 
are  two  editions  of  it,  which  however  differ 
only  in  arrangement.  The  black  Yajur-Veda 
or  Taittiriya-Sanhita  gives  also  dogmatic  ex 
planations,  while  the  white  Yajur-Veda  or 
Vajasaneyi-Sanhita  contains  only  the  verses  of 
the  ritual.  The  Atharva-Veda  seems  to  be  a 
continuation  of  the  tenth  mandala  of  the  Rig- 
Veda;  it  is  a  collection  of  hymns  of  various 
date  and  character,  but  predominantly  supersti 
tious.  The  Brahmanas  furnish  descriptions  of 
the  ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  Sanhitas,  and 
numerous  legends  bearing  on  them ;  but  they 
are  full  of  repetitions.  They  have  an  adden 
dum  of  philosophical  speculations,  called  Aran- 
yaka,  forest  portion,  probably  from  the  fact 
that  philosophers  generally  lived  as  hermits  in 
the  woods.  A  portion  of  the  Aranyaka  is  called 
Upanishad,  session,  and  contains  speculations 
depicting  the  Brahmanical  system  of  pantheism. 
The  Sutras  are  collections  of  practical  rules 
respecting  matters  of  ceremony  and  worship. 
Such  are  especially  the  Qrauta-Sutras,  or  the  re 
vealed,  while  the  Grihya-Sutras,  or  the  domes 
tic,  seem  to  be  oral  traditions  giving  rules  of 
conduct  and  general  behavior.  Sutras  which 
explain  the  language,  mythology,  or  astrology 
of  the  Vedas  are  called  Vedangas,  or  members 
of  the  Vedas.  Those  which  attempt  to  analyze 
the  philosophy  of  the  Vedas  bear  the  name  of 
Vedanta,  or  purpose  of  the  Vedas.  Linguis 
tically  considered,  these  last  belong  to  the  next, 
or  Sanskrit  period,  distinguished  by  a  later 
character  of  the  language.  Prof.  Max  Miiller 
divides  the  interval  in  which  the  books  enu 
merated  appeared  into  four  periods.  The  first 
of  these,  the  Chhandas  period,  or  the  period 
of  spontaneous  poetic  productiveness,  lie  com 
putes  to  have  lasted  from  1200  to  1000  B.  C., 
and  during  that  time  the  most  ancient  of  the 
Vedic  hymns  were  composed.  The  second, 
the  Mantra  or  "sacred  formula"  period,  com 
prises  the  next  two  centuries,  and  its  hymns 
bear  traces  of  the  growth  of  a  sacerdotal  spirit 
and  system.  The  third  or  Brahmana  period 
closes  at  600  B.  C.,  and  the  fourth  or  Sutra 
period  is  assigned  to  the  time  subsequent  to 
it,  and  ending  200  B.  C.  Prof.  W.  D.  Whit 
ney,  however,  holds  that  this  chronology 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITEEATURE) 


223 


is  "a  mere  conjectural  hypothesis,  which  is 
not  fairly  entitled  even  to  temporary  and 
provisional  acceptance."  Among  the  works 
belonging  to  the  Sutra  division  are  some 
times  reckoned  the  Praticakhyas,  which  are 
treatises  explaining  the  phonetic  peculiarities  of 
the  text  of  the  hymns,  and  the  Anukramanis, 
which  are  indices  to  the  texts,  and  state  the 
author,  theme,  length,  and  metres  of  each 
hymn.  During  the  period  that  Sanskrit  gradu 
ally  ceased  to  be  the  national  tongue,  there 
seem  to  have  appeared  also  a  number  of  works 
which  are  of  considerable  importance  for  the 
history  of  the  country  as  well  as  for  its  religion. 
They  are  the  Dharmacastras  or  books  of  laws, 
5(3  in  number,  of  which  the  famous  laws  of 
Manu,  which  the  Hindoos  still  regard  as  the 
standard  of  their  public  and  social  law,  are 
probably  the  oldest.  In  its  present  form, 
and  from  the  internal  evidence  of  its  opposi 
tion  to  Buddhism,  this  work  is  supposed  to 
date  from  about  the  4th  century  B.  C.  It  lays 
down  the  rules  which  are  to  guide  persons  of 
various  castes  in  their  behavior  toward  each 
other,  and  contains  a  multitude  of  cosmogonic 
speculations.  The  chief  monuments  of  this  age, 
however,  are  two  long  epics  or  Itihasas.  One 
is  the  Mahabharata,  which  describes  the  feuds 
between  the  Pandavas  and  Kauravas,  royal 
races,  descendants  of  the  Bharatas.  In  its 
present  form  it  consists  of  more  than  100,000 
double  verses  or  flokas,  of  which  the  best  known 
portions  are  the  Nala  and  the  Bhagavad-Gita. 
Lassen  places  the  redaction  of  this  epic  between 
400  and  350  B.  0.,  Benfey  in  the  3d  century, 
and  Weber  in  the  last  two  centuries  before  our 
era.  The  other  epic  is  the  Ramayana,  which 
describes  in  about  24,000  double  verses  the 
great  deeds  of  Rama,  a  prince  of  Ayodhya  or 
Oude,  resulting  in  the  extension  of  Aryan  do 
minion  over  the  Deccan  and  Ceylon.  Rama  is 
represented  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and 
Brahrnanic  asceticism  and  hierarchy  are  domi 
nant  features  in  it.  As  the  Ramayana  contains 
no  allusions  to  Buddhism,  Lassen  considers  it 
the  older  of  the  two  epics ;  but  Duncker  as 
signs  it  to  a  later  date,  as  it  does  not  describe  an 
equally  well  defined  priesthood.  It  is  general 
ly  believed  that  both  epics  were  originally  oral 
productions ;  but  they  are  ascribed  to  special 
poets.  The  Ramayana  is  said  to  have  been 
sung  by  Kuca  and  Lava,  the  sons  of  its  hero, 
who  had  learned  it  from  the  Brahman  Valmiki. 
Their  names  were  subsequently  contracted  into 
Kucilava,  which  came  to  be  applied  to  any  bard 
or  actor.  The  Mahabharata  is  ascribed  to  Vya- 
sa,  who  is  said  to  have  been  an  eye-witness 
of  the  events.  Vaicampayana,  his  pupil,  recited 
it  for  the  first  time  at  the  great  serpent  sacri 
fice  of  the  king  Janamejaya.  Suta  Ugracravas 
recited  it  a  second  time  at  the  sacrifice  of  (,1{m- 
naka.  The  narratives  of  the  Mahabharata  and 
Ramayana  are  continued  by  the  Puranas,  which 
are  of  a  much  later  date,  and  which  are  written 
in  the  interest  of  religious  sects  subsequently 
developed ;  they  must  therefore  be  spoken  of 
VOL.  ix. — 15 


after  an  account  of  the  earliest  forms  of  the 
religion  of  India. — The  Rig- Veda  states  in  sev 
eral  passages  that  the  gods  are  33  in  number, 
though  according  to  its  own  showing  this  num 
ber  is  far  too  small.  There  are  three  classes 
of  gods  :  of  the  heavens,  the  air,  and  the  earth. 
The  separation  of  the  heavens  and  the  air  or 
atmosphere  is  based  on  a  distinction  between 
light  and  air.  The  home  of  the  gods  of  light 
is  beyond  those  of  the  air.  Light  is  not  con 
sidered  as  dependent  on  the  solar  body,  but  as 
an  independent  and  eternal  force.  The  domain 
of  the  gods  of  the  air  lies  therefore  between 
the  earth  and  the  source  of  light,  and  their 
main  office  is  to  provide  a  free  passage  for 
the  light  and  rain  which  the  gods  furthest  off 
wish  to  pour  upon  the  earth.  The  Hindoo  idea 
of  what  is  divine  seems  to  attach  itself  to  that 
of  light.  The  word  for  god  is  deva,  which 
comes  from  the  root  div,  meaning  to  shine  or 
glitter.  Surya  is  the  principal  godhead  in 
heaven,  Vayu  or  Indra  of  the  air,  and  Agni 
of  the  earth.  The  gods  of  heaven  never  ap 
pear  as  sensual  and  mythological  as  those  of 
the  other  two  spheres.  There  are  some  whose 
symbol  of  divinity  is  not  limited  to  a  single 
object  of  nature ;  such  is  Aditi,  who  is  either 
a  god  or  a  goddess,  and  whose  sons  are  the 
Adityas.  This  divinity  is  rarely  mentioned  in 
the  older  Vedas  as  a  personification,  but  gen 
erally  as  the  abstract  idea  of  the  eternal  and 
infinite.  The  sons  of  Aditi  are  Mitra,  Varuna, 
Aryaman,  Bhaga,  Daksha,  and  Anca;  but  in 
some  instances  as  many  as  seven,  eight,  and 
even  twelve  Adityas  are  mentioned.  Without 
the  distinction  being  always  clearly  maintained, 
it  seems  that  Mitra  is  the  heavenly  light  of  the 
day,  and  Varuna  of  the  night.  The  latter 
sometimes  appears  as  the  lord  of  all  three  re 
gions.  The  sun  has  several  names.  Surya  is 
the  usual  designation,  though  Savitri  also  oc 
curs  frequently  in  the  Vedas,  but  he  is  gener 
ally  coupled  only  with  the  golden  and  glorious 
attributes  of  the  sun.  Gods  of  heaven  often 
represent  only  special  phenomena  of  light.  The 
Acvin  are  a  problematical  pair,  gods  of  the 
earliest  daylight.  Very  circumstantial  stories 
are  told  of  the  wonders  they  have  done  in  heal 
ing  and  saving.  Ushas,  the  dawn,  is  the  beau 
tiful  virgin  who  opens  the  gate  of  heaven, 
chases  away  the  night,  and  invigorates  man  and 
beast.  The  beneficent  effects  of  solar  light 
are  represented  by  Pushan.  He  protects  and 
multiplies  all  that  man  owns,  guides  him  on 
his  journeys,  protects  him  against  robbers  and 
thieves,  and  directs  departed  souls.  His  chariot 
is  drawn  by  goats,  and  he  carries  a  goad.  He  is 
sometimes  invoked  in  conjunction  with  Indra, 
but  has  little  in  common  with  the  gods  of  the 
sphere  of  the  air.  Vishnu  must  also  be  reck 
oned  as  a  sun  god.  His  name  is  seldom  men 
tioned  in  the  Vedas.  He  has  passed  through 
the  whole  universe  with  only  three  steps,  and 
has  taken  his  domicile  near  Indra.  He  has 
given  the  earth  to  man,  the  descendant  of 
Manu,  as  his  inheritance.  The  unbroken  order 


224 


INDIA   (RELIGIOXS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE) 


of  the  world  is  principally  due  to  him.  In  the 
Vedas  he  is  the  friend  of  Indra,  whose  place 
in  the  worship  of  the  Indian  people  he  after 
ward  usurped. — In  the  sphere  of  air  there  are 
demons,  dark  beings,  Rakshasas  and  Asuras. 
The  other  gods  of  this  region  have  to  battle 
with  them  in  order  to  chase  them  away.  They 
receive  new  vigor  for  these  contests  from  the 
sacrifices  which  man  offers  up  to  them.  In 
course  of  time  they  became  more  popular  than 
the  Adityas,  but  they  grew  also  more  human 
like  than  they.  Their  chief  was  Indra,  the  god 
of  thunder  storms.  Though  the  Maruts  and 
Vishnu  were  at  his  side,  it  was  he  alone  who 
conquered  the  demons,  and  therefore  it  is  he 
who  shields  man  in  battle.  His  principal  an 
tagonist  among  the  demons  is  Vritra,  or  he 
who  covers  up  or  hides.  This  Vritra  disposes 
the  clouds  so  that  the  waters  of  heaven  cannot 
descend  upon  the  earth.  Pani  imprisons  the 
waters  like  cows  in  the  caverns  of  the  rocks, 
but  Indra  liberates  them  and  makes  them  flow 
upon  man  over  the  corpse  of  Vritra.  Indra 
moves  about  in  a  golden  chariot,  drawn  by 
reddish  horses  with  golden  manes  and  hair 
like  the  plumes  of  a  peacock.  Prayer  har 
nesses  Indra's  horses;  Tvashtri,  the  artist  of 
heaven,  fashioned  a  thunderbolt  for  him  ;  and 
heaven  and  earth,  and  even  Tvashtri  himself, 
tremble  when  his  thunder  rolls.  The  gods 
of  wind  and  rain  compose  Indra's  suite ;  they 
are  Vayu,  the  Maruts  or  Rudras,  and  Rudra 
himself.  Vayu  is  the  wind,  but  little  else  is 
known  of  him.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  ven 
eration  of  the  people  by  Vdta,  who  is  the 
soul  of  the  gods  and  the  source  of  the  world. 
There  are  27  or  three  times  60  Maruts  or 
Rudras,  sons  of  Rudra  and  Pricni,  the  kind 
gods  of  the  rain;  they  form  Indra's  armed 
body  guard,  have  iron  teeth  and  roar  like 
lions,  and  they  sometimes  darken  the  sun,  but 
always  remove  their  curtains  after  a  while. 
Rudra,  the  strongest  of  them  all,  roars  the 
loudest ;  he  is  the  god  of  storms,  whom  man 
must  fear,  and  whose  sacrifices  must  not  be 
neglected.  lie  is  besought  to  spare  the  lives 
of  the  members  of  the  family,  and  also  of  the 
cattle.  In  course  of  time  he  came  to  be  re 
garded  as  the  forerunner  of  Siva  (Qiva). — The 
third  division,  that  of  the  gods  of  the  earth,  is 
the  pantheism  of  the  Hindoo  religion.  Light 
is  the  revelation  of  the  divine,  and  as  far  as 
man  can  produce  light,  so  far  can  he  attain 
toward  the  divine.  Agni,  the  god  of  fire,  was 
let  down  from  heaven  by  Mataricvan,  the 
messenger  of  Vivasvat.  The  Rishi  (pious) 
Atharvan  found  him  concealed  in  wood,  and 
by  friction  induced  him  to  come  out.  Indra 
probably  begat  him  between  two  stones,  or 
perhaps  the  aurora  gave  birth  to  him,  or  he 
may  be  a  child  of  Indra  and  Vishnu.  His 
origin  is  threefold:  of  heaven,  of  earth,  and 
of  air.  He  has  a  twofold  activity.  He  is  a 
messenger  between  the  gods  and  man,  not  as  a 
low  subordinate,  but  as  a  viceroy  and  guardian 
of  the  heavenly  light  on  earth ;  he  pierces  the 


demons  with  his  arrows,  and  he  keeps  man 
from  evil ;  in  a  word,  he  is  the  protector  of 
human  beings.  His  other  office  is  to  act  as 
messenger  between  man  and  the  gods  ;  when 
ever  a  tire  is  lit,  the  gods  must  come,  for  Agni 
calls  them ;  what  the  gods  do  for  man  is  due 
to  his  intercession.  The  consequence  was  that 
soon  the  merits  of  Indra  came  to  be  those  of 
Agni ;  he  became  the  Vritra-killer.  Soma  is  also 
a  god.  It  is  a  beverage  prepared  from  the  plant 
asdepias  acida  or  from  sarcostemma  mminale  ; 
the  juice  of  these  plants  was  fermented,  mixed 
with  milk  and  flour,  and  offered  to  the  gods. 
It  was  the  hidden  fire,  its  intoxicating  power, 
which  man  adored.  Soma  lends  immortality 
as  well  to  man  as  to  the  gods.  His  works  are 
as  great  as  those  of  Agni,  for  even  Indra  must 
first  be  intoxicated  to  gain  strength  to  kill  Vri 
tra.  The  gods  were  thus  considered  to  be  in 
need  of  the  offerings  of  man  to  carry  out  their 
purpose.  In  fact,  without  prayer  and  sacri 
fice  the  gods  cannot  rule  the  world.  Prayer 
necessitates  their  fulfilling  man's  wishes.  Con 
centrated  devotion  and  penance  are  mightier 
than  all  the  gods,  and  hence  the  priest,  the 
hermit,  the  devotee,  and  the  wise  are  greater 
and  more  powerful  than  the  gods  themselves. 
This  is  the  key  of  Brahmanism.  The  Vedic 
hymns  speak  also  of  minor  gods  of  nature, 
like  Trita  and  Sarasvati,  the  goddess  of  the 
river  of  that  name.  The  Sindhu,  or  Indus,  is 
the  most  impetuous  of  them  all.  The  Asparasas 
are  female  spirits  of  the  air,  much  to  be  fear 
ed  ;  but  like  the  nymphs  of  the  Greeks  they  of 
ten  bring  joy  and  happiness.  The  great  Veda 
gods  must  have  wives,  and  accordingly  the 
names  Indrani,  Agnayi,  Varunani,  Acvini,  and 
Rodasi  occur  in  the  hymns.  Lakshmi  appears 
in  later  times  as  the  wife  of  Vishnu,  and  acts 
as  a  goddess  of  fortune.  The  Ribhus  are  men 
who  have  been  raised  to  the  nature  of  gods 
on  account  of  their  great  piety.  The  Athar- 
va-Veda  mentions  a  few  names  which  seem 
to  represent  similarly  deified  personifications. 
Every  object  used  in  sacrificing  was  considered 
in  some  degree  divine,  and  hence  the  Brahmans 
came  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  real  gods  of  the 
earth.  Brahmanaspati  or  Brihaspati,  the  god 
of  prayer,  was  subsequently  turned  into  the 
great  god  Brahma.  His  works  are  sometimes 
ascribed  to  Indra,  and  also  to  Agni  and  Soma ; 
but  he  is  quite  as  often  said  to  be  the  father  of 
the  gods.  Prayer  and  sacrifice  have  a  creative 
power,  and  thus  Brahmanaspati,  the  personified 
lord  of  prayer,  is  considered  to  be  the  father  of 
the  gods,  or  the  pantheistic  principle  of  the 
world.  Vatch,  the  goddess  of  the  word  or  of 
speech,  plays  a  similar  part.  The  word,  whether 
spoken  by  man  or  by  the  gods,  has  also  a  crea 
tive  power.  Similarly  Prana,  life  or  breath, 
Kama,  love  and  desire,  Kala,  time  and  the  pro 
ducer  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  Purusha,  the 
ideal  man  or  the  spirit  of  the  world,  appear 
in  the  Vedas  as  creative  principles.  Hiranya- 
garbha,  the  golden-wombed,  and  Prajapati,  the 
lord  of  creatures,  represent  the  creator  as  a 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AXD  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE) 


225 


personified  god.  The  two  names  were  origi 
nally,  it  seems,  epithets  of  Savitri,  the  god  of 
the  sun,  and  they  reappear  subsequently  as 
epithets  of  the  god  Brahma. — The  Vedas  ad 
here  to  no  one  settled  account  of  the  crea 
tion.  Its  existence  is  generally  attributed  to 
the  power  of  sacrifice  brought  by  the  gods. 
It  is  Purusha,  man  as  a  representative  of  hu 
manity,  the  ideal  man  or  the  spirit  of  the 
world,  who  takes  the  place  of  the  sacrificial 
animal,  and  Indra  and  Agni  arise  from  him. 
This  is  the  account  given  in  the  Purusha- 
Sukta  of  the  Rig- Veda.  Another  hymn  of  the 
Rig- Veda  gives  a  more  philosophical  reason  for 
the  existence  of  the  world.  Here  it  is  religious 
meditation  which  produces  it.  First  was  form 
ed  the  desire,  or  kdma,  love,  which  was  the 
first  seed.  Fire  is  the  creative  element  as  well 
in  the  soul  of  the  world  as  in  the  soul  of  man, 
and  it  is  love,  Mma,  that  calls  it  forth  and 
causes  it  to  create.  Two  names,  Yama  and 
Manu,  appear  as  those  of  the  first  man.  Yama 
is  the  first  man  who  died,  and  he  shows  the 
dead  the  way  into  the  other  world,  where  he 
rules.  Manu  is  the  first  ancestor  of  mankind  ; 
he  is  Father  Manu,  and  the  Aryans  are  his 
people;  it  is  he  who  introduced  the  rite  of 
sacrifice.  The  gods  nourish  and  protect  him, 
and  Vishnu  has  assigned  to  him  the  earth  as 
his  dwelling  place.  In  later  times  his  name  is 
coupled  with  the  legend  of  the  flood,  but  there 
are  no  indications  of  such  revolutions  of  the 
earth  in  the  Veda-Sanhitas.  Yama  and  Manu 
are  sons  of  Vivasvat,  one  of  the  Adityas,  and 
of  Saranyu,  the  immortal  daughter  of  Tvashtri. 
Yama  takes  the  deceased  into  a  world  which 
is  as  sensual  as  the  Mohammedan  paradise,  and 
where  they  feast  with  the  gods  and  drink 
Soma.  It  is  Agni,  the  god  of  fire,  who  in  con 
suming  the  body  recreates  it  into  a  celestial 
form,  and  it  is  Soma  who  gives  it  immortality. 
The  people  must  worship  their  ancestors,  for 
they  are  not  dead,  but  live  with  the  gods,  who 
share  their  power  with  them.  There  is  little 
in  the  Vedas  to  show  that  the  dead  were  ever 
supposed  to  be  punished,  unless  they  were  hos 
tile  races  or  personal  enemies. — The  worship 
of  the  gods  was  at  first  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
each  family.  There  were  no  temples.  Sacri 
fices  were  offered  under  the  open  sky  or  at  the 
family  hearth.  Agni  could  call  the  gods  wher 
ever  his  fire  was  burning,  this  was  fed  with 
clarified  butter,  of  which  he  was  fond.  Soma 
was  carefully  prepared  according  to  numerous 
prescriptions.  Colebrooke  denies  that  the 
ancient  Aryans  offered  also  human  sacrifices ; 
but  German  scholars,  as  Weber  and  others, 
think  that  it  admits  of  no  doubt.  Sacrifice 
was  neither  a  thank  offering  nor  a  sin  offer 
ing;  it  was  a  contract  between  man  and  the 
gods,  and  the  latter  were  obliged  to  fulfil  the 
wishes  of  the  former  whenever  a  sacrifice 
was  offered.  If  any  fault  had  been  committed 
in  the  ceremony  of  sacrificing,  so  that  the 
gods  would  not  accept  it,  it  was  simply  repeat 
ed.  The  light  thrown  by  the  Vedas  on  the  re 


ligious  constitution  of  the  ancient  Aryans  re 
veals  that  the  poets  of  the  hymns  were  not  all 
of  a  priestly  caste ;  but  subsequently  they  were 
all  Brahmans,  and  the  king  Vicvamitra,  who 
had  composed  a  number  of  hymns,  including 
the  celebrated  Gayatri,  was  specially  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  a  Brahman  by  a  later  legend,  in 
order  to  account  for  the  fact  of  his  having 
been  able  to  write  poems.  The  Rishi,  the 
pious,  Kavi,  the  wise,  and  Muni,  hermits  of 
old,  were  therefore  not  all  priests.  But  the 
Brahmans  very  soon  formed  a  special  caste. 
Each  sacrifice  needed  a  liotri,  or  caller,  who 
recited  portions  of  the  Rig- Veda;  an  adlixaryu, 
or  sacrifice!*,  who  performed  all  the  work  con 
nected  with  it;  and  a  Brahman,  who  watched 
that  all  was  done  properly  and  in  order,  and  who 
understood  how  to  right  every  mistake  com 
mitted.  The  Brahman  was  therefore  the  high 
priest,  who  had  the  power  and  wisdom  to  com 
pel  the  gods  to  fulfil  all  requests.  The  Brah- 
manas  were  his  successors,  who  came  to  be  re 
garded  as  gods  upon  earth.  The  personal  gods 
Indra,  Rudra,  Savitri,  and  others,  were  too  poet 
ical  to  be  very  real  in  the  hearts  of  the  ancient 
Hindoos.  A  need  was  felt  for  a  more  sub 
stantial  authority,  and  the  priests  usurped  it, 
and  formed  the  Brahmanical  system  of  castes, 
which  made  them  like  gods  themselves.  This 
opens  the  second  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Indian  religions. — It  is  noteworthy  that  in 
spite  of  the  complete  penetration  of  Aryan 
culture  over  the  whole  of  the  Indian  peninsula 
and  even  Ceylon,  the  Hindoos  failed  to  estab 
lish  a  vast  and  powerful  empire.  It  seems 
that  the  conquests  told  in  the  liamfiyana  and 
the  Mahabhurata  were  rather  religious  than 
political.  When  the  Aryans  mingled  with  the 
native  population  of  the  peninsula,  they  held 
a  superior  position  among  them  from  mere  dis 
tinction  of  color.  The  Sanskrit  for  caste  is  rar- 
na,  which  originally  signified  color.  The  Sudras 
((,'udras)  therefore  form  only  what  Max  Miiller 
has  called  an  ethnological  caste.  They  are  the 
dark  prior  occupants  of  the  land  of  the  Ganges, 
whom  the  light-complexioned  race  considered 
inferior  to  themselves.  The  Vedic  books  di 
vide  the  entire  Indian  population  into  four 
castes,  but  this  number  is  really  in  comparison 
as  much  below  the  mark  as  the  33  gods  have 
been  found  to  be.  Manu's  book  of  laws  states 
that  there  were  10  mixed  castes,  besides  the  four 
principal  ones.  These  were,  besides  the  Sudras 
already  mentioned,  the  Brahmans,  Kshatriyas, 
and  Vaisyas  (Vaieyas).  The  Brahmans  were 
to  read  and  teach  the  Veda,  offer  sacrifice,  con 
duct  the  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices  made  by 
the  people,  and  to  receive  and  make  gifts. 
The  Kshatriyas  were  to  protect  the  people,  do 
charity,  offer  sacrifice,  read  the  holy  scriptures, 
but  without  teaching  them,  and  control  their 
desires.  The  Vaisyas  were  to  raise  cattle, 
cultivate  the  land,  carry  on  trade,  give  alms, 
sacrifice,  and  learn  to  say  prayers.  The  Sudras 
had  but  one  duty,  that  of  doing  service  to  the 
other  castes.  The  majority  of  the  minor  or 


223 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AXD  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE) 


mixed  castes  are  names  of  professions  and 
trades,  of  which  some  were  indicated  by  the 
names  of  the  cities  or  districts  in  which  they 
were  most  largely  represented  and  famous. 
Thus  the  caste  of  singers,  who  descended,  as 
Manu  states,  from  a  Vaisya  and  a  Kshatriya 
woman,  are  called  Mdgadhas,  evidently  be 
cause  Magadha  was  at  one  time  the  home  of 
the  most  famous  singers.  These  trades  and 
professions  stood  in  various  degrees  of  esteem, 
and  their  origin  was  accordingly  stated  to  be 
from  various  unions  between  higher  and  lower 
castes.  The  aboriginal  population  was  also 
gradually  classified  according  to  the  Aryan 
system,  which  gave  rise  to  the  other  division 
of  unclean  castes,  whom  Europeans  call  pa 
riahs,  from  the  name  of  a  small  Tamil  caste 
of  this  grade  with  whom  they  came  most  in 
contact.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the 
castes  were  established  without  struggle  on 
the  part  of  those  who  were  reduced  to  infe 
riority.  For  a  time  kings,  nobility,  and  priests 
must  have  worked  hand  in  hand  to  subjugate 
the  people.  The  legend  of  the  Paracu-Riima 
shows  that  the  Brahmans  did  not  gain  supe 
riority  over  the  Kshatriyas  without  bloodshed. 
— Turning  to  the  changes  produced  in  the  reli 
gious  ideas  of  the  Hindoos  daring  this  period, 
it  is  seen  that  the  Vedic  pantheism  was  grad 
ually  absorbed  by  the  one  Brahma,  and  that 
the  character  of  Hindoo  worship  is  decidedly 
ascetic.  Speculation  is  no  longer  intent  on 
solving  the  mystery  of  the  origin  of  the  world, 
but  on  devising  a  process  by  which  the  world 
is  to  return  to  the  Brahma  from  which  it  ema 
nated.  This  is  the  point  of  contact  between 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.  Brahma,  in  the 
neuter  gender,  is  an  impersonality,  the  sum  of 
all  nature,  the  germ  of  all  that  is,  the  one  that 
embraces  everything.  The  Ken  a  or  Talava- 
kara  Upanishad  says  of  it:  "Eye,  tongue, 
mind,  cannot  reach  it ;  we  comprehend  it  not ; 
we  cannot  teach  it  to  any  one ;  it  is  other  than 
all  that  is  known  and  all  that  is  unknown." 
Unmeaning  words  are  therefore  applied  to  it. 
One  of  them  is  the  mysterious  syllable  om,  the 
wonderful  trinity  of  sounds.  A  Sanskrit  6  is 
a  diphthong,  and  by  giving  it  a  nasal  utterance 
it  sounds  like  6m ;  hence  it  has,  three  letters, 
but  only  one  sound.  The  Mandukya-Upanishad 
is  entirely  filled  with  explanations  of  this  little 
word.  Among  others  it  says :  "  Cm  is  immor 
tal.  Its  unfolding  is  this  universe,  is  all  that 
was,  is,  and  shall  be.  Indeed,  all  is  the  word 
6m;  and  if  there  is  anything  outside  of  these 
three  manifestations,  it  is  also  6m.  .  .  .  For 
this  all  is  Brahma ;  this  soul  is  Brahma.  This 
soul  has  four  existences."  A  is  its  waking  con 
dition,  U  its  dreaming,  M  its  sleep,  and  the 
whole  is  its  entire  existence.  Brahma  as  the 
abstract  principle  of  the  world  reappears  in 
a  concrete  mythological  form  as  the  god 
Brahma,  the  Vedic  Brahmanaspati.  He  is 
pictured  with  four  heads,  probably  as  lord  of 
the  four  regions  of  the  world.  lie  is  Prajapati, 
the  lord  of  all  creatures,  and  Hiranyagarbha, 


the  golden-wombed,  the  lord  of  the  sun.  Be 
low  him  are  the  Lokapalas,  stationed  at  the 
eight  corners  of  the  world  to  ward  off  the  evil 
spirits,  the  Asuras ;  they  are  Indra,  Agni,  Va- 
runa,  Surya,  Chandra  or  Soma  as  god  of  the 
moon,  Vayu,  Yama,  and  Kuvera.  The  Vedas 
do  not  mention  the  last,  who  was  originally  a 
man,  but  who  is  now  a  god  of  wealth,  as  a  re 
ward  for  his  great  humility  to  the  Brahmans. 
Brahma's  wife  is  Sarasvati,  who  has  ceased  to 
be  the  goddess  of  the  river,  and  is  now  goddess 
of  order,  harmony,  poetry,  oratory,  language, 
and  all  intelligence.  She  has  absorbed  the  attri 
butes  of  Vatch,  and  is  invoked  for  the  instruc 
tion  of  children.  She  is  depicted  with  a  book 
or  a  musical  instrument  in  her  hand.  It  is  still 
believed  that  prayer  and  sacrifice  called  the 
world  into  existence,  but  that  existence  has  no 
special  purpose ;  indeed,  it  is  of  evil,  for  evil 
came  into  the  world  with  the  world.  As  it  is 
impossible  that  there  ever  can  be  a  sinless  world, 
so  every  pious  person  desires  to  be  taken  out 
of  it,  and  to  be  relieved  of  his  personal  exis 
tence.  The  bright  and  happy  Veda  religion 
has  thus  been  transformed  into  a  gloomy  med 
itation  on  the  wretchedness  of  human  life. 
Fatalism  has  come  upon  the  Hindoo  people, 
and  they  say,  "  Man's  destiny  is  written  on  his 
skull."  This  laid  the  basis  for  astrology,  and 
even  Manu's  exclusion  of  astrologists  from  the 
sacrifices  failed  to  root  out  the  belief  in  pre 
destination.  A  natural  consequence  was  a  fur 
ther  development  of  the  doctrine  of  the  trans 
migrations  of  the  soul.  Man  was  oppressed 
by  the  numerous  distinctions  of  caste,  and  he 
was  taught  to  consider  them  as  part  of  the  sys 
tem  of  the  world.  Every  creature  descended 
from  Brahma  had  to  pass  again  through  all 
the  previous  stages  of  his  present  existence  in 
order  to  reach  Brahma  again.  Manu  says: 
"Man  is  born  according  to  his  deeds,  ignorant, 
dumb,  blind,  deaf,  deformed  ;  whoever  has  not 
done  penance  for  his  deeds  will  receive  his 
punishment  at  his  birth."  Thus  one  who  stole 
fruit  would  be  a  monkey;  one  who  stole  a 
horse,  a  tiger ;  one  who  stole  balm,  a  rat. 
When  transformation  into  beasts  or  plants  is 
not  an  adequate  punishment,  the  evil  doers  are 
sent  into  one  of  the  eight  hells,  each  of  which 
is  more  tormenting  than  the  other.  Hell  is 
not  an  eternal  punishment,  but  thousands  of 
years  of  pain  hardly  suffice  for  a  complete  ab 
solution.  When  this  is  attained,  then  begins 
the  ascending  scale  of  transmigrations,  which 
reach  to  Brahma ;  but  it  is  possible  that  in  the 
renewed  existence  as  a  human  being  man's  sins 
are  again  so  great  that  he  must  be  thrown 
back  to  hell.  Manu  ranks  worms,  insects, 
fishes,  serpents,  tortoises,  dogs,  and  asses  as  the 
lowest  order.  Elephants,  horses,  lions,  boars, 
Sudras,  and  people  not  speaking  Sanskrit  are 
a  step  higher.  The  third  class  comprises 
thieves,  actors,  Rakshasas,  and  Picachas;  the 
fourth  athletes,  dancers,  armorers,  drunkards, 
and  Vaisyas ;  the  fifth,  Kshatriyas,  kings,  emi 
nent  soldiers  and  orators,  the  Gandharvas  and 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITEKATURE) 


227 


Asparases;  the  sixth  Brahmans,  pious  peni 
tents,  gods,  and  the  great  Rishis;  and  finally 
above  them  all  is  Brahma.  There  is  no  re 
deemer  in  ancient  Brahmanism ;  everybody 
must  redeem  himself.  But  sacrifice,  asceticism, 
and  philosophy  sometimes  succeed  in  reducing 
the  number  of  transmigrations  by  leading  to 
higher  stages  of  existence.  Most  transgres 
sions  are  of  the  nature  of  pollutions.  Each 
caste  is  within  itself  a  holy,  distinct,  and  pure 
people,  but  contact  with  a  person  of  a  lower 
-caste  than  one's  own  is  unclean.  The  dead, 
every  excretion  of  the  body,  birth,  and  every 
thing  connected  with  sexual  life,  are  pollu 
tions.  Fortunately  the  cow  is  so  holy  that 
what  from  all  other  beings  would  be  the  most 
unclean  of  all  serves  the  Hindoos  as  a  purify 
ing  agent.  Water  and  cowdung  purify  every 
thing.  Penitence  consists  in  fasting  for  three 
days,  or  even  for  a  month,  in  conjunction  with 
various  mortifications  of  the  body  or  numerous 
recitations  of  prayers  and  portions  of  the  Ve 
da.  In  Manu's  code  the  penalty  for  intoxica 
tion  is  dreadful ;  the  drunkard  is  condemned 
to  drink  boiling  rice  water  or  boiling  juice  of 
cowdung  or  urine  till  he  dies.  The  killing  of 
a  cow  is  more  criminal  than  the  murder  of  a 
person  belonging  to  a  lower  caste.  When  a 
Kshatriya  or  Vaisya  unintentionally  slays  a 
Brahman,  he  shall,  without  waiting  for  the 
sentence  of  the  king,  walk  100  yojana,  reci 
ting  one  of  the  three  Vedas,  or  build  a  hut  in 
the  woods,  live  on  alms  for  12  years,  and  carry 
in  his  girdle  the  skull  of  the  slain.  But  if  the 
slaying  of  a  Brahman  was  intentional,  then  the 
Kshatriya  shall  himself  demand  to  be  shot,  or 
hold  his  head  three  times  in  a  fire  and  die. 
Sacrifice  was  still  greatly  practised  during  this 
period,  though  modern  Brahmanism  has  for 
the  most  part  abandoned  all  but  the  household 
sacrifices.  Ancient  Brahmanism  distinguished 
four  kinds  of  sacrifice:  havis,  havir-yajna  or 
ishti,  oblation ;  papu,  or  papu-bandha,  animal 
offering;  soma  or  saumya-adhvara,  drink  offer 
ing;  and  pdka-yajna,  minor  offerings,  subse 
quently  called  grihya-karma,  house  offerings, 
consisting  partly  of  food  and  partly  of  animals. 
The  sacrifice  of  animals  soon  fell  into  disuse,  and 
the  Sutras  name  the  two  classes  of  meat  and 
animal  offerings  as  one.  These  sacrifices  were 
faithfully  performed  by  the  people,  but  the 
higher  castes  began  to  philosophize  on  their 
religion,  and  added  to  the  Brahmana  scriptures 
the  Aranyakas  and  Upanishads,  as  containing 
the  essence  or  the  orthodox  interpretation  of 
the  entire  Hindoo  religion.  Manu's  book  of 
laws  sanctioned  them.  They  are  mainly  expo 
sitions  of  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of 
souls.  They  teach  that  greater  than  all  gifts 
to  the  fire  of  Agni  is  internal  self-combustion, 
the  tapas,  glow  or  fire  of  asceticism.  This  is 
the  new  basis.  Man  is,  through  asceticism, 
meditation  or  philosophy,  and  penitence,  migh 
tier  than  all  gods;  and  if  he  fulfils  the  laws 
prescribed  for  these  exercises,  he  is  immediate 
ly  released  from  any  further  transmigration  of 


his  soul,  and  he  enters  at  once  into  Brahma. 
This  asceticism  is  permitted  only  to  the  three 
highest  castes,  the  twice  born,  dvijas,  or 
Aryans.  A  Sudra  can  at  best,  and  with  the 
highest  possible  degree  of  self-denial,  attain 
only  to  a  rebirth  into  these  fortunate  castes. 
Legends  like  those  of  Vicvamitra  and  Vasish- 
tha,  which  portrayed  the  wonderful  power 
which  the  ascetic  possessed  over  the  gods, 
filled  the  masses  also  with  enthusiasm  for  the 
I  doctrine  of  asceticism.  The  great  aim  of  the 
'  Aryan  race  was  no  longer  to  conquer  the  earth, 
but  to  subdue  every  natural  impulse,  and  to  be 
swallowed  up  by  Brahma,  as  a  drop  is  by  the 
ocean.  Though  this  asceticism  cause'd  an  enor 
mous  waste  of  human  life,  it  also  gave  birth  to 
some  of  the  greatest  intellectual  achievements 
of  which  man  is  capable. — This  leads  us  to  a 
new  period  in  the  history  of  the  religion  and 
literature  of  India,  which  is  eminently  one  of 
philosophy.  Ancient  Hindoo  philosophy,  the 
precursor  of  that  of  Greece  and  Rome,  was  an 
outgrowth  of  that  meditation  which  was  en 
joined  as  a  means  of  securing  a  quick  passage 
into  the  great  Brahma.  This  philosophy  is  in 
its  aims  much  loftier  and  in  its  processes  much 
more  ingenious  than  that  of  the  Greeks.  In 
deed,  in  spite  of  the  wonderful  abstruseness  in 
which  it  is  sometimes  buried,  it  might  bear  fa 
vorable  comparison  with  the  philosophies  of  the 
18th  and  19th  centuries.  There  are  especially 
six  philosophical  systems  which  are  still  con 
sidered  to  be  orthodox,  as  they  recognize  the 
authority  of  the  Vedas.  They  may  be  re 
duced  also  to  three,  Vedanta,  Sankhya,  and 
Nyaya,  each  of  which  is  represented  by  two 
forms.  Vedanta  signifies  the  aim  or  end  of 
the  Veda.  Its  legendary  author  is  Badarayana 
or  Veda-Vyasa,  who  is  said  to  be  the  author 
also  of  the  divine  Vedas  themselves  and  of  the 
Mahabharata.  The  development  of  Vedan- 
tism,  however,  reaches  into  the  time  of  modern 
Brahmanism.  The  Vedanta-Sara,  a  small  book 
which  draws  the  ultimate  conclusions  of  the 
system,  is  probably  of  a  date  later  than  the 
8th  century  A.  D.  The  Purva-Mimansa  phi 
losophy  is  less  an  independent  system  than  a 
collection  of  addenda  for  the  Vedas,  showing 
how  they  ought  to  be  used.  There  is  a  theis- 
tic  Sankhya  or  Yoga  system  by  Patanjali,  and 
an  atheistic  Sankhya  system  by  Kapila.  The 
Nyaya  system,  by  Gautama,  is  principally  oc 
cupied  with  the  principles  of  logic.  Gautama 
lays  down  a-  syllogism  of  five  members  :  Prop 
osition,  pratijnd,  the  forest  is  burning;  rea 
son,  hetu,  for  it  is  smoking ;  example,  uddlia- 
ra?ia,  whatever  smokes  is  burning;  applica 
tion,  upanaya,  the  forest  is  smoking;  infer 
ence,  nigamana,  (hence)  the  forest  is  burning. 
The  Vaic,eshika  system,  by  Kanada,  is  an  inde 
pendent  branch  of  the  Nyaya  philosophy.  It 
teaches  the  eternity  of  matter  in  the  form  of 
atoms,  and  also  the  atomistic  eternity  of  the 
soul.  There  is  a  curious  dilemma  in  the  Ve 
danta,  which  however  is  more  clearly  express 
ed  in  the  Vedanta-Sara,  viz.  :  either  Brahma 


228 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITEEATUEE) 


exists,  and  the  world  does  not  exist;  or  the 
world  exists,  and  Brahma  does  not  exist.  In 
asmuch  as  Brahma  exists,  and  is  in  fact  the 
only  vastu  or  real  existence,  while  all  objects, 
especially  individual  souls,  are  only  avastu,  or 
unreal,  it  follows  that  the  world  does  in  reality 
not  exist.  Other  philosophers  preferred  rather 
to  sacrifice  the  unity  of  Brahma  than  abandon 
the  idea  of  the  reality  of  the  world  and  of  in 
dividual  souls.  Kapila's  Sankhya  system  fell 
into  atheism,  but  did  not  therefore  lose  its 
orthodoxy  with  the  Hindoos,  as  with  them 
meditation  and  penitence  are  mightier  than 
and  superior  to  the  gods.  It  says  that  if  there 
were  a  god,  he  would  be  either  limited  or  free, 
and  in  neither  case  could  he  be  a  creator.  For 
if  he  were  free  from  commotions  and  emotions, 
nothing  could  move  him  to  create ;  and  if  he 
were  limited,  he  himself  would  be  subject  to 
illusions.  The  Sankhya  explains  the  world  as 
a  mingling  of  matter  and  spirit,  and  bears  in 
many  places  a  strong  resemblance  to  Aristotle's 
metaphysics.  Its  ultimate  conclusion  is  that 
there  is  no  necessity  for  a  new  birth  or  for  trans 
migrations.  It  seems,  however,  that  Kapila 
did  not  relinquish  the  presumption  of  a  per 
sonal  immortality.  He  argues  that  in  order  to 
satisfy  the  longings  of  the  human  heart,  there 
must  needs  be  a  continuing  soul ;  and  if  such 
a  soul  be  denied,  there  cannot  be  a  highest  and 
final  destiny  in  store  for  man.  The  end  of  all 
Hindoo  philosophy  of  this  period  is  always, 
however,  that  the  ascetic,  whose  mind  is  above 
the  things  of  this  world  and  fathoms  the  rea 
son  of  the  existence  of  all  things,  need  not 
wander  through  other  bodies,  but  is  imme 
diately  after  death  absorbed  by  the  one  great 
soul  of  the  world.  The  masses  were  not  in  a 
condition  to  find  consolation  in  this  doctrine, 
but  had  to  invent  some  new  method  of  salva 
tion.  The  Vedic  sacrifices  were  on  the  point 
of  falling  into  disuse,  as  it  had  been  taught 
that  they  were  only  effectual  in  proportion  to 
their  cost. — Buddha  had  in  the  mean  time 
made  his  appearance,  and  rejected  every  kind 
of  sacrifice.  This  had  some  effect  also  on  the 
Hindoos  who  remained  faithful  to  Brahman- 
ism.  Buddhism  has  a  human  redeemer  in  the 
person  of  Buddha.  Brahmanism,  unwilling  to 
reject  the  ancient  gods,  but  believing  in  the 
efficacy  of  human  merits  derived  from  prayer 
and  meditation,  seized  upon  the  idea  of  having 
human  mediators,  embodiments  of  the  gods, 
and  ushered  in  a  series  of  avatars  or  incarna 
tions.  Thus  Krishna  was  worshipped  in  the 
3d  century  B.  C.  as  an  Avatara  of  Vishnu. 
The  belief  that  the  gods  were  bound  to  fulfil 
the  will  of  man  if  expressed  in  sacrifice  and 
prayer,  was  naturally  succeeded  by  the  belief 
of  this  age  that  the  gods  could  not  execute  any 
thing  upon  earth  unless  they  came  either  in  hu 
man  or  animal  form.  Vishnu,  of  whom  the 
Vedas  had  little  to  say,  was  probably  for  this 
reason  singled  out  of  the  ancient  pantheon  to  be 
the  divinity  specially  concerned  in  the  welfare 
of  man.  He  is  described  as  having  four  hands, 


of  which  one  is  free,  while  the  others  hold  a 
shell,  a  discus,  and  a  club.  His  wife  is  Lakshmi 
or  Qri,  the  goddess  of  love,  grace,  marriage, 
progeny,  and  wealth  ;  the  cow  is  her  holy  rep 
resentative  upon  earth,  and  the  lotus  her  sym 
bol.  About  this  time  Siva,  the  Mahadeva  or 
great  god  of  the  Dravidians,  was  introduced  into 
the  Brahmanical  cycle  of  gods,  by  identifying 
him  with  Rudra,  the  god  of  storms.  He  holds 
a  trident  as  the  symbol  of  his  power,  a  lasso  or 
sling,  an  antelope,  and  sometimes  a  flame  of  fire 
in  his  hand.  He  has  a  third  eye  in  the  middle 
of  his  forehead,  and  around  his  neck  is  some 
times  wound  a  necklace  of  human  skulls.  His 
wife  Kali,  the  black  or  devouring,  also  called 
Urna,  Durga,  and  Parvati,  has  like  him  three 
eyes,  a  wreath  of  skulls  on  her  neck,  and  a 
club  in  her  hand.  Her  face  is  sometimes  ter 
rific  in  appearance,  especially  on  account  of 
the  long  protruding  teeth.  Her  worship  is  as 
important  and  general  as  that  of  Siva  himself. 
His  sons  Ganeca  and  Karttikeya  are  also  ob 
jects  of  veneration.  Sivaism  as  phallus  wor 
ship  became  in  time  widely  diffused  among  the 
Aryan  as  well  as  aboriginal  races  of  India,  and 
will  be  further  discussed  below,  in  the  account 
of  the  modern  forms  of  the  Dravidian  reli 
gions.  Buddhism,  though  after  1,000  years' 
struggle  overcome  by  Brahmanism,  gave  new 
directions  to  its  doctrines.  (See  BUDDHISM.) 
Mohammedanism  was  less  successful  in  leav 
ing  its  mark  upon  it.  The  doctrine  of  the  in 
carnation  of  the  gods  in  human  beings  and 
animals  now  became  a  prominent  feature  of 
the  Hindoo  religion.  It  seems  that  the  incar 
nation  of  Vishnu  as  Krishna  was  taught  in  op 
position  to  Buddha.  An  attempt  was  even 
made  to  represent  Buddha  himself  as  an  incar 
nation  of  the  same  god.  Through  the  endeavor 
to  unite  and  reconcile  all  the  religious  elements 
inimical  to  Buddhism,  a  Trimurti  was  invent 
ed,  or  a  trinity  composed  of  the  great  gods 
Brahrna,  Vishnu,  and  Siva.  A  new  religious 
literature  sprang  up  in  the  Puranas,  which 
were  not  like  the  Vedas  removed  from  the 
people  as  too  holy,  but  were  written  specially 
for  them.  Their  contents  are  mythological, 
but  they  served  as  polemics  against  Buddhism, 
and  even  of  one  Brahmanical  sect  against 
another.  There  is  thus  no  unity  in  modern 
Brahmanism.  It  has  no  hierarchy  that  em 
braces  the  entire  Hindoo  population.  In  the 
holy  city  Benares,  for  example,  worship  side 
by  side  a  number  of  sects  whose  doctrines  are 
more  or  less  at  variance  with  each  other. 
Denominations  is  perhaps  a  better  name  than 
sects  for  these  divisions,  as  they  are  not  mere 
deviations  from  the  main  Brahman  religion, 
but  distinct  separations  from  it.  The  main 
divisions  are  Vishnuites  and  Sivaites,  the  for 
mer  exalting  Vishnu,  the  latter  Siva,  above 
Brahma.  Each  division  has  again  several  di 
visions  within  itself,  probably  caused  by  influ 
ential  expounders  of  the  doctrines.  These  vari 
ous  distinctions  of  denominations  or  sects  pro 
duced  a  number  of  subdivisions  in  the  caste  of 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS  LITERATURE) 


229 


Brahmans.  The  other  castes  were  also  multi 
plied.  Sects  which  reject  the  system  of  castes, 
as  the  Lingaites  of  Mahratta,  constitute  each  a 
caste  of  their  own.  The  gods  also  have  enor 
mously  increased  in  numbers,  and  they  are 
said  to  be  as  many  as  330  millions,  since  it 
seemed  but  just  that  the  heavens  should  be  as 
largely  peopled  as  the  earth.  The  Vedarita  phi 
losophy  attained  the  most  influential  position 
among1  the  Hindoo  systems,  and  effected  a  union 
with  Sivaism,  while  the  Vishnuites  embraced 
the  deistic  Sankhya.  The  most  renowned  phi 
losopher  was  (,/ankaracharya,  who  lived  in  the 
8th  century.  He  was  a  Brahman  of  the  Nam- 
buri  tribe,  then  dominant  in  Travancore.  He 
recognized,  instead  of  the  original  four,  72 
castes,  and  founded  numerous  convents,  dis 
puted  considerably  with  the  Jains  and  Vishnu 
ites,  and  is  said  to  have  died  in  the  Himalaya  at 
the  age  of  32.  He  revived  the  Vedanta  philos 
ophy,  applied  it  against  Buddhism,  and  wrote 
among  others  the  Bhashyas,  which  are  commen 
taries  on  the  Vedas,  but  more  directly  on  the 
Sutras.  The  Vishnuites  number  among  their 
celebrated  philosophers  Ramanuja  of  the  12th, 
and  Madhvacharya  of  the  14th  century ;  but 
their  fame  is  not  equal  to  that  of  £ankaracharya. 
The  Vishnuite  Vallabhacharya  founded  in  the 
16th  century  the  voluptuous  Krishna-shepherd 
worship,  which  places  Krishna  over  Vishnu 
himself.  Another  enthusiastic  Krishna  worship 
was  instituted  about  the  same  time  by  Chai- 
tanya  in  Bengal.  In  the  12th  century  arose  in 
the  Mahratta  country  a  new  form  of  Sivaism. 
Basava,  its  founder,  formed  monkish  brother 
hoods  in  imitation  of  Buddhism,  but  he  was  a 
bitter  enemy  to  the  Buddhists,  as  represented  by 
the  Jains.  This  sect  is  the  Jangama  Lingaism, 
which  uses  the  Canarese  language  as  its  sacred 
tongue.  The  Qakta  denomination  gives  ado 
ration  not  to  any  of  the  three  great  gods  them 
selves,  but  only  to  their  wives,  and  especially 
to  the  spouse  of  Siva,  and  is  very  sensual  in 
worship.  Remnants  of  the  ancient  Sudra  re 
ligion  are  still  to  be  found  in  Bengal,  and 
they  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  magic 
worship  of  savage  tribes.  Islamism  made  con 
siderable  progress  in  the  mean  time,  and  in 
1871  a  third  of  the  population  of  Bengal  were 
Mohammedans.  A  mixture  of  Hindooism  and 
Islamism  is  represented  by  the  religion  of  the 
Sikhs,  and  another  of  Buddhism  and  Brah- 
manism  by  that  of  the  Jains. — The  most  im 
portant  modern  religious  Avorks  known  to  Eu 
ropeans  are  the  following.  After  the  Puranas 
appeared  18  Upapuranas  of  similar  contents. 
Each  temple  of  importance  lias  its  own  local 
Purana,  narrating  the  story  of  the  god  and 
his  manifestations  in  that  place,  and  often  con 
taining  items  of  valuable  historic  information. 
The  Tantras  are  productions  in  which  Siva  is 
represented  as  conversing  with  Durga;  they 
are  the  magic  books  of  the  Caktas.  The  most 
important  work  written  in  Tamil  is  Tiruvallu- 
ver's  Kural,  a  collection  of  sayings  of  a  purely 
ethical  character.  The  Basava  Puranas  of  the 


sect  of  Lingaites  are  valuable  works  for  the 
history  of  Hindoo  sects. — Prominent  among 
the  recent  developments  of  the  Brahmanical 
religion  stands  the  idea  of  the  trinity.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  by  European  scholars  that 
the  Trimurti,  or  trinity  of  Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  Siva,  was  a  primitive  doctrine  and  the 
basis  of  the  Indian  religion  ;  but  it  is  evident 
ly  quite  a  modern  conception.  This  trinity 
is  represented  by  an  image  of  a  body  with 
three  heads  cut  out  of  a  single  block  of  stone. 
Theoretically,  Brahma  is  the  creator,  Vishnu 
the  preserver,  and  Siva  the  destroyer;  but 
no  cult  assigns  either  temple  or  feast  to 
the  Trimurti,  and  it  would  be  greatly  unlike 
the  popular  conception  of  Siva  to  consider  him 
a  god  of  destruction.  It  would  be  better,  how 
ever,  to  examine  first  the  place  which  Vishnu 
occupies  in  the  popular  mind.  Vishnu  pushed 
Indra  back  into  oblivion.  Ten  avatars  are 
commonly  assigned  to  him,  and  they  follow 
each  other  in  an  increasing  scale  of  perfection. 
The  first  three  are  incarnations  of  animals : 
fish,  tortoise,  and  boar.  The  fourth  is  the 
Manu  lion.  The  human  avatars  begin  with  the 
fifth  :  first  a  dwarf,  then  a  hero,  and  then  the 
still  more  exalted  persons  of  a  Ramachandra 
and  a  Krishna.  It  is  usual  to  name  also  an  in 
carnation  of  Buddha  as  a  concession  to  Buddh 
ism,  but  several  writings  name  other  forms 
in  which  Vishnu  appeared,  and  expect  the  god 
finally  to  come  himself.  The  revelation  of  the 
future  advent  of  Vishnu  predicts  that  at  a  time 
when  the  highest  age  of  man  will  be  only  23 
years,  a  portion  of  the  eternal  godhead  will  be 
born  in  the  village  Sambhala  to  the  Brahman 
family  of  Vishnuyaga.  He  shall  be  called 
Kalki,  and  possess  eight  superhuman  powers. 
He  shall  destroy  all  Mlechas,  Dasyus,  and  unjust 
persons,  and  shall  restore  righteousness  upon 
earth.  The  spirits  of  those  who  are  still  alive 
at  the  end  of  the  Kali-yuga  life  shall  be  changed 
into  forms  transparent  as  crystal,  and  shall 
produce  a  race  willing  to  obey  the  laws  of 
Krita-yuga,  who  shall  be  the  fathers  of  a  new 
humanity.  Krita-yuga  shall  come  again  when 
sun  and  moon  have  disappeared  in  the  moon 
house  Tishya,  near  the  planet  Brihaspati  or 
Jupiter.  This  will  occur  at  the  end  of  360.000 
human  years  or  1,200  years  of  the  gods,  count 
ing  from  the  death  of  Krishna.  The  person  of 
Siva  was  too  lofty  and  powerful  to  be  satisfied 
like  Vishnu  to  appear  as  a  being  of  this  world. 
As  Vishnu  could  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  be 
considered  the  only  one  capable  of  avatars,  it 
was  taught  that  Siva  also  occasionally  dwelt 
among  men,  but  only  as  the  incorporation  of 
some  attribute  of  himself.  When  Narade,  the 
messenger  of  the  gods,  reported  to  Siva  that 
his  worship  was  falling  off  upon  earth,  Siva 
sent  only  Nandikecvara,  the  bull  upon  which 
he  rides.  The  Lingaites  also  have  in  their 
Puranas  legends  of  such  descents  of  divine  at 
tributes  and  symbols  among  them.  One  of 
them  gives  a  most  wondrous  origin  to  their 
teacher  Basava.  The  Yogins  or  Gosain,  com- 


230 


INDIA  (RELIGIONS  AND   RELIGIOUS   LITERATURE) 


monly  known  as  Fakirs,  are  worshippers  of 
Siva.  Modern  Brahmanism  has  also  a  female 
trinity,  composed  of  the  wives  of  Brahma,  Vish 
nu,  and  Siva.  Sarasvati,  Brahma's  wife,  is  the 
only  goddess  of  arts,  of  which  language  is  one, 
and  she  is  said  to  punish  liars,  but  not  very 
heavily.  Lakshmi,  the  wife  of  Vishnu,  is  the 
giver  of  temporal  happiness ;  it  is  through  her 
that  mortals  obtain  wives,  children,  dwellings, 
friends,  harvests,  wealth,  health,  and  strength. 
Parvati,  the  wife  of  Siva,  who  is  the  most 
generally  worshipped  of  the  three,  has  the 
same  attributes  as  Lakshmi  in  the  Sivaitic 
Puranas ;  but  in  Bengal  and  in  southern  India 
she  is,  under  the  name  of  Kali,  a  bloodthirsty 
goddess,  and  her  images  depict  her  as  truly 
horrid.  She  is  the  goddess  of  cholera  and  all 
other  epidemics.  She  can  be  appeased  only 
with  bloody  sacrifice,  and  even  human  beings 
are  offered  up  to  her  wherever  the  English 
authorities  .do  not  interfere.  In  the  south 
Brahman  mythology  represents  the  aboriginal 
grdma-devatds  to  be  a  ninefold  development 
of  Parvati,  or  rather  of  the  universal  pro 
ductive  energy  of  the  deity.  The  Qakti  wor 
ship  is,  like  Lingaism,  based  on  sexual  rela 
tions.  The  former  has  chosen  the  female 
principle,  the  lap  of  the  mother  of  nature, 
instead  of  the  male,  which  receives  the  ven 
eration  of  the  latter.  The  various  sects  be 
longing  to  it  rival  each  other  in  obscenity  and 
voluptuousness. — Among  the  other  gods  of 
modern  Brahmanism,  Ganeca  and  Karttikeya, 
the  sons  of  Siva,  are  also  prominent.  The 
former  is  the  god  of  wisdom  and  cunning,  on 
whom  it  is  well  to  call  before  undertaking  any 
thing.  He  has  the  head  of  an  elephant,  and 
his  image  is  found  everywhere,  even  in  temples 
not  dedicated  to  him,  by  the  wayside,  and  in 
many  private  houses.  The  Ganapatyas  are  a 
sect  who  make  him  an  object  of  special  worship. 
Karttikeya  or  Skanda,  called  Subrahmanya  and 
Shanmukha  in  the  Deccan,  is  the  six-headed 
god  of  war,  whose  office  is  to  subdue  the  demon 
Sura  or  Taraka,  and  who  by  doing  penance  for 
2,000  years  obtained  the  power  of  governing 
the  whole  world  without  being  put  to  death 
either  by  Siva  or  by  any  other  god.  Six 
nymphs  quarrelled  for  the  privilege  of  nursing 
him  when  he  was  born  on  the  river  Ganges, 
and  in  order  not  to  vex  any  of  these  Krittikas 
he  took  six  heads  and  fed  on  them  all.  His 
feast  in  the  month  of  Karttika  or  October  is 
principally  attended  by  music,  and  fires  are  lit 
upon  the  hills  as  a  token  of  the  return  of  the 
victorious  warriors.  Daksha  also  is  important. 
He  is  one  of  the  ancient  Adityas,  and  the  Vish 
nu  Purana  tells  a  wondrous  story  of  how  he 
came  to  be  in  the  train  of  the  Mahadeva  Siva. 
Ganga,  the  celebrated  goddess  of  the  river,  is 
a  lovely  person  with  a  lotus  flower  in  her  hand. 
Bathing  in  the  Ganges  cleanses  from  all  sins, 
and  whoever  dies  in  the  river  is  at  once  dis 
solved  in  the  great  Brahma.  Near  the  source, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Jumna  near  Allahabad, 
near  Benares,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 


her  powers  are  especially  effective  on  account 
of  certain  legends  connected  with  these  places. 
Among  the  eight  Lokapalas  or  guardians  of  the 
world  enumerated  above,  Yama  now  employs 
messengers,  Yamadutas,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
pull  the  souls  out  of  corpses  and  lead  them  to 
him  bound  with  ropes.  But  when  people  have 
been  very  pious  Yama  himself  calls  for  their 
souls.  The  messengers  are  depicted  as  de 
formed,  clad  in  skins  of  wild  animals,  and 
as  having  eyes  of  fire  and  long  hair  and  teeth. 
When  they  have  brought  a  soul  before  the 
judge  of  the  dead,  the  first  clerk  Chandra- 
gupta  is  commanded  to  read  the  list  of  the 
good  and  evil  deeds  of  the  deceased  which  is 
contained  in  the  book  Ugrasandhani.  Then 
sentence  is  passed  whether  the  soul  shall  be 
placed  in  hell,  or  reinhabit  an  earthly  form, 
or  rise  to  a  higher  sphere.  Kuvera  is  lord  of 
the  treasures  hid  in  the  earth,  and  he  resides 
in  the  mines  of  Kailasa,  where  his  dwarfish, 
ugly  servants  keep  watch,  and  can  be  induced 
by  magic  charms  to  reveal  where  treasures  are 
concealed.  Kuvera  himself  is  a  frightful  hu 
man  form,  with  three  heads,  three  legs,  eight 
teeth,  a  single  ring  through  the  ears,  green  eyes, 
and  white  sores  on  his  body.  Kama  or  Man- 
matha  rides  on  a  parrot,  and  wounds  with  his 
arrow  those  who  love.  He  belongs  to  the 
family  of  Vishnu.  The  fire  of  Siva's  eye  re 
duced  him  to  ashes,  and  he  will  not  be  born 
again  before  Siva  marries  Parvati,  and  then 
he  will  be  a  son  of  Krishna.  His  companion 
is  the  beautiful  Rati,  whom  he  captured  from 
the  house  of  the  giant  Sambara.  In  com 
parison  with  the  dissolute  worship  of  Qakti, 
the  worship  of  the  elevated  and  poetic  side  of 
human  love  as  represented  by  Kama  is  quite  in 
significant. — The  distinctions  of  caste  are  rapid 
ly  disappearing.  The  Kshatriyas  and  Vaisyas 
long  since  lost  their  separate  existence,  and 
many  of  the  occupations  originally  exclusively 
theirs  are  now  followed  also  by  the  Brahmans. 
Though  the  superior  castes  may  engage  in  the 
pursuits  properly  belonging  to  the  lower,  the 
latter  are  not  permitted  to  usurp  the  functions 
of  the  former.  Brahmans  now  hold  government 
offices,  act  as  soldiers,  and  enter  the  services 
of  Europeans  and  Mohammedans,  and  even  of 
the  Sudras.  But  whatever  their  position,  they 
try  not  to  transgress  the  rules  and  observances 
anciently  prescribed  for  them.  They  avoid, 
for  example,  trafficking  with  certain  commod 
ities,  such  as  leather,  contact  with  which  is 
considered  polluting ;  they  do  not  eat  or  touch 
certain  kinds  of  food,  nor  eat  with  or  in  the 
immediate  presence  of  one  of  an  inferior  caste. 
There  are  classes  so  degraded  that  their  mere 
shadow  falling  on  a  man  of  higher  caste 
causes  pollution.  In  Malabar  when  under  na 
tive  rule  it  was  not  uncommon  for  a  man  of 
high  caste  to  strike  dead  on  the  spot  a  man  of 
low  caste  for  having  touched  him,  even  if  ac 
cidentally  :  the  act  was  regarded  as  justifiable 
homicide,  and  was  not  punished  by  the  authori 
ties.  The  condition  of  the  lowest  castes  un- 


INDIA   (RELIGIONS,  &c.) 


INDIANA 


231 


der  native  rule  was  one  of  the  most  abject  sub 
jection,  and  so  debased  were  they  considered, 
both  socially  and  spiritually,  that  it  was  a  crime 
for  a  Brahman  to  read  the  sacred  writings  in 
their  presence,  or  to  give  them  any  religious 
counsel  or  instruction  whatever.  Beneath  the 
Sudras  there  was  a  numerous  class  of  out 
casts  and  their  descendants,  who,  by  forfeit 
ing  their  standing  in  their  respective  castes 
and  becoming  polluted,  had  sunk  to  the  lowest 
pitch  of  social  degradation,  and  were  re 
garded  as  utterly  vile.  A  loss  of  caste  in 
volved  a  forfeiture  of  all  civil  rights  and  of  all 
property.  The  British  government,  however, 
has  prohibited  the  enforcement  of  any  forfeit 
ure  or  disinheritance  by  reason  of  the  renun 
ciation  or  deprivation  of  caste;  the  law  has 
been  steadily  enforced,  and  has  had  an  im 
portant  and  salutary  effect  upon  the  social  state 
of  India. — The  Brahmans  are  now  undergoing 
a  religious  crisis.  The  sect  of  Kalajnanis, 
whose  sacred  book  is  the  Kalajnana,  "Knowl 
edge  of  the  Age,"  written  about  1780,  believe 
that  the  god  of  gods  himself  will  descend  to 
earth  and  raise  the  dead.  The  Nudis  in  South 
Mahratta  entertain  a  similar  belief,  but  both 
sects  seem  to  be  dying  out.  There  is  one  sect, 
however,  the  Brahmo-Samaj,  which  is  steadily 
increasing  in  number,  and  which  has  attracted 
considerable  attention.  Its  doctrines  are  not 
properly  a  mixture  of  Brahmanism  and  Chris 
tianity,  but  rather  a  rationalistic  development 
of  both.  The  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  1830  by  Ram  Mohun  Roy.  The  first  con 
verts  were  pupils  of  Christian  educational  insti 
tutions.  They  were  joined  by  Mohammedans 
and  by  other  Brahmans,  and  formed  together 
a  church  whose  principal  doctrines  are  the  ad 
oration  of  one  God,  the  loving  father  of  all, 
and  brotherly  love  toward  all  men.  Their 
great  purpose  is  to  do  away  with  distinctions 
of  caste  and  religion.  The  head  of  the  sect  is 
now  Babu  Keshab  Chander  Sen,  and  under  his 
energetic  guidance  it  has  been  established  in  all 
the  larger  cities  of  India.  It  was  hoped  that  they 
would  eventually  adopt  the  fundamental  doc 
trines  of  Christianity,  but  at  a  meeting  held  in 
1866  in  Calcutta,  Jesus  was  declared  to  be  a  di 
vine  incarnation  in  no  higher  degree  than  every 
distinguished  person  might  be  said  to  be  such. 
Excepting  the  wonderful  mystical  word  ora, 
only  such  portions  of  tho  Vedas  and  the  Bible 
as  are  merely  theistic  and  not  miraculous  are 
admitted  into  their  canon. — The  principal  re 
cent  authorities  on  the  religion  and  literature 
of  India  are :  Max  Muller,  "  History  of  Ancient 
Sanskrit  Literature"  (London,  1859);  Muir, 
u  Original  Sanskrit  Texts  on  the  Origin  and  His 
tory  of  the  People  of  India"  (vols.  i.-v.,  Lon 
don,  1863-'TO);  Lassen,  Jnduche  Alterthuma- 
Tcunde  (2cl  ed.,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1867-73) ;  Whit 
ney,  "  Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies  "  (New 
York,  1872);  Duncker,  Gcschichte  dfs  Alter- 
thnms  (vol.  i.,  4th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1874) ;  and 
Wurm,  Oeschichte  der  indischen  Religion  (Ba 
sel,  1874). 


INDIANA,  one  of  the  interior  states  of  the 
American  Union,  and  the  sixth  admitted  under 
the  federal  constitution,  situated  between  lat. 
37°  47'  and  41°  46'  N.,  and  Ion.  84°  49'  and  88° 
2'  W. ;  extreme  length  N.  and  S.  276  m.,  aver 
age  breadth  140  m. ;  area,  33,809  sq.  m.,  or 


State  Seal  of  Indiana. 

21,637,760  acres.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  state  of  Michigan,  E.  by 
Ohio,  S.  by  Kentucky,  from  which  it  is  sep 
arated  by  the  Ohio  river,  and  W.  by  Illinois, 
from  which  it  is  partly  separated  by  the  Wa- 
bash.  It  is  divided  into  92  counties,  viz. :  Adams, 
Allen,  Bartholomew,  Benton,  Blackford,  Boone, 
Brown,  Carroll,  Cass,  Clark,  Clay,  Clinton, 
Crawford,  Daviess,  Dearborn,  Decatur,  DeKalb, 
Delaware,  Dubois,  Elkhart,  Fayette,  Floyd, 
Fountain,  Franklin,  Fulton,  Gibson,  Grant, 
Greene,  Hamilton,  Hancock,  Harrison,  Hen- 
dricks,  Henry,  Howard,  Huntington,  Jackson, 
Jasper,  Jay,  Jefferson,  Jennings,  Johnson, 
Knox,  Kosciusko,  La  Grange,  Lake,  La  Porte, 
Lawrence,  Madison,  Marion,  Marshall,  Martin, 
Miami,  Monroe,  Montgomery,  Morgan,  New 
ton,  Noble,  Ohio,  Orange,  Owen,  Parke,  Perry, 
Pike,  Porter,  Posey,  Pulaski,  Putnam,  Ran 
dolph,  Ripley,  Rush,  St.  Joseph,  Scott,  Shel 
by,  Spencer,  Starke,  Steuben,  Sullivan,  Switz 
erland,  Tippecanoe,  Tipton,  Union,  Vander- 
burgh,  Vermilion,  Vigo,  W  abash,  Warren,  War- 
rick,  Washington,  Wayne,  Wrells,  White,  Whit- 
ley.  Indianapolis,  the  capital,  is  near  the  cen 
tre  of  the  state.  In  1874  there  were  27  cities  in 
Indiana:  Columbia,  with  1,663  inhabitants  in 
1870  ;  Connersville,  2,496  ;  Evansville,  21,830; 
Fort  Wayne,  17,718;  Franklin  City,  2,707; 
Goshen,  3,133;  Greencastle,  3,227;  Kendall- 
ville,  2,164;  Indianapolis,  48,244;  Jefferson- 
ville,  7,254;  Lafayette,  13,506;  La  Porte, 
6,581 ;  Lawrenceburg,  3,159;  Logansport,  8,950; 
Madison,  10,709;  Mount  Vernon,  2,880 ;  New 
Albany,  15,396  ;  Peru,  3,617  ;  Richmond, 
9,445  ;  Rising  Sun,  1,760 ;  Seymour,  2,372 ; 
Shelbyville,  2,731  ;  South  Bend,  7,206  ;  Terre 
Haute,  16,103;  Valparaiso,  2,765  ;  Vincennes, 
5,440;  and  Wabash  City,  2,881.  Michigan 
City  is  the  only  lake  port  of  the  state.  The 


232 


INDIANA 


population  in  1800  and  at  subsequent  decennial 
periods  was  as  follows  : 


CENSUS  YEARS. 

White. 

Free 
Colored. 

Slaves. 

Total. 

Rank. 

isoo 

5.343 

163 

135 

5,641 

20 

1S10  

23,81)0 

893 

237 

24,520 

21 

18-20  
1830 

145,758 
839  399 

1,230 
8,629 

190 
3 

147.178 
343,031 

18 
13 

1840  

678,698 

7,165 

3 

685,866 

10 

1850  

I8t;o 

977,154 
1,338.710 

11,262 
11.428 

988,416 
1,350,428 

7 
6 

1670 

1  655837 

24560 

1  680  637 

G 

Of  the  total  population  in  1870,  857,994  were 
males  and  822,043  females;  1,539,163  were 
of  native  and  141,474  of  foreign  birth;  and 
there  were  240  Indians.  Of  the  native-born, 
1,048,575  were  born  in  the  state,  16,598  in 
Illinois,  3,483  in  Iowa,  76,524  in  Kentucky, 
3,490  in  Massachusetts,  5,693  in  Michigan, 
6,682  in  New  Jersey,  29,518  in  New  York, 
24,799  in  North  Carolina,.  189,359  in  Ohio, 
57,291  in  Pennsylvania,  12,276  in  Tennessee, 
and  32,489  in  Virginia  and  West  Virginia.  Of 
the  foreigners,  4,765  were  born  in  British 
America,  6,363  in  France,  78,060  in  Germany, 
9,945  in  England,  28,698  in  Ireland,  2,507  in 
Scotland,  556  in  Wales,  873  in  Holland,  2,180 
in  Sweden,  and  4,287  in  Switzerland.  The 
density  of  population  was  49*71  persons  to  a 
square  mile.  The  state  contained  320,160  fam 
ilies,  with  an  average  of  5'25  persons  each,  and 
318,469  dwellings,  with  an  average  of  5*28  per 
sons  each.  The  increase  of  population  from 
1860  to  1870  was  24-45  per  cent.  The  number 
of  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  upward  was 
376,780.  There  were  in  the  state  567,175  per 
sons  from  5  to  18  years  of  age  ;  the  total  num 
ber  of  persons  attending  school  was  395,263  ; 
76,634  persons  10  years  of  age  and  over  were 
unable  to  read,  and  127,124  could  not  write.  Of 
the  latter,  113,185  were  of  native  and  13,939 
of  foreign  birth;  53,359  were  males  and  73,- 
765  females;  118,761  were  white  and  8,258 
colored;  11,072  were  from  10  to  15  years  old, 
15,630  from  15  to  21,  and  100,422  were  21  and 
over,  of  whom  36,331  were  white  males,  57,651 
white  females,  3,182  colored  males,  3,181  col 
ored  females,  and  77  Indians.  The  percentage 
of  illiterates  10  years  of  age  and  over  to  the  total 
population  of  the  same  age  was  10-61,  being 
8-71  for  males  and  12-61  for  females.  The 
percentage  of  illiteracy  among  male  adults  was 
10-09;  females,  16-77.  The  number  of  pau 
pers  supported  during  the  year  ending  June  1, 
1870,  was  4,657,  at  a  cost  of  $403,521.  On 
June  1,  1870,  3,652  were  receiving  support,  of 
whom  2,790  were  natives,  including  2,583 
white  and  207  colored,  and  862  foreigners. 
There  were  1,374  criminals  committed  during 
the  year.  Of  the  total  number  (907)  in  pris 
on  June  1,  1870,  755  were  of  native  and  152 
of  foreign  birth;  of  the  natives,  691  were 
white  and  64  colored.  The  state  contained 
991  blind,  872  deaf  and  dumb,  1,504  insane, 
and  1,360  idiotic.  Of  the  total  population  10 


years  of  age  and  over  (1,197,936),  there  were 
engaged  in  all  occupations  459,369  persons; 
in  agriculture,  266,777,  including  83,949  la 
borers,  and  181,895  farmers  and  planters;  in 
professional  and  personal  services,  80,018,  of 
whom  1,787  were  clergymen,  22,542  domestic 
servants,  34,954  laborers  not  specified,  1,685 
lawyers,  3,613  physicians  and  surgeons,  and 
5,018  teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade  and  trans 
portation,  36,517;  and  in  manufactures  and 
mechanical  and  mining  industries,  76,057.  The 
number  of  deaths  from  all  causes  was  17,661 ; 
from  consumption,  2,807,  being  1  death  from 
consumption  to  6-3  from  all  causes;  from  pneu 
monia,  1,514,  being  1  from  that  disease  to  11-7 
from  all  causes;  from  diphtheria  and  scarlet 
fever,  594;  from  intermittent  and  remittent 
fevers,  521;  from  enteric  fever,  1,029;  from 
diarrhcea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis,  1,241. — In 
diana  is  entirely  wanting  in  mountains,  and  at 
least  two  thirds  of  the  surface  is  level  or  un 
dulating.  It  has  consequently  no  watershed, 
but  there  are  continuous  slopes  of  great  ex 
tent,  and  the  difference  of  elevation  between 
the  highest  land  and  the  Ohio  river  at  the 
falls  is  nearly  600  ft.,  and  a  considerable  dif 
ference  (about  70  ft.)  is  observed  between 
the  level  of  the  Ohio  at  the  falls  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  AVabash.  The  river  hills  extend 
at  various  distances  from  and  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  Ohio  and  other  streams,  and 
enclose  bottom  lands  which  are  chiefly  rich  al 
luvions  and  thickly  wooded.  These  hills  along 
the  Ohio  are  generally  as  high  as  the  highest 
levels  of  the  interior,  often  of  a  rugged  and 
broken  aspect,  and  where  cut  through  by  trib 
utaries  of  the  Ohio  present  much  imposing 
scenery.  Behind  these  a  table  land  spreads 
out  and  forms  the  interior,  and  here  every  fea 
ture  is  changed ;  instead  of  the  bottoms,  with 
their  forests,  the  most  varied  landscape  appears 
— here  groves  of  oak,  ash,  and  other  trees, 
there  vast  level  prairies;  and  again  the  sur 
face  is  undulating,  and  occasionally  rises  into 
hills  from  100  to  300  ft.  high.  For  topograph 
ical  description,  however,  the  state  may  be 
divided  into  the  valleys  of  its  rivers.  The 
Ohio  valley,  including  that  of  the  Whitewater, 
contains  about  5,500  sq.  m. ;  this  is  a  limestone 
region,  and  was  originally  clothed  with  heavy 
forests.  The  hills  are  abrupt  and  broken,  and 
numerous  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  break  through 
them.  Of  this  division  of  the  state  about 
two  thirds  is  good  farming  land,  and  the  res 
idue  either  too  hilly  or  too  sterile  for  prof 
itable  cultivation.  White  River  valley  extends 
from  the  Wabash  centrally  through  the  state 
to  the  Ohio  line,  and  covers  about  9,000  sq.  m. 
It  is  almost  uniformly  level,  and  heavily  tim 
bered,  except  in  the  W.  parts,  where  there  are 
large  prairies  and  barrens  and  ranges  of  low 
rugged  hills.  Limestone  beds  exist  on  White 
river  and  between  its  two  forks,  and  are  abun 
dant  and  excellent  along  the  lower  part  of  the 
river.  The  soils  are  of  the  richest  description. 
Most  of  the  streams  are  clear  and  never-failing, 


INDIANA 


233 


and  water  power  is  abundant.  The  Wabash 
valley  is  the  largest  division,  and  embraces 
upward  of  12,000  sq.  m.  It  interlocks  with 
that  of  White  river,  and  the  E.  portion  resem 
bles  it.  It  is  equally  fertile,  but  less  broken. 
The  middle  part  of  the  valley  has  extensive 
water  power.  From  the  river  hills  of  the 
Ohio  to  the  Wabash  the  surface  is  an  inclined 
plane.  The  valley  of  the  Maumee  occupies 
about  2,000  sq.  in.  in  the  N.  E.,  and  carries  its 
waters  to  Lake  Erie.  The  N.  and  N.  W.  part 
of,  the  state,  drained  by  the  St.  Joseph's, 
which  flows  into  Lake  Michigan,  and  the 
Kankakee,  a  constituent  of  the  Illinois,  in 
its  general  character  is  level,  mostly  prairie ; 
in  parts  it  is  sandy,  and  along  the  Kankakee 
swampy.  Near  Lake  Michigan  the  country 
has  extensive  sand  hills,  which  are  covered  only 
with  stunted  and  shrivelled  pines  and  burr 
oaks ;  but  a  few  miles  back  from  the  lake  shore 
a  rich  agricultural  country  is  found. — The  Ohio, 
the  final  recipient  of  the  principal  streams,  bor 
ders  the  state  on  the  south  from  the  Miami  to 
the  Wabash,  a  distance  by  the  river's  course 
of  380  in.  Laughery,  Indian  Kentucky,  Silver, 
Indian  Blue,  Anderson,  Big  Pigeon,  Little  Pig 
eon,  etc.,  are  its  principal  tributaries  from  In 
diana,  but  none  of  them  are  navigable.  The 
Whitewater  joins  the  Miami  6  m.  above  its 
entrance  into  the  Ohio.  The  WT abash  has  its 
head  waters  in  Ohio ;  at  first  its  course  is  N. 
W.  to  the  middle  of  Iluntington  co.,  thence  W. 
S.  W.  to  Williamsport  in  Warren  co.,  and  the 
remainder  of  its  course  S.  to  the  Ohio.  Its 
length  is  about  550  m.,  and  it  has  been  naviga 
ted  about  300  m.  by  steamboats.  Its  principal 
affluents  are,  from  the  south  and  east,  the  Sa- 
lamonie,  Mississinewa,  Wildcat,  Sugar  or  Rock, 
Raccoon,  and  Patoka  rivers;  and  from  the 
north  and  west,  Little  Wabash  and  Embarras 
in  Illinois,  the  Vermilion  in  both  states,  and  in 
Indiana  Tippecanoe,  Eel,  and  Little  rivers. 
White  river,  the  most  important  of  these,  falls 
into  the  W  abash  100  m.  above  its  mouth;  the 
West  fork,  its  longest  branch,  rises  near  the 
Ohio  line,  not  far  from  the  S.  sources  of  the 
Wabash  and  W.  constituents  of  the  Miami,  and 
runs  in  a  S.  W.  direction,  receiving  in  its  course 
Eel  river,  Fall  creek,  &c. ;  and  the  East  fork, 
the  principal  feeders  of  which  are  Salt,  Musca- 
tatuck,  Sand,  Clifty,  Flat  Rock,  Sugar,  and 
other  streams,  rises  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the 
state,  and  has  a  W.  course  to  its  union  with 
the  West  fork,  the  two  forming  White  river 
proper,  50  m.  above  its  entrance  into  the  Wa 
bash.  The  St.  Joseph's  and  St.  Mary's  form 
the  Maumee,  which  passes  into  Ohio  and  to 
Lake  Erie.  Another  St.  Joseph's,  with  its 
tributaries  the  Elkhart,  &c.,  passes  into  Lake 
Michigan.  The  Kankakee,  a  principal  constit 
uent  of  the  Illinois,  runs  sluggishly  through 
the  N.  W.  counties  for  100  m. ;  extensive 
marshes  everywhere  bound  its  course.  The 
Iroquois  or  Pickamink  rises  S.  of  the  Kanka 
kee,  runs  nearly  parallel  to  it  for  50  m.,  and 
joins  it  in  Illinois.  -Deep  and  Calumet  rivers 


lie  near  to  and  S.  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  in 
some  places  are  only  separated  from  it  by 
banks  of  sand.  Numerous  lakes  and  ponds 
are  found,  principally  N.  of  the  Wabash.  Sev 
eral  of  them  have  no  outlets;  they  are  gen 
erally  clear,  and  have  sandy  shores  and  bot 
toms.  They  seldom  exceed  a  few  acres  in  ex 
tent,  though  several  at  the  head  of  Tippeca 
noe  river  and  Turtle  creek,  and  near  the  city 
of  La  Porte,  cover  a  considerable  area.  The 
largest,  Beaver  lake,  near  the  Illinois  line  in 
Jasper  co.,  had  a  surface  of  10,000  acres,  and 
on  the  south  was  bordered  by  an  extensive 
marsh ;  but  most  of  the  land  has  been  reclaim 
ed,  and  the  lake  itself  nearly  drained. — The 
geological  survey  of  Indiana  has  been  several 
years  in  progress  under  the  direction  of  the 
state  geologist,  Prof.  E.  T.  Cox,  assisted  by 
Professors  John  Collett,  B.  C.  llobbs,  R.  B. 
Warder,  and  Dr.  G.  M.  Levette.  The  third 
and  fourth  annual  reports,  for  the  years  1871 
and  1872,  were  published  in  one  volume  in 
1872.  The  most  valuable  mineral  found  in  In 
diana  is  coal,  which  exists  here  in  great  abun 
dance,  and  forms  part  of  the  great  coal  field 
which  extends  through  Illinois,  Indiana,  and 
Kentucky.  The  following  statement  by  Prof. 
Cox  shows  the  extent  and  character  of  this 
important  source  of  wealth  :  "  The  measures 
cover  an  area  of  about  6,500  sq.  m.,  in  the  S. 
W.  part  of  the  state,  and  extend  from  Warren 
co.  on  the  north  to  the  Ohio  river  on  the  south, 
a  distance  of  about  150  m.  The  following 
counties  lie  within  its  area :  Warren,  Foun 
tain,  Parke,  Vermilion,  Vigo,  Clay,  Sullivan, 
Greene,  Knox,  Daviess,  Martin,  Gibson,  Pike, 
Dubois,  Vanderburg,  Warrick,  Spencer,  Perry, 
and  a  small  part  of  Crawford,  Monroe,  Put 
nam,  and  Montgomery.  The  coal  is  all  bitu 
minous,  but  is  divisible  into  three  well  marked 
varieties :  caking  coal,  non-caking  or  block 
coal,  and  cannel  coal.  The  total  depth  of  the 
measures  is  from  000  to  800  ft.,  with  12  to  14 
distinct  seams  of  coal,  though  they  are  not  all 
present  throughout  the  entire  area  of  the  field. 
The  seams  range  from  1  ft.  to  1 1  ft.  in  thick 
ness,  and  the  field  may,  from  the  character  of 
the  coal,  be  divided  from  north  to  south  into 
two  zones;  the  western  contains  the  seams' 
of  caking  coal,  and  the  eastern  the  non-caking 
or  block  coal.  There  are  from  three  to  four 
workable  seams  of  caking  coal,  ranging  from 
3^-  to  11  ft.  in  thickness.  At  most  of  the  lo 
calities  where  these  are  being  worked,  the  coal 
is  mined  by  adits  driven  in  on  the  face  of  the 
ridges,  and  the  deepest  shafts  in  the  state  are 
less  than  300  ft.,  the  average  depth  to  win  the 
coal  being  not  over  75  ft.  The  eastern  zone  of 
the  coal  measures  has  an  area  of  more  than 
450  sq.  m.  It  is  here  that  we  find  the  cele 
brated  block  coal,  a  fossil  fuel  which  is  used  in 
the  raw  state  for  making  pig  iron.  Jn  fact  this 
coal,  from  its  physical  structure  and  freedom 
from  impurities,  is  peculiarly  suited  to  metal 
lurgical  purposes.  It  is  likewise  valuable  for 
generating  steam  and  for  household  uses. 


234 


INDIANA 


There  are  as  many  as  eight  distinct  seams  of 
block  coal  in  this  zone,  three  of  which  are 
workable,  having  an  average  thickness  of  4 
ft.  In  some  places  this  coal  is  mined  by  adits, 
but  generally  from  shafts,  40  to  80  ft.  deep. 
The  seams  are  crossed  by  cleavage  lines,  and 
the  coal  is  usually  mined  without  powder,  and 
may  be  taken  out  in  blocks  weighing  a  ton  or 
more."  In  1871  there  were  24  block  coal  mines 
in  operation,  and  about  1,500  tons  were  mined 
daily;  in  1873  the  number  of  mines  had  in 
creased  to  upward  of  50,  and  the  daily  pro 
duction  to  about  5,000  tons.  In  1873  eight 
blast  furnaces  in  Indiana  were  using  the  block 
coal  for  smelting  ores.  The  quality  of  the 
coal,  its  vicinity  to  available  iron  ore  beds, 
together  with  convenient  railroad  facilities, 
give  to  Indiana  marked  advantages  for  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel.  (For  an  anal 
ysis  of  the  coal  of  Indiana,  see  COAL.)  A 
seam  of  superior  cannel  coal  is  worked  in  Da- 
viess  co. ;  the  vein  is  5  ft.  thick,  the  upper  3£ 
ft.  being  cannel  coal  and  the  remainder  a  beau 
tiful  jet-black  caking  coal.  Peat  or  turf  exists 
in  considerable  quantities  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  but,  owing  to  the  abundance  of 
wood,  is  not  much  used.  There  are  numerous 
deposits  of  bog  iron  ore  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  and  clay  ironstones  and  impure 
carbonates  and  brown  oxides  are  scattered  over 
the  counties  embraced  in  the  coal  measures. 
In  some  places  the  beds  are  quite  thick,  and, 
though  inferior  to  the  rich  pure  ores  of  Mis 
souri,  will  prove  valuable  for  mixing  with  the 
latter  and  aid  in  making  special  grades  of  iron. 
Indiana  possesses  some  of  the  finest  quarries  of 
building  stone  in  the  west ;  they  include  both 
limestone  and  sandstone.  Ganister  rock,  used 
for  furnace  hearths  and  for  lining  Bessemer 
converters,  and  fire  clays,  are  also  found  in 
great  abundance.  Salt  springs  exist  on  the 
eastern  border  of  the  coal  formation.  Per 
haps  the  most  remarkable  natural  curiosity 
in  Indiana  is  the  Wyandotte  cave,  4  m.  from 
Leaven  worth,  Crawford  co.,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  state,  which  in  many  respects  rivals 
the  famous  Mammoth  cave  of  Kentucky.  (See 
WYANDOTTE  CAVE.) — The  climate,  like  that  of 
all  the  states  W.  of  the  Ohio,  is  liable  to  fre 
quent  and  sudden  changes.  The  prevailing 
winds  in  winter  are  from  the  north  and  north 
west,  and  in  other  seasons  from  the  south  and 
southwest,  and  from  the  general  evenness  of 
the  country  have  a  free  passage  and  are  in  con 
stant  motion.  The  heats  of  summer  are  thus 
modified;  but  in  winter  the  cold  is  extreme, 
though  less  so  than  in  Illinois.  The  mean  tem 
perature  of  the  year  is  52°;  that  of  winter  31°, 
of  spring  51°,  of  summer  76°,  and  of  autumn 
55°.  This  is  nearly  the  climate  of  Bordeaux, 
France,  5°  further  N.  than  Indianapolis  and  on 
the  seaboard.  The  rainfall  is  about  38  in.  in 
the  year,  viz. :  4'97  in  winter,  7*79  in  spring, 
1G'92  in  summer,  and  7'87  in  autumn.  The 
earlier  fruits  blossom  in  March. — The  soil  is 
generally  good,  and  much  of  it  remarkably  fer 


tile.  The  richest  lands  are  found  along  the 
Wabash,  White,  and  Whitewater  rivers.  Few 
states  have  so  little  unavailable  land  ;  even  its 
wet  and  marshy  lands  are  brought  under  suc 
cessful  cultivation.  About  one  eighth  part  of 
the  state  is  prairie  land,  and  about  one  third 
is  covered  with  a  fine  forest.  The  forests  con 
tain  all  the  trees  natural  to  the  climate  of  the 
middle  zone  of  the  Union,  but  oak  and  beech 
preponderate;  next  in  order  are  the  sugar 
maple,  hickory,  ash,  black  walnut,  poplar, 
elm,  sycamore,  &c. ;  and  the  principal  undcr- 
growths  are  dogwood,  pawpaw,  plum,  thorn, 
persimmon,  and  crabapple.  In  most  parts 
oak  and  beech  mast  is  found  in  such  quanti 
ties  as  to  contribute  largely  to  feeding  and 
fattening  hogs. — Indiana  ranks  high  as  an  agri 
cultural  state;  in  the  production  of  wheat  in 
1870  it  ranked  next  to  Illinois  and  losva, 
and  in  Indian  corn  next  to  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Ohio,  and  Missouri.  The  chief  farm  pro 
ductions  and  live  stock,  as  reported  by  the 
federal  census  in  1870  and  the  state  authori 
ties  in  1873,  were  as  follows: 


PRODUCTIONS. 

1870. 

1S73. 

Wheat,  bushels  

27,747,222 

22.149.527 

Indian  corn  .  .              

51,094,588 

81,185485 

Rve 

457  468 

333153 

Oats  .          

8,590,409 

11,434.628 

Barley 

356  262 

522  943 

Buckwheat  

80.231 

Peas  and  beans 

85  526 

Potatoes 

5  549  749 

8  412  159 

Grass  and  clover  seed 

78545 

137,747 

Fruit 

8  478  1  61 

Flaxseed  

409,931 

889,179 

Flax,  pounds. 

37771 

Hemp  tons 

22 

18794 

Hay  

Tobacco  pounds 

1.076.768 
9  325  392 

825,477 
12877182 

Wool  

5,029.023 

2.228,437 

Hops  

63,884 

29  729 

Beef 

3  320  067 

Bacon  
Pork  in  bulk                        

40,716.539 
30913745 

Lard  

11,391,432 

Butter  

29,915  385 

2S8  807 

Milk   gallons  sold  

936988 

Maple  sugar  pounds 

1  332  332 

302,041 

Maple  molasses,  gallons  
Sorghum  molasses  
Honey  pounds 

227,850 
2,026,212 

395  278 

57,675 
501,863 

Wax  

12,049 

Wine  gallons        .        

19,479 

827.480 

Cider 

1  097  019 

Vinegar  
Horses   number            

497,833 

885,885 

514,438 

43259 

54807 

Milch  cows  

898,736 

Working  oxen          

14,088 

Other  cattle  

618,360 

Sheep  

1,612,680 

1,235,874 

Swine                        

1,872,230 

2  999.189 

Cattle.  .  . 

1,211,246 

The  returns  of  live  stock  for  1870  include  only 
animals  on  farms,  while  in  1873  the  entire  num 
ber  in  the  state  is  returned.  According  to  the 
census  of  1870,  there  were  in  the  state  10, 104,279 
acres  of  improved  land,  7,189,334  of  woodland, 
and  826,035  of  other  unimproved  land.  The 
total  number  of  farms  was  161,289,  including 
55,614  containing  20  and  under  50  acres  ;  52,- 
614,  50  and  under  100;  29,433,  100  and  under 


INDIANA 


235 


600;  1,004,  500  and  under  1,000;  and  76, 
1,000  and  over.  The  cash  value  of  farms  was 
$034,804,189  ;  of  farming  implements  and  ma 
chinery,  $17,C7G,5(Jl  ;  wages  paid  during  the 
year,  including  value  of  board,  $9,675,348  ;  to 
tal  estimated  value  of  all  farm  productions,  in 
cluding  betterments  and  additions  to  stock, 
$122,914,302  ;  value  of  orchard  products,  $2,- 
858,086  ;  of  produce  of  market  gardens,  $486,- 
477;  of  forest  products,  $2,645,679;  of  home 
manufactures,  $605,639 ;  of  animals  slaughtered 
and  sold  for  slaughter,  $30,246,962;  of  all  live 
stock,  $83,776,762.  In  1873  there  were  6,162,- 
157  acres  in  cultivation,  of  which  1,902,599 
were  devoted  to  wheat,  2,627,980  to  Indian 
corn,  624,795  to  oats,  985,529  to  meadow,  and 
4,511,775  to  pasture  and  woodland.  The  value 
of  slaughtered  animals  was  $3,938,754.  There 
were  570,382  tons  of  coal  mined,  and  1,167,- 
661  bushels  of  lime  made. — Indiana  has  no 


direct  foreign  commerce,  but  it  has  a  vast 
domestic  and  inter-state  trade  by  means  of  its 
navigable  waters  and  magnificent  systems  of 
railroads  and  canals.  Its  geographical  posi 
tion  is  such  that  the  whole  land  commerce  be 
tween  the  manufacturing  states  of  the  east  and 
the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi  must  pass 
through  its  territory.  Evansville  is  a  United 
States  port  of  delivery.  In  1873  there  were 
enrolled  here  75  vessels  with  an  aggregate  ton 
nage  of  11,474.  In  1845  there  were  30  m.  of 
railroad  in  Indiana;  in  1855,  1,406;  in  1865, 
2,217;  in  1870,  3,177;  and  in  1873,  3,544.  Of 
|  the  92  counties  of  the  state,  all  but  five  were 
I  in  the  last  mentioned  year  traversed  by  rail- 
|  roads.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  rail 
roads  of  the  state  in  1873,  with  their  termini; 
also  the  assessed  value,  including  main  and  side 
track  and  rolling  stock,  as  reported  by  the  state 
board  of  equalization : 


CORPORATIONS. 

TERMINI. 

Milci 

compile  ted 
in  the 
Etate  in 
1S73. 

Miles  be 
tween  ter 
mini  when 
different 
from 
precedinp. 

Total  assessment. 

Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Indianapolis  

Hamilton,  O.,  and  Indianapolis  
Lafayette  and  Kankakee,  111  
Fail-land  and  Martinsville  
Cincinnati  O.,  and  Richmond. 

77 
21 
39 
5 
92 
26 
81 

84 
82 
109 
55 
53 
103 
51 
13 

Q 

78 

1(51 
78 
116 
110 
45 
65 
80 
17 
167 
115 
288 
13 
42 
15 
225 

98 
75 

'42 

iso 

132 

203 
92 

ioo 

2S9 
190 
152 

202 
178 

261 

115 

300 
539 

150 
2S5 
44 
840 

$551,226 
160,665 
147.1)75 
82^75 

429.6(17  (S3m.) 
107,713 
262,366  (57  m.) 

1,525.  6SO 
423,960 
852,540 
292^47  (43  m.) 
423,740 
698,601  (104  m.) 
513,060 
77.250 
48,787 
971,736 
1,651.200 
1,077.513  (144m.) 
1,051,2)32 
592,854 
1,441,728 
834,812 
445.098 
310,758 

4.112.064 
618.500  010m.) 
1,045.1(12 
07.641 
1,090,316 

Cincinnati  Lafayette,  and  Chicago.  ,                 ... 

Cincinnati  and  Martinsville  
Cincinnati,  Richmond,  and  Chicago  
Cincinnati  Richmond,  and  Fort  Wayne 

Richmond  and  Fort  \Vayne  
Cincinnati,  O.,  and  Terre  Haute.  . 

Cincinnati  and  Terre  Haute  
Cincinnati   Wabash,  and  Michigan 

Anderson  to  Michigan  state  lino  
(lalion,  O.,  and  Indianapolis  

Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indianapo 
lis  (Indianapolis  division)  
Detroit.  Eel  River,  and  Illinois.  .  .  .  :  
Evansville  and  Cravvfordsville  .  ... 

Butler  and  Logansport  
Evansville  and  Terre  Haute  
Terre  Haute  and  Danville  

Evansville,  Terre  Haute,  and  Chicago  
Fort  Wayne,  Jackson,  and  Saginaw  
Fort  Wavne,  Muncie,  and  Cincinnati  

Jackson.  Mich.,  and  Fort  Wayne  
Fort  Wayne  and  Connersville  

Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana  

Fort  Wayne  and  Traverse  City,  Mich. 
Oxford  and  Newburg 

Indiana  North  and  South         .... 

Indiana  and  Illinois  Central  

Indianapolis  and  Decatur.  Ill  
Indianapolis  and  Pekin,  111  

Indianapolis.  Bloomington,  and  Western  
Indianapolis,  Cincinnati,  and  Lafayette  
Indianapolis.  Peru,  and  Chicago  

Cincinnati,  O.,  and  Lafayette  
Indianapolis  and  Michigan  City  
Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis,  Mo  
Indianapolis  and  Vincennes  
Louisville.  Ky.,  and  Indiana]  >olis.  .  .. 
Columbus  to  Madison  
Columbus  to  Cambridge  C'ity  
Muncie  to  Illinois  state  line  
Evansville  and  Bellefontaine.  O  
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  Chicago,  111  
Logansport  and  Terre  Haute  
New  Albany  and  Michigan  City  
New  Albany  and  Mt.  Vernon,  111  
Detroit,  Mich.,  and  Chicago,  111  
Lake  Station  to  Joliet,  111  
Cincinnati,  O.,  and  St.  Louis,  Mo  

Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis  
Indianapolis  and  Vincennes 

Jeftersonville,  Madison,  and  Indianapolis  
Branches        ....                                   < 

Lafayette,  Muncie,  and  Bloomington  
Lake  Erie,  Evansville.  and  Southwestern  
Lake  Shore  and  Michitran  Southern  
Logansport,  Crawfordsville,  and  Southwestern  . 
Louisville,  New  Albany,  and  Chicago  
Louisville,  New  Albany,  and  St.  Louis  Air  Line. 
Michigan  Central                  

Joliet  and  Northern  Indiana 

Ohio  and  Mississippi  

8.806,680 

4,909,155 

Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  

Divisions                 .  .    .   -{ 

Columbus,  O.,  to  Indianapolis 

73 

iss 

Columbus,  0.,  to  Chicago,  111  
Union  to  Logansport  
Logansport  to  Illinois  line  
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  Chicago,  111  
St.  Louis.  Mo.,  and  Nashville,  Tenn  . 
Indianapolis  to  Illinois  line  
Toledo.  O..  and  Camp  Point,  111...  . 

196 
91 
59 
156 
28 
79 
166 
62 

814 

4<B 
316 

454 

204,496 
1,586.665 
8,046.823 

3<>:\406 

Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  

Terre  Haute  and  Indianapolis  
Toledo,  Wabash.  and  Western  

White  Water  Valley 

Harrison,  O.,  and  Hagerstown  

The  Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  the  longest  in  the 
United  States,  connecting  the  Maumee  river  at 
Toledo  with  Evansville  on  the  Ohio,  407  m., 
has  374  in.  of  its  course  in  Indiana,  and  passes 
through  Fort  Wayne,  Huntington,  Wabash,  Pe 
ru,  Logansport,  Delphi,  Lafayette,  Attica,  Cov- 
ington,  Montezuma,  Terre  Haute,  Bloomfield, 


and  Petersburg.  The  Whitewater  canal  ex 
tends  from  Lawrenceburg  on  the  Ohio  to  Ha 
gerstown,  75  m.,  and  takes  in  its  course  Brooks- 
ville,  Connersville,  and  Cambridge.  These 
canals  are  little  used  now.  In  1873  the  state 
contained  6,943  miles  of  telegraph,  the  as 
sessed  value  of  which  was  $807,874.  There 


236 


INDIANA 


were  125  foreign  insurance  companies  doing 
business  in  the'state;  their  gross  receipts  for 
the  six  months  ending  July  1,  1873,  amount 
ed  to  $1,169,413;  losses  paid,  $608,950;  tax 
paid,  $17,498.  There  were  92  national  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  paid-in  capital  of  $17,611,- 
800,  and  an  outstanding  circulation  of  $14,536,- 
015.  The  bank  circulation  of  the  state  was 
$14,706,415,  being  $8  75  per  capita  and  T2 
per  cent,  of  the  wealth  of  the  state ;  ratio  of 
circulation  to  capital,  81-9.  The  total  number 


of  manufacturing  establishments  in  1870  was 
11,847,  using  2,881  steam  engines  of  76,851 
horse  power  and  1,090  water  wheels  of  23,518 
horse  power,  and  employing  58,852  hands,  of 
whom  54,412  were  males  above  16  years  of 
age,  2,272  females  above  15,  and  2,168  youths. 
The  capital  invested  amounted  to  $52,052,- 
425;  wages  paid  during  the  year,  $18,366,780; 
value  of  materials  consumed,  $63,135,492;  of 
products,  $108,617,278.  The  chief  industries 
are  exhibited  in  the  following  table: 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 
establish 
ments. 

Steam 
engines, 
horsa 
power. 

Water 

wheels, 
horse 
power. 

Handi 
employed. 

Capital. 

Wages. 

Materials. 

Products. 

Agricultural  implements  
Boots  and  shoes  

124 

988 

860 

165 

1.268 
2,702 

$1,622,769 

842,497 

$484,526 
651,750 

$951,714 
1,094,977 

$2,128,794 
2,6;)9  114 

Carpentering  and  building  
Carriages  and  \va<rons 

995 

770 

216 
380 

285 

2,893 
3.325 

541,720 
2,196  4^5 

758,847 
1,034  146 

1.501,329 
1  276  ->33 

3,448,959 
3  616  068 

Cars,  freight  and  passenger  
Clothing,  men's 

10 

229 

876 

1.403 
1  531 

625.333 
76i),309 

834,124 

498  850 

1.639,840 
1  2S9  782 

2.577,72§ 
2  261  374 

Cooperate 

357 

2."3 

1  80S 

611  037 

584241 

950  743 

1  421  878 

Flouring  and  grist-mill  products.  . 
Furniture,  not  specified  
Iron,  forged  and  rolled  

962 
319 
9 

1(5.676 
1  ,500 
3,250 

13,667 
512 

8,214 

2,7SO 
989 

8,515,627 
2,340,373 
1,588,OHO 

890,717 
1,110.600 
529,203 

20,602.231 
1.267,081 
1,984,668 

25,371,322 
3.463,270 

2,845,005 

"     castings,  not  specified  
Leather,  tanned  
u         curried 

4 
96 
197 
153 

1,725 
96(5 
535 
147 

'253 
5 

189 
949 
514 
819 

425,000 
1,281,5=2 
875,740 
303810 

15.),400 

470,733 
142.468 
84  '981 

825.435 
1,619,851 

905,347 
909  778 

1,191,834 

2,592,908 
1,310,242 
1  151  307 

Liquors,  distilled  

3(5 

703 

30 

2SO 

653,838 

126.150 

1.35S.196 

2  038,420 

malt  

Lumber  planed 

99 
85 

358 

1  7S3 

35 
12S 

443 

638 

1,117,400 
796  677 

175,730 

242  579 

627,576 

795  051 

1,315,116 
1  374  104 

"         sawed  
Machinery,  not  specified  
"         st'm  engines  and  boilers. 
Pork  packed  
Saddlery  and  harness 

1,861 
62 
83 
11 
436 

34,696 
761 

632 

179 

5303 
127 

9.446 
1.148 

1,003 
452 
1  333 

5.975.746 
1,047,376 
1.352,716 
1.598,000 
6  '5  6>0 

1,901,612 

628,774 
578,C53 
92.862 
321  212 

5,5C3,985 
652,089 
1.359,104 
2,262.737 
806003 

12,324,755 
1.493,694 
2,337.330 
2,780,021 
1  654341 

Bash,  doors,  and  blinds  
Tin.  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware.  . 
Woollen  ""oods 

59 
322 
146 

1,212 
2713 

165 
1  138 

640 
996 
2395 

6C3,650 
751,005 
3  770  513 

291,836 
275,017 
717  176 

530,004 
620,560 
2  595  604 

1,OS9,404 
1,293,206 
4  212  737 

— The  constitution  of  Indiana  is  dated  Feb.  10, 
1851,  and  superseded  that  of  June  29,  1816. 
Every  male  citizen  21  years  of  age,  and  who 
has  resided  in  the  state  six  months,  possesses 
the  right  of  voting.  The  general  assembly  con 
sists  of  a  senate  of  50  members  elected  for  four 
years,  one  half  every  second  year,  and  a  house 
of  representatives  of  100  members  elected  for 
two  years.  The  legislative  sessions  are  biennial, 
beginning  on  the  Thursday  after  the  first  Mon 
day  of  January  in  odd  years.  Members  of  the 
legislature  receive  $8  a  day  during  the  ses 
sion.  The  governor  and  lieutenant  governor 
are  elected  for  four  years  ;  the  former  has 
a  salary  of  $8,000  a  year.  The  other  chief 
state  officers  are  the  secretary  of  state,  salary 
$2,000;  auditor,  $2,500;  treasurer,  $3,000; 
attorney  general,  $3,000;  and  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  $2,000.  These  officials 
are  elected  for  a  term  of  t\vo  years.  A  ma 
jority  vote  of  each  house  is  sufficient  to  pass 
a  bill  over  the  veto  of  the  executive.  The 
state  election  is  held  on  the  second  Tuesday  of 
October  in  even  years.  The  judicial  power  is 
vested  in  a  supreme,  a  circuit,  and  a  superior 
court.  The  supreme  court  consists  of  five 
judges,  who  are  elected  by  the  people  "for  a 
term  of  six  years,  and  receive  an  annual  salary 
of  $4,000  each.  The  state  is  divided  into  five 
supreme  judicial  districts  and  38  circuit  dis 
tricts.  Each  of  the  38  circuit  judges  receives 


an  annual  salary  of  $2,500 ;  they  are  elected  by 
the  people  for  a  term  of  six  years.  A  superior 
court  of  three  judges  elected  for  four  years 
may  be  established  in  any  county  containing  a 
city  of  40,000  inhabitants;  the  only  one  yet 
established  is  in  Marion  co.,  of  which  Indian 
apolis  is  the  chief  city.  Special  criminal  cir 
cuit  courts  are  provided  for  seven  counties  of 
the  state :  Allen,  Floyd,  Clark,  Marion,  Tippe- 
canoe,  Vanderburgh,  and  Vigo.  The  officers 
elected  by  the  people  in  each  county  are,  a  clerk 
of  circuit  court,  auditor,  recorder,  treasurer, 
sheriff,  coroner,  and  surveyor — the  first  three 
for  four  years,  and  the  others  for  two  years. 
Justices  of  the  peace  are  elected  in  each  town 
ship  for  four  years.  Indiana  is  represented  in 
congress  by  two  senators  and  13  representatives, 
and  has  therefore  15  votes  in  the  electoral  col 
lege.  The  system  of  granting  divorces  in  Indi 
ana,  which  had  attracted  wide  attention  on  ac 
count  of  its  elasticity,  was  amended  in  1873  and 
made  somewhat  more  stringent.  The  causes  of 
divorce  under  the  new  law  are :  1,  adultery, 
except  in  certain  specified  cases ;  2,  impotency 
existing  at  the  time  of  the  marriage ;  -3,  aban 
donment  for  t\vo  years ;  4,  cruel  and  inhuman 
treatment  of  either  party  by  the  other ;  5,  ha 
bitual  drunkenness  of  either  party,  or  the  fail 
ure  of  the  husband  to  make  reasonable  provi 
sion  for  the  family  ;  6,  the  failure  of  the  hus 
band  to  make  reasonable  provision  for  his  fam- 


INDIANA 


237 


ily  for  a  period  of  two  years ;  7,  the  conviction 
of  either  party  subsequent  to  the  marriage,  in 
any  country,  of  an  infamous  crime.     Divorces 
may  be  decreed  by  the  circuit  or  superior  court 
on  petition  of  a  person  who  is  and  has  been  a 
bona  fide  resident  of  the  state  for  the  prece 
ding  two  years,  and  of  the  county  for  at  least 
six  months;   such  residence  to  be  proved  by 
the  oath  of  the  petitioner  and  the  testimony 
of  at  least  two  witnesses  who   are  resident 
freeholders    and    householders   of    the   state. 
Murder,    treason,    and   killing   in   a   duel   are 
capital  offences,  punishable  with  death.     Mar 
riage  between   negroes  and  white  persons  is 
declared  a  misdemeanor,  the  penalty  of  which 
is  imprisonment  from  one  to  ten  years.     By 
act   of   1873  women  are  declared  eligible   to 
any  office  the  election  or  appointment  to  which 
is  vested  in  the  general  assembly  or  the  gov 
ernor.     The  state  debt  on  Nov.  1,  1873,  was 
$4,898,057,  including  $3,904,733  domestic  and 
$994,030  foreign  debt.     The  receipts  into  the 
state  treasury  during  the  preceding  year  were 
$2,875,449,  and  the  disbursements,  including 
several   extraordinary  items,  $3,445,298.     Of 
the  receipts,  $438,191   were  from  state  reve 
nue,  $1,372,993  from  the  common  school  fund, 
$190,603  from  public  institutions,  and  $1,524,- 
545   from  miscellaneous    sources.     The  most 
important  items  of  expenditure  were  $1,361,- 
841  for  common  schools,  $1,193,442  on  account 
of  public  debt,  $352,576  for  benevolent  insti 
tutions,  $296,180  for  reformatory  institutions, 
$289,934  for  ordinary  expenses,  and  $278,373 
for  legislative  expenses.     The  state  tax  was  15 
cents  on  the  $100  for  general  purposes,  and  16 
cents  for  schools.     The  total  valuation  of  real 
and  personal  property   was   $279,032,209  in 
1856,  $578,484,109   in   1866,   $662,283,178  in 
1870,  and  $950,467,854  in  1873,  the  last  inclu 
ding  personal  property  to  the  extent  of  $247,- 
146,331. — The    public    institutions    supported 
entirely  or  in  part  by  the  state  are  the  hospi 
tal  for  the  insane,  the  institution  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  the  institution  for  the  blind 
in  Indianapolis,  house  of  refuge  at  Plainfield, 
soldiers'  home  at  Knightstown,  northern  state 
prison  at  Michigan  City,  southern  state  prison 
at  Jeffersonville,   reformatory  institution  for 
women  and  girls  in  Indianapolis,  normal  school 
in  Terre  Haute,  state  university  at  Blooming- 
ton,  and  agricultural  college  at  Lafayette.    The 
state  hospital  for  the  insane,  which  was  opened  j 
in  1848,  had  474  inmates  at  the  close  of  1873;  | 
during  the  year  320  were  admitted  and  314 
discharged.     The  current  expenditures  for  the 
year  amounted  to   $155,470.     The  institution 
for  educating  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  open  to  all 
persons  of  that  class  in  the  state  between  the 
ages  of   10   and  21   years,  free  of  charge  for 
board  and  tuition.     It  is  not  an  asylum,  but  an 
educational  institution,  and  comprises  a  man 
ual  labor  department.     In  1873  there  were  14 
instructors  and  331  pupils;  the  total  disburse 
ments  on  account  of  the  institution  amounted 
to  $73,632.     The  institute  for  the  education  of 


the  blind  is  also  strictly  educational,  and  is  de 
signed  for  the  benefit  of  those  between  9  and 
j  21  years  of  age.  At  the  close  of  1873,  106 
I  pupils  were  receiving  instruction  from  11 
teachers ;  the  resources  of  the  institute  during 
the  year  amounted  to  $42,174,  and  the  expen 
ditures  to  $39,793.  The  house  of  refuge,  open 
to  boys  not  exceeding  16  years  of  age,  com 
prises  a  farm  of  225  acres,  a  chair  factory,  and 
a  tailor  shop.  The  number  of  inmates  at  the 
beginning  of  1874  was  216;  the  total  expendi 
tures  for  the  preceding  year  amounted  to  $56,- 
244,  including  $10,497  for  buildings  and  im 
provements.  This  institution  is  conducted  on 
the  "family  system,"  the  inmates  being  divi 
ded  into  families  of  about  50  each.  The  plan 
of  the  soldiers'  orphans'  home  comprises  edu 
cational  and  industrial  features.  At  the  close 
of  1873  the  number  of  inmates  was  285  ;  the 
cost  of  the  institution  for  the  year  was  $32,- 
448.  In  the  two  state  prisons  of  Indiana  the 
convicts  are  employed  in  different  branches  of 
industry,  prominent  among  which  is  the  manu 
facture  of  agricultural  implements  and  railroad 
cars.  The  convicts  receive  regular  instruction 
in  the  ordinary  English  branches,  and  also 
have  the  use  of  a  library.  The  number  of  con 
victs  in  the  northern  prison  at  the  close  of 
1873  was  368;  the  total  receipts  of  the  prison 
for  the  year  were  $57,465,  of  which  $50,069 
was  for  labor;  the  expenditures  amounted  to 
$49,743.  The  average  number  of  convicts  in 
the  southern  state  prison  was  395.  The  or 
dinary  expenses  of  the  prison  for  the  year 
amounted  to  $66,806,  and  the  total  receipts 
from  convict  labor  and  all  other  sources  to 
$67,088.  Of  the  751  convicts  in  both  institu 
tions  at  the  beginning  of  1874,  86  had  been 
committed  for  murder,  18  for  manslaughter, 
413  for  grand  larceny,  and  21  for  forgery ;  57 
were  under  sentence  for  life,  and  14  for  21 
years.  The  Indiana  reformatory  institution  for 
women  and  girls,  which  has  penal  and  refor 
matory  departments,  was  opened  in  Septem 
ber,  1873.  Of  the  21  females  in  the  penal  de 
partment  at  the  beginning  of  1874,  5  were  un 
der  sentence  for  murder,  1  for  manslaughter,  1 
for  forgery,  and  the  remainder  for  larceny. — 
The  educational  interests  of  the  state  are  un 
der  the  general  supervision  of  the  state  board 
of  education,  which  comprises  the  governor, 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the 
presidents  of  the  state  university  and  the  nor 
mal  school,  and  the  school  superintendents  of 
the  three  largest  cities  in  the  state.  The  more 
immediate  management  of  the  common  schools 
is  vested  in  a  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  in  county  superintendents,  and  in 
trustees  who  have  the  general  charge  of  educa 
tional  affairs  in  cities  and  towns.  The  oppor 
tunity  for  obtaining  a  common  school  educa 
tion  without  charge  for  tuition  is  afforded  to 
all  persons  between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years; 
separate  schools,  however,  are  provided  for  ne 
groes,  who  are  not  allowed  to  attend  schools 
designed  for  white  persons.  Teachers  must  bo 


238 


INDIANA 


examined  and  receive  certificates.  The  perma 
nent  common  school  fund  of  Indiana  in  1874 
was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  state  in  the 
Union;  it  amounted  to  $8,616,931,  which  yield 
ed  an  annual  interest  of  $189,455.  This  fund 
consists  of  a  productive  portion  comprising  the 
congressional  township,  the  saline,  the  surplus 
revenue,  the  bank  tax,  and  the  sinking  funds ; 
a  contingent  portion  embracing  the  proceeds 
of  tines,  forfeitures,  escheats,  swamp  lands,  and 
taxes  on  corporations;  and  a  non-productive 
portion  comprising  the  sixteenth  sections  (17,- 
882  acres)  of  the  public  lands  remaining  un 
sold.  Besides  these  sources  of  revenue,  a  prop 
erty  tax  of  16  cents  on  the  $100  and  a  poll 
tax  are  levied  for  school  purposes.  The  in 
come  from  state  taxes  in  1873  was  $1,190,626, 
besides  $530,667  from  local  taxation.  The  in 
come  from  all  sources  amounted  to  $2,276,569, 
being  an  increase  of  $165,581  over  that  of  the 
preceding  year.  The  entire  school  population 
in  1872  was  640,332;  the  total  enrollment 
465,154,  of  whom  13,895  were  in  high  schools; 
and  the  average  attendance  298,851.  Schools 
were  open  in  9,008  districts,  the  average  length 
throughout  the  state  being  5J  months.  There 
were  employed  12,056  teachers,  of  whom  a 
majority  were  males.  The  total  valuation  of 
school  property  in  1872  was  $9,199,480.  The 
normal  school  was  organized  in  1867,  and  in 

1873  had   12   instructors  and  356  pupils,  of 
whom  228  were  in  the  normal  and  128  in  the 
model  school.     The  full  course  occupies  three 
years.     The  state  university  was  opened  as  a 
college  in  1824,  and  became  a  university  in 
1839.     It   comprises  a  collegiate,  a  medical, 
and  a  law  department,  in  each  of  which  tuition 
is  free.     A  department  of  military  science  and 
civil  engineering  is  connected  with  the  colle 
giate   department.     Women   are   admitted  to 
the  collegiate  course.     In  1874  the  university 
had  28  instructors,  of  whom  12  were  in  the 
medical  and  2  in  the  law  department,  and  371 
pupils,  including  108  in  the  medical  and  41  in 
the  law  department.     The  390,000  acres  of  land 
granted  by  congress  to  Indiana  for  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  college   of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts   have   been   sold   for  $212,238, 
which  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  support  of  Pur 
due  university.     This  institution  was  founded 
at  Lafayette  by  Mr.  John  Purdue,  a  resident  of 
that  city,  who  gave  $150,000  for  the  purpose. 
There  are  more  than  200  acres  of  land  con 
nected  with  the  institution.    Among  the  largest 
of  the  institutions  of  learning  not  connected 
with   the   state   are   the   university  of    Notre 
Dame  (Roman  Catholic)  at  Notre  Dame,  St. 
Joseph  co.,  and  the  Northwestern  Christian  uni 
versity  (Disciples')  in  Indianapolis.     The  for 
mer  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course  of 
four  years  each,  and  a  commercial  course  of 
two  years.     It  was  organized  in  1842,  and  in 

1874  had  15  professors,  16  other  instructors, 
and  441  pupils.     The  Northwestern  Christian 
university,   organized  in   1854,   comprises  an 
academic  department  which  affords  a  classical 


*  n 

f, 

e 

NAME. 

Location. 

n 

I 

a 

I! 

a& 

C 

I 

Is 

Salem  college  

Bourbon  

1870 

Q 

Wabash  college  
Concordia  college  ...   . 

Crawfordsville.  . 
Fort  Wayne  

1834 
1850 

6 

231 

169 

12.0CO 

3,000 

Fort  Wayne  college  .    . 
Franklin  college  

t.                     41 

Franklin....'"! 

1846!  7 
1872    4 

173 
84 

i',666 

Hanover  college 

Hanover 

1833  10  184. 

7000 

Hartsville  university  . 

Hartsville  

1854    9 

117 

600 

Howard  college  

Kokomo    . 

1869 

4 

69 

Union  Christian  college 
Moore's  Hill  college  .  .  . 

Merom  

185s 
1854 

8 

162 
142 

400 
350 

Moore's  Hill.  .  .  . 

St.  Meinrad's  college.  . 

St.  Meinrad  

1860 

9 

52 

4,000 

Smitkson  college  

Logansport  

1871 

and  a  scientific  course,  a  business,  and  a  law 
department.  In  1873  there  were  13  instruc 
tors  and  265  students.  The  Indiana  Asbury 
university  (Methodist),  at  Greencastle,  has  pre 
paratory,  collegiate  and  law  courses.  (See 
GREENCASTLE.)  Earlham  college  (Friends')  was 
founded  at  Richmond  in  1859,  and  in  1873  had 
in  its  collegiate  and  preparatory  departments 
11  instructors  and  222  students,  with  3,500 
volumes  in  the  library.  Other  prominent 
colleges  of  the  state  are  represented  in  the 
following  table : 


Special  instruction  in  science  is  afforded  at 
Purdue  university  and  St.  Meinrad's  college; 
in  theology  at  Hartsville  university  (United 
Brethren) ;  in  law  at  the  Indiana  university, 
the  Northwestern  Christian  college,  and  the 
university  of  Notre  Dame;  and  in  medicine 
by  the  medical  department,  in  Indianapolis,  of 
the  state  university.  Prominent  among  insti 
tutions  for  the  superior  instruction  of  females 
are  St.  Mary's  academy  at  Notre  Dame, 
Logansport  female  college  at  Logansport,  Mo 
ravian  seminary  for  young  ladies  at  Logans- 
port,  De  Pauw  college  at  New  Albany,  and  the 
Indianapolis  female  institute  in  Indianapolis. 
According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  total 
number  of  educational  institutions  in  Indiana 
was  9,073,  with  11,652  teachers,  of  whom 
4,974  were  females,  and  464,477  pupils.  The 
income  from  all  sources  for  educational  pur 
poses  amounted  to  $2,499,511,  of  which  $50,620 
was  from  endowment,  $2,126,502  from  taxa 
tion  and  public  funds,  and  $322,389  from  tui 
tion  and  other  sources.  Included  in  the  above 
were  8,871  public  schools,  with  11,042  teachers 
and  446,076  pupils,  16  colleges  with  143  teachers 
and  3,102  pupils,  16  academies  with  125  teachers 
and  3,580  pupils,  and  124  private  schools  Avith 
201  teachers  and  6,296  pupils.  The  total  num 
ber  of  libraries  was  5,301,  containing  1,125,553 
volumes;  of  these,  2,968  with  497,659  volumes 
were  private,  and  2,333  with  627,894  other 
than  private,  including  20  circulating  libraries 
containing  8,248.  The  most  important  libraries 
are  the  state  library  in  Indianapolis,  which  has 
15,000  volumes;  that  of  Wabash  college,  12,- 
000;  university  of  Notre  Dame,  12,000;  Whit- 
comb  and  college  circulating  library  at  Green- 
castle,  9,000;  Hanover  college,  at  Hanover, 
7,000;  state  university  at  Bloomington,  6,000; 


INDIANA 


239 


and  Northwestern  Christian  university  in  In 
dianapolis,  5,000.  The  census  of  1870  report 
ed  293  newspapers  and  periodicals,  having  an 
aggregate  circulation  of  363,542  and  issuing 
29,964,984  copies  annually.  There  were  20 
daily,  with  a  circulation  of  42,300 ;  3  tri- week 
ly,  with  2,200;  1  semi-weekly,  with  350;  233 
weekly,  with  239,342;  6  semi-monthly,  with 
9,200;  28  monthly,  with  04,150;  and  2  bi 
monthly,  with  0,000.  The  statistics  of  church 
es  were  as  follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

OrK3iiiza- 
ti.  ns. 

Edifices. 

Sittings. 

Value  of 
property. 

Baptist   regular 

522 
63 
455 
18 
49 
47 
81 
5 
195 
1,403 
2 

1 

333 
42 

2 

34 

204 
1 
184 

IS 
4 

3.61)8 

476 
45 
877 
12 
88 
40 
76 
4 
ISO 
1,121 
2 

1 
315 

42 

2 

33 

201 

12i 
15 
5 

135,575 
16.800 
122,755 
4,800 
10,300 
10,925 
29,500 
1,900 
62.2S5 
346,125 
050 

100 
116.560 
12,400 

500 

s.sso 

86,830 

33.975 

6.300 
1,200 

$1,047.625 
89,700 
810,875 
119.900 
492,500 
124,000 
263,800 
113,000 
619,600 
8,291,427 
5,000 

4.000 
2,006,550 
71,550 

8,200 

97.300 
2,511,700 

1S8,6()6 
73,400 
3,500 

Baptist,  other  

Christian  ... 

Congregational 

Episcopal,  Protestant  
Evangelical  Association  
Friends  
Jewish  
Lutheran  

Methodist  Episcopal  
Moravian  (Unitas  Fratrum). 
New  Jerusalem  (Swedenbor- 
gian) 

Presbyterian,  reg-ular  
Presbyterian,  other  
Reformed  church  in  America 
(late  Dutch  Keformed)  
Reformed  church  in  the  Uni 
ted  States   (late    German 
Keformed)  
Koman  Catholic 

Unitarian  

United  Brethren  in  Christ.  . 
Universalist  
Unknown  (Union) 

Total  

3,106.1,008,880 

$11,942,227 

— Indiana  originally  constituted  a  part  of  New 
France,  and  subsequently  of  the  Northwest 
territory.  The  exact  period  of  its  first  set 
tlement  is  not  ascertained.  In  1702  a  party 
of  French  Canadians  descended  the  Wabash, 
and  established  several  posts  on  its  banks,  and 
among  others  Vincennes.  The  Indians  made 
little  opposition  to  the  new  comers.  Until 
1703,  when  the  country  was  ceded  to  the 
English,  nothing  is  known  of  the  early  settlers. 
By  the  treaty  of  cession,  however,  they  were 
confirmed  in  their  possessions.  The  treaty  of 
1783  included  Indiana  in  the  United  States. 
In  1788  an  Indian  war  broke  out,  which  caused 
great  distress  at  Vincennes.  In  1791  the  In 
dians  were  attacked  at  tho  mouth  of  the  Tippe- 
canoe  by  Gen.  Wilkinson,  and  by  the  subse 
quent  victories  of  Gen.  Wayne  a  dangerous 
confederacy  was  broken  up  and  the  tribes  were 
obliged  to  submit.  The  whole  district  now 
began  to  enjoy  that  repose  of  which  it  had 
been  for  many  years  deprived.  By  the  treaty 
of  Greenville  in  1795  the  United  States  ob 
tained  several  eligible  parcels  of  land,  and  set 
tlement  began  to  make  considerable  progress. 
On  May  7,  1800,  Ohio  was  erected  into  a  sepa 
rate  territory,  while  all  the  country  W.  and  N. 
was  included  in  the  newr  government  of  Indiana. 
The  territorial  government  was  organized  July 
4,  with  William  Henry  Harrison  as  governor.  In 
TOL.  ix. — 10 


1805  Michigan-  was  also  set  off,  and  in  1809 
Illinois,  leaving  Indiana  with  its  present  limits. 
In  all  this  period,  however,  the  Indians  had 
been  troublesome,  and  greatly  impeded  settle 
ment.  Nevertheless  the  census  of  1810  showed 
a  fair  increase,  the  population  in  that  year 
amounting  to  24,520  souls.  In  1811  the  gen 
eral  government  determined  to  exert  its  power 
against  the  savages,  who,  excited  and  exas 
perated  by  the  eloquence  of  Tecumseh,  a  leader 
of  the  Shawnees,  and  the  most  extraordinary 
man  that  had  ever  appeared  among  them,  had 
committed  grievous  depredations.  A  force  of 
regulars  and  militia  was  assembled  at  Vin 
cennes  and  placed  under  the  command  of  Wil 
liam  Henry  Harrison,  then  governor.  On  Nov. 
0  of  the  same  year  the  governor  appeared  be 
fore  Prophetstown  or  Tippecanoe  on  the  Wa 
bash,  and  demanded  restitution  of  the  property 
which  the  Indians  had  carried  off.  After  a 
conference  it  was  agreed  that  hostilities  should 
not  commence  until  next  morning,  that  an 
amicable  arrangement  might  be  made ;  but  in 
violation  of  this  armistice  the  Americans  were 
attacked  before  daybreak  by  a  large  body  of 
savages.  Gov.  Harrison,  however,  knowing 
the  character  of  the  enemy,  had  so  disposed 
his  troops  as  not  to  be  taken  by  surprise.  The 
combat  that  ensued,  though  short,  was  unusu 
ally  severe ;  the  Indians  fought  with  desperate 
courage,  but  could  not  withstand  the  superiority 
of  the  forces  arrayed  against  them,  and  the  fate 
of  the  battle  was  soon  decided.  After  burning 
the  town  and  laying  waste  the  surrounding 
country,  the  victorious  army  returned  to  Vin 
cennes,  and  not  long  afterward  the  tribes  sued 
for  peace.  The  war  with  England  now  broke 
out,  and  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  Indian  hos 
tility  ;  but  again  the  savages  were  overwhelmed, 
and  after  the  close  of  the  war  in  1815  finally 
ceased  to  molest  or  trouble  the  settlers.  In 
December,  1815,  the  territorial  legislature  peti 
tioned  congress  for  admission  into  the  Union, 
and  the  privilege  of  forming  a  state  constitu 
tion.  A  bill  for  these  purposes  passed  con 
gress  in  April,  1810  ;  and  soon  after  a  conven 
tion  was  called,  which  on  June  29  ensuing 
adopted  the  first  constitution  of  Indiana.  On 
Dec.  11,  1810,  the  state  was  admitted  into  the 
Union.  A  more  rapid  immigration  ensued,  and 
continued  without  interruption;  and  though 
numbers  passed  westward  into  Illinois,  the 
new  state  retained  its  share.  In  1827  the  Erie 
canal  opened  an  outlet  for  the  produce  of  the 
west,  and  the  national  road  was  commenced. 
Both  these  circumstances  naturally  stimulated 
settlement ;  and  the  sales  of  land  so  rapidly  in 
creased  that  in  the  ten  years  ending  in  1830 
they  amounted  to  3,558,221  acres.  The  popu 
lation  in  the  same  year  was  343,031,  being  an 
increase  of  133*1  per  cent,  over  that  of  1820. 
Now  commenced  that  speculation  mania  which 
terminated  in  the  financial  revulsion  of  1837. 
In  1832  the  legislature  incorporated  eight  stock 
companies  for  constructing  railroads;  in  1833 
the  middle  section  of  the  Wabash  and  Erie 


240 


INDIANA 


INDIANAPOLIS 


canal  was  commenced,  and  in  .1834  the  state 
bank  with  ten  branches  was  incorporated,  to 
which  were  subsequently  added  three  other 
branches.  The  result  of  these  undertakings, 
and  others  into  which  the  state  entered,  was  a 
debt  amounting  to  $14,057,000  and  a  general 
bankruptcy.  But  in  the  ten  years  ending  in 
1840  the  population  had  doubled,  and  9,122,688 
acres  of  public  land  had  been  disposed  of  to 
individuals ;  but  none  of  the  great  works  had 
yet  been  completed.  For  the  next  six  or 
seven  years  little  progress  was  made,  and  in 
no  one  of  these  years  was  100,000  acres  of 
land  disposed  of.  In  1846  the  state  debt,  on 
which  no  interest  had  been  paid  since  1839, 
was  consolidated  and  arranged  into  two  classes, 
the  state  debt  proper  and  the  canal  debt;  and 
means  were  devised  for  paying  interest  on  the 
former.  Under  the  influence  of  this  scheme 
prosperity  returned.  In  1851  a  new  constitu 
tion  was  adopted,  and  in  1853  the  legislature 
passed  a  free  banking  law.  The  question  of 
holding  another  consti- 


White  river,  100  m.  N.  "W.  of  Cincinnati  and 
165  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Chicago,  in  lat.  39°  47'  N., 
Ion.  86°  6'  W.;  pop.  in  1840,  2,692;  in  1850, 
8,091;  in  1860,  18,611;  in  1870,  48,244,  of 
whom  10,657  were  foreigners  (5,286  Germans 
and  3,321  Irish)  and  2,931  colored.  The  num 
ber  of  families  was  9,200  ;  of  dwellings,  7,820. 
The  population  in  1874  was  estimated  by  local 
authorities  at  80,000.  The  city  is  built  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  plain,  chiefly  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  stream.  The  surrounding  country 
abounds  in  black  walnut,  and  in  the  vicinity 
is  an  extensive  coal  field.  The  streets  are  90 
ft.  wide,  except  Washington  street,  which  has 
a  width  of  120  ft.,  and  cross  each  other  at  right 
angles;  but  there  are  four  long  avenues  radia 
ting  from  a  central  square  and  traversing  the 
city  diagonally.  There  are  200  m.  of  improved 
streets,  most  of  them  being  gravelled,  but 
many  paved  with  stone  or  wood,  and  all  lighted 
with  gas.  A  system  of  sewerage  is  in  progress. 
|  The  river  is  crossed  by  nine  bridges  (three 


tutional  convention  was 
submitted  to  the  peo 
ple  in  1859,  when  the 
proposition  was  re 
jected. 

INDIANA,  a  W.  coun 
ty  of  Pennsylvania, 
bounded  S.  E.  by  Co- 
nemaugh  river  and 
drained  by  numerous 
small  streams ;  area, 
770  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  36,138.  It  has 
a  hilly  surface,  well 
timbered,  chiefly  with 
white  pine,  and  abounds 
in  iron  ore  and  bitu 
minous  coal.  The  soil 
is  moderately  fertile. 
The  Pennsylvania  canal 
passes  along  the  S. 
boundary,  and  a  branch 
of  the  Central  railroad 

extends  to  the  county  seat.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  308,183  bushels  of  wheat, 
97,550  of  rye,  652,263  of  Indian  corn,  906,255 
of  oats,  71,477  of  buckwheat,  77,367  of  pota 
toes,  125,891  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,100,925  of  butter, 
and  38,749  tons  of  hay.  There  were  11,586 
horses,  12,061  milch  cows,  13,844  other  cattle, 
44,054  sheep,  and  17,412  swine;  10  manufac 
tories  of  agricultural  implements,  9  of  brick, 
14  of  carriages,  3  of  clothing,  15  of  furniture, 
10  of  iron  castings,  1  of  machinery,  4  of  mar 
ble  and  stone  work,  2  of  paper,  13  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  2  of  salt,  4  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  11  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
8  of  woollen  goods,  8  flour  mills,  28  tanneries, 
19  currying  establishments,  4  planing  mills, 
and  26  saw  mills.  Capital,  Indiana. 

IXDIAXAPOLIS,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of 
Indiana,  seat  of  justice  of  Marion  co.,  situated 
near  the  centre  of  the  state,  on  the  AV.  fork  of 


(HI  i 


State  Hou&e  in  Indianapolis. 

for  railroad  purposes),  of  which  all  except  the 
old  "  national  road  "  bridge  are  of  iron.  Two 
others  are  to  be  constructed.  Street  cars  ac 
commodate  local  travel.  There  are  seven 
parks,  viz. :  the  Circle,  in  the  centre,  contain 
ing  4  acres  and  ornamented  with  shade  trees  ; 
the  state  house  park,  10  acres;  military  park, 
18  acres;  university  park,  4  acres;  the  trot 
ting  or  southern  park,  with  a  course  of  one 
mile,  86  acres ;  a  park  in  the  N.  portion  of  the 
city,  embracing  100  acres;  and  the  state  fair 
grounds,  with  exposition  building,  containing 
40  acres.  Greenbaum  cemetery  is  within  the 
city  limits,  and  is  coeval  with  the  city  itself ;  2 
m.  N.  of  the  city  is  Crown  Hill,  which  is  hand 
somely  laid  out  and  tastefully  adorned  ;  and  the 
Catholic  cemetery  is  just  S.  of  the  city  limits. 
The  state  house,  in  the  Doric  style,  erected  in 
1835,  is  180  ft.  long  by  80  ft.  wide,  with  a  colon 
nade  and  dome.  The  state  institute  for  the 


INDIANAPOLIS 


blind  was  erected  in  1847  at  a  cost  of  $300,000 ; 
the  grounds  contain  eight  acres.  The  main 
building  has  a.  front  of  150  ft.  and  is  five  sto 
ries  high,  consisting  of  a  centre  and  two  wings, 
each  surmounted  by  a  Corinthian  cupola,  the 
centre  also  having  an  Ionic  portico.  The  state 
lunatic  asylum,  1-^  m.  "W.  of  the  city  limits, 
was  erected  in  1848,  and  has  since  been  twice 
enlarged,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $850,000. 
The  principal  building  has  accommodations 
for  525  patients;  the  grounds  embrace  100 
acres,  a  portion  of  which  is  handsomely  laid 
out  and  adorned.  The  state  institute  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  just  E.  of  the  city  limits,  was 
also  erected  in  1848,  and  cost  $220,000.  The 
grounds  comprise  105  acres,  and  immediately 
around  the  buildings  are  handsomely  laid  out, 
and  adorned  with  trees  and  shrubbery.  The 
United  States  arsenal,  1  m.  E.  of  the  city,  is 
a  handsome  building,  and  is  surrounded  by 
grounds  containing  75  acres.  The  union  pas 
senger  depot,  at  which  all  the  railroads  con 
verge,  is  420  ft.  long,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
spacious  and  convenient  structures  of  the  kind 
in  the  country.  Other  prominent  public  build 
ings  are  the  post  office,  governor's  residence 
(occupied  by  public  offices),  court  house,  coun 
ty  jail,  city  hall,  city  prison,  academy  of  mu 
sic,  odd  fellows'  hall,  masonic  hall,  and  several 
of  the  churches.  A  new  court  house,  costing 
about  $800,000,  is  nearly  completed,  and  the 
erection  of  a  new  state  house,  to  cost  about 
$4,000,000,  has  been  authorized  by  the  legisla 
ture.  The  city  has  railroad  connection  with 
all  parts  of  the  state  and  with  the  principal  cit 
ies  of  the  west.  The  lines  centring  here  are 
10  in  number,  viz. :  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton, 
and  Indianapolis ;  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cincin 
nati,  and  Indianapolis;  Indianapolis,  Bloom- 
ington,  and  Western ;  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati, 
and  Lafayette ;  Indianapolis,  Peru,  and  Chica 
go  ;  Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis ;  Indianapolis 
and  Vincennes ;  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St. 
Louis ;  St.  Louis,  Vandalia,  Terre  Haute,  and 
Indianapolis  ;  and  Jeffersonville,  Madison,  and 
Indianapolis.  The  Indiana  and  Illinois  Central 
railroad  is  rapidly  approaching  completion,  and 
a  belt  line,  encircling  the  city  and  connecting 
all  the  other  lines,  is  in  progress.  The  number 
of  passenger  trains  daily  leaving  and  arriving 
is  78.  The  number  of  freight  cars  forwarded 
in  1873  was  290,314;  received,  286,820.  The 
first  impulse  to  the  growth  of  Indianapolis  was 
the  completion  of  the  Madison  railroad  in  1847. 
The  civil  war  concentrated  a  vast  temporary 
business  here,  the  effects  of  which  were  large 
ly  permanent.  The  trade  is  extensive,  the  ag 
gregate  sales  of  merchandise  in  1873  amount 
ing  to  $50,830,000.  The  sales  in  1870  were 
$30,900,102;  in  1871,  $41,851,057;  in  1872, 
$49,774,7^9.  There  is  a  large  grain  elevator 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  river,  erected  in  1873  ; 
several  smaller  ones  have  been  in  operation  for 
some  years.  The  sales  of  real  estate  in  1871 
amounted  to  $7,995,513  ;  in  1872,  to  $10,320,- 
450;  and  in  1«73,  to  $32,579,253.  More  than 


half  of  the  purchases  have  been  for  occupancy. 
The  total  cost  of  buildings  erected  in  1873  was 
about  $5,000,000.  The  manufactures  are  va 
ried  and  important.  The  amount  of  capital 
invested  in  1873  was  $11,000,000;  number  of 
hands  employed,  8,175;  value  of  products, 
$28,012,740.  The  statistics  of  the  principal 
branches  are  contained  in  the  following  table  : 


MANUFACTURES. 

Capital,    i 

Hands. 

ProJucti. 

Agricultural  implements 

$400  000 

135 

*955  000 

]>akery  products 

44  500  ' 

% 

802  700 

Brewery  products  
Carriages     

125,000 
955  000 

45 
310 

317.000 
897  000 

Cars  

250,000 

150 

125000 

Clothing  

190  000 

301 

787  000 

Confectionery 

108  000  ' 

73 

317000 

Cotton  goods  
Flouring  mill  products 

100,000  ' 
C35  000  ! 

83 
96 

300.000 
1  926  000 

Furniture,  &c  

482,000  ' 

424 

850.000 

Glass  .            

135  000 

45 

250  000 

Ho0'  products 

2  000  000 

500 

7  614  000 

Iron  founderies  &  machine  shops. 
Iron  malleable 

878.000  : 
115000 

C33 

70 

1.421,000 
1  1750^0 

Iron,  rolling  mills  
Oils,  linseed,  lard,  and  lubricating. 
Pinning  mill  products  
Publishing  and  binding  
Pumps 

900,000 
156,000 
482,000 
600.000 
125000 

475 
36 
327 
900 
123 

1.5SO.GSO 

554.000 
879,000 
1,250.0CO 
292  000 

Saws  
Starch 

100,000 
25  000 

75 

67 

150.000 
100  Ol'O 

Sewing  machines  

160,000  ; 

200 

400.000 

Staves 

117  000 

235 

527  000 

Stoves  

185.000 

105 

388.000 

Tannery  products            .... 

78  000  ! 

22 

260  OHO 

Wheels 

250  000 

800 

fiOO'OOO 

"Woollens  

295,000 

118 

650,000 

The  number  of  hogs  slaughtered  was  555.700. 
The  value  of  manufactures  in  1872  was  $19,- 
671,832.  There  are  six  national  banks,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $3,000,000 ;  two  state 
banks,  with  $800,000  capital;  two  savings 
banks,  and  three  insurance  companies. — The 
city  is  divided  into  13  wards,  and  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  a  council  of  20  members. 
There  is  a  well  organized  fire  department  and 
an  efficient  police  force,  and  the  city  is  well 
supplied  with  water.  The  taxable  value  of 
property  in  1860  was  $10,000,000  ;  in  1805, 
$20,144,447;  in  1870,  $27,000,000;  in  1871, 
$27,999,170;  in  1872,  $34,700,871;  in  1873, 
$05,000,000,  the  large  increase  being  partly 
due  to  a  change  in  the  system  of  valuation. 
The  city  debt  is  about  $1,000,000,  and  the  rate 
of  taxation  $1  10  on  $100.  The  principal 
charitable  institutions  are  an  asylum  for  white 
orphans,  supported  partly  by  a  city  appropria 
tion,  and  partly  by  donations ;  an  asylum  for 
colored  orphans  and  a  "home  for  friendless 
women,"  supported  in  the  same  way ;  a  German 
orphan  asylum,  with  capacity  for  300  inmates ; 
a  Catholic  female  reformatory  and  asylum,  a 
Catholic  infirmary  for  gratuitous  relief  of  the 
suffering  poor,  two  societies  for  the  general 
care  of  the  poor,  a  large,  well  conducted  city 
hospital, .and  a  pest  house.  The  reformatory 
for  women  and  girls  and  prison  for  female  of 
fenders  occupies  a  commodious  structure  just 
E.  of  the  city.  The  Northwestern  Christian 
university,  chartered  in  1850,  occupies  a  hand 
some  Gothic  building  in  the  X.  E.  portion  of 


242 


INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO 


the  city ;  it  admits  both  sexes,  and  in  1872-'3 
had  13  professors  (3  in  the  law  school),  265 
students  (law  department,  10;  business  depart 
ment,  50),  and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes. 
The  medical  department  of  Indiana  university 
(with  which  is  connected  a  free  dispensary), 
situated  here,  was  organized  in  1869,  and  in 
1872-'3  had  12  professors  and  101  students. 
The  city  possesses  an  excellent  and  well  or 
ganized  system  of  public  schools,  embracing 
the  various  grades  from  primary  to  high  school, 
and  including  a  training  or  normal  school. 
There  are  20  school  buildings,  of  which  10 
will  accommodate  750  pupils  each.  The  high 
school  will  accommodate  550.  The  value  of 
school  property  in  1864  was  $88,500 ;  number 
of  children  of  school  age,  6,863,  of  whom 
1,050  attended  public  schools.  In  1874  the 
value  of  school  property  was  $691,256 ;  chil 
dren  of  school  age,  19,125,  of  whom  9,868  at 
tended  the  public  schools.  There  are  also  a 
Catholic  theological  seminary,  a  Catholic  boys' 
school,  and  a  female  seminary  conducted  by 
the  "  Sisters  of  Providence,"  recently  opened 
and  occupying  a  splendid  building.  The  state 
library  contains  15,000  volumes.  A  free  city 
library  was  opened  in  April,  1873,  in  the  high 
school  building;  it  now  contains  over  14,500 
volumes,  and  a  separate  building  is  to  be  erected 
for  its  accommodation.  There  are  6  daily  (1 
German)  and  13  weekly  (5  German)  newspa 
pers,  and  13  monthly  periodicals,  one  of  which, 
the  "  National  Crop  Reporter,"  has  recently 
been  removed  from  Jacksonville,  111.  The 
churches,  64  in  number,  are  as  follows  :.  •  8  Bap 
tist,  5  Christian,  2  Congregational,  5  Episcopal, 

1  Friends',  16  Methodist,  10  Presbyterian,  4 
Roman  Catholic,  1  Swedenborgian,  2  Unitarian, 

2  Universalist,  and  the  rest  miscellaneous,  some 
of  which  have  no  church  edifice. — Indianapo 
lis  was  first  settled  by  John  Pogue  in  March, 
1819,  and  in  about  a  year  from  that  time  it 
numbered  15  families.     It  was  chosen  as  the 
seat  of  the  state  government  in  January,  1821 
(though  the  capital  was  not  actually  removed 
from  Corydon  till  1825),  and  at  the  same  time 
the  legislature  gave  it  its  present  name  and  ap 
pointed  commissioners  to  lay  it  off  as  a  town. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1836,  and  received  a 
city  charter  in  1847. 

INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO,  or  Malay  Archipelago, 
a  vast  aggregation  of  insular  groups  S.  E.  of 
the  continent  of  Asia,  lying  between  the  China 
sea,  the  Indian  ocean,  and  the  Pacific.  In  the 
widest  sense  it  includes  the  Philippine  islands 
and  Papua,  and  extends  from  about  Ion.  95° 
to  151°  20'  E.,  and  from  lat.  19°  40'  N.  to  about 
11°  S.,  being  about  2,100  m.  wide  and  upward 
of  4,000  m.  long,  and  bisected  by  the  equator. 
With  the  exception  of  Australia,  the  Indian 
archipelago  contains  the  largest  islands  of  the 
world,  namely,  Borneo  and  Papua.  These,  to 
gether  with  Gilolo,  Celebes,  and  Sumatra,  form 
a  range  extending  along  the  equator,  and  all  ex 
cept  Papua  crossed  by  it ;  a  similar  but  shorter 
range,  further  S.,  is  made  up  mainly  of  Java, 


Sumbawa,  Flores,  and  Timor  ;  and  in  the  north 
the  principal  islands  are  Mindanao  and  Lu 
zon,  of  the  Philippine  group«  The  seas  which 
separate  the  islands  are  variously  designated. 
These  are :  the  Java  sea,  between  Java  and 
Borneo  ;  the  Sooloo  sea,  between  Borneo  and 
the  Philippines ;  the  Celebes  sea,  between  the 
Philippines  and  Celebes ;  the  Flores  sea,  be 
tween  Celebes  and  the  Timor  group  ;  and  the 
Banda  sea,  between  Celebes  and  Papua.  The 
depth  of  water  between  the  Asiatic  mainland 
and  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  respectively, 
nowhere  exceeds  100  fathoms,  nor  is  the  sea 
between  Papua  and  Australia  deeper  than  this ; 
but  these  shallow  seas  are  divided  by  a  line  of 
deep  water  in  which  lie  Celebes,  the  Moluccas, 
Flores,  and  the  adjacent  islands.  Wallace  re 
gards  the  archipelago  as  naturally  compre 
hending  the  Malay  peninsula,  S.  of  Tenasserim, 
the  Nicobar  islands,  and  the  Philippines.  Ex 
clusive  of  the  latter,  he  classifies  its  islands 
into  five  groups,  as  follows  :  1,  the  Indo-Malay 
islands,  comprising  the  Malay  peninsula  and 
Singapore,  Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra ;  2,  the 
Timor  group,  comprising  the  islands  of  Timor, 
Flores,  Sumbawa,  and  Lombok,  with  several 
smaller  ones;  3,  Celebes,  comprising  also  the 
Sula  islands  and  Booton ;  4,  the  Moluccan 
group,  comprising  Booro,  Ceram,  Batchian, 
Gilolo,  and  Morty,  with  the  smaller  islands  of 
Ternate  and  Tidore,  Makian,  Kaioa,  Amboyna, 
Banda,  Goram,  and  Matabello  ;  and  5,  the  Pa 
puan  group,  comprising  Papua,  with  the  Ar- 
roo  islands,  Mysol,  Salawaty,  Waigioo,  and 
several  others.  The  area  in  English  square 
miles  of  some  of  the  principal  islands  is  ap 
proximately  as  follows : 


Bali 

2200 

Flores  
Gilolo  
Java  and  Madura. 
Lombok  
Sumatra  
Sumbawa  
Timor.  .  .  , 

o.ooo 

5.800 
.     51,300 
.       1.S60 
.  160.000 
.       6.000 
.     11,500 

Banca 

5000 

Banda  
Batchian  .  .  . 
Booro  
Borneo  
Celebes  .  .  . 

130 

800 

2,000 
300,000 
.     70,000 

It  will  be  seen  that  neither  Papua  nor  the 
Philippines  are  embraced  in  this  table.  The 
latter  islands  are  chiefly  under  the  dominion 
of  Spain,  but  in  the  other  parts  of  the  archi 
pelago  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  is 
the  predominant  power.  According  to  the 
latest  returns,  principally  of  1871-'2,  the  co 
lonial  possessions  of  the  Dutch  in  the  archi 
pelago  have  an  aggregate  area  of  about  600,000 
sq.  m.  and  a  total  population  of  24,300,000. 
They  comprise  the  whole  of  the  island  of  Java, 
extensive  territories  in  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and 
the  Moluccas,  and  about  29,000  sq.  m.  in  Papua. 
— Physically,  the  most  striking  and  character 
istic  division  of  thfe  archipelago  is  into  volcanic 
and  non-volcanic  regions.  A  long  line  of  active 
and  extinct  volcanoes,  constituting  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  volcanic  systems  in  the  world, 
extends  from  Sumatra  eastward  through  Java, 
Bali,  Lombok,  Sumbawa,  Flores,  and  Timor, 
beyond  which  it  trends  northward  through 
Banda,  Amboyna,  and  Gilolo  to  the  northern 


IXDIAX  BEAX 


IXDIAX  HEMP 


243 


peninsula  of  Celebes,  and  thence  to  the  Phi 
lippine  islands.  The  islands  traversed  hy  this 
belt  are  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes.  The 
non-volcanic  regions  lie  on  both  sides  of  it. 
There  are  no  volcanoes  in  Papua  or  Borneo,  and 
in  the  latter  island  earthquakes  are  unknown. 
The  loftiest  mountains  in  the  archipelago  are 
in  Java,  Borneo,  and  Sumatra,  where  numerous 
peaks  rise  to  a  height  of  10,000  ft.  and  some 
much  higher.  The  climate  is  one  of  almost  uni 
form  tropical  warmth  and  moisture,  giving  rise 
to  a  dense  and  luxuriant  forest  growth,  which 
overspreads  all  the  islands  except  Timor  and 
those  immediately  around  it ;  in  these  there  is 
a  deficiency  of  rain,  which  is  attributed  to  the 
proximity  of  the  arid  regions  of  Australia. 
The  line  of  separation  between  the  two  great 
zoological  provinces,  known  as  the  Indian  and 
the  Australian,  divides  the  archipelago,  passing 
between  Celebes  and  Borneo,  and  through  the 
narrow  strait  of  Lombok.  This  is  but  15  m. 
wide,  yet,  according  to  Lyell,  the  contrast  be 
tween  the  animals  on  the  two  sides  of  this 
channel  is  as  great  as  between  those  of  the  old 
and  new  worlds.  "W.  of  it  the  fauna  is  strictly 
Indian ;  E.  of  it  a  distinctively  Australian  fau 
na  is  met  with ;  and  it  is  conjectured  that 
the  two  great  regions  thus  distinguished  once 
formed  parts  of  the  Asiatic  and  Australian 
continents  respectively.  The  geographical  dis 
tribution  of  the  two  typical  races  of  men  in 
habiting  the  archipelago  corresponds  closely 
to  that  of  the  animals;  the  Indo-Malays  being 
found  in  the  western  islands,  while  the  Pa 
puans  dwell  further  eastward. — Detailed  ac 
counts  of  the  principal  islands  of  the  Indian 
archipelago  will  be  found  under  their  respec 
tive  titles.  For  their  general  history,  see  "  The 
Indian  Archipelago,  its  History  and  Present 
State,"  by  Horace  St.  John  (2  vols.  12mo, 
London,  1853).  The  natural  history  of  the 
region  is  ably  treated  in  "The  Malay  Archi 
pelago,"  by  Alfred  Russell  Wallace  (London, 
1869).  See  also  "Travels  in  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,"  by  Albert  S.  Bickmore  (8vo, 
New  York,  1869). 

INDIAN  BEAN.     See  CATALPA. 

INDIAN  CORN.     See  MAIZE. 

INDIAN  CRESS.     See  NASTUKTIOI. 

INDIAN  CUCUMBER,  a  name  given  to  Medeola 
Virginia,  a  common  and  striking  plant  of  the 
lily  family,  which  is  found  in  May  and  June 
in  rich  damp  woods  from  Canada  to  Florida. 
The  remarkably  white  tuberous  root  stock  is 
about  2  in.  long  and  £  in.  thick,  and  has  the 
taste  of  cucumber;  it  is  said  to  have  been  eat 
en  by  the  Indians,  whence  the  common  name. 
The  simple  slender  stem,  1  to  3  ft.  high,  is 
partly  clothed  with  a  whitish  wool  which  readi 
ly  separates  ;  near  the  middle  it  bears  a  whorl 
of  five  to  nine  obovate,  lanceolate,  pointed  thin 
leaves ;  at  the  summit  are  the  flowers,  imme 
diately  below  wThich  is  another  whorl  of,  usu 
ally,  three  smaller  leaves.  The  flowers  (three  to 
six)  have  three  petals  and  three  sepals,  all  of 
the  same  greenish  yellow  color,  and  recurved ; 


stamens  six,  pistil  one  with  three  long  thread 
like  brownish  styles  diverging  from  the  top  of 
the  globose  ovary,  which  in  ripening  forms  a 
dark  purple  berry  of  the  size  of  a  pea.  The 


Indian  Cucumber  (Medeola  Virginica). 

botanical  name  is  the  diminutive  of  Medea,  the 
sorceress,  probably  given  to  the  plant  on  ac 
count  of  reputed  medicinal  powers ;  it  really 
possesses  very  little  activity,  though  the  elder 
Barton  thought  it  serviceable  in  dropsy. 

INDIAN  DIE.     See  Prccoox. 

INDIAN  FIG  ( Opuntia  vulgaris).   See  CACTUS. 

INDIAN  HEMP.  I.  A  variety  of  hemp  pro 
duced  in  India,  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  dis 
tinct  species,  and  called  cannabis  Indica.  (See 


Indian  Hemp  (Apocynum  cannabinum). 

HEMP,  vol.  viii.,  p.  632.)  II.  An  American 
perennial  herb,  apocynum  catinabinum,  of  the 
order  apocynacece,  or  dogbane  family.  The 
plant  throws  up  several  branching  stems,  2  to 


244 


INDIAN  LANGUAGES 


INDIAN  OCEAN 


3  ft.  high,  with  opposite,  raucronate  leaves, 
which  are  smooth  or  downy,  and  numerous, 
many-flowered  cymes.  The  flowers  are  small, 
bell-shaped,  greenish  white,  the  corolla  with 
five  triangular  appendages  in  the  throat ;  sta 
mens  five,  inserted  on  the  base  of  the  corolla, 
and  slightly  adhering  to  the  stigma  by  their 
filaments;  fruit  of  two  long  slender  folli 
cles  with  silky  tufted  seeds.  It  has  a  milky 
juice,  and  the  bark  has  an  exceedingly  tough 
fibre,  the  use  of  which  by  the  aborigines  for 
making  cordage,  fishing  nets,  &c.,  no  doubt 
gave  it  the  common  name.  We  know  of  no 
extensive  experiments  in  utilizing  this  fibre, 
which  is  whiter  and  stronger  than  that  of 
hemp.  The  root  of  this  plant  is  sometimes 
used  in  medicine,  it  being  powerfully  emetic 
and  cathartic  in  doses  of  15  to  30  grains  of  the 
powdered  dry  root,  or  a  similar  amount  in 
the  form  of  a  decoction;  it  has  been  found 
efficacious  in  dropsy.  It  grows  in  most  of  the 
states,  and  has  other  local  names ;  in  South 
Carolina  it  is  known  as  Gen.  Marion's  weed, 
as  that  leader  is  said  to  have  used  it  in  the 
diseases  of  his  camp.  Another  species,  A.  an- 
droscemifolium,  equally  common,  is  a  more 
spreading  plant,  with  much  larger  pale  rose- 
colored  flowers,  and  used  as  a  prompt  emetic ; 
it  is  known  as  dogbane  and  bitter-root. 

INDIAN  LANGUAGES,  American.  See  AMERI 
CAN  INDIANS,  LANGUAGES  OF  THE. 

INDIAN  OCEAN,  the  third  in  size  of  the  oceans 
of  the  world.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Asia,  N.  E. 
by  the  Malay  peninsula  and  the  Sunda  islands, 
E.  by  Australia  and  the  meridian  of  Cape 
Leeuwen  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  that  continent, 
S.  by  the  Antarctic  circle,  and  W.  by  Africa  and 
the  meridian  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
south  China  sea  and  all  the  waters  south  and 
west  of  the  Philippine  isles  and  New  Guinea 
are  sometimes  included  in  the  limits  of  the  In 
dian  ocean  ;  but  they  are  much  more  properly 
apportioned  to  the  Pacific  basin,  the  Sunda 
islands  and  Malay  peninsula  representing  the 
isthmus  connecting  the  northern  and  southern 
halves  of  the  continent  of  Asia- Australia.  The 
southern  limit,  and  the  eastern  and  western 
S.  of  the  continents  of  Australia  and  Africa, 
are  of  course  entirely  artificial.  The  northern 
shore  of  the  Indian  ocean  is  deeply  indented 
by  the  peninsula  of  India,  forming  two  large 
bays,  the  Arabian  sea  and  the  bay  of  Bengal. 
Two  considerable  gulfs,  or  more  properly  in 
land  seas,  are  in  communication  with  this  ocean, 
the  Red  sea  and  the  gulf  of  Persia.  It  is  not 
rich  in  islands,  of  which  only  two,  Madagas 
car  and  Ceylon,  are  of  considerable  size.  The 
smaller  ones  constitute  mostly  archipelagoes, 
such  as  the  Comoro,  Mascarene,  Amirante,  Sey 
chelles,  Maldive,  Laccadive,  Andaman,  Nico- 
bar,  Chagos,  and  Keeling  islands,  in  the  tropics, 
and  the  Kerguelen,  Crozet,  and  Macdonald  isl 
ands,  in  the  colder  southern  part.  There  are 
also  a  few  isolated  volcanic  islands,  such  as 
New  Amsterdam  and  St.  Paul.  Most  of  the 
tropical  islands  are  of  coral  formation ;  a  few 


are  volcanic  with  fringing  or  barrier  reefs,  such 
as  the  Mascarene  and  Andaman  islands.  The 
Asiatic  coast  is  mostly  free  of  coral,  but  there 
are  some  fringing  reefs  on  the  coasts  of  Cey 
lon  and  Madagascar,  Africa,  and  the  Red  sea. 
The  only  important  African  river  falling  into 
this  ocean  is  the  Zambesi.  Asia  contributes 
the  united  stream  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
the  Indus,  Ganges,  Brahmapootra,  and  Irra- 
waddy ;  Australia  almost  nothing.  The  sys 
tem  of  currents  is  rather  complicated,  but  in 
its  main  features  resolves  itself  into  a  revolv 
ing  current  moving  from  right  to  left,  as  in 
all  the  ocean  basins  of  the  southern  hem 
isphere.  The  equatorial  part  of  it,  the  S.  E. 
trade  current  moving  from  E.  to  W.,  is  very 
broad,  its  middle  being  about  lat.  15°  S.,  but  it 
does  not  really  reach  the  equator.  It  strikes 
the  coast  of  Madagascar,  dividing  into  two 
branches.  The  one  passing  N.  of  that  island 
bends  S.  through  the  Mozambique  channel, 
forming  the  powerful  and  warm  current  of 
the  same  name;  it  is  joined  again  by  the  S. 
branch  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  forming  the 
Agulhas  current  off  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
which  after  barely  passing  that  cape  turns  back 
sharply  to  the  south  and  east,  and  forms  with 
the  antarctic  drift  the  retrograde  current  in 
lat.  3Y°  to  42°  S.  Before  reaching  Australia 
it  divides  into  the  S.  and  E.  Australian  cur 
rents,  the  latter  completing  the  circuit  by  re- 
entering  the  S.  E.  trade  current  after  giving 
off  branches  running  into  the  Java  and  Flores 
seas  and  Torres  straits.  The  N.  equatorial  cur 
rent  is  overcome  by  the  monsoons,  and,  under 
the  name  of  Malabar  current,  flows  westward 
from  October  to  April,  and  eastward  from 
April  to  October.  It  extends  from  the  coast 
of  Africa  around  Ceylon  into  the  bay  of  Ben 
gal.  A  narrow  retrograde  current  has  been 
observed  flowing  E.  across  this  ocean,  nearly 
under  the  equator  or  a  little  S.  of  it.  The 
monsoons  prevail  from  its  northern  limit  to 
lat.  8°  S.  North  of  the  equator  the  N.  E.  mon 
soon  blows  from  October  to  April,  the  S.  W. 
prevails  in  the  other  half  of  the  year;  while 
S.  of  it  the  N.  W.  monsoon  blows  while  the 
N.  E.  is  blowing  on  the  N.  side,  and  vice  versa. 
Between  the  limits  of  lat,  10°  and  28°  S.,  the 
S.  E.  trade  wind  blows  from  April  to  October. 
South  of  these  are  the  constant  N.  W.  winds, 
which  prevail  almost  in  the  same  latitudes  as  in 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  The  periods 
at  which  these  winds  change  are  marked  by 
violent  tempests,  and  the  region  between  lat. 
5°  and  40°  S.  is  greatly  subject  to  hurricanes. 
They  range  usually  between  lat.  9°  and  35°  S., 
extending  from  Madagascar  to  the  island  of 
Timor ;  they  come  generally  from  the  N.  E. 
near  Java,  and  travel  S.  W.  and  S.,  returning 
again  E.  The  depth  of  the  sea  is  greatest  near 
the  S.  coasts  of  Asia;  the  Arabian  sea  is  from 
2,000  to  2,500  fathoms  deep ;  the  bay  of  Bengal 
averages  nearly  2,300  fathoms.  Opposite  the 
Hoogly  river,  in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  is  a  sudden 
and  deep  depression  in  the  ocean  bed,  called 


INDIANOLA 


INDIAN  SHOT 


245 


"the  bottomless  pit."  Near  the  S.  E.  const  of 
Africa  the  depth  varies  from  1,300  to  1,900 
fathoms. — The  northern  part  of  the  Indian 
ocean  is  the  theatre  of  an  immense  navigation, 
nearly  the  \vhole  commerce  of  Europe  and 
America  with  China  and  India  and  the  great 
Malay  archipelago  passing  over  its  waters; 
while  between  Arabia  and  Persia  on  the  west 
and  India  on  the  east  an  extensive  trade  is 
carried  on  in  native  vessels,  the  origin  of  which 
dates  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  great 
Pacific  railroad,  opened  in  1809,  has  deprived 
the  Indian  ocean  of  some  of  its  navigation ;  hut 
the  Suez  canal,  which  was  opened  a  few  months 
later,  is  expected  to  increase  it.  The  European- 
Indian  commercial  navigation  amounted  in  1872 
to  nearly  12,000,000  tons.  The  southern  part 
of  this  ocean  is  comparatively  little  frequent 
ed,  being  almost  destitute  of  islands.  It  is 
traversed  chiefly  by  vessels  going  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  by  way  of  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  chief  ports  of  the  Indian  ocean  and 
its  tributary  gulfs  and  rivers  are  Mozambique 
and  Zanzibar  in  Africa,  Aden  and  Mocha  in 
Arabia,  Bassorah  in  Turkey,  Bushire  in  Persia, 
Bombay,  Surat,  Madras,  and  Calcutta  in  India, 
and  Trincomalee  and  Pointe  de  Galle  in  Ceylon. 

INDIANOLA,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Cal- 
houn  co.,  Texas,  port  of  entry  of  the  district 
of  Saluria,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Matagorda  bay, 
140  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Austin,  and  120  m.  S.  W. 
of  Galveston;  pop.  in  1870,  2,106,  of  whom 
492  were  colored.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the 
Gulf,  Western  Texas,  and  Pacific  railroad  (com 
pleted  in  1873  to  Cuero,  De  Witt  co.,  66- m.), 
which  is  to  connect  it  with  Austin  and  San 
Antonio.  Steamers  run  regularly  to  Galves 
ton  and  Corpus  Christi.  The  commerce  is  im 
portant.  For  the  year  ending  Aug.  31,  1872, 
there  were  entered  in  the  coasting  trade  242 
vessels  of  188,453  tons,  of  which  149  of  174,- 
270  tons  were  steamers ;  cleared,  250  vessels 
of  194,896  tons,  of  which  146  of  170,052  tons 
were  steamers.  The  receipts  were  5,808,000 
feet  of  lumber  and  2,750,000  shingles;  ship 
ments,  27,461  head  of  animals,  11,549  bales  of 
cotton,  330,875  hides,  and  3,234  bags  of  wool. 
The  value  of  imports  from  foreign  ports  was 
$82,463  ;  of  exports  to  foreign  countries,  §58,- 
658.  A  weekly  newspaper  is  published. 

INDIAN  PORE.     See  HELLEBORE. 

INDIANS.     See  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 

INDIAN  SHOT,  a  popular  name  for  species  of 
canna,  especially  C.  Indica,  which  was  for  a 
long  time  the  only  one  generally  cultivated. 
Canna  (from  the  Celtic  cann,  a  cane)  was  for 
merly  placed  in  the  same  family  with  the  ginger 
and  the  banana,  but  botanists  now  make  an 
order,  the  camiaccce,  which  includes  this,  the 
arrowroot,  and  some  other  less  known  plants. 
The  cannas  have  large,  fleshy  root  stocks,  tall 
stems,  clothed  with  large  showy  leaves,  and 
bearing  at  the  summit  a  spike  of  often  hand 
some  flowers  of  various  shades  of  yellow,  scar 
let,  and  crimson;  the  flowers  are  irregular  in 
structure;  they  have  three  outer  colored  di 


visions  or  calyx,  within  which  are  three  parts 
corresponding  to  a  corolla  with  a  single  sta 
men  which  has  a  petal-like  filanient  and  bears 
an  anther  on  its  margin ;  pistil  with  a  petal- 
like  style  and  a  three-celled  ovary,  which  in 
ripening  becomes  a  several-seeded  very  rough 
pod ;  the  seeds  are  round,  hard,  and  black, 
and  sufficiently  shot-like  in  appearance  to  war 
rant  the  common  name.  One  species,  C.  flac- 
cida,  is  found  in  swamps  along  the  coast  from 
South  Carolina  southward ;  it  grows  4  ft.  high 
and  has  yellow  flowers  3  or  4  in.  long.  The 
tubers  of  some  species  are  edible  and  used  as  a 
table  vegetable,  while  others  have  slight  me 
dicinal  properties ;  the  kind  of  arrowroot  called 
tous  les  mois,  chiefly  used  by  the  French,  is 
made  in  the  island  of  St.  Christopher  from  the 
rhizomes  of  a  canna,  supposed  to  be  C.  cdulis. 
The  great  interest  possessed  by  the  cannas  is 
due  to  their  effectiveness  as  decorative  plants. 
Since  beauty  of  form  and  stateliness  of  habit 


Indian  Shot  (Canna  Indica). 

have  come  to  be  properly  appreciated  in  gar 
dening,  great  improvement  has  been  made  in 
cannas,  and  cultivators,  especially  those  in  the 
south  of  France,  have  by  hybridizing  and  cross 
ing  obtained  splendid  results.  In  the  now  val 
ued  kinds  the  original  species  is  lost,  and  they 
are  known  by  garden  rather  than  botanical 
names.  There  are  now  varieties  from  2  ft.  to 
8  and  12  ft.  high,  with  a  remarkable  diversity 
of  foliage ;  in  some  the  leaves  are  narrow,  stiff, 
and  erect,  in  others  broad,  very  long,  and  grace 
ful,  while  their  shades  of  color  vary  from  light 
glaucous  green  to  blackish  purple.  While  some 
are  valued  for  their  fine  foliage  only,  others 
produce  an  abundance  of  handsome  flowers, 
which  have  also  been  improved,  and  there  can 
be  nothing  more  effective  than  a  well  arranged 
group  of  the  finer  varieties  of  canna.  The 
choice  varieties  are  multiplied  by  division,  and 
plants  are  readily  raised  from  seed,  which  may 
or  may  not  be  like  the  parent ;  the  seeds  should 


246 


INDIAN  TERRITORY 


be  scalded,  and  sown  in  a  hotbed ;  they  will 
germinate  in  the  open  ground,  but  the  plants 
will  not  acquire  much  size  the  first  year.  The 
roots  should  be  taken  up  at  the  first  frost  and 
kept  in  a  dry  place  where  they  will  not  freeze ; 
the  next  spring  they  are  to  be  divided  and  set 
out  Avhen  the  soil  has  become  warm. 

INDIAN  TERRITORY,  an  unorganized  por 
tion  of  the  United  States,  situated  between 
lat.  33°  35'  and  37°  N.,  and  Ion.  94°  20'  and 
103°  W. ;  length  E.  and  W.  along  the  N.  bor 
der  470  m.,  and  S.  of  lat.  36°  30'  about  310  m. ; 
breadth  W.  of  the  100th  meridian  35  m.,  and 
E.  of  that  line  about  210  m.;  area,  68,991  sq. 
m.  It  is  bounded  1ST.  by  Colorado  and  Kansas, 
E.  by  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  S.  by  Texas,  from 
which  E.  of  the  100th  meridian  it  is  separated 
by  the  Red  river,  and  W.  by  Texas  and  New 
Mexico.  The  inhabitants  are  not  regularly 
enumerated  in  the  census  of  1870,  but  the  su 
perintendent,  from  inquiries  made  through  the 
agents  of  the  Indian  office,  states  the  popula 
tion  at  68,152,  of  whom  2,407  were  whites, 
6,378  colored,  and  59,367  Indians.  Of  the  In 
dians,  24,967  were  on  reservations  or  at  agen 
cies,  and  34,400  were  nomadic.  Besides  a  con 
siderable  portion  still  unassigned,  the  territory 
contains  17  Indian  reservations.  The  Chero- 
kees  occupy  an  area  of  5,960  sq.  m.  in  the 
northeast,  E.  of  the  96th  meridian,  and  border 
ing  on  Kansas  and  Arkansas  ;  they  also  own  a 
strip  about  50  m.  wide  along  the  Kansas  bor 
der  from  the  Arkansas  river  "W.  to  the  100th 
meridian,  about  8,500  sq.  m.  The  Choctaw 
reservation,  10,450  sq.  m.,  is  in  the  southeast, 
bordering  on  Arkansas  and  Texas.  Joining 
this  on  the  west,  and  separated  from  Texas  by 
the  Red  river,  is  the  Chickasaw  reservation, 
6,840  sq.  m.  The  Creeks  occupy  5,024  sq.  m. 
in  the  E.  central  part  of  the  territory,  border 
ing  on  the  Cherokees  and  Choctaws.  S.  "W. 
of  the  Creeks  is  the  Seminole  reservation,  31 2  £ 
sq.  m.,  and  N.  of  this  the  reservation  of  the  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  756  sq.  m.  W.  of  the  Seminole  res 
ervation  is  a  tract  of  900  sq.  m.  upon  which 
are  settled  the  citizen  Pottawattamies  and  the 
Absentee  Shawnees.  The  Osage  reservation, 
2,345  sq.  m.,  is  W.  of  that  of  the  Cherokees,  and 
is  bounded  N.  by  Kansas  and  S.  "VY.  by  the  Ar 
kansas  river.  N.  "W.  of  the  Osages,  and  bound 
ed  N.  by  Kansas  and  "VY.  by  the  Arkansas,  is 
the  reservation  of  the  Kaws,  156  sq.  m.,  to 
which  they  were  removed  from  Kansas  in  the 
summer  of  1873.  In  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  ter 
ritory,  and  bounded  E.  by  the  Chickasaws,  are 
the  Kiowas,  Comanches,  and  Apaches,  occupy 
ing  5,546  sq.  m.;  and  N.  of  these  are  the  Ara- 
pahoes  and  Cheyennes,  with  6.205  sq.  m.  The 
Quapaws,  the  confederated  Peorias,  Kaskas- 
kias,  "VVeas,  Piankeshaws,  and  Miamies,  the  Ot- 
tawas,  the  Shawnees,  the  Wyandots,  and  the 
Senecas  severally  have  reservations,  with  an 
aggregate  area  of  297  sq.  m.,  in  the  N.  E.  cor 
ner  of  the  territory,  E.  of  the  Neosho  river. 
The  affiliated  bands  of  Wichitas,  Keechies, 
Wacoes,  Tawacanies,  Caddoes,  Ionics,  Dela- 


wares,  and  Penetethka  Comanches  are  gathered 
at  an  agency  on  the  Washita  river  W.  of  the 
Creek  country,  but  they  have  no  reservation. 
The  Modocs  (remnant  of  Captain  Jack's  band) 
and  about  400  Kickapoos  and  Pottawattamies 
(from  the  border  of  Texas  and  Mexico)  were 
removed  to  the  Indian  territory  in  the  latter 
part  of  1873.  The  former  were  placed  tempo 
rarily  on  the  Shawnee  reservation,  and  the  lat 
ter  were  settled  on  a  tract  on  the  Kansas  bor 
der  W.  of  the  Arkansas  river. — The  surface  has 
a  general  declination  toward  the  east,  but  the 
only  considerable  elevations  are  the  Wichita 
mountains  in  the  southwest,  and  a  continuation 
of  the  Ozark  and  Washita  mountains  from  Ar 
kansas  in  the  east.  Otherwise  the  E.  portion  of 
the  territory  and  that  S.  of  the  Canadian  river 
spreads  out  into  undulatory  plains,  while  the 
K  W.  portion  consists  of  elevated  prairies.  It 
is  watered  by  innumerable  streams,  tributaries 
of  the  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers.  The  former 
flows  from  Kansas  in  a  S.  E.  direction  through 
the  N.  E.  corner  of  the  territory  into  Arkan 
sas,  and  is  navigable  in  high  stages  of  water  to 
Fort  Gibson  in  the  Cherokee  country.  On  the 
east  its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Verdigris, 
the  Neosho,  and  the  Illinois,  which  have  a  S. 
course.  On  the  west  the  two  principal  branch 
es  are  the  Canadian  and  the  Red  fork.  The 
Canadian  river  rises  by  two  forks  in  New  Mex 
ico,  which  flow  E.,  the  S.  fork  first  through 
the  N.  W.  projection  of  Texas,  traverse  nearly 
the  whole  length  of  the  territory,  and  uniting 
join  the  Arkansas  near  the  E.  border.  The 
Red  fork  enters  the  territory  from  Kansas  un 
der  the  name  of  the  Cimarron,  and  flowing  S.  E. 
joins  the  main  stream  N.  of  the  Canadian.  N. 
of  the  Red  fork  and  having  the  same  general 
direction  is  the  Salt  fork  or  Little  Arkansas. 
The  chief  tributary  of  Red  river  is  the  Washita, 
which  rises  in  N.  W.  Texas,  and  flowing  S.  E. 
joins  the  main  stream  near  the  S.  E.  angle  of 
the  Chickasaw  country.  Other  affluents  of 
Red  river,  commencing  at  the  east,  are  the 
Kimishi,  Boggy  creek,  Blue  river,  Mud  creek, 
Beaver  creek,  Cache  creek,  and  the  North  fork. 
Red  river  is  navigable  by  small  steamers  in  or 
dinary  stages  of  water  along  nearly  the  whole 
S.  border.  In  the  west  and  northwest  are  ex 
tensive  deposits  of  gypsum,  and  in  the  Chero 
kee  country  are  found  coal,  iron,  good  brick 
clay,  marble  in  places,  and  yellow  sandstone 
suitable  for  building  purposes.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  salubrious,  but  generally  dry.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  in  the  S.  E.  is  60° ; 
in  the  N.  W.  55°.  The  annual  rainfall,  which 
in  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  territory  is  52  in., 
decreases  to  35  in.  in  the  central  region,  and 
is  less  than  20  in.  in  the  N.  W.  corner.  The 
Wichita  range  is  intersected  by  many  fertile 
valleys  abounding  in  wood,  water,  and  grass, 
and  generally  the  country  S.  of  the  Canadian  is 
interspersed  with  prairie  and  timbered  land, 
possessing  a  fertile  soil  overgrown  with  nutri 
tious  grasses.  The  N.  E.  portion  of  the  terri 
tory  is  well  wooded,  and  while  there  is  consid- 


INDIAN   TERRITORY 


247 


erable  arable  and  productive  land,  much  of  it  is 
rocky  and  only  tit  for  timber  or  pasture ;  three 
fifths  of  the  Cherokee  country  is  of  this  charac 
ter.  Between  Ion.  97°  and  98°  a  narrow  strip 
of  timber,  called  the  u  Cross  Timbers,"  stretch 
es  from  the  Red  fork  of  the  Arkansas  S.  and  S. 
"W.  into  Texas.  W.  of  this  and  N.  of  the  Cana 
dian  is  a  sterile  region,  scantily  overgrown  with 
grass,  producing  only  a  few  stunted  shrubs,  cac 
tuses,  &c.,  and  covered  in  places  with  saline  de 
posits.  The  most  common  trees  and  shrubs  are 
the  cottonwood,  oak,  sycamore,  elm,  walnut, 
ash,  yellow  pine,  pecan,  Osage  orange,  haw 
thorn,  and  the  grape  vine.  Indian  corn  is  the 
chief  crop.  Wheat  is  also  raised,  as  well  as 
rye,  oats,  beans,  pumpkins,  potatoes,  and  other 
vegetables,  and  upland  rice.  Cotton  was  for 


merly  largely  cultivated  S.  of  the  Canadian  and 
on  tlie  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers,  and  is  still 
grown  there  to  some  extent.  Apples  do  well 
X.  of  the  Canadian  and  Arkansas,  and  peaches, 
pears,  plums,  cherries,  and  small  fruits  flourish. 
Among  wild  animals  may  be  mentioned  the 
prairie  dog,  the  deer,  and  vast  herds  of  buffalo 
and  wild  horses  that  roam  over  the  W.  plains. 
Wild  turkeys  are  abundant.  Large  herds  of 
horses  and  cattle  were  formerly  owned  by  the 
Cherokees  and  other  civilized  tribes,  but  they 
were  dispersed  and  driven  off  during  the  civil 
war,  which  prostrated  the  industries  of  the  In 
dians,  and  from  the  effects  of  which  they  have 
not  yet  recovered.  The  following  table  is  com 
piled  from  the  report  of  the  commissioner  of 
Indian  affairs  for  1873  : 


TRIBES. 

Acres  of  land 
cultivated. 

Wheat, 

bushels. 

Indian  corn, 
bushels. 

Oats, 
bushels. 

Potatoes, 
bushels. 

Hay,  tons. 

Lumber  sawed, 
feet. 

Chcrokccs. 

89950 

69  650 

(J>?0  000 

35  000 

10000 

50  000 

480  000 

Chickasaws 

30  l  .00 

10  000 

75  000 

10  000 

85*000 

25  UOO 

Choctaws.        .                      

50000 

10  000 

100000 

10  000 

60*000 

50000 

3  000  000 

Crt'eks 

31  000 

600 

500  000 

1  000 

75  000 

10  000 

Quapaws,  &c  

fSeminoles 

4.571 
7,600 

2,134 

64.742 
150  000 

3,250 

4,110 
4  ooo 

1,875 
400 

50  000 

Other  tribes  

5,309 

190 

81  210 

1  500 

10360 

1  470 

350  468 

Entire  territory  

217.790 

92,574 

1  599  952 

CO  750 

198  470 

13s:  745 

3  930  468 

There  were  also  raised  5,000  bushels  of  barley, 
10.936  of  beans,  1,534  of  peas,  6,500  of  turnips, 
25' of  rice,  4,000  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  5,000  bales 
of  cotton  (2,000  by  the  Chickasaws  and  3,000 
by  the  Choctaws).  The  value  of  furs  sold  was 
$193,560.  The  productions  in  1872  were  100,- 
420  bushels  of  wheat,  6,562,540  of  Indian  corn, 
104,939  of  oats,  281,000  of  potatoes,  700  of 
beans,  1,000  of  rice,  27,624  tons  of  hay,  1,200 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  36,000  gallons  of  sorghum  mo 
lasses,  and  570  bales  of  cotton.  The  total  value 
of  productions  was  $4,168,932,  viz. :  Cherokees, 
$1,923,155;  Chickasaws,  $219,000;  Choctaws, 
$1,119,797;  Creeks,  $537,325;  Quapaws,  &c., 
$30,881;  Seminolcs,  $159,500;  other  tribes, 
$179,274.  There  were  2,350,000  feet  of  lum 
ber  sawed  (2,000,000  by  the  Cherokees).  The 
value  of  furs  sold  was  $102,020,  chiefly  by  the 
Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes,  Osages,  Kiowas, 
&c.  The  number  and  value  of  live  stock  in 
1873  were  as  follows: 


TRIBES. 

I  tors.'?. 

Cattle. 

She^p. 

Swine. 

Value. 

| 

Cherokees  

15.000 

103.302 

3.050 

68,868 

$1.861,083 

Chickasaws  

35.000 

50  000 

2.000 

75,000 

1.354.000 

Choctaws  

10(1.00!) 

100.0110 

8.000 

150.000 

3.316,000 

Creeks  

15.000 

35.000 

100000 

1,150,000 

Quapaws,  <kc.  .  .    . 

891 

997 

3.C.21 

67.806 

Sominok'S  

2  500 

10.5(10 

50 

25.000 

217,650 

Other  tribes  

43.764 

22.555 

7,956 

1,441,684 

Entire  territory.  .  . 

212,155 

322.354 

13.100 

430,445 

&0  408  178 

The  railroads  in  the  territory  are  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas  (from  Sedalia,  Mo.,  on  the 
Missouri  Pacific  line,  to  a  junction  with  the 
Houston  and  Texas  Central,  at  Denison,  Tex.), 


which  crosses  the  E.  part,  and  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific,  from  Pacific,  Mo.,  on  the  Missouri  Pa 
cific,  to  a  junction  with  the  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas,  at  Vinita  in  the  Cherokee  country. 
The  total  mileage  in  the  territory  is  269. — In 
dian  territory  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
central  Indian  superintendence,  and  contains 
11  agencies,  viz. :  the  Cherokee,  Choctaw  (in 
cluding  also  the  Chickasaws),  Creek,  Kaw, 
Kiowa,  Neosho  (Osages),  Quapaw,  Sac  and 
Fox  (including  also  the  Absentee  Shawnees), 
Seminole,  Upper  Arkansas  (Cheyennes  and 
Arapahoes),  and  Wichita ;  for  each  of  which 
an  agent  is  appointed  by  the  president  with 
the  consent  of  the  senate,  to  represent  the 
United  States ;  but  each  tribe  has  its  own  in 
ternal  government.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  courts  for  the  W".  district  of 
Arkansas  extends  over  the  territory  in  civil 
actions  where  a  white  man  is  a  party,  in  case 
of  crimes  committed  by  or  upon  a  white  man, 
and  in  proceedings  for  violation  of  the  laws 
regulating  trade  and  intercourse  with  the  In 
dians.  The  subject  of  a  territorial  govern 
ment  has  been  much  discussed  both  among  the 
Indians,  who  in  a  general  council  in  1870 
framed  a  constitution,  and  in  congress;  but 
difference  of  views  between  congress  and  the 
tribes  has  hitherto  prevented  its  organization. 
The  United  States  have  adopted  the  policy  of 
settling  the  various  Indian  tribes  in  this  region 
as  far  as  practicable  upon  separate  reserva 
tions,  where  they  may  be  free  from  the  en 
croachment  of  the  whites,  and  under  the  gen 
eral  superintendence  and  protection  of  the 
government.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabi- 


248 


IXDIAX   TERRITORY 


INDICTMENT 


tants  have  thus  at  various  periods  been  re 
moved  from  different  parts  of  the  Union,  but 
some  are  indigenous  to  the  territory.  Some 
tribes,  as  the  Kiowas  and  Comanches,  are  still 
in_a  wild  state,  while  others,  as  the  Cherokees, 
Choctaws,  and  Creeks,  are  well  advanced  in 
civilization.  The  capital  of  the  Cherokee  na- 
-tion  is  Tahlequah;  of  the  Chickasaws,  Tishe- 
mingo ;  of  the  Choctaws,  Armstrong  Academy ; 
of  the  Creeks,  Okmulkee  ;  of  the  Seminoles, 
"VYe-wo-ka.  The  following  table  from  the  re 
port  of  the  commissioner  of  Indian  affairs 
gives  the.  population,  value  of  property,  num 
ber  of  schools,  &c.,  for  1873 : 


TRIBES. 

Popula- 

Value  of 
individual 
property. 

No.  of 
schools. 

Teachers. 

a 

^ 
£ 

Cherokees  
Chickasaws  
Choctaws  
Creeks  
Quapaws,  &c  — 
Pominoles  
Other  tribes  

Entire  territory.  . 

17,217 

6.000 
16,000 

13.0(10 
1,219 
2.433 
10,594 

$5.000.000 
2,000.000 
4.746.000* 
8,118.200* 
219.241 
400.500 
1,543,598 

63 
13 

50 
34 
4 
4 

S 

05 
13 
52 
43 
4 
4 
30 

1,S84 
430 
1,129 
TOO 
203 

ir>7 

2C6 

72,408    $17,022,539 

176 

216 

4,769 

The  second  column  does  not  include  the  value  of 
land,  which  is  held  in  common,  nor  of  stocks 
and  funds  held  in  trust  by  the  United  States 
under  treaties  with  various  tribes,  the  interest 
on  which  is  annually  paid  to  such  tribes  for  the 
support  of  schools  or  for  general  purposes. 
Most  of  the  schools  are  supported  by  the  tribal 
funds,  but  some  are  carried  on  by  the  mis 
sionaries.  In  1872  (no  returns  from  the  Chick 
asaws  and  Choctaws)  there  were  598  frame 
and  8,823  log  houses,  viz. :  Cherokees,  500 
frame  and  .3,500  log;  Creeks,  35  frame  and 
4,200  log;  Seminoles,  500  log  houses;  other 
tribes,  the  rest.  The  Cherokees  have  an  or 
phan  asylum  with  90  inmates.  Three  weekly 
newspapers  are  published  in  the  territory,  one 
(English  and  Cherokee)  at  Tahlequah,  the  oth 
er  two  in  the  Choctaw  country,  one  (Eng 
lish  and  Choctaw)  at  New  Boc-gy,  and  one 
(English)  at  Caddo.  On  March  1,"  1873,  there 
were  28  post  offices,  viz.:  Cherokee  country, 
6;  Chickasaw,  4;  Choctaw,  12;  Creek,  4; 
Seminole,  1 ;  Kicnva,  &c.,  1.  Under  the  ex 
isting  regulations  of  the  Indian  bureau,  the 
agents  of  the  Cherokees  and  Creeks  are  nom 
inated  by  the  Baptists;  of  the  Choctaws  and 
Chickasaws,  and  the  Seminoles,  by  the  Pres 
byterians;  of  the  other  tribes,  by  the  Ortho 
dox  Friends.  The  Methodists,  Presbyterians, 
and  Baptists  have  each  several  missions,  and 
one  or  more  are  maintained  by  the  Friends, 
Moravians,  and  Roman  Catholics.  According 
to  the  report  of  the  board  of  Indian  commis- 
cioners  for  1872,  there  were  7,170  church 
members,  viz.:  Cherokees,  2,450;  Choctaws 
and  Chickasaws,  2,500;  Creeks,  2,050;  Semi 
noles,  90 ;  other  tribes,  80.— -The  act  of  June 
30,  1834,  regulating  trade  and  intercourse  with 

*  Eeport  of  the  board-of  Indian  commissioners  for  1S72. 


the  Indians,  declares  that  "all  that  part  of 
the  United  States  "W.  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
not  within  the  states  of  Missouri  and  Lou 
isiana,  or  the  territory  of  Arkansas,"  shall  for 
the  purposes  of  that  act  be  considered  the  In 
dian  country.  The  vast  region  thus  defined, 
identical  with  the  then  territory  of  Missouri, 
formed  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  from 
France  in  1803.  Reduced  by  the  successive 
formation  of  states  and  territories,  the  re 
mainder  now  constitutes  the  whole  of  the  dis 
trict  described  at  the  beginning  of  this  article 
except  the  narrow  strip  W.  of  the  100th  merid 
ian,  which  was  ceded  by  Texas  to  the  United 
States,  and  is  classed  geographically  with  the 
Indian  territory  for  convenience.  (For  fur 
ther  information,  see  the  articles  on  the  dif 
ferent  tribes.) 

INDIAN  TOBACCO.     See  LOBELIA. 

INDIA  RUBBER.     See  CAOUTCHOUC. 

INDICTMENT  (said  to  be  derived,  through  the 
French  enditement,  enditer,  from  the  Latin  in- 
dicare,  to  point  out,  or,  as  some  suppose,  from 
indicere  and  indictus),  a  written  accusation  of 
an  offence,  preferred  to,  and  presented  upon 
oath  as  true  by,  a  grand  jury.  Indictments 
are  to  be  preferred  in  criminal  matters  only, 
and  they  lie  for  all  treasons  and  felonies,  for 
all  misprisions  (that  is,  concealments)  of  trea 
sons  and  felonies,  and  for  all  misdemeanors  of 
a  public  nature.  The  course  of  procedure  is 
this :  Upon  information  by  parties  who  are 
cognizant  of  the  criminal  acts  alleged,  an  in 
dictment  is  framed  by  the  proper  prosecuting 
officers,  and  laid  before  the  grand  jury.  If 
the  jurors,  after  hearing  the  evidence,  do  not 
find  "a  true  bill,"  the  party,  if  in  custody,  is 
entitled  to  be  discharged  without  further  an 
swer.  If  the  bill,  on  the  contrary,  be  found 
to  be  a  true  bill,  it  is  returned  into  court,  and 
the  party  stands  indicted  and  may  be  required 
to  answer  to  the  charges  made  against  him. 
(See  JURY.)  In  respect  to  its  form,  the  in 
dictment  is  intended  to  be  a  plain  and  certain 
narrative  of  the  offence  charged,  and  of  the 
necessary  circumstances  that  concur  to  ascer 
tain  and  define  the  fact  and  its  nature.  It  can 
perhaps  be  no  longer  made  a  reproach  to  the 
law  that  it  demands,  in  the  words  of  Chief 
Justice  Hale,  "unseemly  niceties"  in  the  fra 
ming  of  indictments,  and  yet  the  reason  for  and 
requirement  of  singular  exactness  still  remain. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  the  plain  right  of  the 
accused  to  know  that  he  has  been  legally  in 
dicted.  To  this  intent,  the  bill  must  show 
with  reasonable  certainty  that  it  was  present 
ed  to  and  proceeds  from  a  court  of  compe 
tent  jurisdiction  in  the  case;  that  the  place 
where  it  was  found  was  within  its  jurisdic 
tion  ;  and  lastly,  that  it  was  found  upon  the 
oaths  of  at  least  12  jurors,  who  must  further 
appear  to  have  been  of  the  county  or  other 
limits  of  the  court's  jurisdiction.  The  inser 
tion  of  the  jurors'  names  is  not  necessary.  The 
indictment  must  be  certain  as  to  the  name  of 
the  accused,  and  should  repeat  it  with  every 


INDIES 


INDIGO 


249 


distinct  allegation.  In  general  a  mistake  in 
the  name  is  fatal,  though  a  mere  misspelling  of 
it,  if  the  sound  be  rendered  aright,  may  not 
vitiate  the  indictment.  If  several  joined  in 
the  commission  of  the  offence,  as  in  assault  or 
robbery,  all  may  be  joined  in  the  bill,  or  each 
may  be  indicted  separately.  Yet  when  the 
crime  is  in  its  nature  distinct  and  individual, 
as  perjury  or  the  utterance  of  blasphemous  or 
seditious  words,  there  can  be  no  joinder,  though 
several  were  guilty  of  the  same  offence.  The 
time  and  place  of  every  material  fact  must  be 
distinctly  averred.  Generally,  however,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  prove  the  commission  of  the 
offence  at  the  precise  place  and  time  laid.  *  It 
is  sufficient  if  it  appear  to  have  been  commit 
ted  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  and  on 
any  day  previous  to  the  finding  of  the  bill,  if 
that  fall  within  the  period  during  which  the 
offence  may  be  prosecuted.  But  if  the  time 
or  place  is  an  essential  element  of  the  crime, 
a  variance  in  either  respect  between  the  charge 
and  the  proof  is  fatal.  If  it  be  necessary  to 
cite  written  instruments,  their  dates  must  be 
truly  stated.  The  date  is  also  material  when 
a  period  for  preferring  indictments  is  pre 
scribed  by  law,  or  when  statutes  of  limitations 
are  involved.  In  the  statement  of  the  offence, 
the  indictment  must  recite  explicitly  the  facts 
which  constitute  the  alleged  crime,  and  not 
merely  their  supposed  legal  bearing.  It  is  the 
simple  office  of  the  bill  to  exhibit  the  facts. 
If  there  be  sufficient  to  constitute  the  crime 
charged,  that  will  be  judicially  recognized  by 
the  court  as  their  legal  consequence.  A  par 
ticular  offence  must  be  alleged.  To  charge 
the  defendant  with  one  of  two  offences  dis 
junctively,  as  "  forged  or  caused  to  be  forged," 
is  insufficient ;  and  so  it  is  to  describe  him  as 
a  general  offender,  as  "common  thief"  or 
"common  slanderer."  Yet  one  may  be  in 
dicted  as  a  "  common  barretor,"  or  as  a  "keep 
er  of  a  common  bawdy  house,"  for  in  these 
cases  the  habitual  character  makes  the  particu 
lar  offence. — In  the  description  of  some  crimes 
certain  technical  words  and  terms  must  be  em 
ployed  ;  thus,  "traitorously"  in  indictments 
for  treason,  and  "feloniously"  in  all  charges 
of  felony;  "kill  and  murder"  in  charging 
murder,  and  "  took  and  carried  away  "  in  a 
case  of  simple"  larceny.  In  indictments  under 
statutes  it  is  sufficient  to  describe  the  offence  j 
in  the  words  of  the  statute.  The  indictment  j 
must  conclude  in  the  prescribed  form,  where  | 
that  is  given  by  the  state  constitution.  It  is 
generally  in  the  words,  "  against  the  peace  and 
dignity"  of  the  state  or  commonwealth. 

INDIES,  East.     See  EAST  INDIES,  and  INDIA. 

INDIES,  West.  See  ANTILLES,  and  WEST  IN 
DIES. 

INDIGO,  a  vegetable  dyestuff,  known  to  the 
ancients  by  the  name  of  indicum,  from  its 
being  brought  into  Europe  from  India.  The 
same  name  appears  to  have  been  applied  to 
India  ink  also,  but  in  this  case  usually  quali 
fied  by  the  epithet  nigrum.  So  little  was 


known  of  the  real  nature  of  this  substance, 
which  for  centuries  had  been  employed  in 
painting  and  dyeing,  that  as  late  as  the  year 
1705  it  was  spoken  of  as  a  mineral  in  letters 
patent  issued  in  Ilalberstadt,  Germany.  The 
use  of  indigo  in  dyeing  was  probably  intro 
duced  into  Italy  as  early  as  the  llth  century. 
With  the  establishment  of  direct  trade  with 
India  by  sea,  supplies  of  it  were  more  easily 
obtained,  and  after  the-  discovery  of  America 
a  similar  product  was  brought  from  the  new 
Avorld.  Francisco  Hernandez  speaks  of  it  as  in 
use  by  the  Mexicans,  the  pigment  being  called 
mohuitli  and  tleuoJiuilli,  signifying  the  same 
as  the  Latin  name  for  it,  cccruleum.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  the  importations 
of  indigo  from  the  East  Indies  into  Holland 
assumed  no  little  importance.  In  1631  there 
was  brought  by  seven  vessels  333,545  Ibs.,  es 
timated  to  be  worth  $500,000.  Its  introduc 
tion  caused  great  complaint  by  the  Germans 
on  account  of  its  superseding  the  indigenous 


Indigofera  tinctoria. 

woad.  Its  use  was  prohibited  by  the  diet  in 
1577,  and  it  was  denounced  under  the  name 
of  the  devil's  dye  as  a  pernicious,  deceitful, 
corrosive  substance.  The  people  of  Nurem 
berg,  who  cultivated  woad,  enacted  a  law  com 
pelling  the  dyers  to  take  an  oath  annually  not 
to  use  indigo,  and  this  they  were  still  obliged 
to  do  long  after  the  dye  was  in  universal  use. 
By  the  French  government  the  use  of  indigo 
was  forbidden  in  the  province  of  Languedoc 
in  1598,  and  the  law  was  long  enforced.  A 
similar  outcry  was  raised  against  it  in  England 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  in  1581  it  was 
condemned  by  act  of  parliament,  and  persons 
were  authorized  to  search  for  and  destroy  it 
and  logwood  also  in  any  dye  house.  This  law 
remained  in  force  nearly  a  century. — Indigo 
is  a  product  of  numerous  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  leguminosce,  and  indigenous  to  the 
tropical  regions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 
The  genus  indigofem  contains  about  220  spe- 


250 


INDIGO 


cies,  several  of  which  yield  the  indigo  of  com 
merce.  /.  tinctoria  is  the  one  most  cultivated 
in  the  East,  and  /.  anil  is  the  most  employed 
in  America ;  these  two  species  are  found  natu 
ralized  in  the  southern  states  as  remains  of 
former  cultivation.  /.  Caroliniana  and  /.  lep- 
tosepala  are  indigenous  species  from  North 
Carolina  southward,  and  are  said  to  be  useful 
in  domestic  dyeing.  Indigo  is  also  yielded 
by  a  few  other  genera  of  leguminoscB.  These 
plants  contain  the  coloring  principle  in  their 
leaves,  in  the  form  of  a  colorless  substance 
which  is  brought  out  and  rendered  apparent 
by  its  oxidation  as  the  leaves  dry,  or  is  devel 
oped  by  submitting  green  leaves  to  a  process 
of  fermentation  and  oxidation.  The  /.  tinc 
toria  is  cultivated  both  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies.  It  is  a  shrub,  though  sometimes  culti 
vated  as  an  annual,  4  to  6  ft.  high,  with  pinnate 
leaves  and  rose-colored  papilionaceous  flow 
ers.  The  seeds  are  sown,  in  March  and  April 
in  a  light  soil,  and  harrowed  in.  Weeds  are 
removed,  but  after  a  few  showers  the  plants 
cover  the  ground,  keeping  out  all  other  vege 
tation.  Before  they  have  reached  their  full 
height  the  plants  should  be  cut,  always  early 
in  the  morning,  and  carried  the  same  day  to 
the  factory.  Here  they  are  laid  at  once  in  a 
stone  cistern  20  ft.  square  and  3  ft.  deep. 
Hurdles  are  placed  upon  them,  and  heavy 
beams  are  laid  across  these  and  secured  to 
the  sides  of  the  vat,  the  object  being  to  keep 
the  plants  down  when  they  swell.  Water  is 
then  admitted  so  as  to  cover  the  plants.  Fer 
mentation  soon  commences,  and  may  be  allowed 
to  go  on  for  10  to  14  hours,  according  to  the 
condition  of  the  plants,  the  temperature,  and 
the  weather.  The  liquor  is  in  commotion  as  if 
boiling ;  frothy  bubbles  rise  to  the  surface,  and 
their  color,  first  white,  becomes  grayish  blue 
and  then  deep  purple,  and  finally  a  copper- 
colored  scum  covers  the  surface.  When  the 
agitation  subsides  the  liquor  is  drawn  off  into  a 
lower  vat;  and  the  beams  and  hurdles  being 
removed  from  the  upper  one,  the  steeped  plants 
are  taken  out  to  be  dried  for  fuel,  and  the  vat 
is  prepared  for  another  charge.  Several  men 
enter  the  lower  cistern  and  beat  up  the  liquid 
with  their  hands  or  with  paddles  till  the  color 
ing  matter  begins  to  appear  in  small  atoms. 
This  may  require  an  hour  and  a  half.  The  ap 
pearance  of  a  precipitate  as  fine  as  small  sand, 
leaving  the  water  clear,  indicates  favorable 
progress ;  the  beating  is  then  discontinued,  and 
the  vat  is  left  a  few  hours  for  the  indigo  to 
subside.  The  liquor  is  then  run  off  from  an 
upper  vent,  and  after  this  the  indigo  from  a 
lower  one ;  or  the  latter  is  sometimes  left  in 
part  as  the  water  is  drained  away,  find  is  then 
gathered  up  by  a  person  entering  the  vat. 
Lime  and  gum  have  been  employed  to  hasten 
the  precipitation,  but  their  use  is  considered 
objectionable  from  their  supposed  injurious 
effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  indigo.  The 
pulpy  precipitate  is  next  freed  by  standing  in 
another  cistern  from  more  of  the  water  mixed 


with  it,  and  is  then  passed  through  a  strainer 
into  a  boiler,  in  which  it  is  heated  to  ebullition, 
and  by  some  kept  boiling  for  five  or  six  hours. 
Being  freed  from  scum,  it  is  drawn  off  into  a 
vat,  from  which,  after  subsiding,  more  water 
is  taken  off  the  top,  and  the  rest  is  removed 
to  the  dripping  vat,  a  wooden  case  having  its 
floor  perforated  with  holes  and  covered  with 
a  woollen  cloth.  The  liquor  passes  through 
this  filter,  and  the  operation  is  completed  by 
subjecting  the  residue  to  the  action  of  a  press, 
forming  it  into  a  cake,  which  is  cut  by  a  wire 
into  64  square  blocks.  These  are  laid  out  upon 
hurdles  to  dry  in  the  shade,  and  left  for  sev 
eral  days  or  weeks  in  the  drying  house  before 
packing.  By  the  other  method  the  leaves  sep 
arated  from  the  stems  are  dried  in  the  sun, 
and  then  stored.  When  a  large  quantity  is 
collected  they  are  infused  with  six  times  their 
bulk  of  water,  and  stirred  for  two  hours  till 
the  leaves  all  sink.  The  liquor  is  then  drawn 
off,  beaten,  and  further  treated  as  in  the  pro 
cess  already  described. — The  Asiatic  commer 
cial  indigo  is  brought  from  the  several  ports 
of  India,  and  from  Java  and  Manila.  It  differs 
much  in  quality  and  in  shades  of  color.  The 
best  Bengal  indigo  shipped  from  Calcutta  is  the 
superfine  or  light  blue,  in  cubical  cakes,  so 
light  as  to  float  upon  water,  friable,  soft,  of 
clean  fracture,  and  of  beautiful  copper  color 
when  rubbed  with  the  nail.  Other  qualities 
are  of  shades  of  violet,  red,  and  copper  color. 
The  African  indigoes  from  Egypt  and  Senegal 
are  fine  blues,  but  generally  contaminated  with 
earthy  matters.  The  best  American  qualities, 
as  some  of  those  from  Guatemala  and  Caracas, 
are  equal  to  the  best  Bengal.  These  countries 
furnish  a  considerable  portion  of  the  indigo  of 
commerce.  The  southern  portion  of  the  Uni 
ted  States  exported  annually  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  about  134,000  Ibs.  of 
indigo,  worth  62  cts.  per  Ib.  Up  to  the  time 
of  the  civil  war  it  was  cultivated  in  Flor 
ida  and  South  Carolina,  where  the  yield  was 
about  60  Ibs.  to  the  acre,  and  the  crop  required 
attention  from  July  to  October.  In  1871  the 
United  States  imported  1,994,752  Ibs.,  about 
equal  portions  coming  from  Bengal  and  from 
Central  and  South  America.  A  very  superior 
quality  is  now  produced  at  Bogota, — The  color 
ing  matter  of  indigo,  called  pure  indigo  or  indigo 
blue,  usually  constitutes  nearly  50  per  cent,  of 
the  commercial  article,  which  may  be  obtained 
by  dissolving  out  what  is  soluble  in  boiling 
water,  then  that  which  alcohol  will  remove, 
and  finally  what  hydrochloric  acid  will  take  up. 
The  residue  is  pure  indigo  and  any  silica  that 
may  be  present.  Various  methods  are  adopt 
ed  by  different  chemists  for  determining  more 
exactly  the  proportions  of  indigo  blue  in 
samples  of  indigo.  Some  reduce  the  coloring 
matter  by  deoxidizing  agents  to  indigo  white, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  its  original 
condition  in  the  plants,  and  then  precipitating 
and  collecting  this.  Thus  Dr.  Dana  dissolves 
the  indigo  by  boiling  in  caustic  soda  with  cau- 


IXDIGO 


IXDTGO   BIRD 


251 


tious  addition  of  protochloride  of  tin ;  the  in 
soluble  portion  being  then  separated,  bichro 
mate  of  potash  recovers  and  throws  down  the 
indigo  blue,  which  when  washed  with  hydro 
chloric  acid  is  collected  and  weighed.  Others 
adopt  the  plan  of  lirst  taking  up  impurities  by 
a  succession  of  appropriate  solvents;  these 
impurities  are  chiefly  resinous  and  gummy 
matters.  The  pure  indigo  has  also  been  ob 
tained  by  another  process  dependent  on  its 
property  of  volatilizing  at  the  temperature  of 
about  550°  F.,  and  condensing  in  needle-shaped 
and  prismatic  crystals.  The  operation  is  hast 
ened  by  mixing  the  indigo  with  water  and 
twice  its  weight  of  plaster  of  Paris  to  a  paste, 
which  is  spread  on  an  iron  plate.  Heated  over 
a  spirit  lamp,  the  steam  and  vapor  of  indigo 
separate  together,  and  the  latter  collects  in 
beautiful  velvety  crystals,  upon  the  surface  of 
the  mass.  The  pure  substance  melts  nearly  at 
the  temperature  at  which  it  sublimes,  and  is 
also  charred  and  decomposed  at  about  the  same. 
It  also  ignites  and  burns  with  a  bright  flame, 
giving  olf  much  smoke.  The  crystals  have  a 
beautiful  and  intense  copper  color,  and  when 
in  thin  plates  they  present  by  transmitted 
light  a  splendid  blue.  Their  composition  is 
represented  by  the  formula  Ci6HioN"2O2.  The 
substance  resists  in  a  remarkable  degree  the 
action  of  the  ordinary  solvents  (sulphuric  acid 
excepted),  unless  it  be  first  deoxidized,  when  it 
readily  dissolves  in  alkalies.  The  conversion 
into  colorless  indigo,  though  called  oxidation, 
appears  to  be  rather  an  accession  of  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen,  which,  according  to  Liebig,  unite 
with  one  of  the  oxygen  present,  giving  to  the 
body  the  composition  of  a  hydrate,  having  the 
formula  Ci6Hi0N2O  +  H2O  or  C16Hi2X2O2 ;  the 
indigo  blue  in  this  case  being  an  oxide  of 
the  same  body,  Ci6HioX20.  The  facility  with 
which  the  change  is  effected,  and  the  readiness 
with  which  the  indigo  regains  its  blue  color 
and  insolubility  by  exposure  to  the  air,  admi 
rably  adapt  the  substance  for  use  as  a  dye.  It 
is  applied  in  the  solvent  state  to  the  fabric 
steeped  in  the  liquid ;  and  when  the  cloth  is 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  insoluble  substance  is 
developed  with  its  characteristic  color  and 
fixed  in  the  fibres. — Sulphuric  acid  dissolves 
indigo  blue  without  changing  its  color  to  red, 
the  usual  action  of  acids  upon  vegetable  blues ; 
and  when  the  substance  is  digested  for  three 
days  with  15  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  a  deep  blue  pasty  mass  is  obtained,  which 
dissolves  completely  in  water,  and  under  the 
name  of  sulphindylic  acid,  or  more  properly 
hyposulphoindigotic  acid,  is  often  used  in  dye 
ing,  and  also  in  the  manufacture  of  the  blue 
inks.  Many  other  beautiful  and  highly  inter 
esting  bodies  result  from  this  chemical  change, 
and  still  more  from  the  oxidation  of  indigo 
blue;  and  still  another  series  from  its  treat 
ment  with  the  alkalies.  These  have  received 
much  attention  from  eminent  chemists,  and  are 
particularly  treated  in  Dumas's  Traite  dc  chimie 
appliquec  aux  arts,  vol.  viii.,  in  Brande's 


"  Manual  of  Chemistry,"  and  in  Muspratt's 
"  Chemistry." — Indigo  has  been  somewhat  used 
in  medicine,  but  is  not  at  present  recognized 
as  a  remedy  of  value.  It  sometimes  produces 
nausea  and  vomiting.  It  colors  the  stools 
bluish  black,  and  also  passes  into  the  urine. 
Indican  has  occasionally  been  found  in  the 
urine  when  no  indigo  has  been  taken.  The 
dose  is  from  30  to  120  grains. 

INDIGO  BIRD  (cyanospiza  cyanca,  Baird), 
a  Xorth  American  finch,  of  a  blue  color,  tinged 
with  ultramarine  on  the  head,  throat,  and  mid 
dle  of  breast,  and  elsewhere  with  verdigris 
green  ;  lores  and  angle  of  chin  velvet  black, 
and  wing  feathers  brown  edged  with  bluish 
brown.  The  length  is  about  5£  in.,  and  the 
extent  of  wings  Vi ;  the  female  is  smaller,  and 
yellowish  brown  with  the  wings  darker.  It  is 
found  in  the  eastern  United  States,  as  far  west 
as  the  Missouri,  and  south  to  Guatemala ;  it  ar- 


Indigo  Bird  (Cyanospiza  cyanoa). — 1.  Male.    2.  Female. 

rives  in  the  southern  states  from  Mexico  and 
Central  America  about  the  middle  of  April 
with  the  painted  finch  (C.  ciris),  and  like  this 
is  caught  in  traps  for  sale.  It  prefers  open 
places  on  the  edges  of  woods ;  parched  on  the 
top  of  a  high  tree,  it  delights  to  sing  its  clear 
and  sweetly  modulated  strain,  consisting  of 
eight  or  ten  notes.  Though  less  handsome 
than  the  painted  finch,  its  shape  is  elegant  and 
compact,  and  its  manners  very  lively,  so  that 
it  is  in  request  as  a  cage  bird.  The  nest  is  made 
among  the  rankest  grass,  and  the  eggs,  four  to 
six,  are  blue,  with  one  or  two  purple  spots  on 
the  larger  end.  They  migrate  southward  in  the 
autumn.  The  food  is  small  seeds  and  insects. 

IM)HTM,  a  rare  metal  discovered  in  1863 
by  Professors  Reich  and  Richter  of  Freiberg, 
Saxony,  by  means  of  spectrum  analysis,  and 
so  named  from  two  indigo-colored  lines  in  the 
more  refrangible  part  of  the  spectrum.  It  was 
originally  detected  in  the  zinc  blende  of  Frei 
berg,  and  has  since  been  found  by  Bottger  in  the 
flue  dust  of  the  zinc  furnaces  at  Goslar,  by 


252 


INDO-CHINA 


IXDO-CIIINESE  RACES,  &c. 


Winkler  in  the  black  blende  (cliristophite)  of 
Saxony,  by  Hoppe-Seyler  in  the  wolfram  of 
Zinnwald,  by  Kochler  in  the  blende  of  Schon- 
feld,  and  by  Cornwall  in  the  blende  of  Maine. 
Indium  is  more  easily  prepared  from  crude  me 
tallic  zinc  than  from  any  of  the  original  ores. 
The  metallic  sponge  remaining  after  treatment 
of  the  impure  zinc  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
or  obtained  as  a  residue  in  the  cells  of  gal 
vanic  batteries,  is  acted  upon  by  strong  nitric 
acid,  the  excess  of  which  is  evaporated  and 
the  oxide  of  tin  and  sulphate  of  lead  filtered 
off;  the  filtrate  is  treated  with  ammonia, 
which  precipitates  the  oxide  of  indium,  and 
after  drying  this  oxide  can  be  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state  by  cyanide  of  potassium  or  by 
hydrogen  gas.  Indium  is  a  brilliant,  silver- 
white  metal,  destitute  of  crystalline  structure, 
very  soft  and  delicate,  and  easily  scratched  by 
the  finger  nail.  It  is  permanent  in  the  air,  and 
retains  its  metallic  lustre  even  in  moist  air  and 
carbonic  acid.  The  specific  gravity  depends 
upon  the  method  of  its  preparation,  and  varies 
from  7'11  to  7 '42.  The  melting  point  is  176° 
C.  Although  more  easily  fused,  it  is  less 
easily  volatilized  than  zinc  or  cadmium.  At 
a  bright  red  heat  the  metal  burns  with  a  vio 
let  flame  and  brown  smoke.  It  is  slowly  dis 
solved  by  dilute  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric 
acid,  with  evolution  of  hydrogen;  quickly  by 
strong  hydrochloric  acid.  The  atomic  weight 
is  given  by  Schrotter  as  75*61,  by  Bunsen  as 
113'4.  Indium  monoxide  has  the  formula  InO ; 
its  sulphide  is  yellow,  and  closely  resembles 
sulphide  of  cadmium.  The  chloride  is  produced 
by  passing  chlorine  gas  over  the  oxide  mixed 
with  coal,  or  over  the  metal;  it  can  be  easi 
ly  sublimed  to  beautiful,  brilliant,  crystalline 
scales,  and  is  highly  deliquescent.  Numerous 
salts  of  indium  have  been  prepared,  but  none 
of  them  possess  any  particular  value  in  medi 
cine  or  the  arts. 

INDO-CHINA,  or  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  the 
name  given  to  the  southeastern  portion  of  Asia, 
bounded  N".  by  Thibet  and  China,  E.  by  the 
gulf  of  Tonquin  and  the  China  sea,  S.  and  S. 
W.  by  the  China  sea,  the  gulf  of  Siam,  the 
strait  of  Malacca,  the  gulf  of  Martaban,  and 
the  bay  of  Bengal,  and  N.  W.  by  Ilindostan ; 
area,  about  850,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  about  25,000,- 
000.  It  is  also  designated  as  Further  India, 
and  as  India  beyond  the  Ganges.  Andaman, 
Mergui,  Nicobar,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  other 
adjacent  islands  and  groups  belong  to  it.  The 
political  divisions  of  this  region  are:  British 
Burmah,  or  Aracan,  Pegu,  and  Tenasserirn, 
comprising  the  W.  coast  and  frontier  land; 
Siam,  in  the  centre,  extending  to  the  gulf  of 
Siam,  and  including  the  Malay  peninsula; 
Cambodia,  and  French  or  Lower  Cochin  Chi 
na,  on  the  S.  extremity ;  Anam,  including  Ton 
quin  and  Cochin  China,  on  the  east ;  and  Bur 
mah  in  the  northwest,  surrounded  by  British 
Burmah,  Siam,  Anam,  China,  and  Thibet.  The 
Laos  race,  numbering  about  1,500,000,  occupy 
a  large  portion  of  the  interior  of  Indo-China 


between  Siam  and  Anam,  in  the  dominions  of 
China,  Siam,  Anam,  and  Burmah.     (See  the 
separate  articles  on  the  political  divisions.) 
INDO-CHINESE  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.     The 

nations  belonging  to  this  division  of  the  Mon 
golian  race  inhabit  southeastern  Asia,  and  speak 
monosyllabic  languages.  They  may  be  subdi 
vided  into  seven  groups :  the  Thibetan  and  Him 
alayan  or  Bhotiya  races ;  the  Burmese  and  Lo- 
hita  races;  the  aboriginal  races  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula;  the  Thai  races;  the  Ana- 
mites  ;  the  aborigines  of  China ;  and  the  Chi 
nese.  Several  ethnologists  and  linguists  prefer 
various  other  classifications ;  but,  as  has  been 
observed  by  Prof.  Whitney  and  other  author 
ities,  one  cannot  well  resist  the  conviction  that 
these  races,  which  speak  the  only  languages 
known  of  a  monosyllabic  type,  and  which  are 
clustered  together  in  one  corner  of  a  single 
continent,  all  belong  to  the  same  family  of 
mankind,  and  that  the  dialectic  differences, 
however  great,  are  the  result  of  discordant 
historic  growth. — The  Thibetans  inhabit  Thi 
bet  proper,  or  the  elevated  region  north  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains.  Several  races  in  those 
mountains,  between  the  Indus  and  the  Brah 
mapootra,  also  speak  a  language  related  to  the 
Thibetan  tongue.  They  have  all  remained  in 
a  low  stage  of  civilization,  retain  the  supersti 
tions  of  the  ancient  north  Asiatic  races  and  the 
custom  of  polyandry,  and  have  kept  aloof  from 
Buddhism.  As  that  religion  was  carried  into 
Thibet  about  the  7th  century  of  our  era,  it  is 
supposed  that  these  tribes  separated  from  the 
kindred  races  in  Thibet  in  the  6th  century  or 
earlier.  The  races  belonging  to  this  division 
are  the  Mishnu,  Bors,  Dophla,  and  Aka,  be 
tween  the  Brahmapootra  and  the  Chumulari 
mountains;  the  Lepchas  and  Bhotans,  in  the 
central  region  of  the  watershed  of  the  Teesta ; 
the  Kiranti  and  Limbu,  in  the  region  of  the 
Goosey;  the  Newar  and  Murmi,  betsvecn  the 
Coosey  and  Gnnduck;  the  Sunvar,  Gurung, 
and  Magar,  in  the  territory  of  the  river  Gun- 
duck;  the  Rongbo  and  Gunvhal,  in  the  terri 
tory  of  the  Surju  river ;  and  north  of  them  the 
Kohli,  Kakka,  Bamba,  Gakar,  Khatir,  Avan, 
and  Ganjuh.  The  lower  region  is  inhabited 
by  the  Mecha,  Kichak,  Tharu,  Den  war,  Bok- 
sar,  Hayu,  Chepang,  Kusunda,  Durro,  and 
Bramho'tribes. — The  Burmese  inhabit  the  W. 
portion  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  where 
they  conquered  the  aborigines  and  formed  a 
mighty  empire.  They  are  closely  related  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Aracan  on  the  coast  of 
the  bay  of  Bengal.  With  these  two  races  are 
connected  a  number  of  wild  tribes,  generally 
designated  collectively  as  Lohita,  which  is 
another  name  for  the  Brahmapootra;  their 
relation  to  the  Burmese  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Bhotiya  or  Himalaya  races  to  the  Thibe 
tans.  Each  of  these  numerous  tribes  speake 
a  peculiar  dialect.  The  most  important  of 
them  are  the  Bodos,  Borros,  or  Kacharis,  who 
were  formerly  called  Rangtsa,  and  who,  ac- 
;  cording  to  their  tradition,  emigrated  into  their 


INDO-CHINESE   RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


253 


present  country  from  some  place  N.  of  Assam. 
They  were  the  conquerors  of  the  ancient  em 
pire  of  Kamarupa,  and  the  founders  of  the  dy 
nasty  of  Ha-tsung-tsa.  The  Garrows  live  W. 
of  the  Cossyah  mountains;  the  Changlos  in 
habit  the  upper  valley  of  the  Brahmapootra; 
the  Miris  the  hilly  country  N.  of  Luckimpoor ; 
the  Abors  the  mountainous  region  S.  of  the 
Himalaya ;  the  Singphos  the  N.  portion  of  the 
Burmese  empire;  and  the  Mikirs  the  district 
of  NoAVgong  in  central  Assam.  To  this  divi 
sion  also  belong  the  numerous  Naga  tribes,  or 
Kwaphis  according  to  their  own  designation ; 
they  inhabit  the  regions  W.  of  the  river  Kopili, 
E.  of  the  mountains  which  separate  Assam 
from  the  Bor-Khamti  country,  and  N.  of  the 
valley  of  Assam.  The  Khyeng  inhabit  the 
Youmadoung  range  which  separates  Aracan 
from  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy.  The  Karens 
live  in  the  mountains  of  Aracan,  in  Pegu,  and 
in  southern  Burmah ;  also  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Sahveri.  The  Sabaing 
who  dwell  in  the  valley  of  Sittoung,  near  the 
city  of  Toungoo,  also  belong  to  this  group. 
— The  aborigines  of  the  Indo-Chinese  penin 
sula  are  probably  all  the  tribes  inhabiting 
principally  its  mountainous  districts  and  river 
embouchures.  They  were  driven  back  to 
these  regions  by  the  Anam  and  Thai  races 
who  immigrated  and  settled  in  the  valleys. 
They  are  barbarous  nations,  on  whom  neither 
Buddhism  nor  Chinese  civilization  has  pro 
duced  any  impression.  Among  them  may  be 
mentioned  the  Mons,  in  the  delta  of  the  Irra 
waddy,  called  Talaing  by  the  Burmese;  the 
Khomens  or  inhabitants  of  Cambodia,  dwelling 
near  the  Mekong;  the  Tsiampas,  S.  of  the 
Anamese,  who  call  them  Lau;  the  Kwantos, 
who  are  the  real  aborigines  of  Tonquin  and 
live  in  the  mountains  on  the  frontier  of  China; 
and  the  Mo  is,  "W.  of  Cochin  China.  Several 
travellers  have  described  the  last  as  being  es 
sentially  of  a  negro  type. — The  Thai  is  the 
dominant  race  of  the  Indo-Chinese  penin 
sula.  The  Siamese  are  the  Thais  proper,  and 
the  most  numerous.  The  Burmese,  Chinese, 
and  Anamese  give  them  the  name  of  Shian, 
whence  comes  the  Portuguese  Siao,  and  our 
Siam.  The  Laos  inhabit  the  interior  and  the 
north  of  the  peninsula;  they  are  subdivided 
into  white  Laos  (Lau-pang-TcaK)  and  black 
Laos  (Lau-pang-duri).  Other  Thai  races  are 
the  Alioms,  Khamtis,  and  Cossyahs.  The  Ana 
mese  inhabit  Tonquin  and  Cochin  China,;  they 
are  not  as  closely  related  to  their  western 
neighbors  as  to  the  Chinese. — Several  un 
civilized  races,  which  differ  from  the  Chi 
nese  proper  in  language,  religion,  and  manners, 
seem  to  be,  and  are  called,  the  aborigines  of 
China.  They  adhere  to  the  Shamanism  of  the 
people  of  High  Asia.  The  most  important 
races  among  them  are  the  Sifan,  the  Miautze, 
and  the  Lolo.  The  Sifans  inhabit  the  moun 
tainous  regions  AV.  of  the  Chinese  provinces 
Shensi  and  Szechuen  on  the  upper  course  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Iloang-ho  and  Yangtse-kiang. 


I  They  are  mentioned  in  the  annals  of  China 
from  A.  D.  634,  and  are  at  present  tributary 
to  the  Chinese.  They  lead  a  nomadic  life, 
raise  sheep,  and  live  in  tents.  The  Miautze 
are  scattered  over  portions  of  several  provin 
ces,  especially  in  Szechuen,  Kweichow,  Hunan, 
Ilupeh,  Yunnan,  Kwangsi,  and  on  the  frontier 
land  of  Kwangtung.  It  is  supposed  that  the 

I  inhabitants   of   Hainan  are   related   to   them. 

!  The  Lolos  are  the  aborigines  of  Yunnan  in 
S.  China;  they  are  good  miners  and  skilled 
forgers  of  weapons.  In  the  ancient  annals  of 
China  two  barbaric  races  are  mentioned,  the 
Man  and  the  Y;  but  it  has  not  been  deter 
mined  whether  they  were  distinct  races,  or  re 
lated  to  those  already  described. — The  Indo- 
Chinese  languages,  if  we  include  those  spoken 
in  Thibet  and  China,  comprise  all  the  mono 
syllabic  languages  known.  The  language  now 
spoken  in  Cochin  China  is  to  be  considered,  ac 
cording  to  Max  Milller,  as  a  dialect  of  Chinese, 
at  least  as  much  as  Norman  French  was  a  dia 
lect  of  French.  The  Chinese  was  grafted  on 
the  Anamitic,  the  native  language  of  Cochin 
China ;  yet  few  Chinese  scholars  would  recog 
nize  their  language  in  that  of  Cochin  China. 
For  instance,  it  is  one  of  the  most  characteris 
tic  features  of  the  literary  Chinese,  the  dialect 
of  Nankin,  or  the  idiom  of  the  mandarins,  that 
every  syllable  ends  in  a  vowel,  either  pure  or 
nasal.  In  Cochin-Chinese,  on  the  contrary, 
we  find  words  ending  in  1-,  £,  p  ;  thus  ten  is 
tliap,  at  Canton  chap,  instead  of  the  Chinese 
tc/ii.  In  Chinese,  Anamitic,  Burmese,  Siam 
ese,  and  all  other  monosyllabic  tongues,  there 
are  six  or  eight  musical  accents  or  modulations 
by  which  the  different  meanings  of  the  same 
monosyllabic  root  are  kept  distinct.  The 
Chinese  has  no  more  than  about  450  distinct 
sounds,  and  with  them  it  expresses  between 
40,000  and  50,000  words  or  meanings.  Thus, 
in  Anamitic,  l>a  pronounced  with  the  grave 
accent  means  either  a  lady  or  an  ancestor; 
pronounced  with  the  sharp  accent,  the  favorite 
of  a  prince ;  with  the  semi-grave  accent,  what 
has  been  thrown  away ;  with  the  grave  cir 
cumflex,  what  is  left  of  a  fruit  after  it  has  been 
squeezed ;  with  no  accent,  three ;  with  the  as 
cending  or  interrogative  accent,  a  box  on  the  ear. 
Thus  the  series  P>a,  bd,  Id,  bd  means,  if  properly 
pronounced,  u  Three  ladies  gave  a  box  on  the 
ear  to  the  favorite  of  the  prince."  The  differ 
ence  between  the  speech  of  the  Siamese  and 

!  their  neighbors  the  Burmese  is  very  marked. 
The  Burmese  use  an  excessive  number  of  triple 
consonants,  mho  and  similar  combinations; 
but  in  nothing  is  the  difference  more  noticeable 
than  in  the  frequent  use  by  the  Burmese  of 
the  th  sound,  uttered  Avith  a  strong  guttural 
breathing,  where  the  Siamese  use  s.  The  tAvo 
alphabets  also  are  very  dissimilar  in  form,  the 
Burmese  using  a  round  character  derived  from 
Ceylon,  while  the  Siamese  have  a  compara 
tively  square  character  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  ancient  Cambodian  letters  still  used 
for  their  sacred  books,  and  generally  for  the 


254:      INDO-EUROPEAN  RACES,  &c. 


INDRE 


Pali  language,  and  which  in  turn  appears  to 
be  a  form  of  the  Devanagari.  The  Laos  in  N. 
Siam  speak  a  mixed  dialect  of  which  Siamese 
is  the  principal  component,  and  use  the  Bur 
mese  alphabet. — See  De  Game's  "Travels  in 
Indo-China  and  the  Chinese  Empire  "  (Lon 
don,  1872),  and  Vincent's  "Land  of  the  White 
Elephant "  (London,  1874). 

INDO-EUROPEAN  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.  See 
ARYAN  RACE  AND  LANGUAGE,  and  GERMANIC 
RACES  AND  LANGUAGES. 

INDORE.  I.  A  native  state  of  India,  con 
stituting  the  dominions  of  the  Mahratta  chief, 
the  maharajah  Holkar,  and  consisting  of  sev 
eral  isolated  tracts  scattered  over  a  large  part 
of  central  India;  aggregate  area,  8,318  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  850,000.  It  is  bounded  S.  and  W. 
by  Dhar  and  the  territory  of  the  Bombay  presi 
dency,  and  N.  and  E.  by  Sindia  and  the  rajah- 
ship  of  Dewass.  It  is  traversed  E.  and  "W.  by 
the  Vindhya  mountains,  and  the  Satpoora  range 
runs  in  the  same  direction  along  its  S.  border. 
The  valley  between  these  ridges  is  watered  by 
the  Nerbudda  flowing  W.  The  N".  part  of  this 
tract,  and  most  of  the  other  portions  of  Hol- 
kar's  territory,  belong  to  the  great  table  land 
of  Mai wah.  The  X.  districts  are  watered  by 
the  Chumbul  and  its  feeders.  The  soil  is  gen 
erally  fertile,  producing  wheat  and  other  grain, 
opium,  pulse,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  and  tobacco. 
The  inhabitants  comprise  Makrattas,  the  domi 
nant  race,  Bheels,  Gonds,  and  a  few  Mohamme 
dans.  The  Bheels  are  supposed  to  be  the  abo 
rigines.  The  Gonds  or  Khoonds  are  numerous 
in  all  this  part  of  India,  and  have  given  their 
name  to  the  region  of  Gondwana,  which  ex 
tends  S.  from  Indore.  (See  BHEELS,  GONDS, 
and  MAHEATTAS.)  Like  all  states  in  subsidiary 
alliance  with  the  British  government,  Indore  is 
occupied  by  British  forces,  which  protect  it 
against  invasion,  and  maintain  the  authority  of 
the  maharajah.  The  British  government  re 
ceives  in  return  an  annual  subsidy,  which  may 
be  paid,  if  preferred,  by  cession  of  territory, 
and  reserves  the  right  of  interference  in  cases 
of  bad  government  on  the  part  of  the  native 
chief. — In  1733  the  town  and  district  of  Indore 
were  given  by  the  peishwa  to  Mulhar  Row  (or 
Rao)  Holkar,  a  Mahratta  leader,  born  a  shep 
herd,  who  had  risen  by  his  courage  and  talents 
as  a  soldier.  lie  died  in  1766,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  a  grandson,  who  soon  died  insane, 
leaving  the  sovereignty  to  his  mother,  Alia 
Baee,  who  retained  it  for  30  years.  In  1797  the 
commander  of  her  f  orces,Tookajee  Holkar,  died, 
and  his  illegitimate  son,  Jeswunt  Row  Holkar, 
seized  the  government.  He  was  expelled  by 
the  Sindia*  family,  but  reinstated  himself  in 
1802.  He  inaugurated  an  extensive  system  of 
plunder,  for  which  the  British  authorities  made 
war  on  him.  He  advanced  on  Delhi  at  the 
head  of  60,000  horse,  but  was  defeated  by  Lord 
Lake  in  two  engagements.  In  1805  he  entered 
the  Punjaub  with  a  new  army,  but  was  closely 
followed  by  Lake,  and  in  December  concluded 
a  treaty  which  left  him  in  possession  of  nearly 


all  his  dominions.  He  died  insane  in  1811, 
and  his  mistress  Toolsee  Bye  acted  as  regent 
for  Mulhar  Row  Holkar,  his  natural  son  by" an 
other  woman,  until  she  was  murdered  in  1817, 
and  young  Mulhar  was  seized  by  the  army, 
which,  ostensibly  under  his  command,  began 
hostilities  against  the  British.  After  a  decisive 
battle  at  Mahidpoor,  Dec.  21,  1817,  a  treaty 
was  signed  in  January,  1818,  by  which  the 
Mahrattas  ceded  a  large  part  of  their  territory 
and  retained  the  rest  under  British  protection. 
Mulhar  Row  died  in  1833 ;  his  successor,  Mar- 
tund  Row,  was  dethroned  to  make  room  for 
Hurree  Row,  an  imbecile  prince,  who  left  the 
government  to  his  adopted  son  Kumdee ;  and 
when  the  last  named  died  without  heirs,  the 
East  India  company  assumed  the  right  of  nomi 
nating  as  his  successor  Mulkerjee  Row  Holkar, 
who  took  the  reins  of  government  in  February, 
1852.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  mutiny  in  1857 
he  attempted  to  take  the  field  for  the  British ; 
but  many  of  his  troops  deserted,  and  the  re 
mainder  held  him  a  prisoner  in  his  palace  and 
massacred  a  large  number  of  Europeans.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  state,  situated  in  a  plain  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  small  river  Kutki,  13  m. 
N.  "W.  of  the  British  military  station  of  Mhow, 
and  317  m.  1ST.  E.  of  Bombay  ;  pop.  about 
15,000.  It  is  an  ill-built  place,  contains  a  few 
mosques,  several  Hindoo  temples,  and  the  pal 
ace  of  Holkar,  and  has  no  handsome  edifices 
except  the  houses  of  the  English  inhabitants. 
The  palace,  of  granite,  which  fronts  on  an 
open  place,  is  over  300  ft.  square  and  six  sto 
ries  high,  enclosing  a  court  surrounded  by  pil 
lars  of  black  wood.  Its  style  of  architecture 
is  impure  Saracenic.  The  town  is  walled,  but 
its  defences  are  of  no  great  strength.  There 
is  a  British  resident  here.  The  present  town 
is  comparatively  modern,  the  ancient  Indore 
being  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  In 
dore  was  plundered  in  1801  by  Sindia,  and  in 
1804  it  was  occupied  by  a  British  force  un 
der  Col.  Murray,  who  surrendered  it  on  the 
conclusion  of  peace  in  the  following  year. 

INDORSEMENT,  or  Endorsement.  See  EX 
CHANGE,  PROMISSORY  NOTE,  and  NEGOTIABLE 
PAPER. 

INDRE,  a  central  department  of  France, 
formed  chiefly  from  the  old  province  of  Ber 
ry,  bordering  on  Loir-et-Chcr,  Cher,  Creuse, 
Haute- Vienne,  Vienne,  and  Indre-et-Loire ; 
area,  2,624  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  277,693. 
The  surface  is  mostly  level,  and  presents  three 
marked  and  distinct  divisions:  Bois  Chaud, 
where  the  farms  are  small,  and  the  scenery 
varied  from  the  number  of  its  hedges,  hedge 
rows,  and  woods ;  Champagne,  a  flat  treeless 
region,  without  hedge  or  shrubby  enclosure 
of  any  kind;  and  La  Brenne,  a  low  district, 
covered  in  part  with  shallow  ponds,  the  me- 
phitic  exhalations  of  which  are  very  unhealth- 
ful.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Indre,  Creuse, 
Claise,  Arnon,  and  Fouzon.  The  Indre  rises 
in  the  department  of  Cher,  and  joins  the  Loire 
after  a  N.  W.  and  W.  course  of  about  130  m., 


INDEE-ET-LOIRE 


INDULGENCE 


255 


for  the  last  44  of  which  it  is  navigable.  The 
climate,  except  in  the  district  of  La  Brenne,  is 
mild  and  healthful.  The  soil  is  rather  light 
and  gravelly,  hut  not  ill  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  cereals.  Nearly  two  thirds  of  the  whole  area 
is  arable.  Grain  is  raised  for  exportation ;  next 
in  importance  are  the  crops  of  hemp  and  tiax. 
The  wine  produced  is  not  highly  esteemed. 
There  are  large  numhers  of  sheep  with  a  very 
fine  quality  of  wool.  Iron  mines  are  worked, 
and  there  are  a  few  quarries  of  marble,  mill 
stones,  granite,  and  mica.  Linen  cloths,  ho 
siery,  scythes,  paper,  porcelain,  and  earthen 
ware  are  the  principal  manufactures.  The  de 
partment  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Chateauroux,  Le  Blanc,  Issoudun,  and  La 
Ohatre.  Capital,  Chateauroux. 

INDRE-ET-LOIRE,  a  central  department  of 
France,  in  the  old  province  of  Touraine,  bor 
dering  on  Sarthe,  Loir-et-Cher,  Indre,  Vienne, 
and  Maine-et-Loire ;  area,  2,361  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  317,027.  It  is  named  from  the  rivers 
Indre  and  Loire,  which  unite  within  its  limits. 
The  Vienne  and  the  Creuse  water  it  in  the 
south.  In  the  N.  districts  are  several  arid 
wastes,  and  all  over  the  department  many  ex 
tensive  forests,  the  largest  of  which  are  those 
of  Amboise,  Loches,  and  Chinon.  The  climate 
is  remarkable  for  its  mildness  and  salubrity. 
The  soil  is  in  general  extremely  fertile.  The 
land  on  both  sides  of  the  Loire  is  called  the  gar 
den  of  France,  and  consists  of  a  light  but  deep 
vegetable  loam.  Grain,  hemp,  flax,  anise,  and 
coriander  are  grown  on  a  large  scale.  Fruit  is 
very  abundant,  and  the  Tours  prunes  are  large 
ly  exported.  Much  wine  is  made,  some  of 
which  bears  a  high  reputation.  Bees  and  silk 
worms  are  carefully  tended ;  game  and  fish  are 
abundant.  The  chief  industrial  products  are 
bar  iron,  hardware,  powder,  woollen  cloth, 
silk,  leather,  paper,  and  pottery.  The  depart 
ment  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of 
Tours,  Chinon,  and  Loches.  Capital,  Tours. 

LM)RI.     See  LEMUR. 

INDULGENCE  (Lat.  indulgere,  to  yield,  to 
grant),  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  re 
mission  of  the  temporal  penalty  to  be  under 
gone  by  the  sinner,  after  his  sin  has  been  for 
given  in  confession.  The  term  originated  in 
the  discipline  of  the  early  church,  when  noto 
rious  sinners  were  sentenced,  after  they  had 
been  absolved  in  confession,  to  periods  of  pub 
lic  penance  sometimes  extending  to  the  hour 
of  death.  The  sincere  sorrow  of  the  offend 
ers,  the  intercession  of  those  who  were  impris 
oned  or  about  to  suffer  death  for  the  faith, 
and  occasionally  even  the  prayers  of  the  civil 
magistrates,  induced  the  bishops  to  be  indul 
gent  to  the  penitents,  by  granting  them  a  re 
mission  of  the  imposed  canonical  penance,  or 
by  relaxing  its  rigor.  The  use  of  public  pen 
ances  passed  away  with  that  of  public  confes 
sion,  and  was  replaced  both  in  the  eastern  and 
western  churches  by  good  works,  private  aus 
terities,  and  devotional  exercises.  When  Chris 
tianity  spread  among  the  northern  nations  of 
VOL.  ix. — 17 


Europe,  the  canonical  penances  were  found  to 
be  inapplicable  to  their  condition.  Their  pa 
gan  jurisprudence  had  accustomed  them  to  pe 
cuniary  mulcts,  so  that  persons  guilty  of  theft 
or  murder  could  purchase  exemption,  and  com 
pound  with  the  injured  parties  or  their  rela 
tives,  by  paying  a  stipulated  fine.  This  system 
was  applied  by  the  church  to  penitential  atone 
ments  ;  and  the  money  thus  contributed  was 
employed  in  almsgiving,  or  for  the  redemption 
of  captives,  the  freeing  of  slaves,  or  the  ex 
penses  of  public  worship.  The  directions  drawn 
up  by  Theodore  of  Canterbury  and  Egbert  of 
York  in  the  8th  century,  and  by  Ilalitgar  of 
Cambrai  in  the  9th,  were  framed  for  the  pur 
pose  of  administering  penance  in  conformity 
with  these  national  customs.  But  this  substi 
tution  of  pecuniary  fines  gave  rise  to  serious 
misapprehensions  and  gross  abuses.  It  was 
easy  for  the  unlettered  multitude  to  confound 
the  remission  of  the  canonical  penalty  thus  ob 
tained  for  money  with  the  purchase  of  pardon 
for  sin.  Many  councils  and  ecclesiastical  wri 
ters  of  these  times  either  denounced  the  prac 
tice  altogether,  or  urged  upon  the  clergy  the 
duty  of  instructing  the  people  on  the  true  na 
ture  of  penitential  satisfaction.  The  synod  of 
Cloveshoo  or  Abingdon  in  742  stigmatized  the 
prevalent  error  that  almsgiving  releases  the 
sinner  from  the  more  stringent  kinds  of  pen 
ance;  and  in  813  the  second  council  of  Chalons 
uttered  a  similar  warning.  In  1095  the  coun 
cil  of  Clermont,  by  the  authority  of  Pope 
Urban  II.,  offered  a  "  plenary  indulgence  "  to 
all  who  took  the  cross  for  the  purpose  of  de 
livering  Jerusalem.  It  was  enacted  that  all 
who,  having  confessed  their  sins  with  true 
repentance,  might  engage  in  the  expedition, 
should  be  exempted,  in  consequence  of  the  la 
bor  and  dangers  to  which  they  voluntarily  ex 
posed  themselves,  from  the  canonical  penances 
to  which  they  were  otherwise  liable.  The 
council  of  Lyons  in  1274  extended  the  same 
indulgence  to  all  who,  unable  to  join  the  cru 
sade  in  person,  should  by  voluntary  donations 
contribute  to  its  success.  From  that  period 
indulgences  began  to  be  multiplied,  and  as 
often  as  money  was  required  for  any  object 
connected  with  the  interests  of  the  church, 
they  were  offered  to  the  people.  Out  of  this 
practice  grew  abuses  of  two  kinds.  The  money 
thus  obtained  was  frequently  diverted  from  its 
original  destination ;  and  the  office  of  collect 
ing  it  being  committed  to  inferior  agents,  sec 
ular  as  well  as  ecclesiastical,  it  became  their 
interest,  as  they  received  a  percentage  on  the 
amount,  to  exaggerate  the  advantages  of  the 
indulgence,  and  to  impose  upon  the  credulity 
and  simplicity  of  the  people.  Severe  consti 
tutions  were  enacted  by  several  popes  to  pre 
vent  such  abuses,  and  to  punish  the  rapacity 
and  impiety  of  the  collectors ;  but  these  laws 
were  not  enforced,  and  fell  into  disuse.  Be 
sides,  during  the  great  western  schism  the  rival 
pretenders  to  the  papacy  lavished  indulgences 
among  their  supporters.  This  brought  both  the 


256 


INDULGENCE 


indulgence  and  the  authority  which  dispensed 
it  into  discredit.  The  crisis  came  when  Julius 
II.  proposed  the  erection  of  the  new  basilica  of 
St.  Peter's  on  the  Vatican  hill,  and  published 
an  indulgence  in  Poland  and  France  in  favor  of 
all  who  should  help  defray  its  cost.  His  suc 
cessor,  Leo  X.,  added  to  this  object  a  crusade 
against  the  Turks,  and  extended  the  indulgence 
to  the  northern  provinces  of  Germany.  The 
papal  commission  for  this  purpose  was  issued 
to  the  archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  who  delega 
ted  it  to  the  Dominicans,  among  whom  was 
the  notorious  Tetzel.  They  spread  themselves 
rapidly  over  Saxony,  and,  according  to  Luther, 
offered  indulgences  in  the  streets,  markets,  and 
taverns,  teaching  that  every  contributor,  if  he 
paid  on  his  own  account,  infallibly  opened  to 
himself  the  gates  of  heaven ;  if  on  account  of 
the  dead,  instantly  liberated  a  soul  from  pur 
gatory.  These  abuses  were  subsequently  con 
demned  by  the  council  of  Trent,  and  measures 
were  prescribed  for  suppressing  them  or  pre 
venting  their  recurrence  in  each  diocese.  Since 
that  period,  though  no  such  general  abuses  have 
been  noticed  by  historians,  yet  in  many  Roman 
Catholic  countries  indulgences  have  continued 
to  be  published  in  forms  which  give  great  of 
fence,  especially  to  Protestants. — The  expres 
sions  used,  and  the  local  customs  relating  to 
indulgences,  can  only  be  rightly  understood 
from  a  clear  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  on  this  subject.  She 
teaches  that  by  sacramental  absolution  the  guilt 
of  sin  (reatus  culpcB)  committed  after  baptism 
is  taken  away,  together  with  the  eternal  pun 
ishment  it  deserves,  by  virtue  of  Christ's  suf 
ferings;  but  that  the  pardoned  sinner  re 
mains  liable  to  the  reatus  pcence,  or  to  a  tempo 
ral  penalty  to  be  paid  in  this  life  or  the  next. 
This  penalty  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
u  canonical  penances  "  of  the  primitive  church. 
It  is  held  by  Catholic  theologians  that  St.  Paul 
showed  indulgence  to  the  incestuous  Corinthian 
before  the  institution  of  the  system  of  canon 
ical  penances.  These  were  established  gradu 
ally  by  local  usage  in  the  East  and  West,  with 
out  the  authority  of  any  general  ecclesiastical 
law  ;  and  the  penitential  canons  which  regula 
ted  the  application  of  such  penances  varied, 
like  the  usage  itself,  in  different  countries.  As 
this  whole  system  had  been  introduced  by 
custom,  so  it  fell  into  disuse  without  ever 
having  been  repealed  by  any  general  council. 
The  church,  meanwhile,  never  ceased  to  exact 
of  the  penitent  the  satisfaction  due  primarily 
to  the  divine  law  violated  by  his  transgressions, 
and  secondarily  to  the  community  scandalized 
and  disturbed  by  them.  So  long  as  the  peniten 
tial  canons  remained  in  vigor,  the  fulfilment  of 
their  prescriptions  was  held  to  be  satisfactory 
before  God  and  the  church,  releasing  the  peni 
tent  from  the  reatus  posnce  both  here  and  here 
after.  A  true  satisfaction  to  the  church  meant 
a  true  satisfaction  to  God.  In  like  manner, 
since  the  disuse  of  canonical  penances,  the 
fulfilment  of  those  imposed  by  the  church  is  to 


be  taken  as  the  payment  of  what  is  due  to  God 
as  well  as  to  herself.  Moreover,  penitential 
works  derive  their  worth  and  efficacy  from 
their  being  performed  in  union  with  Christ's 
atonement.  He  and  his  sanctified  members, 
whether  in  heaven,  on  earth,  or  in  purgatory, 
form  in  the  view  of  the  church  one  moral  per 
son  ;  and  his  Spirit  imparts  to  the  virtues  and 
acts  of  his  saints  all  the  supernatural  merit 
which  they  possess.  Their  merits  added  to 
his,  like  a  finite  quantity  added  to  the  infinite, 
do  not  increase  the  latter,  but  are  only  merged 
in  it.  These  united  merits  of  Christ  the  head 
and  of  all  his  true  members  constitute  the  prop 
erty  of  regenerated  humanity  ;  they  form  a 
treasury  committed  to  the  guardianship  of  the 
church,  of  which  she  as  his  spouse  is  the 
dispenser.  Out  of  this  she  sets  apart  a  por 
tion  for  her  needy  children,  which  they  may 
make  their  own  by  the  performance,  in  a  state 
of  grace,  of  specified  good  works,  and  wTith 
this  acquired  treasure  purchase  for  themselves 
or  for  the  dead  perfect  reconciliation  and  com 
munion  with  God.  The  Christian  who,  by 
gaining  an  indulgence  through  the  accomplish 
ment  of  certain  outward  acts,  thus  becomes 
master  of  a  portion  of  Christ's  redeeming 
merits,  purchases  his  own  soul's  perfect  peace 
with  "a  price"  which  he  presents  to  the  di 
vine  justice  through  Christ ;  and  if  he  offer 
the  whole  fruit  for  the  release  of  a  soul  in  pur 
gatory,  he  does  so  through  the  church,  per 
modum  suffragii,  as  an  intercessory  offering, 
which  God  may  or  may  not  accept,  but  which 
the  church  assumes  he  actually  does  accept  in 
ratification  of  her  action.  In  both  cases,  when 
every  prescribed  condition  for  the  gaining  of 
an  indulgence  has  been  fulfilled,  God  remits  in 
heaven  what  Christ's  spouse  remits  upon  earth. 
The  nature  and  existence  of  this  treasury  of 
merits,  its  application,  as  here  explained,  to  the 
living  and  the  dead,  and  the  ratification  by 
God  of  the  acts  of  the  church  relating  to 
indulgences,  are,  without  being  defined  as  of 
faith,  considered  as  proximo,  fidei.  As  the 
temporal  satisfaction  or  penalty  due  by  the 
sinner  after  sacramental  absolution  is  a  con 
sequence  of  the  sin  itself,  it  has  always  been 
called  sin  in  the  style  of  jthe  Roman  chancery, 
and  in  the  papal  bulls  which  treat  of  indulgences 
and  jubilees.  Hence  the  phrase  "  full  and  com 
plete  remission  of  sins  "  is  to  be  understood 
as  meaning  the  full  and  complete  remission  of 
the  temporal  penalty  secured  by  the  fulfilment 
of  the  conditions  prescribed  for  an  indulgence, 
a  necessary  but  tacit  preliminary  to  which  is 
sacramental  absolution  to  the  truly  contrite. 
In  no  supposable  case  can  indulgence  be  a  par 
don  for  the  guilt  of  sin  even  to  the  most  heart- 
stricken  penitent,  still  less  a  prospective  pardon 
of  future  sins,  or  a  license  for  committing 
them.  A  plenary  indulgence  is  the  remission 
of  the  entire  satisfaction  due  to  God  and  sub 
ject  to  the  power  of  the  church.  The  indul 
gence  of  a  jubilee  differs  from  this,  not  in  a 
fuller  relaxation  of  penalty,  but  in  the  wider 


INDUS 


257 


absolving  faculties  granted  on  such  an  occasion 
to  confessors.  A  partial  indulgence,  specify 
ing  any  limited  time,  alludes  to  the  forms  of 
the  old  penitential  canons,  which  enjoined  for 
each  sin  a  penance  proportioned  in  rigor  and 
duration  to  its  gravity.  The  inscriptions  to 
he  found  in  Rome  or  elsewhere  in  Catholic 
churches  on  what  are  called  privileged  altars 
give  much  offence  to  Protestants,  because  the 
words  denote  that  "these  souls  are  delivered 
from  purgatory."  Benedict  XIV.  explains 
them  by  saying  that  "  whenever  a  pope  de 
clares  an  altar  to  be  privileged,  he  sets  apart, 
each  time  the  eucharistic  sacrifice  is  offered  on 
it  for  a  departed  soul,  a  sufficient  portion  of 
the  church's  treasure  of  merits  to  obtain  from 
God,  if  it  so  pleaseth  him,  the  release  of  that 
soul  from  purgatory."  This  explanation  also 
applies  to  the  indulgences  attached  to  certain 
festivals,  to  privileged  pilgrimages,  to  visiting 
certain  churches,  or  to  the  performance  of  such 
devotions  as  the  "  way  of  the  cross."  All  can 
be  appropriated  to  the  souls  in  purgatory  in 
the  way  mentioned  above.  —  The  Scriptural 
grounds  to  which  Roman  Catholic  theologians 
appeal  in  support  of  their  doctrine  of  satisfac 
tion  and  indulgences  are  :  1,  for  satisfaction, 
the  examples  of  Adam,  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Da 
vid,  who,  'though  pardoned,  were  subjected  to 
most  grievous  temporal  punishments;  2,  for 
indulgences,  the  power  of  the  keys  bestowed 
on  Peter  (Matt.  xvi.  19),  and  on  the  apostles 
collectively  (Matt,  xviii.  18),  and  their  exercise 
in  binding  (1  Cor.  v.  4)  and  in  loosing  or  re 
mitting  (2  Cor.  ii.  6).  Moreover,  they  contend, 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  in  this  matter  rests 
on  tradition,  which  is  interpreted  by  the  per 
petual  usage  of  the  church  and  the  writings 
of  the  fathers. — See  Wiseman's  "  Lectures 
on  the  Doctrines  and  Practices  of  the  Catholic 
Church"  (London,  1844;  Baltimore,  1852); 
Bergier's  Dictionnaire  dc  tJieologie  ;  Hirscher's 
Lehre  'com  Ablass  (Tubingen,  1844) ;  Mean 
der's  "History  of  Doctrines,"  vol.  ii.,  594, 
and  "Church  History,"  vol.  iii. ;  and  Hodge's 
"  Systematic  Theology,"  vol.  iii. 

INDUS,  or  Sindc  (Sans.  Sindhu,  river;  Pers. 
Ab-tiind),  a  river  of  Asia,  rising  on  the  IsT. 
side  of  the  Himalaya,  in  Thibet,  and  dis 
charging  into  the  Arabian  sea.  Its  three  re 
motest  feeders  are  the  Senge-khabab  ("  sprung 
from  the  lion's  mouth  "),  also  called  the  Singi- 
choo  ("  lion  stream  "),  the  Lang-choo,  and  the 
Gartung-choo.  All  three  have  their  sources 
X.  of  the  Kailas  range.  The  first  named  is  the 
largest,  and  is  considered  the  beginning  of  the 
Indus.  It  rises  near  the  Kailas  Parbat  moun 
tain,  at  an  elevation  of  about  18,000  ft.,  about 
lat,  31°  10'  K,  Ion.  81°  20'  E.,  not  more  than 
100  in.  from  the  sources  of  the  Sanpo,  one 
of  the  principal  feeders  of  the  Brahmapootra, 
and  of  the  Ganges.  The  Lang-choo  flows 
into  the  Senge-khabab  before  the  Gartung, 
and  50  in.  further,  flowing  N.  "W.,  the  river 
enters  Ladakh.  At  Raldang,  100  m.  from 
the  confluence,  it  can  still  be  crossed  without 


boats  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer. 
At  Ranag,  9  in.  below  Raldang,  it  is  passable 
for  horses  during  the  whole  year.  The  ex 
treme  width  of  the  river  at  this  point,  how 
ever,  is  remarkable.  The  water  surface,  mea 
sured  in  summer,  was  2,158  ft.  across,  and  left 
nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  river  a  bank  1,155 
ft.  wide  entirely  uncovered.  It  is  presumed 
that  in  seasons  of  flood  the  Indus  attains  here 
a  width  of  3,313  ft.  The  depth  is  only  2  or  3 
ft.  The  width  of  the  river  decreases  very 
rapidly  from  this  point,  and  about  450  rn.  from 
its  source,  near  the  city  of  Leh,  it  is  reduced 
in  the  summer  to  75  ft.,  with  a  depth  of  8  ft. 
The  valley  of  the  Indus  is  here  only  10,723  ft, 
high,  the  river  having  fallen  nearly  5,300  ft,, 
or  at  the  rate  of  12  ft.  to  the  mile.  Continuing 
its  N.  "W.  course  through  the  valley  S.  of  the 
Kailas  range,  50  in.  below  the  town  of  Kalatse 
it  is  still  75  ft.  wide,  but  on  only  one  third  of 
the  surface  are  signs  of  a  steady  flow ;  the  re 
mainder  is  either  in  a  state  of  stagnation,  or 
moves  on  very  slowly.  The  river  is  however 
very  deep  in  its  main  channels,  measuring  from 
18  to  22  ft.  About  55  m.  below  it  receives  the 
river  Dras  from  Cashmere,  and  at  Kiris,  47  in. 
further,  it  is  joined  on  the  right  by  the  large 
river  Shy-yok.  At  the  mountain  Mendok-kar, 
near  Iskardoh,  the  chief  town  of  Bulti,  which 
the  river  reaches  by  a  circuit  of  50  m.,  it  is  no 
more  than  7,255  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  name  Senge-khabab  disappears  here,  and 
the  river  begins  to  be  known  as  the  Ab-Sind, 
or  Indus.  About  60  m.  below  Iskardoh  it 
changes  its  course  suddenly  from  N.  W.  to  S., 
and  crosses  the  Himalaya  a  few  miles  above 
the  E.  end  of  the  valley  of  Gilgit,  from  which 
it  receives  the  river  Yasan.  It  descends  in  a 
torrent  to  Bunji,  a  town  20  m.  further  on  and 
only  4,870  ft.  above  the  sea.  A  few  miles  be 
low  this  it  leaves  the  territory  of  Bulti  and 
enters  that  of  Kafiristan,  through  which  it 
flows  for  nearly  170  m.  in  a  tortuous  S.  W. 
and  S.  course.  The  character  of  this  portion 
of  the  river  is  almost  totally  unknown.  It  re 
turns  to  the  British  territory  at  Derband,  mea 
suring  in  August  nearly  300  ft.  across,  but 
without  much  depth.  There  are  five  fords  be 
tween  here  and  Attock,  GO  m.  below ;  they 
are  at  times  somewhat  treacherous,  and  it  is 
related  that  at  one  of  them,  just  above  the  in 
flux  of  the  Cabool,  Runjeet  Singh  lost  7,000 
men  in  trying  to  cross  with  his  army.  Al 
though  the  Cabool  is  navigable  for  40  m.,  the 
navigation  of  the  Indus  terminates  just  above 
its  confluence.  Attock  is  situated  1,049  ft. 
above  the  sea,  or  9,674  ft.  below  Leh.  The 
course  of  the  river  between  these  two  cities  is 
470  m.  long,  which  shows  a  fall  of  nearly  21 
ft.  to  the  mile  over  this  distance,  or  of  a  little 
more  than  16  ft.  to  the  mile  from  the  source. 
From  Attock  to  the  sea  the  Indus  is  942  m. 
long.  It  moves  at  first  impetuously  through 
high  cliffs  of  slate,  which  contract  it  to  a  width 
of  250  ft.,  but  render  it  180  ft.  deep.  Near 
Kalabagh  it  enters  a  plain,  takes  up  the  Swan  or 


258 


INDUS 


INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS 


Soohan,  and  expands  again  to  1,500  ft.  with  an 
average  depth  of  60  ft.  For  the  next  350  m., 
to  Mittun  Kote,  the  Indus  takes  a  more  south 
erly  course,  and  separates  into  numerous  arms, 
enclosing  fertile  islands,  which  are  covered  du 
ring  the  summer  inundations  with  an  immense 
sheet  of  water,  extending  over  the  level  coun 
try  of  the  E.  bank.  The  main  channel  near 
Kaheree  is  3,000  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  deep. 
Near  Mittun  Kote  occurs  the  influx  of  the 
Puirjnud,  which  carries  into  it  the  waters  of 
the  Jhylum,  Chenaub,  Ravee,  Beas,  and  Sut- 
lej,  the  five  rivers  of  the  Punjaub.  The  In 
dus  swells  here  in  its  lowest  stage  to  a  width 
of  6,000  ft.,  and  spreads  in  times  of  inundation 
over  20  m.  on  the  W.  and  10  or  12  ra.  on  the  E. 
side.  A  S.  "W.  course  of  about  50  m.  carries 
it  into  the  arid,  rainless,  alluvial  plain  of  Sinde, 
where  extensive  irrigation  works  have  been  con 
structed  by  the  British  government,  and  others 
are  in  progress.  The  river  has  so  frequently 
changed  its  direction  in  flowing  through  this 
region  that  traces  of  Ancient  channels  are  very 
numerous,  the  main  channel  being  now  consider 
ably  further  W.  than  formerly.  Its  banks  are 
higher  than  the  adjacent  tracts,  the  surface  of 
which  slopes  away  from  the  river.  This  pecu 
liarity  is  due  to  the  silt  brought  down  by  the 
waters  of  the  Indus  and  deposited  in  conse 
quence  of  the  decreased  rapidity  of  its  current 
in  this  nearly  level  country.  These  silt  depos 
its  are  constantly  forming  new  land  in  some 
localities  and  causing  the  river  to  break  through 
its  banks  in  others.  From  Mittun  Kote  to  the 
sea  the  Indus  flows  over  a  distance  of  about 
450  m.  The  East  Narra  is  an  ancient  channel 
which  separates  from  it  near  Soodaja,  and  ex 
tends  S.  E.  through  the  desert  of  Thur ;  it  is 
now  supplied  with  water  by  canals  connecting 
with  the  Indus.  The  West  Narra  branches  off 
18  m.  below  Roree,  follows  a  tortuous  S.  course 
of  about  160  m.,  forms  the  Mantchoor  lake, 
and  returns  to  the  Indus  near  Sewan,  10  m. 
below.  From  this  point  the  bed  of  the  Indus 
is  depressed  16  to  18  ft.  below  the  adjacent 
lands.  The  Fulailee  was  originally  a  natural 
branch  of  the  Indus  on  the  E.  side,  returning 
to  it  about  16  m.  below  Hydrabad,  the  capital 
of  Sinde,  which  is  situated  on  the  tract  of 
land  thus  turned  into  an  island.  It  has  been 
converted  into  a  main  feeder  for  irrigation 
canals,  S.  and  E.  of  that  city.  The  delta  of 
the  Indus  consists  of  numerous  mouths  be 
tween  Hydrabad  and  the  Arabian  sea,  and  is 
about  100  m.  long  and  130  m.  wide.  The 
principal  mouths  are  the  Koree,  the  Seer,  the 
Mooll  or  Maw,  the  Kookeewarree,  the  Kedy- 
warree,  the  Rechel,  the  Pinteeance,  and  the 
Pittee.  The  last  is  at  present  the  widest  and 
deepest,  and  always  navigable ;  the  Ilujamree 
was  the  most  important  till  1838,  when  a  sud 
den  change  in  the  channel  rendered  it  entirely 
useless.  The  tide  rises  as  far  as  Tattah,  about 
70  m.  from  the  sea.  The  Indus  is  not  naviga 
ble  above  Roree  for  vessels  of  more  than  4  ft. 
draught.  The  entire  length  of  the  Indus  is 


about  2,000  m.,  and  the  area  of  its  drainage 
basin  is  estimated  at  312,000  sq.  m.  The  rise 
of  the  river  commences  in  May,  and  its  waters 
subside  in  the  latter  part  of  August. — The  1,700 
m.  of  railroad  now  in  operation  through  Bom 
bay,  Sinde,  and  the  Punjaub  render  the  Indus 
less  important  as  a  means  of  transportation 
than  as  a  means  of  irrigation  in  a  sultry  cli 
mate  where  rain  seldom  falls.  The  water  is 
very  unwholesome  in  the  early  part  of  the  in 
undation,  and  at  other  times  it  is  wholesome 
only  if  kept  until  the  earthy  and  vegetable 
admixtures  subside.  Fish  are  abundant,  and 
form  a  large  portion  of  the  sustenance  of  the 
population  of  the  adjacent  country.  The  alli 
gators  in  it  are  long-snouted,  of  the  kind  called 
gavial.  In  the  Vedic  writings  the  Indus  is 
called  the  king  of  rivers,  and  the  Ganges  as 
well  as  the  other  streams  sing  praises  unto  it. 
It  is  generally  designated  in  them  as  Sindhu, 
"  the  river."  The  ancient  inhabitants  had  no 
more  definite  name  for  their  country  bordering 
on  the  Indus  than  Sapta  Sindhavas,  "  the  seven 
rivers,"  counting  with  it  the  Cabool  and  the 
five  chief  streams  of  the  Punjaub. 
<  INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS,  public  competi 
tive  displays  of  products  for  the  encourage 
ment  of  arts  and  manufactures,  local,  national, 
and  international.  The  first  industrial  exhibi 
tion  was  held  in  Paris  in  1798,  and  comprised 
chiefly  specimens  of  French  art  manufactures, 
not  contributed  by  their  producers,  but  loaned 
by  owners.  This  display  led  in  the  same  year 
to  a  larger  exhibition  of  all  kinds  of  French 
manufactures,  and  the  utility  and  success  of 
the  show  prompted  the  more  extended  exposi 
tions,  under  the  consulate  of  Napoleon,  in  1801 
and  1802.  Thereafter  exhibitions  intended  to 
be  triennial,  but  interrupted  by  political  causes 
or  by  war,  were  held  from  1806  to  1849,  the 
llth  and  last  exceeding  all  former  ones.  The 
first  industrial  exhibition  in  Great  Britain 
was  opened  under  royal  patronage  in  London 
in  1828,  but  was  not  successful.  Local  exhibi 
tions  of  the  industry  of  manufacturing  districts 
were  held  at  Manchester  in  1837,  at  Leeds  in 
1839,  and  at  Birmingham  in  1849.  The  royal 
society  of  Dublin  began  in  1829  a  series  of  trien 
nial  exhibitions  of  Irish  manufactures.  Similar 
local  exhibitions  were  held  at  Ghent  in  1820, 
at  Berlin  in  1834,  and  at  Vienna  in  1835. — The 
first  international  exhibition  at  Paris  in  1844 
was  so  successful  as  to  commend  the  scheme 
to  the  London  society  of  arts,  and  in  1849  it 
matured  a  plan  for  a  "world's  fair,"  which 
was  presented  to  the  public  by  the  president 
of  the  society,  Prince  Albert,  who  declared 
that  the  time  had  come  to  prepare  for  a  great 
exhibition,  "not  merely  national  in  its  scope 
and  benefits,  but  comprehensive  of  the  whole 
world."  A  royal  commission  was  issued  Jan. 
3,  1850,  and  the  queen  headed  a  subscription 
list  with  £1,000.  A  building  popularly  known 
as  the  "crystal  palace"  was  erected  in  Hyde 
Park,  from  designs  of  Mr.  (afterward  Sir 
Joseph)  Paxton,  composed,  excepting  the  floor- 


INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS 


259 


ing  and  joists,  wholly  of  glass  and  iron.  It 
was  1,851  ft.  long  and  408  ft.  wide,  with  an 
extension  on  the  north  side  936  ft.  long  and  48 
ft.  wide ;  height  of  central  portion  64  ft.,  and 
of  transept  in  the  centre  108  ft. ;  entire  area 
covered,  about  19  acres.  Portions  of  the  pal 
ace  were  assigned  to  different  countries  and 
colonies  according  to  the  space  required  by 
each.  The  articles,  excepting  heavy  machine 
ry,  were  arranged  in  four  principal  sections, 
viz. :  ra\v  materials,  machinery,  manufactures, 
and  fine  arts.  The  paintings,  however,  were 
mostly  assembled  together ;  but  some  of  the 
prominent  pieces  of  sculpture  were  placed  in 
different  parts  of  the  building,  in  order  to  at 
tract  special  attention  and  to  add  to  the  beau 
ty  of  the  interior.  The  building  was  begun 
Sept.  6,  1850,  completed  Feb.  3,  1851,  and  cost 
£176,000.  On  May  1  the  queen  opened  the 
exhibition,  which  continued  till  Oct.  11.  The 
number  of  visitors  was  6,170,000,  an  aver 
age  of  43,500  a  day,  and  the  greatest  number 
in  one  day  (Oct.  7)  was  109,915.  No  record 
was  kept  of  the  number  of  articles  exhibited. 
There  were  more  than  17,000  exhibitors.  The 
prizes,  including  council  and  prize  medals  and 
honorable  mentions,  were  5,084,  and  the  for 
eign  exhibitors,  occupying  two  fifths  of  the 
space,  took  three  fifths  of  the  honors.  In  ma 
chinery  and  in  metal,  glass,  and  porcelain  man 
ufactures,  the  British  received  the  majority  of 
prizes;  in  miscellaneous  manufactures,  textile 
fabrics,  and  fine  arts,  the  foreign  awards  were 
one  fifth  more  than  the  native ;  in  raw  materials 
the  foreigners  took  nearly  four  times  as  many 
prizes  as  the  natives  (988  to  262).  The  popu 
larity  of  the  world's  fair  was  largely  due  to  the 
great  number  of  gems,  including  the  Koh-i- 
noor,  and  the  works  of  art  exhibited.  The 
financial  results  were  :  receipts  from  subscrip 
tions,  £67,800;  admissions,  £425,000;  refresh 
ments,  &c.,  £13,200;  total,  £506,000;  ex 
penditures,  £330,000  ;  the  balance  in  favor  of 
the  commission  was  increased  by  interest  and 
small  receipts  to  £186,436.  Those  who  were 
on  the  guarantee  list  were  not  called  upon  for 
their  subscriptions.  The  final  balance,  with 
additional  parliamentary  grants,  was  applied  to 
a  scheme  for  the  advancement  of  the  fine  arts 
and  of  practical  science.  The  "  crystal  palace  " 
was  sold  to  a  company,  its  reerection  at  Syden- 
ham  on  an  enlarged  plarx  began  Aug.  5,  1852, 
and  it  was  reopened  by  the  queen  June  10,  1854. 
Since  then  it  has  been  devoted  to  horticultu 
ral  shows,  monster  concerts,  and  other  public 
amusements. — There  was  a  successful  exhibi 
tion  of  Irish  arts  and  manufactures  at  Cork  in 
1852,  which  lod  to  the  much  larger  interna 
tional  one  at  Dublin  in  1853.  This  exhibition 
owed  its  origin  to  Mr.  William  Dargan,  who 
advanced  £80,000.  The  building,  425  ft,  long, 
100  ft.  wide,  and  105  ft.  high,  with  adjoining 
smaller  halls,  cost  £4K,00<).  The  exhibition 
was  opened  by  the  lord  lieutenant  May  12,  and 
continued  till  Oct.  29.  The  value  of  the  con 
tents  was  £500,000,  of  which  the  fine  arts  rep 


resented  £200,000.  Up  to  that  time  no  finer 
collection  of  pictnres  had  been  assembled  in 
the  kingdom.  The  exhibition  was  popular,  and 
had  1,150,000  visitors;  but  it  was  not  finan 
cially  successful,  and  entailed  a  heavy  loss  on 
the  projectors. — The  New  York  world's  fair 
of  1853  originated  with  a  company  incorpo 
rated  in  1851.  The  city  gave  a  lease  of  Reser 
voir  square  for  five  years  rent  free,  upon  the 
conditions  that  the  building  should  be  con 
structed  of  glass  and  iron,  and  that  the  admis 
sion  fee  should  not  be  more  than  50  cents. 
Congress  also  passed  an  act  constituting  the 
building  a  bonded  warehouse,  into  which  for 
eign  goods  might  be  brought  free  of  duty.  In 
March,  1852,  the  company  issued  shares  to  the 
amount  of  $300,000,  afterward  increased  to 
$500,000  and  readily  subscribed.  The  building 
was  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  365  ft.  long 
each  -way,  and  150  ft,  wide,  with  a  central  dome 
123  ft.  high  and  100  ft.  in  diameter ;  and  on  one 
side  another  building,  450  ft,  long  and  75  ft. 
wide,  was  erected  for  machinery.  The  presi 
dent  of  the  United  States,  Gen.  Pierce,  opened 
the  exhibition  July  14,  and  it  continued  119 
days.  There  were  4,800  exhibitors,  more  than 
one  half  of  whom  were  foreigners.  Among  the 
many  causes  which  operated  against  the  suc 
cess  of  the  enterprise  were  the  Dublin  exhibi 
tion  of  the  same  year,  the  long  delay  in  open 
ing,  the  distance  of  the  locality  from  the  then 
centre  of  the  city,  and  the  inadequate  means 
of  access.  The  principal  feature  of  the  exhi 
bition  was  the  fine  display  of  American  ma 
chinery  and  agricultural  implements.  The 
financial  results  were  :  cost  of  building,  $540,- 
000;  fitting  and  furnishing,  $100,000;  receipts 
from  admissions,  sale  of  catalogues,  &c.,  $340,- 
000.  The  exhibition  was  reopened  in  1854,  and 
in  that  and  the  following  year  the  company  ex 
pended  $200,000,  thus  exhausting  the  capital, 
receipts,  and  two  loans.  The  building  was 
afterward  leased  to  the  American  institute  and 
used  for  its  annual  fairs,  during  the  progress 
of  one  of  which,  on  Oct.  15,  1858,  it  was 
burned  with  all  its  contents. — The  Zollve- 
rein  exhibition  at  Munich,  from  July  15  to  Oct. 
15,  1854,  was  held  in  a  building  of  glass  and 
iron,  800  ft.  long,  280  ft,  wide,  and  87  ft,  high, 
covering  250  sq.  ft.  of  flooring,  and  costing 
$450,000.  From  33  Zollverein  states  there 
were  6,800  exhibitors  of  goods,  worth  about 
$7,500,000 ;  but  the  advent  of  cholera  in  the 
autumn  and  other  causes  reduced  the  number 
of  visitors,  and  the  Bavarian  government  was 
obliged  to  make  up  a  deficiency  of  $1,000,000. 
I  — The  Paris  international  exhibition  of  1855 
I  was  organized  as  follows  :  the  government  was 
I  to  bear  the  cost  and  appoint  the  commission. 
I  A  joint-stock  company  erected  in  the  Champs 
I  Elysees  a  main  building  of  glass,  stone,  and 
!  brick,  800  ft.  long  and  350  ft.  wide,  and  other 
:  buildings  for  machinery,  paintings,  etc.,  were 
added.  In  the  main  building  the  goods  were 
arranged  by  countries,  and  were  classified  near- 
!  ly*as  in  the  London  exhibition  of  1851.  But 


260 


INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS 


besides  the  machinery  and  art  buildings,  it 
was  found  necessary  to  erfcct  smaller  build 
ings  for  carriages,  agricultural  implements, 
and  cheap  articles.  Spaces  in  the  open  ground 
were  also  devoted  to  the  exhibition  of  certain 
articles.  The  government  guaranteed  4  per 
cent,  on  the  outlay,  and  a  share  of  the  profits, 
If  there  were  any ; .  but  as  there  were  none,  all 
the  receipts  for  admissions  went  to  the  com 
pany.  The  cost  of  the  buildings  and  other 
expenses  amounted  to  about  $5,000,000.  The 
emperor  opened  the  exhibition  May  15,  and  it 
continued  till  Nov.  15,  during  which  time  there 
were  4,533,464  visitors,  one  third  fewer  than 
to  that  of  London  in  1851,  though  the  Paris 
exhibition  was  open  on  Sundays.  There  were 
10,691  exhibitors  from  France  and  her  colo 
nies,  and  10,108  from  53  foreign  countries  and 
22  colonies.  As  a  grand  display  the  exhibition 
was  very  successful,  and  it  was  estimated  that 
the  money  spent  in  Paris  by  foreign  visitors 
compensated  for  the  financial  failure  of  the  ex 
hibition  itself.  In  1861  there  were  important 
exhibitions  at  Haarlem  of  the  industries  of 
Holland ;  at  Nantes  of  the  manufactures  and 
fine  arts  of  France  and  Algeria ;  and  at  Flor 
ence  of  Italian  silk  in  all  stages  of  its  culture 
and  of  silk  goods  in  every  variety  of  manufac 
ture. — The  second  London  international  exhi 
bition,  in  1862,  started  with  a  guarantee  fund 
of  £450,000,  to  which  Prince  Albert  subscribed 
£10,000.  A  building  of  brick,  glass,  and  iron, 
with  flooring  and  galleries  covering  1,400,000 
sq.  ft.,  was  erected  at  South  Kensington.  This 
exhibition  was  intended  by  the  society  of  arts 
to  follow  the  great  exhibition  of  1851  as  the 
second  decennial  in  1861 ;  but  the  Italian  war 
postponed  it  a  year.  The  exhibition  continued 
177  days,  during  which  there  were  6,211,103 
visitors ;  the  largest  number  in  one  day  (Oct. 
30)  was  67,891,  and  the  daily  average  36,329. 
There  were  in  the  industrial  division  17,861 
foreign  exhibitors,  who  took  9,344  prizes,  and 
8,487  British  and  colonial,  who  received  4,071 
prizes.  The  total  expenditures  were  £460,000 ; 
receipts  from  admissions,  &c.,  £448,000;  the 
deficiency  of  £12,000  was  wholly  due  to  the 
great  cost  of  the  building,  which  was  designed 
to  be  permanent,  but  was  subsequently  demol 
ished,  and  the  materials  were  used  in  the  con 
struction  of  the  Alexandra  palace,  destroyed  by 
fire  June  9,  1873.— In  1863  an  exhibition  was 
held  in  Constantinople,  national  for  Turkish 
manufactures,  and  universal  for  foreign  imple 
ments  and  machinery.  It  was  not  important, 
but  was  made  attractive  by  the  display  of  jew 
els  from  the  imperial  palace  and  seraglio.  The 
exhibition  at  Amsterdam  in  1864  was  devoted 
to  the  display  of  Dutch  industry,  and  in  the 
same  year  smaller  local  industrial  shows  were 
held  at  Malta,  at  Calcutta,  and  at  Lucknow, 
and  a  combined  French  and  Spanish  exhibition 
was  held  at  Bayonne.  The  South  London  and 
North  London  working-class  industrial  exhibi 
tions  began  in  1864;  the  latter  was  the  most 
important,  having  934  exhibitors,  200,000  vis 


itors  in  the  18  days  of  the  show,  and  a  clear 
profit  of  £800.  The  international  exhibition 
at  Dublin  in  1865,  from  May  8  to  Nov.  9,  had 
770  British  and  288  colonial  and  foreign  exhib 
itors;  but  the  visitors  numbered  only  600,000, 
a  little  more  than  half  of  the  number  in  1853, 
and  financially  it  was  a  failure.  In  1865  there 
was  an  exhibition  at  Oporto,  confined  chiefly 
to  Portuguese  industry,  though  there  was  a 
show  of  British  agricultural  implements  and 
machinery.  In  the  same  year  there  was  a 
show  of  New  Zealand  manufactures  at  Dune- 
din  ;  an  international  exhibition,  chiefly  agri 
cultural,  by  Germany,  Holland,  and  Belgium, 
at  Cologne ;  and  an  interesting  international 
display  of  fishing  tackle,  &c.,  at  Boulogne. 
Working  men's  local  exhibitions  were  also  held 
at  Birmingham,  Nottingham,  Manchester,  Pres 
ton,  &c.,  and  one  at  Vienna  which  distributed 
613  prizes  to  1,025  exhibitors,  and  made  a 
profit  of  2,000  florins,  which  was  given  to  city 
charities.  Several  comparatively  small  work 
ing-class  industrial  shows  were  held  in  London, 
but  only  one  of  them  was  financially  success 
ful.  Of  two  similar  exhibitions  in  London  in 
1866,  one,  by  having  a  hall  rent  free,  secured  a 
small  surplus,  which  was  distributed  in  prizes ; 
the  other  had  1,492  exhibitors  and  53,000  visit 
ors,  and,  with  £1,066  rent,  made  £900  profit.  In 
1866  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Finland 
combined  in  a  show  of  Scandinavian  industry 
at  Stockholm,  in  which  manufactures  in  iron, 
steel,  woollens,  and  earthenware  were  princi 
pal  features.  The  Melbourne  exhibition  of  the 
same  year  assembled  3,360  exhibitors  from 
South  Australia,  Victoria,  New  Zealand,  New 
South  Wales,  Queensland,  and  Tasmania.  The 
Brazilian  exhibition  of  1866,  first  at  Pernam- 
buco  and  afterward  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  was 
mainly  of  raw  produce,  which  was  subsequent 
ly  sent  to  the  Paris  exhibition. — The  Paris 
universal  exhibition  of  1867  was  held  in  the 
Champ  de  Mars,  in  an  oval  building  1,550  ft. 
long  and  1,250  ft.  wide,  covering  11  acres, 
while  smaller  buildings  increased  the  area  to 
35  acres.  Seventy  surrounding  acres,  partly 
laid  out  as  a  garden,  were  covered  with  all 
kinds  of  buildings,  including  model  cottages, 
restaurants,  theatres,  and  even  places  of  wor 
ship.  The  main  building  was  a  series  of  ovals 
one  within  another,  starting  from  a  central 
pavilion  containing  the  coins,  weights,  and 
measures  of  all  nations.  The  ovals  were  de 
voted  to  the  following  uses:  1,  to  works  of 
art;  2,  to  materials,  &c.,  of  the  liberal  arts, 
printing,  books,  stationery,  surgical,  scientific, 

!  mathematical,  and  musical  instruments ;  3,  to 

'  furniture  and  household  goods  *  4,  to  clothing ; 

|  5,  to  raw  materials ;  6J  to  tools  and  light  ma 
chinery  ;  7,  to  cereals,  vegetables,  food  prepa 
rations,  &c.  There  was  also  a  gallery  which 
exhibited  the  progressive  history  of  labor. 
From  the  central  pavilion  avenues  radiated 
like  spokes  through  the  ovals,  and  the  spaces 
between  the  avenues  were  assigned  to  different 

!  countries,  so  that  visitors  making  the  tour  of 


INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS 


261 


each  oval  could  compare  the  productions  in 
each  class  of  the  different  nations.  The  ex 
hibition  was  open  from  April  1  to  Oct.  31 ; 
there  were  50,226  exhibitors  and  10,200,000 
visitors;  the  medals  and  honorable  mentions 
numbered,  with  44  grand  prizes  for  especial 
merit,  12,944,  of  which  United  States  exhibi 
tors  received  3  grand  prizes,  17  gold,  06  silver, 
and  94  bronze  medals.  The  exhibition  ex 
penses,  including  buildings,  were  about  $4,000,- 
000,  of  which  the  government  and  city  paid 
$2,500,000 ;  the  receipts  for  admissions,  &c., 
were  $2,000,000;  and  there  was  a  claimed 
profit  of  about  $600,000.  A  fishery  exhibi 
tion  at  Havre  in  the  same  year  included  fishing 
boats  and  all  the  appliances  for  curing  fish, 
making  fishermen's  clothing,  &c.  A  still  more 
important  international  maritime  exhibition 
of  marine  engines,  nautical  instruments,  ships1 
fittings  and  furniture,  fishing  boats  and  tackle, 
life-saving  apparatus,  &c.,  was  held  at  Havre 
in  1868. — There  was  a  local  exhibition  of  the 
industries  of  the  Northwest  Provinces  of  Brit 
ish  India  at  Agra  in  1867,  and  local  industrial 
exhibitions  were  held  in  St.  Petersburg,  Ghent, 
and  Berlin  in  1868.  The  Amsterdam  interna 
tional  exhibition  of  1869  had  2,825  exhibitors, 
and  was  remarkable  for  its  display  of  cheap 
clothing,  prepared  foods,  house  fittings,  furni 
ture,  and  other  articles  of  domestic  economy. 
The  St.  Petersburg  industrial  exhibition  of 
1870  was  local,  to  show  the  Russian  progress 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel  guns,  armor  plates, 
rails,  locomotives,  &c.  The  intercolonial  ex 
hibition  at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  in  1870, 
was  important  in  the  exhibition  of  raw  pro 
ducts,  preserved  meats,  &c.  It  had  2,914  ex 
hibitors,  was  open  29  days,  and  there  were 
184,000  visitors.  The  London  annual  inter 
national  exhibition  of  1871,  from  May  1  to 
Sept.  30,  was  the  third  in  the  originally  pro 
posed  decennial  series,  but  was  made  the  first 
of  an  annual  series,  each  to  be  devoted  to 
specified  branches  of  industry.  It  had  1,142,- 
154  visitors ;  there  were  about  4,000  fine- 
art  and  7,000  industrial  entries,  and  33  foreign 
countries  were  represented.  There  were  no 
prizes,  and  the  receipts  were  equal  to  the  expen 
ses.  The  Italian  industrial  association  began  at 
Milan  in  1871  a  series  of  annual  exhibitions, 
each  year  to  be  devoted  to  specialties.  Naples 
held  an  international  maritime  exhibition  in 
1871.  Minor  exhibitions  were  held  in  1871,  at 
Jersey,  of  the  products  and  industry  of  the 
Channel  islands ;  at  Lima,  of  the  products  and 
manufactures  of  the  South  American  Pacific 
states;  and  at  Cordova,  of  Argentine  industry 
and  of  foreign  implements  adapted  to  the  de 
velopment  of  local  resources.  The  London 
annual  international  exhibition  of  1872,  was 
devoted  principally  to  the  show  of  arts  con 
nected  with  printing,  paper,  music  and  musi 
cal  instruments,  jewelry,  cotton  goods,  and 
fine  arts.  The  Dublin  exhibition  of  the  same 
year  comprised  chiefly  Irish  produce  and  manu 
factures,  and  was  held  in  the  building  erected 


in  1853,  which  had  been  purchased  by  Sir 
Arthur  Guinness,  and  was  given  rent  free  for 
this  exhibition.  Other  exhibitions  in  1872 
were  the  international  one  at  Moscow,  intend 
ed  to  compare  the  progress  of  Russian  in 
dustry  with  that  of  other  nations;  the  show  of 
Scandinavian  industry,  with  4,000  exhibitors, 
at  Copenhagen;  the  universal  exhibition  of 
silk,  silk  goods,  furniture,  machinery,  tools, 
fine  arts,  &c.,  at  Lyons;  and  the  display  of 
Colombian  products  and  manufacture  at  Bo 
gota.  In  1873  the  London  annual  interna 
tional  exhibition  made  a  feature  of  cooking 
science  and  apparatus.  There  was  a  school 
of  popular  cookery,  with  lectures  which  from 
April  14  to  Aug.  15  were  attended  by  31,784 
persons. — The  Vienna  international  exhibition 
of  1873  was  opened  by  the  emperor  May  1 ; 
the  prizes  were  distributed  Aug.  18;  and  the 
exhibition  closed  Oct.  31.  The  main  building, 
of  brick  and  glass,  erected  on  the  Prater,  was 
2,985  ft.  long,  82  ft.  wide,  and  52£  ft.  high, 
with  a  central  dome;  and  opening  out  from 
this  hall  were  32  transverse  galleries  250  ft. 
long  and  49  ft.  wide,  the  whole  presenting 
a  form  which  was  compared  to  a  gridiron, 
or  to  a  fish's  spine  with  the  projecting  bones. 
There  were  also  a  machinery  annexe  of  brick 
2,614  ft.  long  and  155  ft.  wide,  a  large  fine- 
art  hall,  and  numerous  smaller  buildings.  The 
transverse  sections  were  devoted  to  different 
countries  in  the  order  of  their  geographical 
position,  beginning  at  the  southwest  main  en 
trance  with  North  and  South  America,  thence 
in  succession  to  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain, 
Scandinavia,  Germany,  etc. ;  China  and  Ja 
pan  occupying  the  remotest  sections  at  the 
northeast  end.  The  exhibits  were  classified 
into  26  groups,  following  nearly  the  plan  of 
the  divisions  in  the  great  exhibitions  of  Lon 
don  and  Paris ;  but  there  were  such  special 
|  features  as  group  16,  devoted  to  the  art  of 
war,  and  including  everything  for  the  equip 
ment  of  an  army  and  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  wounded;  17,  covering  everything  re 
lating  to  sea,  lake,  and  river  navigation,  ship 
building  and  fitting,  construction  of  harbors 
and  lighthouses,  &c. ;  19,  private  dwelling 
houses,  inner  arrangements,  and  decorations, 
to  illustrate  the  domestic  economy  of  different 
nations  ;  20,  farm  houses,  furniture,  and  uten 
sils  of  different  countries ;  23,  art  applied  to 
religion  in  all  the  industries  and  fine  arts  em 
ployed  in  public  worship.  There  were  efforts 
also  to  show  a  history  of  prices  of  various  im 
portant  articles,  at  average  periods  of  five 
years,  as  far  back  as  possible,  and  the  gradual 
conversion  of  waste  into  use  in  manufactured 
articles.  The  industries  of  nearly  all  the  world 
were  represented.  The  prizes  were:  1,  grand 
diplomas  of  honor;  2,  bronze  medals  for  prog 
ress,  merit,  fine  arts,  good  taste,  and  cooperators. 
Of  these,  349  were  awarded  to  643  exhibitors 
from  the  United  States.  The  total  number 
of  visitors  was  7,254,687.  The  exhibition 
cost  more  than  $12,000,000;  the  original  gov- 


262    INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITIONS 


INFALLIBILITY 


eminent  appropriation  was  $3,000,000,  accom 
panied  with  a  provision  that  it  was  not  to  be 
exceeded;  and  as  the  receipts  from  visitors 
barely  paid  the  running  expenses,  there  was  a 
deficit  of  about  $9, 000, 000.  Among  the  causes 
which  contributed  to  this  failure  were  the 
financial  panic  and  the  comparatively  small 
number  of  visitors  during  the  summer  months, 
which  was  due  partly  to  apprehensions  of  the 
cholera,  and  especially  to  the  utterly  inadequate 
accommodations  and  the  extravagant  prices  of 
living.  But  the  industrial  benefits  of  the  ex 
hibition  to  the  Austro-Hungarian  dominions, 
in  bringing  their  productions  to  the  notice 
of  the  world,  and  especially  in  the  intro 
duction  of  American  agricultural  implements 
and  other  foreign  labor-saving  inventions, 
were  regarded  as  more  than  compensating 
the  loss.  The  advantages  gained  by  foreign 
exhibitors  of  valuable  productions  were  also 
very  great. — Of  other  industrial  exhibitions  in 
the  United  States,  besides  the  world's  fair  in 
1853,  the  most  important  are  those  of  the 
American  institute  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
founded  in  1828,  and  incorporated  in  1829, 
for  the  encouragement  of  commerce,  manufac 
tures,  and  art.  For  several  years  the  an 
nual  fairs  were  in  part  agricultural  and  hor 
ticultural,  but  lately  they  have  been  almost 
wholly  industrial,  and  are  open  to  exhibitors 
from  all  parts  of  the  Union.  The  large  space 
required  for  the  fairs  has  compelled  the  use  in 
successive  seasons  of  such  places  as  Castle  Gar 
den,  the  crystal  palace  (1854-'8),  and  now 
(1874)  the  premises  known  as  the  "Rink," 
near  the  Central  park,  which  the  institute  has 
purchased.  The  association  has  a  fund  of 
$75,000  in  government  bonds,  and  owns  real 
estate  in  New  York  renting  for  $12,000  a  year. 
Its  fairs  are  profitable.  The  42d  exhibition,  in 
September  and  October,  1873,  had  1,146  exhib 
itors  and  more  than  600,000  visitors;  the  re 
ceipts  from  admissions  and  other  sources  were 
$63,382  32;  expenditures,  $48,675  94;  profit, 
$14,706  38.  The  Franklin  institute  of  Phila 
delphia,  similar  to  the  New  York  American 
institute  and  founded  about  the  same  time,  is 
especially  devoted  to  the  mechanic  and  inven 
tive  arts,  and  has  held  occasional  exhibitions ; 
it  also  publishes  a  valuable  journal,  which  at 
the  close  of  1873  had  reached  the  93d  semi 
annual  volume.  An  association  in  Cincinnati 
has  held  four  industrial  exhibitions,  and  the 
fifth  is  announced  for  September,  1874.  The 
ninth  industrial  exhibition  of  the  mechanics'  in 
stitute  of  San  Francisco,  from  Aug.  18  to  Sept. 
18,  1874,  is  announced  as  "  open  to  all  the 
world."  Baltimore,  Boston,  and  Buffalo  have 
held  successful  local  industrial  exhibitions. 
For  several  years  past  nearly  all  the  county 
and  state  agricultural  societies  throughout  the 
Union  have  made  annual  exhibitions  of  local 
manufactures,  industries,  and  arts,  as  well  as 
of  agricultural  products,  with  liberal  prizes  to 
competing  inventors,  manufacturers,  and  ex 
hibitors, — Among  important  industrial  exhibi 


tions  that  are  now  projected  may  be  men 
tioned  an  international  one  of  female  industry 
at  Florence,  probably  in  1874.  The  announce 
ments  of  special  industries  to  be  exhibited  at 
the  annual  internationals  in  London  are  made 
for  each  year  from  1874  to  1880.  A  law  of 
congress,  March  3,  1871,  authorizes  "  the  cele 
bration  of  the  centennial  of  American  indepen 
dence  by  an  international  exhibition  of  the 
arts,  manufactures,  and  natural  resources  of 
this  and  other  countries."  The  proposed  ex 
hibition  is  to  be  held  in  Philadelphia  from 
April  19  to  Oct.  19,  1876.  An  act  of  congress, 
June  1,  1872,  fixed  the  capital  at  $10,000,000, 
which  the  commissioners  apportioned  among 
the  states  according  to  population.  Up  to  June, 
1874,  New  Jersey  had  appropriated  $100,000, 
Pennsylvania  $1,000,000,  Philadelphia  $1,500,- 
000,  and  local  subscriptions,  together  with  in 
dividual  subscriptions  throughout  25  states  and 
territories,  brought  the  sum  total  to  about 
$4,000,000 ;  and  an  effort  was  in  progress  to 
procure  private  subscriptions  for  the  balance. 
— Among  the  more  important  works  relating 
to  the  principal  exhibitions  are:  "The  Official 
Catalogue  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851 " 
(4  vols.  4to,  London,  1851) ;  "  Official,  De 
scriptive,  and  Illustrated  Catalogue "  of  the 
same  (3  vols.) ;  "  Reports  by  Juries  "  (6  vols.) ; 
"First  Report  by  Commissioners"  (1852) ;  the 
elaborate  work  printed  for  the  commissioners 
(13  vols.  fol.),  and  the  same  in  French  (13  vols. 
8vo,  Paris,  1857-'66) ;  "  Report  of  the  World's 
Fair"  (New  York,  1853);  Exposition  iiniver- 
selle  de  1855,  by  the  French  commission  (3 
vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1857-'8);  "Reports  of  the 
International  Mixed  Jury  "  (in  French,  2  vols. 
4to,  Paris,  1856;  in  English,  London,  1856); 
the  reports  of  the  royal  commissioners  on  the 
exhibition  of  1862  (4  vols.,  London,  1862); 
"The  Exhibited  Machinery  of  1862,"  by  D. 
K.  Clark  (London,  1862);  the  reports  of  the 
French  and  English  commissioners  on  the 
Paris  exposition  of  1867  (Paris  and  London, 
1867)  ;  reports  of  the  United  States  commis 
sioners  on  the  same  (6  vols.,  Washington,  1870) ; 
the  special  report  on  "Machinery  and  Processes 
of  the  Industrial  Arts  and  Apparatus  of  the 
Exact  Sciences,"  by  F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.  D., 
a  commissioner  for  the  United  States  (Wash 
ington,  1869);  and  "Reports  of  Artisans  se 
lected  by  the  Society  of  Arts  to  visit  the  Paris 
Universal  Exhibition  of  1867  "  (London,  1867). 
No  comprehensive  work  on  the  Vienna  expo 
sition  of  1873  has  yet  appeared  (1874),  though 
several  minor  reports  have  been  published. 

INES  DE  CASTRO.     See  CASTRO,  INES  DE. 

INFALLIBILITY  (later  Lat.  mfallibilia,  not  lia 
ble  to  be  deceived,  from  in,  privative,  and  f alii, 
to  be.  deceived,  to  err),  a  doctrine  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  which  attributes  to  that  church 
as  the  divinely  appointed  teacher  of  mankind, 
and  to  the  Roman  pontiff  as  pastor  of  the  whole 
church,  the  privilege  of  being  preserved  from 
teaching  error.  Infallibility  is  not  to  be  con 
founded  with  impeccability,  which  means  im- 


INFALLIBILITY 


263 


munity  from  sin.  The  special  assistance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  which  preserves  a  person  from  er 
ror  in  the  discharge  of  a  certain  office  is  a  grace 
of  the  supernatural  order,  called  by  theologians 
gratia  gratis  data,  a  grace  bestowed  for  the 
benefit  of  others  than  the  recipient,  such  as  the 
power  of  the  priesthood  bestowed  on  good  and 
bad  alike,  and  the  gift  of  prophecy  found  in 
such  men  as  Balaam  and  Caiaphas.  It  is  thus 
distinguished  from  graces  which  are  vouch 
safed  to  sanctify  their  possessor,  like  that  by 
which  John  the  Baptist  and  Jeremiah  were 
sanctified  before  their  birth ;  a  grace  of  this  sort 
is  called  gratia  gratum  faciens.  The  privilege 
of  infallibility  is  also  to  be  distinguished  from 
inspiration  ;  because  inspiration  in  many  cases 
means  a  new  revelation,  whereas  both  the 
church  and  the  pontiff  are  only  witnesses, 
teachers,  and  judges  of  the  revelation  already 
made,  and  are  merely  preserved  from  error  in 
guarding,  expounding,  and  defending  the  de 
posit  of  revelation.  By  the  dogmatic  decree 
of  the  council  of  the  Vatican,  the  infallibility 
traditionally  ascribed  to  the  church  by  Catholics 
is  declared  to  have  been  directly  and  imme 
diately  conferred  on  St.  Peter,  and  in  him  on 
his  successors  the  bishops  of  Koine.  I.  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  ground  the  infallibility  of 
the  church  principally  on  the  texts  of  Matt, 
xxviii.  10,  20:  "Go  ye,  therefore,  and  teach 
all  nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
teaching  them  to  observe  all  things  whatso 
ever  I  have  commanded  you:  and,  lo,  I  am 
with  you  alway,  unto  the  end  of  the  world ;" 
and  Mark  xvi.*  15,  16:  "Go  ye  into  all  the 
world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  crea 
ture,  lie  that  believeth  and  is  baptized  shall 
be  saved ;  but  he  that  believeth  not  shall  be 
damned."  These  words  of  Christ,  constituting 
the  great  commission  or  charter  of  the  church, 
as  they  maintain,  established  her  as  the  univer 
sal  and  perpetual  teacher  of  mankind,  gave  into 
her  keeping  the  deposit  of  the  divine  faith  and 
law,  declared  her  office  to  be  that  of  sole  inter 
preter  of  the  same,  bestowed  on  her  the  sole 
jurisdiction  existing  upon  earth  in  matters  of  ' 
salvation  over  the  reason  and  will  of  man,  and 
assured  her  that  in  the  discharge  of  this  office 
she  will  have  the  Lord  with  her  until  the  end 
of  time.  Faith  in  Christ  through  her  teaching, 
and  obedience  to  her  in  the  fulfilment  of  her 
office,  are  required  under  pain  of  damnation. 
Now,  it  is  held  to  be  repugnant  alike  to  the  na 
ture  of  God  and  to  that  of  man,  that  God 
should  compel  the  assent  of  the  reason  and 
submission  of  the  will  to  a  teaching  liable  to 
error.  The  object  or  matter  embraced  by  this 
infallible  teaching  is  the  whole  body  of  revealed 
truth  written  and  unwritten,  and  all  that  is  so 
connected  with  it  that  without  treating  of  it 
the  Word  of  God  could  not  be  guarded,  ex 
pounded,  and  defended ;  such  would  be  the  de 
claring  of  the  canon,  authenticity,  and  true  in 
terpretation  of  Scripture,  and  the  like.  Fur 
ther,  the  church  claims  an  infallible  guidance 


in  discerning  and  denning  all  matters  which  are 
opposed  to  revelation ;  for,  it  is  argued,  she 
could  not  discharge  her  office  of  teacher  of 
mankind,  unless  she  were  able  to  proscribe 
with  infallible  certainty  all  doctrines  at  vari 
ance  with  the  Word  of  God.  Hence,  the  direct 
object  6f  the  infallibility  of  the  church  is  the 
revelation  or  Word  of  God ;  and  the  indirect  ob 
ject  is  whatever  is  necessary  for  its  exposition 
and  defence,  or  contrary  to  the  law  of  faith  and 
morality.  II.  Pontifical  infallibility  is  thus  de 
fined  in  chapter  4  of  the  constitution  Pastor 
aternus,  July  18,  1870 :  "  We  teach  and  define 
that  it  is  a  dogma  divinely  revealed,  that  the 
Roman  pontiff,  when  he  speaks  ex  cathedra, 
that  is,  when,  in  discharge  of  the  office  of  pas 
tor  and  doctor  of  all  Christians,  by  virtue  of 
his  supreme  authority,  he  defines  a  doctrine  re 
garding  faith  and  morals  to  be  held  by  the  uni 
versal  church,  by  the  divine  assistance  promised 
to  him  in  blessed  Peter,  is  possessed  of  that 
infallibility  with  which  the  divine  Redeemer 
willed  that  his  church  should  be  endowed  for 
defining  doctrines  regarding  faith  and  morals; 
and  that,  therefore,  such  definitions  of  the  Ro 
man  pontiffs  are  irreformable  of  themselves 
and  not  by  the  consent  of  the  church."  This 
definition  declares  that  the  pope  is  infallible 
when  speaking  from  his  seat  of  authority,  in 
discharge  of  his  office  of  pastor  and  teacher  of 
the  entire  Christian  fold,  and  challenging  the 
assent  of  the  universal  church.  The  doctrinal 
point  defined  or  finally  decided  must  relate  to 
faith  and  morals,  and  in  such  definitions,  it  is 
declared,  he  is  divinely  guided  by  virtue  of  the 
promises  made  to  him  in  the  person  of  Peter. 
This  infallibility  of  the  pontiff  has  the  same 
extension  as  the  doctrinal  office  of  the  church, 
and  the  final  judgments  pronounced  in  its 
exercise  are  in  themselves  irreformable  or  irre 
versible,  even  before  the  church  has  accepted 
them.  The  definition  limits  the  infallibility 
and  the  divine  assistance  which  secures  it  to 
the  pope's  official  acts  as  pastor  and  doctor  of 
all  Christians.  It  thus  excludes  all  his  acts  as 
a  private  person,  doctor,  theologian,  local  bish 
op,  or  ruler.  He  is  exempt  from  error  in  only 
one  capacity,  that  is,  when  as  teacher  of  the 
whole  church  in  faith  and  morals  he  speaks 
from  the  chair  of  Peter.  The  phrase  doctrine 
of  faith  and  morals  signifies  the  whole  re 
vealed  Word  of  God,  the  whole  way  of  sal 
vation  through  faith,  or  the  whole  supernat 
ural  order  with  all  that  is  necessary  to  the 
salvation  of  mankind  through  Jesus  Christ. 
The  efficient  cause  of  this  infallibility  or  im 
munity  from  error  is  declared  to  be  the  divine 
assistance  promised  to  Peter,  and  in  Peter  to 
his  successors.  This,  it  is  asserted  by  Catholic 
theologians,  is  contained  explicitly  in  the  words 
of  Christ  to  Peter,  Luke  xxii.  32 :  "  I  have 
prayed  for  thee,  that  thy  faith  fail  not :  and 
when  thou  art  converted  strengthen  thy  breth 
ren  ;"  and  implicitly  in  Matt.  xvi.  18 :  "And  I 
say  also  unto  thee,  That  thou  art  Peter,  and 
upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  church ;  and  the 


264 


INTALLIBILITY 


gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it."  The 
assistance  thus  promised  and  its  effect  are  a 
divine  ordinance.  It  is  further  affirmed  that 
before  the  definition  of  the  Vatican  council, 
the  infallibility  of  the  pontiff  was  a  doctrine 
revealed  by  God,  delivered  by  the  constant  tra 
dition  of  the  church,  recognized  in  oecumenical 
councils,  presupposed  by  the  acts  of  the  pon 
tiffs  in  all  ages,  taught  by  all  the  saints,  de 
fended  by  every  religious  order,  and  by  every 
theological  school  except  the  Gallican,  and 
in  that  school  only  disputed  by  a  numerical 
minority  and  during  one  period  of  its  his 
tory,  and  believed  at  least  implicitly  by  all 
Catholics.  The  definition,  Catholics  believe, 
has  added  nothing  to  the  intrinsic  certainty 
of  this  doctrine,  which  is  derived  from  reve 
lation.  It  has  only  added  the  extrinsic  cer 
tainty  of  universal  promulgation,  binding  the 
whole  church  to  believe  the  dogma  explicitly. 
— The  doctrine  of  pontifical  infallibility,  theo 
logically  considered,  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  pontifical  supremacy ;  and,  consid 
ered  historically,  it  is  seen  that  from  the  exer 
cise  of  the  supremacy  was  gradually  evolved 
and  finally  asserted  the  prerogative  of  infalli 
bility.  The  bishops  of  Rome  at  a  very  early 
period  claimed  a  supreme  and  final  authority 
in  deciding  all  ecclesiastical  disputes ;  and  this 
claim  they  founded  on  the  fact  of  the  see  of 
Rome  being  the  seat  of  Peter's  authority,  and 
of  their  being  his  successors  with  supreme 
jurisdiction  over  the  entire  church.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  opposition  to  the  exercise  of 
this  supremacy  forms  a  parallel  and  continu 
ous  record  in  the  early  church  down  to  the 
consummation  of  the  Photian  schism.  Thus, 
in  the  ante-Nicene  period  Pope  Victor  I.  (about 
193)  claimed  to  decide  finally  the  controver 
sy  about  the  proper  day  for  celebrating  Eas 
ter,  and  excommunicated  the  Asiatic  churches 
which  refused  to  abide  by  his  decision ;  and 
Pope  Stephen  I.  (253-257)  decided  against  St. 
Cyprian  and  the  churches  of  northern  Africa, 
that  baptism  performed  by  heretics  should  not 
be  repeated,  and  annulled  the  sentence  of  a 
Spanish  synod  against  two  bishops.  But  the 
decision  of  Victor  was  set  aside  by  the  Asiatic 
bishops;  and  in  like  manner  the  bishops  of 
Africa  and  Spain  persisted  in  upholding  their 
own  local  customs  and  established  rights.  Ear 
lier  still  Tertullian,  in  his  treatise  De  Pudicitia, 
complained  that  the  Roman  pontiff  issued  per 
emptory  edicts,  as  if  he  were  "  bishop  of  bish 
ops."  From  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great 
this  exercise  of  supremacy,  and  the  right  on 
which  it  was  founded,  were  brought  into 
greater  prominence  by  the  part  taken  by  the 
Christian  emperors  in  convening  councils  and 
enforcing  their  decrees,  by  the  conflicts  which 
occurred  between  the  councils  themselves  and 
the  authority  of  the  popes,  and  by  the  contests 
for  preeminence  waged  by  the  see  of  Constan 
tinople  with  the  patriarchal  sees  of  the  East, 
and  with  Rome  herself.  Tims  Leo  the  Great 
received  the  appeal  of  Celidonius,  bishop  of 


Besancon,  deposed  by  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and 
restored  him  to  his  see ;  thus,  also,  it  is  main 
tained,  his  doctrinal  letter  was  received  as 
a  final  decision  by  the  council  of  Chalcedon 
(451).  Another  document  quoted  by  ultra 
montane  theologians  as  pointing  to  an  exercise 
of  supremacy,  is  a  letter  of  Pope  Gelasius  in 
493,  in  which  it  is  said :  "  The  canons  them 
selves  refer  the  appeal  of  the  whole  church  to 
the  examination  of  this  chair.  They  decree 
that  from  it  there  is  no  further  appeal,  and  by 
it  the  whole  church  is  judged ;  it  goes  for  judg 
ment  to  none,  nor  can  its  judgment  be  judged, 
nor  its  sentence  reversed."  (Labbe,  vol.  iv., 
p.  1169.)  Against  this  claim  of  deciding  all 
ecclesiastical  causes  without  appeal,  thus  dis 
tinctly  formulated  in  the  5th  century,  is  quo 
ted  the  recently  established  fact  of  the  Roman 
presbyter  St.  Ilippolytus  having  been  at  the 
time  of  his  death  in  opposition  to  the  pope,  his 
superior,  as  well  as  the  instances  in  which 
popes  fell  into  heresy  or  encouraged  heretical 
opinions.  Such  were  the  cases  of  Zozimus, 
who  commended  the  Pelagian  teaching  of  Ce- 
lestius ;  Julian,  who  affirmed  the  orthodoxy  of 
the  Sabellian  Marcellus  of  Ancyra;  Liberius, 
who  subscribed  (359)  the  Arian  creed  of  Ri 
mini  ;  Vigilius  (547),  who  contradicted  himself 
thrice  on  a  question  of  faith;  and  Honorius, 
who  lent  the  whole  weight  of  his  authority 
(633)  to  the  support  of  the  nascent  Monothelite 
heresy,  and  was  solemnly  excommunicated  by 
an  O3cumenical  council  for  doing  so.  Still  the 
bishops  of  Rome  persisted  in  their  claims, 
while  in  the  East  the  resistance  to  them  grew  as 
the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  rose  in  power 
and  influence  among  the.  eastern  hierarchy, 
until  the  conflict  of  jurisdiction  ended  (879)  in 
the  disruption  of  Christendom.  In  western 
Europe  the  primacy  of  the  Roman  bishops  con 
tinued  to  be  universally  acknowledged  after  the 
separation  of  East  and  West;  but  their  per 
sonal  infallibility  was  never  maintained  in  a  for 
mal  theological  thesis  till  the  time  of  Thomas 
Aquinas.  He  however  does  not  employ  the 
term  infallibility;  he  says  that  the  same  se 
curity  from  error  in  teaching,  judging,  and  de 
termining  all  that  pertains  to  faith,  which  is 
ascribed  to  the  church,  belongs  also  to  the  Ro 
man  pontiff,  by  virtue  of  the  promise  made 
to  Peter.  The 'thesis,  thus  placed  in  distinct 
form  before  the  great  theological  schools  of 
Europe,  soon  acquired  increased  definiteness 
and  interest  from  the  contests  between  tem 
poral  princes  and  the  popes,  and  between  rival 
claimants  for  the  papacy  and  the  ecclesiastical 
assemblies  convened  to  heal  the  great  western 
schism.  Philip  the  Fair  in  1303  declared  his 
intention  of  calling  a  general  council  to  judge 
Pope  Boniface  VIII.  In  the  council  of  Con 
stance,  where  the  French  clergy  largely  pre 
dominated,  the  French  theologians  D'Ailly 
and  Gerson  proposed  the  framing  of  a  decree 
declaring  an  oecumenical  council  superior  to 
the  pope.  In  the  council  of  Basel,  soon  after 
ward,  this  superiority  was  urged  against  Euge- 


INFALLIBILITY 


265 


nius  IV.,  particularly  after  he  had  dissolved  that 
body.  The  superiority  of  oecumenical  councils 
to  papal  authority  was  embodied  in  the  prag 
matic  sanction  of  Bourges  in  1438,  both  as  a 
theological  maxim  and  as  a  rule  of  national 
jurisprudence.  Thenceforward  the  theologians 
in  France  who  maintained  this  superiority 
were  called  Gallicans,  and  their  opponents  ul- 
tramontanes.  Gallicanism,  considered  as  a 
system  of  jurisprudence  and  theological  doc 
trine,  comprised  the  liberties  or  franchises  of 
the  Gallican  church,  and  the  peculiar  tenets 
of  its  churchmen  with  regard  to  the  nature 
and  limits  of  the  pontifical  supremacy.  These 
Gallican  franchises  were  understood  in  one 
sense  by  the  churchmen,  and  in  quite  another 
by  French  magistrates.  In  reality  they  affirm 
ed  that  the  pope  had  no  right,  by  virtue  of  his 
supremacy,  to  interfere  with  the  king  in  the 
holding  of  his  crown  or  the  lawful  exercise  of 
his  power;  that  the  election  of  ecclesiastical 
dignitaries,  the  collation  of  benefices  and  the 
disposition  of  their  revenues,  the  imposition 
and  collection  of  taxes  on  church  property,  be 
longed  by  inherent  right  and  custom  exclusive 
ly  to  the  church  of  France,  under  the  protec 
tion  of  the  king.  These  franchises,  and  the 
peculiar  doctrine  of  the  Gallican  church  con 
cerning  the  pope's  inferiority  to  a  general  coun 
cil,  were  formulated  in  six  articles  presented 
by  the  Sorbonne  to  Louis  XIV.,  May  8,  1663, 
which  were  reaffirmed  with  greater  solemnity 
in  1682.  The  famous  "four  articles"  then 
proclaimed  by  the  assembled  clergy,  besides  the 
absolute  independence  of  the  civil  power,  de 
clared  that  the  plenitude  of  power  in  spirituals 
possessed  by  the  successors  of  St.  Peter  is  to  be 
limited  by  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Con 
stance,  which  have  ever  been  in  force  in  the 
Gallican  church ;  that  the  use  of  the  pope's 
apostolic  power  is  to  be  regulated  by  the 
canons,  and  within  the  kingdom  of  France  by 
the  received  rules,  customs,  and  constitutions; 
and  that,  although  the  pope  has  the  chief  au 
thority  in  questions  of  faith,  and  his  decrees 
regard  all  the  churches,  and  each  church  in  par 
ticular,  nevertheless  his  judgment  is  not  irre- 
formable  until  the  consent  of  the  whole  church 
supervenes.  The  whole  question  of  infallibility 
continued  to  be  vehemently  discussed  by  Jes 
uits  and  Jansenists,  Gallicans  and  ultramon- 
tanes,  down  to  the  French  revolution.  AVhen 
public  worship  was  restored  by  Bonaparte,  the 
concordat  concluded  with  him  by  Pius  VII. 
abolished  the  old  French  hierarchy  with  all  its 
privileges,  and  established  new  sees  and  new 
ecclesiastical  dioceses.  But  Bonaparte  inserted 
in  the  concordat,  on  its  publication,  what  is 
known  as  the  "  organic  articles,"  which  among 
other  things  reaffirmed  the  offensive  portion 
of  th»  declaration  of  1682.  This  was  main 
tained  as  the  law  of  the  land  and  a  rule  of 
state  policy  through  every  change  of  govern 
ment,  although  Gallicanism  itself  was  con 
stantly  on  the  wane.  In  1867  it  was  resolved 
by  Pius  IX,  and  the  bishops  assembled  in  Rome 


that  an  oecumenical  council  should  be  convened 
without  delay ;  and  it  soon  became  generally 
known  that  one  of  the  doctrinal  questions  to 
be  decided  in  the  council  was  that  of  pontifical 
infallibility.  A  warm  discussion  immediately 
began  as  to  the  opportuneness  as  well  as  the 
possibility  of  such  a  definition.  Conspicuous 
among  the  opponents  of  the  contemplated 
measure  was  Dr.  Dollinger  of  Munich,  and 
among  its  promoters  Archbishop  Manning  of 
London.  The  Jesuits,  always  the  most  strenu 
ous  advocates  of  papal  prerogative,  used  all 
their  influence  to  secure  the  definition.  In 
France  the  bishops  were  divided;  in  England, 
Ireland,  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  Aus 
tria,  a  majority  would  have  preferred  delay; 
but  Italy  and  Spain  were  for  instant  definition. 
Among  the  European  governments  a  strong 
diplomatic  effort,  originating  with  Bavaria  and 
seconded  by  France,  was  made  to  dissuade  the 
court  of  Rome  from  a  step  deemed  full  of 
danger.  On  Dec.  8,  1869,  the  council  was 
opened  by  Pius  IX.  in  the  Vatican  basilica  of 
St.  Peter's.  A  first  doctrinal  constitution  on 
Catholic  faith,  having  been  elaborated  and  ac 
cepted,  was  officially  proclaimed,  April  24, 
1870.  Then  began  the  discussion  of  a  second 
constitution  "on  the  church,"  ending  with  the 
decree  on  pontifical  infallibility.  Outside  the 
council  itself,  the  dogma  in  its  theological  and 
historical  aspect,  and  its  bearing  on  the  rela 
tion  of  the  church  to  civil  governments,  was 
vehemently  discussed  in  the  press.  A  corre 
spondence  between  Bishop  Dupanloup  and 
Archbishop  Manning,  and  the  publication  of 
an  exhaustive  Gallican  argument  by  M.  Ma- 
ret,  bishop  of  Sura,  had  created  much  inter 
est  just  before  the  opening  of  the  council; 
and  this  was  largely  increased  by  the  appear 
ance  during  its  sittings  of  a  series  of  letters  in 
the  Augsburg  AHgemeine  Zeitnng  signed  ''Ja 
nus,"  afterward  published  in  book  form  with 
the  title  of  "The  Pope  and  the  Council." 
(See  DOLLINGER.)  Another  series  of  letters 
from  Rome  were  printed  in  England  from 
the  pen  of  "  Quirinus,"  while  two  more  is 
sued  from  the  French  press  entitled  Cc  qvi 
se  passe  cnt  concile  and  La  derniere  heure  du 
concilc.  Within  the  council  itself  every  por 
tion  of  the  schema  or  draught  was  warmly 
discussed.  On  July  11  the  schema  of  the  chap 
ter  on  infallibility  was  discussed  in  detail  and 
adopted  in  a  general  congregation;  and  the 
whole  schema  was  put  to  the  vote  in  another 
congregation  held  on  the  13th.  Each  prelate 
voted  placet,  if  content;  placet  juxta  modum, 
if  only  content  with  a  part;  or  non  placet,  if 
not  content.  The  register  showed  451  as 
voting  placet,  62  placet  juxta  modvm,  and  88 
non  placet.  On  July  18,  in  solemn  session,  534 
prelates  answered  jilacet,  2  non  placet,  and 
65  were  absent,  of  whom  a  majority  did  not 
wish  to  vote  favorably. — See  Archbishop  Man 
ning's  Petri  Prwilegiiim  (London.  1871).  and 
"The  Pope  and  the  Council,"  by  Janus  (Bos 
ton,  1870).  (See  also  OLD  CATHOLICS.) 


266 


INFANT 


INFANT.  All  persons  are  called  infants,  by 
the  common  law  of  England  and  America,  un 
til  the  age  of  21,  though  in  Vermont,  Mary 
land,  Illinois,  and  perhaps  some  other  states, 
by  statute,  women  are  of  full  age,  for  most 
purposes  at  least,  at  18.  An  infant  becomes  an 
adult,  or  of  full  age,  at  the  beginning  of  the 


necessaries,  were  entirely  void,  if  the  court  saw 
that  they  could  not  be  beneficial  to  him,  but 
only  voidable"  by  him  if  this  were  doubtful. 
Now,  however,  the  prevailing  rule  is,  that  all 
contracts  of  an  infant,  not  for  necessaries,  are 
voidable  by  him,  but  that  none  are  void;  be 
cause  all  may  be  made  valid  by  his  ratification 


21st  birthday,  upon  the  ancient  principle  that 
the  law  knows  no  parts  of  a  day,  and  when 
the  last  day  of  infancy  begins,  it  is  considered 
as  ending.  The  most  general  principle  in  ref 
erence  to  the  legal  condition  of  an  infant  is  his 
inability  to  bind  himself  by  his  contract.  The 
law  asserts  this  inability  for  the  sake  of  the  in 
fant,  not  as  a  restraint,  but  as  a  protection  to 
him,  and  finds  that  upon  the  average  of  man 
kind  this  protection  should  be  extended  until 
the  age  of  21.  This  inability  being  intended 
for  his  protection  only,  in  legal  phrase  it  is 
said  to  be  his  shield,  and  he  must  not  use  it  as 
his  sword.  Because  it  is  for  his  benefit,  the 
first  and  most  important  exception  is,  that  he 
may  bind  himself  by  his  contract  for  necessa 
ries  ;  for  it  might  harm  and  could  not  help  the 
child  if  he  were  unable  to  pledge  his  credit  for 
shelter,  clothes,  or  food.  At  first  the  excep 
tion  was  confined  to  strict  necessaries  ;  but  it 
has  been  gradually  extended,  until  now  it  is 
frequently  said  to  mean  all  those  things  which 
it  is  perfectly  proper  for  the  infant  to  have, 
taking  into  view  h 


condition 


last  day  of  his  21st  year,  or  the  day  before  his  |  after  full  age,  which  could  not  be  the  case  if 

they  were  wholly  void  at  their  inception. 
Any  acts  or  words  of  affirmance  on  his  part 
have  the  effect  of  this,  ratification,  if  they  are 
made  after  majority ;  but  a  mere  acknowledg 
ment  that  when  he  was  an  infant  he  made  such 
a  promise,  does  not  bind  him  when  adult.  The 
mere  fact  that,  after  full  age,  he  does  not  dis 
affirm  his  contract  made  in  infancy,  does  not 
amount  to  a  ratification ;  but  it  may  be  made 
to  have  this  significance  and  effect  by  circum 
stances,  and  certainly  has  this  effect  if  after 
majority  he  voluntarily  continues  for  any  con 
siderable  time  in  use,  possession,  and  ownership 
of  property  acquired  by  his  contract  made 
while  an  infant.  A  distinction  is  taken  here 
between  an  infant's  real  estate  and  his  person 
al  estate ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  may  ratify  a 
contract  for  the  latter  with  much  less  of  for 
mal  and  positive  ratification  than  is  necessary 
for  the  confirmation  of  his  conveyances  of  real 
estate.  Still,  a  silent  acquiescence  in  the  pos 
session  of  his  grantee,  if  long  enough,  and  with 
full  knowledge  of  his  rights,  may  amount  to 
ratification. — As  the  disability  of  an  infant  is 
only  for  his  personal  benefit,  no  one  can  take 
advantage  of  it  but  himself  or  his  legal  rep 
resentatives.  Therefore,  if  an  adult  makes  a 
business  contract  with  an  infant,  the  adult  is 
bound,  although  the  infant  is  not.  Thus,  an 
infant  may  sue  an  adult  for  a  breach  of  prom 
ise  of  marriage ;  but  neither  an  adult  nor  an 
infant  can  sue  an  infant  for  such  breach.  So 
an  infant  may  bring  an  action  on  a  mercantile 
contract,  although  such  an  action  cannot  be 
brought  against  him.  It  is  sometimes  impor 
tant  to  determine  whether  an  infant  is  bound  by 
the  obligations  which  attach  to  property  that 
he  acquires  by  his  contract.  If  he  takes  the 
property  by  direct  operation  of  law,  as  by  de 
scent  or  marriage,  there  is  no  question,  for  the 
rule  transit  terra  cum  onere  would  apply,  and 
be  extended  even  to  property  that  was  not  land. 
But  if  he  acquires  the  property  by  his  own  act, 
the  law  may  not  be  so  certain.  Thus,  an  in 
fant  who  takes  a  lease  of  land,  and  holds  pos 
session  until  rent  is  due,  is  bound  to  pay  the 
rent,  like  any  other  person ;  but  he  may,  when 
he  will,  disclaim  the  land  and  annul  the  lease, 
or  rather  suspend  the  lease ;  for  it  is  said  that 
when  he  is  of  age  he  may  avoid  his  disclaimer. ' 
So,  if  he  buys  stock  in  a  corporation,  he  is  lia 
ble  like  an  adult  for  assessments  and  calls,  but 
may  waive  his  contract  and  give  up  his^  stock. 
While  an  infant  is  protected  against  his  con 
tracts,  he  is  not  protected  against  his  acts ;  that 
is,  he  is  answerable  in  like  manner  as  any  other 
person  for  the  injury  he  inflicts  by  his  wrong 

tinction  was,  that  an  infant's  contracts,  not  for    doing,  excepting  so  far  as  actual  infancy  or  im- 


1ns  age,  his  means,  and  his 
or  circumstances.  Thus  he  may 
make  a  valid  bargain  for  clothes,  or  even  orna 
ments  or  furniture,  as  well  as  food  and  lodg 
ing,  more  expensive  than  another  may  need, 
but  not  extravagant  or  superfluous  for  him. 
In  England  it  has  been  held  that  instruction  in 
reading  and  writing  is  among  these  necessaries 
for  every  one  who  could  pay  for  it.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  held  that  the  full  benefit 
of  a  good  school  education  is  among  these 
necessaries ;  and  there  seems  to  be  no  rea 
son  to  doubt  that  a  collegiate  education  will 
be  held  within  the  rule.  So,  as  an  infant  may 
lawfully  marry,  necessaries  for  his  wife  and 
children  may  be  lawfully  contracted  for  by 
him.  The  line  is  drawn  so  as  to  exclude  quite 
distinctly  all  trade  or  business  bargains;  for 
the  whole  legal  doctrine  of  infancy  rests  on  the 
assumption  of  the  infant's  inability  to  carry  on 
the  business  of  manhood  until  he  has  the  ma 
turity  of  at  least  21  years.  And  it  should  be 
noticed  that  not  all  his  contracts  even  for 
necessaries  are,  strictly  speaking,  valid.  Thus, 
if  he  buys  suitable  food  or  clothing,  and  agrees 
to  pay  a  certain  price  therefor,  or  gives  his 
note  therefor,  he  is  not  bound  to  pay  that  price 
or  that  note  ;  but  if  sued  on  the  promise,  he 
may  defend  so  far  as  to  show  that  the  food  and 
clothing  were  not  worth  as  much  as  he  prom 
ised  to  pay,  and  then  he  will  be  held  only  for 
their  value.  But  he  cannot  avoid  his  obliga 
tion  to  pay  their  full  value,  merely  because  he 
promised  to  pay  too  much.  Formerly  the  dis- 


INFANT 


267 


maturity  tends  to  make  him  irresponsible,  or  to 
excuse  him,  as  an  equal  amount  of  actual  inca 
pacity  would  excuse  any  one.  But,  in  the  case 
of  tort,  as  before  in  the  case  of  contract,  if  he 
gives  his  promise  or  his  note  as  a  compensation 
for  the  wrongs  he  inflicts,  he  would  be  held  not 
on  his  promise,  but  only  to  the  extent  of  his 
original  liability.  The  most  interesting  and 
the  most  difficult  application  of  the  rule,  that 
an  infant  is  liable  for  his  wrong  doings,  occurs 
in  relation  to  his  frauds  in  representing  him 
self  as  of  full  age.  Where  his  tort  is  merely 
the  breach  of  his  contract,  he  cannot  be  sued 
on  the  tort,  for  this  would  be  holding  him  in 
directly  to  his  contract.  But  if  there  is  a  dis 
tinct  wrong  for  which  he  is  responsible,  he  is 
answerable,  although  it  be  connected  with  the 
contract ;  and  this,  whether  it  be  before  or  af 
ter  the  contract.  Thus,  if  he  hires  a  horse  for 
an  unnecessary  ride,  he.  is  not  liable  for  the 
hire ;  but  if  in  the  course  of  the  ride  he  abuses 
and  injures  the  horse,  for  this  we  should  hold 
that  he  would  be  liable ;  and  if  he  should  sell 
the  horse,  an  action  for  its  value  would  lie,  nor 
would  his  infancy  be  a  bar.  So  if  he  falsely 
and  fraudulently  represents  himself  as  of  full 
age,  and  on  the  strength  of  these  representa 
tions  his  note  or  bond  is  received  in  payment 
for  a  purchase,  he  cannot  be  held  on  the  note 
or  bond,  nor  as  purchaser  for  the  price  of  the 
goods ;  but  the  purchaser  may  have  redress  in 
the  proper  action  for  his  fraud.  And  it  would 
seem  that  infancy  should  not  be  a  bar  to  an 
action  founded  upon  a  false  and  fraudulent 
warranty,  although  on  this  point  the  authori 
ties  are  in  conflict.  So  if  goods  are  sold  to  an 
infant  on  his  fraudulent  representation  that  he 
is  of  age,  we  should  say  that  the  seller  might 
consider  the  sale  null  and  void,  and  reclaim  his 
goods  as  soon  as  he  discovers  the  fraud ;  but 
perhaps  not  until  his  refusal  to  pay,  or  some 
other  indication  of  his  intending  injury.  We 
do  not  think,  however,  that  his  mere  silence,  and 
his  permitting  the  seller  to  act  on  the  suppo 
sition  that  he  was  of  full  age,  would  have  this 
effect.  When  goods  are  sold  to  an  infant  with 
no  fraudulent  representation  on  his  part,  and 
with  a  knowledge  of  his  infancy  on  the  part  of 
the  seller,  and  the  infant  subsequently  refuses 
to  pay  for  them,  and  avails  himself  of  his  in 
fancy,  as  he  certainly  may,  to  refuse  payment 
of  the  price,  some  doubt,  or  at  least  some  con 
flict,  exists  as  to  the  rights  of  the  seller.  Some 
authorities  hold  that  the  seller  is  remediless, 
because  the  privilege  of  the  infant  protects 
him  altogether.  Other  authorities  hold  that 
this  privilege  goes  no  further  than  to  permit 
him  to  cancel  the  sale  if  he  will,  for  this  is 
quite  enough  for  his  protection;  and  when 
the  sale  is  cancelled,  its  effect  is  wholly  de 
stroyed,  and  the  thing  sold  becomes  again  the 
property  of  the  seller,  who  may  repossess  him 
self  of  it  at  his  pleasure.  It  seems  to  be  uni 
versally  admitted  that  if  the  infant  has  re 
ceived  the  goods  and  paid  for  them,  he  may 
return  the  goods  and  recover  the  money,  but 


cannot  recover  the  money  without  returning 
the  goods. — A  very  important  part  of  the  law 
of  infancy,  and  that  which  perhaps  gives  rise 
to  more  disputes  and  litigation  than  any  other, 
is  that  which  determines  the  obligation  of  the 
parents  in  respect  to  infant  children.  Unfor 
tunately,  a  part  of  this  law  is  not  quite  settled. 
In  some  form  or  other,  and  in  some  degree, 
the  obligation  of  a  father  to  maintain  his  in 
fant  child  is  acknowledged  by  the  law  of  all 
civilized  communities.  For  the  infant  cannot 
support  himself,  and  therefore  some  one  must 
do  it ;  and  then  the  only  question  is,  whether 
this  obligation  falls  directly  on  the  state,  or 
in  the  first  place  on  the  father.  Justice  and 
reason  and  all  the  best  feelings  of  human  na 
ture  would  seem  to  answer  that  it  is  primarily 
the  duty  of  the  parent.  But  in  England,  after 
some  uncertainty,  and  with  some  reluctance, 
and  perhaps  some  tendency  to  make  this  moral 
obligation  of  the  father  a  legal  one  also,  it 
seems  now  to  be  the  prevailing  and  perhaps 
established  rule,  that  there  is  no  other  founda 
tion  for  the  liability  of  the  father  for  necessa 
ries  supplied  to  the  child,  excepting  the  princi 
ple  of  agency ;  that  is,  the  father  is  liable  only 
when  the  child  contracts  for  them,  and  may  be 
deemed  the  agent  of  the  father  in  making  the 
contract.  In  a  number  of  our  states  this  doc 
trine  has  been  very  positively  asserted.  But 
in  England,  and  in  all  of  the  United  States 
which  require  the  father's  authority  to  be 
proved,  this  authority  is  inferred  from  very 
slight  evidence.  Perhaps  no  case  goes  so  far 
as  to  say  directly,  that  if  a  father  sees  or 
knows  that  goods  are  supplied  to  his  infant 
child,  and  he  does  not  signify  his  dissent,  his 
assent  and  responsibility  may  be  inferred ;  but 
some  of  them  go,  in  fact,  to  almost  this  extent. 
But  the  question  occurs :  How  would  these 
courts  decide  where  the  case  was  one  which 
made  agency  or  authority  impossible?  As  if 
an  infant  of  a  month  old,  or  an  older  child 
reduced  to  utter  incapacity  by  starvation  or 
illness,  were  lost  in  a  wood,  and  found  by  a 
person  who  supplied  him  with  strict  necessa 
ries;  would  he  have  no  claim  on  the  father? 
Perhaps  the  law  on  this  subject  cannot  be  said 
to  be  determined  either  in  England  or  Amer 
ica  ;  but  as  prevailing  rules,  in  this  country  at 
least,  derived  from  an  investigation  and  com 
parison  of  the  authorities,  we  should  say:  1, 
where  goods  are  supplied  to  an  infant  which 
are  not  necessaries,  the  father  is  not  answer 
able  unless  his  authority  can  be  proved  in  the 
common  way ;  2,  where  necessaries  are  supplied, 
his  authority  will  be  presumed,  unless  he  either 
supplied  them  himself,  or  was  ready  to  supply 
them ;  3,  where  an  infant  lives  with  the  father 
or  under  his  control,  the  father's  judgment  as 
to  what  the  child  should  have  will  be  so  far 
respected,  that  ho  will  be  held  liable  only  for 
those  things  which  were  strictly  necessary  to 
preserve  the  child  from  absolute  want  and  suf 
fering;  4,  where  the  child  has  voluntarily  left 
the  father,  and  does  not  live  with  him,  the 


268 


INFANTE 


INFA&TKY 


father's  authority  must  be  strictly  proved,  un 
less  in  case  of  extreme  youth,  or  perhaps  of 
absolute  necessity ;  o,  where  the  child  has  been 
cruelly  driven  away  by  the  father,  he  carries 
with  him  the  father's  credit  for  necessaries ;  6, 
in  all  these  rules,  "necessaries"  mean  strict 
necessaries  ;  and  if  the  child  is  able  to  earn  or 
provide  them  in  part,  this  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  Where  a  child  has  an  indepen 
dent  property  of  his  own,  courts  now  go,  in 
general,  very  far  in  requiring  this  to  be  made 
the  fund  for  his  support,  before  the  father  is 
called  upon.  Whether  the  mother  is  under  the 
same  liability  as  the  father  may  not  perhaps 
be  certain  ;  but  we  consider  the  decided  weight 
of  authority  as  qualifying  the  mother's  liability 
importantly,  even  where  its  existence  is  ad 
mitted. — The  father  thus  liable  for  the  child  is 
entitled  to  its  custody  (unless  for  special  rea 
sons),  and  is  also  entitled  to  all  the  child's  earn 
ings  ;  but  he  may  agree  with  his  minor  child 
to  relinquish  his  right,  and  thereafter  to  have 
no  responsibility  for  his  support.  Such  agree 
ments  are  common  in  the  United  States ;  but 
if  a  stranger  supplied  a  minor  child,  at  a  dis 
tance  from  home,  with  strict  necessaries,  to 
save  his  life  or  health,  even  with  knowledge  of 
this  bargain,  we  are  not  disposed  to  believe 
that  it  would  bar  his  claim  against  the  father. 
If  a  child  is  of  full  age,  the  obligation  to  sup 
port  him  is  so  entirely  gone,  that  even  if  a  fa 
ther,  after  necessaries  are  supplied  to  an  adult 
child  without  his  request,  promises  to  pay  for 
them,  he  cannot  be  held  on  this  promise,  be 
cause  there  is  no  legal  consideration  for  it.  It 
may  be  added  that  if  an  infant,  while  under  his 
father's  care,  and  actually  supported  by  him, 
makes  a  contract  even  .for  necessaries,  and  gives 
his  o\vn  promise  to  pay  for  them,  the  infant  is 
not  liable  on  this  contract  or  promise,  because, 
as  it  is  said,  this  would  interfere  with  the  fa 
ther's  right  to  judge  what  is  necessary  for  him. 
Perhaps  a  better  reason  is,  that  in  such  a  case 
these  things  are  not  necessary  in  any  proper 
sense  of  the  word,  for  the  very  reason  that  the 
child  derives  a  sufficient  support  from  the  care 
of  the  father. — A  father  is  never  liable  for  the 
wilful  tort  of  an  infant  child ;  nor  has  he  a 
right,  merely  as  father,  to  bring  an  action  in 
his  own  name  for  an  injury  to  his  child,  unless 
in  some  way,  as  by  the  necessary  expense  or 
otherwise,  he  is  himself  injured.  Neither  can 
he  give  a  valid  release  for  an  injury  to  his  child. 

INFANTE  (Lat.  infans,  infant),  a  title  given 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  to  the  royal  princes,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  the  heir  apparent  to  the  crown, 
is  alone  called  el  principe,  the  prince.  The 
feminine  form  of  the  word,  infanta,  is  applied 
to  the  royal  princesses.  The  term  infante  oc 
curs  in  documents  of  the  10th  century. 

INFANTE,  Jose  MIgnel,  a  Chilian  statesman, 
born  in  Santiago  in  1778,  died  April  9,  1844. 
lie  was  one  of  the  earliest  leaders  of  the  revo 
lution  of  1810,  which  ended  in  the  indepen 
dence  of  Chili;  contributed  to  organize  the 
junta  gubernativa  in  the  same  year,  and  the 


first  congress,  which  assembled  on  July  4, 1811 ; 
and  was  a  member  of  the  new  junta  of  1813. 
In  1818  he  became  minister  of  finance  under 
O'Higgins,  against  whom  on  Jan.  2,  1823,  he 
delivered  a  noted  speech.  O'Higgins  shortly 
afterward  resigned,  and  the  country  was  then 
governed  by  a  junta,  of  which  Infante  was  the 
first  member,  until  the  election  of  President 
Freire,  by  whom  Infante  was  called  to  organize 
a  senate.  During  the  first  session  of  that  body, 
his  bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  enacted, 
June  24,  1823.  Freire  being  absent  in  1825, 
the  government  was  reposed  in  a  dictatorial 
council  with  Infante  at  its  head.  He  advo 
cated  the  formation  of  Chili  as  a  federal  re 
public,  and  founded  a  newspaper,  the  Valdi- 
viano  Federal,  which  he  published  from  Jan.  1, 
1827,  till  near  his  death.  In  1831  he  was 
appointed  member  of  the  congress  of  pleni 
potentiaries,  and  in  1843  chief  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  justice,  and  member  of  the 
faculty  of  law  of  the  university  of  Chili.  He 
was  influential  in  establishing  primary  schools, 
and  has  been  called  the  "  father  of  his  country." 
INFANTRY,  the  foot  soldiers  of  an  army.  The 
term  is  comparatively  modern,  having  been  first 
used  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  w'ars  with  the 
Moors,  to  designate  the  body  guard  of  a  royal 
prince  or  infante.  It  was  gradually  extended 
to  the  entire  body  of  foot  soldiers,  and  final 
ly  adopted  throughout  Europe.  (See  AKMY.) 
The  infantry,  from  its  powers  of  endurance,  its 
capabilities  for  battle  on  all  kinds  of  ground, 
and  its  independence  of  -those  casualties  by 
which  other  arms  may  be  completely  para 
lyzed,  is,  and  with  few  exceptions  always  has 
been,  considered  the  first  arm  in  importance. 
All  other  branches  are  subsidiary  to  it,  and  are 
employed  for  special  purposes  to  supplement 
its  final  effects ;  and  the  fate  of  nations  in  war 
at  the  present  day  is  decided  by  the  discipline 
and  efficiency  of  their  infantry.  The  service 
of  skirmishing  and  light  infantry  operations, 
as  they  were  formerly  called,  which  now  de 
volve  upon  all  infantry  alike,  demand  great  in 
dividual  address,  intelligence,  and  well  devel 
oped  physical  power.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  against  infantry  operating  with  the  mod 
ern  breech-loading  weapons,  and  with  the  im 
proved  system  of  tactics  and  defence,  cavalry 
is  powerless,  except  when  operating  dismount 
ed  and  armed  with  breech-loading  magazine 
rifles,  or  mounted  to  complete  a  victory  al 
ready  won,  and  to  charge  the  disorganized  and 
flying  ranks.  (See  CAVALRY.)  Artillery  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  cooperate  with  in 
fantry,  in  opening  engagements  and  in  demor 
alizing  the  enemy  with  persistent  shelling  until 
the  infantry  is  within  firing  distance.  (See 
ARTILLERY.)  The  relative  number  of  field  guns 
varies  with  the  ground  and  the  special  objects 
to  be  secured ;  from  three  to  five  guns  to  1,000 
men  is  the  number  adopted  in  most  army  or 
ganizations  of  the  present  day. — The  lessons 
taught  by  history  applicable  to  infantry  of  the 
present  day  are  few  and  simple,  but  seem  to 


INFANTRY 


269 


be  forgotten  or  ignored  by  those  in  authority 
at  the  outbreak  of  almost  every  great  war. 
They  are,  that  the  infantry  soldier  should  pos 
sess  the  highest  attainable  mental,  moral,  and 
physical  development ;  be  governed  by  the 
strictest  discipline,  and  show  implicit  and  un 
questioning  obedience  to  the  superior  officer ; 
be  controlled  by  the  simplest  possible  manoeu 
vres  in  the  field  or  in  presence  of  the  enemy ; 
and  be  loaded  as  little  as  possible  either  with 
arms  or  equipment.  From  the  Napoleonic  pe 
riod  to  within  the  last  12  or  15  years  some 
modifications  had  been  made  with  reference  to 
infantry,  but  they  were  comparatively  unim 
portant.  Within  this  period,  however,  the  in 
vention  of  the  rifle  with  the  conical  ball  of 
Minie,  the  breech-loading  needle  gun  of  Dreyse, 
and  a  number  of  other  modern  improvements, 
have  caused  a  very  considerable  change  in  the 
organization  and  manoeuvring  of  infantry ;  and 
now  the  general  introduction  of  the  breech- 
loading  rifle,  with  the  improved  system  of  field 
defences,  has  completely  altered  the  phenomena 
of  the  battle  field.—  United  States.  The  infan 
try  of  the  regular  army  of  the  United  States 
since  the  civil  war  has  been  reduced  in  num 
bers  several  times,  and  now  consists  of  but  20 
regiments,  each  composed  of  10  companies,  and 
each  company  on  the  peace  establishment  of 
53  enlisted  men.  The  officers  of  the  regiment 
are  a  .colonel,  a  lieutenant  colonel,  a  major,  a 
regimental  adjutant,  and  a  regimental  quarter 
master.  Each  company  is  commanded  by  a 
captain,  and  has  one  first  and  one  second  lieu 
tenant,  and  may  have  an  additional  second 
lieutenant,  a  graduate  of  the  military  academy. 
The  non-commissioned  staff  consists  of  a  quar 
termaster  sergeant  and  a  sergeant  major.  Each 
company  has  one  orderly  sergeant,  three  com 
mon  sergeants,  and  four  corporals.  Congress, 
when  the  necessity  arises,  authorizes  the  presi 
dent,  as  commander-in-chief,  to  increase  the 
army  to  the  maximum  standard.  In  each  state 
there  is  a  militia,  in  time  of  peace  under  the 
command  of  the  governor,  in  time  of  wrar  in 
certain  contingencies,  under  that  of  the  presi 
dent  of  the  United  States,  which  conforms 
in  all  respects  to  the  regular  army  in  tactics 
and  arms.  (See  MILITIA.)  The  arm  of  the 
United  States  infantryman  is  the  Springfield 
breech-loading  rifle.  (See  RIFLE.)  The  equip 
ments  are  a  knapsack  with  greatcoat  straps, 
a  haversack,  a  canteen,  a  cartridge  box,  and 
a  bayonet  scabbard.  The  uniform,  for  pri 
vates,  consists  of  a  single-breasted  dark  blue 
basque  coat,  sky-blue  trousers,  blue  cloth  cap 
with  a  white  pompon;  for  officers,  a  double- 
breasted  frock  coat  of  dark  blue  cloth,  the 
rank  to  determine  the  number  of  buttons, 
and  light  blue  trousers  with  black  stripes. 
The  overcoat  is  a  dark  blue  double-breasted 
surtout.  (For  detailed  description,  see  gen 
eral  orders  No.  92,  war  department,  adju 
tant  general's  office,  Oct.  26,  1872.)  Privates 
and  non-commissioned  officers  are  liberally 
supplied  with  underclothing,  blankets,  and 


waterproof  blankets.  They  can  either  draw 
their  clothing  in  kind  or  commute  it.  Officers 
and  men  are  allowed  a  definite  amount  of 
camp  equipage,  consisting  of  wall  tents,  shelter 
tents,  mess  pans,  camp  kettles,  hatchets,  axes, 
and  spades.  In  the  field,  officers  are  allowed 
a  definite  amount  of  baggage  transported  at 
the  expense  of  the  government.  Privates  are 
obliged  to  carry  their  personal  effects  on  their 
person.  The  pay  of  the  United  States  infantry 
is  as  follows :  colonel,  $3,500  per  annum ; 
lieutenant  colonel,  $3,000;  major,  $2,500; 
captain,  $1,800;  adjutant,  $1,800;  regimental 
quartermaster,  $1,800  ;  first  lieutenant,  $1,500; 
second  lieutenant,  $1,400;  chaplain,  $1,500; 
first  sergeant,  $22  per  month ;  sergeant,  $17; 
corporal,  $15 ;  private,  $13.  An  increase  of  10 
per  cent,  is  allowed  for  every  five  years'  ser 
vice,  provided  the  total  amount  of  increase  does 
not  exceed  40  per  cent,  of  the  whole  pay. 
Mounted  officers  are  allowed  forage  for  their 
horses.  If  quarters  are  not  furnished  by  the 
government,  commutation  is  allowed.  An  in 
crease  of  $1  a  month  for  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  years  of  the  first  enlistment  is  allowed  to 
non-commissioned  officers  and  privates. — The 
great  lesson  taught  by  the  civil  war  in  Ameri 
ca  was,  that  the  defence  derived  an  immense 
benefit  from  shelter,  however  slight.  The 
rifle  pit  in  the  last  years  of  the  war  was  per 
haps  the  most  marked  feature  in  the  American 
system.  Though  generally  not  armed  with  a 
breech-loading  weapon,  but  simply  with  the 
Springfield  muzzle-loading  rifle,  experience 
showed  that,  so  long  as  the  men  behind  in- 
trenchments  preserved  their  morale,  the  dam 
age  inflicted  on  the  enemy  was  frequently 
nearly  ten  to  one.  Skirmishing,  which  was 
adapted  to  the  character  of  the  American  hun 
ter  and  backwoodsman,  and  which  was  first 
introduced  to  general  notice  in  the  war  of  the 
revolution,  received  a  new  impetus  in  the  civil 
war,  and  was  constantly  employed  on  both 
sides.  The  character  of  the  ground,  broken 
and  timbered,  also  generally  favored  this  sys 
tem  of  warfare.  The  Prussians  have  since 
adopted  the  skirmish  line  as  the  normal  for 
mation  for  battle,  having  been  compelled  du 
ring  the  Franco-German  war  to  abandon  the 
attack  in  masses  in  consequence  of  the  destruc- 
tiveness  of  the  breech-loader.  They  have  since 
adapted  their  tactics  to  the  new  method  of 
fighting.  Cavalry  cooperating  with  infantry 
was  rarely  used ;  but  field  artillery  was  brought 
to  a  state  of  great  perfection,  and  was  exten 
sively  used  to  open  engagements  and  coope 
rate  with  the  foot.  The  infantry  was  generally 
drawn  up  in  one  or  two  lines  of  battle  in  two 
ranks,  with  a  reserve  at  a  proper  distance  in 
the  rear  to  supply  gaps  and  strengthen  that 
portion  of  the  line  most  heavily  pressed.  The 
skirmishers  were  in  advance  whenever  the 
enemy's  position  was  not  known.  The  attack 
was  generally  opened  by  a  fire  of  artillery,  fol 
lowed  by  a  gradual  advance  of  the  \vhole  line, 
and  finally  a  charge  at  a  run.  The  system  of 


270 


INFANTRY 


tactics  used  was  that  known  as  Casey's.  It 
was  an  improvement  on  Scott's  "Tactics," 
which  was  substantially  a  translation  of  the 
French  Ordonnances  of  1831  and  1845.  Ca 
sey's  system,  which  was  succeeded  by  that  of 
Hardee,  was  in  turn  superseded  by  that  of  Up 
ton  in  August,  1867.  This  system,  which  is 
based  upon  a  front  of  four  men  as  a  unit, 
seems  the  best  adapted  to  meet  the  require 
ments  of  infantry  manoeuvres  of  the  present 
day.  To  give  the  breech-loader  its  maximum 
effect,  it  provides  a  single-rank  formation,  and 
also  a  new  method  of  deploying  skirmishers 
by  numbers,  by  means  of  which,  without  de 
stroying  the  manoeuvring  unit  of  four,  a  bat 
talion  in  line,  in  double  rank,  can  promptly 
furnish  one,  two,  three,  and  even  four  succes 
sive  lines  of  skirmishers,  each  equal  in  strength 
to  one  eighth  of  the  battalion.  The  first  line, 
if  too  weak,  may  thus  be  reenforced  by  suc 
cessive  lines  till  one  half  of  the  battalion  is 
engaged,  leaving  the  other  half  in  line  in  sin 
gle  rank,  ready  to  advance  to  the  support  of 
the  skirmishers  if  successful,  or  to  receive 
them  if  repulsed.  If  necessary,  the  entire 
battalion  may  be  advanced  in  successive  lines 
or  united  into  a  single  line  of  skirmishers. 
The  term  regiment  is  used  in  the  United  States 
for  administrative  purposes,  and  tactically  is 
interchangeable  with  battalion,  as  it  generally 
consists  of  but  one,  differing  in  this  respect 
from  most  European  armies,  where  a  regiment 
is  composed  of  two,  three,  and  sometimes  as 
many  as  seven  battalions. —  Germany.  The 
highest  division  of  infantry  solely  is  the  bri 
gade,  composed  of  two  regiments,  each  regi 
ment,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  of  three 
battalions  of  four  companies  each.  Each  regi 
ment  has  a  colonel,  lieutenant  colonel,  and  ad 
jutant,  besides  a  commander  who  is  an  officer 
of  the  staff,  and  one  major  as  fifth  officer  of 
the  staff.  Each  regiment  has  a  band,  varying 
in  number.  Each  battalion,  in  war,  has  one 
wagon  with  munitions,  containing  from  16,710 
to  16,940  cartridges  and  1,290  explosive  car 
tridges,  12  axes,  10  spades,  &c. ;  one  wagon 
containing  the  cash  box  of  the  battalion  and 
accounts,  articles  of  uniform  in  reserve,  and 
the  ttffWs  requisite  for  the  shoemakers  and  tai 
lors  of  the  battalion ;  one  cart  containing  drugs 
and  medicines;  one  wagon  for  officers'  equi 
page;  arid  four  horses  with  pack  saddles. 
There  are  some  slight  changes  in  the  arrange 
ment  for  the  fusileer  and  jiiger  battalions. 
There  is  little  more  than  a  nominal  distinction 
between  the  different  regiments  of  foot,  those 
called  fusileers  and  the  battalions  of  jagers 
forming  the  light  infantry.  The  fusileers  have 
no  bayonets  on  their  guns,  but  use  short 
swords  instead.  The  jagers  are,  as  far  as  pos 
sible,  recruited  from  persons  who  wish  to  be 
come  game  keepers  and  foresters,  and  have  been 
assistants  to  such  before  entering  the  army. 
Each  battalion  has  a  major  and  an  adjutant,  a 
surgeon  and  one  assistant  surgeon,  a  paymas 
ter,  a  quartermaster,  and  two  non-cornmis- 


COUNTRIES. 

LINE. 

CHASSEURS.    LANDWEIIB. 

Total 

number 
of  men. 

§ 

PQ 

845 

48 

27 
24 

444 

fl 

8 

i 

1 

14 
10 

2 

26 

a 
S 

S3 
1 

1 

Prussia*  
Bavaria  
Saxony  
Wiirtemberg. 

Total  

201,272 
26,590 
15,093 

12,448 

8.021 

5,500 
1,100 

227 
32 
17 
17 

3,651 
512 
235 

2S9 

212,944 

32,6ii2 
lfi.4'23 
12,7*7 

255,403 

14,621 

298 

4,687    274,711 

WAR    FOOTING. 
Number  of  battalions  same  as  above. 

COUNTRIES. 

IN   THE  FIELD. 

IN  DEPOT. 

IN  GARKISON. 

Total 

number 
of  men. 

I 

358,843 
49.344: 
27,756 

24,672 

i 

3 

O 

<D 
J 

Chasseurs. 

Landwehr. 

I 

Prussia.  . 
Bavaria  . 
Saxony  .  . 
Wurtem- 
berg.  .  . 

Total... 

14,364 
10,260 
2,052 

139,495 
19,408 
10,917 

9,704 

4.312 
3,080 
616 

194,564 
27,424 
14,544 

13,712 

3,500 
2,500 
£00 

710,083 
112,016 
56,385 

48,088 

455,620 

26,676 

179,524  8,008 

250.244  !  6,500 

926,572 

sioned  staff  officers.  Each  company  is  com 
posed  of  one  captain,  one  first  and  one  second 
lieutenant,  and  250  enlisted  men.  The  follow 
ing  table  gives  the  numbers  of  the  German  in 
fantry  on  a  peace  and  on  a  war  footing : 


PEACE   FOOTING. 


The  gun  of  the  German  infantry  during  the 
Franco-German  war  was  the  needle  gun  of 
Dreyse.  It  admits  of  firing  five  times  in  a 
minute,  and  carries  well  800  yards.  It  is 
being  superseded  by  the  Mauser  rifle,  sighted 
up  to  1,600  yards,  which  is  capable  of  being 
fired  18  times  a  minute,  and  the  adapted 
French  Chassepot,  400,000  of  which  were  cap 
tured  in  the  war.  The  prevailing  color  of  the 
Prussian  uniform  is  blue,  and  the  coat  is  much 
like  that  of  our  own  troops.  For  infantry  the 
coat  is  a  dark  blue  frock,  with  a  single  row  of 
eight  buttons,  the  collar  and  cuffs  faced  with 
red ;  pantaloons  dark  gray,  with  red  cord  down 
the  seam ;  the  boots  have  tops  about  6  in. 
high  ;  the  cap  for  undress  is  of  blue  cloth,  flat 
topped,  with  patent  leather  visor,  and  red  band 
lace  half  an  inch  wide.  The  helmet  is  of 
glazed  leather  with  a  front  and  rear  visor,  a 
brass-scaled  chin  strap,  a  brass  Prussian  eagle 
displayed  in  front,  and  terminates  at  the  top  in 
a  brass-pointed  spike  about  2  in.  high.  The 
overcoat  is  long  and  of  the  same  color  as  the 
pantaloons.  In  addition  the  men  have  for  fa 
tigue  and  drill  common  cotton  pantaloons  and 
short  cloth  jacket.  The  dress  of  officers  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  privates ;  the  texture  of 
the  cloth  is  better,  and  their  rank  is  determined 
by  a  system  of  braids  and  shoulder  straps;  a 
sword  like  the  cavalry  sabre  of  the  American 
service  is  worn.  The  Prussian  soldier  ready 

*  Including  the  troops  of  Hesse,  Mecklenburg,  &c. 


INFANTRY 


271 


for  marching  looks  very  much  like  the  Ameri 
can  under  the  same  circumstances.     His  over 
coat  is  made  into  a  long  slender  roll  and  hung 
on  the  left  shoulder,  the  two  ends  coming  to 
gether,  and  being  fastened  on  the  right  hip. 
His  haversack  of  coarse  white  linen,  and  glass 
canteen  covered  with  leather,  are  slung  from  the 
right  shoulder.     Around  the  iiask  are  buckled 
two  broad  straps,  used  in  peace  to  cover  the 
sights  of  the  gun.     He  wears  no  shoulder  belt, 
but   a   pipe-clayed   waist   belt,  on   which  are 
slipped  -two  cartridge  boxes  of  black  leather, 
carried  on  either  side,  each  box  holding  20  car 
tridges.     The  knapsack  is  of  calfskin,  tanned 
with  the  hair  on,  and  is  slung  by  two  pipe 
clayed  leather  belts.     The  knapsack  is  made  to 
keep  its  shape  by  a  light  wooden  frame.     On 
each  end  outside  is  a  deep  box  in  which  is  car 
ried  a  case  of  20  cartridges.     On  top  of  his 
knapsack  is  strapped  a  galvanized   iron  pot, 
holding  about  three  quarts,  with  a  tight-fitting 
cover,  which  is  used  separately  for  cooking. 
He  wears   on   his  waist  belt  a  strong  sword 
15  in.  long,  which  can  be  used  for  defence  or 
for  cutting  wood  or  material  for  fascines  and 
gabion^.     His  gun  is  unburnished,  so  that  it 
may  not  attract  attention  by  Hashing  in  the 
sun,  and  is  pretty  well  coated  with  grease.    He 
carries  no  blanket.    A  leather  pouch  for  money 
is  hung  around  the  neck,  and  also  a  zinc  plate 
attached  to  a  card  on  which  are  engraved  the 
soldier's  regiment,  company,  and  number.    The 
whole  weight  of  arms  and  equipments  is  50 
Ibs. — The  tactics  used  by  the  German  infan 
try  through  the  war  of  1870  was  an  adaptation 
of  the  French  tactics  of  the  Napoleonic  period. 
The   ordonnance  was  issued  in   1847  by  the 
predecessor  and  brother  of   the   present  em 
peror;    but   certain  modifications   have   been 
made,  from  the  experience  of  the   late   war, 
which  are  embodied  in  the  royal  Prussian  or 
der  dated  March  19, 1873.     (See  article  by  Capt. 
Branckenburg  in  u  United  Service  Magazine  " 
for  18.73,  No.  74.)   The  Prussian  system  is  now,  j 
or  probably  will  be,  the  model  for  the  rest  of  j 
the  world.     The  general  theory  is  that  every  j 
means  must  be  adopted  to  increase  the  effect  [ 
of  fire  on  the  enemy's  troops  and  to  diminish  < 
that  effect  on  our  own.     The  tactical  formation  ! 
up  to  a  recent  period  had  been  based  upon  the  j 
fire  of  the  Napoleonic  era.     This  for  the  in-  • 
fantry  was  slow  and  very  inaccurate,  effective  i 
up  to  200  or  at  most  250  yards ;   artillery  fire 
was  effective  up  to  about  1,500  yards,  but  shell  i 
power  comparatively  feeble,   the  greatest   ef-  \ 
feet  being  really  within  the  case  zone  of  500  j 
tc   200    yards,    before    effective   infantry   fire  ! 
was  readied.     Under  these  conditions  we  see 
French  troops  attacking  in  such  formations  as 
that  of  Macdonald's  column  at  Wagram,  con 
sisting  of  three  divisions,  one  of  which  had  its  j 
battalions  deployed  in  one  great  column,  the  ! 
others  being  in  contiguous  columns  of  battal-  j 
ions  on  the  fianks ;   or  as  D'Erlon's   columns  j 
at  Waterloo,  four  divisions,  each  advancing  in 
column  on  a  front  of  a  deployed  battalion ;  or  , 
VOL.  ix. — 18 


as  Ney's  right  column  at  Friedland,  with  a 
front  of  some  66  files  and  a  depth  of  80  ranks. 
The  British  troops  used  the  line  formation,  at 
times  two  deep  and  at  times  four  deep,  in  which 
latter  formation  both  the  guards  and  the  52d 
regiment  moved  at  Waterloo  to  repulse  the  last 
attack  of  the  French  imperial  guard.  Passing 
through  the  skirmishers,  who  ran  in,  they  ad 
vanced  over  the  comparatively  short  distance 
which  separated  the  contending-  bodies  of 
troops,  and  fired  upon  the  enemy.  The  attack 
of  Longstreet's  corps  on  the  left  flank  of  tho 
Union  army  at  Gettysburg  is  also  a  case  in 
point.  Such  a  system  of  tactics  would  be  utter 
suicide  with  the  weapons  of  to-day;  and  the 
column  of  attack,  which  has  played  so  famous 
a  part  in  modern  military  history,  may  be  said 
to  belong  to  the  past  as  completely  as  the  Mace 
donian  phalanx  or  the  wooden  line-of-battle 
ships.  The  Prussians  now  employ  a  system  of 
opening  engagements  with  heavy  fire  of  artil 
lery,  then  attacking  with  a  cloud  of  skirmish 
ers,  who  take  advantage  of  every  hollow  in  the 
ground,  tree,  fence,  &c.,  followed  by  columns 
to  supply  gaps.  This  shooting  line  no  longer 
merely  covers  the  fighting  line  as  before,  but 
it  is  the  fighting  line.  Fed  by  small  bodies  suc 
cessively  brought  up  in  extended  order,  their 
places  as  supports  being  taken  by  fresh  bodies 
drawn  from  the  rear,  the  fighting  line  may  be 
brought  to  great  strength.  Little  by  little  it  is 
fed  by  troops  not  in  close  formation ;  little  by 
little  it  works  its  way  up  close  to  the  enemy; 
and  by  this  feeding  system  of  the  shooting  line 
a  superiority  of  infantry  fire  is  established,  and 
the  enemy's  troops  are  demoralized.  When 
the  final  attack  is  made,  this  shooting  line  has 
become  much  stronger,  for  whole  battalions 
may  have  been  absorbed.  It  is  a  line,  but  not 
a  rigid  one,  depending  on  conditions  of  ground, 
and  one  which  has  worked  its  way  to  this 
point  in  small  bodies  in  fighting  order,  without 
that  fearful  loss  and  consequent  demoralization 
which  must  inevitably  attend  the  advance  of  a 
rigid  line  of  anything  like  its  strength.  Then 
comes  the  final  attack,  the  rush  of  this  ree'n- 
forced  line,  this  fighting  division  closely  fol 
lowed  by  the  nearest  supports.  The  Prussian 
instructions  thus  describe  it :  "  If  the  enemy's 
line  appears  to  be  shaken  in  its  holding  of  auy 
part  of  its  position,  the  shooting  line,  with 
the  nearest  but  hitherto  concealed  supports, 
rush  forward  in  quick,  concentrated  assault  on 
this  point ;  while  these  draw  together  in  close 
division,  it  must  be  the  ofiicers'  endeavor  to 
get  them  quickly  in  hand,  in  order  to  be  able 
to  resist  the  enemy's  counter-attack.  In  the 
mean  while,  the  divisions  in  rear  follow  up 
quickly."  This  system  of  fighting  requires 
great  intelligence,  individual  judgment,  and  at 
the  same  time  thorough  discipline  and  subor 
dination  on  the  part  of  the  private  soldier.  It 
is  secured  in  Prussia  by  the  compulsory  sys 
tem  of  education,  and  by  the  elaborate  character 
of  the  military  training  which  every  soldier 
is  obliged  to  underio. — Russia.  The  Russian 


272 


INFANTRY 


army  is  at  present  (1874)  undergoing  a  complete 
reorganization,  and  trustworthy  statistics  con 
cerning  its  present  condition  cannot  be  ob 
tained.  The  following  table  is  derived  from 
official  statistics  for  1871 : 


RUSSIA    IN    EUROPE. 


TROOPS. 

PEACE. 

WAR. 

Officers. 

Men. 

Officers. 

Men. 

FIELD   TROOPS. 

12  regts.  of  the  guard  
12     "      of  grenadiers  
140     "      of  line  infantry.  ... 
24  battalions  of  chasseurs.  . 
Staff  of  infantry 

804 
760 
8,993 
599 
240 

24,7G2 
24,182 
216,916 
14,347 
855 

996 
972 
11.844 
6S4 
246 

40,794 
40,164 
404,3sO 
21,931 

9S4 

Total. 

11,427 

281,012 

14,238 

568,253 

LOCAL  TROOPS. 

23  batt.  of  inf  'y  for  fortresses. 

299 

8,123 

491 

24,225 

INTERIOR   TROOPS. 

1  batt.  of  body  guard  
2    "     of  line  infantry  
59    "     of  garrison  

22 
50 

792 

700 
110 

501 
2,251 

23,833 

13,584 
2,034 

22 
50 
1,071 

700 
110 

501 
2  '2">1 
4&1G3 

13,584 

2,034 

RESERVES. 

70  batt.  ofinfantrv.  ..   . 

10    '•     of  chasseurs  

TROOPS   OF  APPLICATION. 

Inf  'y,  1  batt.  and  1  comp'y  . 

83  ;        470 

33 

476 

Besides  the  army  of  Russia  in  Europe,  there 
are  the  army  of  the  Caucasus,  that  of  Turkis- 
tan,  and  that  of  Siberia.  When  the  Russian 
army  is  completely  reorganized  it  will  consist 
in  time  of  peace  of  about  750,000  men ;  in  time 
of  war  the  armies  of  Russia  and  the  Caucasus 
will  reach  the  number  of  2,085,000  men.  The 
proportion  of  artillery  to  infantry  in  the  field 
will  be  about  3£  guns  to  1,000  men;  there 
will  also  be  one  mitrailleuse  to  every  4^  guns. 
The  regiment  is  commanded  by  a  major  gen 
eral  in  the  guards  and  by  a  full  colonel  in  the 
army.  Each  battalion  has  a  lieutenant  colonel 
at  its  head.  The  regimental  staff  consists  of 
a  regimental  adjutant,  a  regimental  quarter 
master,  a  musketry  instructor,  and  an  officer 
in  command  of  the  non-combatant  company. 
The  non-commissioned  staff  consists  of  a  drum 
major,  a  trumpet  major,  a  sergeant  major, 
three  assistant  sergeants,  one  or  two  chaplains, 
and  non-combatant  clerks,  mechanics,  &c.  The 
battalion  staff  consists  of  a  battalion  adjutant, 
a  battalion  drum  major,  a  battalion  trumpet 
major,  and  an  apothecary.  A  company  has  a 
captain,  three  lieutenants,  and  211  non-com 
missioned  officers  and  men  on  a  war  footing, 
as  follows :  1  junker  (candidate  for  admission), 
4  senior  sergeants,  12  junior  sergeants,  20  lance 
corporals,  148  privates,  1  pay  sergeant,  3  drum 
mers,  3  buglers,  1  armorer  sergeant,  12  privates 
in  reserve,  1  apothecary,  1  assistant  apothecary,  j 
4  officers'  servants.  The  Russian  infantry  has  ] 
been  armed  with  the  Krinck  converted  rifle,  j 
but  the  Berdan  breech-loader  will  shortly  be  i 
issued  to  the  whole  army.  The  weapons  are 
adjusted  up  to  600  yards,  except  those  of  ritle  j 
companies  and  eight  picked  shots  in  each  com-  ! 


pany,  whose  sights  are  adjusted  to  1,200  yards. 
Ninety  rounds  of  ammunition  are  carried  in 
the  cartridge  boxes ;  40  more  rounds  are  car 
ried  for  each  man  in  the  company  transports. 
Bayonets  are  always  fixed.  The  weight  of 
arms  and  equipments  is  68  Ibs.,  including  three 
days'  provisions.  The  infantryman  has  also  a 
short  sword.  The  uniform  is  gray ;  small 
shako  hat ;  belts  and  straps  white  in  the  guard, 
except  rifle  companies ;  in  the  infantry  of  the 
line  the  belts  are  all  black.  The  tactics  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  other  great  powers. 
The  unit  of  administration  in  everything  is 
the  regiment.  To  make  the  infantry  wholly 
independent  of  other  arms,  10  men  of  each 
regiment  are  annually  attached  to  the  artillery, 
so  there  are  always  80  men  with  eight  years' 
service  to  help  that  arm  in  case  of  "need. 
Eight  men  of  each  company  carry  intrenching 
tools,  and  are  instructed  in  throwing  up  tem 
porary  works.  There  are  schools  in  which 
the  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  regiment 
are  carefully  trained,  and  they  in  turn  teach 
the  men.  The  standard  is  very  high,  and  after 
their  term  of  enlistment  has  expired  they  fre 
quently  decline  commissions  which  they  might 
obtain  by  passing  a  sufficiently  high  examina 
tion,  and  become  schoolmasters  and  sometimes 
professors.  The  men  receive  but  one  new  uni 
form  a  year.  The  companies  make  their  own 
clothing  entirely,  even  to  the  spinning  of  the 
braid.  Army  transportation  is  regimental; 
every  company  has  a  provision  wagon  with 
six  days'  rations,  and  a  wagon  with  40  rounds 
of  ammunition  to  each  man,  with  three  horses 
driven  abreast.  Each  regiment  has  an  orderly 
wagon  with  lithographing  press,  &c.,  four  am 
bulances,  one  hospital  car,  and  one  medicine 
cart;  each  brigade  one  band  wagon,  none  in 
time  of  war.  In  some  regiments  the  senior 
surgeon  gives  occasional  lectures  to  the  officers 
and  men  on  the  first  steps  to  be  taken  when 
wounded  in  case  skilled  assistance  is  not  at 
hand.  Thus  the  regiment  is  an  administrative 
unit,  independent  of  extraneous  aid.  The  pri 
vate  soldier  is  intelligent,  though  generally  un 
educated;  but  under  the  new  system  there  will 
be  a  continual  improvement. — Austro- Hunga 
rian  Monarchy.  Military  service  is  obligato 
ry  upon  all  citizens  of  Austro-Hungary,  as  in 
most  other  European  nations.  There  are  36 
divisions  of  infantry,  each  consisting  of  two 
brigades.  Each  regiment  comprises  in  time  of 
peace  five  battalions  of  four  companies,  with 
the  skeleton  of  a  supplementary  battalion ;  in 
time  of  war,  three  battalions  of  four  compa 
nies,  two  reserve  battalions  of  four  compa 
nies,  and  one  supplementary  battalion  of  five 
companies.  The  regiment  of  Tyrolese  chas 
seurs  has  seven  battalions  of  four  companies, 
seven  supplementary  companies  of  reserve,  and 
one  supplementary  battalion  of  seven  compa 
nies  in  time  of  war.  Each  battalion  of  chas 
seurs  has  four  companies,  one  company  in  re 
serve,  and  one  supplementary  company.  The 
numbers  in  1873  were  as  follows: 


INFANTRY 


INFANT   SCHOOLS 


273 


AUSTRIAN   INFANTRY. 

TROOPS. 

PEACE   FOOTING. 

WAR   FOOTING. 

Batt. 

Men. 

Batt. 

Men. 

In  the  field.  |^n4e-m:s. 
Garrison,  &c  

400 
40 

80 
SO 

148,320 
21.451 
8,815 
2.947 
9,244 

480 
41 

lii 

126 

435.440 
58.758 
16,215 
188.974 
150,220 

Lnndwoh,^^-; 

Total 

612 

190,277 

758 

649,602 

The  battalion  is  commanded  by  a  major  or 
lieutenant  colonel;  its  strength  on  a  peace 
footing  is  14  officers  and  372  men.  A  com 
pany  lias  3  officers  and  95  non-commissioned 
officers  and  men.  On  a  war  footing  a  battalion 
has  18  officers  and  734  men — a  company  has  4 
officers  and  236  non-commissioned  officers  and 
men,  4  pioneers,  and  3  bearers  of  wounded.  The 
Austrian  infantry  is  to  be  armed  with  the  AVerndl 
patent  ride,  of  which  400,000  had  been  issued  in 
1873.  The  proportion  of  artillery  to  the  in 
fantry  is  3J-  guns  to  1,000  men.  the  uniform 
was  formerly  white;  it  is  now  bluish  gray, 
with  belts  of  untanned  leather;  close-fitting 
blue  pantaloons,  terminating  in  a  boot.  The 
tactics  are  undergoing  a  partial  change,  and 
will  be  made  to  conform  with  some  modifi 
cations  to  the  German  method. — The  infantry 
of  the  other  powers  of  Europe  is  all  modelled 
more  or  less  upon  the  systems  already  de 
scribed.  The  French  army  is  undergoing  a 
complete  reorganization.  The  defeat  of  the 
French  in  the  war  of  1870  was  due  rather  to  bad 
generalship,  faulty  administration,  and  lack  of 
preparation,  than  to  any  specific  defect  in  the 
infantry.  In  France  military  service  is  obliga 
tory  upon  every  man  except  under  certain  defi 
nite  conditions.  The  system  of  education  is 
not  so  complete  as  in  Germany.  The  English 
army  is  kept  up  by  a  system  of  volunteer  re 
cruiting;  but  there  is  a  militia  liable  to  service 
in  time  of  war,  in  which  all  subjects  from  18 
to  GO  years  of  age  are  enrolled.  The  regular 
infantry  in  Great  Britain  numbers  about  60,- 
000  men;  in  India  about  45,958  men;  in  the 
other  colonies  18,000  men.  The  term  of  ser 
vice  is  12  years.  They  are  armed  with  the 
Henry-Martin  breech-loading  rifie.  The  infan 
try  of  the  smaller  states,  in  organization,  tac 
tics,  weapons,  &c.,  resembles  that  of  the  great 
powers.  Of  course  it  partakes  of  the  charac 
teristics  of  the  different  nations,  and  is  efficient 
in  proportion  to  the  intelligence  and  discipline 
of  the  individual  soldier.  (See  ARMY.) — Mount 
ed  infantry  was  largely  employed  daring  the 
civil  war  by  the  United  States,  and  rendered 
important  service.  Under  the  command  of 
Wilson  in  the  west,  it  reached  a  degree  of  effi 
ciency  never  before  known ;  it  possessed  all 
the  mobility  of  cavalry  with  the  steadiness  and 
dash  of  the  best  light  infantry.  It  marched 
and  manoeuvred  with  cavalry,  but  fought  habit 
ually  on  foot,  in  a  single  line  of  skirmishers, 
with  greater  or  less  space  between  the  files  as 


the  circumstances  of  the  ground  and  position 
of  the  enemy  required.  The  successful  use  of 
mounted  infantry  gave  rise  to  a  necessity  for 
the  assimilation  of  the  cavalry  and  infantry 
tactics,  so  that  the  commands,  instruction,  and 
manoeuvres  might  be  as  much  alike  as  possible. 
The  new  tactics  prepared  under  the  direction 
of  Gen.  Upton  have  just  been  issued  to  the 
army  (1874),  and  seem  to  fully  embody  all  that 
is  required  for  handling  large  masses  of  cavalry 
or  mounted  infantry.  In  future  wars  the 
armies  should  have  a  much  larger  number  of 
such  troops,  in  order  to  secure  the  mobility 
or  marching  power  of  the  horses,  combined 
with  the  fighting  power  of  the  best  infantry. 
That. nation  which  first  appreciates  and  applies 
this  lesson  on  a  large  scale  may  confidently 
count  upon  results  in  actual  warfare  quite  in 
proportion  to  the  expense  of  the  undertaking. 
(See  CAVALRY.) 

INFANT  SCHOOLS.  Pestalozzi  was  the  first 
teacher  of  modern  times  who  systematized  in 
fant  instruction,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  his  system,  improved  and  de 
veloped  by  later  writers,  reached  its  culmi 
nating  point.  Infant  schools  were  established 
throughout  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  in  every  considerable  town  in  the 
United  States;  but  it  was  found  after  a  few 
years'  experience  that  these  schools  were  doing 
more  injury  than  good,  and  they  have  been 
generally  abandoned.  In  1837  an  eminent 
German  educator,  Friedrich  Froebel,  intro 
duced  a  new  method  of  infant  training,  Avhich 
is  producing  better  results,  and  which  obviates 
the  difficulties  and  evils  of%the  Pestalozzian 
system.  lie  gave  it  the  name  of  the  Kinder 
garten  (children's  garden).  This  consists  of  a 
series  of  large,  well  ventilated,  well  lighted, 
and  pleasant  rooms,  opening  upon  a  garden,  in 
which,  besides  the  play  ground  for  all,  and  a 
large  garden  plot,  there  are  small  plots  for  each 
child  old  enough  to  cultivate  them.  In  the 
large  garden  are  flowers,  useful  vegetables,  and 
trees,  and  birds  are  encouraged  to  make  it  a 
home.  The  children  may  be  from  the  age  of 
two  months  to  14  years.  They  pass  from  three 
to  five  hours  a  day  at  the  gardens.  The  infants 
are  accompanied  by  their  mothers  or  nurses, 
or,  in  default  of  these,  are  placed  in  charge  of 
the  teachers,  young  well  educated  women  who 
enter  into  the  work  from  a  sincere  love  for  it 
|  and  for  children.  Froebel  was  very  particular 
in  the  selection  of  teachers,  deeming  it  indis- 
1  pensable  to  the  success  of  the  institution.  Not 
more  than  25  children  should  be  under  the  care 
of  a  single  teacher,  and  the  elder  children  are 
of  great  assistance  in  carrying  out  the  system. 
j  No  corporal  punishment  is  allowed ;  exclusion 
I  from  a  game,  or  from  the  gardens  for  a  day  or 
I  more,  is  the  only  punishment  found  necessary. 
|  Froebel  devised  many  games  and  exercises  for 
I  his  course  of  instruction,  and,  as  a  part  of  ^ the 
necessary  apparatus,  prepared  his  six  gifts, 
which  are  used  in  all  the  kindergartens.  In 
the  use  of  each  of  these  an  explanatory  song, 


274 


INFANT   SCHOOLS 


INFLAMMATION 


sung  at  first  by  the  teacher,  and  afterward  by 
the  children,  accompanies  each  exercise  or 
game.  The  first  gift  consists  of  six  soft  balls 
of  different  colors,  and  a  string ;  the  colors  are 
red,  blue,  and  yellow — green,  violet,  and 
orange.  They  are  moved  horizontally,  verti 
cally,  and  in  circles  before  the  infant,  by  the 
teacher  or  an  older  child,  who  sings  the  song 
explaining  the  motions.  By  these  balls  the 
child  obtains  ideas  of  form,  color,  size,  and 
movement,  as  well  as  of  his  own  individuality. 
The  second  gift  is  a  cube,  a  cylinder,  a  wooden 
ball,  a  stick,  and  a  string;  these  are  rolled, 
whirled,  dragged,  and  used  in  a  great  variety 
of  ways,  and  from  them  the  child  acquires 
ideas  of  form,  size,  sound,  movement,  and  of 
development  according  to  a  fixed  law..  The 
third  gift  is  a  cube  cut  into  eight  equal  cubes ; 
these  the  child  arranges  into  other  forms,  and 
receives  ne\v  lessons  in  the  law  of  develop 
ment,  gets  a  notion  of  angles,  cubes,  the  laws 
of  construction,  and  the  division  of  units  into 
halves,  quarters,  and  eighths.  lie  should  al 
ways  be  taught  to  construct  from  the  centre. 
The  fourth  gift  is  a  cube  divided  into  eight  equal 
planes.  In  the  use  of  this  the  children  unite 
around  a  table,  and  construct  together  their 
buildings  and  other  objects.  By  means  of  this 
and  the  preceding  gifts,  the  alphabet  and  the 
elementary  principles  of  arithmetic  and  geome 
try  may  be  taught.  The  fifth  gift  is  an  exten 
sion  of  the  third;  the  cube  is  divided  into  27 
small  cubes,  and  three  of  these  are  divided  di 
agonally  into  halves  and  three  into  quarters. 
This  introduces  the  triangle,  and  gives  scope 
for  the  construction  of  the  arch  and  other  ar 
chitectural  objects,  and  for  practical  perspec 
tive.  The  sixth  gift  is  an  extension  of  the 
fourth,  the  cube  being  divided  into  27  planes,  of 
which  six  are  again  divided,  three  in  height 
and  three  in  breadth ;  in  the  use  of  these  the 
children  are  taught  to  build  from  the  teacher's 
dictation.  A  seventh  gift  is  added,  containing 
all  the  forms  of  the  last  four.  To  these  gifts 
are  subsequently  joined  movable  lines  or  plait 
ing  sticks,  which  are  also  used  for  construc 
tion,  being  united  when  necessary  by  softened 
peas,  pasteboard,  and  tissue  paper,  to  be  com 
bined  into  figures  and  objects,  and  soft  clay  for 
modelling,  in  which  many  of  the  children  be 
come  very  expert.  Drawing  in  the  net,  that 
is,  on  a  slate  furrowed  into  squares,  and  sub 
sequently  on  paper  ruled  with  a  pale  ink  in 
squares,  and  painting  in  the  net,  are  also  intro 
duced.  The  gymnastic  exercises  are  still  plays, 
of  which  there  are  a  great  variety,  intended  to 
develop  all  the  muscles ;  these,  too,  are  all  ac 
companied  by  songs  explanatory  and  instruc 
tive.  For  older  pupils  Froebel  established 
scholars'  gardens,  in  which  workshops  took 
the  place  of  the  games.  During  Froebel's  life 
(he  died  in  1852)  more  than  50  kindergartens 
were  established  in  Germany,  Belgium,  and 
Switzerland.  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  several  of 
the  minor  states  in  Germany  prohibited  in 
1851  the  establishment  of  infant  schools  accord 


ing  to  Froebel's  system,  on  the  supposition 
that  it  inculcated  socialism  and  atheism.  But 
as  it  very  soon  became  evident  that  kinder 
gartens,  according  to  Froebel's  original  princi 
ples,  though  apt  to  be  misused  for  party  pur 
poses,  could  not  really  injure  the  state,  the 
prohibitions  were  recalled,  and  the  system  was 
rapidly  introduced  everywhere.  Though  stren 
uous  efforts  were  made  in  several  states  for  the 
establishment  of  such  institutions  in  connection 
with  the  public  schools,  no  government  has  as 
yet  acceded  to  the  demand,  and  the  benefits  of 
the  kindergartens  continue  to  be  restricted  to 
those  classes  which  are  able  to  pay  for  them. 
There  are  in  Germany  several  institutions  for 
the  education  of  teachers  for  these  schools,  and 
several  periodicals  are  devoted  to  a  further  de 
velopment  of  Froebel's  ideas.  The  Kinder 
garten  und  Elementarklasse,  published  in  Wei 
mar  since  1861,  and  the  Kindergarten,  pub 
lished  in  Berlin  since  1806,  enjoy  great  favor. 
The  system  has  been  introduced  into  the  Uni 
ted  States,  and  there  are  several  such  schools 
in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  else 
where,  especially  in  the  western  cities  with  a 
large  German  population. — See  "  Moral  Cul 
ture  of  Infancy,  and  Kindergarten  Guide,"  by 
Miss  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody  (revised  ed.,  New 
York,  1869),  and  u  The  Kindergarten  in  Public 
Schools,"  by  Adolf  Douai  (New  York,  1870). 

INFLAMMATION,  a  process  which  occurs  in 
the  progress  of  many  diseases,  and  which  is 
also  produced  by  wounds  and  the  presence  of 
foreign  bodies  acting  as  irritants.  There  has 
always  been  considerable  controversy  as  to 
the  nature  of  inflammation,  some  regarding 
it  strictly  as  a  morbid  process,  although  often 
accompanying  restoration  or  healing,  while 
others  contend  that  it  is  essentially  a  natural 
and  healing  effort,  the  morbid  conditions  which 
may  accompany  it  not  being  a  part  of  the  true 
inflammation,  but  the  cause  of  it ;  in  other 
words,  that  it  is  an  attendant  on  that  vital  force 
which  has  so  long  been  known  under  the  name 
of  vis  medicatrix  natural,  being  a  conservative 
process  employed  by  the  nervous  force  which 
has  been  excited  to  action  by  a  hurtful  pres 
ence.  Others  again  look  upon  the  results  of 
the  process  as  determining  whether  it  is  mor 
bid  or  healthful.  Hippocrates  regarded  inflam 
mation,  like  many  of  the  symptoms  of  diseases, 
as  a  condition  instituted  by  nature,  or  the  ^ci^ 
the  essence  or  productive  power  of  nature,  for 
the  purpose  of  restoration,  and  his  practice  was 
based  upon  this  theory.  Stahl,  the  elaborator 
of  the  phlogiston  theory  in  chemistry,  imagined 
an  agent  analogous  to  Ilippocrates's  ^raiq  dwell 
ing  in  the  human  body,  which  he  called  anima, 
possessing  a  species  of  intelligence  by  which  it 
could  institute  processes  for  the  expulsion  of 
hurtful  intruders.  Yan  Ilelmont  had  a  similar 
theory,  to  which  he  added  the  necessity  of  two 
circumstances  for  the  development  of  inflam 
mation  :  the  action  of  stimulants  on  parts  hav 
ing  sensibility,  and  an  increased  activity  of  the 
arterial  system,  followed  by  redness,  heat,  swell- 


INFLAMMATION 


275 


ing,  and  pain  in  the  parts.  lie  compared  the 
activity  of  the  stimulus  to  that  of  a  thorn, 
which  gave  alarm  to  the  archceus,  who  imme 
diately  caused  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  set 
up  a  defence  and  a  reparative  process.  Boer- 
haave  attributed  the  swelling  and  obstruction 
to  a  change  in  the  texture  of  the  blood,  which 
he  maintained  greAV  thicker  and  more  viscid 
during  inflammation,  acquiring  what  he  called 
a  state  of  lentor.  He  supposed  also  that  the 
increased  action  of  the  arteries  forced  larger 
particles  of  the  blood  into  vessels  too  small  to 
transmit  them,  constituting  what  was  termed 
an  error  loci.  Cullen,  in  place  of  the  doctrine 
of  error  loci,  proposed  that  of  spasm  and  con 
traction  of  the  capillary  A'essels,  and  taught 
that  the  system  at  the  time  possessed  a  peculiar 
condition,  which  he  called,  diathesis  phlogistica, 
consisting  in  an  increased  tone  or  contractility 
of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  whole  arterial 
system.  Vacca,  an  Italian,  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  proposed  a  theory  Avhich 
was  advocated  by  Mr.  Allen  of  Edinburgh,  and 
which  contained  an  opposite  idea,  viz.,  that 
there  Avas  a  want  of  tone  or  loss  of  power 
from  which  there  arose  a  stagnation  of  the 
blood  and  a  dilatation  of  the  vessels  of  the 
part.  John  Hunter  taught  that  the  blood  had 
a  vitality  of  its  own,  and  to  support  his  doctrine 
cited  the  property  of  spontaneous  coagulation. 
He  says:  "There  is  a  circumstance  attending 
accidental  injury  which  does  not  belong  to  dis 
ease,  viz.,  that  the  injury  done  has  in  all  cases 
a  tendency  to  produce  both  the  disposition  and 
the  means  of  cure." — The  general  process  of 
acute  inflammation  may  be  described  as  fol 
lows  :  If  a  translucent  vascular  membrane,  as 
the  Aveb  of  a  frog's  foot,  is  sufficiently  irritated 
by  scratching  it  or  pricking  with  a  hot  needle, 
there  may  be  observed  with  the  microscope  a 
contraction  of  the  capillary  A'essels,  folloAved 
very  soon  by  a  dilatation.  It  is  maintained  by 
some  that  during  the  contraction  the  circulation 
is  increased  in  rapidity,  and  that  it  is  dimin 
ished  during  dilatation  ;  while  others  maintain 
that  the  contrary  action  takes  place  in  both 
cases,  that  is,  that  the  circulation  is  slower  in 
the  first  stage  and  faster  in  the  second.  This 
difference  of  opinion  has  arisen  from  not  ma 
king  the  observations  under  precisely  the  same 
circumstances.  When  a  capillary  is  enlarged 
throughout  its  Avhole  length,  the  circulation 
Avill  be  for  a  short  time  more  rapid  than  nat 
ural;  and  Avhen  it  is  constricted  for  a  consid 
erable  distance,  it  Avill  be  slower;  but  if  it  be 
contracted  in  some  places  and  dilated  in  oth 
ers,  the  blood  Avill  move  slower  in  the  dilated 
places  and  faster  in  the  contracted  ones,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected  from  a  considera-  j 
tion  of  ordinary  hydraulic  principles.  After  a  ! 
time,  however,  the  circulation  in  the  dilated 
vessels  becomes  slower,  and  at  the  same  time 
oscillating,  and  at  last  ceases,  the  A'essel  becom 
ing  distended  with  colored  corpuscles.  There 
is  then  an  exudation  of  liquor  sanguinis  through 
the  Avails  of  the  vessels,  and  occasionally,  in  , 


consequence  of  their  rupture,  extravasation  of 
blood  corpuscles  takes  place.  The  oscillation 
of  the  blood,  which  immediately  precedes  stag 
nation,  has  by  some  been  attributed  to  arterial 
contraction  and  dilatation,  while  others  have 
referred  it  to  a  rhythmical  contraction  and  dila 
tation  in  the  veins,  which  has  been  observed 
by  Wharton  Jones.  In  the  natural  circulation 
the  colored  corpuscles  roll  forward  in  the  cen 
tre  of  the  vessel,  the  space  between  them  and 
the  cell  wall  being  occupied  by  the  liquor  san 
guinis  and  a  few  lymph  corpuscles.  In  young 
frogs  the  lymph  corpuscles  are  numerous,  and 
under  irritation  are  said  to  increase  and  in 
that  way  impede  the  circulation ;  but  in  old 
frogs  the  same  changes  occur  without  the  pres 
ence  of  lymph  corpuscles.  When  stagnation 
or  "stasis"  takes  place,  it  constitutes  what  is 
called  the  stage  of  congestion.  If  the  morbid 
process  continues  the  vessels  may  burst,  or  the 
liquor  sanguinis  may  transude  through  the 
Avails,  without  rupture,  into  the  surrounding 
tissue.  This  constitutes  exudation.  The  con 
traction  of  the  capillaries  in  the  first  stage  and 
their  dilatation  in  the  second  are  accounted 
for  by  supposing  them  to  have  the  pOAver  pos 
sessed  by  involuntary  muscular  fibres,  and  John 
Hunter  supposed  that  they  possessed  muscular 
power.  It  is  knoAvn  that  they  have  permanent 
cell  nuclei,  similar  to  those  of  the  involuntary 
muscular  fibres  of  the  intestines.  Mr.  Lis 
ter  has  found  that  fusiform  cells,  capable  of 
contraction,  are  placed  transversely  around 
the  Aressels,  which  explains  the  fact  that,  like 
intestinal  muscular  fibres,  they  may  be  ex 
cited  to  contraction  by  mental  emotions  or  by 
local  applications.  The  recent  observations  by 
Claude  Bernard  and  others  of  the  effects  pro 
duced  by  dividing  the  large  sympathetic  nerve 
trunk  of  the  neck  are  cited  by  Dr.  John 
Hughes  Bennet  as  confirming  the  theory.  It 
has  been  found  that  Avhen  innervation  from 
Avhatever  cause  has  taken  place  in  a  part,  it  is 
more  prone  to  pass  into  the  condition  of  in 
flammation.  In  regard  to  the  four  cardinal 
symptoms,  as  they  have  been  termed,  of  heat, 
redness,  swelling,  and  pain  (the  rul>or,  calor, 
cum  tumore  ct  dolore  of  Celsus),  which  were 
always  enumerated  by  the  older  writers  as 
constant,  it  has  been  found  that  some  of  the 
most  fatal  cases  of  inflammation  are  attended 
by  only  one  or  two  of  them,  and  in  some  cases 
not  one  of  them  has  been  present.  The  latent 
pneumonia  of  old  people  is  thus  graphical 
ly  described  by  Dr.  Bennet:  "An  old  man 
may  suddenly  lose  his  appetite  and  strength  ; 
his  respiration  becomes  hurried  and  feeble ; 
his  chest  on  examination  is  dull  on  percus 
sion;  mucous  rattles  are  heard  by  the  ear, 
and  he  dies.  On  opening  his  body  gray  he- 
patization  has  attacked  the  lungs,  which  are 
infiltrated  with  pus.  He  has  from  first  to  last 
had  no  pain ;  there  has  been  no  heat ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  temperature  was  diminished  ;  no 
redness  nor  swelling  is  anywhere  detectable. 
Xot  only,  therefore,  are  the  cardinal  symptoms 


276 


INFLAMMATION 


not  characteristic  of  inflammation,  but  the  idea 
that  such  is  the  case  lias  led  to  the  most  mis 
chievous  results  in  practice."  He  maintains 
that  irritation  of  texture,  contraction  or  dila 
tation  of  the  blood  vessels,  capillary  haemor 
rhage,  serous  effusion  which  constitutes  dropsy, 
and  stoppage  of  the  sanguineous  circulation, 
'  are  only  accompaniments  of  inflammation ; 
and  that  its  essential  condition  is  exudation  of 
liquor  sanguinis.  Dr.  Alison  observes  that  a 
precise  notion  of  inflammation  is  obtained  by 
including  with  the  four  cardinal  symptoms  a 
tendency  to  effusion  of  new  products  capable 
of  assuming  the  form  of  coagulated  lymph  or 
purulent  matter ;  but  Dr.  Bennet  maintains 
that  the  tendency  cannot  be  separated  from  the 
act  itself,  and  that  it  is  only  when  the  exuda 
tion  has  taken  place  that  there  is  proof  that 
the  tendency  existed.  The  objection  to  this 
view  is  that  inflammation  may  take  place  in 
non- vascular  parts ;  to  which  Dr.  Bennet  replies 
that  the  changes  which  occur  in  these  parts 
when  irritated  are  widely  different  from  those 
in  vascular  parts,  and  should  not  be  confound 
ed  ;  and  moreover,  that  what  has  been  called 
parenchymatous  inflammation  is  not  true  in 
flammation,  which  term  should  only  be  applied 
to  that  perverted  action  of  the  vascular  tissues 
which  produces  an  exudation  of  the  liquor 
sanguinis,  and  that  other  results  of  irritation 
are  simply  congestion,  or  increased  growth  or 
hypertrophy.  As  to  the  terminations  of  in 
flammation,  Dr.  Bennet  divides  them  into  two, 
depending  upon  whether  the  exudation  lives 
or  dies.  If  it  continues  to  live,  it  constitutes 
a  molecular  blastema,  in  which  new  growths, 
temporary  or  permanent,  spring  up  according 
to  the  molecular  law  of  development,  such  as 
pus  and  adhesive  lymph.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  exudation  dies,  three  things  may  fol 
low  :  1,  rapid  death,  with  chemical  decomposi 
tion,  producing  mortification  or  moist  gan 
grene;  2,  slow  death,  with  disintegration  of 
the  tissues,  causing  ulceration ;  3,  what  maybe 
called  a  natural  death,  in  which  the  exudation 
is  broken  down,  liquefied,  and  absorbed,  or  in 
other  words,  resolution.  When  the  exudation 
lives,  it  undergoes  vital  transformations  which 
are  greatly  influenced  by  the  condition  of  the 
system,  whether  it  is  healthy  or  diseased.  In 
the  healthy  condition,  when  the  exudation 
takes  place  on  serous  membranes,  like  the 
pleura,  it  has  a  strong  tendency  to  form  fibrous 
tissue ;  when  it  occurs  on  mucous  membranes, 
or  in  areolar  tissue,  it  is  generally  converted 
into  pus  corpuscles;  when  it  occurs  in  dense 
parenchymatous  organs,  such  as  the  brain,  it 
has  a  granular  development ;  and  when  it  is 
poured  out  after  wounds  or  injuries,  the  super 
ficial  portion  is  transformed  into  pus  corpus 
cles,  while  the  deeper  seated  is  converted  by 
means  of  nuclei  and  cells  into  nucleated  ami 
cell  fibres,  which  ultimately  form  the  cicatrix. 
The  microscopic  examination  of  a  recent  exu 
dation  of  liquor  sanguinis  will  reveal  the  ap 
pearance  of  bundles  of  minute  filaments  min 


gled  with  corpuscles.  The  filaments  are  formed 
by  a  simple  precipitation  of  the  molecules,  like 
those  which  are  developed  in  the  huffy  coat  of 
the  blood,  and  are  from  Tr  i-g-g-  to  T^-o ¥  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  Bundles  of  them  cross  each 
other,  and  in  time  assume  the  appearance  of 
dense  fibrous  tissue.  The  corpuscles  at  first 
are  transparent,  but  soon  become  distinct,  and 
are  seen  to  be  composed  of  a  cell  wall  enclosing 
from  three  to  eight  granules.  They  vary  in 
size  from  y^Vg-  to  ToV(n  and  tne  granules  from 
TT.foir  to  TT.fonF  of  an  incft  in  diameter, 
and  are  termed  by  Dr.  Bennet  plastic  cor 
puscles.  They  are  not  pus,  although  Lebert 
called  them  pyoid,  and  it  is  generally  be 
lieved  that  they  are  an  intermediate  or  ar 
rested  stage  of  the  degeneration  of  plastic 
lymph  from  its  fibrillated  development  to  pus. 
These  plastic  corpuscles  after  a  time  mostly 
disappear,  some  remaining  in  the  form  of  per 
manent  nuclei.  After  a  time  the  surface  of  the 
exudation  becomes  villous,  and  loops  of  blood 
vessels  penetrate  the  villi,  by  which  the  serum 
separating  the  surfaces  is  absorbed,  so  that  they 
come  together  and  unite,  forming  dense  adhe 
sions,  which  are  often  found  in  post-mortem 
examinations  after  inflammations  of  serous 
membranes.  When  the  exudation  takes  place 
upon  a  mucous  membrane,  it  may  have  the 
form  of  a  fibrous  mass,  as  in  croup  or  diphthe 
ria,  but  more  often  that  of  an  opaque  creamy 
fluid  called  pus.  When  it  is  poured  into  the 
meshes  of  the  areolar  tissue,  or  into  the  sub 
stance  of  the  brain,  it  forms  abscess.  Pus  cor 
puscles  are  of  a  globular  form  and  yellowish 
color,  varying  from  ^Vo  t°  T^Vg-  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  They  are  composed  of  a  cell  wall 
containing  from  two  to  five  granules,  which  are 
about  7-oVo"  °f  an  incn  in  diameter.  When  a 
microscopic  examination  is  made  of  a  recently 
formed  granulation  on  a  healing  wound,  there 
will  be  observed  around  the  looped  extremities 
of  the  capillary  vessels  fibrous  tissue  in  the 
process  of  formation  containing  plastic  cor 
puscles,  while  pus  corpuscles  will  be  found  de 
veloped  on  the  surface.  As  the  fibrous  tissue 
becomes  more  dense  the  pus  diminishes,  and 
at  last  ceases,  the  fibrous  tissue  attaining  a  cer 
tain  growth,  and  after  a  time  contracting  and 
forming  a  cicatrix.  All  pathologists  agree 
very  nearly  as  to  the  changes  which  are  here 
described,  but  many,  among  them  Yirchow, 
Billroth,  Simon,  and  Sir  James  Paget,  believe 
that  inflammation  is  not  restricted  to  one  act ; 
that  congestion  and  determination  of  blood 
may  be  considered  its  first  stages ;  and  that  it 
may  exist  and  pass  away  without  exudation. 
They  ask,  if  inflammation  is  produced  by  irri 
tation,  when  this  is  in  process  of  operation, 
where  shall  the  dividing  line  be  placed  between 
the  departure  from  health  and  the  commence 
ment  of  inflammation?  It  is  also  objected 
that  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot,  as  being  a  part 
of  a  cold-blooded  animal,  is  not  a  proper  sub 
ject  for  the  experiment,  and  accordingly  a  bat's 
wing  has  been  substituted.  Sir  James  Paget 


INFLAMMATION 


277 


thinks  that  in  warm-blooded  animals  stagna 
tion  will  be  found  in  only  the  most  severely 
inflamed  parts,  while  in  the  others  retarda 
tion  only  exists.  The  difference  of  appearance 
in  the  red  corpuscles  in  natural  human  blood 
and  in  that  drawn  during  inflammation  is  worthy 
of  notice.  In  healthy  blood  they  have  a  ten 
dency  to  run  together  in  rows  like  a  pile  of 
coins  tipped  over,  while  in  blood  drawn  during 
inflammation  there  is  a  tendency  to  run  togeth 
er  in  masses,  leaving  larger  spaces  of  liquor 
sanguinis  between  them.  According  to  pres 
ent  views,  the  effect  of  inflammation  in  recent 
wounds  is  not  to  promote  direct  healing,  but 
to  prevent  it.  When  a  fresh  wound  in  a 
healthy  person  is  closed  and  the  blood  forced 
out  from  between  the  cut  surfaces,  the  severed 
capillaries  unite  directly,  without,  it  is  main 
tained,  the  exudation  of  plastic  lymph  ;  but  if 
the  lips  of  the  wound  are  allowed  to  gape,  an 
inflammatory  action  takes  place,  plastic  lymph 
is  poured  out,  and  granulation  follows  in  the 
manner  above  described. — The  conservative 
action  of  inflammation  may  be  observed  in  the 
healing  of  punctured  or  gun-shot  wounds  of 
the  cavities  of  the  body.  When  a  puncture 
has  been  made  into  the  abdomen,  the  great 
danger  lies  in  the  development  of  extending 
inflammation  of  the  peritoneal  membrane,  and 
it  is  greatly  increased  if  any  of  the  contents  of 
the  intestines  are  poured  into  the  space  be 
tween  its  surfaces.  The  irritation  produced 
by  the  injury  excites  adhesive  inflammation 
between  the  different  layers  which  compose 
the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  and  thus  a  simple 
channel  is  established  between  the  exterior  and 
interior,  which  in  course  of  time  may  heal  by 
granulation  and  suppuration.  Severe  cases  of 
inflammation,  as  that  which  supervenes  upon  a 
compound  fracture,  are  attended  with  marked 
characteristic  symptoms.  There  is  a  feeling  of 
heat,  and  of  alternate  heat  and  chilliness ;  the 
skin  and  mouth  are  dry;  the  pulse  becomes 
rapid  and  the  patient  restless;  the  urine  be 
comes  scanty  and  more  highly  colored  than 
natural,  and  great  thirst  is  experienced ;  the 
tongue  is  dry  and  coated  with  a  whitish  fur ; 
sleep  is  absent  or  greatly  disturbed,  and  a  de 
gree  of  delirium  comes  on,  more  especially  at 
night ;  there  is  usually  constipation,  but  when 
the  bowels  act,  which  generally  requires  medi 
cine,  the  excretions  are  vury  offensive;  there  is 
great  swelling  and  tenseness  of  the  tissues  of  the 
injured  part,  which  when  it  subsides  is  attend 
ed  with  a  remission  of  the  constitutional  symp 
toms  ;  the  skin  and  mouth  become  moist;  the 
delirium  and  restlessness  pass  gradually  away, 
and  the  patient  sinks  into  a  slumber. — The 
causes  of  inflammation  are  various,  and  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  predisposing  and 
exciting.  The  predisposing  causes  embrace 
constitutional  and  hereditary  tendency,  food, 
climate,  season  of  the  year,  and  habit  of  body. 
The  exciting  causes  are  poisonous  substances, 
including  the  poisons  of  different  diseases ; 
irritants,  such  as  cantharides,  pepper,  mustard ; 


caustic  escharotics,  strong  acids,  very  hot  and 
cold  bodies,  wounds,  and  also  exposure  of  the 
person  to  wet  and  cold,  or  to  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  Excessive  mental  excitation  is 
a  cause  of  inflammation  of  the  brain.  Inflam 
mation  may  be  acute  or  chronic.  That  which 
has  been  described  is  acute.  After  a  subsi 
dence  of  the  intensity,  if  the  action  continues, 
in  consequence  of  any  source  of  irritation  re 
maining,  or  from  a  want  of  tone  of  the  parts, 
it  becomes  chronic,  and  from  the  latter  cause 
the  symptoms  sometimes  assume  the  chronic 
form  from  the  outset.  Inflammation  is  said 
to  be  healthy  or  unhealthy.  If  restoration 
takes  place  during  the  process,  it  is  said  to  be 
healthy ;  but  if  there  is  wasting  or  destruction 
of  tissue,  as  in  ulceration  or  mortification,  it  is 
said  to  be  unhealthy.  It  may  also  be  common 
or  specific ;  the  latter  term  being  employed  to 
denote  that  which  is  caused  by  certain  .conta 
gious  poisons,  such  as  smallpox,  gonorrhoea, 
and  erysipelas.  It  is  sometimes  called  after  the 
tissue  in  which  it  occurs,  as  mucous  or  serous 
inflammation.  Inflammation  of  particular  or 
gans  is  usually  designated  by  adding  the  ter 
mination  it  is  to  the  anatomical  name  of  the 
part  affected,  as  laryngitis  for  inflammation  of 
the  larynx,  gastritis  for  inflammation  of  the 
stomach,  cerebritis  for  inflammation  of  the 
brain ;  but  the  old  nomenclature  is  often  re 
tained,  as  pneumonia  for  pneumonitis,  quinzy 
for  tonsillitis.  No  nomenclature,  however,  is 
better  than  the  employment  of  the  word  in 
flammation,  together  with  the  name  of  the 
organ  or  part  inflamed.  Inflammation  is  most 
likely  to  attack  children  under  ten  years  of 
age,  nearly  one  half  of  the  mortality  of  the 
race  occurring  during  these  years.  Inflam 
mations  of  the  pleura,  brain,  liver,  and  mem 
branes  of  the  heart  are  more,  frequent  after 
the  age  of  manhood.  Spring  is  more  favor 
able  than  any  other  season  to  the  develop 
ment  of  inflammation,  and  moist  weather  than 
dry,  as  is  exemplified  by  the  great  rarity  of 
inflammatory  diseases  in  the  regions  bordering 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  color  acquired  by 
an  inflamed  part  differs  with  the  degree  of  in 
flammation  and  the  organ  affected.  The  ten 
dons  and  ligaments  are  seldom  reddened.  The 
fibrous  membranes,  like  the  pericardium,  the 
dura  mater,  and  the  sclerotic  coat  of  the  eye, 
acquire  a  lilac  or  purple  hue  inclining  to  blue. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines  first 
presents  a  bright  red,  but  during  the  progress 
of  the  disease  becomes  a  dark  violet  or  a  black, 
especially  when  passing  into  gangrene.  These 
changes  may  be  seen  in.  the  mucous  mem 
brane  of  the  throat  in  an  attack  of  malignant 
scarlet  fever.  In  inflammation  of  the  pleura 
and  peritoneum  (serous  membrane)  the  color 
commences  with  a  lilac,  which  afterward  pass 
es  to  scarlet,  brownish,  or  violet.  In  the 
arachnoid,  the  serous  membrane  of  the  brain, 
the  discoloration  is  slight,  the  chief  sign  of  the 
inflammation  being  the  serous  effusion.  The 
salivary  glands  assume  a  pink  color,  the  kid- 


278 


INFLUENZA 


INFUSORIA 


neys  a  deep  violet,  and  the  lungs  vary  from  a 
light  rose  to  a  deep  purple.  The  alterations  in 
color  are  owing  in  a  great  degree  to  the  car 
bonization  of  the  blood  which  is  caused  by 
stagnation  and  want  of  aeration.  The  con 
tinuance  of  inflammation  in  an  organ  prevents 
nourishment,  and  consequently  after  the  swell 
ing  subsides  it  will  be  smaller.  The  wasting 
of  the  system  during  fever  is  an  analogous  ex 
ample. —  Treatment.  This  is  divided  into  local 
and  general.  The  local  treatment  of  an  in 
flamed  wound  consists  in  reducing  the  temper 
ature  by  the  application  of  cold  or  cool  affu 
sions,  depending  on  the  intensity  of  the  action. 
Cold  water  may  be  allowed  to  drip  from  a  ves 
sel  properly  arranged  and  suspended  above  the 
wounded  part,  which  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  linen ;  or  cloths  may  be  moistened  with 
cool  water  and  laid  upon  the  wound ;  care  in 
either  case  being  taken  to  preserve  an  even 
temperature,  arid  not  by  an  intermission  of 
the  application  to  allow  reaction  to  take  place. 
The  general  treatment  consists  in  a  plain  diet, 
principally  of  liquid  food,  which  however 
should  contain  enough  nourishment  to  sup 
port  the  strength  oi  the  patient;  and  he 
should  be  allowed  to  partake  freely  of  water 
and  cooling  drinks,  although  at  times  warm 
drinks  of  weak  tea  may  be  allowed.  To  re 
lieve  constipation  laxatives  may  be  given.  In 
inflammation  of  membranes  and  organs  accom 
panying  diseases  such  as  pneumonia  and  like 
various  forms  of  fever,  contagious  or  not, 
there  is  almost  always  a  want  of  saline  con 
stituents  of  the  blood,  the  result  of  waste,  and 
this  condition  may  often  be  remedied  by  the 
administration  of  saline  medicines,  such  as  the 
bicarbonates  of  soda  and  potash.  In  fevers 
generally  the  parched  condition  of  the  mouth 
and  throat  and»dryness  of  the  skin  are  caused 
by  a  want  of  secretion  of  the  mucous  follicles 
and  sudoriparous  glands  of  the  skin ;  and  these 
alkaline  salts  in  conjunction  with  the  free  ad 
ministration  of  water  are  well  calculated  to  re 
store  a  healthy  action.  Local  bleeding  by  cup 
ping  and  leeching  may  often  be  resorted  to  with 
benefit ;  but  general  bleeding,  which  was  for 
merly  practised  to  a  great  extent,  is  now  almost 
wholly  abandoned. 

INFLUENZA.    See  BRONCHITIS,  vol.  iii.,  p.  312. 

INFORMATION,  in  law,  a  written  charge  or 
accusation  made  against  an  alleged  offender, 
stating  some  violation  of  law,  before  a  court 
of  competent  jurisdiction  to  try  the  same.  This 
process  has  taken  the  place  of  the  ancient  writ 
of  quo  warranto,  and  it  is  common  to  speak  of 
it  as  an  "information  in  the  nature  of  a  qvo 
warranto"  It  is  in  substance,  and  to  some  ex 
tent  in  form,  an  indictment ;  but  an  indictment 
can  be  found  only  by  a  grand  jury,  whereas 
an  information  is  filed  by  an  attorney  of  the 
state  or  United  States,  or  other  competent  law 
officer,  at  his  own  discretion.  Informations 
are  sometimes  filed  for  public  purposes;  but 
more  often,  in  the  United  States,  by  some 
private  prosecutor,  who  uses  the  name  of  the 


attorney  general  to  ascertain  his  rights,  or  ob 
tain  redress  for  some  wrong.  Although  crimi 
nal  in  form,  they  are  in  their  nature  civil  pro 
ceedings.  When  moved  by  a  private  person 
for  his  oAvn  purposes,  he  is  called  "a  relator," 
and  the  case  is  entitled  "Information  of  A.  B., 
attorney  general,  ex  rclatione  of  C.  I),  against 
E.  F."  But  no  such  use  of  an  information 
was  known  to  the  common  law,  as  it  springs 
altogether  from  statute  provision ;  first,  from 
the  statute  9  Anne,  ch.  20,  and  afterward  by 
various  state  statutes  in  this  country,  and  by 
!  adjudication  founded  upon  the  statute  of  Anne, 
in  states  in  which  there  is  no  statute  provision 
respecting  it.  The  general  purpose  of  infor 
mations  is  to  inquire  into  alleged  usurpations 
of,  or  intrusion  into,  or  unlawful  claim  or  ex 
ercise  of  official  or  corporate  poAvers  or  fran 
chises.  Thus,  they  are  often  brought  against 
banks,  alleging  that  they  unlawfully  exercise 
banking  privileges,  when  the  real  question  is 
not  whether  they  possess  these  powers  or  priv 
ileges,  because  they  have  been  expressly  con 
ferred  by  the  legislature,  but  whether  they 
have  not  forfeited  their  charters  by  misconduct. 
So  an  information  may  issue  against  a  medical 
school,  to  try  its  right  of  granting  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine  with  a  corresponding 
diploma ;  or  against  the  mayor  of  a  city,  to 
determine  whether  he  has  the  right  to  admit 
freemen.  The  most  important  question  is, 
how  far  informations  will  be  granted  to  try 
questions  which  may  be  considered  as  of  pri 
vate  right  rather  than  public  right.  The  court 
of  king's  bench  refused  to  grant  one  against 
Sir  "William  Lowther,  to  try  the  question 
whether  he  had  the  right  to  set  up  a  warren, 
because  it  was  of  a  private  nature ;  and  this 
principle  has  been  applied  with  some  severity 
in  England.  Here,  however,  informations  are 
used  very  freely,  to  determine  questions  re 
lating  exclusively  to  private  corporations,  as 
banks,  insurance  companies,  &c. ;  but  in  such 
cases  the  leave  of  the  court  to  file  the  same 
is  usually  required.  In  general  the  court  will 
[  not  grant  this  leave  where  an  adequate  remedy 
at  law  is  open  to  the  relator;  as  where  one 
sought  an  information  against  a  turnpike  cor 
poration  for  going  unlawfully  through  his  land. 
The  court  will  sometimes  hear  and  decide  the 
whole  case  on  motion  and  argument ;  but  if 
there  be  any  question  of  fact,  they  will  usually 
'  send  the  case  to  a  jury.  In  general  they  will 
|  refuse  an  information,  or  determine  otherwise 
against  the  relator,  where  there  has  been  long 
|  and  negligent  delay,  or  persons  from  whom 
title  is  derived  are  (lead,  or  persons  having  ad- 
|  verse  title  or  interest  have  long  acquiesced  in 
the  alleged  usurpation.  By  statute  in  many 
!  of  the  United  States  an  information  is  now  sub- 
I  sti tuted  for  an  indictment ;  and  where  it  is 
!  made  use  of,  the  rules  governing  indictments 
!  are  applicable. 

INFUSORIA,  the  name  formerly  given  to  num- 
|  berless  kinds  of  microscopic  animalcules,  the 
\  most  minute  of  created  beings,  so  called  from 


INGBERT 


IXGERSOLL 


270 


their  being  especially  abundant  in  water  in 
fused  with  vegetable  matter.  From  their  ex 
hibiting  the  simplest  forms  of  animal  life,  they 
were  grouped  together  under  the  division  pro 
tozoa;  but  such  a  division,  supposed  to  differ 
from  all  other  animals  in  producing  no  eggs, 
does  not  exist  in  nature.  Many  are  ascertained 
to  be  locomotive  alga)  or  seaweeds ;  others  are 
acephalous  mollusks,  embryonic  worms,  or 
Crustacea ;  they  form  favorite  test  objects  for 
microscopes,  and  have  been  carefully  studied  by 
Bailey,  Ehrenberg,  and  others.  The  majority 
may  be  classed  among  worms  near  the  turbel- 
larias  or  tlat  worms ;  they  propagate  by  eggs, 
buds,  or  transverse  tission,  and  some  present 
the  phenomena  of  alternate  generation.  (See 

AXIMALCULES.) 

INGBERT,  or  Sanct-Ingbert,  a  town  of  Ger 
many,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria,  near  the  Prussian 
border,  on  the  Roorbach,  10  in.  W.  of  Zwei- 
brucken;  pop.  in  1871,  8,433.  It  is  renowned 
for  its  coal  and  iron  works. 

IXGELOW,  Jean,  an  English  poetess,  born  in 
Boston,  Lincolnshire,  in  1830.    Her  father  was 
a  banker,  and  a  man  of  superior  intellectual 
culture;  her  mother  is  of  Scotch  descent.     As 
a  child  Jean  was  exceedingly  shy  and  reserved, 
and  she  led  a  quiet,  uneventful  life  till  Novem 
ber,  1803,  when  the  publication  of  her  "Po 
ems  "  secured  her  immediate  recognition  as  a 
poetess  of  high  rank.     Several  of  the  poems 
in  this  volume,  especially  "  Divided,"  "  High 
Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire,"  and  the 
"Songs  of  Seven,"  have  become  widely  popu 
lar,  and   the  last  named  (consisting  of   seven 
poems  representing  seven  epochs  in  the  life 
of  woman)  has  been  published  separately  and 
illustrated.     Her  subsequent  publications  are: 
"Studies  for  Stories"   (1804);   "Poor  Matt" 
(1800);   "Stories  Told  to  a  Child"  (1800;  2d 
series,  1872) ;   "A  Story  of  Doom,  and  other 
Poems"    (1807);     "A    Sister's    Bye-Hours" 
(180S);     "Mopsa   the   Fairy"    (1869);    "The 
Monitions  of  the  Uns3en,  and  Poems  of  Love 
and  Childhood"  (Irt7<),  published  only  in  Bos-  ! 
ton,  Mass.);  and  "Off  the  Skelligs,"  a  novel  \ 
(1872).     In  America  her  poems  have  reached  a  j 
sale  (in  1874)  of  98,000  copies,  and  her  prose  | 
works  of  35,000.     Miss  Ingelovv  now  resides  in 
London.      Three  times  a  week  she  gives  what  j 
she. calls   a  "copyright  dinner"  to  12  needy  ! 
persons  just  discharged  irom  hospitals. 

I\GEM1\\,  Bmilmrd  Severin,  a  Danish  poet,  j 
born  at  Torkildstrup,  on  the  island  of  Falster,  i 
May  28,  178!),  died  in  Copenhagen,  Feb.  24, 
1802.  lie  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and 
was  still  at  the  university  when  he  published  a 
volume  of  poetry  in  1811.  After  his  return 
from  his  travels  in  Europe  he  became  connect 
ed  in  1822  with  the  academy  of  Soro,  of  which 
he  was  a  director  from  1843  till  its  suspension 
in  184'.).  His  most  celebrated  works  are  his 
epics  Wnldemar  de  Store  and  Holder  Dansl-c, 
his  national  anthem  iJunebroy,  and  his  sacred 
songs.  Many  of  his  picturesque  novels  in  re 
lation  to  mediaeval  Denmark  have  been  trans 


lated  into  English  and  other  foreign  languages. 
His  complete  works    include  dramatic  poems 
(0  vols.,    1843),  historical   poems   and   novels 
I  (12  vols.,  1847-'51),  tales  and  stories  (12  vols., 
j  1847-50),  and   ballads,    songs,  and   fables   (9 
vols.,  1845-'04).    His  autobiography,  edited  by 
Galskjoet,  appeared  in  1802. 

L\GE\HOISZ,  Johannes,  a  Dutch  physician, 
born  in  Breda  in  1730,  died  at  Bowood,  Eng 
land,  Sept.  7,  1799.  In  1707  he  went  to  Lon 
don  to  learn  the  new  mode  of  inoculation,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  sent  to  Vienna  to 
inoculate  the  children  of  the  imperial  family, 
for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  the  titles  of 
aulic  councillor  and  imperial  physician,  and  a 
pension  for  life  of  £000.  In  1770  he  returned 
to  England.  Most  of  his  essays  were  published 
in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions." 

IXGERMANNLAXD,  or  In^ria.  See  IXGRIAXS. 
IXGEKSOLL,  a  town  of  Oxford  co.,  Ontario, 
Canada,  on  the  Thames  river  and  the  Great 
Western  railway,  85  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Toronto ; 
pop.  in  1871,  4,022.  It  has  a  large  export 
trade  in  lumber  and  agricultural  produce,  and 
contains  several  grist  and  saw  mills,  manufac 
tories  of  iron  castings,  machinery,  woollens, 
wooden  ware,  cheese,  &c.,  two  branch  banks, 
several  hotels,  two  weekly  newspapers,  and 
churches  of  seven  denominations. 

INGERSOLL.  I.  Jared,  an  American  lawyer, 
I  born  in  Connecticut  in  1749,  died  in  Philadel- 
;  phia,  Oct.  21,  1822.  His  father  was  appointed 
!  stampmaster  general  for  New  England  in  1705, 
j  but  was  soon  forced  to  resign,  and  in  1770  was 
|  appointed  admiralty  judge  for  Pennsylvania, 
and  removed  to  Philadelphia.  Jared  graduated 
at  Yale  college  in  1700,  studied  law  for  five 
years  in  London,  spent  a  year  and  a  half  in 
Paris,  and  then  returning  to  Philadelphia  be 
came  almost  immediately  prominent  in  his  pro 
fession.  In  1787  he  was  one  of  the  repre 
sentatives  of  Pennsylvania  in  the  convention 
which  framed  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  lie  twice  held  the  office  of  attorney 
general  for  the  state,  and  was  afterward  United 
States  district  attorney  for  Pennsylvania.  In 
1812  he  was  the  federal  candidate  for  vice 
president  of  the  United  States.  At  the  time  of 
his  death  he  was  president  judge  of  the  district 
court  of  Philadelphia  county.  II.  Charles  Jared, 
an  American  statesman,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  3,  1782,  died  there, 
Jan.  14,  1802.  lie  studied  law,  became  an 
attache  of  Ilufus  King,  minister  to  France,  and 
travelled  in  Europe.  On  his  return  he  pub 
lished  "Chiomara,"  a  poem  (1800),  "  Edwy 
and  Elgiva,"  a  tragedy  (1801),  and  kklnchiquin 
the  Jesuit's  Letters,"*  a  political  satire  (1810). 
In  1813  he  was  elected  to  congress  from  Phila 
delphia,  from  1815  to  1829  was  United  States 
district  attorney,  in  1837  was  a  member  of  the 
Pennsylvania  constitutional  convention,  and 
:  served  again  in  congress  from  1841  to  1847, 
distinguishing  himself  as  a  democratic  leader. 
He  then  received  from  President  Polk  the 
nomination  of  minister  to  France,  but  the  sen- 


280 


INGHAM 


INGRAHAM 


ate  refused  to  confirm  it.  His  other  chief 
works  are  "Julian,"  a  dramatic  poem  (1831), 
and  "Historical  Sketch  of  the  Second  War 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  " 
(4  vols.  8vo,  1845-'52).  III.  Joseph  Reed,  an 
American  statesman  and  lawyer,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  14,  1786, 
died  there,  Feb.  20,  1868.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  college  in  1804,  studied  law,  and 
entered  upon  its  practice  in  Philadelphia.  In 
1835-' 7  he  was  a  member  of  congress,  but  de 
clined  a  reelection  till  1841,  when  he  was  re 
turned  as  a  whig  and  protectionist,  and  held 
the  office  for  four  terms.  From  1850  to  1853 
he  was  minister  to  England.  He  was  an  able 
public  speaker,  and  published  several  speeches 
and  pamphlets,  the  principal  one  being  "  Se 
cession  a  Folly  and  a  Crime." 

IJVGHAM,  a  S.  county  of  the  S.  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  drained  by  the  head  waters  of  Grand 
river  and  by  several  smaller  streams;  area,  560 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,268.  It  has  a  nearly 
level  surface,  timbered  with  sugar  maple,  beech, 
&c.,  and  a  fertile  soil.  Coal  and  iron  ore  have 
been  found  in  the  county.  The  Grand  River 
Valley  and  the  Jackson,  Lansing,  and  Saginaw 
divisions  of  the  Michigan  Central  railroad,  the 
Lansing  division  of  the  Michigan  Southern,  the 
Detroit,  Lansing,  and  Lake  Michigan,  and  the 
Peninsular  railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  471,392  bushels  of 
wheat,  382,164  of  Indian  corn,  233,594  of  oats, 
240,324  of  potatoes,  281,562  Ibs.  of  wool,  779,- 
496  of  butter,  and  36,606  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  5,954  horses,  6,535  milch  cows,  1,200 
working  oxen,  8,138  other  cattle,  62,407  sheep, 
and  11,491  swine;  24  manufactories  of  car 
riages,  4  of  brick,  7  of  clothing,  4  of  cooperage, 
12  of  furniture,  6  of  iron  castings,  4  of  ma 
chinery,  10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  1  of  washing  machines,  &c.,  1  of 
woollen  goods,  3  planing  mills,  28  saw  mills,  4 
breweries,  3  tanneries,  3  currying  establish 
ments,  and  6  flour  mills.  Capital,  Mason. 

INGHAilI,  diaries  C.,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1797,  died  in  New  York, 
Dec.  10,  1803.  He  studied  at  the  academy  of 
Dublin,  and  obtained  a  prize  for  his  "Death  of 
Cleopatra."  He  settled  in  New  York  in  1817, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  national 
academy  of  design,  and  its  vice  president  from 
1845  to  1850.  Among  his  works,  besides  many 
female  portraits,  are  "The  Laughing  Girl," 
"  White  Plume,"  "  The  Flower  Girl,"  and 
"  Day  Dream." 

INGH1RAMI,  Tommaso,  surnamed  FEDRA,  an 
Italian  scholar,  born  in  Yolterra,  Tuscany,  in 
1470,  died  in  Rome,  Sept.  6,  1516.  He  went 
to  Rome  when  13  years  old.  While  he  was 
acting  the  part  of  Phaedra  in  Seneca's  "  Ilip- 
polytus,"  some  of  the  machinery  broke  down, 
and  he  entertained  the  audience  till  the  injury 
was  repaired  by  the  recitation  of  extempore 
Latin  poetry.  The  multitude  at  once  saluted 
him  with  the  title  of  Fedra,  and  Alexander  YI. 


made  him  a  canon  of  St.  Peter's.  In  1495  he 
accompanied  the  papal  nuncio  to  the  court  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  who  created  him 
count  palatine  and  poet  laureate.  Julius  II. 
appointed  him  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  and 
pontifical  secretary.  His  works  include  a 
"Defence  of  Cicero,"  "Compendium  of  Ro 
man  History,"  and  "Commentary  on  Horace." 

INGLEBY,"ilement  Mansfield,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham,  Oct.  29, 
1823.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cam 
bridge,  in  1847,  and  was  professor  of  logic  and 
metaphysics  at  the  Midland  institute  of  Bir 
mingham  from  1855  to  1858,  when  he  received 
the  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1870  he  became 
foreign  secretary  to  the  royal  society  of  litera 
ture.  His  principal  works  are  :  "  Outlines  of 
Theoretical  Knowledge  "  (1856);  "The  Shak- 
spere  Fabrications"  (1859);  "A  Complete 
View  of  the  Shakspere  Controversy"  (1861); 
"The  Still  Lion"  (1867);  "An  Introduction 
to  Metaphysics"  (1869);  and  "The  Revival 
of  Philosophy  at  Cambridge  "  (1870). 

INGOLSTADT,  a  fortified  town  of  Upper  Ba 
varia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Schutter,  35  in.  S.  W.  of 
Ratisbon,  and  the  principal  place  between 
that  city  and  Ulm  ;  pop.  in  1871,  13,164. 
It  has  one  Protestant  and  several  Catholic 
churches,  two  convents,  a  Latin  and  an  indus 
trial  school,  an  ancient  castle,  a  military  hos 
pital,  and  several  breweries.  The  defences  of 
the  town  were  demolished  by  the  French  after 
a  three  months'  siege  in  1800,  but  were  restored 
from  1827  to  1847  with  all  modern  improve 
ments  of  fortification.  Its  Roman  Catholic 
university,  founded  in  1472,  and  long  famous, 
was  transferred  in  1800  to  Landshut.  The 
first  Jesuit  college  established  in  Germany  was 
founded  at  Ingolstadt  in  1555.  In  1632  the 
town  sustained  a  siege  by  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

IJVGRAHAM,  Duncan  Nathaniel,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Dec.  6, 
1802,  died  there,  June  10,  1863.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  January,  1812,  and 
became  a  captain  Sept.  14,  1855.  While  in 
command  of  the  sloop  of  war  St.  Louis  in  the 
Mediterranean,  in  July,  1853,  he  interfered  at 
Smyrna  with  the  detention  by  the  Austrian  con 
sul  of  Martin  Koszta,  a  Hungarian,  who  had  de 
clared  in  New  York  his  intention  of  becoming 
an  American  citizen.  This  affair  was  elabo 
rately  discussed  at  Washington,  between  M. 
Iltilsemann,  the  charge  d'affaires  of  Austria, 
and  Mr.  Marcy,  secretary  of  state.  The  con 
duct  of  Capt.  Ingraham  was  fully  approved  by 
the  government,  and  congress  by  joint  resolu 
tion,  Aug.  4,  1854,  requested  the  president  to 
present  him  with  a  medal.  In  March,  1856,  lie 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  bureau  of  ordnance 
and  hydrography  of  the  navy  department.  He 
resigned  this  post  Feb.  4,  1861,  and  was  made 
chief  of  ordnance,  construction,  and  repair  in 
the  confederate  army. 

IXGRAHA3I,  Joseph  H.,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Portland,  Me.,  in  1809,  died  in  1866. 


INGRES 

After  a  brie£  experience  of  trade  lie  became  a 
teacher  near  Natchez,  and  in  1836  published 
"  The  South- West,  by  a  Yankee."  Subse 
quently  he  produced  in  rapid  succession  "  La- 
fitte,"  "  Burton,  or  the  Sieges,"  "  Captain  Kyd," 
"  The  Dancing  Feather,"  and  other  romances, 
some  of  which  attained  a  large  circulation.  He 
finally  became  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church,  and  was  rector  of  a  parish 
and  of  an  academy  for  boys  in  Holly  Springs, 
Miss.  His  last  works  were:  u  The  Prince  of 
the  House  of  David"  (1855),  "The  Pillar  of 
Fire"  (1859),  and  uThe  Throne  of  David." 

I\GRES,  Jean  Dominique  Augnste,  a  French  his 
torical  painter,  born  in  Montauban,  Sept.  15, 
1781,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  14,  1867.  In  the 
school  of  David  he  made  such  rapid  progress 
that  by  the  age  of  20  he  had  gained  iu  two 
successive  years  the  first  and  second  prizes  of 
the  academy  of  fine  arts.  After  1806  he  passed 
nearly  20  years  in  Italy,  abandoning  the  dry, 
classic  style  he  had  acquired  from  David.  In 
1829  he  became  director  of  the  French  academy 
in  Rome.  He  was  made  a  senator  in  1862,  and 
a  member  of  the  council  of  public  instruction. 
His  works  are  numerous,  and  comprise  gener 
ally  serious  historical  and  classical  subjects  ;  in 
the  great  exhibition  of  1855  at  Paris  an  entire 
saloon  was  appropriated  to  them.  His  best 
known  pictures  are  "  (Edipus  and  the  Sphinx," 
"  Jupiter  and  Thetis,"  "  A  Woman  in  the  Bath," 
"Ossian's  Sleep,"  and  ''The  Vow  of  Louis 
XIII."  Many  are  in  the  Louvre,  on  thG  ceiling 
of  one  of  the  apartments  of  which  is  painted 
his  "Apotheosis  of  Homer."  His  "  Strato- 
nice,"  painted  for  the  duke  of  Orleans,  was 
sold  in  1853  for  40,000  francs.  Among  his 
latest  works  was  the  "  Apotheosis  of  Napoleon 
I.,"  painted  on  the  ceiling  of  the  hotel  de  ville 
in  Paris.  He  painted  the  portraits  of  many 
distinguished  personages,  including  Napoleon  I. 

IXGKIAXS,  a  tribe  in  the  Russian  government 
of  St.  Petersburg,  belonging  to  the  Tchudic 
branch  of  the  Finns,  now  reduced  to  about 
18,000,  in  200  small  and  wretched  villages.  The 
Ingrians  are  poor  and  ignorant,  but  begin  to 
assimilate  more  with  the  Russians ;  and  many 
have  forsaken  the  Protestant  religion,  which 
is  that  of  the  majority,  for  the  Greek  church. 
The  Ingrians  derive  their  name  from  the  river 
Inger  or  Izhora.  The  strip  of  land  between 
the  Neva,  the  lake  of  Ladoga,  the  gulf  of  Fin 
land,  the  Xarva,  and  the  governments  of  Pskov 
and  Novgorod,  was  called  Ingermannland  or 
Ingria  by  the  Swedes,  who  obtained  posses 
sion  of  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century. 
Reconquered  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1702,  it 
has  formed  since  1783  the  bulk  of  the  govern 
ment  of  St.  Petersburg. 

L\Gl  LPHIS,  an  English  monk,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1030,  died  at  the  monastery  of  Croy- 
land,  Dec.  17,  1109.  He  was  educated  at  Ox 
ford,  and  attracted  the  attention  of  Editha, 
queen  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  who  became 
his  patroness,  and  introduced  him  to  William, 
duke  of  Normandy,  who  made  the  young  Saxon 


INJUNCTION 


281 


his  secretary.  He  resigned  that  office  in  1064, 
accompanied  Sigfried,  duke  of  Mentz,  to  the 
Holy  Land,  and  became  a  monk  in  the  abbey 
of  Fontenelle,  in  Normandy,  whence  in  1076 
he  was  invited  to  England  by  William,  and 
appointed  abbot  of  Croyland.  The  Ilixtoria 
Monasterii  Croylandemis,  from  664  to  1089, 
was  long  regarded  as  the  work  of  Ingulphus, 
but  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  has  proved  it  to  be 
of  a  later  age. 

I  Ml  A II  HA  \,  a  town  of  East  Africa,  belonging 
to  Portugal,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Inhamban 
river,  N.  of  Cape  Corrientes  and  200  in.  N.  E. 
of  Delagoabay;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  has  a 
harbor,  and  trades  in  beeswax  and  ivory. 

INJUNCTION,  a  prohibitory  writ.  Co\irts  of 
equity  grant  relief  by  injunction  in  those  cases 
in  which,  but  for  their  interposition,  an  equita 
ble  right  would  be  infringed.  In  such  cases 
courts  of  law  can  afford  no  remedy,  for  they 
cannot  adjudicate  upon  an  equity,  and  are  pow 
erless  to  prevent  an  invasion  of  it.  Where  then 
the  rights  of  a  party  are  wholly  equitable  in 
their  nature,  he  can  find  no  redress  in  the  com 
mon  law  tribunals ;  but  the  mere  existence  of 
an  equitable  element  in  a  suit  being  regarded 
by  these  courts  as  no  bar  to  their  procedure, 
they  take  jurisdiction,  and,  in  deciding  upon 
the  legal  merits  of  the  case,  must  sometimes 
disregard  the  equity,  because  its  recognition 
does  not  lie  within  their  competence  as  courts 
of  law.  In  such  cases  as  these  a  court  of 
equity,  in  the  exercise  of  its  distinctive  juris 
diction,  will  interpose  by  injunction  to  protect 
the  equity.  This  protection  consists  in  re 
straining  in  behalf  of  the  plaintiff  the  commis 
sion  or  continuance  of  some  act  of  the  defen 
dant.  An  injunction  is  defined  to  be  a  writ, 
framed  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
case,  commanding  an  act  which  the  court  re 
gards  as  essential  to  justice,  or  restraining  an 
act  which  it  esteems  contrary  to  equity  and 
good  conscience.  As  examples  of  those  cases 
where  relief  is  afforded  to  rights  which  either 
are  wholly  equitable,  or  under  the  circumstances 
of  the  case  are  incapable  of  being  asserted  in 
courts  of  law,  may  be  cited  instances  in  which 
trustees  are  enjoined  from  using  their  legal 
title  to  oust  the  possession  of  those  who  are 
equitably  entitled  to  the  benefit  and  enjoyment 
of  the  trust  estate  ;  so  tenants  for  life  or  mort- 
gageors  in  possession,  who  are  not  punishable 
at  law  for  committing  waste,  will  be  enjoined 
in  equity  from  doing  so  ;  and  again,  mortgage- 
ors  in  possession,  though  in  some  sense  owners 
of  the  mortgaged  estate,  will  yet  be  restrained 
by  injunction  from  so  reducing  its  value  as  to 
impair  the  security  of  the  mortgagee.  The  ad 
ministration  and  marshalling  of  assets,  and  the 
marshalling  of  securities,  furnish  other  illustra 
tions  of  the  intcTposition^of  courts  of  equity  by 
injunction  to  control  the  proceedings  of  credit 
ors  and  others  at  law,  and  upon  principles 
almost  purely  of  an  equitable  nature. — A  second 
class  of  cases  includes  those  in  which  an  equi 
table  element  is  involved,  but  the  matter  of 


282 


INK 


which  otherwise  is  cognizable  at  law.  If  in 
such  cases  the  courts  of  law  have  already  taken 
jurisdiction,  a  court  of  equity  Avill  in  a  proper 
case  restrain  their  further  procedure.  Thus, 
when  fraud,  accident,  or  mistake  has  given  one 
party  to  the  suit  an  unfair  advantage  over  his 
opponent,  an  equity  arises  in  favor  of  the  latter 
which  will  be  protected  by  injunction.  For  ex 
ample,  if  after  judgment  against  the  defendant 
at  law  a  receipt  is  found,  showing  the  payment 
of  the  very  debt  upon  which  he  has  been  con 
demned,  if  there  be  no  remedy  in  such  a  case 
at  law,  equity  will  enjoin,  and  so  prevent,  the 
execution  of  the  judgment.  Equity  will  also 
sometimes  relieve  against  torts.  The  ground 
of  interference  here  is,  that  between  the  com 
plete  right  of  the  plaintiff  and  the  largest  rem 
edy  which  he  can  receive  at  law  for  the  wrong 
done  him,  there  lies  an  equity  which  is  not 
protected ;  this  may  rest  either  in  the  inade 
quacy  of  the  money  compensation  which  the 
plaintiff  recovers,  or  in  his  right  to  be  exempted 
from  vexatious  litigation.  The  equity  juris 
diction  in  these  cases  is  most  frequently  exer 
cised  in  respect  to  waste,  nuisances,  and  in 
fringements  of  patent  rights  and  of  copyrights. 
The  remedies  at  law  in  all  these  cases  are  simi 
lar.  To  cite  alone  that  of  nuisances,  they  can 
at  most  only  abate  or  afford  compensation  for 
existing  nuisances,  but  are  ineffectual  to  pre 
vent  such  as  are  threatened  or  in  progress  ;  if, 
however,  the  complainant's  right  be  "clearly 
admitted  or  established  at  laAv,  and  the  nature 
of  the  threatened  injury  be  such  that  it  cannot 
be  compensated  by  damages,  or  will  occasion 
a  constantly  recurring  grievance,  equity  has 
jurisdiction  to  enjoin.  Further,  as  examples 
of  the  equitable  relief  afforded  by  injunction,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  courts  of  equity  will  re 
strain  the  unjust  conveyance  of  real  property  or 
the  transfer  of  stocks  during  the  pendency  of 
suits  which  concern  them  ;  they  will  forbid  the 
publication  of  private  papers,  letters,  or  manu 
scripts  ;  they  will  enjoin  a  husband's  transfer 
of  property  in  fraud  of  the  legal  or  equitable 
rights  of  the  wife  ;  and  will  compel  the  due  ob 
servance  of  personal  covenants  where  there  is 
no  effectual  remedy  at  law. — In  the  cases  thus 
reviewed,  the  court  of  equity  issues  the  injunc 
tion  by  its  remedial  writ,  the  judicial  writ  is 
in  the  nature  of  an  execution,  and  issues  subse 
quently  to  a  decree  of  the  court.  Injunctions  | 
may  be  either  temporary,  when  they  arc  grant-  j 
ed  for  a  limited  time,  or  until  the  tiling  of  the  | 
defendant's  answer,  or  the  hearing  of  the  court ;  ' 
or  perpetual,  when  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  1 
after  a  hearing  of  the  merits  of  the  case,  the  j 
plaintiff  has  established  his  right  to  such  relief. 

L\K,  the  name  given  to  a  variety  of  prepara-  j 
tions  designed  for  producing  colored  letters  in 
writing  or  printing.   •  The  ink  of  the  ancients  ! 
appears  to  have  been  similar  to  the  solid  Chi-  \ 
nese  or  India  ink — a  combination  of  lampblack 
with  glue  or  gum,  in  the  proportions,  as  given 
by  Dioscorides,  of  three  parts  of  the  former  to 
one  of  the  latter.     The  liquor  of  the  cuttle  fish 


is  also  said  by  Cicero  and  Pliny  to  have  been  in 
use  for  ink.  These  preparations  were  used  in  a 
fluid  state,  by  means  of  a  style  with  a  split  point. 
Manuscripts  written  from  the  5th  to  the  12th 
century  are  generally  very  legible,  while  those 
of  the  15th  and  10th  centuries  are  made  out 
with  difficulty  in  consequence  of  the  discolora 
tion  of  the  ink.  This  is  owing  in  the  one  case 
to  the  permanent  quality  of  the  ancient  inks, 
which  were  of  the  nature  of  a  black  paint,  and 
also  to  the  use  of  parchment  and  of  a  porous  pa 
per  of  cotton  rags  which  absorbed  the  ink  ;  and 
in  the  other  to  the  closer  quality  of  the  linen 
paper  of  the  later  period,  and  the  changeable 
nature  of  the  ink,  which  was  in  fact  a  dye  pre 
pared  from  nutgalls  and  sulphate  of  iron.  Pa 
per  bleached  with  excess  of  chlorine  would 
cause  this  kind  of  ink  to  be  discolored.  The 
decay  of  the  vegetable  portion  of  the  ink  would 
cause  the  color  to  fade,  and  ancient  writings 
thus  rendered  illegible  have  been  restored  by 
careful  application  of  an  infusion  of  galls.  In 
an  essay  on  the  "  Origin  and  Progress  of  Print 
ing,"  privately  printed  by  the  Philobiblon  so 
ciety  in  England,  1859,  it  is  said  :  "  The  ink  of 
the  ancients,  and  that  used  in  the  middle  ages, 
had  a  consistency  much  thicker  than  that  at 
present  in  use ;  very  highly  gummed  when 
applied  to  papyrus,  parchment,  or  paper,  it 
formed  letters  in  relief,  as  if  they  were  em 
bossed,  which  has  given  rrec  to  an  erroneous 
conjecture  that  these  writings  were  produced 
by  a  soVt  of  typographic  process.  Black  ink 
was  in  general  used  for  manuscripts  and  char 
ters.  The  basis  of  all  the  black  inks  was  car 
bon  in  various  forms,  as  lampblack.  Red  ink 
was  generally  employed  for  writing  initials 
and  the  titles  of  books  and  chapters ;  hence 
the  term  rubrics,  from  rul>rica,  red.  At  Or 
leans  there  is  a  charter  of  Philip  I.,  dated  101)0, 
written  in  green  ink.  The  emperors  signed  in 
purple  ink  obtained  from  the  murex  ;  gold  and 
silver  inks  were  chiefly  employed  on  colored 
parchments  or  purple  vellum.  The  celebrated 
codex  of  Upsal  is  written  with  silver  ink  upon 
violet  parchment,  the  initials  and  some  passages 
being  in  gold." — Though  the  same  materials 
were  used  for  several  centuries  that  are  now 
employed  for  the  best  inks,  little  was  known  of 
the  real  nature  of  the  compounds  produced  un 
til  the  researches  of  Dr.  Lewis  and  of  Ribau- 
court  toward  the  close  of  the  last  century  ;  the 
latter  published  an  interesting  paper  containing 
an  account  of  his  observations  in  the  Annales 
de  cliimie  o*f  1798.  The  inks  from  that  time 
were  improved  ;  but  the  recipes  have  until  re 
cently  been  objectionable  from  the  introduc 
tion  of  unnecessary  ingredients,  and  particu 
larly  from  the  necessity  of  employing  much 
gum  to  prevent  the  coloring  matter  from  sub 
siding  ;  this  renders  the  ink  thick  and  indis 
posed  to  flow  freely  from  the  pen,  and  also 
liable  to  become  mouldy.  The  requisites  of  a 

I  good  writing  ink  are  permanency  of  character, 
close  adherence  to  the  paper,  a  good  color,  no 

I  tendency  to  mould,  and  a  proper  consistency. 


IXK 


283 


A  combination  of  nutgalls  with  sulphate  of 
iron  was  long  the  only  suitable  black  solution 
known.  The  galls  contain  four  vegetable  sub 
stances,  viz.,  gallic  and  tannic  acids,  mucilage, 
and  extractive  matter.  The  acids  are  regarded 
as  more  particularly  necessary  to  a  good  ink, 
forming  with  the  oxide  of  iron  of  the  copperas 
a  tanno-gallate  of  iron.  Of  the  three  causes  of 
the  deterioration  of  ink — mouldiness,  the  sepa 
ration  of  the  black  coloring  matter,  and  the 
change  of  color — Dr.  Bostock,  in  an  able  paper 
in  the  "'Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Arts" 
for  1830,  attributes  the  first  to  the  mucilage, 
the  second  to  the  extractive  matter,  and  the 
third  to  the  tannin,  which  is  disposed  to  de 
compose  and  thus  involve  the  destruction  of 
the  compound  of  which  it  is  an  ingredient. 
The  more  nearly  the  ink  approaches  the  com 
position  of  a  gallate  of  iron,  the  more  perma 
nent  he  regards  it.  Several  of  the  recipes  re 
quire  long  exposure  of  the  decoction  of  galls 
to  the  air,  after  this  is  obtained  by  boiling  in 
water,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  convert  much 
of  the  tannin  into  gallic  acid.  Dr.  Bostock 
recommends  that  the  galls  should  be  macerated 
for  some  hours  in  hot  water,  and  the  fluid  fil 
tered  ;  the  filtrate  should  then  be  exposed  for 
two  weeks  to  a  warm  atmosphere,  when  any 
fungoid  growth  that  forms  must  be  removed  ; 
and  the  infusion  being  made  stronger  than 
usually  directed,  no  addition  of  mucilaginous 
substance  will  be  required  to  give  it  a  proper 
consistency.  The  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron 
should  also  be  boiled  or  exposed  some  time  to 
the  air,  which  causes  a  portion  of  sesquioxide 
of  iron  to  be  formed,  the  presence  of  which  is 
advantageous.  The  recipes  for  this  class  of 
ink  alone  are  very  numerous.  That  of  Booth 
for  a  fine  black  ink  is :  Aleppo  galls  12  Ibs., 
sulphate  of  iron  4  Ibs.,  gum  arable  3£  Ibs., 
water  18  gallons;  the  bruised  galls  to  be  ex 
hausted  by  three  successive  boilings,  each  time 
with  a  reduced  quantity  of  water ;  the  decoc 
tion  is  strained,  and  while  warm  the  solution 
of  gum  and  copperas,  also  warm,  is  to  be  add 
ed,  and  the  mixture  is  left  for  several  weeks  to 
deposit  its  sediment.  A  few  drops  of  creosote 
added  will  prevent  mouldiness. — Among  the 
other  kinds  of  ink,  the  following  appear  par 
ticularly  worthy  of  notice.  The  blue  ink  first 
introduced  by  Mr.  Henry  Stephens  of  London, 
remarkable  for  a  blue  cclor  which  soon  after 
drying  changes  to  deep  black,  for  perfect  fluidi 
ty,  and  tenacious  adherence  to  the  paper,  is  a 
tanno-gallate  of  iron  dissolved  in  sulphate  of 
indigo,  the  coloring  matter  thus  not  being  sus 
pended  as  in  the  ordinary  inks,  but  in  complete 
solution.  Another  variety,  also  invented  by 
Mr.  Stephens,  and  remarkable  for  its  tendency 
to  fade  by  continued  exposure  to  light,  and  to 
recover  its  hue  when  excluded  from  it,  is  made 
by  submitting  Prussian  blue  for  two  days  or 
longer  to  the  action  of  strong  nitric  or  hydro 
chloric  acid,  then  washing  it  well  \vith  water  till 
all  acid  is  removed,  and  finally  dissolving  it  in 
oxalic  acid,  llornung's  recipe  is  to  mix  4 


parts  of  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron  with 
750  parts  of  water,  and  precipitate  with  4 
parts  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  solution  ;  the 
precipitate  collected  is  washed  with  several  ad 
ditions  of  water,  and  allowed  to  drain  until  it 
weighs  about  200  parts ;  it  is  then  dissolved  in 
one  part  of  oxalic  acid.  Hungers  ink,  remark 
able  for  its  clearness  and  fitness  for  steel  pens, 
which  it  does  not  corrode,  is  a  cheap  compo 
sition  prepared  by  gradually  adding  one  part  of 
solution  of  chromate  of  potash  to  1,000  parts 
of  a  strong  cold  decoction  of  logwood,  22  Ibs. 
of  logwood  being  boiled  down  with  water  to 
14  gallons.  The  ink  thus  made  is  very  black, 
and  is  not  affected  by  weak  acids,  nor  can  it  bo 
washed  out  with  water.  It  is,  however,  liable 
to  become  viscid  and  gelatinous.  Dr.  Xor- 
mandy's  indelible  writing  ink,  which  is  re 
markably  permanent,  is  made  by  grinding  24 
Ibs.  of  Frankfort  black  with  mucilage  obtained 
by  adding  20  Ibs.  of  gum  to  GO  gallons  of  water, 
straining  through  a  coarse  flannel,  then  adding 
4  Ibs.  of  oxalic  acid,  and  as  much  decoction  of 
cochineal  and  sulphate  of  indigo  as  will  give 
the  required  shade.  Berzelius  invented  an  ink 
which  he  regarded  as  the  best  writing  ink 
known,  and  also  nearly  indelible ;  it  is  vana- 
dic  acid  combined  with  ammonia  and  mixed 
with  infusion  of  galls. — Copying  inks,  which 
are  intended  to  give  an  impression  of  the  wri 
ting  made  with  them  to  a  second  or  a  third  sheet 
moistened  and  pressed  upon  the  original,  are 
the  ferro-gallic  inks  with  a  larger  proportion  of 
gum  than  they  usually  contain,  and  a  portion 
besides  of  sugar  or  of  sugar  candy. — Red  ink 
may  be  made  by  the  recipe  of  Ileusler,  which 
is  to  boil  2  oz.  of  Brazil  wood,  $  oz.  alum, 
and  the  same  of  crystals  of  tartar,  in  10  oz. 
of  pure  water,  till  the  water  is  reduced  one 
half  ;  in  the  strained  liquor  £  oz.  of  gum 
arable  is  to  be  dissolved,  and  a  tincture  added 
made  by  digesting  H  dram  of  cochineal  in  1£ 
oz.  of  alcohol  of  specific  gravity  0*839.  Booth 
employs  Brazil  wood  2  oz.,  chloride  of  tin  £• 
dram,  gum  arable  1  dram,  water  32  oz.,  and 
boils  the  whole  down  to  10  oz.  Various 
recipes  may  be  found  for  different  colored 
inks,  but  there  is  little  use  for  them.  They 
are  generally  composed  of  coloring  matter  held 
in  suspension  by  thickening  the  liquid  with 
gum  arabic.  The  nature  of  the  Chinese  or 
India  ink  has  been  already  noticed.  Proust 
says  that  lampblack  purified  by  potash  lye 
and  mixed  with  a  solution  of  refined  glue, 
moulded  and  dried,  makes  a  quality  of  this  ink 
preferred  by  artists  even  to  that  of  China. 
Until  some  recent  discoveries  it  was  supposed 
that  this  ink  used  with  acidulated  water  was 
inattackable  by  chemical  reagents  that  were 
not  destructive  to  the  paper. — The  so-called 
indelible  or  marking  inks  were  formerly  alto 
gether  made  by  dissolving  nitrate  of  silver  in 
water  and  adding  gum  arable  and  sap  green, 
and  were  used  in  connection  with  a  pounce, 
which  was  first  applied  to  the  linen  on  the 
spot  to  be  marked.  The  pounce  was  an  aque- 


284: 


INK 


eras  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  which 
gum  arabic  was  added.  The  best  marking 
inks  are  now  made  by  combining  the  two 
preparations  at  once,  and  bringing  out  the  col 
or  after  the  application  to  the  cloth  by  expo 
sure  to  heat.  A  good  ink  is  made  by  dissolv 
ing  7  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda  in  12  of  water, 
and  adding  5  parts  of  gum  arable,  then  mixing 
with  this  5  parts  of  nitrate  of  silver  liquefied 
in  10  of  ammonia;  the  mixture  is  to  be  grad 
ually  heated  to  ebullition  in  a  flask,  when  it 
becomes  very  dark  and  of  the  proper  consis 
tence.  Tartaric  acid  is  sometimes  advanta 
geously  employed  to  produce  tartrate  of  silver, 
as  by  the  following  process :  nitrate  of  silver 
is  triturated  in  a  mortar  with  an  equivalent  of 
desiccated  tartaric  acid;  water  added  causes 
crystals  of  tartrate  of  silver  to  separate  with 
liberation  of  nitric  acid  ;  this  is  neutralized  by 
careful  addition  of  ammonia,  which  also  dis 
solves  the  tartrate  of  silver ;  the  preparation 
is  then  thickened  with  gum,  and  coloring  mat 
ter  is  added  at  pleasure.  The  Italian  marking 
ink  is  terchloride  of  gold  applied  to  cloth  mois 
tened  with  solution  of  chloride  of  tin.  The 
subject  of  indelible  inks  will  be  further  treated 
under  NITRATES. — Sympathetic  inks  are  prepa 
rations  which  when  used  for  writing  leave  no 
visible,  or  at  least  only  colorless,  marks  upon 
the  paper.  These  are  afterward  brought  out 
in  colors  by  exposure  to  heat  or  to  moisture, 
or  by  application  of  other  substances.  By  the 
ancients  it  was  known  that  new  milk  or  the 
milky  sap  of  plants  might  be  so  used,  the  wri 
ting  with  it  being  made  visible  by  dusting  over 
it  a -black  powder.  The  property  of  writing 
made  with  the  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  to 
turn  black  by  application  of  gaseous  or  liquid 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  was  known  in  the  17th 
century,  and  ascribed  to  magnetic  influences. 
The  action  was  afterward  styled  sympathetic, 
and  the  name  has  continued  to  be  applied  to 
the  various  preparations  of  this  nature.  The 
materials  of  the  common  ferro-gallic  inks  may 
be  used  separately  for  a  sympathetic  ink,  the 
writing  being  done  with  the  sulphate  of  iron 
solution  and  washed  over  with  that  of  the 
galls,  as  the  writing  of  some  old  manuscripts  is 
now  occasionally  restored.  A  dilute  solution 
of  chloride  of  copper  used  for  writing  is  invisi 
ble  until  the  paper  is  heated,  when  the  letters 
are  seen  of  a  beautiful  yellow,  disappearing 
with  the  heat  that  developed  them.  The  salts 
of  cobalt,  as  the  acetate,  sulphate,  nitrate,  and 
chloride,  possess  a  similar  property,  the  letters 
appearing  blue.  The  addition  of  a  salt  of  nick 
el  renders  them  green.  The  magic  or  chemical 
landscapes  are  made  by  the  use  of  these  me 
tallic  salts.  The  sky  being  painted  with  salt 
of  cobalt  alone,  and  foliage  with  the  same 
mixed  with  nickel,  the  application  of  heat 
brings  them  out  in  their  appropriate  colors. 
A  winter  landscape,  with  the  bare  trees  and 
ground  covered  with  snow,  may  thus  by  acces 
sion  of  warmth  be  clothed  with  the  green  hues 
of  summer. — Lithographers  employ  an  ink  for 


tracing  designs  on  paper,  which  are  to  be  trans 
ferred  to  stone,  composed  of  shell  lac  1^  oz., 
soap  2  oz.,  white  wax  3  oz.,  tallow  1  oz.,  a 
strong  solution  of  gum  sandarach  3  tablespoon- 
fuls,  and  lampblack ;  also  an  ink  for  taking  im 
pressions  from  engraved  plates,  which  are  to 
be  transferred  to  stone,  composed  of  tallow, 
wax,  and  soap,  each  4  oz.,  shell  lac  3  oz.,  gum 
mastic  21  oz.,  black  pitch  1^  oz.,  and  lamp 
black. — Printing  ink  is  a  preparation  very  dif 
ferent  from  any  of  the  inks  used  for  other 
purposes ;  and  its  manufacture  demands  no  lit 
tle  skill  and  experience.  It  should  be  of  a  soft 
adhesive  character,  readily  attaching  itself  to 
the  surface  of  the  types,  and  as  easily  trans 
ferred  to  the  paper  pressed  upon  them,  con 
veying  in  a  clear  tint  the  exact  stamp.  Thus 
spread  in  a  thin  film  and  pressed  into  the  pa 
per,  it  should  quickly  dry,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  so  incorporated  with  the  paper  as  not 
to  be  removable  by  mechanical  means,  while 
its  composition  insures  for  it  durability  and  a 
power  to  resist  the  action  of  chemical  agents 
as  well  as  atmospheric  influences.  AYhile  dis 
posed  to  dry  readily  on  being  applied  to  paper, 
it  should  retain  its  softness  in  the  mass  and 
Avhile  excluded  from  the  air,  and  in  this  condi 
tion  undergo  no  change.  Its  ingredients  must 
not  be  of  a  corrosive  nature  to  injure  the  roll 
ers  employed  in  spreading  it.  The  appearance 
of  good  ink  is  glossy  and  somewhat  oily ;  its 
texture  smooth  without  grains ;  and  its  te 
nacity  such  as  to  cause  it  to  adhere  to  the 
finger  pressed  against  it,  and  yet  leave  but  a 
short  thread  suspended  from  a  portion  taken 
out.  The  usual  materials  employed  in  its  manu 
facture  are  linseed  oil,  rosin,  and  coloring  mat 
ters.  Eosin  oil  is  largely  used  for  some  of  the 
cheaper  inks.  For  the  best  inks  the  linseed 
oil  is  selected  of  the  purest  quality,  and  this  is 
clarified  by  digesting  it  for  some  hours  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  at  a  temperature  of  212°, 
and  then  washing  it  with  hot  water ;  it  will 
then  dry  much  more  quickly.  The  oil  is  then 
boiled,  and  the  inflammable  vapors  that  rise 
are  ignited,  and  when  they  have  burned  a  few 
minutes  a  cover  is  placed  over  the  vessel,  extin 
guishing  the  flame.  The  boiling  is  not  stopped 
until  a  drop  taken  out  and  placed  on  a  cold  sur 
face  is  covered  with  a  film  as  it  cools.  A  portion 
of  rosin  is  then  dissolved  in  the  oil,  the  quan 
tity  depending  on  the  degree  of  stiffness  the 
ink  may  require ;  that  for  books  and  strong, 
|  stiff  paper  bearing  more  rosin,  and  receiving 
in  consequence  more  gloss,  than  the  ink  for 
newspapers.  The  degree  of  viscidity  given  to 
I  the  oil  should  also  have  reference  to  the  use 
i  required  of  the  ink.  For  letterpress  printing 
soap  should  be  added  to  the  materials  to  enable 
i  the  ink  to  be  taken  up  clearly  from  the  types 
|  without  smearing.  The  best  kind  is  yellow 
j  rosin  soap,  cut  up  into  slices,  dried,  reduced  to 
powder,  and  incorporated  with  the  oil  and 
|  rosin,  or  varnish,  and  before  mixing  placed 
i  again  over  the  fire  to  expel  any  remaining 
moisture.  Lampblack  is  almost  universally 


IXKBERRY 


IXX 


285 


employed  as  the  coloring  matter;  and  much 
care  is  given  in  the  manufacture  of  this  arti 
cle  to  obtain  it  of  the  very  hest  quality.  Oth 
er  carbonaceous  blacks  reduced  to  impalpable 
powder  are  sometimes  employed.  For  colored 
inks  various  pigments  are  introduced  instead. 
The  mixture  is  made  with  the  hot  compound 
of  burnt  oil  and  rosin  in  a  cylindrical  vessel, 
in  which  a  revolving  shaft  with  arms  serves  as 
a  stirrer.  From  this  the  ink  is  drawn  olf,  and 
is  then  ground  in  a  mill  until  the  ingredients 
are  thoroughly  incorporated.  Various  recipes 
maybe  found  in  lire's  "Dictionary"  and  Mus- 
pratt's  "  Chemistry"  for  printing  inks  of  oth 
er  materials  than  the  above.  For  ancient  pro 
cesses  see  the  work  of  Caneparius,  De  Atra- 
mcntis  cujiiscumque  Generis  (Rotterdam,  1718). 
INK.BERRY,  the  popular  name  of  ilex  glabra, 
a  shrub  now  placed  in  the  same  genus  with  the 
holly,  but  formerly  known  as  prinos  glober* 
It  is  slender  and  rather  graceful,  usually  2  to  4 


Inkberry  (Ilex  glabra). 

ft.  high,  but  sometimes  much  taller ;  its  lanceo 
late  or  oblong  leaves,  sparingly  toothed  toward 
the  apex,  are  an  inch  or  more  long,  evergreen, 
leathery,  shining  on  the  upper  surface,  and  of 
a  fine  dark  green  color;  the  small  flowers  are 
axillary,  and  the  solitary  fertile  ones  produce 
small  black  berries.  It  is  found  in  sandy 
grounds  along  the  coast  f i  om  New  England  to 
Florida.  It  is  deemed  efficacious  in  intermit 
tent  fevers,  but  its  chief  use  is  for  decoration. 
Its  delicate  brilliant  green  leaves,  upon  slender 
flexible  stems,  especially  fit  it  for  working  in 
with  flo\vers  in  bouquets.  Quantities  of  it  are 
sent  from  the  southern  counties  of  Xew  Jersey 
to  the  New  York  florists,  who  keep  it  in  good 
condition  in  a  cool  cellar  for  several  months. 

INKERMAtf,  a  Russian  village  in  the  south  of 
the  Crimea,  on  the  site  of  a  ruined  city,  sup 
posed  to  be  the  Ctenos  mentioned  by  Strabo, 
at  the  head  of  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol,  and 
35  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Simferopol.  It  stands  at  the 


foot  of  a  hill  rising  several  hundred  feet  per 
pendicularly  above  the  valley  of  the  Tchernaya, 
crowned  by  massive  walls  and  remains  of 
towers.  The  side  of  the  hill  is  pierced  by  nu 
merous  artificial  caves,  hewn  from  the  solid 
rock,  resembling  the  ruins  found  in  Idumaia, 


Monument  at  Inkcrman. 

but  unlike  any  others  in  Europe.  Xear  by  is 
a  church  similarly  constructed.  The  caves 
were  probably  made  by  the  persecuted  Arians, 
and  were  afterward  occupied  by  Christian 
cenobites,  as  is  shown  by  the  paintings,  chapels, 
and  remains  of  altars  found  in  them.  On  the 
heights  of  Inkerman,  on  the  side  of  the  valley 
opposite  to  the  ruins,  the  Russians  were  de 
feated,  Xov.  5,  1854,  by  the  French  and  Eng 
lish.  A  monument  to  the  memory  of  the  fall 
en  has  been  erected  on  the  battle  field. 

I\MA>T,  Henry,  an  American  painter,  born  in 
Utica,  X.  Y.,  Oct.  20,  1801,  died  in  Xew  York, 
Jan.  17,  1840.  lie  was  preparing  to  enter  the 
West  Point  academy  when  his  taste  for  art  led 
him  to  become  a  pupil  of  Jarvis  the  portrait 
painter,  to  whom  he  was  apprenticed  for  seven 
years.  Among  his  most  characteristic  por 
traits  are  those  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  Bish 
op  White,  and  Jacob  Barker.  lie  also  painted 
landscape,  genre,  and  history.  In  1844  infirm 
health  led  him  to  visit  England,  where  he  was 
the  guest  of  Wordsworth,  whose  portrait  he 
painted,  as  well  as  those  of  Dr.  Chalmers, 
Lord  Chancellor  Cottenham,  and  Macaulay. 
On  his  return  to  Xew  York  in  1845  he  began 
a  series  of  historical  paintings  for  the  national 
capitol.  lie  was  engaged  upon  one  represent 
ing  the  cabin  of  Daniel  Boone  in  the  wilds  of 
Kentucky  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

IXN  (anc.  (Enus),  a  river  of  central  Europe, 
one  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Danube. 
It  rises  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Orisons  out  of 
the  small  lake  of  Longhino,  W.  of  Mount  Ber- 
nina,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  7,000  ft.  It 
crosses  the  Grisons  frontier  above  the  gorge  of 
Finstermimz,  enters  Tyrol  by  a  narrow  valley, 


286 


INN 


INNKEEPER 


and  runs  with  great  impetuosity  through  the 
northern  district,  particularly  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Inn  valleys,  to  the  border  of  8.  E.  Ba 
varia,  which  it  crosses-  a  few  miles  N.  of  the 
fortress  of  Kufstein.  After  a  course  N.  and 
then  E.  for  about  90  m.  through  Bavaria,  it 
reaches  Braunau  on  the  Austrian  frontier, 
whence  it  flows  in  a  N.  direction,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Bavaria  and  Austria,  until 
it  joins  the  Danube  at  Passau,  after  an  entire 
course  of  315  m.  Navigation  begins  at  Inns- 
pruck,  and  becomes  considerable  below  Hall. 
Steamboats  ply  on  the  Inn,  and  on  its  largest 
tributary  the  Salzach.  The  beautiful  valley  of 
the  Engadine,  which  is  situated  near  the  sources 
and  extends  along  the  banks  of  the  Inn,  is 
also  called  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Inn,  where 
in  the  Romansh  language,  which  is  spoken  by 
the  inhabitants,  the  name  of  the  river  is  On. 

INN,  according  to  judicial  decision,  "  a  house 
where  the  traveller  is  furnished  with  every 
thing  which  he  has  occasion  for  while  on  his 
way."  It  is  sometimes  important  to  determine 
whether  a  house  be  an  inn  and  the  master  an 
innkeeper,  because  of  the  legal  rights,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  peculiar  and 
stringent  liabilities,  of  an  innkeeper.  It  is 
clear  that  while  a  sign  is  the  usual  and  proper 
evidence  that  a  house  is  an  inn,  it  is  neither 
essential  to  an  inn  nor  the  only  evidence  of  it. 
A  mere  coffee  house,  or  an  eating  room,  is  not 
an  inn.  Neither  is  a  boarding  house ;  but  the 
distinction  between  a  boarding  house  and  an 
inn  is  not  always  easy,  in  fact  or  in  law ;  and 
it  is  the  more  difficult,  because  the  same  house 
may  be  an  inn  as  to  some  persons  within  it,  and 
a  boarding  house  as  to  others.  The  best  test  of 
this  question  we  apprehend  to  be  the  transient- 
ness  or  the  fixedness  of  the  alleged  guest.  The 
old  law  constantly  held  that  an  inn  is  for  the 
benefit  transientium.  By  this  is  not  meant 
that  a  guest  of  an  inn  loses  his  rights,  or  that 
the  innkeeper  loses  his  rights  over  him,  if  the 
guest  remains  a  long  time  in  the  inn,  provided 
lie  remains  there  as  in  an  inn  ;  and  he  does  so, 
if  he  makes  no  contract,  and  comes  under  no 
obligation,  to  stay  a  moment  longer  than  he 
chooses  to.  If  he  goes  to  an  inn,  occupies  his 
room,  and  takes  his  meals,  with  the  right  at  any 
moment  of  going  away,  and  of  paying  for  what 
he  has  had  up  to  that  moment,  and  nothing 
more,  he  continues  to  be  a  guest  although  he 
remain  there  a  year  or  years.  But  if,  upon 
going  there,  or  at  any  time  afterward,  he  makes 
a  bargain  by  force  of  which  he  must  stay  at  least 
so  long,  whether  it  be  a  week  or  a  month,  he  is 
no  longer  a  "  transient  person,"  and  loses  the 
peculiar  character  of  a  guest  at  an  inn. 

INNESS,  George,  an  American  landscape  paint 
er,  born  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y..  May  1,  1825.  His 
parents  removed  to  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  he 
early  learned  drawing  and  the  rudiments  of  oil 
painting.  lie  has  from  his  youth  been  subject 
to  epilepsy,  which  has  interfered  materially 
with  the  consecutive  pursuit  of  his  art.  When 
16  years  old  he  went  to  New  York  to  study 


engraving,  but  ill  health  obliged  him  to  return 
home,  where  he  continued  to  sketch  and  paint 
until  his  20th  year.  He  then  passed  a  month 
in  the  studio  of  Regis  Gignoux  in  New  York, 
which  is  all  the  regular  instruction  he  ever 
had.  lie  made  two  visits  to  Europe,  and  re 
sided  for  some  time  in  Italy.  For  a  number 
of  years  after  his  return  he  made  his  home 
near  Boston,  where  some  of  his  best  pictures 
were  painted.  In  1862  he  went  to  reside  at 
Eagleswood,  near  Perth  Am  boy,  N.  J.,  and  a 
few  years  later  removed  to  New  York.  Inness 
is  very  unequal  in  his  efforts,  but  lovers  of  na 
ture  find  much  to  admire  in  his  landscapes. 
He  inclines  to  the  French  school  in  style,  and 
has  been  compared  not  inaptly  with  Rousseau. 
A  follower  of  Swedenborg,  he  deals  largely  in 
allegory,  and  uses  the  forms  of  nature  to  illus 
trate  thought.  Among  his  best  pictures  are 
"  The  Sign  of  Promise,"  "Peace  and  Plenty," 
"Going  out  of  the  Woods,"' "A  Vision  of 
Faith,"  "The  Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death," 
"The  Apocalyptic  Vision  of  the  New  Jeru 
salem  and  River  of  Life,"  "  A  Passing  Storm," 
"Summer Afternoon,"  "Twilight, "and  "Light 
Triumphant."  In  1870  he  went  with  his  fam 
ily  to  Rome,  where  he  still  remains.  To  the  na 
tional  academy  exhibition  of  1874  he  sent  a  pic 
ture  entitled  "  Washing  Day,  near  Perugia." 

INNKEEPER.  Public  policy  imposes  upon  an 
innkeeper  a  heavy  responsibility.  (See  BAIL 
MENT.)  He  is  liable  as  an  insurer  of  the  prop 
erty  of  his  guests  within  his  charge,  against 
everything  but  the  ac^,  of  God  or  the  public 
enemy,  or  the  negligence  or  fraud  of  the  own 
er  of  the  property.  He  would  therefore  be 
liable  for  a  loss  caused  by  his  own  servants,  by 
other  guests,  by  robbery  within  or  from  with 
out  the  house,  burglary,  riots,  or  mobs ;  for  a 
mob  is  not  a  public  enemy  in  this  sense.  It  is 
however  a  good  defence  to  the  innkeeper,  that 
his  guest's  loss  was  caused  by  the  guest's  ser 
vant  or  company,  or  by  his  negligence  of  any 
kind  ;  or  that  the  property  was  never  in  charge 
of  the  innkeeper  because  the  guest  had  retained 
it  in  his  own  possession  and  under  his  own 
control.  This  last  defence,  however,  is  not 
made  out  by  merely  showing  that  the  guest  re 
ceived  and  accepted  a  key  of  the  room  or  of  a 
closet,  or  that  he  exercised  some  preference 
and  gave  some  directions  as  to  where  the  prop 
erty  should  be  placed.  But  still*  an  innkeeper 
may  protect  himself  by  requiring  reasonable 
precautions  from  the  guest.  Thus,  if  he  ap 
point  a  certain  place  of  deposit  for  certain 
goods,  as  a  safe  for  money  or  jewelry,  with 
notice  to  his  guests  that  he  will  not  be  respon 
sible  for  their  property  of  this  kind  if  not  put 
there,  and  a  guest  disregard  this,  the  innkeeper 
is  exonerated.  But  no  especial  delivery  of  the 
goods  to  the  innkeeper  is  necessary  to  charge 
him,  if  they  are  in  his  custody  in  the  usual 
manner.  It  is  also  held  that  he  cannot  refuse 
to  receive  a  guest  without  good  cause,  as  that 
his  house  is  full,  or  that  the  guest  is  disorderly, 
or  has  infectious  disease,  or  disreputable  habits 


IXXOCEXT 


287 


or  appearance.  On  the  other  hand,  a  guest 
has  no  right  to  select  and  insist  upon  a  partic 
ular  apartment,  or  put  it  to  other  purposes  than 
those  for  which  it  was  designed. — An  innkeep 
er  is  of  course  Ifcible  like  any  other  person  for 
any  loss  or  injury  caused  by  his  own  default  or 
negligence ;  and  so  a  boarding-house  keeper 
is  liable  to  this  extent.  But  an  innkeeper  is 
liable  for  the  loss  of  or  injury  to  property  of 
k  a  guest,  without  the  innkeeper's  own  default  of 
any  kind.  So,  if  he  receive  the  horse  and  car 
riage  of  a  guest,  and  put  them  under  an  open 
shed,  away  from  his  premises,  or  leave  them 
in  the  open  road,  because  he  is  crowded,  and 
is  accustomed  to  put  them  there  when  crowded, 
he  is  still  liable  for  them  as  insurer.  On  the 
other  hand,  and  perhaps  as  some  compensation 
for  these  stringent  liabilities,  an  innkeeper  has 
a  lien  on  the  goods  of  his  guest,  for  his  charges 
against  the  guest ;  and  he  even  has  this  lien 
on  a  horse  or  carriage,  or  other  property  stolen 
and  brought  to  him  by  the  thief.  He  has  no 
lien  on  the  person  of  the  guest ;  and  certainly 
none  on  the  clothing  actually  at  the  time  on 
his  person.  But  the  innkeeper's  lien  probably 
reaches  all  other  property  of  the  guest,  and 
extends  so  far  as  to  cover  the  whole  amount 
due  by  the  guest,  for  himself,  his  servants,  or 
his  animals.  But  where  a  person  visits  an  inn 
by  special  invitation  as  a  friend,  or  by  general 
invitation  as  one  of  many,  or  as  one  of  the 
public,  on  a  certain  day,  without  paying  or 
being  expected  to  pay  anything,  it  has  been 
held  that  the  innkeeper  is  liable  to  the  visitor 
only  for  losses  or  injuries  caused  by  the  inn 
keeper's  own  default  or  neglect. 

INNOCENT,  the  name  of  13  popes,  of  whom 
the  following  are  the  most  important.  I.  Saint, 
born  in  Albano,  died  March  12,  or,  according 
to  Baronius,  July  28,  417.  He  succeeded  Anas- 
tasius  I.,  April  27,  402.  On  his  accession  he 
interceded  without  avail  in  behalf  of  the  ex 
iled  John  Chrysostom,  and  excommunicated 
Theophilus  of  Alexandria  and  other  persecu 
tors  of  the  saint.  The  Donatists  having  been 
condemned  by  the  council  of  Carthage  (405), 
he  persuaded  the  emperor  Ilonorius  to  enact 
severe  laws  against  them.  On  the  invasion  of 
Italy  by  Alaric  at  the  head  of  the  Visigoths, 
he  tried  to  save  Rome  from  these  barbarians, 
and  went  to  Ravenna  to  solicit  the  interference 
of  the  emperor ;  but  during  his  absence  the  ! 
city  was  taken  in  August,  410,  and  plundered,  j 
After  the  departure  of  the  Goths,  Innocent  re-  j 
turned  to  Rome  and  exerted  himself  to  relieve  | 
the  ruined  metropolis.  His  zeal  and  charity  | 
endeared  him  to  the  Romans,  heathen  as  well  I 
as  Christian.  He  condemned  the  doctrines  of 
Pelagius,  who  was  supported  by  some  Chris 
tians  in  the  East,  and  evinced  great  severity 
against  the  Novatians,  who  were  numerous 
in  Italy.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  July  28. 
Thirty  letters  attributed  to  him  have  been 
printed  in  Labbe's  Concilia,  vol.  ii. ;  and  Gen- 
nadio,  in  his  De  Scriptoribvs  Ecclcsrasticis,  has 
given  also  as  his  a  Deeretum  Occidentalium  et 
VOL.  ix. — 19 


Oriental  him  Ecclcsiis  adversus  Pelagianos  da 
tum,  which  was  published  by  his  successor, 
Zosimus  I.  II.  Gregorio  de'  Papi,  or  Paparesclii, 

born  in  Rome  about  1090,  died  there  in  Septem 
ber,  1143.  He  was  first  a  monk  and  afterward 
abbot  of  the  convent  of  St.  Nicholas,  was  made 
|  cardinal  by  Urban  II.,  and  appointed  in  1124 
I  legate  to  France  by  Calixtus  II.  His  virtues, 
eloquence,  and  sweetness  of  temper  secured 
him  the  affections  of  his  colleagues;  and  on 
the  death  of  Ilonorius  II.,  before  the  event 
could  be  generally  known,  he  was  somewhat 
hastily  proclaimed  pope  by  17  cardinals;  but 
some  of  them  who  were  dissatisfied  met  in  the 
evening  of  the  same  day  and  gave  their  vote 
in  behalf  of  Pietro  di  Leone,  who  assumed  the 
appellation  of  Anacletus  II.  Pietro  was  pos 
sessed  of  immense  wealth,  which  he  lavished 
to  make  himself  popular  among  the  Romans. 
He  was  soon  acknowledged  all  over  Italy,  while 
Innocent  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  France. 
I  In  an  assembly  of  bishops  at  Liege,  March  29, 
;  1131,  at  which  Lothaire  II.  of  Germany  was 
present,  he  declined  the  offer  made  by  the  latter 
to  restore  his  authority  in  Rome,  on  condition 
of  the  pope's  granting  himself  and  his  successors 
the  right  of  investiture.  Returning  to  France, 
Innocent  secured  the  cooperation  of  St.  Ber 
nard,  who  accompanied  him  to  Italy.  There  he 
was  joined  by  Lothaire  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
whose  services  were  rewarded  by  the  temporary 
cession  to  that  monarch  of  the  provinces  for 
merly  belonging  to  the  countess  Matilda.  Af 
ter  holding  a  council  at  Piacenza,  Innocent  re- 
entered  Rome  with  Lothaire  May  1,  1133,  and 
crowned  him  emperor  in  the  church  of  St. 
John  Lateran.  Anacletus,  however,  still  held 
possession  of  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  and  sev 
eral  fortresses ;  he  was  also  supported  by  Ro 
ger,  king  of  Sicily ;  and  Innocent  was  again  driv 
en  from  Rome,  to  which  he  did  not  return 
until  the  death  of  his  opponent  in  1138.  He 
had  now  to  negotiate  for  the  abdication  of 
Victor  IV.,  another  antipope  who  had  succeed 
ed  Anacletus,  and  to  secure  the  submission  of 
the  rebellious  cardinals.  He  was  then  enabled 
to  hold  the  second  general  council  of  Lateran, 
which  was  opened  April  8,  1139,  and  attended 
by  more  than  1,000  bishops.  But  he  was  at 
tacked  by  King  Roger,  and  being  taken  pris 
oner  could  regain  his  liberty  only  by  con 
firming  this  prince  in  the  possession  of  Sicily 
and  the  title  of  king,  which  had  been  be 
stowed  upon  him  in  1130  by  Anacletus.  Yield 
ing  to  the  entreaties  of  St.  Bernard,  he  con 
demned  in  1140  the  opinions  of  Abelard;  but 
soon  becoming  embroiled  in  a  quarrel  with 
Louis  VII.  of  France,  he  put  his  kingdom 
under  an  interdict.  This  difficulty  was  not 
yet  settled  when  the  Romans,  discontented 
with  some  of  the  pope's  measures,  and  excited 
by  the  preaching  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  rose  in 
arms  against  Innocent,  and  reestablished  the 
senate  and  the  tribunes  of  ancient  Rome.  The 
pope  died  soon  after.  Forty-three  letters  of 
Innocent  II.  are  printed  in  Labbe's  Concilia, 


288 


INNOCENT 


vol.  x.  III.  Giovanni  Lotario  Conti,  born  at  Ana- 
gni  about  1161,  died  in  Perugia,  July  16,  1216. 
Being  from  his  childhood  destined  for  the 
church,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study  theology, 
and  then  to  the  university  of  Bologna,  where 
he  mastered  the  science  of  law.  lie  returned 
to  Rome  in  1181,  and  in  1190  was  made  car 
dinal  deacon  by  his  uncle,  Pope  Clement  III. 
Being  coldly  treated  by  Celestine  III.,  Clem 
ent's  successor,  he  retired  to  Anagni,  where 
he  composed  his  treatise  De  Contemptu  Mundi, 
sive  de  Miser  Us  Humana  Conditionis.  On 
the  day  that  Celestine  died,  Jan.  8,  1198,  al 
though  but  37  years  old,  he  was  unanimously 
chosen  his  successor  by  the  college  of  cardinals. 
He  reluctantly  accepted  the  tiara;  but  as  soon 
as  he  was  lirmly  seated  on  his  throne,  he  show 
ed  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  Gregory  VII. 
Aiming  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  papal 
power,  he  soon  made  his  influence  felt  in  near 
ly  every  part  of  Christendom.  His  first  care 
was  to  restore  order  in  the  administration  of 
the  city  of  Rome,  by  forcing  into  submission 
such  civil  officers  as  had  hitherto  sworn  alle 
giance  to  the  emperor;  he  then  extended  his 
authority  over  the  cities  of  central  Italy  which 
had  been  usurped  by  vassals  of  the  empire, 
and,  while  vindicating  his  political  rights,  ap 
peared  as  the  champion  of  justice,  humanity, 
and  morality.  Philip  Augustus  of  France  hav 
ing  repudiated  his  wife  Ingeburga  of  Denmark 
to  marry  Agnes  of  Meran,  Innocent  excom 
municated  him  in  1199,  and  put  his  kingdom 
under  an  interdict.  After  resisting  for  eight 
months,  the  king  yielded  to  the  pontifical  au 
thority,  dismissed  his  new  queen,  and  took 
back  the  Danish  princess.  Innocent  had  pre 
viously  been  instrumental  in  bringing  about  a 
five  years'  truce  between  Philip  Augustus  and 
Richard  I.  of  England.  About  the  same  time 
he  was  appointed  guardian  of  young  Frederick 
of  Hohenstaufen,  the  son  of  the  late  emperor 
Henry  VI.,  and  of  Constanza,  queen  of  Naples 
and  Sicily ;  but  he  refused  Frederick  the  inves 
titure  of  his  kingdom  of  Sicily  until  he  had  set 
at  liberty  Queen  Sibyl,  her  daughter,  and  her 
son  William,  who  had  been  imprisoned  by 
Henry  ATL  He  was  soon  called  to  interfere 
in  the  political  affairs  of  Germany.  Philip 
of  Swabia  and  Otho  of  Brunswick  were  now 
contending  for  the  imperial  crown.  Innocent, 
after  trying  in  vain  to  bring  about  a  pacifica 
tion  between  the  rivals,  took  the  part  of  the 
latter,  who  nevertheless  was  unable  to  stand 
his  ground,  and  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
England.  Meanwhile  the  pope  had  increased 
his  power  in  Italy,  and  concluded  with  the 
cities  of  Lombardy  an  alliance  against  Philip  of 
Swabia,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  reappear 
as  a  mediator;  he  proposed  a  compromise, 
leaving  Philip  in  undisputed  right  to  the  impe 
rial  crown,  and  declaring  Otho  his  successor. 
This  agreement  had  scarcely  been  entered  into 
when  the  emperor  was  murdered  by  one  of  his 
followers.  Otho  was  immediately  acknowl 
edged  by  most  of  the  German  princes,  and  in 


1209  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  received 
the  imperial  crown  at  the  hands  of  the  pope. 
But  the  new  emperor  soon  showed  signs  of  de 
termined  hostility  to  the  power  of  the  pope, 
seized  upon  several  cities  of  Central  Italy,  and 
claimed  Naples  and  Sicily  as  fiefs  of  the  em 
pire.  Innocent  at  once  excommunicated  him, 
called  for  the  assistance  of  France,  and  sum- 
oned  the  electors  to  choose  another  emperor. 
They  deposed  Otho  in  1212,  and  elected  Fred- 
erick,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  Innocent 
acted  also  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  events 
which  marked  the  latter  part  of  King  John's 
reign  in  England.  The  election  of  Stephen 
Langton  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury, 
supported  by  the  pope  and  opposed  by  the  king, 
was  the  cause  of  a  protracted  dispute,  in  the 
course  of  which  John,  resorting  to  violent  and 
even  cruel  measures,  saw  his  kingdom  placed 
under  an  interdict,  and  himself  excommunica 
ted,  and  finally  deposed  by  the  pope,  Philip  Au 
gustus  being  directed  to  put  the  sentence  into 
execution.  John,  frightened  into  submission, 
complied  with  the  humiliating  terms  which 
were  dictated  to  him  by  the  pope's  legate,  and 
put  his  dominions  under  the  protection  of 
the  Roman  see  (1213).  Innocent  immediately 
commanded  the  king  of  France  to  desist  from 
the  attack  upon  England,  which  belonged  to 
the  church;  thenceforth  taking  up  the  cause 
of  his  vassal,  he  supported  him  in  his  contest 
against  his  revolted  subjects  and  the  attacks  of 
Louis  of  France,  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus, 
but  could  not  prevent  his  being  driven  out  of 
England.  His  zeal  in  maintaining  the  sanctity 
of  marriage  was  also  displayed  in  the  case  of 
Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Leon  and  Castile,  who 
had  taken  to  wife  his  own  niece,  a  daughter  of 
Sancho  I.  of  Portugal.  As  both  princes  resist 
ed  the  repeated  remonstrances  of  the  pope,  he 
laid  their  kingdoms  under  an  interdict  and 
themselves  under  the  ban  of  excommunication, 
until  the  scandal  ceased.  Afterward  he  united 
these  sovereigns  and  the  kings  of  Aragon  and 
Navarre  in  a  crusade  against  the  Moors,  which 
resulted  in  the  victory  of  Navas  de  Tolosa,  Ju 
ly  16,  1212.  Pedro  II.  of  Aragon  was  crown 
ed  in  Rome  by  Innocent,  to  whom  he  did  hom 
age  for  his  dominions;  and  the  title  of  king 
was  conferred  on  Leo  of  Armenia,  Prcmislas 
of  Bohemia,  and  Joannicus  prince  of  the  Bul 
garians.  In  Norway  Sverrer  the  Great  had 
baffled  all  the  efforts  made  by  the  legates  of 
Celestine  III.  to  check  his  tyranny.  Innocent, 
being  appealed  to  by  the  king  and  his  nobles, 
after  hearing  both  parties,  excommunicated 
Sverrer,  and  released  his  subjects  from  their 
allegiance.  One  of  his  first  undertakings  after 
his  election  had  been  to  preach  and  organize  the 
fourth  crusade.  Its  failure  arose  from  the  vio 
lation  of  the  oath  imposed  by  him  on  its  chiefs 
not  to  make  war  on  any  Christian  power.  He 
displayed  the  most  uncompromising  severity 
against  heresy,  the  extirpation  of  which  was 
with  him  a  matter  at  once  of  duty  and  policy ; 
this  led  him  to  sanction  the  crusade  against 


IXXOCEXT 


IXXS   OF   COURT 


289 


the  Albigenses,  which  was  carried  on  by  his 
legates  and  Simon  de  Montf ort  with  such  rigor 
and  cruelty  as  finally  to  draw  his  censure  upon 
them.  After  being  for  18  years  the  ruling 
spirit  of  his  age,  he  was  carried  oft'  by  a  vio 
lent  fever  which  terminated  in  paralysis.  In 
nocent's  works  (Cologne,  1552  and  15T5;  Yen- 
ice,  1578)  consist  of  theological  discourses, 
homilies,  a  commentary  on  the  seven  peniten 
tial  psalms,  and  a  number  of  letters.  His  let 
ters,  which  are  the  most  important  in  a  histor 
ical  point  of  view,  were  printed  by  Baluze  in 
2  vols.  fol.  (Paris,  1682),  to  which  Breguigny 
and  Du  Theil  in  1791  added  2  vols.  containing 
new  letters  collected  from  the  Vatican  ar 
chives.  Innocent  is  the  author  of  a  celebrated 
hymn,  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus.  The  Stdbat  Ma 
ter,  which  is  also  attributed  to  him,  is  claimed 
as  the  work  of  a  Franciscan.  The  German  his 
torian  F.  Hurter  has  published  a  remarkable 
history  of  this  pope  :  Geschickte  Papst  Inno- 
cenz  III.  und  seiner  Zeitgenossen  (4  vols.  8vo, 
Hamburg  and  Gotha,  1834-'42).  See  also  his 
life  by  A.  £.  de  Gasparin  (Paris,  1878).  IV. 
Iimoeent  X!.,  Benedetto  Odesealelii,  born  in  Como. 
May  16,  1611,  died  in  Rome,  Aug.  12,  1689. 
Historians  have  confounded  him  with  a  name 
sake  and  relative,  who  was  a  soldier  in  his 
youth,  but  embraced  the  ecclesiastical  profes 
sion.  Benedetto  was  descended  from  a  wealthy 
family,  began  his  studies  in  the  Jesuit  college 
of  Como,  and  graduated  in  theology  and  canon 
law  at  Rome,  where  he  received  holy  orders. 
He  was  made  cardinal  by  Innocent  X.  His 
virtues  and  talents  secured  him  general  esteem  ; 
and  on  his  accession  to  the  papal  throne,  he  ap 
plied  himself  to  revive  the  ancient  discipline  of 
the  church.  He  attempted  to  curtail  the  right 
of  asylum,  which,  being  possessed  by  foreign 
ambassadors,  had  extended  to  the  entire  dis 
tricts  where  their  residence  was  situated.  His 
good  intentions  were  partly  baffled  by  the  op 
position  of  Marshal  d'Estrees,  the  French  am 
bassador  ;  but  he  was  prudent  enough  to  avoid 
at  the  time  an  open  rupture  with  Louis  XIV. 
The  domineering  spirit  of  the  king  soon  gave 
rise  to  a  quarrel.  In  1673  a  decree  of  Louis 
ordered  the  regale,  that  is,  the  royal  privilege 
of  receiving  the  revenues  and  granting  at  pleas 
ure  the  benefices  of  vacant  bishoprics,  to  be  ex 
tended  over  the  provinces  of  France  in  which 
it  had  not  yet  been  in  existence ;  this  was  op 
posed  by  the  bishops  of  Alet  and  Pamiers, 
whom  the  pope  earnestly  supported.  The  king 
then  summoned  a  general  assembly  of  the  bish 
ops  of  his  kingdom,  who  not  only  supported 
his  policy  concerning  the  regale,  but  issued 
the  celebrated  propositions  of  March,  1682, 
declaring  the  power  of  the  pope  inferior  to 
that  of  a  general  council,  and  maintaining  the 
special  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Gallican  ! 
church.  In  answer  to  this  Innocent  held  a  sol 
emn  consistory,  severely  censured  the  bishops 
who  had  taken  part  in  the  proceedings,  which 
a  bull  declared  null  and  void,  ordered  the  four 
propositions  to  be  burned,  and  refused  to  grant 


canonical  confirmation  to  such  bishops  as  had 
been  newly  appointed  by  the  king.  This  con 
test  was  embittered  by  the  renewal  of  the  quar 
rel  about  the  right  of  asylum.  By  a  brief  of 
May  12,  1687,  Innocent  formally  abolished  that 
right,  and  excommunicated  all  who  should 
maintain  it.  Louis  XIV.  at  once  gave  orders 
to  his  new  ambassador,  the  marquis  de  Lavar- 
din,  to  uphold  the  disputed  privilege,  even  by 
force ;  and  the  marquis  accordingly  made  a 
solemn  and  threatening  entrance  into  Rome  at 
the  head  of  about  800  armed  men.  The  pope, 
considering  him  excommunicated  de  facto,  de 
clined  to  receive  him,  and  ordered  worship  to 
be  discontinued  wherever  he  should  present 
himself.  The  king,  exasperated  at  the  pope's 
firmness,  caused  his  parliament  and  a  number 
of  French  bishops  to  appeal  to  a  general  coun 
cil  against  Innocent's  measures,  had  his  nuncio 
arrested  at  Paris,  and  seized  upon  Avignon. 
The  pope  continued  inflexible  to  the  last.  It 
was  during  his  pontificate  that  Michael  Moli- 
nos,  a  Spanish  priest,  advanced  in  his  "Spirit 
ual  Guide"  the  mystical  doctrine  known  as 
quietism.  The  book  was  condemned  by  the  in 
quisition,  Sept.  3,  1687  ;  the  author  abjured  his 
doctrine  publicly;  and  the  proceedings  were 
approved  by  the  pope.  In  1688  he  received  an 
embassy  from  the  king  of  Siam,  who  had  been 
converted  by  Jesuit  missionaries.  Some  histo 
rians  have  affirmed  that  the  Jesuits  accused 
Innocent  XI.  of  Jansenism;  this  the  Jesuits 
deny,  and  there  exists  no  evidence  of  the  accu 
sation.  His  repeated  entreaties  induced  John 
Sobieski  to  relieve  Vienna  in  September,  1683, 
when  besieged  by  the  Turks;  the  pope  and  the 
cardinals  contributing  a  subsidy  of  400,000 
crowns  for  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

IMS  OF  COl'RT,  colleges  in  London,  in  which 
students  of  law  reside  and  pursue  their  studies. 
In  England  at  a  very  early  date  the  science  of 
law  was  taught  in  the  metropolis  in  certain 
buildings  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  courts 
of  law  which  were  called  inns  of  court,  inn 
anciently  signifying  a  mansion  or  place.  The 
establishment  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  at 
Westminster  led  to  the  gathering  in  its  neighbor 
hood  of  the  whole  body  of  u  common "  law 
yers,  and  to  the  establishment  in  the  metropo 
lis  of  hostels  or  hospitia  curia;,  which  were 
so  called  because  they  were  attached  to  or  de 
pendent  upon  the  court.  These  hostels  were 
occupied  by  the  lawyers  as  offices  and  some 
times  as  dwellings,  and  contained  also  schools 
where  the  law  was  studied.  But  in  1346  the 
knights  hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
to  whom  the  pope  had  granted  the  English 
estates  of  the  suppressed  order  of  knights 
templars,  leased  the  buildings  and  gardens  of 
the  templars  in  London  to  certain  students  of 
the  common  law,  who  established  in  them  a 
hostel  or  inn  of  court.  The  place  continued 
to  be  called  the  Temple,  from  its  former  occu 
pants.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  num 
ber  of  inns  increased  to  four,  which  still  exist, 
viz. :  the  Inner  Temple,  the  Middle  Temple, 


290 


IXXS   OF  COURT 


Lincoln's  Inn,  and  Gray's  Inn,  each  of  which 
contained  200  members.  Stow,  in  his  "Sur 
vey  of  London"  (1598),  says  of  the  lawyers 
who  occupied  these  inns :  "  These  societies  are 
no  corporations,  nor  have  any  judicial  power 
over  their  members,  but  have  certain  orders 
among  themselves  which  by  consent  have  the 
force  of  laws.  For  slight  offences  they  are 
only  excommoned,  that  is,  put  out  of  com 
mons,  which  is,  not  to  eat  with  the  rest  in 
their  halls;  and  for  greater,  they  lose  their 
chambers,  and  are  expelled  the  house;  and 
being  once  expelled,  they  are  not  to  be  admitted 
by  any  of  the  other  three  societies.  The  gen 
tlemen  in  these  societies  may  be  divided  into 
four  ranks:  1,  benchers;  2,  utter  benchers ;  3, 
inner  barristers;  4,  students."  In  course  of 
time  two  bodies  were  formed,  called  the  "  Hon 
orable  Society  of  the  Inner  Temple  "  and  the 
"Honorable  Society  of  the  Middle  Temple," 
who  held  their  buildings  as  tenants  of  the 
knights  hospitallers  until  the  suppression  of 
monastic  bodies  by  Henry  YIIL,  after  which 
they  held  them  of  the  crown  by  lease.  In 
1608  the  buildings  of  the  two  temples  were 
granted  by  letters  patent  of  James  I.  to  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  the  recorder  of 
London,  and  the  benchers  and  treasurers  of  the 
Inner  and  Middle  Temples,  for  "lodging,  re 
ception,  and  education  of  the  professors  and 
students  of  the  laws ;"  and  it  is  by  virtue  of 
these  grants  that  they  are  still  held  by  an  in 
corporated  society  of  the  "  students  and  prac- 
tisers  of  the  laws  of  England."  The  Temple 
garden,  which  lies  between  Whitefriars  and 
Essex  street,  has  been  celebrated  by  Charles 
Lamb  and  Leigh  Hunt, 
and  was  much  frequent 
ed  as  a  pleasure  walk 
during  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries.  In  the  hall 
of  the  Inner  Temple,  a 
noble  room  ornament 
ed  with  emblematical 
paintings  by  Sir  James 
Thornhill,  and  by  por 
traits  of  Littleton  and 
Coke,  dinner  is  prepared 
for  the  members  of  the 
inn  every  day  during 
term  time.  Students  of 
law  must  keep  12  terms, 
that  is,  five  years,  at  the 
inns  of  court  before 
they  are  entitled  to  be 
called  to  the  bar,  and 
those  of  the  Inner 
Temple  are  required  to 
dine  in  this  hall  at 
least  four  times  in  each 

term.  On  certain  "grand  days"  the  judges, 
the  masters  in  chancery,  and  many  of  the  lead 
ing  lawyers  of  England  dine  here,  together 
with  a  large  assemblage  of  the  students.  For 
merly  the  Inner  Temple  was  celebrated  for  the 
magnificence  of  its  entertainments  and  revels, 


especially  in  the  IGth  and  17th  centuries.  The 
hall  of  the  Middle  Temple,  the  largest  and 
finest  of  the  old  inns  of  court,  was  built  in 
1562-'72.  It  is  ornamented  by  elaborate  carv 
ings,  by  portraits  and  busts,  and  by  the  coats 
of  arms  of  Somers,  Hardwicke,  Cowper,  Thur- 


Middle  Temple  Hall. 

low,  Dunning,  Eldon,  Blackstone,  Stowell, 
Tenterden,  Curran,  and  many  other  eminent 
lawyers,  formerly  members  of  the  society,  em 
blazoned  on  its  windows.  Lincoln's  Inn,  the 
next  in  importance  to  the  Inner  and  Middle 
Temples,  is  on  the  W.  side  of  Chancery  lane, 


Inner  Temple  Hall  and  Library. 

and  derives  its  name  from  being  on  the  site 
of  the  palace  of  an  earl  of  Lincoln  who  died 
there  in  1310,  and  by  whom  the  land  was 
assigned  to  certain  professors  of  the  law  for 
the  establishment  of  an  inn  of  court.  The  liall 
and  library,  designed  by  Ilardwick,  and  finished 


INNS  OF  COURT 


INNSPRUCK 


291 


in  1845,  form  one  of  the  noblest  piles  of  build 
ing  in  London.  The  chambers  of  this  inn  are 
chiefly  occupied  by  chancery  barristers,  con 
veyancers,  and  persons  in  attendance  on  the 
court  of  chancery,  which  court  is  held  in  its 
hall.  Attached  to  the  inn  are  extensive  gar 
dens,  celebrated  in  the  "  Tatler,"  No.  100. 
Gray's  Inn,  the  fourth  inn  of  court  in  impor 
tance  and  size,  is  named  from  the  lords  Gray 
of  Wilton,  whose  residence  it  originally  was. 
It  is  in  Gray's  Inn  lane,  and  has  a  garden  which 
appears  to  have  been  planted  with  elm  trees  in 
1000  under  the  direction  of  Francis  Bacon,  at 
that  time  treasurer  of  the  society.  The  hall  is 
a  very  handsome  room,  built  in  15(30.  Its 
windows  are  emblazoned  with  the  armorial 
bearings  of  Lord  Bacon,  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon, 
Lord  Burleigh,  and  other  eminent  members. — 
Each  of  the  inns  of  court  forms  an  indepen 
dent  society,  but  they  all  agree  in  the  obser 
vance  of  certain  common  regulations.  No  per 
son  can  keep  a  term  in  any  of  them  without 
being  in  the  hall  on  three  days  when  the 
grace  is  said  after  dinner.  None  of  the  so 
cieties  can  call  a  gentleman  to  the  bar  before 
he  has  been  five  years  a  member  of  the  socie 
ty,  unless  he  is  a  master  of  arts  or  a  bachelor 
of  laws  of  the  university  of  Oxford,  Cam 
bridge,  or  Dublin.  No 
person  in  trade  or  in 
deacon's  orders,  and  no 
one  who  has  held  the 
situation  of  a  convey 
ancer's  clerk,  can  be 
admitted  at  all;  and 
solicitors  and  attor 
neys  must  have  their 
names  struck  off  the 
rolls  for  two  years,  and 
the  articles  of  clerks 
must  be  expired  or  can 
celled  two  years,  be 
fore  they  can  be  admit 
ted.  An  applicant  re 
jected  by  one  society 
will  not  be  admitted 
by  any  other.  On  his 
admission  the  student 
pays  various  fees 
amounting  to  £30  or 
£40,  and  enters  into  a 
bond  of  £100  for  the 
payment  of  his  com 
mons  or  dinners  while 
a  student.  On  the  ex 
piration  of  his  terms 
he  addresses  a  petition 
to  the  benchers  at  a 
special  council  ;  and 
if  they  approve,  he 
waits  upon  them  after 
dinner,  the  oaths  are 

administered,  and  he  is  called  to  the  bar.  The 
dues  for  admission  vary  in  the  different  inns 
from  £66  in  Gray's  Inn  to  £93  in  Lincoln's 
Inn.  There  arc  different  decrees  amonir  the 


members  of  the  inns.  The  sergeants  are  the 
highest  degree  at  common  law,  as  the  doctors 
are  in  civil  law.  Queen's  counsel  is  another 
rank,  admission  to  which  is  technically  called 
giving  a  silk  gown,  the  costume  of  the  bearers 
of  this  honor.  The  benchers  of  the  inns  are 
elected  from  the  barristers  at  the  bar  accord 
ing  to  seniority.  They  govern  the  society,  and 
may  reject  an  application  for  admission  with 
out  assigning  a  reason. — The  four  great  inns 
of  court  have  attached  to  them  inns  of  chancery, 
of  which  the  Inner  Temple  has  two,  Clem 
ent's  and  Clifford's  (formerly  also  Lyon's,  now 
the  Globe  theatre) ;  the  Middle  Temple  one, 
New  Inn ;  Lincoln's  Inn  one,  Thavies's ;  and 
Gray's  Inn  two,  Barnard's  and  Staples's.  Two 
others,  Furnival's  and  the  Strand,  no  longer 
exist.  These  inns  are  principally  inhabited 
by  attorneys. 

IMSPRUCK  (Ger.  Innsbruck^  a  city  of  Aus 
tria,  capital  of  Tyrol,  on  both  sides  of  the  Inn, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Sill,  245  m.  W.  S. 
W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1869,  16,810.  The 
name,  meaning  Inn  bridge,  is  the  equivalent  of 
that  given  to  the  locality  by  the  Romans,  (Eni- 
pontum ;  there  are  now  several  bridges.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  steep  mountains  6.000 
to  9,000  ft  high,  and 'is  well  built,  especially 


Iimsprack. 

on  the  right  bank  of  the  Inn.  The  finest  street 
is  the  Neustatterstrasse,  in  which  are  the  build 
ings  where  the  Tyrolese  estates  hold  their  sit 
tings,  the  post  office,  and  a  triumphal  arch 


292 


IXNSPRUCK 


INOWBACLAW 


erected  by  Maria  Theresa.  The  Franciscan 
church  (Hofkirehe)  contains  one  of  the  most 
splendid  monuments  of  Europe,  that  of  Maxi 
milian  I.  (who  ordered  its  construction,  with  a 
sepulchre  for  his  own  remains,  but- is  buried 
in  Neustadt,  near  Vienna).  On  each  side  of 
the  aisle  stands  a  ro\v  of  tall  figures,  28  in  num 
ber,  representing  principally  the  most  distin 
guished  members  of  the  house  of  Austria.  The 
sarcophagus  is  ornamented  with  24  representa 
tions  of  the  principal  political  and  domestic 
events  in  the  life  of  Maximilian,  sculptured  in 
alto  rilievo  by  Alexander  Colin  of  Mechlin.  In 
the  same  church  is  the  Silver  Lady  chapel,  so 
called  after  a  silver  statue  of  the  Virgin,  con 
taining  the  mausoleums  of  the  archduke  Ferdi 
nand  and  of  his  wife  Philippine,  which  are 
also  attributed  to  the  genius  of  Colin,  whose 
own  tomb,  said  to  be  the  work  of  his  own 
hands,  is  in  the  cemetery  of  Innspruck.  The 
tomb  of  Andreas  llofer  is  in  this  chapel.  In 
this  church  Christina  of  Sweden  made  her  pub 
lic  renunciation  of  Lutheranism.  There  are 
altogether  11  churches,  among  which  are  the 
Capuchin  church  with  the  penitential  cell  of 
Maximilian  II.,  and  the  St.  James  church,  notice 
able  for  its  rich  decorations.  Among  the  other 
public  buildings  are  the  palace  built  for  Maria 
Theresa,  with  an  equestrian  statue  of  Archduke 
Leopold  V.  in  the  courtyard,  and  a  large  edi 
fice  in  the  city  square  (Stadtplatz),  once  the 
residence  of  the  counts  of  Tyrol,  now  a  private 
dwelling,  with  a  famous  oriel  window,  covered 
with  a  golden  roof  (das  goldcne  DacJil),  built 
in  the  loth  century,  at  a  cost  of  30,000  ducats. 
The  chief  educational  establishment  is  the  Ro 
man  Catholic  university,  which  was  founded  in 
1672  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  In  1873  it  had 
46  professors  and  663  students,  fully  one  third 
of  whom  are  under  the  theological  faculty,  the 
professors  of  which  are  Jesuits.  In  conse 
quence  of  the  remonstrance  of  the  liberal  party 
in  Austria  and  of  a  majority  of  the  professors 
of  the  university  against  the  privileged  posi 
tion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  minister  of  public  in 
struction  in  July,  1872,  deprived  the  theologi 
cal  faculty  of  the  right  of  electing  a  member  of 
the  academic  senate,  and,  alternately  with  the 
other  faculties,  the  rector  of  the  university.  In 
1873  the  right  was  restored  to  the  Jesuits,  pro 
vided  the  professors  should  individually  qualify 
for  their  office  like  the  professors  of  the  other 
faculties.  The  library  of  the  university  has 
about  50,000  volumes.  There  are  also  a  gym 
nasium,  a  commercial  school,  and  a  national 
museum  founded  in  1823,  with  rich  collections 
of  antiquities  and  works  of  art.  The  principal 
manufactures  of  the  town  are  silks,  ribbons, 
gloves,  calico,  and  glass. — In  1234  Innspruck 
was  clothed  with  the  privileges  of  a  town  by 
Otho  I.,  duke  of  Meran.  It  subsequently  be 
came  the  residence  of  the  Austrian  archdukes, 
and  its  most  prosperous  period  was  in  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century,  when  Ferdi 
nand  II.  held  his  brilliant  court  there.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Bavarians  in  1703,  but  was  soon 


[  recovered  by  the  Austrians.     In  1809  it  suf- 
1  fered  much  during  the  war  in  Tyrol.     After 
I  the  second  revolutionary  outbreak  in  Vienna 
in  1848,  the  emperor  Ferdinand  fled  to  Inn 
spruck,  and  resided  there  for  several  months. 

L\0,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  daughter  of  Cad 
mus  and  Harmon ia.  By  command  of  Juno, 
Athamas,  king  of  Orchomenus,  had  married 
Nephele,  by  whom  he  was  father  of  Phrixus 
and  Helle ;  but  he  was  also  secretly  wedded  to 
Ino,  by  whom  he  had  Learchus  and  Melicertes. 
Hating  the  children  of  her  rival,  Ino  persuaded 
her  husband  that  the  gods  were  angry  with 
him,  and  could  only  be  appeased  by  the  sacri 
fice  of  Phrixus  and  Helle.  Xephele  rescued 
the  children,  and  Mercury  punished  Ino  by 
giving  her  the  young  Bacchus  to  nurse,  which 
brought  down  on  her  and  her  husband  the  an 
ger  of  Juno.  Athamas  was  driven  mad,  and 
in  this  state  killed  his  son  Learchus ;  while 
Ino,  flying  for  safety  with  Melicertes  in  her 
arms,  leaped  into  the  sea.  Neptune  changed 
her  into  a  sea  goddess,  giving  her  the  name  of 
Leucothea,  while  Melicertes  became  Pala?mon. 
There  are  wide  variations  in  the  traditions 
concerning  Ino.  ./Eschylus,  Sophocles,  Eu 
ripides,  and  AchaBus  have  used  her  story  in 
their  tragedies. 

INOCULATION,  the  transmission  of  a  disease 
from  one  individual  to  another  by  means  of  a 
morbific  matter  taken  from  the  body  of  the 
first  and  introduced  into  the  system  of  the  sec 
ond.  The  morbific  matter  may  be  introduced 
directly  into  the  tissues  by  means  of  an  incision 
or  puncture  in  the  skin,  or  it  may  be  applied  in 
a  fluid  form  to  an  abraded  surface,  from  which 
it  is  absorbed  by  the  skin  itself.  There  are 
only  certain  diseases  which  are  communicable 
in  this  way,  the  simple  inflammations  and  their 
products  not  having  the  power  to  breed  a  sim 
ilar  malady  in  a  healthy  person.  But  there  are 
particular  specific  diseases,  such  as  smallpox, 
cowpox,  primary  syphilitic  and  gonorrhoeal  in 
flammations,  and  the  like,  the  exudations  of 
which  are  charged  with  a  peculiar  organic  virus 
which  when  introduced  into  the  system  of 
another  individual  gives  rise  to  a  disorder  like 
that  by  which  it  was  originally  produced.  Vac 
cination  is  simply  the  inoculation  of  vaccina  or 
cowpox;  and  the  term  inoculation  is  some 
times  restricted  in  common  parlance  to  the 
intentional  communication,  by  this  means,  of 
smallpox  in  its  original  form.  The  inocula 
tion  of  smallpox  was  early  found  to  mitigate 
the  severity  of  the  disease;  but  vaccination 
was  aftenvard  substituted  for  it  (see  JEXXER), 
because  vaccina,  though  milder  still,  was  dis 
covered  to  be  an  effectual  protection  against 
smallpox  itself. 

L\OWRA(LAW,  or  Jnng-Breslan,  a  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Posen,  24  m.  S.  E. 
of  Bromberg;  pop.  in  1872,  7,420,  including 
over  3,000  Jews.  It  contains  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  a  Protestant  church,  a  synagogue,  and 
large  saltpetre  works.  An  extensive  deposit  of 
mineral  salt  was  discovered  there  in  1871. 


INQUISITION 


293 


INQUISITION,  or  Holy  Office,  a  tribunal  estab-  ] 
lished  in  various  Roman  Catholic  countries  to  j 
search  out  arid  to  try  persons  accused  of  her 
esy,  as  well  as  certain  other  offences  against 
morality  or  the  canons  of  the  church.  The  first 
formal  sanction  of  the  inquisition  by  a  papal 
bull  was  in  the  13th  century;  but  long  before 
that  heresy  had  been  declared  a  crime,  and  in 
quisitors,  or  inquirers  after  heretics,  had  been 
appointed  by  Christian  princes.  Constantino 
the  Great,  the  first  emperor  who  made  Chris 
tianity  a  state  religion,  made  heresy  a  state  of 
fence,  and  repeatedly  banished  those  who  re 
fused  submission  to  his  decisions  in  doctrinal 
controversies.  Athanasius,  the  defender  of  or 
thodoxy,  and  Arius  shared  in  turn  the  same 
fate.  Under  him  and  his  sons  commissions 
were  also  issued  against  the  Donatists,  who 
were  visited  with  the  most  rigorous  punish 
ment.  The  terms  "inquisition"  and  "inquisi 
tors  "  appear  for  the  first  time  in  history  in  con 
nection  with  the  searching  out  and  punishment 
of  heretics  under  Theodosius  I.,  who  in  382 
published  an  edict  against  the  Manichrcans  and 
other  sects.  A  law  of  Ilonorius  in  398  threat 
ened  the  professors  of  certain  heresies,  in  par 
ticular  the  priests  of  the  Montanists  and  Euno- 
mians,  with  banishment  and  death  if  they  per 
sisted  in  bringing  people  together.  The  decrees 
for  the  extermination  of  heathenism  were  even 
more  severe.  Heathen  sacrifices  were  forbidden 
by  Constantius  II.  in  353,  under  pain  of  death. 
Theodosius  I.  in  392  proclaimed  every  form  of 
idolatry  a  crime,  and  every  attempt  to  learn 
the  secrets  of  the  future  by  animal  sacrifices 
high  treason.  Theodosius  II.  remitted  capital 
punishment  in  423,  but  again  enforced  the  law 
against  heathen  sacrifices  in  426.  Most  of  the 
earlier  fathers  were  opposed  to  the  punishment 
of  heretics  by  the  secular  arm,  and  particularly 
to  the  infliction  of  death.  Chrysostom  and 
Augustine  approved  of  their  being  confined  or 
exiled,  but  only  Jerome  and  Leo  the  Great 
were  in  favor  of  the  death  penalty.  The  first 
instance  in  which  the  blood  of  a  heretic  was 
shed  by  the  solemn  forms  of  law  occurred  in 
385,  when  Priscillian,  the  leader  of  a  Gnostic 
sect  in  Spain,  was. put  to  death  by  the  sword, 
at  the  instigation  of  Bishop  Idacius.  The 
church  was  struck  with  horror  at  the  act ;  Ida 
cius  was  excommunicated  and  died  in  exile. 
Justinian,  in  his  code,  provided  certain  penal 
ties  for  dissenters  from  the  orthodox  creed  as 
expounded  by  the  "  four  holy  synods  "  of  Nice, 
Constantinople,  Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon ;  and 
from  this  code  the  future  legislation  against 
heretics  was  derived.  For  several  centuries  all 
casos  of  heresy  came  before  the  ordinary  courts ;  j 
but  in  the  course  of  time  the  examination  of  j 
the  charge  of  heresy  devolved  upon  bishops,  I 
who  handed  over  those  who  remained  obdu 
rate  to  the  secular  courts  for  punishment. 
Sometimes,  however,  ecclesiastical  councils 
specified  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  cer 
tain  classes  of  heretics.  The  organization  and 
development  of  the*  synodal  courts  in  the  8th 


and  9th  centuries  systematized  also  the  pro 
ceedings  against  heretics;  but  no  special  ma 
chinery  for  the  purpose  was  devised  until  the 
spread  in  the  llth  and  12th  centuries  of  the 
Euchites,  Bogomiles,  Paulicians,  Waldenses, 
and  the  various  sects  comprised  under  the  com 
mon  name  of  Albigenses.  This  excited  the 
alarm  of  the  civil  as  well  as  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  heresy  being  regarded  at  the  time 
as  a  crime  against  the  state  no  less  than  against 
the  church.  At  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  Innocent  III.  sent  several  Cistercian 
monks  as  his  legates  to  the  south  of  France,  in 
order  to  force  the  great  feudatories  of  Pro 
vence  and  Narbonne  into  a  war  against  the  Al 
bigenses,  and  to  assist  the  bishops  in  searching 
out  the  heretics  and  in  giving  them  over  to 
punishment.  The  fourth  council  of  Lateran 
in  1215  enjoined  upon  the  synodal  courts  the 
searching  out  of  heresy  and  its  suppression  as 
a  duty,  and  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  hav 
ing  established  the  legal  foundation  of  inquisi 
torial  courts.  The  bishops  Avere  called  upon 
either  to  visit  personally  or  to  send  delegates  into 
every  parish  suspected  of  heresy,  and  to  cause 
several,  or  if  necessary  all,  of  the  inhabitants  to 
swear  that  they  would  inform  against  heretics  as 
well  as  those  attending  secret  meetings ;  all  who 
refused  to  take  this  oath  should  be  suspected  of 
heresy  themselves.  These  arrangements  were 
confirmed  and  enlarged  by  the  synod  of  Toulouse 
(1229),  which  issued  on  this  point  45  proposi 
tions,  among  which  were  the  following:  "Any 
prince,  lord,  bishop,  or  judge,  who  shall  spare 
a  heretic,  shall  forfeit  his  lands,  property,  or 
office ;  and  every  house  in  which  a  heretic  is 
found  shall  be  destroyed.  Heretics  or  persons 
suspected  of  heresy  shall  not  be  allowed  the 
assistance  of  a  physician,  or  of  any  of  their  as 
sociates  in  crime,  even  though  they  may  be 
suffering  under  a  mortal  disease.  Sincere  pen 
itents  shall  be  removed  from  the  neighborhood 
in  which  they  reside,  if  it  is  suspected  of  here 
sy  ;  they  shall  wear  a  peculiar  dress,  and  for 
feit  all  public  privileges  until  they  receive  a 
papal  dispensation.  Penitents  who  have  re 
canted  through  fear  shall  be  placed  in  confine 
ment."  The  synod  also  enjoined  upon  the 
bishops  to  bind  in  every  parish  a  priest  and 
two,  three,  or  more  laymen  by  oath  to  search 
out  heretics.  But  as  many  bishops  were  ac 
cused  of  being  either  remiss  or  partial,  Gregory 
IX.  transferred  the  inquisition  to  the  Domini 
cans,  first  in  1232  in  Austria  and  Aragon,  and 
next  in  1233  in  Lombardy  and  southern  France. 
The  persons  thus  empowered  and  sent  by  the 
pope  to  different  countries  were  denominated 
collectively  "inquisitorial  missions."  To  aid 
the  inquisitors  in  the  exercise  of  their  office,  a 
guild  was  founded  after  1229,  called  the  mili 
tia  Jem  Christ i  contra  hareticos.  The  church, 
however,  contented  itself  with  the  examination 
of  the  heretics,  and  called  on  the  secular  arm  to 
carry  the  sentences  into  execution.  Louis  IX. 
of  France  from  attachment  to  the  church,  and 
Pvavmond  VII.  of  Toulouse  and  Frederick  II. 


294: 


INQUISITION 


of  Germany  in  order  to  escape  the  suspicion  of 
heresy,  complied  with  this  request,  and  made 
the  execution  of  the  sentences  passed  by  the 
inquisitors  obligatory.  The  procedure  of  the 
inquisitors  differed  in  many  particulars  from 
that  of  the  civil  courts.  In  accordance  with 
a  decree  of  the  councils  of  Beziers  and  Nar- 
bonne,  confirmed  by  Innocent  IV.  in  1254,  the 
informers  were  never  named  to  the  accused ; 
suspicion  of  heresy  was  considered  a  sufficient 
cause  of  arrest;  accomplices  and  criminals 
were  admitted  as  witnesses.  If  the  accused 
denied  the  charges,  he  might  be  put  to  the  tor 
ture  to  obtain  his  confession.  The  regulations 
of  the  earlier  inquisitions  are  found  in  the  Di 
rector  ium  Inquisitorum  of  Nicholas  Eymeric, 
who  for  42  years  held  the  office  of  chief  inquis 
itor  in  Aragon,  and  died  in  1890.  It  was  first 
published  at  Barcelona  in  1503 ;  again  at  Rome, 
with  a  commentary  by  Pegna,  in  1578;  and 
has  often  been  reprinted.  The  power  of  the  in 
quisition  was  greatly  increased  by  the  income 
which  it  derived  from  the  property  of  the  con 
demned.  Innocent  IV.  in  1252  assigned  to  it 
one  third  of  such  property,  and  ordered  one 
third  to  be  reserved  for  future  uses ;  in  the 
15th  century  it  was  common  for  the  inquisitors 
to  claim  the  entire  property.  Until  1248  the 
inquisitorial  courts  were  only  transitory  tribu 
nals  ;  but  from  that  date  they  became  perma 
nent,  and  the  institution  was  successively  intro 
duced  in  this  form  into  Italy,  Spain,  Germany, 
and  the  southern  provinces  of  France.  The 
people  in  the  south  of  France  rose  repeatedly 
in  rebellion,  and  took  bloody  vengeance  on 
some  of  the  inquisitors,  as  at  Toulouse  in 
1245.  The  parliaments  declared  themselves 
against  its  proceedings  as  irregular  and  unpre 
cedented,  and  several  kings,  as  Philip  IV.  and 
Louis  XL,  limited  its  jurisdiction.  Its  influ 
ence  was  also  weakened  by  the  schism  of 
the  14th  and  the  reformatory  councils  of  the 
15th  century.  After  the  reformation  of  the 
Kith  century,  Henry  II.,  urged  by  Pope  Paul 
IV.,  made  an  attempt  to  reestablish  it,  and  even 
extorted  the  consent  of  the  parliament  to  an 
edict  of  this  kind ;  but  it  never  regained 
strength,  was  wholly  abolished  by  Henry  IV., 
and  has  not  been  reintroduced. — In  Spain  the 
inquisition  was  introduced  soon  after  its  es 
tablishment  in  France.  The  Aragonese  branch 
can  be  traced  by  authentic  records  as  far  back 
as  the  year  1232,  and  in  the  course  of  that  cen 
tury  courts  were  established  in  the  dioceses  of 
Tarragona,  Barcelona,  Urgel,  Lerida,  and  Ge- 
rona.  At  first  it  passed  no  sentence  more  se 
vere  than  confiscation  of  property,  and  even 
this  was  restored  if  the  accused  abjured  his 
opinions  within  a  term  called  the  "  period  of 
grace."  Toward  the  close  of  the  loth  century 
a  new  impulse  was  given  to  it  by  Cardinal  Pe 
dro  Gonzalez  de  Mendoza,  archbishop  of  Se 
ville,  and  in  time  it  assumed  gigantic  dimen 
sions,  becoming  more  absolute  and  independent 
than  in  any  other  state  of  Europe.  The  prob 
ability  of  a  union  between  the  Jews  and  Moors 


against  the  Christians  at  that  time  excited  in 
Spain  considerable  alarm.     The  Jews  formed  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population,  and  held 
enormous  wealth.    Severe  restrictive  measures 
were  passed  against  them  by  the  civil  authori 
ties  from  time  to  time,  and  finally  about  1477 
certain  of  the  clergy  proposed  to  Ferdinand  to 
establish  the  inquisition  in  Castile,  with  the 
primary  object  of   searching   out   those  who 
having  been  converted  to  Christianity  had  re 
lapsed  into  Judaism,  or  who  feigned  conver 
sion  while  secretly  attached  to  the  faith  of  their 
fathers.     The  king  readily  assented,  and,  the 
consent  of   Isabella  having  been   reluctantly 
given,  a  papal  bull  was  procured  in  1478  au 
thorizing  the  establishment  of  the  tribunal. 
From  this  date  forward  Catholic  writers  regard 
the  Spanish  inquisition  as  a  state  tribunal,  a 
character  which  is  recognized  by  Ranke,  Guizot, 
Leo,  and  even  Llorente.     In  September,  1480, 
a  royal  edict  appointed  two  Dominicans  the 
first  inquisitors,  and  the  first  court  was  estab 
lished  at  Seville.     They  issued  their  first  edict 
on  Jan.  2,  1481,  by  which  they  ordered  the 
arrest  of  several  "  new  Christians,"  as  converts 
were  popularly  called,  who  were  suspected  of 
heresy,  and  on  Jan.  6  the  first  auto  da  fe  was 
held,  when  six  persons  were  burned  alive.    Ex 
ecutions  soon  became   frequent.     Several  of 
those  who  had  been  condemned  as  contuma 
cious  appealed  to  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  who  in  Jan 
uary,  1482,  complained  of  the  conduct  of  the 
two   inquisitors,   and   recommended    mildness 
and  moderation.     Soon  after  he  appointed  the 
archbishop  of  Seville  apostolic  judge  of  appeal 
for  all  Spain,  with  power  to  decide  on  all  ap- 
(  peals  from  the  judgments  of  the  inquisition. 
j  In  1483  Torquemada  became  grand  inquisitor 
general  of  all  Spain,  and  at  the  same  time  Fer 
dinand  appointed  a  royal  council  of  the  su- 
j  preme  inquisition  (con*ejo  de  la  sitprcma  in- 
j  quisicion),  of  which  the  grand  inquisitor  was 
I  president  of  right  and  for  life,  with  a  bishop 
|  and  two  doctors  at  law  as  counsellors.    Torque- 
I  mada  in  concert  with  the  king  framed  the  or- 
I  ganic  laws  of  the  new  tribunal,  styled  instruc 
tions,  which  consisted  of  28  articles,  and  were 
promulgated   at    Seville   in    1484.      Additions 
were  made  to  them  in  1488  and  1408;  and  at 
last  a  new  compilation  of  regulations,  consist 
ing  of  81  articles,  was  made  by  the  inquisitor 
general  Valdez  in  1561,  which  remained  ever 
afterward  the  guide  of  Spanish  inquisitors.    All 
!  the  penitents  of  the  inquisition  wore  a  peculiar 
I  habit,  called  samlenito  (a  corruption  of  saco 
I  lendito,   "the  blessed  vest"  of  penitence),  of 
I  which  there  were  three  different  kinds  for  the 
I  three  classes  of  condemned,  and  an  equal  num- 
j  ber  for  those  who  were  doomed  to  suffer  death. 
:  The   auto  da  fe  (act  of   faith)  was,  properly 
speaking,  the  public  and  solemn  reading  of  the 
records  of  the  court  of  inquisition,  and  of  the 
sentence  by  it  passed  on  persons  found  guilty ; 
but  it  is  popularly  understood  of.  the  public 
ceremonies  accompanying  their  execution.    The 
accused  themselves,  if  living,  were  always  pres- 


INQUISITION 


295 


ent  on  the  occasion ;  if  dead,  their  remains  or 
effigies  were  substituted  for  them.  The  civil 
authorities  and  corporate  bodies  were  also 
bound  to  be  in  attendance,  as  well  as  the  crim 
inal  judge  and  his  officers,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  have  the  sentence  carried  out.  When  the 
execution  was  performed  with  unwonted  so 
lemnity,  it  was  called  auto  puldico  general. 
There  was  also  an  auto  particular,  or  private 
act,  at  which  the  inquisitors  and  criminal  judge 
only  were  present;  the  autillo,  held  in  the 
palace  of  the  inquisition,  which  was  attended 
only  by  the  ministers  of  the  court  and  the  per 
sons  invited  by  them ;  and  the  auto  singular, 
which  took  place  in  the  church  or  in  the  pu"blic 
square,  and  against  a  single  person.  The  pun 
ishment  was  inflicted  for  what  the  ecclesiasti 
cal  judges  pronounced  heresy,  or  a  relapse  into 
the  same,  or  apostasy  from  the  Christian  faith. 
The  auto  publico  general  occurred  rarely,  and 
was  held  on  the  Sundays  between  Pentecost 
and  Advent.  The  prisoners  were  conducted 
in  procession  to  the  public  square,  where  roy 
alty  itself  and  all  the  highest  personages  in 
church  and  state  attended,  as  at  a  drama  which 
aimed  at  recalling  the  terrors  of  the  judgment 
day.  Those  condemned  to  death  were  dressed 
in  a  sack  of  sheepskin  called  zamarra,  and  a 
conical  cap  called  coroza,  both  hideously  paint 
ed.  Of  the  others,  the  more  guilty  wore  a 
sambenito  or  sack  of  yellow  stuff  with  a  cross 
in  red.  Prisoners  of  the  least  guilty  class  wore 
a  coarse  black  coat  and  pantaloons,  and  walked 
with  bare  head  and  feet.  After  the  solemn 
publication  of  the  sentences,  the  penitents 
were  borne  back  to  their  cells  in  the  prisons  of 
the  inquisition ;  and  those  condemned  to  the 
fire  were  offered  a  last  option  between  death 
and  recantation  of  the  heresies  with  which 
they  were  charged.  It  they  recanted,  they  also 
were  conducted  to  prison.  If  they  remained 
obdurate,  they  were  handed  over  to  the  secular 
judge,  and  led  to  the  quemadero  or  place  of 
burning,  which  was  generally  outside  of  the 
city. — By  its  compact  organization  the  inquisi 
tion  soon  became  very  powerful.  The  inquis 
itor  general  was  appointed  by  the  king  and  ap 
proved  by  the  pope  ;  but  he  was  in  reality  in 
dependent  of  both.  lie  named  the  subaltern 
officers,  and  had  an  absolute  control  over  all 
the  lower  courts.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
(1492)  and  the  Moors  (loOO)  from  Spain,  which 
many  trie  1  to  evade  by  conversion  to  Chris 
tianity,  and  later  the  spreading  of  Protestant 
ism,  furnished  the  inquisition,  with  abundant 
occupation.  According  to  the  estimate  of  Llo- 
rente,  whose  accuracy  has  been  called  in  ques 
tion  by  Catholic  writers,  the  number  of  those 
burned  alive  under  Torquemada  (1483-'98) 
amounted  to  8,800,  those  under  Deza  (1499- 
1506)  to  1,664,  and  those  under  Cardinal  Xi- 
menes  (1507-17)  to  2,53(3.  The  general  result 
of  his  statements  for  the  time  from  1483  to 
1808  is  as  follows:  burned  alive,  31,912; 
burned  in  effigy,  17, Go 9  ;  subjected  to  rigorous 
pains  and  penances,  291,456.  From  the  be 


ginning  of  the  17th  century,  when  it  had  com 
pletely  exterminated  Protestantism  in  Spain, 
the  inquisition  became  more  lenient,  and  di 
rected  its  efforts  mostly  to  the  suppression  of 
heretical  books.  In  the  18th  century  the  avtos 
da  fe  became  very  rare.  Charles  III.  and  his 
minister,  Count  Aranda,  greatly  restricted  its 
jurisdiction,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  entirely 
abolished  it  in  December,  180s.  It  was  re 
stored  by  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1814,  but  again 
abolished  by  the  constitution  of  the  cortes  in 
1820.  After  the  second  restoration  an  inquisi 
torial  junta  reappeared  in  1825,  and  in  1826  a 
tribunal  was  reestablished  at  Valencia.  In  1834 
it  was  again  abolished,  and  in  1H35  its  property 
was  confiscated  for  the  payment  of  the  public 
debt.  The  most  complete  work  on  the  inquisi 
tion  in  Spain  is  Llorente's  "  Critical  History  of 
the  Spanish  Inquisition,"  translated  into  French 
by  A.  Pellier  (4  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1817).  An 
abridged  English  translation  was  published  in 
London  in  1826,  and  reprinted  in  Philadelphia. 
The  author  declares  that  he  was  secretary  of 
the  inquisition  of  Madrid  during  the  years  1789- 
'91  ;  that  from  1809  to  1811  all  the  archives  of 
the  inquisition  were  placed  at  his  disposal ;  and 
that  he  burned,  with  the  approbation  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  all  the  criminal  processes  except 
those  which  from  their  importance  and  the 
rank  of  the  accused  belonged  to  history.  The 
accuracy  of  some  of  his  statements  is  greatly 
doubted  by  many.  Ranke  does  not  hesitate  to 
impeach  his  honesty ;  Prcscott  even  pronounces 
his  "computations  greatly  exaggerated,"  and 
his  "  estimates  most  improbable."  The  best 
work  on  the  Spanish  inquisition  written  from 
a  Catholic  standpoint  islv.  J.  Ilefcle's  Der  Car 
dinal  Ximenes,  &c.  (Tubingen,  1844). — An  at 
tempt  to  establish  the  Spanish  inquisition  in 
Naples  was  made  by  the  Spanish  viceroy  in 
1546 ;  but  the  Neapolitans  prevented  it  by 
energetic  resistance.  The  towns  of  Lombardy 
successfully  remonstrated  against  a  similar  at 
tempt  of  Philip  II.,  but  it  was  introduced  into 
Sicily  and  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America. 
In  the  latter  the  tribunals  of  Mexico,  Carta 
gena,  and  Lima  rivalled  in  severity  those  of 
Spain.  Charles  V.  sent  it  to  the  Netherlands, 
where  it  greatly  increased  the  discontent  of 
the  people  with  the  Spanish  dominion  ;  and 
the  attempt  of  Philip  II.  to  reestablish  it  was 
among  the  principal  causes  which  led  to  the 
revolt  of  the  seven  northern  provinces  and  the 
rise  of  the  Dutch  republic.  The  inquisition 
was  not  introduced  into  Portugal  till  1557.  Its 
organization  was  nearly  the  same  as  in  Spain. 
The  supreme  court  of  inquisition,  to  which  all 
other  courts  of  the  kingdom  were  subordinate, 
had  its  seat  at  Lisbon  ;  the  grand  inquisitor 
was  appointed  by  the  king  and  confirmed  by 
the  pope.  John  IV.,  after  delivering  Portugal 
from  the  Spanish  rule  (1640),  intended  to  sup 
press  the  inquisition,  but  succeeded  only  in 
mitigating  it.  Its  power  was  broken  by  King 
Joseph  (died  1777)  and  his  minister  Pornbal. 
John  VI.  (died  1826)  abolished  it  both  in  Por- 


296 


INQUISITION 


INSANITY 


tugal  and  in  its  dependencies,  Brazil  and  Goa. 
— In  Italy  the  inquisition  never  became  as  pow 
erful  as  in  France  and  Spain.  It  was  intro 
duced  in  12:33  against  the  Waldenses,  and  the 
chronicles  of  many  Lombard  towns  mention 
the  burning  of  heretics ;  but  their  number  seems 
to  have  been  less  considerable  than  in  France 
and  Spain.  A  celebrated  inquisitor,  Pietro  di 
Verona,  who  exercised  his  office  with  great 
severity  during  19  years,  was  slain  in  1252. 
In  the  16th  century  courts  for  the  suppression 
of  Protestant  doctrines  were  established  in  Tus 
cany,  Venice,  Milan,  Parma,  and  other  states ; 
but  their  sentences  remained  subject  to  the 
sanction  of  the  temporal  sovereign.  A  supreme 
tribunal  of  the  inquisition  for  the  whole  church, 
called  the  "Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office," 
and  consisting  of  six  cardinals,  was  established 
by  Paul  III.  at  Rome  in  1543;  but  beyond  the 
limits  of  'the  Papal  States  the  authority  with 
which  the  pope  invested  it  was  never  conceded 
to  it  by  the  temporal  sovereigns.  Sixtus  V.  in 
1588  changed  the  name  of  the  congregation  to 
that  of  the  "  Holy  Roman  and  universal  Inqui 
sition,"  and  made  it  to  consist  of  12  cardinals, 
with  several  assessors,  consultors,  and  qualifiers 
(who  had  to  prepare  the  cases).  The  Roman 
inquisition  was  the  mildest  of  all  tribunals  of 
this  nature,  no  instance  having  occurred  of  the 
punishment  of  death  being  inflicted  through 
its  agency.  Napoleon  abolished  the  inquisition 
in  all  Italy  in  1808.  It  was  restored  in  the 
Papal  States  by  Pius  VII.  in  1814,  and  in  Tus 
cany  and  Sardinia  in  1833.  Since  the  occupa 
tion  of  Rome  by  the  Italian  government  in 
1870  the  inquisition  has  been  abolished  in  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  The  body  bearing  the  name 
of  "Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office"  is  com 
posed  of  12  cardinals,  presided  over  by  the  pope. 
They  pronounce  on  all  questions  relating  to 
faith  and  morals,  but  have  at  present  none 
but  spiritual  jurisdiction. — Outside  of  the  ter 
ritory  of  the  Romanic  nations  the  inquisition 
never  gained  a  firm  footing.  In  Germany  it 
was  established  as  early  as  1231 ;  but  the 
severity  of  the  first  inquisitor,  Conrad  of  Mar 
burg,  aroused  so  general  and  violent  an  indig 
nation,  that  he  himself  was  slain  in  1233,  and 
Germany  remained  for  a  long  time  without  in 
quisitorial  courts.  An  attempt  to  revive  it  was 
made  in  the  14th  century  in  consequence  of  the 
appearance  of  the  Beghards.  Charles  IV.  in 
13H9  supported  the  inquisitors  by  three  edicts. 
Pope  Gregory  XL  in  1372  appointed  for  Ger 
many  five  inquisitors,  and  Boniface  IX.  in  1399 
increased  their  number  for  northern  Germany 
alone  to  six.  In  1484  it  was  greatly  extended 
for  the  purpose  of  ridding  Germany  of  sor 
cerers  and  witches,  but  the  reformation  de 
stroyed  its  power  even  in  those  portions  of 
Germany  which  remained  Catholic.  Though 
attempts  were  made  to  restore  it  in  Austria 
and  Bavaria  (1599),  it  never  regained  any  con 
siderable  power,  and  since  its  abolition  by  Maria 
Theresa  no  trace  of  it  has  existed  in  Germany. 
In  England,  Hungary,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 


Denmark  it  was  never  permanently  estab 
lished;  and  in  Poland,  where  Pope  John  XXII. 
introduced  it  in  1327,  it  was  of  but  short  dura 
tion. — A  general  history  of  the  inquisition, 
critical  and  impartial,  is  still  wanting.  A  criti 
cal  survey  of  a  -number  of  works  treating  on 
the  subject  appeared  in  the  "British  Critic" 
in  1827,  and  was  reprinted  in  the  Philadelphia 
"Museum  of  Foreign  Literature  and  Science" 
in  the  same  year.  See  Limborch's  "  History 
of  the  Inquisition,"  translated  by  Chandler 
(London,  1731) ;  Joseph  de  Maistre,  Lettres 
sur  V inquisition  espagnole  (Paris,  1822);  and 
W.  H.  Rule,  "History  of  the  Inquisition"  (2 
vols.,  London,  1874). 

INSANITY  (Lat.  insanitas,  from  in,  privative, 
and  scmitas,  health  or  soundness),  unsound- 
ness  of  mind.  The  term  is  usually  applied  to 
acquired  unsoundness  in  contradistinction  to 
that  which  is  congenital,  but  treatises  on  the 
subject  include  the  latter  under  the  heads  im 
becility  and  idiocy.  The  legal  relations  of  in 
sanity  will  be  treated  under  the  synonymous 
but  mere  technical  legal  term  LUNACY.  Locke 
says  that  "madmen  do  not  appear  to  have  lost 
the  faculty  of  reasoning,  but  having  joined  to 
gether  some  ideas  very  wrongly,  they  mistake 
them  for  truths,  and  they  err  as  men  do  that 
argue  right  from  wrong  principles."  It  will 
be  seen  however,  from  an  examination  of  cases, 
that  not  only  are  madmen  the  subjects  of  de 
lusions  and  hallucinations,  but  that  their  rea 
soning  faculties  are  generally  more  or  less  de 
ranged,  and  sometimes  entirely  perverted.  The 
attempt  to  treat  mental  diseases  from  a  purely 
psychological  point  of  view  has  been  the  cause 
of  much  useless  labor,  and  has  resulted  in  many 
erroneous  conclusions. — Insanity  appears  to 
have  been  of  rarer  occurrence  in  ancient  than 
in  later  times,  and  it  is  also  seldom  met  with 
among  primitive  people  of  the  present  day. 
The  occupations  of  both  men  and  women  in 
antiquity  were  not  of  a  character  calculated  to 
excite  cerebral  disease,  even  if  the  predisposing 
causes  had  been  present.  It  is,  however,  a 
matter  of  doubt  whether  insanity  can  be  in 
duced  without  a  pathological  basis,  the  ten 
dency  being  to  the  opinion  that  it  cannot.  The 
earliest  references  to  mental  disease  in  anti 
quity  are  the  madness  of  Saul,  the  feigned 
madness  of  David,  and  that  of  Ulysses  imme 
diately  before  the  Trojan  war.  Although  sev 
eral  instances  of  real  or  feigned  madness  are 
mentioned  by  the  ancients,  their  writings  con 
tain  no  account  of  any  institutions  devoted  to 
the  care  of  the  insane,  nor  any  laws  for  their 
protection.  The  opinions  expressed  by  Plato 
in  the  "Timseus"  and  "  Phredrns,"  in  regard 
to  the  prophetic  power  of  madness,  which  he 
looked  upon  as  a  sacred  disease  and  full  of 
blessings,  are  well  known.  Ancient  Greek  au 
thors,  especially  Euripides,  abound  with  allu 
sions  to  the  supposed  power  of  Bacchus  to  pro 
duce  madness.  Lycurgus,  king  of  the  Edones 
in  Thrace,  refused  divine  worship  to  Bacchus, 
|  for  which  the  god  visited  him  with  madness. 


INSANITY 


297 


In  this  condition,  and  under  the  delusion  that 
he  was  cutting  down  a  vine,'  he  killed,  accord 
ing  to  Apollodorns,  his  own  son.  The  three 
daughters  of  Prsetus  became  insane  for  neg-  j 
lecting  the  work  of  Bacchus,  and  ran  ahout 
the  fields  believing  themselves  to  be  cows.  It 
is  worthy  of  remark  that  in  the  Mosaic  law 
there  is  no  provision  for  insane  persons. 
In  the  6th  century  B.  C.  history  records  a  re 
markable  example  of  insanity  produced  by 
epilepsy  in  the  person  of  Cambyses,  king  of 
Persia  and  conqueror  of  Egypt.  It  is  said 
that  from  his  birth  he  was  subject  to  fits  of 
epilepsy,  called  the  "  sacred  disease."  The  ear 
liest  medical  writings  which  treat  of  insanity 
are  those  of  Hippocrates.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  this  earliest  of  observers  should  have, 
like  those  who  are  the  most  advanced  in  knowl 
edge  at  the  present  day,  regarded  insanity  as 
having  a  pathological  basis,  and  that  through 
all  the  intervening  centuries  the  same  sound 
opinion  should  have  scarcely  ever  been  thought 
of.  He  says:  "And  by  the  same  organ  (the 
brain)  we  become  mad  and  delirious,  and  fears 
and  terrors  assail  us,  and  dreams  and  un 
timely  wanderings,  and  ignorance  of  present 
circumstances.  All  these  things  we  endure 
from  the  brain  when  it  is  not  healthy."  One 
of  the  most  noted  ancient  writers  on  insanity 
was  Asclepiades.  He  believed  in  stimulation, 
and  applied  it  in  the  treatment  of  insanity. 
He  therefore  recommended  wine  and  recrea 
tion,  and  that  the  patient  should  be  placed  in 
the  light,  and  discouraged  bleeding  and  the  use 
of  narcotic  fomentations.  Celsus  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  upon  the  treatment  of  the 
insane  from  his  time  even  to  the  present  cen 
tury.  He  wrote  the  first  independent  treatise 
on  the  subject,  entitled  De  Tribita  Insanice  I 
Generibm,  in  which  he  gives  a  compend  of 
all  that  had  up  to  his  time  been  found  to  be 
the  most  correct  views.  He  has  received  | 
much  praise  from  many  authors,  but  his  treat-  ! 
ment  was  harsh  and  such  as  would  not  be  tol-  | 
crated  at  the  present  day.  Aretreus  of  Cappa- 
docia,  according  to  the  notions  of  his  age,  attrib 
uted  melancholia  to  black  bile,  but  says  that 
sometimes  it  arises  from  mental  causes  alone. 
He  describes  the  passing  of  the  disease  into  im 
becility  and  bodily  decline,  and  shows  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  different  forms  of  mania. 
He  also  carefully  distinguishes  between  the  de 
lirium  of  fever  and  of  intoxication  or  of  poi 
son  and  that  of  insanity.  Ccelius  Aurelianus, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  the 
time  of  Galen,  advised  in  mania  the  shaving 
of  the  head  and  the  application  of  cups,  first 
over  the  chest,  then  between  the  shoulders, 
and  next  to  the  head.  As  reason  returned,  he 
recommended  moderate  exercise,  riding,  walk 
ing,  and  reading  aloud.  Theatrical  entertain 
ments  were  prescribed  for  melancholies,  the 
scenes  being  of  a  lively  or  sad  character,  accord 
ing  to  the  state  of  mind  of  the  patient.  Ac 
quaintances  were  to  be  employed  to  converse 
with  the  patients  and  amuse  them,  and  during 


the  progress  of  recovery  they  were  allowed  to 
go  and  hear  the  disputations  of  the  philoso 
phers.  The  celebrated  Galen,  who  flourished 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  2d  century,  based  his 
treatment  on  the  humoral  pathology  which  was 
in  such  high  repute  among  the  ancients.  He 
recommends  that  should  you  be  of  opinion  that 
the  whole  of  the  patient's  body  contains  mel 
ancholy  blood,  you  should  bleed,  especially  from 
the  median  cephalic  vein.  Should  the  blood 
not  appear  of  a  melancholy  quality,  the  vein  is 
to  be  immediately  closed.  Thick  and  black 
wine  is  to  be  avoided,  "  as  from  it  the  mel 
ancholy  humor  is  made."  After  Aurelianus  and 
Galen  no  medical  writer  of  any  eminence  ap 
pears  until  the  dawn  which  followed  the  middle 
ages.  The  practice  of  mental  medicine  during 
this  period  was  based  upon  mystical  theories, 
and  cannot  be  said  to  have  had  a  system.  "  That 
man  is  sick  in  mind,"  says  Paracelsus,  uin 
whom  the  mortal  and  the  immortal,  the  sane 
and  the  insane  spirit,  do  not  appear  in  due  pro 
portion  and  strength."  "Mania  is  a  change 
in  the  reason,  but  not  in  the  senses."  And  he 
gives  for  causes  over  exercise  of  the  reason, 
the  elements,  influences,  constellations,  con 
junctions,  microcosm,  macrocosm,  &c.  As  to 
remedies  he  says:  "  What  avails  in  mania  ex 
cept  opening  a  vein?  Then  the  patient  will 
recover.  This  is  the  arcanum;  not  camphor, 
not  sage  and  marjoram,  not  clysters,  not  this, 
not  that,  but  phlebotomy."  The  first  insti 
tution  for  the  insane  was  established  in  the 
East,  It  is  said  that  one  existed  at  Jeru 
salem  in  the  year  491.  In  the  12th  century 
the  traveller  Benjamin  of  Tudela  says  there 
was  a  large  edifice  at  Bagdad,  called  "  house 
of  grace,"  in  which  the  insane  were  received 
in  summer  and  kept  confined  in  chains  until 
they  recovered  or  died.  It  was  visited  by  the 
magistrates  every  month,  and  those  who  had 
recovered  were  discharged.  In  the  same  cen 
tury  hospitals  for  the  insane  were  founded  in 
the  Byzantine  empire,  and  asylums  for  them 
are  said  to  have  been  common  among  the 
Moors. — The  amelioration  of  the  condition  of 
the  insane  is  not  difficult  to  trace,  as  it  had 
its  commencement  in  modern  times.  Bucknill 
and  Tuke  remark :  "  It  must  be  a  matter  of 
surprise  that  the  principles  of  treatment  so 
well  laid  down  by  one  or  two  of  the  ancient 
medical  writers  should  have  been  so  entire 
ly  forgotten  or  disregarded.  It  is  indeed  to 
be  presumed  that  the  directions  of  Celsus 
have  exercised  a  most  prejudicial  influence, 
even  till  within  a  very  recent  period ;  and  it 
is  not  difficult  to  recognize  them  in  the  wri 
tings  of  the  classical  Cullen,  who  did  not  omit 
to  recommend  the  employment  of  'stripes' 
in  the  treatment  of  the  maniacal."  The  pur 
suit  of  mental  philosophy  by  the  metaphysi 
cians  of  the  18th  century  was  not  accom 
panied  or  immediately  followed  by  any  cor 
responding  advance  in  the  study  or  treatment 
of  mental  diseases.  This  was  brought  about 
by  the  investigations  of  physicians  and  the  ef- 


298 


INSANITY 


forts  of  philanthropists.  Systematic  writers 
on  the  subject  of  insanity  have  usually  dated 
the  commencement  of  reform  from  the  labors 
of  Pinel,  and  to  that  great  man  too  much  cred 
it  cannot  be  well  given.  "The  year  1792," 
say  Bucknill  and  Tuke,  "will  ever  be  memora 
ble  in  the  history  of  the  treatment  of  the  in 
sane.  In  that  year  the  celebrated  Pinel  liber 
ated  53  of  the  patients  confined  in  the  Bicetre 
from  the  chains  by  Avliich  it  was  thought  ne 
cessary  to  restrain  their  fury."  Pinel's  labors 
were  attended  by  great  results,  but  he  was  not 
the  pioneer  in  modern  reformatory  treatment 
of  the  insane.  The  subject  had  received  the 
attention  of  Benjamin  Franklin  and  others  in 
this  country  as  early  as  1750.  At  the  organi 
zation  of  the  Pennsylvania  hospital  at  Phila 
delphia  a  department  for  the  care  of  the  in 
sane  was  established,  in  which  the  system  af 
terward  advocated  by  Pinel  was  successfully 
practised.  An  act  was  passed  founding  "a 
hospital  for  the  reception  and  relief  of  luna 
tics,  and  other  distempered  and  sick  poor." 
(See  annual  address  before  the  medical  soci 
ety  of  the  state  of  New  York,  1868,  by  Dr. 
John  P.  Gray.)  The  reform  in  the  treat 
ment  of  the  insane  in  England,  particularly  in 
regard  to  restraint  and  punishments  and  mode 
of  confinement,  forms  an  interesting  chapter 
in  the  history  of  institutions  for  the  insane. 
Bethlem  hospital,  or  Bedlam,  as  it  was  com 
monly  called,  which  on  various  occasions  be 
came  notorious  for  the  ill  treatment  of  the  in 
sane,  was  founded  and  first  provided  for  them 
with  benevolent  intentions.  In  1547  Henry 
VIII.  took  possession  of  the  monastery  or  hos 
pital  of  St.  Mary  of  Bethlem,  and  presented  it 
to  the  city  of  London,  with  an  order  that  it 
should  be  converted  into  a  house  for  the  recep 
tion  of  lunatics.  This  building,  however,  could 
accommodate  only  50  or  60  patients,  and  there 
fore  in  1675  a  larger  one  was  erected  in  Moor- 
fields,  capable  of  receiving  150  patients,  and 
which  remained  as  a  hospital  till  1814.  In 
1734  additions  were  made  to  Bethlem,  and 
it  still  proving  too  small,  St.  Luke's  hospital 
was  established  in  1751  by  voluntary  subscrip 
tion.  The  York  asylum  was  founded  also  by 
general  subscription  in  1777.  The  manage 
ment  of  the  asylums  had  previously  begun 
to  retrograde,  but  not  many  complaints  were 
made  until  the  year  1791,  when  some  mem 
bers  of  the  society  of  Friends  sent  one  of 
their  family  to  the  York  asylum.  The  rules 
forbade  any  of  her  friends  to  see  her;  suspi 
cion  of  something  wrong  was  aroused,  and  a 
new  establishment  called  "the  Retreat"  was 
founded  by  the  society,  chiefly  through  the 
influence  of  William  Tuke,  in  the  spring  of 
1792,  the  year  in  which  Pinel  caused  the  luna 
tics  in  the  Bicetre  to  be  liberated  from  their 
chains.  At  the  retreat  no  chains,  leg  locks,  or 
handcuffs  were  employed  from  the  opening  of 
the  establishment.  A  patient  who  had  been 
chained  naked  for  20  years  was  admitted ;  no 
restraint  except  the  occasional  use  of  arm  straps 


was  employed,  and  he  was  soon  induced  to 
wear  clothes  and  adopt  orderly  habits;  and 
there  were  many  other  cases  of  a  like  nature. 
Little  was  publicly  known  of  the  experiment 
till  1798,  when  De  la  Rive  visited  it,  and  was 
so  delighted  with  what  he  saw  that  he  pub 
lished  an  account  of  it  on  his  return  to  France. 
The  publication  of  a  "  Description  of  the  Re 
treat,"  by  Samuel  Tuke,  in  1813,  attracted  still 
more  attention  to  the  institution.  The  physi 
cian  of  the  York  asylum  took  offence  at  some 
observations  it  contained,  and  a  controversy 
arose  which  resulted  in  exposing  a  number  of 
aggravated  cases  of  bad  management  in  the 
other  asylums,  and  also  in  causing  the  house 
of  commons  in  1813  to  appoint  a  committee 
to  investigate  the  subject,  who  visited  not 
only  Bethlem  and  York  asylums,  but  many 
private  institutions,  and  brought  a  horrible 
condition  of  things  to  light.  Among  the  min 
utes  of  evidence  taken  before  the  commit 
tee  are  the  following.  One  witness,  Mr.  Ed 
ward  Wakefield,  said :  "  In  the  year  1808  I 
heard  a  physician  state  to  the  Rt.  Hon.  John 
Foster,  that  of  the  insane  persons  who  were 
sent  up  to  Dublin  the  treatment  of  them  was 
so  little  understood  that  the  accustomed  mode 
was  tying  them  with  a  cord  to  the  back  of  a 
car  and  forcing  them  to  walk  the  distance  they 
might  have  to  come ;  and  this  gentleman's 
expression  was,  '  I  give  you  my  honor  that  of 
the  insane  persons  sent  up  to  Dublin  almost 
one  in  five  loses  an  arm  from  the  tightness  of 
the  ligature  producing  mortification,  which 
renders  amputation  necessary.'  "  Dr.  Richard 
Salisbury,  a  general  practising  physician,  testi 
fied  :  "  In  one  house  the  number  of  patients 
confined  is  23,  14  men  and  9  women  ;  7  of  the 
men  and  7  of  the  women  supported  at  their 
own  expense.  One  room  was  on  the  ground 
floor,  21  by  16  ft.  and  7  ft.  high,  divided  into 
6  cells,  9  ft.  long  and  5  ft.  wide,  with  a  passage 
3  ft.  wide  between ;  not  the  least  air  or  light 
admitted  except  when  the  doors  are  open.  The 
principal  door  immediately  opposite  a  pig  sty 
and  dung  heap  about  7  ft.  distant.  Three  only 
of  the  cells  floored  with  wood,  the  other  three 
were  on  the  bare  earth.  A  long  box,  6  ft.  by 
2£  ft.,  was  used  for  a  bedstead,  to  which  the 
patient  was  chained.  Some  had  blankets,  some 
only  coarse  straw.  They  were  taken  out  to 
air  once  a  week,  during  which  time  clean  straw 
was  supplied  when  necessary.  The  patients 
were  so  dirty  in  their  persons  that  on  opening 
the  door  of  the  first  cell  the  smell  Avas  so  of 
fensive  as  nearly  to  prevent  further  inspection." 
The  medical  treatment  in  most  of  the  estab 
lishments  was  of  the  lowest  empirical  kind. 
The  physician  of  Bethlem  said :  "  Twice  a  year, 
with  few  exceptions,  the  patients  are  bled,  and 
after  that  they  take  vomits  once  a  week  for  a 
number  of  weeks,  and  after  that  we  purge 
them.  That  has  been  the  practice  for  years, 
long  before  my  time."  But  it  must  be  remem 
bered  that  although  much  of  the  treatment 
arose  from  cruelty  and  negligence,  the  system 


INSANITY 


299 


was  supposed  by  the  more  ignorant  to  be  one 
of  necessity.  Lunatics  were  not  looked  upon 
then  as  unfortunate  sufferers  from  disease, 
but  rather  as  subjects  of  demoniacal  posses 
sion,  or  as  self-made  victims  of  evil  passions. 
The  exposure  of  the  abuses  aroused  the  public 
mind,  and  medical  men  not  only  felt  called  but 
were  forced  to  pay  more  attention  to  the  study 
of  humane  methods  of  treating  the  insane,  and 
to  emulate  the  example  of  the  Tukes  at  the 
retreat, —  Causes.  The  causes  of  insanity  may 
be  divided  into  predisposing  and  exciting.  The 
more  general  predisposing  causes  are  sex,  age, 
social  position,  education.  The  question  as  to 
the  influence  of  sex  has  not  been  definitely  set 
tled.  Alienists  are  agreed  that  the  existing 
statistical  tables  do  not  settle  the  question,  and 
that  asylum  reports  are  apt  to  mislead,  as  the 
minority  of  female  patients  in  asylums  may  be 
owing  to  the  greater  unwillingness  of  friends  to 
send  them  from  home  than  males.  The  statis 
tics  of  Esquirol  embrace  about  70,000  patients 
of  all  countries,  and  show  a  small  majority 
of  females,  and  he  and  also  Haslam  thought  in 
sanity  more  frequent  among  women  than  men. 
It  has  been  said  that  women  are  more  liable 
than  men  to  inherit  insanity,  and  Dr.  Maudsley 
is  inclined  to  this  conclusion.  In  regard  to  the 
influence  of  age,  cases  of  insanity  are  rare  in 
childhood.  The  greatest  number  become  insane 
between  25  and  50.  It  is  difficult  from  statis 
tics  to  determine  the  effect  of  social  position. 
In  England  there  are  about  9,000  poor  and 
1,300  members  of  wealthy  families  in  public  and 
private  asylums,  and  this  is  probably  about  the 
proportion  of  the  poor  to  the  rich ;  but  it  is 
jtrobable  that  a  state  of  poverty  is  more  pro 
ductive  of  mental  disease  than  one  of  affluence. 
Insanity  has  been  found  more  frequent  among 
unmarried  men  and  married  women.  Its  great 
er  frequency  among  married  women  is  proba 
bly  owing  to  care,  anxiety,  and  over-exertion 
of  body  and  mind,  and  difficulties  in  gestation, 
lactation,  and  menstruation.  Of  the  more 
special  predisposing  causes,  heredity  plays  a 
most  important  part.  Jacob!  in  220  cases  of 
mania  found  hereditary  predisposition  in  about 
one  ninth.  Hagen  in  170  cases  found  it  in 
about  one  third.  Esquirol  found  it  among  the  I 
poor  in  more  than  one  fourth  ;  in  the  rich,  \ 
about  three  fifths.  Webster  found  at  Bedlam,  j 
in  1,798  patients,  hereditary  predisposition  in  j 
about  one  third,  oftener  in  females.  Skae  of  [ 
Edinburgh,  in  248  admissions,  found  it  in  a  lit 
tle  over  one  third.  In  a  large  number,  from  | 
English  and  Irish  asylums  collected  by  Dr.  Jar- 
vis  of  Massachusetts,  it  was  found  among  44,- 
417  men  in  the  proportion  of  ^T,  and  43,093 
women  of  among  ^.  At  Bloom ingdale  asy 
lum  the  proportion  was  found  to  be  about  one  ' 
sixth.  It  was  advanced  by  Esquirol,  and  con-  ! 
firmed  by  Baillarger  in  the  examination  of  453  j 
cases,  that  insanity  is  more  frequently  trans-  j 
mitted  from  the  mother  than  from  the  father. 
It  was  found  that  the  transmission  from  the 
mother  to  the  sons  was  only  about  equal  to  that  j 


of  the  father;  but  the  transmission  to  the 
daughters  was  twice  as  frequent.  This  would 
indicate  that  women  inherit  insanity  oftener 
than  men,  a  point  previously  alluded  to.  It  is 
also  found  that  children  who  inherit  insanity 
sometimes  manifest  the  disease  before  the  pa 
rents  do ;  but  they  are  more  likely  to  inherit  it  if 
born  after  its  appearance  in  the  parents.  There 
is  also  a  tendency  in  hereditary  insanity  to 
show  itself  in  much  the  same  way  in  the  dif 
ferent  individuals  of  the  family  ;  thus  it  has 
been  observed  that  a  whole  family  of  brothers 
and  sisters  have  become  insane  at  about  the 
same  age,  and  committed  suicide.  The  disposi 
tion  may  be  removed  by  marriage  with  healthy 
stock,  or  may  be  increased  by  intermarriage. 
—The  exciting  causes  of  insanity  may  be  di 
vided  into  moral  or  psychical  and  physical. 
The  principal  psychical  causes  are  grief,  fright, 
anxiety,  care,  or  an  excited  state  of  any  pas 
sion,  particularly  if  recurring  often  or  pro 
longed;  the  emotions  aroused  by  disappoint 
ment,  by  unfortunate  love,  by  jealousy,  by  re 
flecting  on  misfortunes  that  have  ruined  the 
prospects  of  life ;  excessive  or  prolonged  em 
ployment  of  the  intellectual  faculties,  particu 
larly  when  connected  with  the  emotions,  as 
the  composition  of  poetry  or  romance,  or  the 
prolonged  excitement  attending  the  manage 
ment  of  difficult  legal  cases.  Anything  which 
will  produce  a  hypersemia  of  a  portion  or  of 
the  whole  of  the  brain,  by  which  the  nutrition 
and  consequently  the  normal  function  is  inter 
fered  with,  may  become  an  exciting  cause. 
From  the  number  of  cases  of  insanity  in  men 
of  business,  who  have  broken  -down  in  the 
struggle  to  amass  fortunes,  it  is  fair  to  assume 
that  the  prominence  given  by  Maudsley  to  the 
eager  desire  to  get  rich  as  a  cause  of  insanity 
is  amply  justified.  He  says:  "  The  occupation 
which  a  man  is  entirely  engaged  in  does  not 
fail  to  modify  his  character,  and  the  reaction 
upon  the  individual's  nature  of  a  life  which  is 
being  spent  with  the  sole  aim  of  becoming  rich 
is  most  baneful.  If  one  conviction  has  been 
fixed  in  my  mind  more  distinctly  than  another 
by  observation  of  instances,  it  is  that  it  is  ex 
tremely  unlikely  that  such  a  man  will  beget 
healthy  children ;  that,  in  fact,  it  is  extremely 
likely  that  the  deterioration  of  nature  \vhich 
he  has  acquired  will  be  transmitted  as  an  evil 
heritage  to  his  children.  In  several  instances 
in  which  the  father  has  toiled  upward  from 
poverty  to  vast  wealth,  with  the  aim  and  hope 
of  founding  a  family,  I  have  witnessed  the  re 
sult  in  a  degeneracy,  mental  and  physical,  of 
his  offspring,  which  has  sometimes  gone  as  far 
as  extinction  of  the  family  in  the  third  or 
fourth  generation."  The  principal  physical 
causes  are  drunkenness  and  the  use  of  narcotic 
or  poisonous  drugs ;  want  of  food  ;  want  of 
sleep  and  over-exertion;  other  nervous  dis 
eases,  such  as  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  hysteria, 
particularly  the  first ;  severe  injuries  to  the 
head,  particularly  from  blows,  causing  fracture 
of  the  skull  or  concussion  of  the  brain ;  sun- 


300 


INSANITY 


stroke,  and  tumors  in  the  brain.  Acute  febrile 
diseases,  as  typhoid,  typhus,  and  malarial  fe 
vers,  are  also  causes  of  insanity ;  and  it  may  oc 
cur  during  the  course  of  pneumonia,  general 
ly  in  the  form  of  acute  mania.  The  poison 
of  Asiatic  cholera  may  so  interfere  with  the 
nutrition  of  the  brain  as  to  produce  not  only 
transient  delirium,  but  mania,  which  may  con 
tinue  for  several  days  or  weeks.  Acute  rheu 
matism  is  sometimes  a  cause  of  insanity ;  and 
it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  mental  symp 
toms  follow  the  apparent  disappearance  of  the 
rheumatic  symptoms,  and  pass  away  upon 
the  reappearance  of  the  disease.  Chronic  con 
stitutional  diseases  are  frequent  causes,  and 
among  the  most  formidable  probably  of  these 
is  constitutional  syphilis.  Its  effects  are  pro 
duced  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  skull  may 
be  the  seat  of  exostosis  or  of  caries ;  the  mem 
branes  may  be  affected  and  cause  mal-nutrition 
of  the  cerebral  substance ;  or  tumors  of  the 
brain  may  arise  directly  from  the  effects  of  the 
syphilitic  poison ;  or  the  nutrition  of  the  whole 
body  may  be  so  interfered  with  that  all  the 
plastic  material  furnished  by  the  food  is  viti 
ated  and  incapable  of  forming  sound  nervous 
tissue.  The  syphilitic  affections  of  the  nervous 
system  have  recently  been  the  subject  of  careful 
examination  by  Drs.  Wilks  and  Moxon.  Ac 
cording  to  Dr.  Wilks,  there  is  in  syphilis  a  dis 
position  to  a  low  form  of  lymph  in  nearly 
every  tissue  of  the  body,  which  does  not  readi 
ly  form  tissue,  never  that  which  is  perfectly 
normal.  According  to  Dr.  Moxon,  syphilis  at 
tacks  the  surface  of  the  brain  and  its  mem 
branes  in  limited  spots,  spreading  slowly.  The 
lymph  which  exudes  from  the  membranes  de 
stroys  the  gray  matter  of  the  convolutions,  and 
syphilitic  deposits  may  form  fleshy  tumors 
which  contain  a  certain  gummy  characteristic 
substance ;  or  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  may 
be  invaded  by  gummatous  tumors  springing 
from  the  dura  mater  or  the  bones.  Paralysis 
of  various  degrees  of  intensity  and  extent,  and 
also  mental  diseases,  are  the  results.  (See  lec 
tures  of  Dr.  Broadbent,  "London  Lancet," 
1874;  also  an  illustrative  case,  with  plates  of 
pathological  changes,  u  American  Journal  of 
Insanity,"  July,  1874.)  Tuberculosis,  particu 
larly  by  inducing  a  state  of  exhaustion  or  de 
generated  tissue  development,  is  sometimes  an 
exciting  cause  of  mental  disease ;  and,  as  will 
be  noticed  further  on,  there  are  apparently 
intimate  relations  between  tuberculosis  and 
insanity  and  certain  other  forms  of  nervous 
disease.  Diseases  of  the  heart  have  been  as 
signed  as  causes  of  insanity,  and  as  far  as 
they  operate  in  exhausting  the  strength  of  the 
patient,  they  may  be  considered  as  such ;  but 
more  often  the  heart  disease  is,  along  with 
the  mental  affection  itself,  the  effect  of  other 
changes,  such  as  disease  of  the  arteries  or 
capillaries,  or  of  the  vaso-motor  system  of 
nerves.  Disease  of  the  genital  organs  some 
times  exerts  an  important  influence  in  produ 
cing  insanity.  During  the  period  of  sexual  de 


velopment,  particularly  when  any  morbid  con 
dition  is  present,  resulting  from  secret  vice  or 
from  any  cause,  insanity  in  some  form,  mania, 
melancholia,  or  dementia,  is  liable  to  occur. 
Disorders  of  menstruation  at  any  period  of  life 
may  bring  on  attacks  of  mental  disease ;  as  also 
may  diseases  of  the  uterus  or  ovaries,  such  as 
tumors,  cysts,  or  displacements.  Pregnancy, 
the  puerperal  state,  and  lactation  are  not  infre 
quent  causes  of  mania  and  melancholia.  A 
state  of  melancholy  during  pregnancy  is  often 
the  precursor  of  an  attack  of  puerperal  mania. 
Insanity  from  lactation  is  generally  in  conse 
quence  of  the  exhaustive  effect  of  the  function 
superinduced  upon  a  hereditary  predisposition. 
Sexual  excess  and  unnatural  vice,  from  indu 
cing  a  perverted  condition  of  the  mind  and  ner 
vous  system,  as  well  as  from  their  weakening 
effects,  are  not  uncommon  exciting  causes  of 
insanity.  But  among  all  the  causes  of  mental 
disease,  it  is  acknowledged  by  most  authorities 
that  the  excessive  use  of  intoxicating  drinks 
is  the  greatest.  Of  1,428  cases  admitted  into 
Bethlem  hospital,  12  per  cent,  were  found  to 
be  caused  by  intemperance'.  The  report  of  the 
commissioners  in  lunacy  in  England  in  1844 
gives,  out  of  9,868  cases,  1,792,  or  more  than 
18  per  cent.,  as  the  proportion  attributable  to 
the  effects  of  alcoholic  liquors.  Of  748  cases, 
Ilalloran  found  drunkenness  a  cause  in  more 
than  one  fifth.  Prichard  and  Esquirol  attribute 
half  of  the  cases  of  insanity  in  England  to  in 
temperance.  Dr.  Rush  gave  it  as  the  cause  in 
one  third  of  the  cases  in  America,  and  more 
recent  statistics  of  some  asylums  show  a  larger 
proportion.  Blandford  and  other  modern  wri 
ters  ascribe  to  it  a  potent  influence.  Dr.  Dick- 
son,  late  superintendent  of  St.  Luke's  hospital, 
London,  takes  a  somewhat  different  though  not 
opposite  view.  He  says  :  "  Although  it  is  true 
that  drunkenness  is  very  frequently  the  exciting 
cause  of  an  attack  of  insanity,  yet  the  incen 
tive  to  drunkenness  is  the  result  rather  than 
the  cause  of  brain  deterioration  in  the  first  in 
stance  ;  a  potentiality  of  insanity  is  often  dis 
covered  on  examining  the  history  of  the  persons 
who  complain  of  a  constant  sense  of  depres 
sion,  and  who  seek  to  relieve  that  depression 
with  stimulants."  The  continued  use  of  intox 
icating  drinks  and  narcotic  poisons,  in  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Carpenter  ("  Mental  Physiolo 
gy,"  1874),  destroys  or  weakens  the  will  so 
that  it  loses  its  control  over  the  emotions. 
The  experiences  given  by  De  Quincey  as  to  the 
weakening  of  the  will  in  his  own  case,  so  that 
he  became  unable  to  perform  what  he  had 
planned,  not  from  want  of  brain  power,  but 
of  volition,  is  instanced  by  Dr.  Carpenter  as 
an  example ;  and  he  also  points  to  the  exces 
sive  use  of  tobacco  in  creating  a  mental  state 
which  manifests  itself  in  deferring  the  per 
formance  of  pressing  duties.  The  effect  of 
alcohol  he  regards  as  more  potent  in  weak 
ening  the  will  and  arousing  the  more  violent 
passions  than  that  of  any  other  agent ;  and  it 
is  not  improbable  that  the  excessive  and  habit- 


INSANITY 


301 


nal  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  which  are  pro 
duced  in  such  great  quantities  by  civilized 
countries,  has  had  much  to  do  in  inducing  a 
hereditary  tendency  to  insanity,  and  causing 
the  spread  of  mental  maladies  to  a  greater  ex 
tent  among  civilized  than  among  other  nations. 
The  researches  of  Morel  on  the  cause  of  the 
formation  of  degenerate  varieties  of  the  hu 
man  race  are  interesting  as  explaining  the  con 
tinuance  of  morbid  action  through  succeeding 
generations,  and  the  final  extinction  of  fami 
lies.  The  evil  influences  which  produce  dis 
ease,  'such  as  the  poisonous  air  of  a  malarious 
district,  or  a  badly  drained  and  cleaned  city, 
overcrowding  and  privation  in  large  towns,  per 
sistent  intemperance  and  sexual  excess,  and  in 
termarriage  in  families,  unless  counteracted,  ap 
pear  to  tend  to  increase  through  generations, 
until  continuance  of  the  species  is  impossible. 
He  regards  insanity  in  any  form,  whether  ma 
nia,  melancholia,  or  dementia,  as  a  stage  in  the 
descent  toward  sterile  idiocy,  as  sometimes 
shown  by  the  consequences  of  frequent  inter 
marriages  in  foolish  families.  lie  relates  the 
history  of  one  family  in  which  the  progress  of 
degeneration  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 
first  generation — immorality,  alcoholic  excess, 
brutal  degradation ;  second  generation — hered 
itary  drunkenness,  maniacal  attacks,  general 
paralysis;  third  generation  —  sobriety,  hypo- 
chondriasis,  lypemania,  systematic  mania, 
homicidal  tendencies  ;  fourth  generation — fee 
ble  intelligence,  stupidity,  first  attack  of  mania 
at  16,  transition  to  complete  idiocy,  and  prob 
able  extinction  of  the  family. —  General  Symp 
toms  of  Insanity.  The  earliest  symptoms  of 
coming  insanity  are  depressed  manner,  unusual 
excitement,  anger,  and  rashness ;  and  even 
these  may  be  preceded  by  an  altered  manner, 
if  careful  notice  has  been  taken.  An  abnormal 
condition  of  brain  exists,  including  a  want  of 
nervous  energy  which  creates  a  consciousness 
that  there  is  something  wrong ;  a  want  of  co 
ordination  of  the  faculties  produces  false  rea 
sonings  and  conclusions  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
difficulty,  and  so  as  the  disease  progresses  de 
lusions  and  hallucinations  make  their  appear 
ance.  An  important  symptom  in  all  forms  of 
insanity  is  impairment  of  the  faculty  of  at 
tention,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  loss  of 
will  which  directs  the  attention.  The  inconsis 
tency  of  the  beliefs  of  the  insane  is  one  of  the 
earliest  noticeable  symptoms,  and  they  are  con 
veniently  classified  as  ".delusions"  and  "hal 
lucinations."  It  is  important  that  a  clear  con 
ception  of  the  meaning  of  these  terms  should 
be  had.  A  delusion  is  a  false  belief  in  regard 
to  some  fact  which  generally  concerns  the  pa 
tient,  and  which  is  so  strongly  rooted  that  all 
attempts  to  reason  him  out  of  it  are  futile. 
Thus,  he  may  believe  that  a  certain  occurrence 
took  place  at  a  certain  time,  or  that  he  is  a 
certain  person,  as  a  saint,  or  a  prince,  or  the 
Saviour,  or  that  his  head  is  made  of  metal. 
The  delusions  of  the  insane  may  be  of  a  gloomy 
or  of  an  exalted  nature.  A  man  who  believes 


!  poverty  to  be  the  greatest  evil  may,  in  conse- 
[  quence  of  false  reasoning  as  to  the  state  of  his 
affairs,  imagine  himself  to  be  ruined,  and  that 
j  his  family  will  be  turned  out  of  doors.  "When 
the  patient  has  exalted  delusions  he  is  apt  to 
imagine  himself  immensely  wealthy,  or  that 
the  asylum  in  which  he  is  confined  is  a  palace 
and  himself  a  monarch.  A  hallucination  is 
a  false  perception  of  one  of  the  senses ;  the 
patient  may  fancy  that  he  sees  a  spirit,  or 
a  person  who  does  not  exist ;  such  hallucina 
tions  are  common  in  the  temporary  insanity 
of  delirium  tremens,  when  the  patient  may 
imagine  that  he  sees  serpents,  or  frogs,  or  in 
sects,  or  that  people,  generally  those  whom  he 
dislikes,  come  into  the  room.  Hallucinations 
affect  the  different  senses ;  thus  the  insane 
have  hallucinations  of  sight,  of  hearing,  of 
taste,  of  smell,  and  of  touch.  Hallucinations 
of  sight  are  more  liable  to  occur  when  the 
brain  is  in  the  greatest  state  of  exhaustion,  and 
to  accompany  the  acute  stages.  They  may  be 
simply  flashes  of  light  or  colors,  or  they  may 
be  objects  like  those  in  the  state  of  exhaustion 
called  delirium  tremens.  The  hallucinations 
are  oftentimes  visions  of  the  supernatural. 
Epilepsy  in  the  insane  is  constantly  accom 
panied  by  hallucinations  of  sight.  Hallucina 
tions  of  hearing  occur  in  acute,  but  are  more 
frequent  in  chronic  cases,  and  are  unfavorable 
symptoms  ;  and  those  who  are  subject  to  them 
are  often  the  most  dangerous  patients.  They 
are  liable  to  hear  voices  commanding  them  to 
perform  certain  acts,  which  they  are  blindly 
impelled  to  attempt,  however  absurd  or  de 
structive.  Hallucinations  of  smell  are  gener 
ally  not  persistent,  and  belong  to  the  acute 
stages ;  and  those  who  have  them  are  apt  to 
imagine  that  their  own  persons  have  an  intol 
erable  stench.  Hallucinations  of  taste  are 
rather  uncommon,  and  are  generally  associated 
with  disordered  digestion.  Those  of  feeling- 
are  not  uncommon,  and  patients  often  declare 
that  they  feel  themselves  touched,  or  that  they 
feel  snakes  or  other  animals  in  their  bodies. 
The  acts  of  the  insane  are  prominent  symp 
toms.  There  is  a  proneness  among  them  to 
strip  off  their  clothes,  arising  from  various 
causes.  They  often  experience  a  feeling  of 
uneasiness,  often  of  heat  from  the  pressure  of 
their  clothes,  or  they  imagine  that  they  are  foul 
or  poisoned.  Sometimes  in  mania  there  is  a 
desire  to  destroy  them,  and  in  other  cases  to 
expose  the  person.  The  desire  to  dress  in  a 
fantastic  garb  is  common  among  the  insane. 
In  states  of  exaltation,  whether  of  mania  or 
of  melancholia,  the  patient  will  often  desire 
to  assume  a  dress  of  authority,  and  the  de 
jected  melancholic  will  assume  the  most  care 
less  appearance.  In  some  forms  of  insanity 
there  is  often  a  disposition  to  commit  nets 
of  violence  and  destruction.  Sometimes  these 
acts  will  be  directed  against  inanimate  objects, 
sometimes  against  other  persons,  and  some 
times  against  the  patient's  own  person.  In 
the  two  latter  instances  it  has  received  the 


302 


INSANITY 


names  of  homicidal  and  suicidal  insanity. 
Some  authorities  contend  that  such  a  classifi 
cation  should  not  be  made ;  but  there  are  too 
many  cases  furnished  by  insane  asylums,  and 
which  have  occurred  under  the  notice  of  in 
telligent  physicians,  where  lunatics  have  shown 
morbid  impulses  to  commit  wrong  acts  which 
they  had  not  sufficient  will  to  resist,  to  leave 
much  room  for  doubt  that  such  states  of  the 
mind  do  occur.  Patients  have  under  some 
circumstances  committed  deeds  of  violence 
under  the  influence  of  impulses,  and  have  at 
other  times,  in  anticipation  of  the  coming  on 
of  those  impulses,  asked  to  be  restrained,  say 
ing  that  they  feared  they  would  not  be  able  to 
resist  them.  Considering  the  morbid  perver 
sion  of  the  nervous  system  and  the  unhappy 
condition  of  the  mind  in  some  instances,  it  is 
not  strange  that  the  combined  effects  of  these 
and  of  insane  delusions  and  hallucinations 
should  result  in  such  acts,  nor  that  the  disposi 
tion  to  commit  violence  should  under  the  cir 
cumstances  take  these  forms. —  Classification. 
There  have  been  many  classifications  of  insani 
ty,  but  they  have  not  thrown  much  light  upon 
its  nature,  and  in  many  cases  have  rather 
been  hindrances  to  the  discovery  of  the  most 
important  conditions  (pathological)  of  the  pa 
tient.  The  older  writers  divided  insanity  prin 
cipally  into  mania  and  melancholia.  Thomas 
Arnold  in  1802  made  a  general  division  into 
ideal  and  notional  insanity.  The  ideal  he  sub 
divided  into  :  1,  phrenetic,  or  raving ;  2,  inco 
herent  ;  3,  maniacal ;  4,  sensitive.  Notional 
insanity  he  divided  into  :  5,  delusive  ;  6,  whim 
sical ;  7,  fanciful;  8,  impulsive ;  9,  scheming; 
10,  vain  or  self-important;  11,  hypochondria- 
cal ;  12,  pathetic;  13,  appetitive.  The  pa 
thetic  he  subdivided  into  16  varieties:  1,  amo 
rous;  2,  jealous;  3,  avaricious;  4,  misanthro 
pic;  5,  arrogant ;  6,  irascible  ;  7,  abhorrent ; 
8,  suspicious;  9,  bashful;  10,  timid;  11,  sor 
rowful;  12,  distrustful;  13,  nostalgic;  14,  su 
perstitious;  15,  enthusiastic;  16,  desponding. 
Pinel  made  four  divisions,  viz. :  mania,  melan 
cholia,  dementia,  and  idiocy.  Esquirol  added 
to  these  another,  monomania.  Dr.  Prichard, 
whose  work,  published  in  1835,  was  for  a  long 
time  high  authority,  made  two  general  divi 
sions,  moral  and  intellectual  insanity,  subdi 
viding  the  latter  into  three,  monomania,  mania, 
and  dementia.  The  existence  of  such  a  dis 
ease  as  moral  insanity  is  not  recognized  by  a 
majority  of  modern  alienists,  and  it  is  contend 
ed  that  the  moral  sentiments  are  often  want 
ing  in  persons  who  are  considered  sane,  as 
well  as  in  the  subjects  of  mental  disease.  Dr. 
Daniel  Tuke  divides  insanity  according  as  it 
affects — 1,  the  intellect;  2,  the  moral  senti 
ments  ;  3,  the  propensities.  Maudsley  classifies 
insanity  into  two  great  divisions,  which  are  sub 
divided  into  varieties  as  follows  :  I.  Affective 
or  pathetic  insanity,  including:  1,  maniacal 
perversion  of  the  affective  life,  mania  sine 
delirio  ;  2,  melancholic  depression  without  de 
lusion,  simple  melancholia  ;  3,  moral  alienation 


proper.  Approaching  this,  but  not  reaching 
the  degree  of  positive  insanity,  is  the  ''in 
sane  temperament."  II.  Ideational  insanity, 
subdivided  into :  1,  general  («,  mania,  acute 
and  chronic  ;  5,  melancholia,  acute  and  chron 
ic)  ;  2,  partial  («,  monomania ;  5,  melancholia)  ; 
3,  dementia,  primary  and  secondary ;  4,  gen 
eral  paralysis  ;  5,  idiocy,  including  imbecility. 
In  the  first  division  the  intellect  may  be  com 
paratively  unaffected,  but  there  is  insanity  of 
feeling  and  action.  In  the  second  there  is  in 
sanity  of  thought,  or  delusion.  The  "insane 
temperament"  is  a  kind  of  potential  insanity 
introduced  by  Maudsley  to  characterize  a  con 
dition  of  mind  in  which  great  eccentricity  of 
thought,  feeling,  and  action,  proceeding  from 
a  morbid  nervous  organization,  does  not  make 
the  person  actually  mad,  but  queer  and  mor 
bidly  eccentric.  Individuals  having  this  tem 
perament  have  certain  marks  of  genius,  though 
never  of  the  highest  order.  Griesenger,  one 
of  the  highest  modern  authorities,  says:  "A 
classification  of  mental  diseases  according  to 
their  nature,  that  is,  according  to  the  anatom 
ical  changes  of  the  brain  which  lie  at  the  foun 
dation,  is  at  the  present  time  impossible."  He 
therefore  classifies  insanity  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  psychical  symptoms,  and  says 
"  that  while  it  is  the  aim  of  clinical  instruction 
to  render  conspicuous  and  to  analyze  the  multi 
plicity  of  mental  disorders  in  the  concrete,  no 
sology  must  content  itself  with  establishing 
fewer  principal  groups,  fewer  abnormal  states 
to  which  all  the  varieties  of  individual  cases  may 
be  referred."  lie  divides  mental  diseases  into 
two  grand  groups.  In  one  there  is  a  morbid 
condition  of  the  emotions,  affecting,  according 
to  its  nature,  the  whole  mental  life  of  the  pa 
tient.  In  the  other  group  insanity  consists 
in  disorders  of  the  intellect  and  will,  which 
exhibit,  "without  profound  emotional  excite 
ment,  an  independent,  tranquil,  and  false 
mode  of  thought  and  of  will,  usually  with  the 
predominant  character  of  mental  weakness." 
In  most  cases  the  conditions  found  in  the  first 
group  precede  those  in  the  second,  the  latter 
generally  being  consequences -and  terminations 
of  the  former.  The  different  forms  of  insani 
ty  may  be  conveniently  considered  under  the 
following  divisions  :  1,  melancholia ;  2,  mania ; 
3,  general  paralysis  of  the  insane ;  4,  dementia  ; 
5,  imbecility;  6,  idiocy. — Melancholia.  This 
may  be  acute  or  chronic.  The  great  majority 
of  cases  of  insanity  commence  with  a  state  of 
emotional  perversion  of  a  depressing  and  sor 
rowful  character,  which  has  been  called  the 
stadium  melancholicum,  or  initiatory  period 
of  mental  disease,  or  the  period  of  incubation. 
The  first  stages  of  melancholia  are  generally 
preceded  by  a  condition  called  hypochondria- 
sis,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  mildest 
form  of  insanity.  There  is  a  feeling  of  bodily 
illness  at  this  time  more  than  at  any  other,  or 
in  any  other  form  of  insanity.  It  is  often 
vague,  and  depends  upon  irritation  of  the 
nervous  centres  arising  from  disorders,  some- 


INSANITY 


303 


times  obscure,  of  the  viscera.  The  patient 
becomes  peevish  and  suspicious,  is  easily  fa 
tigued,  a  mental  apathy  takes  possession  of  him, 
and  he  becomes  weary  of  life ;  or  he  passes 
into  a  state  of  extreme  anxiety.  The  mention 
of  a  disease  will  often  cause  him  to  fancy  that 
he  is  afflicted  with  it,  and  he  is  constantly  feel 
ing  his  pulse  and  examining  his  tongue  and  ex 
cretions.  He  often  changes  his  physician,  and 
also  his  opinion  of  the  nature  of  his  ailment. 
His  feelings  are  not  all  imaginary  ;  there  is  fre 
quently  indigestion,  sometimes  of  an  aggrava 
ted  character,  accompanied  with  great  evolu 
tion  of  gas,  which  by  its  distention  of  the  in 
testinal  canal  occasions  uneasiness.  The  tongue 
is  foul,  the  appetite  irregular,  the  bowels  con 
stipated,  and  the  skin  in  an  unhealthy  condi 
tion.  Moral  treatment  is  often  beneficial,  but 
should  always  be  accompanied  by  therapeutical 
measures  calculated  to  remove  pathological 
conditions.  This  state  is  very  often  accom- 

Sanied  by  an  inherited  tendency  to  mental 
isease,  and  when  not  relieved  passes  into  that 
condition  more  definitely  styled  melancholia. 
His  delusions  take  a  more  decided  character, 
and  he  fancies  himself  a  criminal.  He  is 
now  evidently  to  all  observers  an  insane  man, 
and  becomes  the  subject,  not  only  of  delu 
sions,  but  of  hallucinations ;  he  imagines  that 
he  is  beggared,  and  that  his  family  are  to 
be  thrown  helpless  on  the  world ;  that  he  is 
destroyed  by  odious  diseases;  that  he  has 
leprosy,  and  that  a  loathsome  smell  emanates 
from  his  body.  His  countenance  expresses  in 
tense  woe,  and  he  stands  for  hours  in  one 
place  and  in  one  posture,  either  in  solitude  or 
in  the  street ;  or  he  may  be  impelled  to  con 
stantly  wander  about.  He  sleeps  badly,  and 
generally  eats  but  little ;  the  bowels  are  obsti 
nately  constipated,  the  breath  offensive,  and 
the  pulse  slow  and  weak.  The  age  at  which 
persons  are  liable  to  melancholia  is  often  the 
prime  of  life,  or  when  the  vigor  is  beginning 
to  fail,  at  40,  50,  or  60  years.  Of  338  cases  of 
melancholia  admitted  into  St.  Luke's  hospital, 
London,  only  9  were  under  20  years  of  age. 
Women  who  have  been  weakened  by  parturi 
tion  are  sometimes  the  subjects,  when  it  gen 
erally  assumes  an  acute  form,  with  sleepless 
ness  and  obstinate  refusal  of  food.  In  this 
state  there  is  almost  always  a  disposition  to 
commit  suicide,  which  may  manifest  itself  sud 
denly;  sometimes  it  appears  earlier  in  the  dis 
ease,  even  before  the  other  symptoms  have 
been  observed.  The  treatment  of  a  case  of 
chronic  or  sub-acute  melancholia  will  vary 
with  its  history  and  symptoms.  An  asylum  is 
not  indispensable  if  the  patient's  means  are 
sufficient  to  provide  him  with  proper  care. 
He  may  be  benefited  by  travel  and  change  of 
scene ;  but  when  his  condition  will  not  admit 
of  this,  a  proper  place,  either  a  private  house 
or  an  asylum,  should  be  selected,  and  an  at 
tempt  made  by  therapeutical  and  hygienic  mea 
sures  to  restore  the  cerebral  defect  by  sleep 
and  nourishment  of  the  body.  In  many  cases 
VOL.  ix.— 20 


recovery  will  be  observed  to  rapidly  follow 
medical  treatment  alone,  some  bad  cases  get 
ting  well  in  a  couple  of  months.  There  are 
three  conditions  which  require  constant  at 
tention  :  want  of  sleep,  rejection  of  food,  and 
constipation.  To  remedy  the  first,  chloral  is 
much  used  by  some ;  others  prefer  the  effects 
of  morphine  or  Dover's  powder,  believing 
that  chloral  is  better  suited  to  the  more  vio 
lent  condition  of  mania.  Wine  and  brandy 
are  also  used  to  give  temporary  strength,  and 
have  been  observed  to  be  of  practical  benefit, 
inducing  sleep  in  some  forms  of  insanity.  As 
to  whether  the  dyspepsia  and  other  visceral 
disorders  are  the  cause  of  the  melancholia,  or 
whether  they  are  in  common  with  it,  the  re 
sult  of  a  primary  nervous  disorder,  is  one  of 
those  disputed  matters  about  which  physicians 
will  probably  never  be  perfectly  agreed.  The 
practical  aim  is,  however,  to  produce  regularity 
of  the  evacuations  by  laxative  medicines,  and 
to  sustain  the  strength  with  nourishing  food 
and  wine.  The  prognosis  in  cases  of  melan 
cholia  is  generally  good.  Some  have  recov 
ered  after  having  been  a  long  time  in  asylums, 
and  subject  to  suicidal  impulse  and  delusions 
and  hallucinations.  If  the  melancholy  be 
comes  paroxysmal,  or  runs  into  mania,  the 
prognosis  is  not  so  favorable,  as  pathological 
cerebral  changes  of  a  permanent  character  are 
liable  to  occur.  The  symptoms  are  inten 
sified  ;  there  is  now  no  longer  mere  depres 
sion  or  silent  stupor  or  anxiety,  but  the  pa 
tient  becomes  frenzied.  He  will  hardly  sit  or 
lie  in  one  position  for  a  moment,  and  has  to 
be  placed  in  restraint,  either  mechanical  or 
manual.  He  is  extremely  suicidal,  arid  will 
not  only  try  to  pui  an  end  to  his  life,  but  will 
attempt  to  injure  his  person  by  gouging  out  his 
eyes,  or  swallowing  nails  or  pieces  of  glass  or 
corrosive  liquids.  He  is  not  liable,  like  a  sub 
ject  of  general  paralysis  or  an  epileptic  maniac, 
to  make  homicidal  attacks  ;  but  he  will  resist 
with  violence  the  assistance  of  his  attendants. 
He  will  not  take  food,  will  not  be  washed  or 
remain  in  bed,  and  will  strjp  himself  of  cloth 
ing.  There  is  an  increased  weakening  of 
the  will,  indicating  great  deficiency  in  cere 
bral  nutrition.  There  is  a  great  tendency  to 
sink  rapidly  from  exhaustion,  and  therefore 
the  patient  has  generally  to  be  forcibly  fed, 
or,  as  is  said,  to  be  fed  "mechanically."  This 
is  accomplished  by  forcibly  opening  the  jaws 
and  putting  nourishing  food  into  the  pharynx 
with  a  spoon,  or  by  introducing  it  with  the 
O3sophageal  tube,  which  is  generally  preferred. 
Gentleness,  however,  will  sometimes  succeed  in 
prevailing  on  the  patient  to  swallow  his  food 
voluntarily,  and  must  of  course  be  tried  until 
found  of  no  avail.  One  great  danger  is  death 
from  starvation,  and  therefore  food  must  be 
given,  and  in  considerable  quantities.  Chloral 
is  considered  appropriate,  and  may  be  given 
alone,  or  in  combination  with  conium,  hyoscy- 
amus,  &c.  If  the  patient  refuses,  it  may  be  giv 
en  by  the  rectum.  Morphine  is  also  of  service, 


304: 


INSANITY 


particularly  in  the  form  of  subcutaneous  injec 
tions.  Constipation  is  to  be  relieved  by  laxa 
tives  and  clysters.  Other  medicines,  as  bro 
mide  of  potassium  and  digitalis,  according  to 
Blandford,  are  not  worth  the  trouble  of  ad 
ministering.  Warm  baths  will  be  of  great 
benefit,  and  the  room  should  be  kept  warmer 
than  usual.  The  patient  wastes  rapidly,  and 
it  is  often  impossible  to  give  him  enough  food. 
Another  form  of  melancholia  of  a  chronic 
character  often  follows  an  attack  of  mania. 
It  is  attended  with  less  mental  excitement,  re 
sembling  more  a  state  of  dementia,  but  recov 
ery  from  it  sometimes  takes  place. — Mania. 
This  is  usually  classified,  in  a  general  way, 
as  acute  and  chronic,  and  Blandford  adds  a 
variety  which  he  calls  acute  delirious  mania, 
Mania,  particularly  where  there  is  hereditary 
taint,  may  be  brought  on  by  grief,  misfortune, 
or  disappointment;  but  peculiar  forms  of  it 
accompany  epilepsy  and  general  paralysis  of 
the  insane.  Acute  mania  may  come  on  sud 
denly,  or  it  may  be  preceded  by  melancholy 
lasting  for  some  time.  The  symptoms  of  acute 
mania  are  by  no  means  obscure  ;  there  is  almost 
always  manifested  extreme  mischievousness, 
filthiness  in  person,  and  obscenity  in  language. 
One  distinction  between  mania  and  melan 
cholia  is  in  the  manner  the  mental  state  affects 
the  acts.  There  may  be  delusions  in  mania, 
but  they  are  of  a  more  confused  kind  and  the 
acts  are  more  purposeless,  while  in  melan 
cholia  there  is  the  evidence  of  some  plan.  The 
conversation  is  more  incoherent.  Maniacs  will 
heap  abuse  on  all  around  them,  and  are  in 
clined  to  use  violence.  They  commit  self- 
abuse,  and  may  become  shameless  in  the  ex 
posure  of  the  person.  The  bodily  health  often 
does  not  suffer  greatly,  and  they  seldom  die 
unless  their  health  is  broken  at  the  commence 
ment  of  the  attack,  in  which  case  they  may 
wear  themselves  out.  They  eat  heartily,  but  ! 
generally  grow  thin,  although  not  very  rapidly.  | 
There  is  want  of  sleep.  Sometimes  they  will  | 
pass  a  good  night,  getting  several  hours  of  sleep, 
and  then  may  go  several  days  with  only  two 
or  three  hours'  sleep,  shouting,  laughing,  and 
singing.  The  tongue  is  often  clean,  and  the 
bowels  are  not  generally  constipated ;  hence 
maniacal  cases  do  not  yield  to  medical  treat 
ment  as  readily  as  some  cases  of  melancho-  j 
lia.  Chloral  may  be  of  benefit  to  procure  | 
sleep.  The  doses  should  be  large,  from  40  to 
60  grains.  Opiates  are  given  by  some  and 
condemned  by  others.  The  prognosis,  when 
acute  mania  is  not  complicated  with  other  dis 
ease,  is  on  the  whole  favorable.  Much,  how 
ever,  will  depend  on  the  time  which  has 
elapsed  since  the  commencement  of  the  attack. 
If  this  has  been  long,  recovery  will  be  doubt 
ful  because  of  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  brain,  a  continued  state  of  hyper- 
femia  producing  chronic  thickening  of  the 
cerebral  membranes  and  changes  in  the  brain 
substance.  The  patient  may  recover,  or  die 
with  a  hyper<emic  state  of  the  brain,  or  gradu 


ally  sink  into  a  state  of  hopeless  chronic  mania 
or  dementia,  or  become  melancholic.  From 
this  he  may  recover,  and  again  become  mania 
cal.  Acute  delirious  mania,  as  described  by  Dr. 
Blandford,  differs  from  the  preceding  in  being 
accompanied  with  more  delirium  and  with 
more  bodily  disorder.  The  tongue  is  often 
coated,  sometimes  brown  and  dry,  and  as  the 
patient  becomes  exhausted  a  typhoid  condition 
ensues.  The  urine  is  scanty  and  high-colored, 
and  the  bowels  rarely  act  without  laxatives. 
The  treatment  consists  in  regulating  the  bodily 
functions,  giving  food  freely,  combined  with 
plenty  of  drink,  and  also  wine,  and  in  the 
judicious  use  of  hydrate  of  chloral.  Opium 
should  not  be  given,  as  it  obstructs  the  secre 
tions  and  is  liable  to  increase  the  delirium. 
Rest  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  baths 
of  warm  water,  in  which  mustard  may  be 
stirred,  are  of  great  benefit,  the  head  to  be 
kept  cool  during  the  operation.  Purgatives 
at  the  outset  of  the  attack  may  be  of  use, 
as  aiding  to  arrest  it.  The  termination  is  al 
most  always  recovery  or  death,  melancholia 
or  dementia  rarely  following.  Where  an  acute 
case  of  mania  is  neglected  or  badly  treated, 
or  is  of  a  violent  and  persistent  kind,  it  may 
pass  into  a  chronic  state  in  which  there  is  either 
constant  excitement  of  a  less  violent  kind,  or 
a  fixed  delusion.  The  patient  gradually  be 
comes  feebler  in  intellect,  although  his  bodily 
health  may  improve,  and  with  variable  degrees 
of  rapidity  sinks  into  a  state  of  dementia. — 
General  Paralysis  of  the  Insane.  The  pecu 
liar  form  of  disease  accompanied  by  insanity  to 
which  this  name  has  been  given  is  of  the  most 
formidable  character,  no  instance  of  recovery 
in  a  well  marked  case  having  been  recorded. 
The  French  physicians  are  entitled  to  the  credit 
of  having  first  recognized  and  described  it. 
Esquirol  was  aware  of  the  complications  of  in 
sanity  with  paralysis,  but  did  not  recognize  the 
whole  as  a  distinct  disease.  Bayle  in  1822  at 
tributed  the  cause  to  chronic  inflammation  of 
the  arachnoid,  and  named  the  disease  arachni 
tis  cJironique.  M.  Calmeil  in  1826  gave  a  com 
plete  account  of  it,  and  for  that  reason  he  is 
often  called  its  discoverer.  It  has  received 
several  names,  as  folie  paralytique,  paralysie 
generale  progressive,  and  Geisterkrankheit  mit 
Paralyse.  In  England  and  America  it  has 
usually  been  called  general  paralysis  of  the 
insane,  or  paralytic  insanity,  and  lately  it  is 
often  called  simply  "  paresis."  It  is  generally 
regarded  as  presenting  three  stages:  1,  the 
period  of  incubation;  2,  the  acute  maniacal 
period ;  3,  the  period  of  chronic  mania,  lapsing 
into  dementia,  with  utter  prostration  of  both 
mind  and  body.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
disease  an  alteration  in  the  manner  of  the  pa 
tient  may  be  observed,  similar  to  that  which  is 
noticed  in  other  forms  of  insanity,  although 
there  are  commonly  other  symptoms  which  are 
of  importance  in  forming  a  diagnosis,  such 
as  excessive  extravagance  in  the  spending  of 
money.  A  general  paralytic  is  liable  to  com- 


INSANITY 


305 


mit  outrageous  and  immodest  acts,  such  as  ex 
posure  of  person  and  foolish  assaults  upon 
women;  he  is  easily  aroused  into  a  passion,  which 
often  rises  to  uncontrollable  fury ;  he  neglects 
his  business,  fails  to  keep  appointments,  and 
exhibits  a  general  weakening  of  the  mind  simi 
lar  to  that  in  the  commencement  of  senile  de 
mentia.  This,  occurring  in  a  vigorous  man, 
cannot  but  be  regarded  as  a  remarkable  symp 
tom,  and  of  alarming  import.  These  symptoms 
increase  rapidly,  so  that  the  disease  will  have 
greatly  advanced  in  a  few  weeks.  He  sleeps 
badly,  eats  and  drinks  irregularly  and  often 
voraciously,  spilling  his  food  on  his  dress,  of 
which  he  takes  but  little  care.  lie  is  for  a 
time  sullen  and  morose,  but  as  the  disease  ad 
vances  grows  more  and  more  excitable;  and  it 
soon  becomes  evident  that  he  needs  restraint. 
A  maniacal  condition  ensues,  in  which  he  as 
sumes  airs  of  great  importance,  imagines  him 
self  possessed  of  unbounded  riches,  and  the 
owner  of  studs  of  the  fleetest  horses.  An  or 
dinary  maniac  may  imagine  himself  a  duke  and 
the  possessor  of  vast  wealth,  but  he  will  show 
some  consistency  in  adhering  to  the  same 
delusion ;  while  the  general  paralytic  will 
style  himself  a  duke,  a  prince,  and  a  king  al 
most  in  the  same  sentence,  and  will  announce 
his  intention  of  doing  a  hundred  impossible 
things  on  the  next  day.  lie  has  extravagant 
notions  of  his  intellectual,  and  particularly  of 
his  physical  strength,  and  when  in  the  last 
stages  of  bodily  weakness  will  maintain  that 
he  can  perform  the  most  wonderful  feats.  lie 
nearly  always  says  that  he  feels  well,  even 
when  not  able  to  feed  himself.  In  consequence 
of  these  peculiar  symptoms,  the  French  have 
called  the  disease  manie  des  grandeurs.  His 
speech  generally  shows  the  first  effects  of  pa 
ralysis,  although  it  sometimes  commences  in 
the  lower  extremities.  The  articulation  be 
comes  obstructed,  somewhat  like  that  of  a 
drunken  man.  It  is  not  a  true  stammer,  but 
shows  a  want  of  power  over  the  vocal  organs. 
There  is  often  a  peculiar  tremulousness  of  the 
lips,  such  as  is  seen  in  grief.  The  defect  in 
speech  varies  from  time  to  time,  sometimes 
not  being  noticeable  except  to  the  practised 
physician,  and  at  others  rendering  the  patient 
unintelligible.  The  subjects  of  the  disease  are 
almost  always  men  in  the  prime  of  life.  It 
does  not  attack  boys  or  old  men,  and  rarely 
women.  The  violence  of  the  mania  attend 
ing  general  paralysis  is  of  the  most  danger 
ous  character ;  its  subjects  become  possessed 
with  a  blind  fury,  and  know  not  what  they  are 
about.  In  this  stage  they  are  not  paralyzed 
sufficiently  in  their  limbs  to  prevent  them  from 
doing  serious  harm ;  therefore  the  restraints 
of  an  asylum  are  almost  absolutely  necessary. 
Other  symptoms  appear  in  time.  Fits  resem 
bling  apoplexy  or  epilepsy  occur  from  time 
to  time,  dividing  the  disease  into  stages. 
They  are  called  "congestive,"  or  "paralytic," 
or  "  epileptiform  "  attacks,  and  resemble  some 
times  the  petit  mal  of  epilepsy,  at  others  the 


grand  mal.  Again,  they  may  not  be  attended 
by  any  convulsion,  but  by  sudden  collapse  and 
paralysis,  which  slowly  passes  away.  The  epi 
leptiform  attacks  have  not  the  definiteness  of 
epileptic  fits,  but  may  last  an  hour  or  two,  or 
pass  off  so  rapidly  that  the  patient  may  con 
tinue  standing.  It  is  important  to  distinguish 
these  fits  from  those  of  true  epilepsy,  as  the 
latter  are  more  benefited  by  treatment,  even 
when  accompanied  by  insanity.  In  fits  of  gen 
eral  paralysis  patients  seldom  bite  the  tongue, 
while  in  epilepsy  they  almost  always  do.  The 
pupils  of  the  eyes  will  generally  be  found  ir 
regular,  and  when  this  symptom  is  present  it  is 
important.  In  108  cases  of  general  paralysis 
examined  by  Dr.  Nasse  of  Siegburg,  the  irreg 
ularity  was  present  in  all  but  three.  Dr.  Aus 
tin  found  only  two  exceptions  in  100  cases. 
Irregularity  of  the  pupils  may,  however,  exist 
in  other  forms  of  insanity,  and  also  in  the 
sane  in  other  affections  of  the  brain,  but  it  is 
much  more  rare.  AVhen  accompanied  with 
the  other  symptoms  of  general  paralysis,  it  may 
be  considered  pathognomonic.  The  course  of 
general  paralysis  has  an  average  duration  of 
about  two  years ;  some  few  cases  last  only  a 
few  weeks,  and  some  may  run  on  for  five  or 
six  years.  The  maniacal  or  second  period  may 
last  from  a  wTeek  to  two  months,  and  generally 
yields  to  treatment,  the  patient  getting  better, 
so  that  he  is  able  to  go  about  and  appear  like  a 
sane  man  for  a  while ;  or  he  passes  into  a  state 
of  dementia,  and  so  on  downward  to  extinction 
of  mind  and  body.  Sometimes  after  apparent 
recovery  the  subjects  of  this  disease  may  at 
tempt  to  reengage  in  business,  but  such  attempts 
have  always  been  found  to  fail.  The  last  stage, 
that  of  dementia,  is  sad  indeed,  and  it  is  fortu 
nate  that  the  disease  is  rapid  in  its  progress.  The 
patient  can  scarcely  walk  or  feed  himself,  and 
there  is  constant  tremor  of  the  hands ;  a  habit 
of  grinding  his  teeth  in  a  most  horrible  man 
ner  comes  on  at  this  time ;  and  his  appetite 
remains  good,  but  the  power  of  swallowing 
is  greatly  diminished,  and  he  will  often  go  on 
cramming  food  into  his  mouth  until  he  be 
comes  nearly  suffocated.  The  cause  of  general 
paralysis  is  a  subject  of  discussion.  Some  au 
thorities  have  but  little  doubt  that  it  is  gen 
erally  produced  by  fast  living,  excess  in  wine 
and  in  sexual  intercourse,  particularly  the  lat 
ter.  Others  deny  this,  saying  that  it  may  arise 
from  extreme  mental  exertion,  greatly  pro 
longed,  and  point  to  examples  in  men  of  a  high 
order  of  intellect  in  which  this  was  the  only 
assignable  cause.  "Whenever  it  attacks  women, 
which  is  but  rarely,  it  is  nearly  always  those 
who  have  led  irregular  lives.  Dr.  Dickson  has 
observed  that  its  subjects  are  almost  invariably 
men  who  have  had  no  children.  If  this  be  a  rule, 
it  may  point  to  a  hereditary  origin,  and  also  to 
a  tendency  to  die  out.  He  also  inclines  to  the 
opinion  that  the  excesses  of  the  patients  are 
more  to  be  regarded  as  evidences  of  the  disease 
than  as  causes. — The  insanity  which  accompa 
nies  true  epilepsy,  and  which  is  known  as  epilep- 


306 


INSANITY 


tic  insanity,  has  of  late  years  received  much  at 
tention,  and  many  remarkable  relations  have 
been  established  between  it  and  other  diseases 
and  insanity,  especially  that  form  called  impul 
sive  insanity.  The  tendency  to  epilepsy  is  he 
reditary,  although  it  may  be  produced  by  blows 
on  the  head  and  other  injuries  to  the  brain.  It 
has  been  found  to  have  strong  relations  to  pa 
ralysis,  to  chorea,  and  also  to  phthisis,  which 
are  indicated  by  the  fact  that  children  of  tuber 
culous  parents  may  inherit  epilepsy,  chorea,  or 
paralysis,  and  vice  versa;  or  insanity  in  off 
spring  may  follow  these  diseases  in  parents. 
These  diseases  may  also  follow  each  other  in 
the  same  individual,  an  attack  of  mania  appear 
ing  in  place  of  epilepsy,  the  latter,  however, 
being  the  primary  disease.  The  investigations 
of  Dr.  Echeverria  have  aided  in  establishing 
many  important  facts  in  regard  to  the  subject, 
which  had  previously  received  the  attention 
of  Delasiauve,  Morel,  Falret,  Baillarger,  Trous 
seau,  and  others.  They  comprised  the  exam 
ination  of  more  than  700  epileptics,  embracing 
a  period  of  over  13  years.  The  recorded  cases 
number  532,  of  which  267  were  cases  of  epi 
leptic  insanity,  comprising  141  males  and  126 
females.  Out  of  these  the  causes  were  dis 
tinctly  ascertained  in  123  males  and  104  fe 
males.  Insanity,  paralysis,  or  epilepsy  oc 
curred  among  the  ancestors  of  37  males  and  46 
females  ;  among  the  ancestors  of  the  37  males 
there  were  11  cases  of  phthisis,  and  among 
those  of  the  46  females  there  were  13  cases  of 
phthisis.  He  found  that  epileptic  insanity  may 
have  an  intermittent,  remittent,  and  a  continu 
ous  form ;  the  intermittent  being  characterized 
by  periodical  attacks  of  variable  regularity,  the 
remittent  having  only  partial  recovery  of  in 
tellectual  soundness  between  the  epileptic  par 
oxysms  and  maniacal  attacks,  and  the  continu 
ous  form  presenting  a  permanent  and  unmodi 
fied  condition  of  insanity.  Dr.  Echeverria 
does  not  find  that  the  petit  mal  and  the  grand 
mal  of  epilepsy  exercise  so  different  an  influ 
ence  upon  the  violence  of  the  succeeding  mani 
acal  attacks  as  has  by  some  been  supposed. 
The  acts  of  the  epileptic  insane  are  always  sud 
den  and  instantaneous,  and  beyond  the  control 
of  the  will ;  but  it  must  not  be  assumed  that 
the  mania  which  causes  the  acts  is  itself  instan 
taneous.  He  thinks  that  most  of  the  cases  of 
mania  transitoria  are  those  of  epilepsy  or  epi 
leptic  insanity.  Epileptic  insanity  is  of  a  vio 
lent  and  dangerous  character,  with  strong  homi 
cidal  tendencies,  and  is  remarkable  from  the 
fact  that  the  patient  during  his  maniacal  ex 
citement,  which  may  last  for  hours,  and  during 
which  he  may  be  wandering  around,  is  wholly 
unconscious.  (See  also  Maudsley,  "  Eesponsi- 
bility  in  Mental  Disease,"  1874.)— The  aphasia 
which  occurs  in  certain  cases  of  insanity  is  be 
lieved  by  many  to  have  found  an  explanation 
in  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Ferrier  of  King's 
college,  London,  which  are  regarded  as  strong 
evidence  of  the  localization  of  cerebral  func 
tions  ;  but  the  correctness  of  this  conclusion  is 


denied  by  Dr.  Brown-S6quard  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  national  academy  of  science  at 
Washington  in  April,  1874. — Dementia,  or  loss 
of  mind,  may  be  primary,  or  it  may  be  secon 
dary  to  other  forms  of  insanity,  as  mania,  gen 
eral  paralysis,  epilepsy,  and  more  rarely  melan 
cholia,  and  differs  from  idiocy  and  imbecility 
in  not  being  congenital.  It  is  the  inevitable 
stage  into  which  degeneration  of  brain  tissue, 
if  continued  long  enough,  always  passes,  and  is 
of  course  incurable,  the  only  treatment  being 
that  directed  to  the  general  health,  and  when 
possible  ministering  to  the  comfort  of  the  suf 
ferer. — Idiocy  and  Imbecility.  The  great  dif 
ference  between  these  conditions  is,  that  though 
they  are  both  congenital,  the  subjects  of  the 
former  have  badly  shaped  and  deficiently  de 
veloped  brains,  while  those  of  the  latter  are 
usually  well  shaped,  but  fail  in  consequence  of 
congenital  pathological  conditions  similar  to 
those  found  in  dementia.  This  condition  is  to 
a  certain  though  less  extent  also  found  in 
idiots,  but  many  of  them  are  more  susceptible 
of  mental  cultivation  than  imbeciles,  because 
the  brain  of  the  idiot  may  be  somewhat  de 
veloped  by  exercise.  (See  IDIOCY.) — Pathology 
of  Insanity  in  general.  The  subject  of  an  at 
tack  of  acute  mania  may  die  in  a  week  from 
the  commencement.  A  post-mortem  examina 
tion  shows  the  cerebral  membranes  congested ; 
the  sinuses  and  the  veins  of  the  pia  mater  may 
be  full  of  blood,  and  there  may  be  effusion  of 
serum  beneath  the  arachnoid  and  the  serous 
membrane.  In  those  who  have  had  previous 
attacks  or  who  have  been  partially  insane  there 
is  often  thickening  of  the  bones  of  the  cra 
nium,  with  adhesion  and  thickening  of  the  dura 
mater,  indications  of  a  chronic  inflammatory 
condition.  The  brain  will  present  discolored 
patches  of  a  pink  or  purple  hue,  and  also  soften 
ing.  The  cells,  nerve  tubes,  and  connective 
areolar  tissue  may  also  be  found  more  or  less 
changed.  Blood  cysts  are  often  found  in  the 
cavity  of  the  arachnoid,  and  extravasated  blood 
on  the  surface  of  the  convolutions  and  in  the 
cerebral  substance.  In  cases  of  chronic  mania 
and  dementia  there  are  usually  more  definite 
changes.  The  nerve  cells  are  altered  in  char 
acter,  and  the  nerve  tubes  leading  from  them 
are  shrunken  and  sometimes  disconnected. 
The  inferior  tissues  are  increased,  and  abnormal 
tissues  take  the  place  of  those  that  are  healthy, 
interfering  with  the  functions  of  that  which 
remains.  The  wasting  of  the  brain  is  an  im 
portant  pathological  condition.  There  is  a  loss 
of  substance,  the  brains  of  the  insane  weighing 
less  in  proportion  to  the  cavity  of  the  cranium 
than  in  other  cases.  Dr.  Lockhart  Clarke  has 
pointed  out  peculiar  and  numerous  cavities  in 
the  white  substance  of  the  convolutions  and  of 
the  optic  thalami  of  the  brains  of  chronic  ma 
niacs  and  the  demented,  and  also  in  those  who 
have  died  of  general  paralysis.  These  cavities 
are  generally  regarded  as  widened  perivascular 
spaces,  formed  by  the  dilatation  of  the  peri- 
vascular  canals  which  surround  the  blood  ves- 


INSANITY 


307 


sels  (probably  the  adventitious  tunic  of  Vir- 
chow).  They  are  called  perivascular  cavities, 
and  present  the  appearance  of  holes  seen  in 
Gruyere  cheese.  They  are  generally  empty, 
having  smooth  walls,  without  any  lining  mem 
brane,  but  some  of  them  containing  the  ves 
tiges  of  blood  vessels,  with  a  few  granules  of 
haematoidine.  Drs.  Batty,  Tuke,  and  Ruther 
ford  have  also  observed  holes  differing  some 
what  from  these,  which,  from  their  ragged 
character,  they  regard  as  produced  by  a  solution 
of  continuity  of  brain  tissue,  or  to  extravasa 
tion  and  subsequent  absorption  of  blood.  The 
cells  of  the  corpora  striata  and  other  nerve 
centres,  and  of  the  convolutions,  are  found  in 
a  state  of  pigmentary  degeneration,  and  some 
times  in  place  of  this  fatty  degeneration.  Rind- 
fleisch,  Eokitansky,  Wedl,  Tuke,  and  Ruther 
ford  have  pointed  out  hypertrophy  of  the  con 
nective  tissue  in  long  standing  cases  of  insanity, 
and  particularly  in  the  cortical  layers  of  the 
brain  in  general  paralysis.  Increase  of  connec 
tive  tissue  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be  pecu 
liar  to  general  paralysis,  but  it  is  now  known  to 
be  common  to  dementia  following  chronic  ma 
nia,  as  well  as  that  which  is  consecutive  to  syph 
ilis  and  in  congenital  idiocy.  Schroeder  van 
der  Kolk  found  dark  pigmentary  degeneration 
in  the  ganglionic  cells  of  the  hypoglossal  nerve, 
in  a  case  of  dementia  after  mania,  where  there 
was  partial  paralysis  of  the  tongue.  Pigmen 
tary  changes  of  a  like  nature  have  been  found 
in  the  retina,  in  what  is  called  retinitis  pig- 
mentosa;  and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that 
they  occur  in  members  of  the  same  family 
and  where  there  is  common  deficiency  of  de 
velopment.  A  pathological  condition  has  been 
found  in  general  paralysis  by  Drs.  Poincari  and 
Henri  Bonnet,  which  it  is  thought  will  throw 
much  light  on  the  nature  of  this  peculiar  dis 
ease.  They  have  found  brown  pigmentary  de 
generation  in  the  ganglionic  cells  of  the  whole 
chain  of  the  great  sympathetic  nerve,  to  a  de 
gree  far  greater  than  in  other  cases.  In  the 
cervical  and  thoracic  ganglia  they  found  a  sub 
stitution  of  adipose  cells  for  nerve  cells,  and 
they  are  led  to  believe  that  this  is  the  starting 
point  of  the  disease.  A  remarkable  morbid 
appearance  sometimes  found,  called  the  insane 
ear,  or  Jicamatoma  auris,  caused  by  an  effu 
sion  of  blood  between  the  perichondrium  and 
cartilage,  which  without  bursting  shrinks  away 
and  leaves  the  ear  shrivelled,  is  a  peculiar  and 
it  is  thought  certain  evidence  that  the  person 
is  or  has  at  some  time  been  insane.  The  sub 
ject  received  particular  attention  from  Dr.  E. 
R.  Ilun  while  special  pathologist  to  the  New 
York  state  lunatic  asylum  at  Utica ;  and  from 
his  investigations,  which  were  published  in  the 
"  American  Journal  of  Insanity "  for  July, 
1870,  he  established  the  following  general 
conditions.  Preceding  the  appearance  of  the 
tumor,  one  (rarely  both)  of  the  ears  becomes 
red  and  swollen,  the  face  and  eyes  of  the 
patient  at  the  same  time  indicating  strong  de 
termination  of  blood  to  the  head.  Sometimes, 


however,  the  redness  is  absent,  while  the  tume 
faction  is  caused  by  an  cedematous  state  of  the 
auricle.  In  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  or  it 
may  be  several  days,  an  effusion  of  blood  ap 
pears  on  the  concave  surface  of  the  auricle, 
varying  in  size  from  a  bean  to  a  hen's  egg,  in 
the  latter  case  obliterating  the  natural  ridges 
and  depressions.  Although  apparently  hard 
and  unyielding,  a  careful  examination  detects 
a  feeling  of  fluctuation  and  sometimes  slight 
crepitation,  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  break 
ing  up  of  blood  clots.  The  skin  is  smooth  and 
distended,  and  of  a  purple  color,  except  that  of 
the  lobe,  which  is  unchanged.  If  the  skin  is 
ruptured,  clotted  blood  escapes ;  and  if  let  alone, 
the  opening  closes  and  the  sac  refills.  If  kept 
open,  however,  a  sero-purulent  discharge  takes 
place,  which  may  continue  for  a  long  time, 
exudation  of  plastic  lymph  occurring  in  the 
mean  time,  uniting  the  walls  of  the  cavity,  and 
by  subsequent  contraction  of  the  cicatrix  pro 
ducing  the  peculiar  shrivelled  appearance  which 
is  the  sequence  of  the  acute  affection.  When 
the  sac  does  not  become  ruptured,  much  less 
deformity  results.  Examinations  of  the  pulse 
of  the  insane  have  revealed  some  remarkable 
characteristics,  which  are  described  in  the  arti 
cle  PULSE. — Enumeration  of  the  Insane.  The 
following  table  of  the  insane  in  various  coun 
tries,  compiled  from  the  report  of  Dr.  E.  T. 
Wilkins,  commissioner  in  lunacy  for  the  state 
of  California,  made  in  December,  1871,  con 
tains  the  most  complete  synopsis  of  informa 
tion  that  can  be  procured  at  the  present  time : 


COUNTRIES. 


United  States 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

France  

Italv 

Prussia 

Other  German  states. 

Austria  (proper) 

Bavaria 

Belgium , 

Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 


1870  66 
1870176 

1870,  46 
1870  44 
1866'  99 
1864J  .. 
1&641  59 
18<U'  64 
1864i  18 
11864  11 
1865  51 
I18681  12 
,1860}  .. 
1860  .. 
11864  8 


insane  in 
institu 
tions. 


15.792 

85,913* 

6.035* 

10,258 

81.992 

8.191 

5,740 

10.595 

8.215 

1,850 

5,431 

8,179 


557 


Total 
umber  of 
insane. 


Total 
population. 


:<7.M-2  38.555.953 

54.713*  22,090.163 

7.571*,  8,222.837 

17,194  j  5,195,236 

50,726  :  87.98S.905 


16,929 


4.899t 
7,431 


5.135 
7,512 


19,252,868 

13,747,637 

18,000,000 

4,807,440 

4,984,451 

8,592.415 

2.605.024 

8,859,728 

1,668,254 


TABLE   OF  INSTITUTIONS  FOE  TITE  INSANE  IN  THE 
UNITED    STATES. 


LOCATION. 


No.  of  patlentl  at 
close  of  1873. 


Male.     Female.    TotaL 


Aupusta,  Me 

Concord,  N.  II 

Brattlehoro,  Yt 

Somerville,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Taunton,  Mass 

Worcester,  Mass 1*32 

Northampton,  Mass..  1857 
Providence,  R.I 1845: 


1840 
1-42 
1836 
IMS1 
1839 
Is53 


State I  205 

State i  140 

Corporate . .  237 

Corporate . .  j  80 

City 106 

State !  288 

State I  206 

State |  210 

Corporate..)  65 


206 

127 

288 

81 

91 

196 

261 

228 

64 


411 
267 
470 
161 
197 
484 
469 
438 
129 


*  Including  idiots.       t  In  1861. 


308 


INSANITY 


INSECT  FERTILIZATION 


Table  of  Institutions  for  the  Insane — continued. 


LOCATION. 

l! 

Character. 

No.  of  patients  at 
close  of  1873. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Middletown,  Conn... 
Hartford,  Conn  
Litchfleld,  Conn  
Bloomingdale,  N.  Y.. 
Blackwell's  lsl'd,N.Y. 
Ward's  Island,  N.  Y.. 
Ward's  Island  (emi 
grant),  N.  Y  

1866 
1624 

is2i 
is6i 

1845 
1S5T» 
187'2 
lt-5'J 
1843 
186!) 

State  
Corporate  .  . 
Private 

175 

74 

220 
74 

395 

148 

Corporate  .  . 
City  
City  

84 
23 
559 

98 
14 
287 
91 
84 
294 
817 
77 
37 

sis 

210 

42 
441 

216 
107 
251 

15 

108 
70 
468 
115 
92 
161 
151 
124 
154 
294 
168 
150 
76 
60 
188 
202 
87 
284 
275 

105 
1,049 

89 
13 
431 
94 
57 
286 
453 
9 
85 

840 

206 

36 
582 
192 
59 
199 

10 
144 
57 
152 
153 
102 
153 
138 
118 
155 
270 
162 
154 
89 
55 
184 
120 
68 
244 
302 

1^9 

1,077 
559 

187 
27 
718 
185 
91 
580 
770 
86 
72 

27 
653 

416 

78 
1,023 
408 
166 
450 

25 
252 
127 
620 
268 
194 
334 
284 
242 
809 
564 
830 
804 
165 
115 
872* 
822 
155 
528 
577* 

State  .  . 
Private     .  . 
County 
State  .  . 
County     .  . 
State  .  . 
State  .  . 
State 

Flushing,  N.  Y  
Flatbush,  N.  Y  
Poughkeepsio,  N.Y.  . 
Troy,  N.  Y  
Utica,  N.  Y  

Willard,  N.  Y  
Auburn  (crim'l),  N.Y. 
Canandaigua,  N.  Y.  .  . 
Middletown,  N.  Y  .  .  . 

Trenton,  N.  J  
Pennsylvania   Hospi 
tal  for  Insano,  Phil 
adelphia  
Friends1  asylum,  Phil 
adelphia.. 

1855 
1874 

1847 

1841 
1817 

isoi 

1872 
1857 

Private  
State      Ho 
moeopathic. 
State  

Corporate.. 

Corporate  .  . 
City  

Almshouse,  Philad'a. 
Harrisburg,  Pa  

State  
State 

Danville  Pa    . 

Dixmont,  Pa  
Burn  Brae,  near  Phil 
adelphia  

Corporate  .  . 
Private  

Mount  Hope,  Md  .... 
Catonsville,  Md  
"Washington,  D.  C.  .   . 
Williamsburg,  Va.  . 
Richmond,  Va  
Staunton,  Va  
Weston,  W.  Va  
Ealeigh,  N.  C  
Columbia,  8.  C  
Milledgeville,  Ga..    . 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala  
Jackson,  Miss  

1842 
^7-2 

1*55 

1773 

1870 
ls-2-5 
1S64 

is:>r> 
1827 
1841 
1860 
1855 

Corporate  .  . 
State  
National  .  . 
State  
State  

State  ..  .. 
State  ..  .. 
State  ..  .. 
State  ..  .. 
State  ..  .. 
State  . 

State  

State 

Austin,  Tex                  1861 

State 

Nashville,  Tenn  
Hopkins  ville,  Ky..  . 
Anchorage,  Ky  
Lexington,  Ky  

184s 

isr>4 

1S73 
1-24 
1^60 
1^74 
1855 
1S55 
l$r>« 
1848 
1S48 
1871 
1874 

1867 
IMiO 
1873 
1861 
1872 
1S66 
1851 
1868 

State  
State  .  .  . 

State  

State  ...  . 

Carthage,  O  
Athens,  O  

City  
State  ...  . 

Dayton,  O. 

State 

262 
137 
157 
267 
235 
107 

298 
113 
148 
207 
287 
65 

560 
250 
805* 
474 
472 
172 

Newburgh,  O  
Kalainazoo,  Mich  
Indianapolis,  Ind  
Jacksonville,  111.... 

State  
State  
State  
State  
State  

Elgin,  111  

Anna,  111 

State 

Batavia,  Bellevue  pi., 

Private  
State  
State  
State  
State  
State  
State  
County  

Corporate  .  . 
State  
State  
i  State  
State  
.  State  

149 
102 
273 
57 
159 
174 
129 

115 
32 

93 
832 
119 
29 

80 
165 
103 
222 
56 
144 
129 
170 

98 
21 

81 
824 

48 
7 

80 
814 
205 
495 
113 
803 
803t 
299 

213 
53 
178* 
1,156 
167 
86 

Madison,  Wis  
Oshkosh,  Wis  
Mount  Pleasant,  la.. 
Independence,  la  
St.  Peter,  Minn  
Fulton,  Mo  
St.  Louis  co.,  Mo  
St.     Vincent's     (St. 
Louis).  Mo  

Lincoln,  Neb  1871 
Ossawattomie,  Kan  .'1866 
Stockton,  Cal  1853 
Portland,  Oreg  i  
Steilacoom,  W.  T.  .   .1872 

— See  the  works  of  Thomas  Arnold,  P.  II. 
Pinel,  James  Cowles  Prichard,  E.  Esquirol,  J. 
Haslarn,  J.  Conolly,  Pliny  Earle,  J.  Thurman, 
Brierre  deBoismont,  F.  J.  Broussais,  Feuchters- 
leben,  Georget,  and  Bucknill  and  Tuke ;  "  Medi 


cal  Jurisprudence  of  Insanity,"  by  I.  Kay  (Bos 
ton,  1838,  and  later  editions);  "Medical  Ju 
risprudence  of  Insanity,"  by  D.  Tilden  Brown, 
in  Beck's  "Medical  Jurisprudence;"  "Mental 
Pathology  and  Therapeutics,"  by  W.  Grie- 
singer,  translated  from  the  German  (London, 
18G7);  "Insanity  and  its  Treatment,"  by  G. 
Fielding Blandford (Philadelphia,  1871);  "Phy 
siology  and  Pathology  of  the  Mind,"  by  Henry 
Maudsley  (London,  1872) ;  "  Insanity  and  its 
Relation  to  Crime,"  by  W.  A.  Hammond  (New 
York,  1873)  ;  "  Contributions  to  Mental  Pa 
thology,"  by  I.  Ray  (Boston,  1874) ;  "Medicine 
in  Relation  to  Mind,"  by  J.  Thompson  Dickson 
(London,  1874)  ;  "  Responsibility  in  Mental 
Disease,"  by  Henry  Maudsley  (New  York, 
1874);  "Mental  Physiology,"  by  William  B. 
Carpenter  (London,  1874);  '"West  Riding  Lu 
natic  Asylum  Reports;"  "Journal  of  Mental 
Science  "  (London) ;  "  American  Journal  of  In 
sanity  "  (Utica,  N.  Y.) ;  and  the  Annalcs  Medi- 
co-psychologiques  (Paris). 

INSECT  FERTILIZATION.  It  has  long  been 
a  matter  of  common  observation  that  many 
plants,  with  their  stamens  and  pistils  in  sepa 
rate  flowers,  whether  monoecious  or  dioecious, 
depend  upon  insects  for  their  fertilization; 
the  insects,  in  their  visits  from  flower  to  flower 
in  search  of  honey,  evidently  bring  the  pollen 
from  the  anthers  of  the  staminate  to  the  stig 
mas  of  the  pistillate  flowers,  as  every  gardener 
knows  who  has  tried  to  keep  his  varieties  of 
melons  and  other  plants  of  the  same  family  in 
a  condition  of  purity.  Darwin,  in  his  work 
"  The  Fertilization  of  Orchids"  (London,  1862), 
showed  that  many  perfect  flowers,  with  their 
pistils  and  stamens  in  close  proximity,  are  so 


Section  of  Iris. 


*  1872. 


1 1870. 


constructed  that  the  pollen  can  never  without 
extrinsic  aid  reach  the  pistil  of  its  own  flower, 
or  serve  to  fertilize  that  of  any  other  flower. 
He  showed  that  there  is  a  complete  provision 
that  the  flowers  of  many  orchids  should  never 


INSECT  FERTILIZATION 


INSECTIVORA 


309 


be  fertilized  by  their  own  pollen — in  other 
words,  that  in-and-in  breeding  is  impossible — 
and  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  cross  fertil 
ization  is  necessary  among  flowers  of  the  same 
species,  in  order  to  promote  the  greater  vigor 
of  the  whole,  and  to  prevent  the  perpetuation 
and  fixation  of  individual  peculiarities.  This 
subject  has  since  received  the  attention  of 
many  close  observers,  and  many  interesting 
facts  have  been  established.  It  has  been  found 
that  in  perfect  or  hermaphrodite  flowers,  which 
were  supposed  to  be  especially  arranged  for 
self-fertilization,  the  stamens  and  pistils,  while 
close  together,  are  really  so  placed  with  refer 
ence  to  one  another  that  self-fertilization  is 
almost  impossible,  and  unless  insects  come  to 
their  aid  no  seed  will  be  produced.  It  is  an 
other  interesting  point  that  flowers  needing  the 
aid  of  insects  are  supplied  with  an  attraction 
for  them  in  the  form  of  nectar.  In  most  flowers 
the  pollen  is  a  fine  dust  which  readily  adheres 
to  whatever  it  touches,  and  the  contrivances  to 
prevent  the  pollen  of  a  flower  from  reaching 
its  own  pistil  are  no  more  varied  and  inter 
esting  than  those  which  insure  that  a  bee  or 
other  insect  shall  come  in  contact  with  this 
pollen  and  carry  it  off  upon  its  body.  To  il 
lustrate  this,  an  engraving  (from  Gray)  of  a 
section  of  the  flower  of  a  common  iris  or 
flower-de-luce  will  serve.  In  this  there  are 
three  recurved  outer  petals  and  three  erect 
inner  ones,  united  below  in  a  tube ;  the  pistil 
has  three  styles,  which  are  broad,  petal-like, 
and  notched  at  the  top  ;  each  style  bears  just  | 
below  the  notch  a  stigma,  which  is  a  thin  plate  j 
projecting  like  a  little  shelf,  the  upper  side 
only  of  which  is  stigmatic,  or  capable  of  receiv 
ing  pollen  ;  below  each  stigma  is  an  anther,  as 
seen  in  the  engraving.  Here  the  stamen  and 
pistil  are  not  only  in  the  same  flower,  but  in 
actual  contact ;  yet  while  everything  appears 
favorable  for  the  pollen  to  reach  the  stigma,  it 
cannot  do  so  of  itself,  for  the  anther  or  pollen 
case  has  the  openings  through  which  it  dis 
charges  pollen  turned  outward,  and  the  stigma 
is  above  and  its  receptive  portion  turned  away 
from  the  anther.  When  an  insect  visits  this 
flower,  it  can  only  get  at  the  honey  by  crawl 
ing  in  under  the  petal-like  style,  and  in  so  do 
ing,  as  well  as  in  making  its  exit,  it  must  rub 
against  the  anther  and  become  dusted  with 
pollen ;  when  the  insect  thus  charged  with 
pollen  goes  to  another  flower,  it  must,  in  its 
attempts  to  get  under  the  style  to  reach  the 
honey,  dust  some  of  its  pollen  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  the  shelf-like  stigma.  To  explain 
the  many  ways  in  which  this  plan  is  varied 
would  require  a  volume  ;  the  curious  modifica 
tions  of  it  in  only  a  portion  of  a  single  family, 
the  orchidacecB,  fill  a  book  of  over  350  pages. 
The  common  barberry  has  irritable  stamens, 
and  the  laurel  (Kalmia)  has  its  stamens  bent 
like  a  spring,  the  anthers  being  caught  in 
notches  in  the  corolla,  but  when  disturbed  the 
bent  filaments  spring  toward  the  pistil  with 
force.  These  were  both  regarded  as  admirable 


contrivances  for  bringing  the  pollen  in  contact 
with  the  stigma,  but  closer  observation  has 
shown  that  these  sensitive  stamens  scatter  their 
pollen  rather  on  the  insect  which  irritates  them 
than  on  the  pistil  of  their  own  flower.  In  order 
to  insure  cross  fertilization  in  many  cases,  the 
stamens  discharge  their  pollen  before  the  pistil 
is  sufficiently  mature  to  receive  it,  or  vice  versa. 
Dichogamous  is  the  term  adopted  to  express 
this  unequal  perfection  of  stamens  and  pistils, 
of  which  the  common  plantain  (plantago) 
affords  an  illustration.  Flowers  alike  in  all 
other  respects  are  often  dimorphous  as  to  their 
stamens  and  pistils ;  primroses  in  the  garden 
and  the  wild  bluets  (Homtonia\  so  common  in 
spring,  furnish  examples.  In  these  flowers  the 
corolla  has  a  long  tube  and  an  expanded  limb. 
In  some  of  the  flowers  the  stamens  appear  at 
the  throat  of  the  corolla,  while  the  style  is 
very  short ;  in  others  the  style  projects,  and 
the  stamens  are  low  down  in  the  tube.  In 
either  case  self-fertilization  is  not  likely  to  oc 
cur,  but  an  insect  with  a  long  proboscis  has  an 
ample  opportunity  to  effect  cross  fertilization. 
There  are  also  trimorphous  flowers,  in  which 
there  are  three  kinds  of  stamens  and  styles  as 
to  length,  admirably  adapted  to  secure  service 
from  the  different  kinds  of  insects  that  visit 
them.  Sometimes  the  insects  suffer  from  the 
performance  of  this  service ;  the  pollen  of  the 
milkweeds  (asclepias)  is  in  waxy,  pear-shaped 
masses,  joined  in  pairs  with  an  adhesive  at 
tachment  to  the  little  stalk  which  unites  them. 
Did  not  the  legs  of  the  insects  in  search  of 
nectar  come  in  contact  with  this  adhesive  at 
tachment,  and  by  its  means  draw  the  pollen 
masses  from  their  pouches,  the  pollen  could 
never  reach  the  stigma  ;  it  often  happens  that 
bees  have  their  legs  so  encumbered  by  these  ad 
hering  pollen  masses,  that  when  they  reach  the 
hive  they  are  unable  to  climb  upon  the  comb, 
but  fall  down  and  perish  on  the  bottom  of 
the  hive.  Some  interesting  experiments  show 
^that  in  many  flowers  where  there  is  evident 
provision  for  self-fertilization,  the  stigma  can 
hardly  be  impregnated  by  pollen  from  the  same 
flower,  while  it  will  readily  accept  that  pro 
duced  by  another  flower,  and  that  the  agency 
of  insects  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  produc 
tion  of  seed  in  quite  perfect  flowers. — Excel 
lent  memoirs  on  this  subject  have  appeared  in 
"Nature,"  the  "American  Journal  of  Science 
and  Arts,"  and  the  "American  Naturalist." 
A  useful  resume  for  young  people  is  given  in 
Prof.  Gray's  "How  Plants  Behave"  (New 
York,  1872).  The  work  of  Darwin  already 
referred  to  is  admirable  as  showing  how  such 
investigations  should  be  conducted. 

INSECTIVOR1,  an  order  of  mammals,  sepa 
rated  from  carnivora,  feeding  wholly  or  prin 
cipally  on  insects,  their  teeth  being  studded 
with  sharp  points,  feet  short  and  plantigrade, 
often  fitted  for  digging,  and  with  perfect  clavi 
cles.  The  principal  families  are  the  hedgehogs, 
moles,  and  shrews,  which  have  been  described 
i  in  their  alphabetical  order. 


310       INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS 


INSECTS 


INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS.  In  the  article  Dio- 
the  structure  of  tlie  Yenus's  fly-trap  has 
been  described,  and  the  recent  discoveries  in 
relation  to  its  action  have  been  briefly  stated. 
The  leaves  of  the  dioncea  present  a  beautifully 
designed  and  most  efficient  insect  trap,  and 
while  the  fact  of  its  catching  insects  had  long 
been  known  and  wondered  at,  it  has  only 
within  a  few  years  been  demonstrated  that  the 
plant  does  not  catch  insects  for  amusement,  but 
food.  The  insectivorous  propensity  is  more 
strikingly  manifested  in  dioncea  than  in  any 
other  plant,  and  it  is  provided  with  a  special 
ly  devised  apparatus  for  its  gratification;  but 
there  are  other  plants  which  destroy  insects, 
and  what  is  known  of  dioncea  has  put  natu 
ralists  upon  a  course  of  observation.  The 
drosera  or  sundew,  some  species  of  which  are 
found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  has 
its  leaves  studded  with  short  hairs,  each  of 
which  is  tipped  by  a  little  globule  of  a  clear 
liquid  which,  though  it  looks  like  a  drop  of 
dew,  is  so  viscid  as  to  be  able  to  hold  fast  a 
small  insect  that  alights  upon  the  leaf.  Dead 
insects  upon  the  sundews  have  long  been  no 
ticed,  but  their  occurrence  was  considered  ac 
cidental.  It  is  now  known  that  sundews  cap 
ture  insects  with  a  motion  quite  certain  in  its 
results.  When  an  insect  is  caught  by  one  or 
more  of  the  sticky  hairs,  the  other  hairs  upon 
the  leaf  incline  toward  it,  and  bring  so  many 
adhesive  points  in  contact  with  it  that  es 
cape  is  impossible;  and  the  leaf  itself  curves 
and  partly  envelops  the  prey.  In  the  case  of 
one  long,  thread-leaved  sundew  (D.  filiformis), 
the  leaves  actually  coil  around  the  insect.  As 
in  the  case  of  dioncea,  the  action  is  excited  by 
a  piece  of  beef  as  well  as  by  an  insect,  but  to 
an  inorganic  substance,  as  a  bit  of  chalk,  it  is 
indifferent.  The  observations  of  Mrs.  Treat 
("American  Naturalist,"  Salem,  Mass.,  Decem 
ber,  1 873)  show  that  when  a  fly  is  pinned  at 
the  distance  of  half  an  inch  from  the  leaves, 
they  will  bend  toward  and  reach  it.  The  sar- 
racenias  or  pitcher  plants,  of  which  there  is 
one  species  in  the  northern  states  and  several 
in  the  southern,  all  have  tubular  leaves  which 
contain  water  in  which  are  found  great  num 
bers  of  dead  insects.  It  is  known  that  in  some 
species  at  least  there  is  near  the  opening  of 
the  pitcher  a  sweet  secretion,  which  would 
.appear  to  be  placed  there  for  the  purpose  of 
attracting  flies  and  other  insects;  indeed,  the 
whole  structure  of  the  leaves  of  these  plants 
shows  that  they  are  designed  as  insect  traps. 
The  water,  which  in  some  species  may  be 
caught  from  the  rains,  is  in  others  secreted 
by  the  plant,  as  the  orifice  is  so  covered  by 
a  hood  that  none  can  fall  in  ;  the  interior  sur 
face  of  the  pitcher-like  leaves  is  mostly  cov 
ered  with  fine  sharp  bristles  which  all  point 
downward,  and  render  it  almost  impossible  for 
an  insect  that  is  once  within  to  escape ;  if  we 
add  to  this  the  attractive  sweet  liquid  at  the 
mouth  of  the  pitcher,  which  has  been  observed 
in  two  species,  we  have  a  very  complete  insect 


trap;  indeed,  the  large  leaves  of  the  species 
called  trumpets  (/£  flcrca)  are  said  to  be  used 
in  houses  as  fly  traps.  The  abundance  of  dead 
insects  in  the  leaves  of  those  pitcher  plants 
which  are  protected  by  a  hood  may  be  cited  in 
evidence  that  their  habitual  drowning  of  them 
is  not  accidental,  but  that  the  apparatus  is  in 
tended  to  capture  and  destroy  them.  "When 
the  contents  of  one  of  these  pitcher  leaves  is 
examined  there  are  found  insects  in  all  stages, 
from  those  recently  caught  to  those  so  far  de 
composed  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  identify 
them.  The  leaves  of  the  related  California 
pitcher  plant  (Darlingtonia)  are  most  effective 
traps ;  according  to  Mr.  Robinson,  the  tubular 
leaves  are  for  a  good  portion  of  their  length 
filled  with  a  nearly  solid  mass  of  putrescent 
insects.  The  opinion  that  the  animal  matter 
thus  abundantly  secured  by  these  plants  serves 
to  nourish  them,  though  not  demonstrated,  is 
highly  probable. 

INSECTS,  six-footed  articulated  animals,  the 
most  beautiful,  most  active,  and  most  highly 
organized  of  the  invertebrata,  in  which,  ana 
tomically  considered,  they  bear  a  remarkable 
analogy  to  birds  among  the  vertebrates.  Like 
birds  they  inhabit  the  air,  earth,  and  water, 
have  an  extensive  respiratory  apparatus,  and 
consequently  a  higher  calorific  and  motor  power 
than  any  other  invertebrates.  The  number  of 
species  and  of  individuals  is  exceedingly  great, 
and  their  metamorphoses  are  among  the  most 
interesting  phenomena  in  nature.  The  class  of 
insects  includes  all  articulates  having  a  distinct 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  with  antenna, 
three  pairs  of  feet,  an  aerial  respiration  by 
means  of  tracheae,  a  feebly  developed  circula 
ting  system,  almost  all  being  winged  and  under 
going  transformation.  The  cutaneous  envelope 
forms  a  kind  of  external  skeleton,  generally 
of  a  horny  consistence,  formed  principally  of 
chitine ;  it  is  made  up  of  a  considerable  num 
ber  of  pieces  more  or  less  movable  on  each 
other,  and  is  frequently  provided  with  hairs, 
which  are  sometimes  sharp  and  barbed  (as  in 
the  processionary  caterpillars),  producing  con 
siderable  irritation  when  introduced  into  the 
human  skin.  The  limbs,  which  are  appendages 
of  the  thorax,  are  hollow  tubes  containing  the 
muscles  and  nerves  for  their  motion.  The  first 
segment  constitutes  the  head,  on  which  are 
placed  the  antenna?,  the  eyes,  and  the  oral  ap 
pendages.  The  antennaa  are  composed  of  a  va 
riable  number  of  joints,  generally  resembling 
delicate  and  flexible  horns,  plumed,  serrated, 
clubbed,  or  foliated,  according  to  genera  and 
families ;  they  are  principally  organs  of  touch. 
The  mouth  in  the  chewing  insects,  like  the 
beetles,  cockroaches,  and  grasshoppers,  con 
sists  of  an  upper  middle  piece  or  labrum  with 
a  mandible  on  each  side,  the  latter  being  very 
hard,  often  toothed  at  the  extremity ;  the  max- 
illce,  or  under  jaws  are  softer  and  of  many 
pieces,  with  maxillary  jointed  palpi,  and  the 
central  piece  is  the  Itibium  or  under  lip,  also 
supporting  jointed  palpi.  At  the  base  of  the 


INSECTS 


311 


under  lip  is  attached  tlie  tongue,  which  in 
some  is  abortive  and  in  others  long  and 
changed  into  a  suctorial  organ.  In  the  suck 
ing  insects  the  under  lip  is  transformed  into  a 
tube,  enclosing  delicate  lancet-like  filaments  or 
bristles,  modifications  of  the  mandibles  and 
maxillae;  in  the  hymenoptera  (bees,  &c.)  the 
mouth  is  intermediate  between  the  chewing 
and  the  suctorial,  having  parts  belonging  to 
both;  in  the  lepidoptera  (butterflies,  &c.)  the 
mandibles  are  very  small,  but  the  under  jaws 
are  changed  each  into  a  semi-canal  which  may 
be  rolled  up  spirally.  The  eyes  are  either 
simple  or  compound,  the  first  occurring  chiefly 
in  the  larvae  of  the  metamorphic  orders,  and 
the  second  in  perfect  insects  ;  some  have  both 
kinds  in  the  perfect  state,  and  some  adults, 
larva},  and  pupaa  are  blind.  The  compound 
organ  is  made  up  of  many  simple  eyes,  each 
having  its  cornea,  conical  vitreous  body,  pig 
ment,  and  nervous  filament;  the  number  of 
these  facets  is  sometimes  more  than  25,000. 
The  simple  eyes  (stemmata)  consist  of  a  cor 
nea,  a  lens  lodged  in  an  expansion  of  the  optic 
nerve,  and  a  surrounding  pigment  layer ;  they 
are  placed  either  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  or 
in  small  groups  on  the  vertex.  The  thorax 
supports  the  legs  and  wings,  and  consists  al 
ways  of  three  rings,  called  respectively  pro- 
thorax,  mesothorax,  and  metathorax,  each  bear 
ing  on  its  ventral  arch  a  pair  of  legs ;  the  wings 
arise  from  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  two  poste 
rior  rings.  The  limbs  consist  each  of  a  two- 
jointed  hip,  a  thigh,  a  leg,  and  a  kind  of  finger 
or  tarsus  of  two  to  five  joints  terminated  by 
the  claws ;  in  the  jumpers,  like  the  grasshop 
pers,  the  hind  legs  are  very  long  and  muscular ; 
in  the  swimmers,  like  the  water  beetles,  the 
tarsi  are  flattened,  ciliated,  and  arranged  for 
oars ;  in  the  flies,  the  feet  are  provided  with 
pads  and  hooks  by  which  they  are  enabled  to 
hang  suspended  from  smooth  surfaces ;  the  an 
terior  limbs  are  often  enlarged,  as  in  the  mole 
crickets,  which  dig  in  the  ground,  and  armed 
with  spines,  as  in  the  mantis,  which  uses  them 
to  seize  its  prey ;  in  some  of  the  butterflies  the 
anterior  limbs  are  mere  rudiments,  useless  as 
means  of  progression.  The  wings  are  mem 
branous  expansions,  rendered  firm  by  solid 
nervures ;  there  are  never  more  than  two 
pairs,  and  one  or  the  other  may  be  wanting ; 
in  the  butterfly  they  are  covered  with  a  col 
ored  dust  consisting  of  microscopic  scales ;  in 
the  beetles  the  first  pair  becomes  thick  and 
hard,  forming  the  elytra,  which  cover  and  pro 
tect  the  second  pair ;  the  wings  are  sometimes 
half  membranous,  half  corneous,  at  others  di 
vided  into  barbed  plumules,  or  wanting  and 
replaced  by  the  knob-like  balancers.  The  legs 
and  wings  are  moved  by  striated  muscles,  at 
tached  directly  to  the  cutaneous  skeleton ; 
those  of  the  wings  of  the  diptera  have  their 
fibrillre  separable  into  series  of  disks,  the  as 
tonishing  rapidity  of  their  movements  being 
dependent  on  alternate  contraction  and  relaxa 
tion.  The  abdomen  is  composed  of  rings 


movable  upon  each  other,  sometimes  to  the 
number  of  nine ;  they  bear  in  the  perfect  in 
sect  neither  legs  nor  wings,  but  are  provided 
with  various  appendages  useful  in  the  econo 
my  of  the  animal,  as  the  delicate  bristles  of 
the  ephemera,  the  nippers  of  the  earwig,  the 
spring  of  the  podurella,  the  sting  of  the  bee 
and  wasp,  and  the  ovipositor  of  the  grass 
hopper  and  the  ichneumons.  Besides  the  an 
tenna?,  the  palpi  about  the  mouth,  the  end 
of  the  suctorial  tube,  the  ovipositor,  and 
the  feet  in  some  instances,  are  delicate  or 
gans  of  touch  ;  the  tongue,  when  present, 
as  in  bees  and  flies,  is  undoubtedly  the  seat 
of  an  acute  sense  of  taste.  Though  insects 
apparently  perceive  by  the  sense  of  smell  what 
food  is  proper  for  themselves  or  their  young, 
the  seat  of  this  sense  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
determined;  Dumeril  and  Cuvier,  reasoning 
from  analogy,  concluded  that  it  was  placed  at 
the  openings  of  the  respiratory  trachea  ;  Hu- 
ber,  from  his  experiments  on  bees,  placed  it  in 
the  mouth,  Klrby  in  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  head  or  the  nose,  and  others  in  the  anten 
na  and  palpi.  Hearing  is  acute  in  many  in 
sects  ;  the  shrilling  of  the  locust,  the  tick  of 
the  deathwatch,  the  song  of  the  cricket,  &c., 
would  be  useless  unless  they  could  be  heard  by 
their  companions ;  in  the  orthoptera  especially 
an  auditory  apparatus  is  connected  with  the 
stigmata  of  the  thorax  and  the  anterior  legs ; 
the  sense  has  also  been  placed  inward  at  the 
base  of  the  antenna?.  The  sounds  of  insects 
are  produced  by  the  friction  of  one  part  of  the 
external  skeleton  on  another,  by  the  vibration 
of  special  organs,  or  by  a  particular  soniferous 
apparatus,  always  due  to  the  action  of  volun 
tary  muscles  and  unconnected  with  the  respira 
tory  system  ;  the  buzzing  of  flies  seems  to  de 
pend  on  the  rapid  vibrations  of  the  thorax  du 
ring  flight  and  on  the  passage  of  air  through 
the  thoracic  stigmata,  perhaps  intensified  by 
the  motions  of  the  wings  themselves ;  some 
beetles  produce  a  sharp  sound  by  rubbing  the 
last  abdominal  segments  against  the  curved 
points  of  the  wing  covers,  or  the  thoracic 
rings  against  each  other  ;  the  sounds  of  butter 
flies  and  of  the  death's-head  moth  are  referred 
to  friction  of  the  hips  together,  and  to  various 
causes  not  at  all  satisfactory.  The  nervous 
system  consists  of  a  brain  and  spinal  cord ;  the 
former  is  constituted  by  the  ganglia  which  em 
brace  the  o?sophagns,  and  is  situated  in  the 
first  segment ;  the  spinal  cord  is  made  up  gen 
erally  of  a  double  series  of  ganglia  united  by 
longitudinal  cords,  in  number  corresponding  to 
that  of  the  segments  of  the  body ;  the  three 
thoracic  ganglia  are  much  the  largest,  and  from 
them  are  given  off  the  nerves  to  the  legs  and 
wings.  The  alimentary  canal  is  generally  com 
plicated  and  more  or  less  convoluted ;  it  con 
sists  of  a  pharynx,  o?sophagus,  first  stomach  or 
crop,  second  or  gizzard  with  muscular  walls 
for  trituration,  third  or  chylific  ventricle  of 
soft  and  delicate  texture,  a  small  intestine, 
caecum,  and  rectum  ;  as  in  the  higher  animals, 


312 


INSECTS 


it  is  shortest  in  the  carnivorous  families,  and 
very  long  in  the  vegetable  feeders ;  it  is  kept 
in  place  by  numerous  tine  trachea)  which  en 
velop  its  whole  extent ;  in  the  sucking  insects 
there  is  only  a  sucking  stomach  opening  from 
the  oesophagus,  into  which  the  fluid  food  is 
first  taken,  as  in  the  first  stomach  of  ruminants. 
The  anus  opens  on  the  last  segment,  except  in 
some  non-feeding  pupae,  in  which  both  it  and 
the  mouth  are  wanting ;  the  salivary  glands  are 
well  developed,  opening  into  the  pharynx ;  the 
villosities  of  the  third  stomach  seem  to  secrete 
a  gastric  juice,  the  biliary  secretion  being 
poured  into  this  cavity ;  the  office  of  a  liver  is 
performed  by  crecal  appendages  lying  upon  the 
ventricle  ;  similar  organs  on  the  small  intestine 
sometimes  perform  the  office  of  a  pancreas.  An 
adipose  tissue  is  found  in  all  insects,  especially 
toward  the  end  of  the  larva  state,  gradually 
disappearing  in  the  perfect  condition,  freely 
traversed  by  trachean  branches ;  the  fatty  con 
tents  are  intimately  connected  with  the  func 
tions  of  nutrition.  The  circulatory  system 
consists  of  a  contractile  chambered  dorsal  ves 
sel  which  serves  as  a  heart,  and  a  cephalic 
aorta  which  conducts  the  blood  into  the  body ; 
the  blood  moves  from  behind  forward,  and 
passes  from  the  aorta  all  over  the  system, 
forming  regular  currents  without  vascular 
walls,  and  returning  as  venous  blood  to  the 
lateral  vessels ;  the  blood  is  usually  a  colorless 
liquid,  containing  a  few  small  oval  corpuscles. 
Respiration  is  carried  on  by  a  system  of 
tracheae  spread  through  the  entire  body,  which 
open  externally  by  stigmata,  and  admit  air 
either  directly  or  by  means  of  lamelliform  or 
tubular  prolongations  which  have  been  com 
pared  to  branchiae  ;  they  divide  into  branches, 
gradually  becoming  smaller,  ending  caecally, 
so  that  the  air  passes  out  by  the  same  way 
that  it  enters.  The  branchial  tracheae  are 
found  in  certain  aquatic  larvae  and  pupae,  and 
never  in  the  perfect  insect ;  they  do  not  commu 
nicate  externally,  but  the  air  is  received  by  en- 
dosmosis  and  exosmosis.  The  stigmata  of  the 
pulmonary  tracheae  are  usually  bordered  with  a 
fringe  of  hairs,  and  can  be  opened  and  shut  by 
internal  muscles,  whose  action  gives  to  the  ab 
domen  of  many  insects  well  marked  movements 
of  respiration  ;  there  is  generally  a  pair  on  the 
upper  portion  of  the  interstices  between  the 
rings,  being  wanting  between  the  head  and 
prothorax  and  the  last  two  abdominal  seg 
ments  ;  the  tracheae  are  often  dilated  into  large 
reservoirs  of  air.  Respiration  is  very  active 
in  insects,  and  performed  by  the  movements 
of  the  abdominal  segments;  they  require  a 
great  deal  of  air,  and  are  very  quickly  asphyxi 
ated  by  deprivation  of  oxygen;  though  not 
producing  much  animal  heat  ordinarily,  some 
times,  as  in  the  bees  when  hived,  the  respiration 
is  accelerated  and  their  temperature  percep 
tibly  elevated.  The  Malpighian  vessels,  which 
were  formerly  supposed  to  be  biliary,  are  now 
ascertained  to  be  urinary  organs,  secreting  uric 
acid  products ;  they  are  small  convoluted  tubes, 


yellowish  or  brownish,  and  open  into  the  pos 
terior  extremity  of  the  stomach.  Many  insects 
have  secretory  follicles  just  under  the  skin, 
whose  ducts  open  between  the  segments  or  be 
tween  the  joints  of  the  limbs,  or  by  the  side  of 
the  anus ;  the  fluid  secreted  is  generally  of  a 
disagreeable  odor,  and  sometimes,  as  in  the 
bugs,  very  fetid.  The  females  in  many  of  the 
Jiymenoptera,  as  the  bees  and  wasps,  have  a 
glandular  apparatus  in  the  anal  region,  which 
secretes  an  irritating  poison  introduced  into 
the  tissues  of  their  enemies  by  their  hollow 
stings.  Most  insects  undergoing  a  complete 
metamorphosis  have  in  their  larva  state  silk 
organs,  whose  secretion  they  use  in  the  forma 
tion  of  their  cocoons  and  webs ;  they  consist 
of  two  long,  flexuous  tubes  on  the  side  of  the 
body,  continuous  in  front  with  two  small  ex 
cretory  ducts  opening  on  the  under  lip;  in  a 
few  the  silk  is  spun  from  a  spinneret  project 
ing  from  the  anus  ;  the  wax-secreting  appara 
tus  has  been  described  under  BEE.  The  sexes 
are  distinct,  and  the  females  often  differ  great 
ly  from  the  males,  as  in  the  glow-worm ;  among 
the  bees  and  ants  the  females  are  much  less 
numerous  than  the  males,  and  certain  indi 
viduals  of  neither  sex,  or  neuters,  do  the  work 
and  protect  the  colony.  Most  insects  lay  eggs, 
though  a  few,  like  the  aphides,  are  viviparous  ; 
by  means  of  an  ovipositor  many  introduce  their 
eggs  into  a  deep-seated  nidus,  in  or  near  which 
the  young  can  find  the  food  suited  for  them, 
almost  always  different  from  that  required  by 
the  parents.  There  are  generally  two  symmet 
rical  ovaries  and  testes,  situated  in  the  ab 
dominal  cavity,  and  two  oviducts  uniting  into 
a  single  one  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body. 
In  their  progress  to  maturity  insects  change 
their  skins  many  times,  and  many  of  them  un 
dergo  transformations  as  singular  as  those  al 
ready  mentioned  in  the  frogs  ;  on  coming  from 
the  egg  they  are  very  different  from  their  pa 
rents  and  from  their  pupa  forms.  Before  ar 
riving  at  their  perfect  state  they  usually  pass 
through  the  larva  and  pupa  form,  which  may 
be  entirely  different,  or  vary  chiefly  in  the 
development  of  wings,  according  as  the  meta 
morphosis  is  complete  or  not.  Insects  with 
complete  metamorphosis  when  they  leave  the 
egg  or  are  in  the  larva  state  are  more  or  less 
worm-like,  with  an  elongated  soft  body  di 
vided  into  movable  rings,  normally  13  in 
number,  sometimes  with  and  sometimes  with 
out  feet;  in  no  respect  do  they  resemble 
the  parents;  the  eyes  are  generally  simple, 
and  occasionally  absent;  the  mouth  is  al 
most  always  armed  with  jaws  for  chewing, 
even  in  insects  which  are  sucking  in  the  per 
fect  state ;  these  larvae  are  called  caterpillars 
or  maggots,  according  to  their  size,  form,  and 
habitat.  After  remaining  in  this  state,  either 
in  the  water,  in  the  air,  or  under  ground,  a  cer 
tain  length  of  time,  varying  according  to  the 
species,  and  undergoing  several  moults,  rudi 
mentary  wings  form  under  the  skin,  and  they 
change  into  nymphs,  chrysalids,  or  pupae ;  the 


INSECTS 


313 


larval  condition  persists  sometimes  for  several 
months,  as  from  the  autumn  to  the  following 
summer,  and  in  the  case  of  the  harvest  fly 
for  a  much  longer  period.  Larvae  are  gener 
ally  voracious  and  active,  but  nymphs  are  as 
generally  motionless  and  do  not  eat;  some 
times  the  larval  skin  hardens  into  a  shell-like 
covering  for  the  nymph;  at  others  a  thin  in 
vesting  pellicle  applied  to  the  hody  permits  the 
animal  to  be  seen  through  it.  Before  undergo 
ing  this  change  the  larva  often  prepares  a  shel 
ter,  making  a  cocoon  of  silk  secreted  by  itself ; 
the  nymph  may  be  suspended  from  a  twig  by 
silken  filaments  or  concealed  in  some  crevice. 
In  the  nymph  state  growth  takes  place  rapidly, 
and  the  form  of  the  future  insect  is  gradual 
ly  assumed.  The  metamorphoses  are  easily 
studied  in  the  common  caterpillars,  the  bee, 
the  mosquito,  the  fly,  and  the  silkworm.  The 
life  of  the  perfect  insect  is  short,  enduring  at 
most  for  the  summer  months,  until  the  work 
of  reproduction  is  completed  ;  in  the  ephemerae 
the  adult  state  continues  for  a  few  hours  only. 
As  instances  of  incomplete  metamorphosis  may 
be  mentioned  the  cockroach,  the  cricket,  the 
grasshopper,  and  other  orthoptera,  in  which 
the  larva  differs  from  the  perfect  insect  princi 
pally  in  the  absence  of  wings.  For  further  de 
tails  on  larva}  and  pupa3,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  CATERPILLAE,  CIIKYSALIS,  and  the  various 
insects  in  their  respective  order. — As  insects 
furnish  food  for  a  great  variety  of  vertebrate 
and  invertebrate  animals,  their  extermination 
would  ensue  were  it  not  for  their  astonishing 
fecundity,  paralleled  only  in  the  case  of  fishes  ; 
a  female  termes  (ant)  has  been  estimated  to 
lay  about  90,000  eggs  in  a  day ;  the  queen  bee 
deposits  between  5,000  and  6,000,  the  common 
ant  about  1,000  less,  the  wasp  about  3,000 ;  a 
posterity  of  1,000  in  one  generation  is  com 
mon  ;  in  the  silkworm  the  average  is  500  ;  the 
beetles  are  far  less  prolific.  Reaumur  observed 
350  young  ones  developed  from  the  numerous 
eggs  of  a  moth  (phalcena},  many  of  which  died 
as  caterpillars,  so  that  only  65  females  reached 
the  perfect  state ;  these  were  calculated  to  pro 
duce  the  following  year  22,750,  which  in  the 
next  would  produce  1,500,000.  A  single  plant 
louse  (aphis),  which  brings  forth  a  numerous 
progeny,  but  only  one  at  a  time,  according  to 
the  above  author's  calculation,  would  produce 
in  the  fifth  generation  about  6,000,000,000,  the 
great-great-grandrnother  laying  eggs  when  the 
ninth  member  of  her  descendants  is  capable  of 
reproduction,  without  contact  with  the  male. — 
The  muscular  activity  of  insects  is  very  great, 
whether  in  leaping,  swimming,  flying,  digging, 
or  carrying  weights ;  no  mammal  can  leap  in 
proportion  so  high  or  so  far  as  the  flea,  to  a 
distance  more  than  200  times  the  length  of  its 
o\vn  body ;  no  bird  has  a  facility  of  motion, 
and  a  rapidity  and  endurance  of  flight,  com 
parable  to  those  of  insects.  The  wings  of  the 
butterfly  have  been  found  to  display  the  struc 
ture  ascertained  by  civil  engineers  to  com 
bine  the  greatest  lightness  with  the  greatest 


strength  ;  in  the  nervure  of  the  wing,  as  in  the 
strongest  beam,  the  utmost  possible  material 
is  thrown  into  the  flanges,  and  the  upright 
support  is  as  thin  as  practicable;  in  the  hol 
low  nervures  we  have  two  flanges  connected 
by  the  thin  membrane  of  the  wing,  and  the 
strongest  nervure  at  or  near  the  anterior  edge. 
The  apparatus  by  which  many  insects  walk 
upon  perpendicular  surfaces  is  described  in  the 
article  FLY.  The  larva  of  the  ant  lion  digs  its 
sand  pit,  and  the  fossorial  wasp  a  hole  for  its 
eggs,  in  a  very  short  time ;  a  few  ants  are 
strong  enough  to  drag  from  their  hill  a  large 
caterpillar  ;  a  few  burying  beetles  will  place  a 
mole  under  the  earth  in  an  hour,  a  feat  equiva 
lent  to  as  many  men  burying  a  large  whale  in 
the  same  space  of  time ;  the  gadfly  is  faster 
than  the  fleetest  horse  ;  a  humblebee  has  been 
known  to  distance  a  locomotive  going  at  the 
rate  of  20  miles  an  hour,  and  a  dragon  fly  to 
lead  a  swallow  a  weary  chase  of  an  hour,  and 
at  last  escape.  The  instincts  of  insects,  which 
sometimes  closely  border  upon  intelligence,  are 
very  remarkable,  and  calculated  to  excite  the 
admiration  of  the  most  superficial  observer. 
Insects  apparently  acquire  knowledge  from  ex 
perience,  possess  the  faculty  of  memory,  and 
are  able  to  communicate  their  purposes  to  their 
fellows ;  they  evince  great  sagacity  in  their 
methods  of  procuring  food  and  in  defending 
themselves  against  their  enemies;  their  de 
vices  for  entrapping  prey  are  very  ingenious : 
to  escape  their  enemies,  some  feign  death,  and 
others  conceal  themselves,  fight  bravely  with 
their  jaws  and  stings,  and  emit  a  nauseous  odor 
or  corrosive  juices.  As  examples  of  insect  in 
stincts  we  need  only  mention  those  of  the  bee, 
wasp,  and  ant  in  constructing  their  habita 
tions,  of  the  silkworm,  of  the  caterpillars  (like 
tortrix  and  the  clothes  moth)  which  roll  up 
leaves  or  woolly  materials  for  their  protection, 
of  insects  which  unite  in  communities  for 
mutual  protection  and  support,  and  of  those 
which  lay  their  eggs  on  substances  most  proper 
for  their  young,  which  they  will  never  see,  and 
which  feed  on  matters  entirely  different  from 
the  food  of  their  parents  (as  the  wasps).  In 
their  adaptation  of  these  instincts  to  acci 
dental  circumstances,  they  approach  very  near 
to  intelligent  acts.  Insects  have  many  pas 
sive  means  of  avoiding  their  enemies  in  the 
form  and  structure  of  their  bodies,  and  in 
their  resemblance  in  color  to  the  objects  on 
which  they  live,  whether  ground  or  tree,  as 
in  beetles,  grasshoppers,  the  mantis,  and  many 
bugs  living  on  bark ;  the  larvre  of  tortoise 
beetles  are  spiny,  others  are  hairy,  and  con 
sequently  avoided  by  insectivorous  birds ; 
hardness  of  integument  and  tenacity  of  life 
are  also  important  means  of  preservation.  The 
continuance  of  the  species  is  secured  by  the 
strong  sexual  impulse,  and  by  the  care  of  the 
female  in  depositing  her  eggs  in  places  where 
the  future  welfare  of  the  young  will  be  in 
sured;  the  life  of  the  insect  generally  ceases 
soon  after  the  period  of  sexual  activity ; 


314: 


INSECTS 


INSURANCE 


among  the  social  insects,  the  young  are  fed 
by  the  neuters  and  females.  For  details,  see 
Kirby  and  Spence's  "Introduction  to  Ento 
mology." — The  relations  of  insects  to  the  rest 
of  organic  nature  are  very  interesting  and  im 
portant.  Most  insects  derive  their  food  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  to  which  they  are  both 
injurious  and  beneficial ;  by  their  simple  agency 
not  only  is  a  limit  set  to  the  increase  of  plants, 
but  their  preservation  is  due  in  many  instances 
to  insect  operations.  Myriads  of  larvae  feed 
upon  the  roots,  leaves,  flowers,  fruits,  wood, 
and  seeds  of  plants,  not  sparing  the  grains  and 
vegetables  most  useful  to  man ;  the  work  of 
Dr.  Harris  on  the  "Insects  Injurious  to  Vege 
tation  "  gives  ample  details  on  this  point  as  far 
as  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States  is 
concerned,  and  many  of  his  observations  are 
given  in  this  work  in  the  articles  relating  to 
these  destructive  creatures.  On  the  other 
hand,  fecundation  in  plants  is  often  promoted 
by  insects ;  butterflies,  bees,  wasps,  flies,  and 
beetles  convey  the  pollen  to  the  female  organs, 
and  thus  impregnation  is  effected  in  many  cases 
where  it  would  otherwise  be  unlikely  to  occur. 
Insects  afford  food  for  each  other,  for  spiders, 
for  many  fresh-water  fishes,  amphibians,  rep 
tiles,  birds,  and  mammals;  and  the  last  two, 
with  man  himself,  are  infested  with  many 
parasitic  insects.  (See  EPIZOA.)  The  direct 
advantages  derived  from  insects  by  man  are 
not  a  few;  many  larvae  of  beetles,  grasshop 
pers,  and  locusts,  South  American  ants,  &c., 
are  occasionally  used  as  food  by  various  savage 
tribes;  the  bee  supplies  honey  and  w^ax,  the 
coccus  manna  and  cochineal,  the  Spanish  fly  a 
well  known  blistering  drug,  the  gall  insects  a 
valuable  astringent,  the  silkworm  a  most  valu 
able  and  beautiful  material  for  clothing,  &c. ; 
and  the  larvae  of  flies  and  many  beetles  are 
useful  in  removing  decomposing  animal  mat 
ters. — Insects  are  found  everywhere,  even  on 
the  surface  of  the  ocean  (hydrometradce),  but 
they  are  essentially  animals  of  the  air ;  though 
a  few  may  be  seen  in  winter,  most  are  active 
only  in  the  other  seasons ;  the  winter  is  passed 
in  a  state  of  hibernation,  either  as  eggs,  larvae, 
pupa?,  or  in  a  few  instances  as  perfect  insects ; 
those  of  tropical  regions  are  the  largest,  most 
numerous,  and  most  gorgeously  arrayed ;  they 
have  been  found  within  eight  degrees  of  the 
north  pole,  but  their  geographical  distribution 
has  not  received  the  attention  it  deserves; 
some  are  restricted  within  narrow  limits, 
while  others  exist  almost  everywhere.  In 
sects  of  a  former  geological  age  are  found  in 
amber,  a  fossil  resin,  in  most  cases  coming 
very  near  existing  forms,  and  sometimes  of 
livirfg  genera;  the  number  of  species  thus 
found  is  considerable,  and,  though  pertaining 
only  to  such  as  dwelt  in  woods  or  on  trees,  it 
may  reasonably  be  concluded  that  then,  as 
now,  the  insect  world  was  well  filled;  the 
beetles  are  well  represented,  the  Jiymenoptera 
very  abundant,  the  lepidoptera  exceedingly 
rare,  the  diptera  and  neuroptera  very  numer 


ous,  and  the  ortJioptcra  and  hemiptera  not 
common.  Insect  impressions  have  been  de 
scribed  in  the  calcareous  formations,  especially 
such  as  might  have  been  made  by  aquatic 
larvae  and  insects ;  Dr.  Hitchcock  describes 
footmarks  in  the  sandstones  of  the  Connecticut 
valley  as  having  been  made  probably  by  several 
genera  of  insects ;  and  Prof.  C.  F.  Hartt  has 
discovered  near  St.  John,  N.  B.,  fossil  remains 
of  insects  in  the  upper  Devonian  formation, 
which  he  considers  the  oldest  known. — For 
the  systematic  classification  of  insects,  and  the 
history  of  the  science,  see  ENTOMOLOGY. 

IIVSESSORES,  the  perching  birds,  the  most 
numerous  of  the  class,  differing  from  each 
other  greatly  in  many  respects,  but  agreeing  in 
having  three  toes  directed  forward  and  one 
backward,  neither  armed  with  talons  nor 
webbed.  They  have  been  divided  by  the  Ger 
man  ornithologists  into  the  suborders  strisores, 
in  which  the  hind  toe  may  be  turned  forward, 
like  the  humming  birds,  swifts,  and  goatsuck 
ers,  with  a  feeble  voice;  clamatores,  noisy, 
like  the  kingfishers  and  the  flycatchers;  and 
oscines,  singing  birds,  in  which  the  larynx  has 
five  pairs  of  muscles  for  the  production  of 
song.  The  last  includes  the  thrushes,  war 
blers,  swallows,  mocking  bird,  nightingale, 
lark,  finches,  sparrows,  crows,  and  other  birds 
noted  either  for  their  song  or  powers  of 
mimicry  or  articulation. 

INSTERBURG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov 
ince  of  East  Prussia,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the 
same  name,  53  m.  E.  of  Konigsberg,  on  the 
railway  to  Gumbinnen,  and  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Angerap  and  Inster  rivers,  forming  the 
Pregel;  pop.  in  1871,  7,185.  There  are  manu 
factories  of  beet  sugar,  wool,  cotton,  linen, 
earthenware,  and  leather,  and  an  important 
trade  in  corn  and  linseed.  The  castle  of  In- 
sterburg  was  founded  by  the  Teutonic  knights. 

INSURANCE,  in  law,  a  contract  whereby  an 
insurer  engages,  for  a  consideration  which  is 
called  a  premium,  to  insure  a  certain  party 
against  loss  of  or  injury  to  certain  property  by 
certain  perils.  The  word  peril  here  means  not 
the  danger  but  the  happening  of  the  event 
which  was  feared.  When  the  contract  is  in 
writing,  the  instrument  is  called  a  policy  of  in 
surance.  Marine  insurance  is  the  insurance 
of  maritime  property  against  maritime  perils. 
Fire  insurance  is  the  insurance  of  houses  or 
goods  against  fire.  Life  insurance  (of  which 
accident  insurance,  of  recent  origin,  is  properly 
a  branch)  will  be  separately  treated  under  its 
own  name.  I.  MARINE  INSUKAXCE  was  wholly 
unknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  to 
oriental  nations.  Chief  Justice  Coke  (6  Rep. 
47),  about  1588,  notices  the  practice  of  insu 
rance  as  a  mere  novelty,  and  the  first  English 
statute  which  recognizes  it  is  43  Elizabeth,  c. 
12  (1601).  But  the  66th  section  of  the  laws 
of  Wisby  (a  maritime  code  published  probably 
about  1250)  speaks  distinctly  of  it.  ^  Some  sup 
pose  this  to  be  an  interpolation ;  but  it  is  at  least 
possible  that  the  practice  of  insurance  was 


INSURANCE 


315 


more  or  less  common  among  merchants  centu 
ries  before  it  was  recognized  by  the  law.  It  is, 
at  all  events,  no  older  than  the  late  part  of  the 
middle  ages ;  and  it  must  be  regarded  as  prom 
inent  among  the  many  illustrations  of  that  ten 
dency  to  association  which  is  at  once  the  effect 
and  the  cause  of  our  advancing  civilization. 
By  means  of  insurance  the  resources  of  many 
are  aggregated  for  the  protection  of  each. 
Merchants  become  members  of  what  is  often 
called,  and  by  the  universal  practice  of  insu 
rance  becomes,  the  mercantile  community. 
Each  one  pays  over  a  part  of  his  profits,  so 
small  as  not  to  inconvenience  him,  and  thus 
obtains  protection  against  a  loss  which  would 
crush  him;  and  what  he  pays  helps  to  form 
the  fund  that  indemnifies  others.  Hence, 
commerce  is  promoted  and  developed  to  an 
extent  far  beyond  what  would  otherwise  be 
possible,  because  enterprises  become  not  only 
possible  but  prudent  by  means  of  insurance, 
which  without  it  would  be  so  rash  that  only 
the  reckless  would  undertake  them.  The  law 
of  insurance  may  be  learned  from  the  purpose 
of  insurance.  Thus,  it  is  easy  to  say,  as  some  do, 
that  insurers  should  not  be  strict  in  their  re 
quirements,  nor  rest  upon  technical  defences  and 
the  letter  of  the  law.  But  all  the  losses  paid  by 
insurers  must  be  paid  out  of  premiums,  or  the 
business  of  insurance  would  stop ;  and  these  pre 
miums  must  grow  higher  as  the  risk  increases ; 
and  when  they  get  so  high  as  to  be  much  beyond 
the  actual  risk  incurred  by  prudent  and  sub 
stantial  men  who  take  care  that  their  ships  are 
what  they  should  be,  such  men  will  no  longer 
insure.  Then  the  business  of  insurance  will 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  careless  and  the  un 
principled,  and  then  premiums  must  rise  still 
further,  and  the  mischief  in  this  way  confirm 
and  enlarge  itself.  Instead  of  being  a  support 
to  commerce,  insurance  will  then  only  derange 
it,  and  be  little  better  than  legalized  gambling. 
Similar  principles  will  be  seen,  as  we  proceed, 
to  be  applicable  to  every  part  of  the  law  of  in- 
vsurance;  because  the  whole  effort  of  the  law 
is  to  make  the  business  of  insurance  prudent 
and  satisfactory,  for  merchants  who  transact 
a  legitimate  business  honestly  and  carefully. 
Formerly  much  business  was  done  by  individ 
ual  insurers,  or  underwriters  as  they  are  often 
termed  from  their  subscribing  the  policies. 
Now,  however,  nearly  if  not  quite  all  policies 
of  insurance,  in  this  country,  are  made  by 
incorporated  companies.  These  are  of  two 
kinds:  1,  stock  companies,  where  the  stock  is 
owned  by  persons  who  receive  the  profits  (that 
is,  the  excess  of  premiums  over  losses)  by  way 
of  dividends ;  2,  mutual  companies,  where  the 
profits  (deducting  only  the  expense  of  transact 
ing  the  business)  are  divided  among  the  in 
sured,  or  so  applied  to  reduce  the  premiums 
that  each  insured  pays  only  the  equivalent  of 
his  actual  risk.  Some  companies  which  oper 
ate  on  the  mutual  principle  have  also  a  certain 
amount  of  capital  stock  as  a  basis. — Large  vol 
umes  are  written  about  the  law  of  insurance. 


In  this  article  we  shall  endeavor  to  exhibit 
only  a  brief  and  condensed  statement  of  its 
leading  principles.  The  contract  of  insurance 
ought  always  to  be  in  writing ;  but  it  may  be 
binding  if  only  oral,  unless  the  insurers  are  an 
incorporated  company,  forbidden  by  their  char 
ter  to  insure  otherwise  than  in  writing.  An 
agreement  to  insure,  entered  and  subscribed  in 
the  usual  way  in  the  books  of  the  insurers, 
would  generally  be  held  to  be  a  contract  bind 
ing  both  parties  to  the  terms  usual  in  the  com 
mon  policies  of  those  insurers.  And  it  seems 
to  be  the  settled  law  of  the  United  States  that 
a  contract  is  made  by  letter,  when  either  party, 
receiving  a  letter  of  proposals,  puts  into  the 
mail  an  answer  of  acceptance,  without  having 
previously  received  a  letter  from  the  proposing 
party  retracting  his  proposals.  A  policy  is  a 
very  ancient  instrument,  and  is  substantially 
the  same  everywhere,  but  with  special  varia 
tions.  It  is  subscribed  only  by  the  insurers,  but 
the  bargain  binds  also  the  insured  if  he  accepts 
the  policy  and  puts  his  property  at  risk  under 
it.  A  policy  may  insure  A  specifically,  or  A 
"  for  whom  it  may  concern,"  or  use  other  equiv 
alent  words;  and  the  effect  of  these  words  is 
to  bring  within  the  scope  and  benefit  of  the 
insurance  every  person  interested  in  the  prop 
erty  who  authorized  the  insurance,  and  who 
was  contemplated  by  A  as  being  insured ;  or 
who,  being  so  interested  and  contemplated, 
afterward  in  good  faith  adopts  and  ratifies  the 
insurance.  Sometimes  the  policy  defines  and 
exactly  describes  the  property  insured ;  some 
times  it  leaves  this  undetermined,  but  requires 
that  it  shall  afterward  be  defined,  in  writing  on 
the  policy,  as  such  or  such  property  aboard  of 
such  or  such  a  ship ;  the  latter  is  called  an  open  or 
running  policy.  Alterations  made  by  agreement 
are  valid,  and  are  in  practice  often  made  and  in 
dorsed  upon  the  policy.  But  a  material  alter 
ation  by  the  insured,  without  the  assent  of  the 
insurer,  destroys  all  claim  against  the  insurer, 
and  is  said  to  have  this  effect  although  made 
in  good  faith,  and  with  the  expectation  of  ob 
taining  his  consent.  An  alteration  by  the  in 
surers  without  the  consent  of  the  insured  has 
no  effect  whatever.  If  there  be  a  material 
mistake  in  the  policy,  courts  having  equity 
powers  will  sometimes  amend  it.  A  policy  of 
insurance  is  not  negotiable ;  yet,  if  transferred 
for  value  in  good  faith,  the  transfer  may  be  so 
far  valid  (if  not  prohibited  in  the  policy  itself) 
as  to  give  the  assignee  a  right  to  sue  in  the 
name  of  the  insured,  or,  in  some  states,  in  his 
own  name,  but  always  subject  to  any  equitable 
defences  which  could  be  made  against  the  in 
sured.  But  an  assignment  or  transfer  of  the 
property  insured,  before  a  loss,  without  a  cor 
responding  transfer  of  the  policy  with  the  con 
sent  of  the  insurers,  destroys  the  claim  of  the 
insured,  and  gives  none  whatever  to  the  as 
signee.  If  a  loss  has  occurred,  and  a  claim  to 
indemnity  vested  in  the  insured,  he  may  now 
transfer  this  claim.  And  if  the  bankruptcy  of 
the  insured  transfers  his  property  and  with  it 


31G 


INSURANCE 


the  policy  to  assignees,  the  insurers  are  still 
held;  and  on  the  death  of  an  insured,  the 
property  and  policy  go  to  his  legal  representa 
tives.  Whatever  is  written  on  the  face  or  back 
of  the  policy,  and  is  referred  to  in  the  policy 
as  a  part  of  it,  becomes  a  part  of  it ;  and  so  is  a 
separate  paper,  if  distinctly  made  a  part  by  ref 
erence  which  amounts  to  an  agreement.  Pol 
icies  which  insure  a  person  who  has  no  interest 
in  the  property  are  called  wager  policies.  They 
were  formerly  permitted,  but  are  not  legal  or 
valid  now  either  here  or  in  England ;  it  being  a 
universal  rule  that  the  insured  must  have  some 
interest  in  the  property,  and  this  interest  must 
be  at  risk.  If  the  policy  is  what  is  called  an 
open  policy,  that  is,  if  the  interest  be  not  valued 
therein,  and  a  loss  occurs,  the  insured  proves 
his  interest  or  the  value  of  the  property,  and 
is  paid  accordingly.  But  the  policy  may  be 
what  is  called  a  valued  policy;  that  is,  A 
may  be  insured  "$10,000  on  the  ship  Orion, 
valued  at  $20,000."  This  binds  both  parties, 
unless  there  be  an  over-valuation  so  extreme 
as  to  be  fraudulent,  or  to  be  equivalent  to  a 
wager  policy.  If  A  is  insured  as  above,  and 
the  ship  is  totally  lost,  he  receives  $10,000; 
but  if  the  ship  is  partially  lost,  or  injured  to 
say  one  half  of  her  value,  then  he  receives 
$5,000 ;  because  by  causing  himself  to  be  in 
sured  only  half  of  her  agreed  value  he  is  con 
sidered  as  standing  his  own  insurer  for  the 
other  half.  But  if  he  be  insured  a  round  sum, 
without  any  valuation,  he  will  receive  the 
whole  amount  insured,  provided  he  can  show 
that  he  has  lost  so  much  by  a  peril  insured 
against. — The  subjects  of  marine  insurance  are 
four :  the  ship,  the  cargo,  the  freight  which 
the  ship  may  earn,  and  the  profits  upon  the 
cargo.  Either  may  be  valued ;  but  it  is  com 
mon  to  value  a  ship,  and  not  so  common  to 
value  either  of  the  other  interests.  If  goods 
are  valued,  it  is  perhaps  for  the  purpose  of  in 
suring  the  profits,  by  including  them  in  the 
valuation  of  the  goods,  without  insuring  the 
profits  under  that  name.  It  is  not  very  com 
mon  to  insure  profits  by  themselves ;  but  when 
this  is  done,  they  are  usually  valued,  although 
this  is  not  necessary.  If  valued,  and  the  goods 
are  lost,  the  English  courts  require  proof  that 
they  would  have  made  some  profit.  In  the 
United  States  the  courts  consider  the  loss  of 
goods  as  implying  the  loss  of  some  profits,  and 
the  valuation  settles  the  amount. — Any  kind  of 
interest  will  support  an  insurance,  if  it  be  such 
that  a  loss  of  the  property  will  bring  on  the 
insured  direct  pecuniary  loss.  Any  bailee  of 
the  property  (or  one  having  possession  of  it) 
may  insure  it  if  he  have  any  interest  in  it  or 
responsibility  for  it.  If  the  property  be  mort 
gaged,  both  mortgageor  and  mortgagee  have  an 
insurable  interest  in  it;  so  have  factors  on 
commission  (or  commission  merchants),  con 
signees,  agents  having  possession,  or  carriers. 
The  owner  of  the  ship  acquires  an  insurable 
interest  in  the  freight  it  will  carry  as  soon  as 
he  has  received  the  goods  of  another  to  be  car 


ried,  or  has  purchased  goods  to  be  carried  in 
his  own  ship,  or  has  made  a  distinct  and  obli 
gatory  contract  with  some  one  to  ship  them, 
and  his  vessel  is  at  or  on  the  way  to  a  port  to 
receive  them.  The  contract  of  insurance  is 
wholly  void  if  the  interest  insured  is  illegal ; 
or  if  a  material  and  inseparable  part  of  the 
contract  or  transaction  is  illegal ;  or  if  it  dis 
tinctly  contemplates  an  illegal  use  of  that 
which  is  insured.  But  by  illegal  is  meant 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  country  where 
the  contract  is  made  and  is  to  be  enforced. 
Thus,  an  insurance  in  America,  to  cover  goods 
intended  to  be  smuggled  into  England,  would 
not  be  void  in  America,  but  would  be  in  Eng 
land.  Some  contracts  of  insurance  are  pro 
hibited  by  the  mere  policy  of  the  law ;  thus,  a 
mariner  cannot  make  a  valid  insurance  of  his 
wages,  because  it  is  important  that  he  should 
feel  the  danger  of  losing  them  if  the  ship  be 
lost. — The  subject  of  warranties  in  marine  in 
surance  is  very  important.  These  are  promises 
of  the  insured  that  certain  things  exist  or  do 
not  exist,  or  shall  be  or  shall  not  be  done;  and 
if  the  promise  is  broken  the  contract  is  void, 
whether  the  promise  is  material  or  not,  and 
whether  the  breach  of  the  promise  is  the  fault 
of  the  insured  or  not.  And  they  must  be  ex 
actly  complied  with,  though  the  warranty  will 
be  construed  reasonably,  and  according  to  the 
usage  of  merchants  and  insurers,  and  the  hon 
est  and  actual  intention  of  the  parties.  The 
warranty  may  be  express  or  implied  by  law. 
If  express,  it  must  be  written  on  or  in  the 
policy,  or  by  distinct  reference  made  a  part  of 
it.  Any  distinct  assertion  amounts  to  a  war 
ranty ;  if  the  ship  be  described  as  "  the  Ameri 
can  ship  Flying  Cloud,"  this  is  a  warranty  that 
she  is  American.  Express  warranties  are  most 
usually  :  1,  of  ownership;  2,  of  national  char 
acter;  3,  of  the  lawfulness  of  the  goods  or 
voyage ;  4,  of  the  taking  of  convoy ;  5,  of  the 
time  of  sailing.  There  are  also  some  implied 
warranties ;  but  by  far  the  most  important  of 
these  is  the  universal  warranty  of  seaworthi 
ness.  Every  person  who  proposes  to  insurers 
to  insure  his  ship,  engages  and  warrants  that 
his  ship  is  in  every  respect  in  a  safe  and  suita 
ble  condition  to  encounter  all  common  perils 
and  dangers  on  the  voyage  or  in  the  place 
where  she  is  to  be  while  under  insurance. 
The  insurers  may  expressly  waive  this  war 
ranty,  but  this  is  very  seldom  done ;  and  wher 
ever  it  exists,  there  it  is  a  condition  precedent 
to  the  obligations  of  the  insurance ;  that  is  to 
say,  if  this  warranty  be  not  performed  or  com 
plied  with,  the  insurance  never  attaches.  The 
insurance  is  equally  avoided  by  unseaworthi 
ness,  although  this  was  unknown,  and  indeed 
could  not  be  known,  to  the  insured.  Sea 
worthiness  requires  reasonable  soundness  and 
strength  in  materials,  and  a  full  equipment  of 
all  appurtenances  and  implements  which  are 
necessary  to  the  ship,  with  a  proper  master, 
officers,  and  crew,  and  proper  papers.  If  the 
ship  is  seaworthy  at  the  beginning,  so  that  the 


INSURANCE 


31T 


policy  attaches,  the  law  may  not  be  quite  set 
tled  as  to  the  effect  of  a  subsequent  unsea 
worthiness.  It  certainly  has  no  effect  upon  a 
previous  loss ;  and  we  consider  the  better  rule 
to  be,  that  it  only  suspends  but  does  not  de 
stroy  the  insurance.  Thus  if  a  ship  loses  her 
best  bower  anchor,  this  has  no  effect  upon  a 
previous  loss,  nor  upon  a  loss  that  occurs  be 
fore  the  anchor  can  be  replaced.  If  the  vessel 
reaches  a  port  where  she  might  replace  the 
anchor,  and  does  not,  and  sails  and  meets  with 
a  loss,  nearly  all  agree  that  the  insurers  are 
discharged  ;  but  some  authorities  hold  the  in 
surers  liable  for  a  loss  occurring  during  such 
an  unseaworthiness,  if  the  loss  is  not  caused 
by  it. — Another  implied  warranty  is,  that  there 
shall  be  no  false  representations,  and  no  con 
cealment  of  material  facts;  for  if  there  be 
either  of  these,  the  policy  does  not  attach.  In 
the  law  of  insurance,  that  is  a  misrepresenta 
tion  which,  however  made,  tends  materially  to 
obtain  for  the  utterer  a  contract  which  other 
wise  would  not  be  made,  or  better  terms  than 
would  otherwise  be  granted.  Concealment  is 
the  suppression  of  a  material  circumstance,  for 
the  same  purpose.  Such  misrepresentation  or 
concealment  discharges  the  insurers,  although 
made  unintentionally  and  only  through  mis 
take;  but  it  has  not  this  effect  if  withdrawn 
before  the  policy  is  made,  or  if  it  ceases  to  be 
material  before  the  risk  begins.  If  the  repre 
sentation  relates  to  the  future,  a  future  compli 
ance  with  it  is  as  necessary  as  a  present  com 
pliance  with  a  present  representation.  The  in 
sured  is  bound  to  communicate  not  only  ascer 
tained  facts,  but  all  intelligence,  and  even  ru 
mors,  if 'they  are  such  as  may  reasonably  enter 
into  the  estimate  of  the  risk;  but  he  is  not 
bound  to  disclose  what  are  merely  his  own 
hopes  or  fears,  nor  such  matters  of  general  in 
formation  or  public  notoriety  as  are  likely  to 
be  as  well  known  to  one  person  as  to  another ; 
nor  anything  which  the  insurers  already  know ; 
nor  anything  expressly  provided  for  in  the 
policy.  A  substantial  compliance  with  a  rep 
resentation  is  sufficient,  although  it  be  not  so 
exact  as  would  be  required  in  the  case  of  an 
express  warranty. — As  nothing  prevents  the 
parties  from  making  what  agreement  they 
choose,  they  sometimes  omit,  or  expressly  ex 
cept,  certain  risks;  cv  the  insured  warrants 
against  them,  which  comes  to  the  same  thing. 
When,  as  sometimes  happens,  causes  mingle 
to  produce  a  loss,  some  of  which  are  insured 
against  and  some  are  not,  it  may  be  very  dif 
ficult  to  determine  whether  the  insurers  are 
liable.  There  are  many  such  cases.  The 
general  rule  is :  Causa  proxima,  non  re- 
mota  spectatur.  But  even  then  it  becomes 
difficult  to  know  what  is  a  proximate  cause, 
and  what  is  a  remote  cause.  Here  also  the 
general  rule  may  be  given;  it  is,  that  insu 
rers  are  not  liable  for  any  effects  of  a  peril 
against  which  they  insure,  excepting  those 
which  are  the  natural,  direct,  and  immedi 
ate  effects  thereof.  One  way  in  which  insu 


rers  seek  to  guard  against  this  question,  is  by 
having  a  long  list  of  what  are  called  memoran 
dum  articles  inserted  in  their  policy,  or  referred 
to  in  it.  These  are  grain,  hides,  and  other  per 
ishable  tilings,  which  are  likely  to  be  injured 
somewhat,  either  by  slight  causes,  or  without 
external  causes  ;  and  it  is  provided  that  the  in 
surers  shall  not  be  answerable  for  these,  unless 
there  is  a  total  loss,  or  a  certain  large  loss,  or 
unless  the  loss  is  caused  by  stranding ;  for  in 
either  of  these  events,  it  will  be  probable  that 
the  loss  is  caused  by  a  peril  insured  against. — 
Another  implied  warranty  of  the  insured  is, 
that  there  shall  be  no  deviation  ;  which  means, 
primarily,  that  the  ship  shall  go  by  the  direct 
and  usual  course  to  the  place  whither  she  is 
bound.  It  means  also,  by  construction  and 
usage,  not  only  that  there  shall  be  no  depart 
ure  from  the  proper  course,  but  no  unneces 
sary  delay,  or,  more  extensively,  no  material 
departure  from  or  change  in  the  risks  insured 
against,  not  justified  by  a  good  cause.  Nor 
need  this  change  increase  the  risk,  for  the  par 
ties  have  a  right  to  hold  each  other  to  their 
agreement.  There  may  be  deviation  while  a 
ship  is  in  port,  or  where  no  particular  voyage 
is  indicated,  the  insurance  being  on  time  ;  and 
the  rule  concerning  deviation,  like  nearly  all 
those  of  the  law  of  marine  insurance,  is  equal 
ly  in  force  in  the  lake  and  river  navigation  of 
this  country  as  in  its  ocean  commerce.  The 
effect  of  deviation  is  to  discharge  the  insurers 
altogether  from  all  subsequent  risks.  If,  when 
a  deviation  ceases,  all  subsequent  risks  are  pre 
cisely  the  same  as  they  would  have  been  had 
the  deviation  not  taken  place,  the  obligation 
of  the  insurers  might  revive ;  but  this  can 
rarely  be  the  case.  There  are  cases  where  a 
slight  deviation  discharges  the  insurers  ;  but  it 
must  have  some  reality  and  effect.  Delay  in 
commencing  or  in  prosecuting  a  voyage  may 
be  a  deviation.  Going  into  a  port  out  of  the 
natural  and  proper  course  is  certainly  one. 
Liberty  is  often  given  in  the  policy  u  to  en 
ter  "  such  a  port,  or  "  touch  at,"  or  "  stop 
and  trade  at,"  or  otherwise  as  the  parties  may 
agree ;  but  such  a  liberty  is  usually  construed 
very  strictly.  A  deviation  does  not  discharge 
the  insurers,  unless  it  be  voluntary.  Any  ne 
cessity,  as  for  repairs  or  provisions,  or  to  save 
life,  or  to  avoid  a  peril,  justifies  so  much  de 
viation  as  it  requires.  A  mere  intent  to  devi 
ate  has  not  the  effect  of  deviation.  Thus,  for 
example,  if  a  vessel  sails  from  New  York  in 
sured  on  a  voyage  to  New  Orleans,  intending 
at  a  certain  point  in  her  course  to  bear  away 
for  Havana,  and  is  lost  before  she  bears  away, 
the  insurers  are  held. — We  have  already  said 
that  the  consideration  for  the  contract  of  in 
surance  is  called  the  premium ;  and  this  is  a 
small  sum  of  money,  for  which,  in  this  coun 
try,  the  insured  or  his  agent  usually  gives  his 
note  when  the  policy  is  made  and  delivered, 
which  is  called  the  premium  note.  This  pre 
mium  is  never  due  in  fact  until  it  is  earned  by 
the  risk,  for  insurance  against  which  the  pre- 


318 


INSURANCE 


minm  is  paid.  If  this  risk  never  takes  place, 
the  promise  to  pay  the  premium  cannot  be  en 
forced;  and  if  it  has  heen  paid,  the  insurers 
must  repay  it.  Hence  it  is  always  in  the  power 
of  the  insured  to  cancel  the  policy  before  the 
risk  attaches,  by  refusing  to  put  his  property  un 
der  that  risk.  But  unless  the  voyage  be  aban 
doned,  a  notice  of  his  wish  to  cancel  the  policy 
has  no  effect.  If  the  whole  risk  attaches  to  the 
whole  property  for  any  time  whatever,  no  part 
of  the  premium  is  returnable.  If  the  risk  at 
taches  to  a  severable  part  of  the  property  only, 
a  proportional  part  only  of  the  premium  is 
earned,  and  the  remainder  is  returnable.  Clauses 
are  sometimes  inserted  in  policies  defining  cer 
tain  contingencies  upon  which  the  premium  is 
returnable  in  whole  or  in  part. — The  property 
insured  should  be  described  sufficiently  to  se 
cure  its  identification ;  but  the  interest  of  the 
insured  need  not  be  described,  as  whether  it  is 
all,  or  half,  or  a  quarter,  or  that  of  an' owner,  a 
mortgagee,  or  a  factor.  Insurance  on  a  ship 
covers  all  the  implements  and  appurtenants  ac 
tually  and  properly  used  for  her  navigation,  al 
though  not  strictly  necessary.  An  open  policy  on 
the  ship  does  not  cover  the  f  reight ;  but  it  is  com 
mon  to  cover  the  freight  by  a  valuation  of  the 
ship.  One  who  owns  both  ship  and  cargo  may 
insure  his  "freight,"  and  thereby  cover  what 
his  ship  would  earn  by  carrying  for  another 
owner  that  cargo  for  the  same  distance. — The 
insurers  are  never  responsible  for  the  acts  of 
the  insured,  or  for  the  direct  and  immediate 
consequences  of  those  acts ;  but  they  may  be 
for  the  consequences  of  the  acts  or  omissions  of 
the  master  and  crew,  although  they  are  the  ser 
vants  of  the  owner,  but  not  if  their  conduct 
was  in  compliance  with  the  owner's  orders  or 
instructions.  It  may  be  stated  as  a  universal 
rule,  that  the  insurers  are  liable  only  for  extra 
ordinary  risks;  for  the  seaworthiness  of  the 
ship  implies  her  competency  to  meet  safely  all 
ordinary  risks.  Hence  they  are  not  liable  for 
any  loss  which  shall  be  attributed  to  wear  and 
tear,  or  ordinary  breakage.  So,  too,  insurers 
are  never  liable  for  losses  which  are  the  conse 
quences  of  inherent  defects  or  qualities  of  the 
property  insured,  unless  these  are  made  active 
and  destructive  by  a  peril  insured  against,  as 
where  hemp  rots  or  lime  takes  fire  from  being 
wet  by  the  effect  of  storm  or  wreck.  If  the 
losses  occur  by  contraband  trade,  or  a  violation 
of  the  law  of  foreign  countries,  this,  we  have 
seen,  does  not  discharge  the  insurers  on  the 
ground  of  illegality ;  but  it  does  discharge  them 
as  a  risk  they  never  undertook,  unless  the  in 
sured  had  previously  to  the  insurance  informed 
them  that  the  goods  or  ship  would  undergo 
this  risk,  or  the  insurers  knew  this  otherwise. 
— American  policies  commonly  enumerate  the 
risks  against  which  the  insurance  is  made.  They 
are  usually  perils  of  the  sea,  fire,  barratry,  theft, 
piracy,  arrests,  and  detentions.  A  general 
clause,  "all  other  perils,"  is  usually  added,  but 
is  restricted  by  the  enumeration.  Of  these 
perils,  the  first,  "perils  of  the  sea,"  is  by  far  the 


most  important,  and  would  of  itself  include  some 
of  the  others.  It  covers  in  general  all  loss  or 
damage  arising  from  extraordinary  action  of 
wind  or  sea,  or  from  inevitable  accidents  arising 
from  navigation.  But  no  natural  loss,  as  for 
example  the  destruction  of  a  ship  through  leak 
age  caused  by  worms,  is  a  loss  by  a  peril  of  the 
sea.  Collision  is  a  peril  of  the  sea.  The  rule 
of  the  sea  is,  that  when  two  ships  collide,  if 
neither  is  in  fault,  the  loss  rests  where  it  falls. 
If  one  alone  is  in  fault,  the  whole  loss  rests  on 
him.  If  both  are  in  fault,  the  common  law  courts 
let  the  loss  rest  where  it  falls ;  but  the  courts 
of  admiralty  divide  the  loss  equally  between  the 
parties.  Eor  the  loss  a  vessel  suffers  by  colli 
sion,  her  insurers  are  answerable.  It  has  been 
held  that  they  were  liable  for  what  the  vessel 
they  insure  had  to  pay  because  in  fault;  but 
the  later  and  the  better  rule  limits  their  liabil 
ity  to  the  loss  actually  sustained.  To  bring  a 
loss  within  the  clause  of  "theft  or  piracy,"  it  is 
said  that  there  must  be  violence,  and  that  the 
thieves  must  not  be  the  crew,  unless  they  are 
in  mutiny;  but  this  is  not  certain,  and  it  is 
now  common  to  use  the  phrase  "assailing 
thieves,"  in  order  to  limit  the  liability  of  the 
insurers  to  a  loss  from  violence  from  without 
the  ship.  What  is  barratry  has  been  much 
disputed.  It  is  an  ancient  maritime  term,  and 
may  perhaps  be  best  defined  as  any  wrongful 
act  of  the  master,  officers,  or  crew,  done 
against  the  owner.  If  it  be  a  wrongful  act, 
against  him  in  fact,  it  may  be  barratry,  al 
though  mistakenly  intended  for  his  benefit. 
But  it  must  be  against  the  owner  of  the  ship, 
and  is  not  barratry  as  against  other  parties  if 
the  act  be  done  by  the  owner's  command  or 
with  his  consent.  In  American  policies  it  is 
now  common  to  add  after  the  word  "  barratry" 
the  words,  "if  the  insured  be  not  owner  of  the 
ship."  The  effect  of  this  is,  that  ship  owners 
are  not  insured  against  barratry,  but  shippers 
of  goods  are ;  and  the  reason  is,  that  insurers  are 
willing  to  insure  shippers  of  goods  against  the 
misconduct  of  those  they  do  not  appoint,  and 
cannot  control,  but  are  not  willing  to  insure  ship 
owners  against  the  acts  of  their  own  servants. — 
The  termini  of  the  voyage  must  always  be  defi 
nitely  stated  (if  the  insurance  be  not  on  time), 
not  only  to  determine  whether  there  be  a  devi 
ation,  but  also  to  show  whether  any  loss  that 
occurs  takes  place  within  the  policy.  It  is  im 
portant  therefore  to  know  precisely  when  the 
insurance  begins  and  when  it  ceases.  By  the 
words  usually  inserted,  "lost  or  not  lost,"  the 
insurers  make  themselves  responsible  although 
the  property  be  at  that  time  wholly  lost,  pro 
vided  the  insured  does  not  know  it,  or  makes 
known  all  he  knows  about  it.  Insurance  "at 
and  from  "  a  place  begins  when  the  property  is 
therein  a  safe  condition.  Insurance  "from" 
a  place  begins  when  the  ship  sails.  English 
and  American  insurers  now  usually  insert  a 
clause  in  all  voyage  policies,  that  the  insu 
rance  continues  "until  the  ship  be  arrived  and 
moored  2-i  hours  in  safetv."  This  means  safe- 


INSURANCE 


ty  from  the  perils  insured  against,  and  not  the 
local  ones  of  the  port  or  place,  as  unsafe  moor 
ing,  &c. ;  as  othenv  ise  it  could  not  cease  while 
she  lies  there.  The  insurers  are  answerable  if 
the  loss  occurs  after  the  policy  expires,  provi 
ded  it  be  the  direct,  immediate,  and  inevitable 
effect  of  an  injury  received  at  a  time  when  thc^ 
policy  attached,  from  a  peril  insured  against.— 
The  loss  may  be  total  or  partial ;  and  a  total 
loss  may  be  actual  or  constructive.  An  actu 
ally  total  loss  occurs  when  the  ship  or  goods 
are  actually  submerged,  or  destroyed  by  fire 
or  some  other  peril,  so  that  no  part  of  them  of 
any  value  survives  and  is  recoverable.  A  con 
structive  total  loss,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
a  technical  total  loss,  is  one  in  which  valuable 
portions  of  the  property  survive,  but  are  trans 
ferred  to  the  insurers  by  abandonment,  so  that 
the  whole  property  passes  out  of  the  posses 
sion  of  the  insured,  and  the  insurers  pay  for 
the  whole,  and  hold  the  salvage  (or  property 
saved)  as  their  own.  By  the  established  usage 
of  this  country,  confirmed  by  abundant  adju 
dication,  the  insured  has  a  right  to  abandon, 
and  thus  convert  a  partial  loss  into  a  total  loss, 
whenever  the  partial  loss  exceeds  one  half  of 
the  value  of  the  property  insured.  But  our 
policies  now  generally  contain  the  clause  that 
there  shall  be  abandonment  only  when  the  par 
tial  loss  exceeds  50  per  cent.,  estimated  as  a 
partial  loss.  This  means,  after  a  deduction  of 
one  third  off.  For  it  is  one  of  the  practical 
rules  to  which  merchants  have  come,  that  in 
every  case  of  partial  loss  one  third  shall  be 
allowed  as  the  benefit  conferred  by  the  new 
materials  of  repair ;  or,  in  the  common  phrase, 
"  one  third  off,  new  for  old."  Thus,  if  a  new 
vessel  sails  to-day,  and  to-morrow  loses  her 
masts  and  rigging  so  as  to  require  that  all  her 
top  hamper  should  be  replaced,  and  the  insurers 
pay  the  cost  of  this,  the  owners  gain  nothing. 
But  if  the  same  ship,  after  spars  and  canvas 
are  nearly  worn  out,  meets  with  the  same  dis 
aster,  and  new  ones  are  supplied,  and  the  in 
surers  pay  the  cost,  the  insured  gains  nearly  all 
that  he  receives,  for  he  lost  very  little  by  the 
disaster.  Merchants  and  insurers,  instead  of 
trying  to  determine  the  proportion  in  each 
case,  wisely  conclude  that  the  average,  one 
third  off,  meets  all  cases  fairly.  Applying  this 
to  the  case  of  constructive  total  loss,  it  is  plain 
that  a  partial  loss,  to  justify  abandonment, 
must  be  more  than  75  per  cent.  (For  the  loss 
of  a  ship  by  the  sale  of  the  master,  in  a  case 
of  strict  necessity,  see  SHIPPING.)  Whether 
the  property  insured  be  ship  or  cargo,  it  is  the 
universal  rule  that  a  loss  where  anything  is 
saved  cannot  be  made  total,  excepting  by  trans 
fer  of  salvage  by  abandonment  to  the  insurers ; 
and  the  same  rule  applies  to  all  claims,  rights, 
or  interests  in,  to,  or  about  the  property,  re 
maining  in  or  accruing  to  the  insured.  Thus, 
if  the  insured  lose  by  jettison  or  otherwise  so 
as  to  acquire  a  claim  to  general  average  con 
tribution,  this  claim  must  be  transferred ;  and 
if  the  insured  have  to  pav  a  general  average 
VOL.  ix. — 21 


contribution  caused  by  a  loss  insured  against, 
the  insurers  must  repay  it.  (See  AVERAGE,  and 
SHIPPING.)  There  is  no  especial  form  of  aban 
donment  ;  but  it  must  be  made  by  the  insured 
without  any  unnecessary  delay,  immediately 
upon  learning  the  loss,  and  in  terms  distinctly 
indicating  the  fact  of  their  loss,  and  their 
transfer  of  all  salvage  by  abandonment,  and 
their  claim  for  a  total  loss.  If  the  abandon 
ment  is  accepted,  it  binds  the  insurers  ;  but  if 
they  refuse  the  acceptance,  their  refusal  can 
not  impair  the  rights  of  the  insured.  II.  IN- 
SUEANCE  AGAINST  FIKE.  The  principles  of  fire 
insurance  are  the  same  with  those  of  marine 
insurance,  excepting  so  far  as  the  nature  of  the 
property  and  of  the  risk  causes  a  difference. 
It  is  only  these  differences  that  we  heed  to 
present.  Marine  insurance  is  usually  effected 
through  a  broker ;  fire  insurance  usually  by  the 
party  himself.  He  generally  has  to  sign  a  for 
mal  application,  and  answer  therein  many  ques 
tions  ;  and  the  substantial  truth  of  every  answer 
would  be  taken  as  a  condition  precedent  to  any 
liability  on  the  part  of  the  insurers.  It  is  com 
mon  to  state  in  the  application,  or  policy  itself, 
that  certain  risks  are  "  hazardous,"  and  a  scale 
of  premiums  is  sometimes  given  for  different 
classes  of  property ;  and  it  is  of  extreme  impor 
tance  that  the  insured  should  not  deceive  the 
insurers  on  this  point.  But  there  must  be  a 
rational  if  not  a  liberal  construction  of  all  these 
rules.  Thus,  if  "  cotton  in  bales  "  is  represent 
ed  as  particularly  "hazardous,"  a  policy  would 
not  be  avoided  by  the  fact  that  a  person  insured 
upon  a  store  and  goods  had  one  or  two  bales 
there  for  retail.  So  if  "  storing  "  certain  goods 
demands  an  extra  premium,  having  a  small 
quantity  for  home  consumption,  or  even  for 
sale,  does  not  come  within  the  meaning  of  this 
clause.  If  the  insured  proposes  to  make  any 
alteration  in  the  premises  insured,  he  should 
make  this  known  to  the  insurers,  and,  if  he 
can,  obtain  their  leave  in  writing.  But  we  ap 
prehend  that  mere  alterations,  however  expen 
sive  or  important,  do  not  of  themselves  avoid 
a  policy,  unless  they  are  such  that  they  increase 
the  risk  substantially.  While  the  alterations 
are  in  progress,  and  a  new  risk  exists  from 
them,  the  underwriters  are  discharged  from 
liability  caused  by  a  loss  arising  from  this  risk, 
but  not,  we  think,  if  it  arises  from  a  cause 
wholly  independent  of  the  risk;  and  if  the 
alterations  are  finished,  and  the  risk  not  al 
tered,  they  do  not  affect  the  insurance.  It  is 
usual  to  provide  in  the  policy,  or  by  the  rules 
of  the  company,  for  making  necessary  or  prop 
er  repairs.  The  law  of  warranty,  of  represen 
tation,  and  of  concealment,  is  much  the  same 
in  fire  insurance  as  in  marine  insurance.  But 
some  questions  have  arisen  as  to  what  part  of  a 
description  is  a  continuing  warranty.  If  ex 
pressly  prospective,  as  that  water  tanks  shall 
be  kept  in  an  upper  story,  or  a  certain  watch 
maintained,  these  of  course  are  continuing 
promises,  and  a  breach  avoids  or  suspends  the 
policy.  So  a  description  that  the  house  is  slated 


320 


INSURANCE 


INTERDICT 


would  be  ta  continuing  warranty  that  it  should 
remain  slated.  But  a  statement  that  the  house 
stands  "500  feet  from  any  other  building" 
would  not  avoid  the  policy,  if  a  neighbor 
should  put  up  a  building  within  100  feet  of  the 
insured.  There  seems  to  be  this  difference  be 
tween  the  two  kinds  of  policies :  a  breach  of 
warranty  avoids  a  marine  policy,  however  in 
nocent  the  insured;  but  it  seldom  has  this 
effect  upon  a  fire  policy,  unless  there  be  fraud 
or  other  default  on  the  part  of  the  insured.  At 
the  time  of  the  insurance,  the  property  must 
be  in  existence,  and  not  then  on  fire,  or  in  im 
mediate  danger  from  fire.  Heat  alone,  how 
ever  excessive,  or  however  caused,  or  however 
destructive,  does  not  make  the  insurers  liable 
unless  there  foe  fire,  or  ignition.  Hence,  it  is 
now  settled  that  a  loss  by  lightning  is  not  a  loss 
by  fire,  unless  the  property  be  lost  by  ignition 
caused  by  the  lightning.  But  if  there  be  a  fire, 
usage  and  the  law  go  very  far  in  holding  the 
insurers  liable  for  the  consequences  of  it. 
Thus,  any  loss  caused  by  honest  efforts  to 
extinguish  the  fire,  as  by  water  poured  upon 
it,  or  any  loss  sustained  by  removal  of  the 
insured  goods  from  a  peril  of  fire,  or  by  the 
blowing  up  or  tearing  down  of  a  building  to 
arrest  a  fire,  would  fall  on  the  insurers.  But 
there  must  be  an  actual  fire,  near  enough  and 
dangerous  enough  to  justify  reasonable  men  in 
the  measures  which  have  resulted  in  the  loss. 
While  an  explosion  of  or  by  gunpowder  is  a 
loss  by  fire,  an  explosion  of  or  by  steam  has 
been  held  not  to  be  so.  Though  the  loss  be 
caused  by  the  negligence  of  the  servants  of  the 
insured,  the  insurers  are  still  held ;  and  so  they 
are  if  it  be  caused  by  his  own  negligence,  unless 
that  be  so  extreme  and  extraordinary  as  to  raise 
a  suspicion  of,  or  rather  imply,  fraudulent  intent. 
That  the  fire  was  caused  by  the  insanity  of  the 
insured  is  no  defence  to  the  insurers. — Valua 
tion  is  sometimes  made  in  policies  by  stock 
companies  upon  chattels  of  uncertain  value,  as 
books,  plate,  or  works  of  art ;  seldom  by  these 
companies  on  houses ;  and  never  upon  anything, 
so  far  as  we  know,  by  mutual  companies,  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  amount  to  be  paid 
in  case  of  loss.  If  a  loss  happens,  the  insured  is 
entitled  only  to  actual  indemnity ;  but  a  valua 
tion  is  required  by  the  charters  of  most  com 
panies,  that  they  may  not  insure  beyond  a  cer 
tain  proportion  of  the  value,  and  the  valuation 
for  this  purpose  is  usually  binding  on  both 
parties.  Insurers  against  fire  generally  stipu 
late  that  they  may  rebuild  or  repair  the  prem 
ises  insured,  if  they  prefer  this  course  to  paying 
for  the  loss ;  and  they  frequently  avail  them 
selves  of  the  right.  There  is  not  in  fire  insu 
rance  any  rule  answering  to  the  "  one  third  off, 
new  for  old,"  in  marine  insurance;  nor  any 
usage  of  making  a  partial  loss  total  by  aban 
donment,  although  all  insurers  who  pay  a  total 
loss  are  entitled  to  all  salvage  or  remains.  Xor 
is  there  anything  of  general  average  known  to 
fire  insurance. — As  it  is  deemed  especially  im 
portant  in  fire  insurance  to  prevent  insuring 


more  than  the  value  of  the  property,  in  order 
to  guard  against  the  temptation  to  burn  it  for 
the  insurance,  policies  generally  provide  in 
substance  and  effect  that  any  previous  insu 
rance,  not  made  known,  shall  avoid  any  subse 
quent  policy ;  and  the  law  is  very  strict  in  con 
struing  and  applying  this  rule  or  provision.  It 
is  now  common  to  provide  also  that  subsequent 
insurance,  not  made  known  and  assented  to, 
shall  avoid  the  policy.  (See  LIFE  IXSUKAXCE.) 

INTEGRAL  CALCULUS.     See  CALCULUS. 

INTERDICT,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
an  ecclesiastical  censure,  or  penalty  forbidding 
public  worship  and  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  to  certain  persons  or  in  certain 
places.  Generally  speaking,  what  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  considers  as  the  necessary  rites 
of  religion  were  not  forbidden,  such  as  baptism, 
confession,  and  extreme  unction.  Indeed,  all 
the  sacraments  in  most  cases  continued  to  be 
conferred  privately,  the  solemn  services  alone 
being  suspended.  The  canon  law  recites  three 
kinds  of  interdict,  local,  personal,  and  mixed. 
The  first  directly  affected  the  place,  and  indi 
rectly  its  inhabitants,  and  them  only  while 
within  its  limits.  The  second  affected  the  per 
sons,  who  were  interdicted  the  solemn  services 
wherever  they  might  be.  The  third  combined 
both  these  effects.  In  the  beginning  interdicts 
were  employed  by  all  persons  having  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  but  in  course  of  time  their  use 
was  restricted  to  the  Roman  pontiffs.  They 
were  scarcely  known  until  after  the  Carlovin- 
gian  period,  when  the  interdict  became  a  pow 
erful  ecclesiastical  weapon  for  restraining  the 
violence  of  the  feudal  nobles.  However,  one 
instance  of  its  use  occurred  in  580,  when  Queen 
Fredegonda  having  caused  Pra?textatus,  bishop 
of  Rouen,  to  be  slain  in  his  own  cathedral, 
Landowald,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  with  the  advice 
of  the  local  clergy,  commanded  all  the  churches 
in  the  city  to  be  closed  and  public  services  to 
cease  till  the  instigators  and  perpetrators  of 
the  crime  had  been  discovered.  In  the  10th 
century  the  popes  began  to  have  recourse  to 
interdicts  in  their  contests  with  sovereigns.  In 
1)1)7  Gregory  V.  laid  all  France  under  an  inter 
dict  because  King  Robert  had  married  his  own 
cousin,  and  the  king  was  abandoned  by  most 
of  his  court.  The  same  penalty  was  infiicted 
upon  the  kingdom  of  England  under  Stephen 
(1147)  by  Eugenius  III.,  under  John  (1208)  by 
Innocent  III.,  under  Henry  VIII.  (1535)  with 
little  effect  by  Paul  III.,  and  under  Elizabeth 
(1587)  by  Sixtus  V.  Adrian  IV.  laid  Rome 
under  an  interdict  for  the  purpose  of  driving 
out  Arnold  of  Brescia.  Gregory  IX.  made 
use  of  the  same  weapon  in  his  quarrel  with  the 
emperor  Frederick  II. ;  and  Paul  V.  in  1COG 
laid  an  interdict  upon  the  republic  of  Venice  in 
consequence  of  the  passage  of  certain  decrees 
relating  to  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  govern 
ment  resisted  the  promulgation  of  the  bull,  and 
ordered  the  parochial  clergy  to  continue  their 
functions  as  usual.  From  the  time  of  the  refor 
mation,  local  interdicts  became  rare ;  personal 


INTERLAKEN 


INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION    321 


interdicts,  which  are  the  severest  forms  of  ec 
clesiastical  censure,  are  still  imposed. 

LYTERLAKEN,  or  Interlachen,  a  village  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  canton  and  26  in.  S.  E.  of 
the  city  of  Bern ;  pop.  about  1,400.  It  is  cele 
brated  for  its -charming  situation  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Aar,  in  the  valley  of  Bodeli,  be 
tween  the  lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun,  with  a 
view  of  the  Jungfrau,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
some  of  the  most  picturesque  scenery  in  Switz 
erland.  It  is  the  starting  point  from  which 
the  Giessbach  fall,  the  valley  of  Lauterbrun- 
nen  with  the  Staubbach,  and  that  of  Grindel- 
wald  with  its  glaciers,  are  usually  explored  by 
visitors,  and  is  a  favorite  resort  of  a  great 


Interlaken — the  Jungfrau  in  the  distance. 

number  of  foreigners  in  summer,  especially 
English.  The  village  consists  mainly  of  a  line 
of  grand  hotels  and  numerous  lodging  houses, 
in  front  of  which  runs  a  magnificent  avenue 
of  huge  walnut  trees.  Within  a  short  distance 
of  Interlaken  are  the  old  castle  of  Unspimnen 
and  the  ancient  village  of  Unterseen.  In  1859 
the  innkeepers  established  a  Kursaal,  like 
those  at  the  German  baths,  with  ball,  concert, 
and  reading  rooms ;  but  the  Bernese  govern 
ment  interdicted  gaming.  In  the  season,  from 
June  to  October,  as  many  as  25,000  persons 
have  visited  Interlaken. 

INTERMITTENT  FEVER.     See  FEVERS. 

INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION,  an  association 
of  trades  unions,  designed  for  the  mutual  de 


fence  of  working  men's  interests  in  all  coun 
tries.  It  originated  at  the  time  of  the  Polish  in 
surrection  of  1863.  The  London  working  men 
sent  a  deputation  to  Lord  Palmerston,  asking 
for  interference  on  behalf  of  Poland,  and  also 
convoked  an  indignation  meeting  at  St.  James's 
hall,  London,  in  April  of  that  year.  The  Paris 
working  men  sent  over  two  deputies,  Tolain 
and  Fribourg,  to  this  meeting;  and  from  the 
conferences  of  these  delegates  with  the  leaders 
of  the  London  working  men  sprang  the  idea 
of  establishing  the  international  association. 
A  few  weeks  later  George  Odger,  an  unsuc 
cessful  working  men's  candidate  for  the  house 
of  commons,  drew  up  a  manifesto  which  was 
translated  into  French 
and  spread  among  the 
working  classes  of  the 
continent,  inviting 
them  to  send  delegates 
to  a  great  inaugural 
meeting  in  the  au 
tumn  holiday  season 
(September,  1864). 
This  gathering,  which 
took  place  at  St.  Mar 
tin's  hall,  was  largely 
attended  by  working 
men  of  nearly  every 
European  country, 
and  presided  over  by 
Prof.  Edward  Spen 
cer  Beesley.  A  gen 
eral  manifesto  and  the 
statutes,  both  drawn 
by  Dr.  Karl  Marx, 
were  approved  for 
publication ;  the  as 
sociation  was  declar 
ed  established,  some 
funds  were  collected, 
a  provisional  com 
mittee  was  appoint 
ed,  and  Mr.  Odger 
elected  president  of 
the  association.  Soon, 
however,  this  office 
having  been  declared 
incompatible  with  re 
publican  theories,  the 

presidency  was  abolished,  a  chairman  being 
elected  at  every  weekly  meeting  of  the  general 
council,  and  Dr.  Marx  became  the  leading  spirit 
of  the  association.  The  first  continental  strike 
in  which  the  aid  of  the  general  council  was  ap 
pealed  to  and  granted  was  that  of  the  Leipsic 
compositors  and  printers  in  April,  1865.  But 
the  statutes  of  the  association  were  not  consid 
ered  finally  established  until  the  first  congress 
at  Geneva  (1866)  had  given  them  a  definitive 
sanction,  for  three  rival  programmes  were 
brought  forward :  that  of  Mazzini,  highly  cen 
tralized,  strongly  conspiratory,  and  dealing 
much  more  with  politics  than  with  labor  and 
capital ;  a  wild  and  desultory  one  of  the  Rus 
sian  Bakunin  ;  and  the  radical  and  revolution- 


322 


INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


ary  but  business-like  one  of  Karl  Marx.  The 
last  met  with  little  opposition,  and  the  follow 
ing  were  declared  by  the  first  general  congress 
of  Geneva  to  be  the  rules  of  the  "  Interna 
tional  Working  Men's  Association:" 


Considering  that  the  emancipation  of  the  working  classes 
must  be  conquered  by  the  working  classes  themselves ;  that 
the  struggle  for  the  emancipation  of  the  working  classes 
means  not  a  struggle  for  class  privileges  and  monopolies, 
but  for  equal  rights  and  duties,  and  the  abolition  of  all  class 
rule ;  that  the  economical  subjection  of  the  man  of  labor  to 
the  monopolizer  of  the  means  of  labor,  that  is,  the  sources  of 
life,  lies  at  the  bottom  of  servitude  in  all  its  forms,  of  all  so 
cial  misery,  mental  degradation,  and  political  dependence ; 
that  the  economical  emancipation  of  the  working  classes  is 
therefore  the  great  end  to  which  every  political  movement 
ought  to  be  subordinate  as  a  means ;  that  all  efforts  aiming 
at  that  great  end  have  hitherto  failed  from  the  want  of  soli 
darity  between  the  manifold  divisions  of  labor  in  each  country, 
and  from  the  absence  of  a  fraternal  bond  of  union  between 
the  working  classes  of  different  countries;  that  the  emancipa 
tion  of  labor  is  neither  a  local  nor  a  national,  but  a  social 
problem,  embracing  all  countries  in  which  modern  society 
exists,  and  depending  for  its  solution  on  the  concurrence,  prac 
tical  and  theoretical,  of  the  most  advanced  countries;  that 
the  present  revival  of  the  working  classes  in  the  most  indus 
trious  countries  of  Europe,  while  it  raises  a  new  hope,  gives 
solemn  warning  against  a  relapse  into  the  old  errors,  and  calls 
for  the  immediate  combination  of  the  still  disconnected  move 
ments:  For  these  reasons,  the  first  international  working 
men's  congress  declares  that  this  international  association 
and  all  societies  and  individuals  adhering  to  it  will  acknowl 
edge  truth,  justice,  and  morality,  as  the  basis  of  their  con 
duct  toward  each  other,  and  toward  all  men,  without  re- 
rrd  to  color,  creed,  or  nationality.  This  congress  considers 
the  duty  of  a  man  to  claim  the  rights  of  a  man  and  a  citi 
zen,  not  only  for  himself,  but  for  every  man  who  does  his 
duty.  No  rights  without  duties,  no  duties  without  rights. 
And  in  this  spirit  they  have  drawn  up  the  following  rules  of 
the  international  association :  1.  This  association  is  estab 
lished  to  afford  a  central  medium  of  communication  and  co 
operation  between  working  men's  societies  existing  in  differ 
ent  countries  and  aiming  at  the  same  end,  viz. :  the  protection, 
advancement,  and  complete  emancipation  of  the  working 
classes.  2.  The  name  of  the  society  shall  be  ''The  Interna 
tional  Working  Glen's  Association."  3.  The  general  council 
shall  consist  of  working  men  belonging  to  the  different  coun 
tries  represented  in  the  international  association.  It  shall 
from  its  own  members  elect  the  officers  necessary  for  the 
transaction  of  business,  such  as  a  president,  a  treasurer,  a 
general  secretary,  corresponding  secretaries  for  the  different 
countries.  <kc.  The  congress  appoints  annually  the  seat  of  the 
general  council,  elects  a  number  of  members,  with  power  to 
add  to  their  numbers,  and  appoints  time  and  place  for  the 
meeting  of  the  next  congress.  The  delegates  assemble  at 
the  appointed  time  and  place  without  any  special  invitation. 
The  general  council  may,  in  case  of  need,  change  the  place, 
but  has  no  power  to  postpone  the  time  of  meeting.  4.  On  its 
annu;il  meetings,  the  general  congress  shall  receive  a  public 
account  of  the  annual  transactions  of  the  general  council. 
In  cases  of  urgency,  it  may  convoke  the  general  congress  be 
fore  the  regular  yearly  te'rm.  5.  The  general  council  shall 
form  an  international  agency  between  the  different  coopera 
ting  associations,  so  that  the  working  men  in  one  country  be 
constantly  informed  of  the  movements  of  their  class  in  every 
other  country;  that  an  inquiry  into  the  social  state  of  the 
different  countries  of  Europe  be  made  simultaneously,  and 
under  a  common  direction  ;  that  the  questions  of  general  in 
terest  mooted  in  one  society  be  ventilated  by  all;  and  that 
•when  immediate  practical  steps  should  be  needed,  as,  for  in 
stance,  in  case  of  international  quarrels,  the  action  of  the 
associated  societies  be  simultaneous  and  uniform.  Whenever 
it  seems  opportune,  the  general  council  shall  take  the  initia 
tive  of  proposals  to  be  laid  before  the  different  national  or 
local  societies.  To  facilitate,  the  communications,  the  general 
council  shall  publish  periodical  reports.  (>.  Since  the  success 
of  the  working  men's  movement  in  each  country  cannot  be 
secured  but  by  the  power  of  union  and  combination,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  usefulness  of  the  international  general 
council  must  greatly  depend  on  the  circumstance  whether  it 
has  to  deal  with  a  few  national  centres  of  working  men's  as 
sociations,  or  with  a  greater  number  of  small  and  disconnect 
ed  local  societies,  the  members  of  the  international  associa 
tion  shall  use  their  utmost  efforts  to  combine  the  disconnected 
working  men's  societies  of  their  respective  countries  into 
national  bodies,  represented  by  central  national  organs.  It  is 
pelf-understood,  however,  that  the  application  of  this  rule 
will  depend  upon  the  peculiar  laws  of  each  country,  and  that, 
apart  from  legal  obstacles,  no  independent  local  society  shall 


be  precluded  from  directly  corresponding  with  the  general 
council.  7.  The  various  branches  and  sections  shall,  at  their 
places  of  abode,  and  as  far  as  their  influence  may  extend, 
take  the  initiative  not  only  in  all  matters  tending  to  the  gen 
eral  progressive  improvement  of  public  life,  but  also  in  the 
foundation  of  productive  associations  and  other  institutions 
useful  to  the  working  class.  The  general  council  shall  en 
courage  them  in  every  possible  manner.  8.  Each  member  of 
the  international  association,  on  removing  his  domicile  from 
one  country  to  another,  will  receive  the  fraternal  support  of 
the  associated  working  men.  9.  Everybody  who  acknowl 
edges  and  defends  the  principles  of  the  international  working 
men's  association  is  eligible  to  become  a  member.  Every 
branch  is  responsible  for  the  integrity  of  the  members  it  ad 
mits.  10.  Every  section  or  branch  has  the  right  to  appoint  its 
own  corresponding  secretary.  11.  While  united  in  a  perpet 
ual  bond  of  fraternal  cooperation,  the  working  men's  societies 
joining  the  international  association  will  preserve  their  exis 
tent  organizations  intact.  12.  Everything  not  provided  for  in 
the  present  rules  will  be  supplied  by  special  regulations  sub 
ject  to  the  revision  of  every  congress. 

At  this  congress  of  Geneva,  also,  the  ques 
tions  of  the  limitations  of  the  working  day, 
of  juvenile  labor,  of  cooperative  labor,  of 
trades  unions,  and  of  a  statistical  inquiry  into 
the  situation  of  the  working  classes,  had  been 
discussed  in  such  a  way  as  to  attract  the  gen 
eral  attention  of  the  European  governments. 
The  French  government  assumed  a  very  hostile 
attitude  toward  the  society,  and  the  minister 
of  police,  M.  Pietri,  began  not  only  to  prose 
cute  its  members,  but  to  accuse  them  of  being 
connected  with  all  the  assassination  plots  which 
he  constantly  pretended  to  discover  in  France. 
This  policy  only  helped  the  international  by 
rendering  the  association  both  more  popular 
with  the  working  classes  and  more  formidable  in 
the  eyes  of  capitalists.  In  the  beginning  of  1807 
the  bronze  workers  of  Paris,  about  5,000  in  num 
ber,  struck ;  and  as  the  strike  was  firmly  kept 
up  by  money  sent  over  by  the  English  mem 
bers  of  the  association,  the  employers  yielded. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  great  strike  of  the  Lon 
don  tailors  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year 
was  largely  supported  by  contributions  from 
Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland. 
The  association  also  helped  the  great  strike  in 
the  building  trade  at  Geneva  in  1868,  so  that 
it  was  carried  through  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  working  men  concerned.  In  England,  how 
ever,  where  trades  unions  were  already  in  a 
much  more  flourishing  condition  than  on  the 
continent,  the  main  activity  of  the  association 
consisted  not  so  much  in  the  supply  of  pecu 
niary  means  as  in  preventing  the  importation 
of  cheap  continental  workmen  into  the  British 
market.  Formerly,  when  a  strike  took  place, 
the  English  employers  had  the  facilities  for 
bringing  over  German,  Belgian,  and  French 
workmen,  and  their  mere  threat  of  doing  so 
sometimes  put  an  end  to  the  strike.  But  from 
the  establishment  of  the  international  the  im 
portation  of  foreign  labor  became  very  diffi 
cult,  if  not  impossible ;  for  the  moment  a 
strike  or  lock-out  occurred  in  any  of  the  affilia 
ted  trades,  the  correspondents  of  the  associa 
tion  on  the  continent  were  ordered  to  warn  the 
workmen  of  their  respective  localities  against 
concluding  any  contract  with  the  British  em 
ployers.  The  next  congress  was  held  at  Lau 
sanne  in  September,  1807.  In  August  of  the 


INTERNATIONAL 


INTESTINE 


323 


next  year  122  branch  societies  of  middle  and 
south  Germany  held  a  meeting  at  Nuremberg 
and  joined  the  association  in  a  body.  The 
third  general  congress,  held  at  Brussels  about 
a  month  later  (September,  1868),  was  probably 
the  greatest  success  of  the  association,  not 
only  in  the  number  of  delegates  attending  it, 
but  also  in  the  importance  that  was  given  to 
the  gathering  by  the  leading  journals.  From 
the  autumn  of  that  year  formidable  strikes 
and  disturbances  occurred  all  over  Europe  un 
til  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-German  war ; 
among  these  were  the  cotton-spinners'  strike  at 
Rouen ;  the  St.  Etienne  affair,  in  which  more 
than  50  working  men  were  killed  by  the  troops ; 
the  strike  at  Le  Creuzot ;  the  monster  disturb 
ances  at  Vienna,  in  which  more  than  50,000 
men  took  part  and  were  dispersed  by  military 
force  ;  and  innumerable  minor  strikes  in  every 
European  country  and  in  almost  every  trade. 
At  the  fourth  annual  congress,  held  in  Basel ; 
in  September,  1809,  at  which  a  delegate  from 
America  was  present,  it  was  decided  that  the 
next  annual  gathering  should  take  place  in 
Paris  in  September,  1870.  The  war  prevented 
the  meeting,  and  seems  to  have  inflicted  a  death 
blow  on  the  international,  by  weakening  the 
radical  party  both  in  France  and  in  Germany. 
At  all  events,  the  congresses,  the  general  coun 
cil,  and  the  association  itself  were  not  heard 
of  for  18  months,  except  in  their  manifestoes 
protesting  against  the  savagery  of  warfare  and 
defending  the  Paris  commune.  After  that  and 
some  disagreements  at  a  congress  assembled  at 
the  Hague,  Dr.  Marx  withdrew  from  the  asso 
ciation,  and  the  whole  establishment  went  to 
pieces.  But  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the 
theories  of  the  international  have  also  been 
abandoned.  The  various  branches  of  trades 
unions  were  trained  and  made  acquainted  with 
each  other  during  its  five  years'  existence,  and 
they  are  now  quite  capable  of  sustaining  them 
selves,  supported  and  informed  as  they  are  by  | 
the  various  organs  of  their  party.  The  number 
of  these  journals  on  the  continent  is  20.  The 
most  important  of  them  are :  the  Volksstaat, 
published  at  Leipsic  ;  Proletaries,  Munich ; 
Volksfreunrl,  Brunswick;  Volkswille,  Vienna; 
Arlielter-Zeitnng,  Pestli;  Werkman  and  As- 
modee,  Amsterdam ;  Tockomxt  and  Vryhei'l, 
the  Hague;  Vorltote  and  Hyalite,  Geneva; 
Arleitcr,  Basel ;  T<ifjirn<'lit,  Zurich  ;  Solidarity 
Neufchatel ;  "Cause  of  the  People"  (in  Rus 
sian),  Geneva;  Internationale  and  Lilterte, 
Brussels ;  Werker,  Antwerp ;  Miraltenu,  Ver- 
viers ;  Federation,  Barcelona;  and  Solidari- 
d«d,  Madrid.  In  the  United  States  we  know 
only  of  the  "  Workingmen's  Advocate  "  of  Chi 
cago  and  Cincinnati,  and  the  Arleiterunion  of 
New  York,  as  accredited  organs  of  the  asso 
ciation. — The  gist  of  all  the  theories  of  the 
internationalists  is  this  :  Wages-paid  labor  must 
pass  away,  as  serf  labor  and  slave  labor  have 
passed  a\vay,  and  must  give  place  to  associated 
labor,  which  is  to  be  developed  to  national  di 
mensions  and  fostered  by  national  means.  No 


I  man  has  a  right  to  call  anything  his  own  which 
I  he  has  not  produced  by  his  labor. — See  the  an- 
!  nual  reports  published  in  London ;  also  an  arti- 
!  cle  by  Prof.  Beesley  in  the  "Fortnightly  Re 
view"  for  1870,  and  "History  of  the  Interna- 
|  tional,"  translated  from  the  French  of  E.  Ville- 
I  tard  by  Susan  M.  Day  (New  Haven,  1874). 

INTESTINE,  the  portion  of  the  digestive  ap 
paratus  situated  below  the  stomach,  divided 
1  into  the  small  and  large  intestines.  The  for 
mer  includes  the  duodenum,  jejunum,  and 
ileum ;  the  latter  the  caecum,  colon,  and  rec 
tum.  Many  of  the  details  on  these  organs 
have  been  given  in  the  articles  ALIMENTARY 
CAXAL,  CAECUM,  COLOX,  and  COMPARATIVE 
ANATOMY,  and  need  not  be  here  repeated. 
Next  below  the  stomach  comes  the  duodenum, 
the  largest  portion  of  the  small  intestine,  about 
12  in.  long,  receiving  the  ducts  from  the  liver 
and  pancreas,  and  furnished  with  numerous 
circular  internal  folds  of  mucous  membrane 
(the  valvula  conniventes) ;  above  it  is  in  con 
tact  with  the  liver  and  gall  bladder,  in  front 
with  the  stomach  and  arch  of  the  colon,  and 
behind  with  the  spinal  column,  right  kidney, 
vena  cava,  aorta,  and  diaphragm ;  its  arteries 
come  chiefly  from  the  superior  mesenteric, 
and  its  nerves  from  the  solar  plexus.  The 
jejunum  and  ileum,  which  follow,  have  no  dis 
tinct  line  of  separation,  and  may  be  described 
together  as  a  canal  four  or  five  times  as  long  as 
the  body,  arranged  in  numerous  folds  or  con 
volutions,  freely  movable  in  front  and  on  the 
sides,  and  attached  to  the  mesentery  behind; 
the  upper  portion  is  called  jejunum  from  its 
being  generally  found  empty.  In  front  these 
are  in  relation  with  the  omentum  and  the  an 
terior  abdominal  wall,  behind  with  the  spine, 
and  in  various  places  with  the  large  intestine ; 
internally  the  structure  resembles  that  of  the 
duodenum,  the  valvuhe  diminishing  gradually 
from  above  downward ;  the  mucous  membrane 
is  studded  with  glandular  follicles,  and  con 
tains  also  the  patches  of  Peyer,  the  seat  of 
lesion  in  typhoid  fever.  Of  the  large  intes 
tine  the  only  portion  to  be  alluded  to  is  the 
rectum,  the  terminal  portion,  ending  in  the 
anal  opening  protected  by  sphincter  muscles ; 
it  lies  in  the  concavity  of  the  sacrum,  is  cylin 
drical,  mostly  on  the  median  line,  and  some 
what  dilated  at  the  lower  end  ;  its  principal 
relations  in  both  sexes  are  with  the  genito 
urinary  organs.  Internally  it  presents  longitu 
dinal  and  parallel  folds,  with  transverse  semi- 
lunar  wrinkles  forming  sacs  in  which  fjecal 
matter  is  often  lodged  for  a  long  time ;  its  mu 
cous  membrane  possesses  considerable  absor 
bent  powers,  and  may  be  used  for  introducing 
nutriment  and  medicine. — The  common  peri 
staltic  movements  of  the  intestinal  canal  depend 
upon  the  contractility  of  the  muscular  coat 
called  into  action  by  the  stimulus  of  the  con 
tents,  and  are  not  dependent  upon  cerebro-spi- 
nal  nervous  influence,  though  they  may  be 
modified  through  the  spinal  and  sympathetic 
systems.  In  the  duodenum  and  beginning  of 


INVERNESS 


INVERNESS-SHIRE 


the  jejunum  are  small  branching  clusters  of 
follicles,  the  glands  of  Brunner.  The  follicles 
of  Lieberkiihn  are  simple  open  glandular, 
straight  narrow  ca3ca,  very  abundantly  dis 
tributed  through  the  entire  length  of  the  in 
testinal  tube.  The  product  of  these  two  sets 
of  glandular  follicles  is  the  intestinal  juice,  a 
colorless,  viscid,  alkaline  secretion,  which  rap 
idly  converts  hydrated  starch  into  sugar,  and 
probably  also  effects  other  important  changes 
in  the  digestive  process.  When  the  extent  of 
these  glandular  structures  of  the  intestine  is 
considered,  the  beneficial  action  of  purgative 
medicines,  in  hastening  the  removal  of  various 
morbific  matters  from  the  system  by  direct 
stimulation,  may  be  easily  understood. 

INVERNESS  (formerly  Innerness),  a  borough 
and  seaport  of  Scotland,  capital  of  Inverness- 
shire,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Ness, 


a  mile  from  its  estuary  and  9  m.  above  the 
junction  of  the  latter  with  the  Moray  frith, 
at  the  N.  entrance  of  the  Caledonian  canal, 
and  115  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Edinburgh;  pop.  in 
1871,  14,463.  The  principal  part  of  the  town 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  and  the 
two  sides  were  formerly  connected  by  a  stone 
bridge,  built  in  1685,  carried  away  by  a  flood 
in  1849,  and  replaced  by  an  iron  suspension 
bridge.  The  town  has  five  principal  streets, 
with  houses  generally  well  built  of  stone,  and 
many  fine  churches,  banks,  hotels,  and  public 
buildings.  It  has  a  coasting  and  foreign  trade 
through  the  Moray  frith  and  Caledonian  canal, 
and  exports  grain,  potatoes,  wool,  woollen 
cloth,  ropes,  sail  cloth,  leather,  ale,  whiskey, 
and  dairy  produce.  The  imports  in  1871  were 
valued  at  £27,714,012  (from  the  United  States, 
£3,026,867),  the  exports  at  £6,339,701  (to  the 


Inverness. 


United  States  £359,348).— Inverness  is  a  town 
of  great  antiquity.  On  an  eminence  S.  E.  of 
the  town  anciently  stood  a  castle,  in  which  it 
is  supposed  that  Duncan  was  murdered  by 
Macbeth.  The  castle  was  destroyed  by  Mal 
colm  Canmore,  who  erected  a  new  one,  which 
was  for  several  centuries  used  as  a  royal  for 
tress,  within  whose  walls  a  parliament  was  held 
during  the  reign  of  James  I.  On  the  site  of 
this  castle,  which  was  blown  up  in  1746  by  the 
troops  of  Prince  Charles  Stuart,  stand  now  the 
court  house  and  the  county  buildings.  Crom 
well  erected  a  fort  on  the  N.  side  of  the  town 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Ness,  which  was  de 
molished  at  the  restoration,  but  part  of  the 
rampart  still  remains.  Culloden  moor  is  3  m. 
from  the  town. 

INVERNESS,  a  county  of  Nova  Scotia,  Canada, 
occupying  the  "NV.  portion  of  Cape  Breton ; 
area,  1,221  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  23,415,  of 


whom  18,197  were  of  Scotch,  2,682  of  French, 
1,307  of  Irish,  and  1,030  of  English  descent. 
It  is  well  watered,  and  contains  excellent  farm 
ing  land.  Coal  and  petroleum  are  found.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  fishing.  Capital,  Port  Hood. 

INVERNESS-SHIRE,  a  county  of  Scotland, 
stretching  diagonally  across  the  mainland  from 
sea  to  sea,  between  lat.  56°  40'  and  57°  40'  N., 
and  including  on  the  west  the  island  of  Skye, 
several  smaller  islands,  and  most  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides;  area,  4,255  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
87,480.  The  S.  W.  shores  are  deeply  indented 
by  arms  of  the  sea,  and  on  the  N.  E.  is  Moray 
frith.  The  country  is  mountainous,  well  wood 
ed,  and  generally  fertile ;  about  112,000  acres 
are  under  cultivation.  The  Monadlia  (gray 
mountain),  or  Monagh  Lea,  and  the  Benakler 
mountains  are  the  principal  ranges,  each  with 
an  altitude  of  3,000  ft.  Ben  Nevis,  the  lof- 


INVERTEBRATA 


INVESTITURE 


325 


tiest  peak  in  Britain,  rises  to  a  height  of 
4,406  ft.;  Cairngorm  is  4,090  ft.  high;  and 
Tomnahurich,  an  isolated  hill  near  Inverness, 
1,984  ft.  Veins  of  lead  and  silver  and  small 
quantities  of  iron  ore  have  been  discovered, 
hut  no  coal.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Spey, 
Ness,  Beauly,  and  Garry,  all  of  which  have 
valuable  salmon  iisheries.  Lakes  occupy  132 
sq.  in.  of  the  area.  The  largest  is  Loch  Ness, 
so  deep  that  it  never  freezes ;  with  its  continu 
ations  and  connections,  it  bisects  the  county 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  "W.  Many  of  these  lakes  are 
surrounded  by  picturesque  scenery.  The  Gaelic 
language,  excepting  in  the  town  of  Inverness, 
is  more  prevalent  than  English.  Agriculture 
is  prosperous;  oats  are  the  main  crop.  But 
tillage  is  secondary  to  the  raising  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  the  former  generally  of  the  Skye  or 
Kyloe  breed,  and  the  latter  Cheviot  or  Linton. 
IMERTEBRATA,  a  negative  term  in  zoology, 
employed  by  Lamarck  to  designate  animals  des 
titute  of  a  vertebral  column  or  backbone.  Ex 
clusive  of  the  protozoa,  these  constitute  three 
out  of  the  four  great  divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  viz.,  articulates,  mollusks,  and  radi 
ates  ;  the  remaining  division  consists  of  the  ver 
tebrates,  or  those  having  an  internal  skeleton 
with  a  backbone  for  its  central  support,  inclu 
ding  man  and  other  mammals,  birds,  reptiles, 
amphibians,  and  fishes.  The  articulates,  char 
acterized  by  a  jointed  body,  include  insects, 
arachnids,  centipedes,  crustaceans  (as  crabs  and 
lobsters),  and  worms ;  the  mollusks  are  those 
generally  denominated  shell-bearing  animals; 
the  radiates  include  the  echinoderms  (or  sea 
urchins,  star  fishes,  and  holothurians),  the  aca- 
lephs  or  jelly  fishes,  and  the  polyps  (like  hydra, 
actinia,  and  the  coral  animals).  There  is  no 
homology  or  affinity  between  the  structural  type 
of  the  vertebrates  and  invertebrates,  though 
there  may  be  analogy ;  for  instance,  the  head 
of  an  insect  is  not  homologous  with  the  head 
of  a  man,  a  bird,  a  reptile,  or  a  fish,  as  it  has 
no  distinct  brain  cavity  nor  cranial  vertebrae, 
yet  its  sense  organs  and  other  parts  perform 
the  same  functions.  Aristotle  distinguished  in 
vertebrates  from  vertebrates,  calling  the  former 
avai/Lia  (bloodless)  and  the  latter  eraifia  (having 
blood) ;  Oken  made  the  same  distinction  in 
his  gut  animals  and  flesh  animals,  and  Ehren- 
berg  in  his  ganglioneura  and  myeloncura ; 
even  Lamarck  was  aware  that  in  his  invertc- 
brata  all  the  organs  are  contained  in  a  single 
cavity,  while  in  the  tertebrata,  there  are  dis 
tinct  cavities  for  the  nervous  system  and  the 
organs  of  vegetative  life.  Lamarck  divided 
the  iniertebrata  into  two  orders  and  twelve 
classes,  viz. :  apathetic  animals,  with  the  five 
classes  of  infusoria,  polypi,  radiarin,  tnnicata, 
and  venues ;  and  sensitive  animals,  with  the 
seven  classes  of  insects,  arachnids,  cruztacea, 
annelids,  cirripeds,  concliifcra*  and  mollusks; 
all  distinguished  from  rericlrata,  or  intelligent 
animals.  The  development  of  the  embryo  and  i 
the  methods  of  reproduction  in  the  inverte 
brates  are  different  from  those  of  the  verte 


brates.  In  the  radiates  the  germ  surrounds 
the  yolk  like  a  crust,  from  which  the  more 
animated  parts  are  derived,  the  alimentary 
canal  being  formed  from  the  central  mass; 
reproduction  may  also  take  place  by  buds  or 
by  transverse  division  in  the  polyps  and  jelly 
fishes,  the  latter  also  presenting  the  curious 
phenomena  of  alternate  generation.  In  artic 
ulates  the  embryo  is  formed  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  yolk,  Avith  its  dorsal  surface  toward  the 
latter,  so  that  the  yolk  is  enveloped  from  be 
low  upward,  the  uniting  suture  being  upon  the 
back.  In  mollusks  the  yolk  is  introduced  from 
the  lower  side  of  the  animal,  as  in  vertebrates, 
but  there  is  no  upper  cavity  for  the  nervous  sys 
tem,  as  in  the  latter.  It  is  thus  evident  that 
the  term  invertebrata  is  not  equivalent  in  zoolo 
gical  precision  to,  and  is  far  more  comprehen 
sive  than,  the  vertebrate  division ;  the  oyster, 
the  butterfly,  the  star  fish,  all  invertebrates, 
have  nothing  in  common  but  the  absence  of 
a  vertebral  column.  Invertebrates  include  by 
far  the  most  numerous  and  diversified  forms 
in  the  animal  kingdom ;  in  them  we  find  many 
important  physiological  questions  answered, 
and  by  them  we  understand  otherwise  inex 
plicable  problems  of  animal  life  and  of  its  re 
lations  to  changes  in  the  earth's  surface ;  in 
them  we  see  a  circulation  of  blood  without  a 
heart  or  without  distinct  vessels,  respiration 
effected  by  a  vascular  integument,  the  nervous 
system  reduced  to  its  essential  elements  of 
ganglia  with  connecting  cords,  the  external 
skeleton  enclosing  the  muscles  and  organs,  the 
plant-like  mode  of  reproduction  and  of  true 
hermaphroditism,  and  the  multiplication  of  or 
gans  independently  performing  the  same  func 
tions  (as  digestive  sacs,  gills,  locomotive  ap 
pendages,  &c.).  The  different  classes  will  be 
described  more  fully  in  their  respective  order. 
The  whole  subject  is  most  learnedly  treated  by 
Prof.  Owen  in  his  "Lectures  on  the  Inverte 
brate  Animals"  (1843). 

INVESTITURE,  the  public  delivery  of  a  feud 
or  fief  by  a  lord  to  his  vassal.  Blackstone 
says :  "  Investitures,  in  their  original  rise,  were 
probably  intended  to  demonstrate,  in  conquered 
countries,  the  actual  possession  of  the  lord,  and 
that  he  did  not  grant  a  bare  litigious  right,  but 
a  peaceable  and  firm  possession.  At  a  time 
when  writing  was  seldom  practised,  a  mere 
oral  gift,  at  a  distance  from  the  spot  that  was 
given,  was  not  likely  to  be  long  or  accurately 
retained  in  the  memory  of  bystanders  who 
were  very  little  interested  in  the  grant."  In 
vestiture  was  performed  by  the  presentation 
to  the  person  invested  of  some  symbol  of  au 
thority  and  possession.  Thus,  when  lands 
were  transferred,  it  was  customary  for  the 
grantor  to  give  the  grantee  a  turf  as  bearing 
resemblance  to  the  property  transferred. — In 
ecclesiastical  history,  by  the  right  of  investi 
ture  was  meant  that  claimed  by  the  temporal 
lord  of  presenting  a  prelate  with  the  ring  and 
crosier,  the  acknowledged  emblems  of  episco 
pal  and  abbatial  jurisdiction.  Before  the  in- 


326 


INTO 


IODINE 


vasion  of  the  barbarians  the  election  of  bishops 
depended  on  the  voice  of  the  clergy  and  peo- 

Ele  and  the  suffrage  of  the  provincial  prelates, 
n  feudal  times  the  tenure  of  church  property 
was  likened  to  that  of  lay  fiefs ;  bishops  and 
abbots,  like  barons  and  knights,  had  to  swear 
fealty  and  do  homage  to  their  lord  paramount. 
The  sovereign,  to  prevent  the  temporalities  of 
an  episcopal  see  or  of  an  abbey  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  reserved  to  him 
self  the  right  of  nomination,  as  well  as  that 
of  confirmation  by  investiture.  These  claims 
were  resisted  by  churchmen  as  encroachments 
on  their  privileges.  The  general  councils  of 
Nice  in  787  and  of  Constantinople  in  869  con 
demned  the  nomination  of  bishops  by  lay 
authority.  This  condemnation  was  renewed 
in  1076  and  1080  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  by 
Victor  III.  in  1087  at  the  council  of  Beneven- 
to,  the  latter  placing  under  the  ban  of  excom 
munication  both  the  laymen  who  exercised 
the  right  of  investiture  and  the  clerics  who  sub 
mitted  to  it.  But  in  spite  of  the  decisions  of 
popes  and  councils,  the  practice  of  investiture 
was  continued  by  sovereigns.  It  was  intro 
duced  into  France  and  Germany  by  Charle 
magne.  The  emperor  Henry  III.  repeatedly 
enforced  the  right;  and  its  exercise  by  the 
emperor  Henry  IV.  was  a  chief  ground  of  his 
quarrel  with  Gregory  VII.  The  contest  on 
this  question  between  the  popes  and  the  em 
perors  continued  into  the  succeeding  century, 
when,  by  a  concordat  agreed  upon  at  Worms 
between  Calixtus  II.  and  the  emperor  Henry 
V.,  the  latter  renounced  for  ever  his  claim  to 
invest  bishops  with  the  ring  and  crosier.  The 
French  kings,  however,  long  continued  to  ex 
ercise  a  similar  power,  and  the  contests  be 
tween  them  and  the  popes  on  the  subject  at 
length  resulted  in  a  compromise  by  which  the 
monarch  relinquished  the  presentation  of  the 
symbols,  but  retained  the  right  to  confer  in 
vestiture  by  a  written  instrument.  In  Eng 
land  the  controversy  ended  in  a  similar  com 
promise  between  Paschal  II.  and  Henry  I. 

IXYO,  a  S.  E.  county  of  California,  bounded 
E.  by  Nevada  and  "W.  by  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains;  area,  4,680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,956,  of  whom  29  were  Chinese.  The  Sierra 
Nevada  here  embraces  several  lofty  peaks, 
among  which  is  Mt.  Whitney.  The  Inyo,  Tel 
escope,  and  Amargosa  mountains  are  parallel 
ranges  E.  of  Owen's  river,  which  flows  from 
the  north  into  Owen's  lake,  a  body  of  water 
18  by  12  m.  in  extent.  The  valley  of  the  river 
is  from  15  to  25  m.  wide,  but  only  a  strip  2  to 
3  m.  broad  can  be  cultivated.  This  strip,  em 
bracing  about  250,000  acres,  is  very  fertile.  Ar 
gentiferous  galena,  gold,  copper,  sulphur,  and 
tin  are  found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  18,629  bushels  of  wheat,  22,915  of  Indian 
corn,  2,175  of  oats,  4,905  of  barley,  6,336  of 
potatoes,  20,940  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,456  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  1,514  horses,  5,662  cat 
tle,  52*1  sheep,  and  688  swine ;  2  saw  mills,  and 
12  quartz  mills.  Capital,  Independence. 


10,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  daughter  of  Ina- 
chus,  the  founder  of  the  worship  of  Juno  at 
Argos,  or  according  to  others  of  Piren  or  Ja- 
sus.  She  was  beloved  by  Jupiter,  who  on  ac 
count  of  Juno's  jealousy  changed  her  into  a 
white  heifer.  Juno  obtained  from  him  the 
gift  of  the  heifer,  which  she  placed  under  the 
charge  of  Argus  Panoptes  in  her  grove  at  My 
cenae.  Mercury,  commissioned  by  Jupiter,  was 
guided  by  a  bird  to  Argus,  slew  him  with  a 
stone,  and  delivered  lo.  Thereupon  Juno  sent 
a  gadfly,  which  tormented  lo  and  pursued  her 
in  a  state  of  frenzy  over  the  whole  earth,  till 
at  last  she  rested  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
where  she  recovered  the  human  form,  bore  a 
son  to  Jupiter  named  Epaphus,  and,  according 
to  some  accounts,  introduced  the  worship  of 
Isis,  with  whom  she  afterward  became  identi 
fied.  The  fullest  narrative  of  her  wanderings 
is  in  the  "  Prometheus  "  of  yEschylus.  As  usu 
ally  ex*plained,  lo  represents  the  moon,  and  her 
wanderings  the  moon's  phases ;  Argus,  the 
stars  of  heaven;  and  Mercury,  as  the  god  of 
mists  and  clouds,  is  the  Argus-slayer. 

IODINE  (Gr.  fwJ?/f,  violet-colored),  an  ele 
mentary  substance  named  from  the  color  of  its 
vapor,  existing  in  various  marine  plants,  the 
water  of  many  mineral  springs  and  of  the  ocean, 
the  bittern  of  salt  works,  sponges,  corals,  and 
some  rocks  and  minerals.  It  was  discovered 
in  manufacturing  saltpetre  by  Courtois  of  Paris 
in  1812,  and  afterward  examined  and  described 
by  several  chemists,  but  more  particularly  by 
Gay-Lussac  (Annales  de  cliimie,  vols.  Ixxxviii., 
xc.,  and  xci).  It  is  represented  by  the  symbol 
I;  its  chemical  equivalent  is  127.  In  its  prep 
aration  it  crystallizes  either  from  solution  or  by 
sublimation  in  scales  like  those  of  micaceous 
iron,  and  in  regular  crystals  of  elongated  octa 
hedrons  with  rhomboidal  base.  These  are  brit 
tle,  opaque,  bluish  black,  and  of  metallic  lustre; 
their  specific  gravity  is  4*95  ;  they  fuse  at  225° 
F.  into  a  dark  liquid,  and  boil  at  347°,  giving  off 
deep  purple  and  violet  vapors.  Iodine  is  also 
volatile  at  common  temperatures,  and  when  ex 
posed  to  the  air  diffuses  an  odor  like  that  of 
chlorine,  the  vapor  irritating  the  nostrils  and 
exciting  cough.  This  is  among  the  heaviest  of 
aeriform  bodies,  its  density  being  8'7  times  that 
of  air.  Alcohol,  ether,  and  carbon  disulphide 
dissolve  iodine  freely;  pure  water  takes  up 
only  about  T-gVo  of  its  weight  of  it,  and  thus 
acquires  a  yellowish  or  brown  tinge.  By  adding 
nitrate  or  chloride  of  ammonium,  common  salt, 
or  any  of  the  iodides,  to  the  Avater,  its  power  of 
dissolving  iodine  is  greatly  increased,  and  the 
solution  then  takes  a  very  deep  brown  color. 
Iodine  gives  a  yellow  stain  to  the  skin,  which 
soon  disappears.  Though  resembling  chlorine 
in  its  combinations  and  some  of  its  qualities, 
it  has  not  the  property  of  bleaching,  and  its 
chemical  affinities  are  weaker.  Its  remarkable 
property  of  imparting  a  deep  blue  color  to  a 
mass  or  solution  of  starch  serves  as  a  distin 
guishing  test  of  extreme  delicacy.  The  starch 
solution,  if  cold,  will  sensibly  indicate  the  pres.- 


IODINE 


32  r 


ence  of  iodine  in  solutions  containing  only 
T.Fcr.Tnnr  °^  ^-  ^  is  supposed  that  the  iodine 
is  merely  mixed  in  a  finely  divided  state  with 
the  starch.  It  must  be  free  for  the  test  to  suc 
ceed;  and  to  insure  this,  where  the  iodine  may 
be  in  the  state  of  an  iodide,  it  is  recommended  to 
add  to  the  solution  a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  then  a  little  vapor  of  chlorine,  or  instead  of 
the  chlorine  a  drop  or  two  of  nitric  acid  may  be 
used. — Though  iodine  is  detected  in  a  multitude 
of  organic  bodies,  principally  those  connected 
with  the  sea  or  in  plants  growing  near  the  salt 
water,  it  is  found  in  largest  proportion  in  the 
fuel  or  common  seaweeds,  and  other  marine 
plants  which  grow  at  great  depths.  TliG/ucus 
palmatus  and  saccliarmus  are  especially  rich 
in  it.  The  preparation  of  the  iodine  of  com 
merce  is  principally  carried  on  at  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  at  Donegal,  Ireland,  and  at  Cher 
bourg,  France,  to  which  places  are  brought 
the  half  vitritied  ashes  produced  by  burning 
the  seaweeds  collected  on  the  coast.  These 
ashes,  called  kelp,  or  on  the  continent  varec, 
being  coarsely  powdered,  are  digested  some 
hours  in  water,  and  the  solution  is  then  drawn 
off  upon  a  fresh  portion,  and  from  this  upon 
a  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  it  may  be  a  sixth, 
until  the  liquor  has  attained  a  density  of 
1-257.  The  various  soluble  salts,  including  the 
iodides  and  bromides  of  all  the  alkalies,  are 
thus  taken  up  and  separated  from  the  earthy 
salts.  The  solution  is  then  drawn  off  into  broad 
evaporating  pans,  and  concentrated  to  00° 
Twaddell,  or  sp.  gr.  1*30.  At  this  point  the 
sulphate  of  soda  and  chloride  of  sodium  begin 
to  crystallize ;  they  are  ladled  out  as  they  sepa 
rate  from  the  solution,  and  placed  so  that  the 
drainings  from  them  run  back  into  the  pans. 
When  they  cease  to  appear,  the  liquor  is  left  to 
repose  and  to  deposit  more  chloride  in  the  pans. 
It  is  then  drawn  off  into  coolers,  and  left  for 
five  days  for  the  sulphates  to  crystallize,  as  also 
chloride  of  potassium.  The  liquor  is  then  again 
evaporated  in  the  pans,  and  at  68°  T.,  or  sp.  gr. 
1-34,  deposits  carbonate  of  soda,  and  more  chlo 
ride  of  sodium  and  sulphate  of  soda.  It  is  again 
run  into  a  cooler  to  cause  a  further  separation 
of  chloride  of  potassium.  The  process  is  some 
times  again  repeated,  and  the  liquor  brought  by 
evaporation  to  74°  T.  After  removing  all  the 
crystals  that  appear,  there  frequently  remain  in 
the  solution  some  chlorides,  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  and  sulphide  of  sodium.  Strong  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  proportion  of  one  seventh  of  the 
whole  is  then  added,  and  after  agitation  the  mix 
ture  is  left  to  stand  for  t\vo  days.  The  sulphur 
ous  compounds  are  in  this  time  decomposed,  and 
sulphates  are  produced  with  liberation  of  sul 
phur  in  a  free  state,  in  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
and  in  sulphurous  acid.  The  iodine  is  fixed  by 
its  combination  with  sodium,  and,  unless  too 
much  acid  has  been  added,  cannot  be  liberated 
except  by  oxygen.  The  lye  is  now  poured  into 
an  iron  still  lined  with  lead,  and  when  heated 
in  a  sand  bath  to  140°,  a  quantity  of  manga 
nese  dioxide  is  introduced,  and  the  still  is  luted 


and  connected  with  its  condensers.  Iodine 
vapors  come  off  at  a  temperature  below  the 
boiling  point,  and  condense  in  the  receivers. 
Particular  care  is  required  that  the  temperature 
does  not  exceed  212°,  in  which  case  the  iodine 
is  apt  to  combine  with  chlorine  with  loss.  Cy 
anide  of  iodine  often  collects  in  white,  prismatic 
crystals  in  the  receiver  furthest  from  the  retort. 
A  portion  of  iodine  remains  in  the  retort  in 
combination  with  lead  and  sodium,  which  is 
recovered  by  first  converting  it  into  an  iodide 
of  copper  by  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  cop 
per,  and,  when  this  is  separated  by  filtration, 
decomposing  it  by  sulphuric  acid  and  oxide  of 
manganese,  and  collecting  the  vapor.  The  pro 
cess  above  given  is  somewhat  modified  at  dif 
ferent  localities.  A  method  has  been  proposed 
by  Dr.  Kemp  to  dispense  with  the  burning  of 
the  plants,  by  which  much  iodine  is  volatilized 
and  lost,  and  to  crush  the  roots  in  which  the 
largest  proportion  of  iodine  is  concentrated, 
and  set  them  to  ferment;  after  which  the 
iodine  with  other  salts  may  be  dissolved  out 
by  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  finally  separated  by  proper  reagents.  It  is 
also  proposed  to  distil  the  seaweeds  instead  of 
incinerating  them.  Large  quantities  of  iodine 
are  now  recovered  from  the  nitrate  of  soda 
of  Chili,  according  to  a  method  invented  by 
Thiercelin.  The  mother  liquors  resulting  from 
the  manufacture  of  saltpetre  are  treated  with 
a  mixture  of  sulphurous  acid  and  sulphite 
of  soda,  and  the  iodine  is  precipitated  as  a 
black  powder.  This  is  placed  in  earthen  jars, 
on  the  bottom  of  which  are  layers  of  quartz 
sand,  fine  at  the  top  and  coarse  at  the  bottom ; 
from  these  jars  the  iodine  is  removed  by  earth 
en  spoons  lined  with  gypsum,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  water  is  thus  separated.  It  is  fur 
ther  purified  by  sublimation,  but  is  often  sold 
before  undergoing  the  last  named  process. 
The  amount  of  iodine  thus  reclaimed  from 
Chili  saltpetre  in  1870  amounted  to  30,000  Ibs. 
— Iodine  is  useful  as  a  test  for  starch,  and  also 
as  an  ingredient  of  various  chemical  reagents. 
Some  of  these  are  of  great  importance  in  the 
photographic  art.  From  the  iodide  of  potassi 
um  is  prepared  the  iodide  of  silver,  which  con 
stitutes  the  sensitive  film  upon  the  plates. — 
Iodine  forms  two  important  acids,  iodic  acid, 
IIIO3,  and  periodic,  IIIO4.  Hydriodic  acid 
closely  resembles  hydrochloric  acid,  as  the  oxy 
gen  acids  correspond  respectively  to  chloric  and 
perchloric  acids. — Iodine  has  been  employed  in 
medicine  since  1819,  although  burnt  sponge, 
which  depends  upon  iodine  for  its  efficacy,  had 
j  been  previously  used  with  advantage  in  treat 
ment  of  goitre.  A  large  number  of  preparations 
are  employed  both  for  external  and  internal  ap 
plication  ;  the  most  important  are  solutions  of 
iodine  in  alcohol,  iodine  dissolved  in  water  by 
the  aid  of  iodide  of  potassium,  iodoforra,  the 
iodide  of  potassium,  and  iodides  formed  with 
mercury,  iron,  sulphur,  sodium,  and  arsenic, 
lodoform  is  a  yellow  salt  in  hexagonal  fiat 
crystals,  which  contains  more  than  96  per 


328 


IODINE 


IONA 


cent,  of  iodine.  Iodine  and  many  of  its  com 
pounds  are  absorbed  with  considerable  rapidity 
from  the  stomach,  and  reappear  in  the  excre 
tions,  especially  the  urine,  in  a  short  time. 
It  has  also  been  found  in  the  saliva  and  milk ; 
this  is  particularly  true  of  the  iodide  of  potas 
sium.  It  remains  but  a  short  time  in  the 
system.  Iodine  itself  is  an  irritant,  and  is 
used  to  produce  counter-irritation.  If  taken  in 
considerable  quantities  internally,  it  becomes 
a  poison  by  exciting  inflammation  of  the  stom 
ach,  oesophagus,  and  fauces.  When  it  is  used 
in  small  doses  long  continued,  a  condition 
called  iodism  may  arise,  consisting  in  fever, 
restlessness,  disturbed  sleep,  gastro-intestinal 
irritation,  and  progressive  emaciation.  These 
symptoms  are  not  likely  to  arise  either  from 
the  iodide  of  potassium  or  from  the  iodide  of 
sodium,  and  are  indeed  not  very  frequent  from 
the  cautious  use  of  iodine  itself.  The  action 
of  iodide  of  potassium  in  considerable  quantity 
is  sometimes  marked  by  coryza,  and  a  rash, 
like  acne,  upon  the  face  and  chest.  Iodine 
has  been  principally  used  in  diseases  involving 
glandular  enlargement,  such  as  goitre  and 
scrofula,  and  also  with  great  benefit  in  syphilis 
and  in  chronic  rheumatism.  In  chronic  poi 
soning  by  mercury  or  by  lead,  the  metal  re 
maining  in  the  system  may  be  rendered  more 
soluble,  and  removed  by  the  iodide  of  potassi 
um.  This  is  shown  not  only  by  the  improve 
ment  of  the  patient's  condition,  but  by  the  de 
tection  of  the  metal  by  chemical  tests  in  the 
urine.  For  these  purposes  it  should  be  used  in 
large  doses  of  from  10  to  20  or  30  grains  three 
times  a  day.  Iodine,  iodide  of  potassium,  and 
iodides  of  sulphur,  lead, 
and  mercury  are  used 
externally  in  the  shape 
of  tincture  and  oint 
ment.  Some  of  these 
are  useful  counter-irri 
tants.  Any  specific  ab 
sorbent  effect  on  the 
part  of  the  ointment  is 
not  clearly  proved.  In 
jections  of  tincture  of 
iodine  have  been  made 
into  diseased  cavities, 
especially  those  lined 
with  serous  or  syno- 
vial  membrane,  as  the 
joints,  tunica  vaginalis, 
and  ovarian  cysts,  to 
excite  adhesive  inflam 
mation  ;  and  it  has  been 
injected  into  the  pleu 
ra,  and  even  the  pericar 
dium  and  peritoneum. 
Inhalations  of  the  va 
por  have  been  employed  in  pulmonary  disease, 
lodic  alimentation,  by  introducing  iodine  into 
articles  of  food,  as  bread,  has  been  proposed. 
Iodine  has  also  been  united  with  cod-liver  oil. 
A  solution  of  iodine  in  iodide  of  potassium  is 
useful  in  the  detection  of  many  alkaloids,  with 


which  it  forms  more  or  less  insoluble  com 
pounds.  It  has  also  been  proposed  as  an  anti 
dote  to  alkaloid  poisons;  but  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  compounds  formed  by 
iodine  with  strychnia,  for  instance,  are  prob 
ably  only  relatively  harmless,  and  the  absorp 
tion  merely  delayed,  so  that  other  means  of 
treatment  should  not  be  neglected,  although 
the  iodine  solution,  if  convenient,  may  be  used 
to  gain  time.  The  special  forms  of  disease  in 
wrhich  iodine  and  its  preparations  have  been 
found  most  useful  are  goitre,  enlarged  scrofu 
lous  glands,  scrofulous  ulcers  and  abscesses, 
secondary  and  tertiary  syphilis,  enlargement 
and  induration  of  the  ovaries,  chronic  affec 
tions  of  the  os  uteri,  dysmenorrhoea,  enlarge 
ment  of  the  spleen,  chronic  rheumatism  and 
gout,  pleurisy  with  effusion,  and  tubercular  af 
fections  of  the  head  and  chest.  The  dose  of 
iodine  for  internal  use  is  from  T^  to  -J-  gr.  three 
times  a  day ;  of  iodide  of  potassium,  from  1 
gr.  to  12  or  15  grs. ;  of  iodide  of  sodium,  5 
to  20  grs. ;  of  iodide  of  iron,  3  or  4  grs. ;  of 
iodide  of  mercury,  -^  gr.  to  1  gr. ;  of  biniodide 
of  mercury,  -^  to  ^  gr. ;  of  iodide  of  sulphur, 
2  or  3  grs. ;  of  iodoform,  $  gr.  to  2  grs.  Iodine 
and  the  iodides  are  best  given  before  or  after 
eating ;  they  are  apt  to  irritate  an  empty  stom 
ach.  A  generous  diet  is  usually  advisable  in 
connection  with  a  therapeutic  course  of  iodine 
or  of  the  iodides. 

IONA,  or  Icolnikill,  called  also  I  or  Hy,  a  small 
island  of  the  inner  Hebrides,  situated  in  lat. 
56°  22'  N.,  Ion.  0°  25'  W.,  9  m.  S.  W.  of  Staffa, 
and  separated  from  the  island  of  Mull  by  a 
channel  1J  m.  wide,  called  the  sound  of  I  or 


liuins  of  St.  Mary's  Church. 


of  Icolmkill.  It  is  embraced  within  the  parish 
of  Kilfinichen  and  county  of  Argyle,  and  is  3 
m.  long  by  1-J-  m.  broad;  pop.  about  300. 
It  has  an  irregular  surface  of  moorland,  rising 
in  places  to  400  ft.  About  600  acres  of  the 
island  are  under  cultivation,  producing  barley 


IONIA 


IONIAN  ISLANDS 


329 


and  potatoes,  but  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants  is  rearing  black  cattle  and  fish 
ing.  There  is  a  small  village,  containing  two 
churches,  40  or  50  detached  cottages,  and  a 
school. — The  island  was  given  by  the  Pictish 
king  Bridius  in  563  to  St.  Columba  (hence  the 
name  Icohnkill,  the  island  of  Columba  of  the 
cell),  who  founded  there  a  celebrated  monas 
tery.  Previous  to  his  time  the  island  was  the 
chief  seat  of  the  rites  of  druidism.  lie  estab 
lished  a  college,  which  acquired  great  wealth 
and  increased  in  influence  till  the  time  of  the 
reformation.  The  Culdees  controlled  it  until 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  when  they 
were  driven  out  by  those  who  acknowledged 
the  authority  of  Rome.  A  nunnery  established 
on  the  island  about  this  time  continued  till 
1543,  when  Anna  Macdonald,  the  last  prioress, 
died.  The  religious  establishment  was  alto 
gether  broken  up  by  the  act  of  the  Scotch  par 
liament  (1560)  abolishing  all  religious  houses. 
The  island  then  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
McLeans,  but  is  now  the  property  of  the  duke 
of  Argyll. — lona  is  said  to  have  had  at  one 
time  360  stone  crosses,  resembling  those  of 
Ireland,  but  most  of  them  were  destroyed  by 
Puritan  zeal,  and  only  four  now  remain.  Se 
pulchral  remains  cover  the  island,  both  in  the 
shape  of  cairns  and  of  stone  monuments  of  all 
kinds,  lona  having  been  considered  from  time 
immemorial  a  sacred  island.  An  old  prophecy 
declared  that  seven  years  before  the  end  of  the 
world  a  second  deluge  would  drown  all  na 
tions,  but  that  St.  Columba's  isle  would  swim 
above  the  flood ;  and  this  tradition  made  it  the 
chosen  cemetery  of  kings.  Numbers  of  Scotch, 
Irish,  Norwegian,  and  even  French  kings  were 
buried  there,  the  last  of  whom  is  said  to  have 
been  the  famous  Macbeth.  Among  the  principal 
ruins  are  the  church  of  St.  Mary,  a  cruciform 
building  with  a  square  tower  about  75  ft.  high, 
dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century; 
St.  Mary's  nunnery,  built  in  the  12th;  and  St. 
Oran's  chapel,  probably  in  the  llth. 

IONIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  lying  mainly  be 
tween  the  river  Ilermus  on  the  north  and  the 
Marauder  on  the  south,  and  including  the  islands 
of  Chios  and  Samos.  This  district  was  named 
after  the  lonians,  who  returned  from  Attica  to 
these  shores,  from  which  they  had  previously 
emigrated  to  European  Greece,  and  founded 
here  the  12  cities,  Miletus,  Myus,  Priene, 
Ephesus,  Lebcdus,  Colophon,  Teos,  Erythrro, 
Clazomena?,  Phocsea,  Chios,  and  Samos,  which 
were  designated  as  the  Ionian  Dodecapolis. 
(See  IOXIAXS.  )  The  new  colonists  settled 
among  kindred  Greek  tribes  engaged  in  fishing 
and  navigation,  and  the  Lydians  seem  to  have 
allowed  their  settlements  on  the*H>ast  without 
regarding  them  as  an  encroachment.  The 
lonians  demanded  rights  of  supremacy  and  the 
best  localities  for  the  foundation  of  cities  for 
themselves,  and  drove  the  old 'inhabitants  out 
of  their  seats.  The  legends  speak  of  their 
struggles  with  the  Carians  and  Leleges.  The 


religions  and  political  centre  of  the  Dodecapo 
lis  was  the  Panionium,  which  was  a  temple  of 
Neptune,  on  the  N.  slope  of  Mount  Mycale, 
near  Priene,  where  the  common  affairs  of  the 
independent  republics  were  discussed  at  regu 
lar  meetings.  About  700  B.  C.  Smyrna,  which 
until  then  had  belonged  to  ^Eolis,  became  by 
treachery  a  member  of  the  Ionian  confederacy, 
which  subsequently  consisted  of  13  cities.  The 
country  soon  attained  great  prosperity.  Be 
fore  the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  however, 
the  Ionian  cities  became  subject  to  Lydia,  and 
on  the  fall  of  Croesus  they  were  annexed  to 
the  Persian  empire  by  Cyrus.  In  501  and 
494  the  lonians  made  unsuccessful  efforts  to 
regain  their  independence,  and  they  assisted 
the  Greeks  against  the  Persians  at  the  battle 
of  Mycale  (479).  The  Persian  yoke  was  at 
length  shaken  off  by  the  victory  at  the  Eury- 
medon,  but  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (387)  re 
newed  it.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian 
empire  by  Alexander,  Ionia  became  subject  to. 
Macedon,  subsequently  to  the  Syrian  and  Per- 
gamene  kingdoms;  and  in  133  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Eomans  by  the  bequest  of  Atta 
ins  III.  of  Pergamus.  The  Ionian  cities  soon 
lost  their  importance,  and  under  the  Turkish 
supremacy  all  but  Smyrna  disappeared  or  sank 
into  total  insignificance.  Though  Ionia  never 
possessed  great  political  power,  the  commerce 
of  its  cities  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Black 
sea  and  the  sea  of  Azov,  as  well  as  to  the  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Ionia  was  the  cradle 
of  Greek  epic  and  elegiac  poetry,  history,  phi 
losophy,  medicine,  and  other  sciences ;  it  devel 
oped  a  new  style  of  architecture,  and  it  was 
the  birthplace  of  several  celebrated  painters. 

IONIA,  a  S.  county  of  the  southern  peninsula 
of  Michigan,  drained  by  Grand  river  ;  area,  576 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  27,681.  It  has  an  undu 
lating  surface,  about  half  of  which  is  densely 
wooded.  Red  sandstone  is  quarried.  The  soil 
is  rich,  and  much  of  it  alluvial.  The  Detroit 
and  Milwaukee,  and  the  Detroit,  Lansing,  and 
Lake  Michigan  railroads  pass  through  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  665,521  bushels 
of  wheat,  366,811  of  Indian  corn,  284,314  of 
oats,  316,487  of  potatoes,  32,825  Ibs.  of  hops, 
120,870  of  maple  sugar,  317,261  of  wool,  656,- 
369  of  butter,  and  34,271  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  6,514  horses,  7,424  mik-h  cows,  1,844 
working  oxen,  8,093  other  cattle,  78,541  sheep, 
and  10,686  swine;  12  manufactories  of  agri 
cultural  implements,  10  of  carriages,  6  of  cabi 
net  furniture,  10  of  iron  castings,  8  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  9  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  3  of 
woollen  goods,  2  planing  mills,  19  saw  mills, 
and  9  flour  mills.  Capital,  Ionia. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS,  the  collective  name  of  seven 
islands  belonging  to  Greece,  six  of  which  are 
in  the  Ionian  sea  (a  name  applied  from  ancient 
times  to  the  part  of  the  Mediterranean  be 
tween  the  W.  coast  of  Greece  and  the  E.  coast 
of  Italy  and  Sicily),  viz.  :  Corfu,  Santa  Maura, 
Ithaca  or  Thiaki,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  Paxo, 
and  Cerigo,  with  some  smaller  dependencies, 


330 


IONIAN  ISLANDS 


IONIAN'S 


between  lat.  35°  48'  and  40°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  19° 
and  23°  18'  E. ;  aggregate  area,  1,113  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  229,516.  The  islands  are  very 
mountainous,  and  mostly  rise  with  rugged  ab 
ruptness  from  the  sea,  but  have  tine  havens  on 
their  coasts.  Mt.  ./Enos  in  Cephalonia  is  5,246 
ft.  high,  and  in  the  other  islands  there  are  ele 
vations  ranging  from  1,000  to  3,800  ft.  The 
geological  formation  is  chiefly  limestone,  mixed 
with  sandstone  and  gypsum.  There  are  no 
active  volcanoes.  Most  of  the  islands  abound 
in  fine  natural  scenery,  and  here  and  there 
bear  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  soil  is  gen 
erally  dry  and  calcareous,  and  about  half  the 
surface  is  arable.  The  climate  is  variable,  but 
healthy.  The  spring  is  mild,  the  summer  hot 
and  dry,  the  autumn  rainy,  and  the  winter 
tempestuous.  The  sirocco  is  often  felt,  and  N. 
winds  blow  violently  during  winter.  Snow 
falls  often,  but  does  not  last  long  except  on  the 
mountains.  Earthquakes  are  not  uncommon. 
Iron,  coal,  manganese,  sulphate  of  soda,  marl, 
clay,  chalcedony,  quartz,  and  gray  marble  are 
the  most  important  minerals.  The  principal 
vegetable  products  are  the  olive,  lemon,  orange, 
and  fig,  grapes,  currants,  wheat,  maize,  barley, 
oats,  flax,  pulse,  and  cotton.  The  last  is  of 
very  good  quality.  The  celebrated  currants  of 
Zante  are  the  fruit  of  a  dwarf  vine.  The  va- 
lonia  oak  (quercus  agilops)  is  valued  for  its 
acorns,  besides  being  a  beautiful  tree.  Madder 
grows  wild,  and  the  cactus  Opuntia,  which  fur 
nishes  the  food  of  the  cochineal  insect,  thrives 
in  all  the  islands,  but  is  little  attended  to.  Ex 
periments  in  the  culture  of  indigo  have  suc 
ceeded.  Farms  are  mostly  small,  and  are  gen 
erally  let  annually  on  shares.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  the  only  animals  reared  in  considerable 
numbers.  The  manufactures  of  these  islands 
consist  almost  entirely  of  coarse  cloths,  earthen 
ware,  soap,  salt,  some  silk  and  cotton  fabrics, 
and  filigree  work.  Although  the  coasts  abound 
with  fish,  the  fisheries  are  not  prosecuted  sys 
tematically.  A  large  coasting  trade  is  carried 
on.  The  imports  are  sugar,  coffee,  drugs,  raw 
and  manufactured  cotton  and  silk,  wool  and 
woollen  cloth,  glass,  hardxvare,  staves  and 
hoops,  iron,  timber,  wheat,  Indian  corn,  rice, 
flour,  cheese,  salted  fish,  cattle,  sheep,  drugs, 
and  tobacco  ;  the  exports  are  currants  and  olive 
oil,  also  wine,  brandy,  liqueurs,  honey,  wax, 
valonia  acorns,  soap,  salt,  and  hare  and  lamb 
skins. — The  natives  are  Greeks,  with  a  consid 
erable  admixture  of  Albanian  and  Italian  blood. 
Italian  is  understood  in  most  of  the  large  towns, 
and  is  generally  spoken  by  the  higher  classes. 
Some  thousands  of  the  islanders  cross  annually 
to  the  mainland  to  assist  in  the  labors  of  har 
vest,  for  which  they  receive  payment  in  grain. 
Education  flourishes,  and  each  of  the  islands 
has  an  academy  supported  by  the  government,  I 
at  which  ancient  Greek,  Latin,  modern  Ian- 
guages,  and  mathematics  are  taught.  A  uni 
versity  was  founded  at  Corfu  in  1823.  Four 
fifths  of  the  population  belong  to  the  Greek 
church,  under  the  archbishops  of  Corfu,  Zante,  j 


Cephalonia,  Santa  Maura,  and  Cerigo.  The 
Roman  Catholics  have  an  archbishop  "of  Corfu 
and  a  bishop  of  Zante  and  Cephalonia.  There 
are  several  thousand  Jews,  living  chiefly  in 
Corfu,  and  enjoying  rights  of  citizenship. — In 
Grecian  history  these  islands  figured  singly  as 
Corcyra,  Leucas,  Ithaca,  Cephallenia,  Zacyn- 
thus,  Paxos,  and  Cythera.  In  the  12th  century 
they  were  taken  by  the  kings  of  Sicily,  and  iii 
the  14th  fell  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ve 
netians,  and  so  remained  till  the  fall  of  Venice 
threw  them  into  the  hands  of  the  French  by 
the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (1797).  Paissia 
and  Turkey  jointly  expelled  the  French,  and  in 
1800  erected  these  islands  into  the  Septinsular 
republic,  which,  under  the  protection  of  Tur 
key,  failed  as  an  experiment  of  self-govern 
ment.  By  a  secret  article  in  the  treaty  of  Til 
sit  in  1807  they  were  given  to  the  French ;  but 
being  occupied  by  the  British  during  the  wars 
from  1809  to  1814,  they  were  secured  to  that 
power  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  November, 
1815.  ^  From  1814  to  1863  the  islands  were  a 
republican  confederation,  under  the  protecto 
rate  of  Great  Britain,  and  were  called  the  Uni 
ted  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands.  The  govern 
ment  was  vested  in  a  lord  high  commissioner 
appointed  by  the  British  crown,  and  a  parlia 
ment  consisting  of  a  senate  and  legislative  as 
sembly.  Attempts  at  insurrection  in  1848  and 
1849  were  suppressed  with  rigor.  In  1863-'4 
they  were  incorporated  with  tjie  kingdom  of 
Greece,  when  Cerigo  was  united  as  an  eparchy 
with  the  nomarchy  of  Argolis  and  Corinth,  and 
the  remaining  islands  were  formed  into  three 
nomarchies,  Corcyra  (Corfu),  Cephalonia,  and 
Zante  (Zacynthus).  (See  GREECE.) 

IONIANS,  or  laoncs  (Gr.  "luveg  and  'Idovef),  an 
ancient  maritime  race  of  Greek  descent,  hav 
ing  their  chief  seat  in  western  Asia  Minor  and 
the  adjacent  islands.  The  name  was  extended 
to  cover  countries  further  west  as  Greece  and 
the  Greeks  became  better  known,  appearing 
in  various  dialectic  forms,  as  Javan  (Yawn) 
with  the  Hebrews,  Yuna  or  Yauna  with  the 
Persians,  Uinim  with  the  Egyptians,  and  the 
Yavanas  or  Yonas  in  India.  E.  Curtius  con 
jectures  that  after  the  lonians  had  learned 
navigation  and  become  masters  of  their  own 
sea,  they  sailed  in  the  track  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and  settled  beside  them  in  all  parts  of  the  east 
ern  Mediterranean.  The  monuments  of  Egypt 
show  as  early  as  the  18th  dynasty  the  same 
group  of  hieroglyphs  by  which  the  Greeks  were 
designated  at  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  and  it 
is  believed  that  the  Uinim  first  known  to  the 
Egyptians  were  the  Ionian  Greeks.  If  this  is 
correct,  the  lonians  were  settled  already  about 
1500  B.  C.  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  Cyprus  is 
catted  Yavnan,  the  island  of  the  lonians  (vjjaog 
'ladvuv),  when  it  first  became  known  to  the  As 
syrians  in  the  reign  of  Sargon ;  but  in  some  of 
Sargon's  inscriptions  it  is  corrupted  into  Yat- 
nan.  The  Mosaic  table  of  nations  mentions 
the  children  of  Javan,  among  whom  are  inclu 
ded  the  Kittim  of  Cyprus ;  but  the  name  Javan, 


IOXIANS 


IOXIES 


331 


as  is  expressly  stated,  covers  a  multitude  of 
islands.  The  prophet  Joel  curses  the  towns 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon  for  selling  the  children  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  to  the  children  of  Javan, 
and  removing  them  far  away  among  the  gen 
tiles.  It  is  therefore  supposed  that  the  He 
brews  were  acquainted  with  the  lonians  as  early 
as  1UOU  B.  C.  It  is  noticeahle  that  the  term 
ildoves  only  once  occurs  in  the  Iliad,  and  that 
in  one  of  its  later  parts.  The  legendary  ac 
counts  of  the  Greeks  say  that  about  the  middle 
of  the  llth  century  B.  0.  the  lonians  emigrated 
from  Attica  and  settled  on  the  shores  of  Asia 
Minor,  expelling  and  exterminating  some  of 
the  inhabitants,  while  others  were  allowed  to 
amalgamate  with  them.  Other  myths  speak 
of  nations  from  the  east  settling  in  European 
Greece.  Notwithstanding  the  pride  taken  by 
the  Greeks  in  their  autochthony,  they  con 
stantly  connect  the  foundation  of  their  social 
life  with  the  arrival  of  highly  gifted  strangers, 
whose  supernatural  power  and  wisdom  were 
believed  to  have  brought  a  new  order  into  their 
life.  E.  Cm-tins  says  :  "  Two  different  points 
of  view  are,  however,  undeniably  maintained 
throughout  these  myths :  in  the  first  place,  the 
notion  of  the  foreign  element,  .  .  .  and  second 
ly,  the  notion  of  common  relationship."  "In 
what  other  way  can  these  two  undeniably  dom 
inant  ideas  be  explained  and  harmonized,  ex 
cept  by  assuming  that  the  colonists  in  question 
were  also  Hellenes ;  that  they  came  from  the 
east  indeed,  but  from  a  Greek  east,  where,  with 
the  receptivity  of  mind  characteristic  of  the 
Ionian  race,  they  had  domesticated  among  them 
selves,  and  given  a  Hellenic  transformation  to, 
the  civilization  of  the  East,  in  order  to  hand  it 
over  in  this  state  to  the  brethren  of  their  own 
race  ?  But  since  these  Ionic  Greeks,  for  so  we 
may  shortly  designate  them  as  a  body  of  popu 
lation,  had  not  only  settled  in  their  own  home, 
but  also  among  the  Phoenicians,  in  lands  colo 
nized  by  the  latter,  in  Lycia  and  in  Caria,  and 
in  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  the  settlers  coming 
from  the  other  side,  the  heroes  and  founders 
of  towns  in  question,  easily  came  to  be  called 
Phoenicians  and  Egyptians.  For  it  is  incon 
ceivable  that  Canaanites  proper  .  .  .  ever  found 
ed  principalities  among  a  Hellenic  population." 
Thus  at  the  beginning  of  history  Curtius  finds 
traces  of  the  lonians  on  the  shores  of  the  sea 
of  Thessaly,  and  of  the  sea  of  Eubo3a,  called 
Ilellopia,  after  a  son  of  Ion  ;  in  southern  Boeo- 
tia,  especially  on  the  Asopus  and  the  declivities 
of  the  Helicon  ;  in  the  whole  of  Attica ;  further 
in  a  long  connected  line  on  either  shore  of  the 
Saronic  and  Corinthian  seas ;  in  Argolis,  and 
on  all  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  and  in 
the  mountainous  country  of  the  interior.  The 
movement  of  the  lonians  from  Attica  to  the 
AV.  coast  of  Asia  Minor  was  accordingly  a  re- 
migration  to  the  original  settlements.  It  was 
the  natural  result  of  the  overpeopling  of 
southern  Greece,  occasioned  by  the  violent  ad 
vance  of  the  northern  highbinders  or  the  con 
tinental  tribes  of  the  Hellenic  nation.  In  the 


midst  of  these  movements,  which  had  revolu- 
|  tionized  all  the  states  from  Olympus  to  Cape 
Malea,  Attica  alone  had  remained  tranquil ; 
but  it  now  became  the  refuge  of  the  multitudes 
driven  out  of  the  other  districts,  and  the  narrow 
and  poor  little  land  was  overflowing  with  in 
habitants,  so  that  relief  became  necessary.  All 
the  Greeks  belonging  to  the  old  Ionic  race, 
suffering  under  this  great  pressure,  therefore 
started,  arid  having  preserved  an  inner  connec 
tion  notwithstanding  their  dispersion,  they  re 
assembled  in  the  middle  coast  tracts  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  this  land  around  the  mouths  of  the 
four  rivers  became  the  new  Ionia,  into  which 
were  transplanted  the  political  institutions, 
priesthoods,  and  festive  rituals  of  Attica.  (See 
IONIA.) — The  Yavanas  in  ancient  Sanskrit  liter 
ature  are  supposed  to  have  been  lonians,  who 
made  inroads  into  India  through  the  north 
west,  probably  through  Cashmere,  coming 
from  the  Euphrates,  and  penetrating  as  far 
as  Orissa.  The  term  Yavana  was  applied  also 
to  Greeks  left  by  Alexander  to  garrison  the 
banks  of  the  Indus.  Though  Sir  William  Jones 
interprets  the  word  as  designating  lonians  or 
Asiatic  Greeks,  yet  the  chief  argument  in  favor 
of  it  is  the  difficulty  of  attaching  it  to  any  oth 
er  people.  Yavana  does  not  seem  to  be  ex 
clusively  applied  to  the  Greeks.  According  to 
Caldwell,  it  had  originally  that  signification, 
and  was  subsequently  applied  to  any  race  ap 
proaching  India  from  the  west.  According  to 
Lassen,  it  was  used  to  designate  only  the  Semi 
tic  nations.  The  modern  Hindoos  of  northern 
India  apply  the  term  Yavana  to  Mohammedans 
of  every  description,  but  it  is  certain  that  in 
works  prior  to  the  Mohammedan  era  some 
other  people  must  be  intended.  Bunsen  sup 
poses  that  it  may  be  an  ancient  inaccurate  namo 
of  a  people  who  pushed  on  toward  the  Medi 
terranean.  In  the  present  state  of  these  re 
searches  it  is  impossible  to  retrace  with  cer 
tainty  the  occupancy  of  central  Asia  and  India 
by  the  ancient  lonians. — See  Ernst  Curtius, 
Die  lonier  vor  dcr  ionischen  Wanderung  (Ber 
lin,  1855),  and  Geschichte  und  Topographic 
Kleinasiens  (1872)  ;  Hunter,  "•  Orissa"  (Lon 
don,  1872)j  and  Chabas,  Lcs  peuples  connns 
par  les  Egyptiens,  in  L^Antiquite  prehisto- 
rique  (Paris,  1873). 

IOXIES,  a  small  tribe  of  Indians  in  the  United 
States,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Cad- 
does  or  Cadodaquios.  They  regard  the  Hot 
Springs  of  Arkansas  as  their  original  seat. 
They  formed  part  of  the  confederation  known 
to  the  Spaniards  as  Texas  or  Friends,  and  were 
first  known  about  the  time  of  La  Salle,  who 
passed  through  their  country.  They  were 
long  on  the  Red  river,  but  about  1823  moved 
into  Texas,  finally  settling  on  the  Brazos.  With 
the  Caddoes  they  had  suffered  from  disease 
and  from  the  attacks  of  the  Osages  and  Co- 
manches.  Their  houses  are  a  conical  frame 
work  of  poles,  about  25  ft.  in  diameter  and  20 
!  ft.  high,  thatched  with  long  prairie  grass,  with 
I  low  doors.  They  are  among  the  best  of  the 


332 


IOSCO 


IOWA 


Indian  tribes,  cultivating  enough  land  for  their 
support.  They  were  removed  by  government 
in  1859  to  the  "leased  district"  on  the  AVashita 
river  near  old  Fort  Cobb,  Indian  territory,  and 
in  1872  numbered  only  85. 

IOSCO,  a  N.  E.  county  of  the  southern  penin 
sula  of  Michigan,  bordering  on  Lake  Huron 
and  Saginaw  bay,  intersected  by  the  Au  Sable, 
and  drained  by  the  Au  Grais  river ;  area,  575 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,168.  The  surface  is 
nearly  level,  and  partly  covered  with  pine  for 
ests.  In  1870  there  were  11  saw  mills,  produ 
cing  $6-46,151  worth  of  lumber,  and  1  manufac 
tory  of  ground  plaster.  Capital,  Tawas  City. 

IOWA,  one  of  the  interior  states  of  the 
American  Union,  and  the  16th  admitted  under 
the  federal  constitution,  situated  between  lat. 
40°  20'  and  43°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  90°  12'  and  96° 
38'  W. ;  general  extent  N.  and  S.  208  m.,  and 
E.  and  W.  about  300  m. ;  area,  55,045  sq.  m. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  Minnesota,  E.  by  the  Mis 
sissippi,  which  separates  it  from  Wisconsin 


State  Seal  of  Iowa. 

and  Illinois,  S.  by  Missouri,  and  W.  by  the 
Missouri  and  Big  Sioux  rivers,  which  separate 
it  from  Nebraska  and  Dakota.  The  state  is 
divided  into  99  counties,  viz. :  Adair,  Adams, 
Allamakee,  Appanoose,  Audubon,  Benton, 
Black  Hawk,  Boone,  Bremer,  Buchanan,  Buena 
Vista,  Butler,  Calhoun,  Carroll,  Cass,  Cedar, 
Cerro  Gordo,  Cherokee,  Chickasaw,  Clarke, 
Clay,  Clayton,  Clinton,  Crawford,  Dallas,  Da 
vis,  Decatur,  Delaware,  Des  Moines,  Dickinson, 
Dubuque,  Enimett,  Fayette,  Floyd,  Franklin, 
Fremont,  Greene,  Grundy,  Guthrie,  Hamilton, 
Hancock,  Hardin,  Harrison,  Henry,  Howard, 
Humboldt,  Ida,  Iowa,  Jackson,  Jasper,  Jeffer- 
son,  Johnson,  Jones,  Keokuk,  Kossuth,  Lee, 
Linn,  Louisa,  Lucas,  Lyon,  Madison,  Mahaska, 
Marion,  Marshall,  Mills,  Mitchell,  Monona, 
Monroe,  Montgomery,  Muscatine,  O'Brien, 
Osceola,  Page,  Palo  Alto,  Plymouth,  Pocahon- 
tas,  Polk,  Pottawattamie,  Poweshiek,  Ringgold, 
Sac,  Scott,  Shelby,  Sioux,  Story,  Tama,  Taylor, 
Union,  Van  Buren,  Wapello,  Warren,  Wash 
ington,  Wayne,  Webster,  Winnebago,  Win- 
neshiek,  Woodbury,  Worth,  Wright.  Des 


YEARS. 

White. 

Colored. 

Total. 

Rank. 

1840. 

42,924 
191,881 
673,779 

1,188,207 

188 
333 
1,0(59 
5,7(52 

43,112 
192,214 
(574.913 
1,194.020 

28 
27 
20 
11 

1S50  
I860. 

1S70  

According  to  the  state  census  of  1873,  the  pop 
ulation   had    increased  to   1,251,333.      There 

Moines  is  the  capital.  The  cities  of  Iowa,  as 
reported  by  the  census  of  1870,  were:  Burling 
ton,  having  14,930  inhabitants;  Cedar  Falls, 
3,070;  Cedar  Rapids,  5,940;  Clinton,  6,129; 
Council  Bluffs,  10,020;  Davenport,  20,038; 
Des  Moines,  12,035;  Dubuque,  38,435;  Fair- 
field,  2,226;  Fort  Dodge,  3,095;  Fort  Madison, 
4,011;  Glenwood,  1,291;  Independence,  2,945; 
Iowa  City,  the  former  capital,  5,914;  Keokuk, 
12,766;  Lyons,  4,088;  McGregor,  2,074;  Ma- 
quoketa,  1,756;  Marshalltown,  3,218;  Musca 
tine,  6,718;  Oskaloosa,  3,204;  Ottumwa,  5,214; 
Sioux  City,  3,401;  Waterloo,  4,337;  Waverly, 
2,291 ;  and  Wintersct,  1,485.  The  population 
of  Iowa  (exclusive  of  tribal  Indians,  now  num 
bering  about  300,  other  Indians  being  included 
in  the  total),  according  to  the  federal  census, 
and  its  rank  in  the  Union,  have  been  as  follows : 


were  231,540  dwellings  and  238,098  families. 
The  number  of  persons  entitled  to  vote  was 
261,205  ;  of  militia,  190,383  ;  of  foreigners  not 
naturalized,  26,250.  The  population  of  Bur 
lington  was  returned  at  20,156 ;  Council  Bluffs, 
10,525 ;  Davenport,  20,550 ;  Des  Moines,  15,061 ; 
Dubuque,  22,151 ;  Keokuk,  11,761.  Of  the 
total  population  in  1870,  625,917  were  males 
and  568,103  females;  989,328  were  of  native 
and  204,692  of  foreign  birth,  including  115,053 
males  and  89,639  females.  Of  the  native  pop 
ulation,  428,620  were  born  in  the  state,  65,391 
in  Illinois,  64,083  in  Indiana,  14,186  in  Ken 
tucky,  5,943  in  Maine,  5,972  in  Maryland,  8,929 
in  Massachusetts,  8,918  in  Michigan,  13,831  in 
Missouri,  5,057  in  New  Hampshire,  5,688  in 
New  Jersey,  79,143  in  New  York,  5,090  in 
North  Carolina,  126,285  in  Ohio,  73,435  in 
Pennsylvania,  12,204  in  Vermont,  19,558  in 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  and  24,309  in 
Wisconsin.  Of  the  foreigners,  17,907  were 
born  in  British  America,  2,827  in  Denmark, 
3,130  in  France,  66,162  in  Germany,  16,660  in 
England,  40,124  in  Ireland,  5,248 'in  Scotland, 
1,967  in  Wales,  4,513  in  Holland,  17,558  in 
Norway,  10,796  in  Sweden,  and  3,937  in  Switz 
erland.  The  density  of  population  was  2T69 
to  a  square  mile.  There  were  222,430  families 
with  an  average  of  5*37  persons  to  each,  and 
219,846  dwellings  with  an  average  of  5*44  per 
sons  to  each.  The  increase  of  population  from 
1860  to  1870  was  76-91  per  cent.  The  number 
of  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  upward  was 
255,802.  There  were  394,696  persons  from  5 
to  18  years  of  age;  the  total  number  attending 
school  was  306,353;  24,115  persons  10  years 
old  and  upward  were  unable  to  read,  and  45,671 
could  not  write;  of  the  latter,  24,979  were 
of  native  and  20,692  of  foreign  birth;  44,145 


IOWA 


333 


were  white  and  1,524  colored;  21,065  were 
males  and  24,704  females;  5,928  were  from  10 
to  15  years  of  age,  3,826  from  15  to  21,  and 
35,980,  21  and  over,  of  whom  14,782  were  white 
males,  19,825  white  females,  635  colored  males, 
and  673  colored  females;  5'3  per  cent,  of  the 
male  adults  and  8'37  per  cent,  of  the  female 
adults  were  illiterate.  The  number  of  paupers 
supported  during  the  year  ending  June  1,  1870, 
was  1,543,  at  a  cost  of  $175,179;  853  were  re 
ceiving  support  at  the  end  of  the  year,  of  whom 
542,  including  56  colored,  were  of  native,  and 
311  of  foreign  birth.  The  number  of  persons 
convicted  of  crime  during  the  year  was  615. 
Of  the  number  (397)  in  prison  June  1,  1870, 
287  were  of  native  and  110  of  foreign  birth. 
The  state  contained  465  blind,  549  deaf  and 
dumb,  742  insane,  and  533  idiotic.  Of  the  to 
tal  population  10  years  of  age  and  over  (837,- 
959),  there  were  engaged  in  all  occupations 
344,276;  in  agriculture,  210,263,  of  whom  69,- 
821  were  laborers,  139,478  farmers  and  plant 
ers,  and  810  gardeners  and  nurserymen ;  in 
professional  and  personal  services,  58,484,  in 
cluding  1,596  clergymen,  15,725  domestic  ser 
vants,  202  journalists,  24,823  laborers  not  spe 
cified,  1,456  lawyers,  1,865  physicians  and  sur 
geons,  6,012  teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade 
and  transportation,  28,210;  and  in  manufac 
tures  and  mechanical  and  mining  industries, 
47,319.  The  number  of  deaths  from  all  causes 
was  9,597 ;  from  consumption,  1,313,  being  one 
death  from  that  disease  to  7'3  from  all  causes ; 
from  pneumonia,  678,  or  1  to  14'2 ;  from 
whooping  cough,  337,  being  a  higher  ratio  of 
deaths  from  that  disease  than  in  any  other  state 
except  Nebraska  and  Arkansas ;  from  diphtheria 
and  scarlet  fever,  473  ;  intermittent  and  remit 
tent  fevers,  161 ;  enteric  fever,  521 ;  diarrhoea, 
339 ;  dysentery,  228 ;  enteritis,  238.— Besides  the 
great  rivers  which  bound  it,  Iowa  has  a  large 
number  of  interior  watercourses,  many  navi 
gable,  and  others  of  less  dimensions,  but  sup 
plying  abundant  water  power.  All  the  streams 
of  the  state  How  into  the  great  boundary  rivers. 
The  Mississippi  receives  the  Des  Moines,  the 
Checaqtie  or  Skunk,  the  Iowa  and  its  affluent 
the  Red  Cedar,  the  Wapsipinicon,  the  Maquo- 
keta,  the  Turkey,  the  Upper  Iowa,  &c.,  all  of 
which  have  S.  E.  courses,  and  generally  run 
parallel  with  each  other.  The  Iowa  rises  in 
Hancock  co.,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state, 
and  empties  into  the  Mississippi  35  in.  above 
Burlington  ;  its  length  is  about  300  m.,  and 
it  is  navigable  to  Iowa  City,  80  m.  The  riv 
ers  flowing  to  the  Missouri  are  short,  and  as 
to  volume  scarcely  compare  with  the  small 
est  class  flowing  to  the  Mississippi.  The  Big 
Sioux  forms  a  portion  of  the  TV.  boundary. 
The  Chariton,  Grand,  Platte,  Xodaway,  and 
Nishnabatona  rise  in  the  south  of  Iowa,  pass 
into  Missouri,  and  join  the  Missouri  river  in 
its  course  through  that  state.  The  largest 
interior  river  of  the  state  is  the  Des  Moines, 
which  flows  from  X.  TV.  to  S.  E.  not  less 
than  300  m.  through  Iowa,  and  drains  more 


than  10,000  sq.  m.  of  its  territory.  It  forms 
a  portion  of  the  boundary  line  between  Iowa 
i  on  the  X.  E.  and  Missouri  on  the  S.  W.  Next 
in  size  of  the  interior  rivers  is  the  Red  Ce 
dar,  which  rises  in  Minnesota,  and  after  a  S. 
E.  course  joins  the  Iowa  in  Louisa  co.  about 
30  m.  from  its  mouth.  One  of  the  most  im 
portant  streams  of  N.  TV.  Iowa  is  Little  Sioux 
river,  which  rises  near  the  Minnesota  border, 
and  after  meandering  about  250  m.  falls  into 
the  Missouri.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the 
state  there  are  numerous  small  but  beautiful 
lakes,  which  are  a  part  of  the  system  of  lakes 
extending  northward  into  Minnesota.  One  of 
the  largest,  Lake  Okoboji,  in  Dickinson  co.,  is 
about  15  m.  long  and  from  £  to  2  m.  wide. — 
The  surface  of  Iowa  is  generally  undulating, 
and  forms  a  country  of  unrivalled  beauty.  It 
has  no  mountains  nor  even  high  hills ;  yet  on 
the  margins  of  the  rivers  there  are  frequent 
bluffs  of  calcareous  strata  intersected  by  ravines. 
These  bluifs  are  generally  from  40  to  130  ft. 
high,  and  are  the  breastwork  of  table  lands 
which  sweep  away  from  them  in  gentle  undu 
lations.  The  southern  portion  of  the  state  is 
the  most  picturesque,  abounding  with  grassy 
lawns  and  verdant  plains,  interspersed  with 
groves  and  meandering  rivulets,  and  intersected 
by  the  larger  rivers  which  flow  to  the  Missis 
sippi  or  by  the  numerous  affluents  of  the  Mis 
souri.  In  the  northeastern  part  the  surface  is 
more  elevated,  hills  and  mounds  are  not  un 
common,  their  tops  covered  with  towering 
oaks,  and  the  rivers  tumble  over  precipitous 
ledges  of  craggy  rocks.  The  N.  E.  section 
abounds  in  lead  ore  and  various  other  metals, 
but  nevertheless  contains  much  excellent  land. 
The  unique  and  admirably  diversified  prai 
ries  of  Iowa  are,  Jiowever,  its  most  distin 
guishing  feature.  These  natural  meadows  are 
covered  with  a  rich  coating  of  coarse  grass, 
forming  excellent  pasturage,  and  are  not  un- 
frequently  interspersed  with  hazel  thickets  and 
fragrant  shrubs,  and  in  the  season  of  flowers  are 
decorated  with  a  brilliant  garniture  of  honey 
suckles,  jessamines,  wild  roses,  and  violets. — A 
geological  survey  of  Iowa  was  begun  under  the 
direction  of  Prof.  James  Hall,  the  chemical  and 
mineralogical  department  being  conducted  by 
Mr.  J.  D.  Whitney,  and  a  report  in  2  vols.  8vo 
was  published  in  1858-'9,  which  presents  the 
general  arrangement  of  the  formations,  with 
details  of  their  fossils  and  economical  impor 
tance.  The  survey  was  resumed  in  1866,  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Charles  A.  White  of  Iowa 
,  City.  The  geological  formations  are  exclusively 
pal«3ozoic,  their  range  being  from  the  Potsdam 
!  sandstone  to  the  coal  measures,  inclusive.  The 
;  latter  formation  occupies  the  S.  and  W.  portion 
j  of  the  state,  and  reaches  within  a  few  miles  at 
its  S.  E.  corner  of  the  Mississippi  river,  from 
I  which  it  is  separated  by  a  belt  of  about  20  m., 
over  which  the  carboniferous  limestone  is 
spread  out.  This  limestone  outcrop  thence  ex 
tends  diagonally  across  the  state  to  the  ex 
treme  N".  TV.  corner.  Toward  the  northeast 


334 


IOWA 


lower  formations  continue  to  appear  in  succes 
sion,  and  stretch  in  long  parallel  belts  N".  "W. 
and  S.  E.  The  course  of  the  rivers,  as  they 
descend  from  the  N.  border  of  the  state  to  the 
Mississippi,  is  along  the  range  of  these  forma 
tions;  and  it  is  remarkable  how  each  river 
keeps  almost  exclusively  along  the  same  geolo 
gical  belt  for  nearly  200  m.  The  successive 
belts  are  thus  designated  by  Prof.  Hall,  ad 
vancing  N".  E.  in  the  descending  series  from  the 
coal  measures  and  the  underlying  carbonif 
erous  limestone:  the  Hamilton  and  Chemung 
froups  of  the  Devonian  series,  the  Leclaire  and 
iagara  limestones  of  the  upper  Silurian,  the 
Hudson  river  shales,  Galena  limestone,  Tren 
ton  limestone,  St.  Peter's  sandstone,  and  Pots 
dam  sandstone  of  the  lower  Silurian.  The  last 
occupy  the  X.  E.  corner  of  the  state.  The  coal 
measures  are  regarded  as  the  most  permanent 
source  of  mineral  wealth,  though  the  lead  mines 
in  the  Galena  limestone  have  attracted  the  ear 
liest  and  greatest  attention,  and  have  so  far 
been  the  most  important  in  the  value  of  their 
productions.  Their  aggregate  thickness  in  the 
S.  part  of  the  state  is  less  than  500  ft.,  and 
in  this  are  found  several  workable  beds  of  bi 
tuminous  coal,  one  of  which  is  sometimes  7  ft. 
thick.  The  formation  thins  out  as  it  spreads 
over  the  carboniferous  limestone,  and  in  this 
are  found  several  outlying  shallow  basins  of 
small  extent.  They  are  also  met  with  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  rock,  scattered  in  the  depres 
sions  of  the  Devonian,  and  even  the  Silurian 
series,  and  resting  unconformably  upon  the  up 
turned  edges  of  these  lower  formations.  Along 
the  Mississippi  river,  between  Davenport  and 
Muscatine,  a  deposit  of  this  character  stretches 
20  m.  up  and  down  the  river,  and  not  more 
than  3  m.  back  from  it.  This  is  the  extension 
on  the  Iowa  side  of  the  Illinois  coal  field,  the 
Mississippi  river  having  completely  separated 
this  marginal  portion  from  the  main  body. 
The  thickness  of  this  isolated  group  of  coal 
measures  is  not  more  than  about  70  ft.  It  con 
tains  one  coal  bed  which  is  identified  as  the 
lowest  workable  coal  of  the  series ;  it  is  of  no 
great  importance,  being  only  about  2^  ft.  thick. 
A  few  yards  beneath  it  is  a  bed  of  carbona 
ceous  slate,  which  sometimes  presents  a  seam  of 
cannel  coal  a  foot  thick.  The  coal  field  of  the 
state  embraces  an  area  of  about  20,000  sq.  m. ; 
the  coal  is  bituminous  and  of  excellent  quality. 
In  the  N.  part  of  the  state  are  extensive  beds 
of  superior  peat  from  4  ft.  to  10  ft.  in  depth. 
The  lead  mines  are  in  the  belt  occupied  by  the 
Galena  limestone.  This  tract  reaches  the" Mis 
sissippi  river  at  Dubuque,  and  lies  along  the 
valley  of  Turkey  river  toward  the  N.  W. ;  but 
the  only  mines  that  have  been  worked  in  it 
are  near  the  Mississippi.  The  ore  is  chiefly 
found  in  vertical  crevices  which  are  traced  in 
E.  and  AV.  lines  with  remarkable  regularity. 
They  are  congregated  in  great  number  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Dubuque,  and  from 
the  report  of  the  state  geologists  it  appears 
that  no  district  in  the  Mississippi  valley  has 


produced  so  large  an  amount  of  ore  for  its  ex 
tent  as  this  tract  of  12  or  15  sq.  m.  From 
4,000,000  to  6,000,000  Ibs.  of  ore  have  been 
smelted  annually  at  the  Dubuque  mines,  yield 
ing  about  TO  per  cent,  of  lead.  The  crevices 
in  the  limestone  are  frequently  found  to  ex 
pand  into  what  are  called  openings  and  large 
caves  several  hundred  feet  long.  The  walls  of 
these  are  incrusted  with  the  sulplmret  of  lead, 
of  which  a  single  cave  sometimes  furnishes  sev 
eral  million  pounds.  The  depth  of  the  mines 
is  limited  to  the  thickness  of  the  Galena  lime 
stone,  which  seldom  reaches  200  ft.  In  the 
blue  limestone,  which  underlies  it,  the  crevices 
either  close  up  or  are  unproductive.  The  yield 
of  ore  is  very  irregular,  and  the  same  mines 
rarely  continue  to  be  worked  for  even  a  few 
years.  (See  LEAD.)  Iowa  has  also  small  de 
posits  of  iron  ore,  and  there  are  many  other 
minerals  of  considerable  value.  A  deposit  of 
gypsum  of  remarkable  fineness  and  purity  exists 
near  Fort  Dodge ;  it  is  confined  to  an  area  of 
about  6  by  3  m.  on  both  sides  of  the  Des  Moines 
river,  and  is  from  25  to  30  ft.  thick.  Plaster 
of  Paris  of  superior  quality  has  been  manu 
factured  from  it.  Building  stone  of  the  best 
description,  various  clays,  &c.,  sufficient  for  all 
present  or  prospective  requirements,  are  found. 
— The  soils  of  Iowa  are  generally  excellent, 
and  no  state  of  the  Union  has  a  smaller  amount 
of  inferior  land.  The  valleys  of  the  Red  Cedar, 
Iowa,  and  Des  Moines,  as  high  as  lat.  42°  30', 
present  a  body  of  arable  land  which,  taken  as 
a  whole,  for  richness  in  organic  elements,  for 
amount  of  saline  matter,  and  due  admixture 
of  earthy  silicates,  affords  a  combination  that 
belongs  only  to  the  most  fertile  upland  plains. 
North  of  this,  the  best  agricultural  region  of 
the  state,  the  lands  are  inferior,  but  still  not 
unprofitable,  and  the  lower  grounds  are  either 
wet  and  marshy  or  filled  with  numerous  ponds, 
and  entirely  destitute  of  timber. — The  climate 
of  Iowa  is  moderate,  and  highly  favorable  for 
agricultural  operations.  As  a  general  rule  the 
peach  blossoms  in  mid  April,  and  wheat  ripens 
early  in  August.  The  winters,  however,  are 
severe  from  the  prevalence  of  N.  and  K  "W. 
winds,  which  sweep  over  the  level  prairies  with 
out  obstruction ;  but  they  are  very  equable  and 
healthful.  In  summer  the  winds  are  from  the 
west  and  south,  and,  being  constant,  greatly 
relieve  the  heats  of  that  season.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  year  is  about  48°  F. ; 
spring,  47i° ;  summer,  70^° ;  autumn,  45° ;  win 
ter,  23£°.  The  highest  temperature  observed 
for  30  years  was  99°,  Aug.  31, 1854;  the  lowest 
—30°,  Jan.  18,  1857.  The  temperature  is  sel 
dom  lower  than  —10°,  or  higher  than  90°.  The 
mean  annual  amount  of  rainfall  for  30  }'ears  was 
44-27  in. ;  least,  23'35  in.  ;  greatest,  74-49  in. 
Iowa  is  classed  among  the  most  healthy  coun 
tries  of  the  world,  a  fact  to  be  attributed  to 
the  excellent  drainage  furnished  by  its  rolling 
surface.  The  exceptions  to  this  condition  are 
very  rare. — The  natural  growths  of  Iowa  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  whole  middle  zone  of  the 


IOWA 


335 


Union.  North  of  lat.  42°  timber  is  comparatively 
scarce,  but  south  of  that  line  and  along  the 
rivers  the  country  is  well  wooded.  Ash,  elm, 
sugar  and  white  maple,  and  cottonwood  grow 
in  the  river  bottoms ;  and  in  other  localities  are 
found  poplar,  oak,  hickory,  walnut,  basswood, 
&o.  In  the  north  there  is  some  pine  timber. 
Groves  of  cedar  are  found  along  the  Iowa  and 
Red  Cedar  rivers.  Among  fruit  trees,  the  apple, 
cherry,  and  pear  attain  the  highest  perfection; 
the  wild  plum,  grape,  and  gooseberry  are  indi 
genous.  For  the  cultivation  of  the  cereals  no 
part  of  the  country  surpasses  this  state;  it  is 
also  favorable  both  in  climate  and  soil  for  the 
castor  oil  plant,  flax,  tobacco,  &c.  Potatoes 
are  also  a  favorite  staple.  Tea  has  been  raised 
in  Crawford  co.,  the  yield  being  over  700  Ibs. 
to  the  acre.  Iowa  ranks  high  in  agriculture. 
According  to  the  census  of  1870,  it  produced 
more  wheat  and  Indian  corn  than  any  other 
state  in  the  Union  except  Illinois,  and  ranked 
fifth  in  the  production  of  oats.  The  state 
contained  9,396,467  acres  of  improved  land, 
2,524,796  of  woodland,  and  3,620,533  of  oth 
er  unimproved  land.  The  total  number  of 
farms  was  116,292,  of  which  34,041  contained 
from  20  to  50  acres,  41,372  from  50  to  100, 
30,142  from  100  to  500,  321  from  500  to  1,000, 
and  38  over  1,000.  The  cash  value  of  farms 
was  $392,662,441 ;  of  farming  implements  and 
machinery,  $20,509,582 ;  total  amount  of  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  including  value  of  board, 
$9,377,878;  total  (estimated)  value  of  all  farm 
productions,  including  betterments  and  addi 
tions  to  stock,  $114,386,441 ;  value  of  orchard 
products,  $1,075,169;  of  products  of  market 
gardens,  $244,963;  of  forest  products,  $1,200,- 
468;  of  home  manufactures,  $521,404;  of  ani 
mals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $25,- 


781,223  ;  of  all  live  stock,  $82,987,133.  There 
were  on  farms  433,642  horses,  25,485  mules 
and  asses,  369,800  milch  cows,  614,366  other 
cattle,  855,493  sheep,  and  1,353,908  swine.  The 
chief  productions  were  28,708,312  bushels  of 
spring  and  727,380  of  winter  wheat,  505,807 
of  rye,  68,935,065  of  Indian  corn,  21,005,142 
of  oats,  1,960,779  of  barley,  109,432  of  buck 
wheat,  42,313  of  peas  and  beans,  5,914,620  of 
Irish  and  34,292  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,475  of 
clover  seed,  53,432  of  grass  seed,  88,621  of  flax 
seed,  1,777,339  tons  of  hay,  71,792  Ibs.  of  to 
bacco,  2,967,043  of  wool,  27,512,179  of  butter, 
1,087,741  of  cheese,  146,490  of  maple  sugar, 
171,113  of  hops,  695,518  of  flax,  853,213  of 
honey,  2,225  of  wax,  37,518  gallons  of  wine, 
688,8*00  of  milk  sold,  1,218,635  of  sorghum 
and  9,315  of  maple  molasses.  According  to 
the  state  census,  the  number  of  acres  of  im 
proved  land  in  1872  was  9,987,788.  There 
were  produced  in  that  year  32,437,836  bushels 
of  wheat,  141,744,522  of  Indian  corn,  22,113,- 
013  of  oats,  5,770,169  of  barley,  and  2,348,884 
Ibs.  of  wool.  The  total  assessed  value  of  live 
stock  in  1873  was  $36,521,346.  There  were 
1,178,017  cattle,  valued  at  $12,931,807 ;  557,052 
horses,  $18,936,037;  32,010  mules,  $1,357,478; 
523,089  sheep,  $572,438;  and  1,460,784  swine, 
$2,723,586.— The  total  number  of  manufac 
turing  establishments  was  6,566,  having  899 
steam  engines  of  25,298  horse  power,  and  726 
water  wheels  of  14,249  horse  power,  and  em 
ploying  25,032  hands,  of  whom  23,395  were 
males  above  16  years  of  age,  951  females  above 
15,  and  686  youths.  The  capital  invested 
amounted  to  $22,420,183;  wages  paid  during 
the  year,  $6,893,292;  value  of  materials,  $27,- 
682,096  ;  products,  $46,534,322.  The  chief  in 
dustries  were  as  follows: 


INDUSTRIES. 

Number 
of 
establish 
ments. 

Steam 
engines, 
horse 
power. 

Water 

whet-Is, 
horse 
power. 

Hands 
employed. 

Capital 

invested. 

Wasei 

paid. 

Value  of 

materials. 

Value  of 
products. 

Agricultural  implements.  .  . 

55 

45T 

20 

552 

$543  040 

$182  138 

$401  372 

$829  965 

Blacksmithing 

8>6 

1  607 

4'll  502 

206  923 

43s  176 

1  320019 

Boots  and  shoes  
Carpentering  and  building  
Carriages  and  wagons  

530 

883 
449 

"43 

208 

.... 

1.292 
2,835 
1  662 

401.593 
293.220 
1  086  8S2 

301,174 
527.3S8 
566  '»2 

543.086 
1,550.274 
739  240 

1.218.4SO 
2,981,988 
1  952  143 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products.  .  .  . 
Furniture  

502 
223 

7.236 
439 

10,172 

C2 

1,807 
959 

5,765,  75S 
670  525 

605.865 
2<)5843 

11.961.444 
340  124 

15,635.345 
(>81  6(*1 

Liquors  malt 

lol 

1()1 

3 

405 

1  2SS  134 

131  571 

4<»  14>} 

999  S4S 

Lumber,  planed  
Lumber  sawed 

21 

545 

522 
1275S 

2  503 

I'd 

8  7S2 

201,800 
3  9'75  001 

82.738 
905  9  62 

707.344 
3  3()->  782 

867,415 
5  794  2^5 

Pork  packed  

10 

85 

328 

Q'>~  150 

45170 

1  064  100 

1  190400 

Saddlery  and  harness  
Woollen  goods  

325 
08 

'963 

'DOT 

879 
1,038 

417,615 
1,862,784 

20S232 
264,061 

591.272 
<J29,132 

1.110.652 
1,561,341 

— Iowa  has  no  direct  foreign  commerce,  but 
its  trade  witli  the  Atlantic  and  gulf  ports  and 
the  interior  is  comparatively  extensive.     The  , 
exports  consist  of  the  products  of  agriculture  I 
and  mines,  and  the  imports  of  eastern  and  for-  t 
eigu  manufactures,  groceries,  &c.    The  shipping 
points  are  Keokuk,  Fort  Madison,  Burlington, 
Muscatine,  Davenport,  Clinton,  Bellevue,  Du 
buque,  McGregor,  &c. ;  and  at  all  of  these  places 
an  active  trade  is  also  carried  on  with  the  in 
terior,  with  which  they  are  connected  to  a  large 
VOL.  ix.— 22 


extent  by  river  steamboat  routes  and  by  rail 
road.  The  state  has  three  United  States  ports 
of  delivery,  Burlington,  Dubuque,  and  Keo 
kuk.  The  total  number  of  vessels  registered, 
enrolled,  and  licensed  in  1873  was  78,  having 
a  tonnage  of  5,489  ;  70  of  these  belonged  to 
Dubuque.  At  this  point  boat  building  is  car 
ried  on  to  some  extent ;  five  vessels  of  497 
tons,  including  four  steamers,  were  built  here 
in  1873.  In  November,  1873,  75  national  banks 
were  in  operation  ;  paid-in  capital,  $6,017,000; 


336 


IOWA 


bonds  on  deposit,  $5,909,000  ;  circulation  out 
standing,  $5,363,885.  The  bank  circulation  of 
the  state  amounted  to  $5,674,385,  being  $4  75 
per  capita,  8  per  cent,  of  the  wealth  of  the  state, 
and  88-3  per  cent,  of  the  banking  capital.  There 
were  23  banks,  of  which  15  were  savings  banks, 
organized  under  the  laws  of  the  state,  having 
$1,015,956  capital  stock  paid  in,  with  assets 
amounting  to  $3,879,033. — In  the  development 
of  its  railroad  system  Iowa  has  made  rapid  pro 
gress.  The  total  mileage  of  main  track  has 
increased  from  68  m.  in  1855  to  655  in  1860, 
891  in  1865,  2,683  in  1870,  3,160  in  1871,  3,643 
in  1872,  and  3,744  in  1873.  In  1856  and  1864 
grants  of  lands  were  made  by  congress  to  the 
state  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  railroads; 
these  lands  were  in  turn  granted  by  the  state 
to  various  companies  for  the  construction  of 
five  great  trunk  lines  crossing  it  from  east  to 
west  and  extending  from  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Missouri  river.  Four  of  these  are  now  in  ope 
ration,  and  the  fifth  is  partially  built.  The  most 
southerly  is  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  River 
railroad,  which  extends  from  Burlington  to 
Council  Bluffs.  The  Chicago,  Eock  Island,  and 
Pacific,  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern, 
have  the  same  place  as  their  western  terminus 
in  Iowa,  the  former  extending  from  Davenport 


and  the  latter  from  Clinton.  At  Council  Bluffs, 
which  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Missouri 
river  from  Omaha,  Nebraska,  these  three  lines 
connect  with  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  which 
has  its  eastern  terminus  at  this  point,  a  bridge 
having  been  constructed  across  the  Missouri. 
The  next  grand  line  crossing  the  state  is  the 
Iowa  division  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad, 
which  extends  from  Dubuque  to  Sioux  City. 
The  projected  line  will  connect  McGregor, 
opposite  Prairie  du  Chien,  111.,  with  Sioux  City ; 
it  has  been  completed  to  Algona,  169  m.  from 
the  Mississippi,  and  is  now  (1874)  operated  by 
the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railroad  company. 
All  these  great  channels  have  communication 
with  Chicago  and  the  great  eastern  commercial 
centres,  and  for  their  accommodation  the  Mis 
sissippi  has  been  spanned  with  several  bridges. 
The  numerous  railroads  crossing  these  trunk 
lines  give  Iowa  extended  facilities  of  commu 
nication  with  the  states  lying  to  the  north  and 
the  south.  The  assessed  value  of  the  3,643  m. 
of  railroad  in  the  state  in  1872  was  $18,842,592. 
The  railroads  lying  wholly  or  partly  within  the 
state,  together  with  their  termini,  are  indicated 
in  the  following  table,  which  shows  also  the 
number  of  miles  completed  within  the  state  in 
1873,  and  the  entire  length  of  the  various  lines : 


NAME   OF   CORPORATION. 

TERMINI. 

Length  com 
pleted  iu 
state,  miles. 

Total  length 
between 
termini  when 
different  from 
preceding. 

Burlington.  Cedar  .Rapids,  and  Minnesota  

Burlington  and  Austin.  Minn  
Cedar  Rapids  to  Postvillo  
Vinton  to  Traer  

243 
K'O 
25 
27 
292 
32 
44 
10 
51 
60 
189 
43 
GO 
92 

82 
272 
9 
71 

810 
50 
2S 

201 

2  GO 

iis 

Milwaukee  division  

Muscatine  to  Iowa  river  
Burlington  and  Council  Bluffs          .  .         .... 

Branches  -{ 

Creston  to  Hopkins  

Burlington  and  Southwestern                 .  .          

Eed  Oak  to  East  Nebraska  Citv  

Burlington  and  St.  Joseph,  Mo  
Novthwood  and  Alhia      

Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  (branch)  

Burlin<rton  and  Keokuk.                

Dubuque  and  La  Crescent,  Minn  

Chicago  and  Northwestern  : 

Clinton  and  Cedar  Eapids  

Iowa     j  (Cedar  Eapids  and  Missouri  Eiver)  

Cedar  Eapids  and  Council  Bluffs  

t(Iowa  Midland") 

Clinton  and  Anamosa  

Davenport  and  Council  Bluffs  
Wilton  to  Washington  
Washington  to  Sigourney  

Ckicago.  Eock  Island,  and  Pacific: 
Iowa  division. 

Chicago  and  Southwestern... 

Des  Moines  to  Indianola  

21 
25 
128 
125 

3-2 
249 
55 

143 
1^4 
70 

51 
85 
120 
10 
28 
87 
12 
43 
SO 
57 

2"i 

200 
405 

40 

800 
131 
107 

148 

Washington  and  Leavenworth,  Kan  

Davenport  and  St.  Paul  

Davenport  and  Favette  

Branch 

Des  Moines  Vallev 

Dubuque  and  Southwestern  
Illinois  Central: 

Iowa  Division  •< 

Farley  and  Cedar  Eapids  

Iowa  Falls  to  Sioux  City  

Kansas  Citv.  St.  Joseph,  and  Council  Bluffs  .  .  . 

Kansas  City.  Mo.,  and  Council  Bluffs  
Milwaukee.  Wis.,  and  St.  Paul,  Minn  

Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  

Conover  to  Decorah  

Alissouri  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  . 

Mason  City  to  Austin,  Minn  

St.  Louis.  Kansas  Citv.  and  Northern  (branch)  
Sioux  Citv  and  Pacific!  
Sioux  Citv  and  St.  Paul.  .  . 

Moberlv  Mo    to  Ottumwa         .  .    ."  

Sioux  Citv  and  St.  James.  Minn  — 

IOWA 


337 


— The  present  constitution  of  Iowa  was  adopted 
in  convention,  March  5,  1857.  It  grants  the 
right  of  voting  to  every  male  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  has  resided  in  the  state  six 
months  and  in  the  county  60  days.  The  gen 
eral  election  is  held  on  the  second  Tuesday  in 
Octoher,  except  in  the  years  of  the  presidential 
election,  when  it  occurs  on  the  Tuesday  next 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  The  le 
gislature  consists  of  a  senate  of  50  members 
elected  for  four  years,  half  biennially,  and  a 
house  of  100  members  elected  biennially.  Sen 
ators  must  be  25  and  representatives  21  years 
of  age,  and  otherwise  must  have  the  qualifica 
tions  of  voters.  In  all  elections  by  the  legisla 
ture  votes  are  given  viva  voce.  The  legislature 
meets  on  the  second  Monday  of  January  bien 
nially  (even  years).  The  governor  and  lieuten 
ant  governor  are  chosen  by  a  plurality  of  votes, 
and  hold  office  for  two  years.  They  must  be 
at  least  30  years  of  age,  and  have  been  citi 
zens  and  residents  for  two  years  next  preceding 
election.  The  salary  of  the  governor  is  $3,000 
per  annum.  The  secretary  of  state,  auditor  of 
state,  treasurer  of  state,  register  of  state  land 
office,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
are  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years,  and 
have  each  a  salary  of  $2,200.  The  lieutenant 
governor  and  attorney  general  (salary  $1,500) 
are  elected  for  two  years,  and  the  supreme 
court  clerk  and  reporter  are  elected  for  four 
years.  The  adjutant  and  inspector  general 
(salary  $2,000)  and  state  librarian  (salary 
$1,200)  are  appointed  by  the  governor  for  two 
years.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  su 
preme  court,  district  courts,  and  such  other 
courts,  inferior  to  the  supreme  court,  as  the 
legislature  may  establish.  The  supreme  court, 
with  appellate  jurisdiction  only  in  chancery 
cases,  consists  of  four  judges  elected  by  the 
people  for  six  years,  one  every  second  year, 
and  the  one  having  the  shortest  time  to  serve 
is  chief  justice.  Judges  of  the  district  court 
are  elected  in  single  districts  (of  which  there 
are  now  13)  for  four  years.  The  salary  of  su 
preme  court  judges  is  $4,000,  and  of  district 
judges  $2,200  per  annum.  A  district  attorney 
is  elected  in  each  judicial  district  for  four  years. 
There  are  also  13  circuit  courts,  each  with  one 
judge,  the  circuits  having  the  same  boundaries 
as  the  judicial  districts.  The  county  officers 
consist  of  a  board  of  supervisors,  auditor,  clerk, 
treasurer,  recorder,  sheriff,  superintendent  of 
common  schools,  surveyor,  and  coroner.  The 
counties  are  subdivided  into  townships,  each 
of  which  elects  three  trustees,  a  clerk,  justices 
of  the  peace,  constables,  and  road  supervisors. 
Among  the  general  provisions  of  the  constitu 
tion  are  the  following  :  The  credit  of  the  state 
shall  not  be  given  for  any  purpose  ;  deficits  in 
the  revenue  may  be  made  up  by  borrowing 
money,  but  the  sum  not  to  exceed  $250,000  at 
any  one  time  ;  debt  maybe  contracted  to  repel 
invasion  or  suppress  insurrection  ;  no  corpora 
tion  shall  be  created  by  special  law ;  stock 
holders  in  banks  shall  be  individually  liable  to 


!  double  the  amount  of  the  stock,  and  billholders 

I  shall   have  preference   over   other   creditors ; 

I  suspension  of  specie  payment  shall  not  be  per 
mitted  ;  no  new  county  shall  be  made  of  less 
than  432  sq.  m.,  nor  shall  any  existing  county 
be  reduced  below  that  size ;  no  lease  of  agri 
cultural  lands  shall  be  for  more  than  20  years  ; 
aliens,  residents  of  the  state,  may  hold  and 

I  transmit  real  estate  ;  imprisonment  for  debt  is 
prohibited  except  in  cases  of  fraud  ;  parties  in 
suit  may  be  witnesses  ;  duellists  are  disqualified 
from  holding  any  office  ;  the  legislature  is  pro 
hibited  from  granting  divorces,  or  authorizing 
lotteries ;  in  all  prosecutions  for  libel  the  truth 
may  be  given  in  justification.  The  constitution 
requires  a  census  to  be  taken  in  1875  and  every 
ten  years  thereafter;  but  a  state  census  has 
been  taken  at  frequent  intervals.  In  1872  the 
death  penalty  as  a  punishment  for  crime  was 
abolished  by  a  vote  of  29  to  17  in  the  senate 
and  66  to  22  in  the  house  ;  and  it  was  provided 
that  all  crimes  previously  punishable  with  death 
should  be  punished  by  imprisonment  for  life, 
and  that  in  these  cases  the  governor  shall  not 
be  empowered  to  grant  a  pardon  except  upon 
the  recommendation  of  the  general  assembly. 
The  executive  council  is  required  on  the  first 
Monday  of  March  in  each  year  to  assess  all  the 
property  of  every  railroad  company  in  the  state 
used  in  the  operation  of  their  roads  ;  and  it  is 
made  the  duty  of  the  officers  of  the  company 
to  report  under  oath  the  necessary  facts  for 
such  assessment.  All  railroad  property  is  tax 
able  at  the  same  rates  and  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  of  individuals.  No  distinction  is  made 
in  law  between  the  husband  and  the  wife  in 
regard  to  property.  One  third  in  value  of  all 
the  real  estate  of  either,  upon  the  death  of  the 
other,  goes  to  the  survivor  in  fee  simple.  Nei- 
ther  is  liable  for  the  separate  debts  of  the  other. 
The  wife  may  make  contracts  and  incur  liabili 
ties  which  may  be  enforced  by  or  against  her 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried ; 
and  so  a  married  woman  may  sue  and  be  sued 
without  the  husband  being  joined  in  the  action. 
Iowa  is  represented  in  congress  by  nine  repre 
sentatives  and  two  senators,  and  has  therefore 
11  votes  in  the  electoral  college. — The  total 
bonded  debt  of  the  state  in  November,  1873, 
was  $543,056.  The  receipts  into  the  state  treas 
ury  during  the  two  years  ending  Nov.  1,  1873, 
amounted  to  $2,407,938,  and  the  disbursements 
to  $2,446,680.  The  income  was  from  the  fol 
lowing  sources : 


State  tax  levy 

Interest  on  delinquent  taxes 

Insane  dues  from  counties 

Peddlers'  licenses 

Sale  of  laws  and  revisions 

Railroad  taxes  received  in  1S72 

Taxes  on  insurance  companies 

Auditor's  fees  from  insurance  companies 

I  Secretary  of  state,  fees 

I  Register  of  the  state  land  office,  fees 

i  United  States  war  and  defence  fund 

!  Sale  of  arms,  etc 

Other  sources. ...  


,r>or>.oio 

54.1 '.i5 


84.230 

76.721 

31.001 

3. '_'53 

215 

102.247 

5.-J13 

278,361 


Total. . .  $2,407,938  86 


338 


IOWA 


The  total  valuation  of  taxable  property  after 
equalization  by  the  state  board  of  assessment, 
and  the  state  tax  thereon,  for  a  series  of  years 
have  been  as  follows  : 


YEARS. 

Total 

valuation. 

Rate. 

State  tax. 

1858... 

1659  .  .  .. 

*$214,625,730 
197,828,250 

H  mills 

ii  u 

*$321,933  60 
296,734  81 

I860 

*193.3S5.530 

i*  " 

*290,078  30 

1861  
1862  

1863  

177.451,003 
tl  75,000,000 
167,108,974 

0           It 
it 

2      " 

O             U 

354,901  92 
35(1.000  00 
334,217  90 

1804  
1865 

fl  65,000,000 
215.063.401 

2      " 

330,000  00 
430,126  83 

1866  
186T  
1S6S 

t220,000.000 
256,517,184 
t260.000.000 

2*    " 

r*      u 

550,000  00 
641,292  88 
650,000  00 

1861)  

294,532,252 

2*      " 

589,064  44 

1870  

1871 

t300,000,000 
348,642,728 

2      « 
2      " 

600,000  00 
697.285  55 

1S72  
1873 

366,076,206 
364,336,580 

2*    " 

915,190  51 
728,672  78 

The  valuation  for  1873  included  33,730,609 
acres  of  land;  reported  value,  $217,907,148; 
reported  value  of  town  lots,  $47,642,585 ; 
equalized  value  of  lands  and  town  lots,  $273,- 
797,687;  value  of  personal  property,  $71,683,- 
367;  of  railroad  property,  $18,885,526;  re 
ported  total  value,  $356,088,626;  total  equal 
ized  value,  $364,336,580.  The  entire  tax  in 
1872  amounted  to  $10,711,925,  as  follows: 
state  tax,  2^  mills,  $909,464 ;  county,  $1,460,- 
734;  insane  hospital,  $217,691 ;  county  school, 
$402,435;  district  school,  $3,954,210;  bridge, 
$705,445;  road,  $360,700;  special,  $433,108; 
judgment  and  bond,  $598,471 ;  corporation, 
8340,359;  railroad,  $1,329,303.— The  college 
for  the  blind  at  Vinton  receives  students  who 
are  citizens  of  the  state  free  of  charge  for 
board  and  tuition.  This  school  is  strictly  edu 
cational,  and  not  for  the  treatment  of  disease. 
Since  its  opening  in  1853,  269  pupils  have  been 
admitted;  the  number  attending  in  1873  was 
112,  who  were  instructed  by  10  teachers.  The 
total  current  expenditures  for  the  two  years 
ending  Nov.  4, 1873,  amounted  to  $51, 175.  In 
struction  is  afforded  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  of 
the  state,  between  the  ages  of  10  and  25  years, 
by  the  institution  at  Council  Bluffs ;  such  per 
sons  may  receive  their  board  and  instruction 
free  of  charge  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  Es 
tablished  in  1855,  this  institution  in  1873  had 
7  instructors  and  119  pupils;  the  current  ex 
penses  for  the  two  years  ending  Nov.  1,  1873, 
were  $56,221.  Iowa  has  two  hospitals  for  the 
insane :  one  at  Mt.  Pleasant,  which  at  the  end 
of  1873  had  495  inmates,  and  for  which  $229,- 
441  had  been  expended  during  the  previous 
two  years;  and  the  other  at  Independence, 
which  was  opened  in  May,  1873,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  year  had  152  patients.  Of  the  pa 
tients  treated  in  the  former  during  the  two 
years  ending  with  1873,  28*16  per  cent,  had 
recovered,  21*65  per  cent,  had  improved,  and 

*  Partly  estimated,  some  counties  not  havinjr  reported, 
t  Estimated,  the  valuation  of  realty  being  the  same  as  the 
year  previous. 


27'64  per  cent,  had  remained  stationary.  Iowa 
has  three  soldiers'  orphans'  homes,  at  Cedar 
Falls,  Davenport,  and  Glenwood.  The  sup 
port  of  these  institutions  during  1873  cost  the 
state  $146,050,  besides  $12,000  expended  for 
improvements  and  $550  for  libraries.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  there  were  in  these  homes  508 
children,  of  whom  256  were  at  Cedar  Falls, 
154  in  Davenport,  and  98  at  Glenwood.  There 
is  a  reform  school  for  boys  at  Eldora,  and  one 
for  girls  near  Salem.  In  1873  there  were  in 
the  former  146  boys  and  in  the  latter  11  girls. 
The  cost  of  the  boys'  school  for  the  two  years 
ending  Nov.  1,  1873,  was  $32,031,  and  of  the 
girls'  $2,250.  The  penitentiary  at  Fort  Madi 
son  has  318  cells,  and  at  the  close  of  1873  con 
tained  276  convicts,  of  whom  63  were  sen 
tenced  by  the  United  States.  The  labor  of  the 
convicts  who  are  employed  within  the  prison 
is  disposed  of  by  contract  at  40;\  cents  a  day 
for  each  laborer.  The  number  thus  employed 
in  1873  was  258,  and  the  earnings  from  this 
source  for  two  years  amounted  to  $54,081. 
These  contracts  will  expire  Jan.  1,  1875,  when 
it  is  believed  that  much  higher  rates  will  be 
realized.  The  institution  is  self-sustaining. 
The  total  receipts  for  the  two  years  ending 
Nov.  1,  1873,  were  $134,899,  and  the  expendi 
tures  $118,912.  Another  penitentiary  is  in 
process  of  construction  at  Anamosa,  in  Jones 
county. — According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the 
total  number  of  educational  institutions  in 
Iowa  was  7,496,  having  9,319  teachers,  of 
whom  5,663  were  females,  and  217,654  pupils. 
There  were  7,322  public  schools,  with  8,866 
teachers  and  205,923  pupils;  21  colleges,  with 
139  teachers  and  3,061  students;  34 academies, 
with  103  teachers  and  2,333  pupils;  and  100 
private  schools,  with  136  teachers  and  4,872 
pupils.  The  total  income  of  all  the  educational 
institutions  was  $3,570,093,  of  which  $63,150 
was  from  endowment,  $3,347,629  from  taxa 
tion  and  public  funds,  and  $159,314  from  tui 
tion  and  other  sources.  The  system  of  public 
schools  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  adopted 
in  1858.  The  constitution  of  1857  vested  the 
management  of  the  educational  institutions  of 
the  state  in  a  board  of  education,  consisting  of 
the  governor,  the  lieutenant  governor,  and  an 
elected  member  from  each  judicial  district  in 
the  state.  This  body  was  not  empowered  to  levy 
taxes  or  make  appropriations  of  money  for 
school  purposes,  but  was  required  to  provide 
for  the  education  of  all  the  youths  of  the  state 
through  a  system  of  common  schools;  such 
schools  to  be  organized  and  kept  in  every 
school  district  at  least  three  months  a  year,  and 
any  district  failing  to  do  so  for  two  consecutive 
years  may  be  deprived  of  its  portion  of  the 
school  fund.  The  permanent  school  fund  em 
braces  all  lands  granted  to  the  state  by  the 
general  government  for  schools,  and  all  estates 
of  deceased  persons  who  have  died  without 
leaving  a  will  or  heir.  The  money  paid  for 
exemption  from  military  duty,  and  the  net  pro 
ceeds  of  all  fines  collected  in  the  several  coun- 


IOWA 


339 


ties  for  any  breach  of  the  penal  laws,  must  j  Nov.  1,  1873,  was  $3,294,742,  on  which  the  in- 
be  applied  to  the  support  of  common  schools  i  terest  for  1873  amounted  to  $275,789.  The 
or  the  establishment  of  libraries,  as  the  board  !  total  expenditures  for  school  purposes  amounted 
of  education  may  provide.  Educational  funds  to  $4,229,455,  of  which  $2,248,676  was  for 
must  be  distributed  among  the  districts  in  pro-  teachers'  salaries.  The  total  cost  of  education 
portion  to  the  number  of  persons  between  5  in  1873  was  $3  38  per  capita  based  on  the  total 
and  21  years  of  age.  The  board  of  education  population,  $8  60  on  the  school  population  (be- 
was  abolished  in  1864.  The  school  system  of  tween  5  and  21  years  old),  $12  17  on  the  en- 
the  state  contemplates  a  threefold  plan  of  rollment,  $20  71  on  the  average  attendance, 
superintendence,  state,  county,  and  district.  $17  76  on  the  number  of  heads  of  families,  and 
There  is  a  state  superintendent  of  public  in-  $15  17  on  the  number  of  adult  males.  Based 
struction,  and  a  superintendent  for  each  coun-  j  on  taxable  property,  the  cost  was  11  '59  mills 
ty,  while  the  general  supervision  of  the'district  on  the  dollar,  including  6'17  mills  for  tuition, 
is  vested  in  a  board  of  directors.  The  follow-  2*24  for  incidentals,  and  3*18  for  the  erection 
ing  are  the  most  important  statistics  of  the  of  school  houses.  Although  normal  instruction 
public  schools  for  1873  :  is  afforded  by  several  institutions  in  the  state, 

Iowa  has  no  state  school  devoted  exclusively  to 
Number  of  scho^^stricte ....       2.536    the  training  of  teachers.     The  state  teachers' 

of  schools  ungraded .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'!.'.'.'.'      8,397  j  association  meets  annually,  and  there  are  nu- 
"      of  school  houses. .......  . .      8,856    merOus  county  institutes.      Teachers  in   the 

Average  number  ot  months  schools  have  been  taught.  6$  ,,.         ,        ,    ^  -1^.111          i-xi 

Number  of  teachers  (6,091  male  and  10.193  female)..      16,284  j  public  Schools   are  required   to  hold  Certificates 

Average  compensation  of  males  per  month $36  28  •  j  obtained  by  examination,  and  issued  by  county 

Number  of  persons  between"  and"  21  years' of 'age.'.  49U44  i  superintendents  for  a  term  not  exceeding  one 

of  pupils  enrolled  in  public  schools 847.572  year.     Prior  to  September,  1873,  examinations 

Total  average  attendance  ....... 204,204  were  con(illcted  and  perpetual  state  certificates 

Percentage  of  enrollment  on  total  enumeration 71  ,     -.  ,  .     i_         i      /•  •  •   . 

"        of  attendance  upon  enrollment 58    granted  by  a  state  board  of  examiners  consist- 

"    enumeration 42    ing  of  the  faculty  of  the  state  university ;  but 

NTber^P^/^°ie;;;  Jg    this  board  has  been  abolished.     The  most  im- 

of  pupils         "     ......'.'.'....'..........'.     12,132    portant  educational  institutions  of  Iowa,  with 

the  number  of  instructors  and  pupils  during 
The  amount  of  the  permanent  school  fund  on    the  year  1873-'4,  were: 

*"**»•  Denomination.  ™^     ^  indent. 

State  university Iowa  City 1860    '       30  551 

State  agricultural  college j  Ames 1869  17  268 

Upper  Iowa  university [  Fayette Methodist  Episcopal 1858  10  113 

Tabor  college ". |  Tabor Congregational 1^66  5  199 

Iowa  Wesleyan  university j  Mount  Pleasant Methodist  Episcopal ....      1855  14  200 

German  college " I  Mount  Pleasant Methodist  Episcopal 1873  4  15 

Whittier  college i  Salem ;  Friends  1867  5  150 

Ilumboldt  college I  Springvale None 1869  40 

Cornell  college Mount  Vernon Methodist  Episcopal 1855  10  353 

Western  college !  Western United  Brethren 4  120 

Oskaloosa  colU-ge i  Oskaloosa Disciples 5  170 

Central  university  of  Iowa Pella ;  Baptist 1854  7  123 

Amity  college College  Springs i    2  .40 

University  of  Des  Moines Des  Moines Baptist 5  125 

Iowa  college Grinnell Congregational 19  831   - 

Penn  College Oskaloosa ;  Friends 1873  5  150, 

Simpson  Centenary  college ;  Indianola Methodist  Episcopal 1860  6  191 

Norwegian  Luther  college 1  )ecorah Lutheran 1861  6  185 

Burlington  university Burlington !  Baptist 1853  5               51 


The  state  university  comprises  academical,  nor 
mal,  medical,  and  law  departments.  In  the 
first  named,  besides  a  preparatory  course  of 
two  years,  there  is  a  four  years'  curriculum 
affording  three  courses,  classical,  philosophi 
cal,  and  scientific.  The  course  in  the  law  de 
partment  covers  one,  and  in  the  medical  ^le- 
partment  two  years.  Of  the  551  students' of 
the  university  in  1873,  85  were  in  the  law, 
70  in  the  medical,  and  17  in  the  normal  de 
partment.  The  income  from  June  20,  1871, 
to  Oct.  1,  1873,  amounted  to  $128.499,  and 
the  disbursements  to  $103,415.  The  state 
agricultural  college  has  received  the  con 
gressional  land  grant  for  the  promotion  of  in 
struction  in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 


In  the  regulation  of  this  institution  two  inter 
esting  experiments  have  been  made,  and  are 
regarded  as  successful :  1,  the  union  of  manual 
labor  with  intellectual  exercise  as  a  part  of  the 
course,  students  being  required  to  devote  an 
average  of  2|  hours  a  day  throughout  the  col 
lege  year  to  manual  labor;  2,  co-education  of 
the  sexes.  The  institution  has  extensive  grounds 
and  valuable  collections.  Courses  of  instruc 
tion  are  provided  in  agriculture,  four  years; 
horticulture  and  forestry,  stock  breeding,  me 
chanical  engineering,  civil  engineering,  mining 
engineering,  architecture,  "  general  science  for 
ladies,"  military  tactics  and  engineering,  nor 
mal  course,  and  course  in  bee-keeping.  The 
Xorwegiau  Luther  college,  the  largest  Xorwe- 


340 


IOWA 


gian  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  country,  was 
established  by  the  Norwegian  Evangelical  Lu 
theran  synod  of  Iowa  and  adjacent  states,  and 
is  under  the  direction  of  that  body.  It  is  sup 
ported  by  voluntary  contributions,  and  affords 
instruction  free  to  all  students.  The  plan  of 
the  Iowa  Wesleyan  university  embraces  a  de 
partment  of  the  liberal  arts,  comprising  classi 
cal,  scientific,  normal,  and  preparatory  courses ; 
a  department  of  technology,  including  courses 
in  fine  art  and  industrial  art ;  and  departments 
of  theology,  law,  and  medicine.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  Instruction  in  theology  is  afford 
ed  by  the  Wartburg  seminary  (Lutheran)  at 
Casstown,  the  Swedish  Lutheran  mission  insti 
tute  at  Keokuk,  the  German  theological  school 
of  the  Northwest  (Presbyterian)  at  Dubuque, 
and  the  theological  department  of  the  Wesleyan 
university  (Methodist  Episcopal)  at  Mt.  Pleas 
ant,  with  courses  in  English  and  German;  in 
law,  by  the  law  departments  of  the  state  and 
the  Wesleyan  university;  in  medicine,  by  the 
medical  department  of  the  state  university,  the 
department  of  pharmacy  in  the  Wesleyan  uni 
versity,  and  the  college  of  physicians  and  sur 
geons  established  in  Keokuk  in  1840,  which  had 
10  instructors  and  142  pupils  in  1873 ;  and  in 
science,  by  the  state  agricultural  college. — Ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1870,  there  were  in 
Iowa  233  newspapers  and  periodicals,  having 
an  aggregate  circulation  of  219,090,  and  issu 
ing  16,403,380  copies  annually.  There  were 
22  daily,  with  a  circulation  of  19,800;  3  tri 
weekly,'  1,650;  1  semi-weekly,  1,000;  196  week 
ly,  187,840;  3  semi-monthly,  3,400;  5  month 
ly,  3,950;  2  bi-monthly,  750;  1  quarterly,  700. 
The  state  census  of  1873  returned  as  published 
in  Iowa  22  daily  newspapers,  2  tri-weekly,  6 
semi- weekly,  272  weekly,  2  semi-monthly,  19 
monthly,  and  1  bi-monthly.  The  total  num 
ber  of  libraries  in  1870  was  3,540,  containing 
673,000  volumes.  Of  these,  2,387  with  295,- 
749  volumes  were  private,  and  1,153  with 
377,851  volumes  were  other  than  private,  in 
cluding  1  state,  with  11,000  volumes;  23  town, 
city,  &c.,  with  22,808;  11  court  and  law,  with 
944;  15  school,  college,  &c.,  with  18,747;  999 
Sunday  school,  with  278,251  ;  85  church, 
with  25,584;  and  18  circulating  libraries,  with 
20,367  volumes.  The  chief  libraries  are  the 
state  library  in  Des  Moines,  which  in  1874  had 
12,000  volumes,  exclusive  of  4,000  duplicates; 
the  Keokuk  library  association,  7,000 ;  state  his 
torical  society,  Iowa  City,  3,300 ;  public  libra 
ry  of  Burlington,  5,398;  and  Jefferson  county 
library  association,  Fairfield,  3,480.  The  state 
historical  society  at  Iowa  City  is  partly  sup 
ported  and  controlled  by  the  state.  A  chief 
object  is  the  collection  and  preservation  of 
historical  works,  manuscripts,  relics,  &c.,  per 
taining  to  the  history  of  the  state. — In  1870 
the  state  contained  2,763  religious  organiza 
tions,  having  1,446  edifices  with  431,709  sit 
tings,  and  property  valued  at  $5,730,352.  The 
various  denominations  were  represented  as 
follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi 
zations. 

Edi 
fices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist   regular 

307 
45 
113 

1ST 
53 
32 
82 
5 
79 
982 
5 
G 
270 
105 

4 

13 

216 

28 
3 
183 
35 

2,763 

147 

IS 
43 
125 
36 
11 
60 
1 
45 
492 
3 
1 
156 
66 

4 

13 
165 
10 

2 
28 
15 

1,446 

44,340     $022.700 
6,350         46.200 
15.750       124.450 
88,925       529.570 
9.584       192,802 
2^400  i       22.800 
17.075       125.800 
150  1         1.900 
12.285  j      113.950 
142,655  j  1,490,220 
800  I         9.000 
200              600 
44.205  !      734.225 
20,625       225,100 

1,500  '       25,000 

3,950  !       46.000 
57.280  ;  l,210.1f>0 
2,950  !       18.of;0 
715         19,000 
10,445  1        69.250 
4,4C5         99,525 

431,709  $5,730,352 

"•        other  

Christian  . 

Congregational  

Episcopal,  Protestant  
Evangelical  Association  
Friends 

Jewish  

Lutheran 

Methodist  .  .  . 

Moravian  (Unitas  Fratrum).  .  . 
Mormon.^  
Presbyterian,  regular  
u            other.  .  .  . 

Reformed  church  in  America 
(late  Dutch  Reformed)  
Reformed  church  in  the  United 
States  (late  German  Rcfor'd). 
Roman  Catholic  
Second  Advent 

Unitarian 

United  Brethren  in  Christ  
Universalist  

Total 

— Iowa  derives  its  name  (said  to  mean  in  the 
language  of  the  Indians  "  the  beautiful  land  ") 
from  the  river  so  called,  and  was  originally  a 
part  of  the  vast  territories  included  in  Louisi 
ana,  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  The 
first  settlement  of  whites  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  state  was  made  by  Julien  Du 
buque,  a  Canadian  Frenchman,  who  in  1788 
obtained  a  grant  of  a  large  tract,  including  the 
present  city  of  Dubuque  and  the  rich  mineral 
lands  in  its  vicinity.  Here  he  built  a  small 
fort,  and  carried  on  the  mining  of  lead  and 
trade  with  the  Indians  until  his  death  in  1810. 
In  1834  the  territory  now  included  in  Iowa  was 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Michigan,  and 
in  1836  under  that  of  Wisconsin.  Xo  steps 
were  taken  toward  its  further  settlement  till 
the  spring  of  1833,  when  several  companies  of 
Americans  from  Illinois  and  other  states  set 
tled  in  the  vicinity  of  Burlington;  and  at  a 
later  period  settlements  were  made  at  other 
points  along  the  Mississippi.  On  June  12, 
1838,  Iowa  was  erected  into  a  separate  terri 
tory;  and  on  July  4  ensuing  the  new  govern 
ment  was  formally  installed  at  Burlington. 
Under  its  territorial  organization  Iowa  in 
cluded  all  the  country  N.  of  Missouri,  between 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  and  to  the 
British  line,  and  consequently  the  greater  part 
of  the  present  state  of  Minnesota  and  the  whole 
of  Dakota  territory,  with  an  area  of  194,603 
sq.  m.  In  1839  the  government  removed  to 
Iowa  City.  In  1844  a  state  constitution  was 
formed,  and  a  petition  sent  to  congress  for  ad 
mission  to  the  Union.  This  was  not  granted, 
on  account  of  the  constitutional  limits  assumed ; 
and  by  an  act  of  March  3,  1845,  congress  de 
fined  the  boundaries  that  would  be  acceptable. 
The  next  year  the  proposed  boundaries  were 
approved  by  a  convention  assembled  for  the 
purpose;  and  on  Dec.  28,  1846,  Iowa  was  ad 
mitted  into  the  "Union.  The  capital  was  re 
moved  to  Des  Moines  in  1857.  On  Jan.  24, 


IOWA 


IOWAS 


1855,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature 
submitting  to  tlie  people  the  question  of  calling 
a  constitutional  convention.  The  proposition 
having  been  approved,  an  election  of  delegates 
was  held  in  November,  1850.  On  Jan.  19, 
1857,  the  convention  met  in  Iowa  City  and 
framed  the  present  constitution,  which  was 
ratified  on  Aug.  3,  1857,  by  a  vote  of  40,311  to 
38,681.  The  word  "white,"  where  it  had 
been  used  in  defining  the  qualifications  of  elec 
tors,  the  basis  of  representation,  and  the  obliga 
tion  of  militia  duty,  was  stricken  out  by  acts  of 
the  legislature,  subsequently  approved  by  the 
people  in  18G8.  The  question  of  revising  the 
constitution  was  submitted  to  the  people  in 
1870,  when  a  majority  voted  against  it.  A  report 
on  the  geological  survey  of  the  state  during 
1866-'9,  by  Charles  A.  White,  state  geologist, 
was  published  in  Des  Moines  in  1870  (2  vols.). 

IOWA.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Wisconsin, 
bounded  1ST.  by  Wisconsin  river,  and  drained 
by  the  branches  of  the  Pekatonica ;  area,  720 
sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  24,544.  The  surface  is 
irregular  and  thinly  timbered.  Lead  is  abun 
dant,  and  copper  and  zinc  are  found.  The 
Prairie  du  Chien  division  of  the  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  railroad  passes  along  the  N.  bor 
der,  and  the  Mineral  Point  railroad  terminates 
at  the  county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  760,166  bushels  of  wheat,  705,792 
of  Indian  corn,  803,951  of  oats,  40,867  of  bar 
ley,  35,857  of  flaxseed,  145,141  of  potatoes, 
48,758  Ibs.  of  wool,  73,896  of  hops,  84,023  of 
flax,  547,388  of  butter,  and  38,054  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  9,871  horses,  10,064  milch  cows, 
17,460  other  cattle,  13,756  sheep,  and  28,235 
swine;  22  manufactories  of  carriages,  7  of 
cabinet  furniture,  5  of  pig  lead,  1  of  paints,  8 
of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  flour  mills,  4  brew 
eries,  and  2  zinc-smelting  establishments.  Cap 
ital,  Mineral  Point.  II.  An  E.  county  of  Iowa, 
intersected  by  the  river  of  the  same  name 
and  the  N.  fork  of  the  English  river;  area, 
576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,644.  It  has  an 
undulating  and  well  wooded  surface,  and  a 
fertile  soil.  The  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific  railroad  passes  through  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  531,148 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,281,123  of  Indian  corn, 
267,049  of  oats,  111,882  of  potatoes,  499,379 
Ibs.  of  butter,  31,877  of  wool,  and  30,703  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  6,564  horses,  6,481  milch 
cows,  10,995  other  cattle,  8,806  sheep,  and 
21,51)0  swirie;  4  manufactories  of  carriages,  4 
of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  woollen  goods,  4 
of  brick,  4  flour  mills,  and  a  cotton  and  wool 
len  print  works.  Capital,  Marengo. 

IOWA  CITY,  the  capital  of  Johnson  co.,  Iowa, 
and  from  1839  to  1857  the  seat  of  the  territo 
rial  and  state  government,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Iowa  river  (here  navigable  by 
steamboats),  80  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  railroad,  130 
m.  E.  of  Des  Moines;  pop.  in  1850,  1,250;  in 
1860,  5.214;  in  1870,  5,914.  Since  the  census 
the  city  has  been  enlarged,  and  the  population 


now  (1874)  is  about  9,000.  It  is  built  upon 
the  highest  of  three  plateaus,  150  ft.  above  the 
river,  and  is  surrounded,  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile,  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  state  university,  which  has  an  at 
tendance  of  600  students  in  the  academical, 
law,  and  medical  departments,  an  extensive 
laboratory,  and  a  library  of  6,500  volumes. 
The  university  occupies  four  buildings,  the 
largest  having  been  erected  by  the  federal  gov 
ernment  for  the  territorial  capitol.  In  connec 
tion  with  its  medical  department  is  Mercy  hos 
pital,  with  roomy  wards  and  private  apart 
ments.  (See  IOWA.)  The  county  offices  and 
court  house  are  the  other  principal  public 
buildings.  There  are  several  flouring  mills  in 
operation,  and  the  river  furnishes  motive  pow 
er  for  various  other  manufactories.  The  city 
contains  two  national  banks,  the  state  histori 
cal  society's  rooms,  with  a  library  of  about 
3,500  volumes,  four  ward  schools,  three  acad 
emies,  a  commercial  college,  a  daily  and  three 
weekly  (one  Bohemian)  newspapers,  a  semi 
monthly  periodical  (published  by  the  students 
in  the  university),  and  15  churches. 

IOWA  RIVER.     See  IOWA. 

IOWAS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  belong 
ing  to  the  Dakota  family.  They  call  themselves 
Pahucha,  "Dusty  Nose,"  but  were  called  by 
some  Algonquin  tribes  lowas,  and  by  others 
Mascoutin  or  Prairie  Nadouessis.  Marquette  in 
1673  lays  them  down  as  the  Pahoutet,  back  of 
the  Des  Moines.  They  consisted  of  eight  clans : 
the  Eagle,  Wolf,  Bear,  and  Buffalo,  still  exist 
ing,  and  the  Pigeon,  Elk,  Beaver,  and  Snake, 
now  extinct.  Each  of  these  was  distinguished 
by  a  peculiar  way  of  cutting  the  hair.  The 
Jesuit  Father  Andre  preached  to  a  band  of 
them  about  1675,  and  ten  years  later  a  delega 
tion  met  and  wept  over  Perrot,  according  to 
the  Sioux  fashion,  at  his  temporary  fort  on  the 
Wisconsin.  Their  country  was  then  in  about 
lat.  43°  N.,  12  days'  journey  west  of  Green 
bay.  In  1 700  they  were  on  the  Mankato,  and 
like  the  Sioux  were  at  war  with  all  the  west 
ern  Algonquin  tribes.  Charlevoix  mentions 
that  the  great  pipestone  quarry  was  on  their 
territory,  and  says  they  were  famous  in  all  the 
west  as  pedestrians,  being  able  to  travel  25  or 
30  leagues  a  day  when  alone;  and  the  names 
of  chiefs  show  that  they  pride  themselves  on 
their  walking.  They  were  constantly  at  war, 
and  about  the  beginning  of  tlTis  century  were 
involved  with  the  Osages,  and  soon  after  with 
the  Omahas  and  Sioux.  They  seem  to  have 
numbered  then  about  1,500.  They  defeated 
the  Osages  in  1803,  but  soon  after  lost  severe 
ly  by  smallpox ;  some  years  later  many  of  them 
were  killed  and  taken  by  the  Sioux,  and  in  1815 
they  were  again  decimated  by  disease.  The 
United  States  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
WyingAvaha  or  Hardheart  and  other  chiefs, 
Sept.  16,  1815.  By  another  treaty,  made  with 
Gen.  Clark  on  Aug.  4,  1824,  Mahaskah  or 
White  Cloud,  the  greatest  chief  in  the  annals 
of  the  tribe,  and  Manehana  or  Great  Walker, 


342 


IPECACUANHA 


ceded  all  the  Iowa  lands  in  the  territory  of 
Missouri,  for  $500  down  and  $500  annually  for 
ten  years,  the  United  {States  agreeing  to  sup 
port  a  blacksmith  and  assist  the  tribe  with 
agricultural  implements,  cattle,  &c.  Their  chief 
villages  at  this  time  were  on  the  Iowa  and  Des 
Moines.  The  next  year  Clark  and  Lewis  Cass 
endeavored  to  establish  peace  between  them 
and  the  Sioux.  A  part  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes 
were  then  jointly  interested  with  them  in  some 
of  the  territory  between  the  Iowa  and  Des 
Moines,  and  have  continued  to  be  their  friends 
and  neighbors.  The  intrusion  of  whites  on  their 
valuable  lead  lands  led  to  trouble  and  com 
plaints;  but  the  influence  of  liquor,  with  war 
and  disease,  was  beginning  to  destroy  the  tribe. 
The  lowas,  numbering  992,  were  removed  by 
the  treaty  of  Sept.  IT,  1836,  and  placed  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Missouri  above  Wolf  river ; 
but  a  part  broke  off  the  next  year  and  became 
vagrants,  living  by  theft  and  hunting  on  grounds 
of  other  tribes.  Every  year  showed  a  decline, 
the  chiefs  leading  in  intemperance,  and  many 
of  the  tribe  being  killed  annually  in  liquor.  A 
Presbyterian  mission  and  manual  labor  school, 
earnestly  maintained  from  1835  to  I860,  failed 
to  save  this  people.  By  1846  they  had  de 
clined  to  706  in  number.  Their  territory  Avas 
then  bounded  E.  by  the  Missouri  and  N".  by  the 
Great  Nemahaw.  By  the  treaty  of  March  6, 
1861,  the  tribe,  reduced  then  to  305  souls, 
ceded  all  but  a  reservation  of  16,000  acres.  In 
1869  they  agreed  to  sell  this  and  remove,  but 
subsequently  retracted,  merely  giving  part  to 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  who  actually  sold  their 
reservation.  Out  of  a  population  of  only  293 
the  lowas  in  1864  had  41  men  in  the  United 
States  armies,  who  were  improved  by  the  dis 
cipline,  and  adopted  civilized  customs.  Since 
the  tribe  has  been  placed  under  the  charge  of 
the  Friends,  some  progress  is  said  to  have  been 
made  in  sobriety  and  industry.  In  1872  they 
numbered  225,  and  were  quite  favorable  to 
the  school,  which  contained  63  pupils  all 
dressed  in  civilized  garb,  and  to  the  orphans' 
industrial  home.  They  had  700  acres  cultiva 
ted,  13  frame  houses,  and  20  log  houses.  Their 
produce  amounted  to  $2,685,  and  their  stock 
was  valued  at  $7,900.  The  United  States  gov 
ernment  holds  $57,500  for  the  lowas,  the  in 
terest  of  which  is  paid  yearly  to  the  heads  of 
families ;  and  the  usual  Indian  goods  are  not 
now  furnished,  Ijeing  replaced  by  useful  arti 
cles. — An  Iowa  grammar  by  the  Rev.  S.  M. 
Irvin  and  William  Hamilton,  illustrating  the 
principles  of  the  language,  arid  a  primer,  were 
published  at  the  Iowa  mission  in  1848. 

IPECACUANHA,  a  name  given  by  the  aborigines 
of  Brazil  to  various  roots  which  possess  emetic 
properties.  The  root  thus  designated  in  the 
pharmacopeias  does  not  appear  to  be  one  of 
these,  but  of  the  cephatlis  ipecacuanha,  called 
poaya  in  Brazil,  a  small  plant  of  the  natural 
order  nibiacecp,  suborder  cinchonacece.  It 
grows  in  the  thick  and  shady  woods  of  Brazil 
and  Colombia,  flowering  in  January  and  Feb 


ruary,  at  which  season  the  root  is  collected 
by  the  native  Indians  and  taken  to  the  chief 
ports  for  exportation.  The  pieces  are  a  few 
inches  long  and  of  the  size  of  straws,  much 
bent  and  sometimes  branched,  and  in  the  gen 
uine  article  always  knotted  on  the  surface  by 
rings  and  depressions  which  have  given  it  the 
designation  of  annulated.  The  central  portion 
is  ligneous,  and  possesses  the  virtue  of  the 
plant  in  a  much  less  degree  than  the  cortical 
covering  of  the  root.  The  different  colors  of 
this  portion,  sometimes  red,  brown,  or  gray, 
have  led  to  the  mistake  of  referring  the  root  to 
different  varieties  of  the  plant  according  to 
these  colors.  The  alkaloid  principle,  called 
emetia,  has  been  separated  in  an  impure  state 
from  the  cortical  part  of  the  brown  root  in  the 
proportion  of  16  per  cent.,  and  from  the  red 
of  14  per  cent.  This  principle,  to  which  the 
emetic  property  of  the  plant  is  owing,  is  hard 
ly  to  be  obtained  pure,  but  is  probably  a  salt, 


Cephaelis  ipecacuanha. 

the  alkaloid  uniting  with  many  acids  to  form 
crystallizable  salts.  It  appears  as  a  white  pow 
der  without  odor,  and  of  slightly  bitter  taste. 
The  root  of  psychotria  emetica,  growing  in 
Peru  and  Colombia,  has  been  known  as  ipeca 
cuanha  striata,  and  the  root  of  various  spe 
cies  of  Richardsonia  as  /.  undulata.  Vari 
ous  species  of  ionidium  produce  white  ipecac. 
All  of  these  roots  are  emetic,  and  the  /.  striata 
and  /.  undulata  have  been  found  to  contain 
emetia.  The  British  government  has  made  suc 
cessful  experiments  in  raising  ipecacuanha  in  In 
dia,  and  supplies  of  the  drug  will  probably  here 
after  be  furnished  by  that  country.  The  first 
plants  were  propagated  at  the  Edinburgh  botan 
ic  garden  and  sent  out  in  Wardian  cases,  but 
they  have  since  been  propagated  in  India.  The 
plant  is  readily  multiplied  by  cuttings  of  the 
rhizome,  but  is  of  exceedingly  slow  growth. — 
Ipecacuanha  was  introduced  into  medical  prac 
tice  in  Europe  by  John  Helvetius,  grandfather 


IPIIICRATES 


IPSAMBUL 


of  the  celebrated  autlior  of  that  name,  and 
with  such  success  that  a  large  sum  of  money 
and  public  honors  were  bestowed  by  Louis 
XIV.  upon  the  physician  for  giving  publicity 
to  the  remedy,  which  he  had  kept  secret.  In 
large  doses  it  is  an  active  and  quick  but  mild 
emetic ;  in  smaller,  a  diaphoretic  and  expecto 
rant;  and  in  still  smaller,  a  stimulant  to  the 
stomach.  It  acts  when  injected  into  the  blood 
as  well  as  when  given  by  the  stomach,  and  is 
consequently  entitled  to  be  called  a  specific 
emetic.  In  very  large  doses  it  diminishes  the 
rapidity  of  the  pulse.  Animals  may  be  killed 
by  it.  It  is  used  not  only  to  empty  the  stomach, 
but  also  in  small  doses  in  diseases  of  the  bow 
els  especially  dysentery  and  diarrhoea.  When 
first  introduced  into  European  practice,  it  was 
known  as  radix  antidysenterica.  Ipecac  is 
employed  also  in  affections  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  especially  in  croup  and  the  bronchitis 
of  children.  Its  preparations  are,  besides  the 
powder,  a  wine,  fluid  extract,  and  sirup.  It  is 
combined  with  opium  in  Dover's  powder.  The 
dose  of  ipecacuanha  as  an  emetic  is  20  grs.  or 
more ;  as  an  expectorant,  \  gr.  to  2  grs.  The 
dose  of  the  wine  varies  from  a  few  drops  to  a 
tablespoonful,  according  to  the  indications  of 
the  case.  The  sirup  is  weaker  than  the  wine. 
IPIIICRATES,  an  Athenian  general  in  the  first 
half  of  the  4th  century  B.  C.  At  the  battle  of 
Cnidus  he  captured  one  of  the  Spartan  trier- 
archs.  In  393  he  commanded  the  Athenian 
auxiliaries  at  the  battle  of  Lechai'um,  in  which 
the  allies  were  defeated  by  the  Lacedaemonians 
under  Praxitas.  The  guerilla  system  subse 
quently  adopted  by  the  belligerents  in  that  war 
seems  to  have  suggested  to  Iphicrates  the  for 
mation  of  a  body  of  light-armed  foot  soldiers 
called  peltastm,  with  whom  he  attacked  a  divi 
sion  of  the  Lacedemonian  army  near  Corinth, 
and  almost  destroyed  it.  lie  next  captured 
Sidus,  Crommyon,  and  CEnoe  from  the  Spar 
tans  ;  but  the  Athenians,  listening  to  Argivc 
calumnies,  deprived  him  of  his  command.  In 
389  he  was  reinvested  with  authority,  and  sent 
to  the  Hellespont  to  counteract  the  operations 
of  the  Lacedaemonian  Anaxibius,  who  was  de 
feated  by  him  and  slain  in  the  following  year. 
After  the  peace  of  Antalcidas,  Iphicrates  en 
tered  into  alliance  with  Cotys,  a  Thracian 
prince,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage, 
and  allowed  him  to  found  the  town  of  Drys  in 
his  territory.  In  377  he  was  sent  with  20,000 
Greek  mercenaries  to  aid  the  Persian  satrap 
Pharnabazus  in  reducing  Egypt  to  obedience. 
The  policy  of  Iphicrates  was  too  daring  for  the 
wary  barbarian.  The  commanders  quarrelled, 
and  the  Greek,  fearing  for  his  safety,  lied  to 
Athens,  where  he  was  denounced  by  Pharna 
bazus  for  causing  the  failure  of  the  expedition. 
The  Athenians  promised  to  punish  him,  but  in 
the  next  year  (373)  they  appointed  him  to  the 
joint  command  of  the  armament  which  they 
sent  against  Corcyra.  That  town  was  brought 
over  to  the  Athenian  alliance,  and  the  fleet 
which  the  Syracusan  tyrant  Dionysius  had  sent 


to  the  assistance  of  the  Lacedaemonians  was 
defeated.  In  the  war  which  grew  out  of  the 
seizure  of  Thebes  by  the  Spartans,  Iphicrates 
commanded  the  Athenian  forces  sent  against 
the  Thebans.  He  afterward  commanded  in 
Thrace  and  in  the  social  war,  in  conjunction 
with  Timotheus,  Menestheus,  and  Chares,  the 
last  of  whom  sought  to  shield  himself  from  the 
consequences  of  his  ignorance  by  prosecuting 
his  colleagues.  Iphicrates  was  acquitted,  and 
spent  his  latter  days  at  Athens. 

IPUIGEMA,  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
Clytemnestra,  or,  according  to  some  authori 
ties,  of  Theseus  and  Helena.  Agamemnon, 
having  once  killed  a  stag  in  the  grove  of  Diana, 
sought  to  appease  the  offended  goddess  by 
vowing  that  whatever,  most  beautiful,  was 
born  to  him  in  that  year  should  be  sacrificed 
to  her.  His  daughter  Iphigenia  chanced  to  be 
born  within  the  period  specified  ;  but  the  king 
from  time  to  time  put  off  the  performance  of 
his  vow,  until  the  Grecian  armament  was  as 
sembled  in  the  port  of  Aulis  to  sail  against 
Troy.  The  winds  proving  unpropitious,  Cal- 
chas  the  seer  was  consulted,  and  replied  that 
the  sacrifice  of  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon 
was  indispensable  to  propitiate  the  gods.  But 
Agamemnon  still  resisted,  and  only  yielded  to 
the  importunities  of  Menelaus.  When  Iphige 
nia  was  about  to  be  immolated,  Diana  herself 
intervened  to  save  her,  and  bore  her  in  a  cloud 
to  Tauris,  where  Iphigenia  became  her  priest 
ess.  Her  brother  Orestes  came  thither  in  or 
der  to  steal  the  image  of  Diana,  which  was 
believed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  to 
transport  it  to  Hellas.  Iphigenia  recognized 
him,  and  aided  him  in  obtaining  the  desired 
image,  with  which  they  fled  to  Argos.  Iphige 
nia  afterward  carried  it  to  Sparta,  where  she 
acted  as  priestess  of  Diana  till  her  death. 

IPSAMBIL,  Abu  Sambnl,  or  Abnsimbel,  a  place 
in  lower  Nubia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile, 
30  m.  S.  W.  of  Derr,  lat.  22°  22'  N.,  Ion.  31° 
40'  E.,  remarkable  for  two  of  the  most  per 
fect  and  magnificent   specimens  of  Egyptian 
rock-cut  temples.     Both  have  front  walls  of 
sandstone,  and  the  interiors  are  excavated  from 
the   solid   rock.     The   smaller   temple,   which 
Wilkinson   thinks  was    dedicated    to    Atlior, 
stands  20  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Nile,  and 
has  a  front  of  90  ft.  adorned  with  six  gigan 
tic  statues.     There  is  an  interior  hall  of  six 
square   pillars,    a   transverse   corridor   with  a 
small  chamber  at  each  extremity,  and  an  asy 
lum.     The  whole  is  apparently  almost  as  per- 
|  feet  as  it  was  when  completed.      Burckhardt 
saw  and  first  described  this  temple  of  Isis,  as 
j  he  believed  it  to  be,  on  March  22,   1813,  and 
,  200  ft.  in  the  rear  he  discovered  the  heads  of 
I  four  colossal  statues,  the  bodies  of  which  were 
j  buried  in  sand.     These  lie  judged  to  belong  to 
|  the  finest  period  of  Egyptian  sculpture.     The 
j  rear  wall,  covered  with  well  executed  hiero 
glyphics,  displayed  a   figure  of    hawk-headed 
j  Osiris  surmounted  by  a  globe,  and  Burckhardt 
'  predicted  that  the  clearing  away  of  the  sand 


344 


IPSAMBUL 


IPSWICH 


would  reveal  a  temple  to  that  deity.  In  1817 
Belzoni,  assisted  by  Capts.  Irby  and  Mangles, 
removed  31  ft.  of  sand,  when  the  top  of  the 
entrance  was  reached.  This  second  and  larger 
temple,  standing  100  ft.  above  the  water  level, 
has  a  front  120  ft.  long  and  90  ft.  high,  sur 
rounded  by  a  moulding,  and  adorned  with  a 
cornice  and  frieze.  In  front,  seated  on  thrones, 
are  four  colossal  figures  65  ft.  high,  the  largest 
in  Nubia  or  Egypt.  The  third  statue  from  the 
north  has  been  shattered  by  an  avalanche  from 
the  mountain,  and  a  portion  of  the  head  lies  in 
the  lap  of  the  figure.  One  of  these  colossi  has 
a  face  7  ft.  long  and  measures  25  ft.  4  in.  across 
the  shoulders.  According  to  Wilkinson,  the 
figures  are  statues  of  Rameses  II.  The  interior 


Tomb,  Ipsambul. 

presents  first  the  colonnade,  the  pilasters  of 
which  bear  figures  of  Osiris  30  ft.  high,  and 
the  walls  exhibit  sculptures  representing  bat 
tles  and  triumphs.  Next  is  the  great  hall  ex 
tending  200  ft.  into  the  rock,  with  ranges  of 
massive  square  columns  adorned  with  statues. 
Beyond  are  an  antechamber  and  the  sanctuary 
with  several  side  chambers.  In  the  back 
ground  is  a  colossal  figure  seated  on  a  bench, 
and  there  are  similar  statues  in  the  side  cham 
bers.  In  the  centre  of  the  sanctuary  is  a  ped 
estal  on  which  Heeren  thinks  a  sarcophagus 
once  stood,  and  hence  he  argues  that  the  mon 
ument  was  not  a  temple  but  the  sepulchre  of 
a  king.  lie  believes,  too,  from  the  scenes  of 
war  and  triumph  sculptured  on  the  Avails,  and 


especially  from  four  painted  figures,  one  of 
which  in  red  he  takes  to  be  a  king,  that  the 
smaller  monument  also  was  a  royal  sepulchre. 
Burckhardt  says  that  Ipsambul  served  as  a 
refuge  to  the  inhabitants  of  Beillany,  8  m. 
distant,  against  the  annual  incursions  of  a 
western  tribe  of  Bedouins.  In  1812,  the  year 
previous  to  his  visit,  the  natives  took  refuge 
there  with  their  cattle,  and  the  Bedouins,  after 
losing  several  men,  failed  to  force  the  place. 

IPSARA,  or  Psara,  a  barren  and  rocky  island 
belonging  to  Turkey,  in  the  Grecian  archi 
pelago,  10  m.  "W.  of  Scio ;  greatest  length  about 
6  m.,  breadth  5  m.  Those  parts  of  it  which 
are  covered  with  a  thin  soil  have  been  carefully 
cultivated,  and  before  the  Greek  revolution  the 
island  was  prosperous  and  densely  populated, 
forming  one  of  the  most  important  marine 
stations  under  the  control  of  Greeks.  During 
the  war  it  earned  a  national  fame  by  the  devo 
tion  and  bravery  of  its  mariners,  but  was  cap 
tured  and  almost  depopulated  by  the  Turks 
(July  3,  1824) ;  since  that  time  it  has  been  of 
little  importance.  There  is  but  one  town  upon 
the  island,  also  called  Ipsara,  and  having  hard 
ly  more  than  500  inhabitants.  It  is  situated 
on  the  S.  side,  where  a  small  bay  affords  good 
anchorage  ;  but  it  has  little  commerce,  and  the 
people  are  chiefly  supported  by  fishing. 

IPSUS,  a  town  of  ancient  Phrygia  in  Asia 
Minor,  probably  about  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Synnada, 
and  a  short  distance  N.  W.  of  the  modern 
village  of  Bulavadin,  28  m.  E.  of  Afium-Kara- 
hissar.  It  is  famous  on  account  of  the  battle 
fought  in  301  B.  0.  (or  in  300,  as  Grote  con 
jectures),  in  the  plain  near  it,  when  Antigonus 
and  his  son  Demetrius  were  disastrously  de 
feated  by  the  forces  of  Seleucus,  Cassander, 
Lysimachus,  and  Ptolemy.  Antigonus  fell,  and 
the  victory  of  his  enemies  was  followed  by  a 
new  division  of  the  dominions  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  which  terminated  a  bloody  struggle 
of  20  years.  In  the  7th  and  8th  centuries  Ipsus 
was  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop. 

IPSWICH,  a  town  of  Essex  co.,  Massachusetts, 
on  both  sides  of  Ipswich  river,  at  its  mouth, 
and  on  the  Eastern  railroad,  25  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Boston ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,720.  The  river,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  two  stone  bridges,  one  built 
in  1764  and  the  other  in  1861,  affords  valuable 
water  power,  and  in  a  bay  of  the  same  name 
at  its  mouth  there  is  an  excellent  harbor.  A 
number  of  vessels  are  owned  here,  and  the 
town  is  interested  to  some  extent  in  the  coast 
ing  trade,  and  has  small  ship  yards.  There 
is  a  woollen  mill,  producing  repellants,  but  the 
principal  manufactures  are  of  hosiery,  employ 
ing  14  establishments,  and  of  boots  and  shoes. 
The  town  contains  a  county  insane  asylum,  a 
county  house  of  correction,  a  female  seminary 
established  in  1828  and  having  in  1872  9  in 
structors  and  60  pupils,  a  classical  school  found 
ed  in  1650,  10  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school,  a  weekly  newspaper,  a  public  library, 
and  six  churches.  It  was  settled  in  1633.  Its 
Indian  name  was  Agawam  ("fishing  station"). 


IPSWICH 


IRAK-ARABI 


345 


IPSWICH,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  river 
port  of  England,  capital  of  the  county  of  Suf 
folk,  on  the  river  Orwell,  10  m.  from  the  sea 
and  05  m.  N.  E.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  43,- 
136.  It  is  situated  on  a  gentle  declivity  near 
the  junction  of  the  Orwell  and  Gipping,  the 
latter  of  which,  according  to  Camden,  gave 
the  town  its  name,  which  was  originally  Gip- 
peswich.  The  streets  are  generally  narrow 
and  irregular,  but  are  well  paved  and  are  light 
ed  with  gas.  It  has  42  churches  and  places  of 
worship,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  working- 
men's  college,  large  iron  founderies  and  soap 
factories,  breweries,  corn  mills,  and  ship-build 
ing  docks.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
Queen  Elizabeth's  grammar  school,  the  town 
hall,  hall  of  commerce,  corn  exchange,  coun 
ty  jail,  hospital,  assembly  room,  and  barracks. 
The  grammar  school  was  founded  originally  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  was  revived  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  intended  to  make  it  a 


ny,  rivalling  Brisbane  in  business  importance. 
It  is  the  starting  point  of  the  southern  and 
western  railways. 

IKAR-AJEMI,  a  central  province  of  Persia, 
comprising  a  portion  of  the  great  desert,  and 
bounded  N.  by  a  range  of  mountains  dividing 
it  from  the  provinces  on  the  Caspian  sea,  E. 
by  Khorasan,  S.  and  S.  W.  by  Ears  and  Khu 
zistan,  and  W.  and  1ST.  "W.  by  Luristan,  Arde- 
lan,  and  Azerbijan;    area  estimated  at  about 
100,000   sq.  m.,  pop.  at  1,250,000.     The  sur 
face  consists  chierly  of  a  high  table  land  trav 
ersed  by  several  mountain  ridges  and  fertile 
valleys.     The  Kizil  Uzen  in  the  north  and  the 
Kerah  in  the  southwest  are  the  principal  riv 
ers.     The  country  is  almost  destitute  of  trees, 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  arable  land  is  un 
cultivated,  but  there  are  excellent  pasture  lands. 
Some  of  the  valleys  which  are  well  watered 
produce  large  crops  of  rice,  wheat,  and  other 
grains ;  and  fruits,  opium,  tobacco,  cotton,  saf 
fron,   and   silk  are  sta 
ples.    Ispahan,  Teheran, 
Ilamadan,  Casbin,  Ker- 
manshah,  and  Kum  are 
the  principal  towns. 

IRAK-ARAKI,  or  Irak- 
i-Arabi,  the  Arabic  name, 
and  a  common  desig 
nation  among  oriental 
ists,  for  the  S.  E.  portion 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  and 
some  adjoining  territo 
ry  to  the  east.  It  corre 
sponds  to  ancient  Baby 
lonia  and  Elam  or  Susi- 
ana,  and  includes  the 
pashalic  of  Bagdad,  ex 
cepting  the  northern 
portion,  and  the  S.  W. 
frontier  land  of  Persia, 
principally  Khuzistan. 
It  comprises  therefore 
the  alluvium  at  the  head 

Queen  Elizabeth's  Grammar  School,  Ipswich.  Qf    ^jie    persian    gulf    as 

far  north  as  about  lat. 
nursery  for   Christchurch   college,    which   he  |  33°,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hit  on  the  Eu- 


had  founded  at  Oxford.  Its  charter  was  con 
firmed  by  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  present 
building,  the  corner  stone  of  which  was  laid 
by  Prince  Albert  in  1851  on  a  different  site 
from  the  ancient  school,  is  168  ft.  front  by 
110  ft.  deep.  It  accommodates,  besides  the 
grammar  school,  a  public  library  and  museum. 
The  town  has  considerable  foreign  and  coast 
wise  trade,  chiefly  in  grain,  coal,  timber,  and 
local  manufactures.  Ipswich  was  sacked  by 
the  Danes  in  the  years  (,)91  and  1000. 

IPSWICH,  a  town  of  Queensland,  Australia, 
on  the  river  Bremer,  25  m.  W.  of  Brisbane; 


pop.  in  1ST1,  5,05)2.      It  has  several  churches 
and  chapels,  a  hospital,  a  grammar  school,  a 


phrates,  and  between  the  Syrian  desert  on 
the  west  and  the  mountain  ranges  of  Kur 
distan,  Luristan,  and  Khuzistan  on  the  east. 
This  alluvium  is  said  to  increase  with  extra 
ordinary  rapidity,  and  it  is  supposed  that  its 
growth  was  still  more  rapid  in  ancient  times, 
and  that  when  the  first  Chaldean  monarchy 
was  established  the  Persian  gulf  reached  120  or 
130  m.  further  inland  than  at  present.  Raw- 
linson  says  of  this  region  that  nothing  is  more 
remarkable  than  its  featureless  character.  It 
is  a  dead  level,  broken  only  by  single  solitary 
mounds,  the  remains  of  ancient  temples  or 


cities,  and  by  long  lines  of  embankment  mark 
ing  the  course  of  ancient  and  recent  canals. 

mechanics'  institute  with  a  library  of  2,000  \  Near  the  streams  and  canals  are  lands  of  great 
volumes,  and  two  newspapers.  Ipswich  was  fertility,  but  the  rest,  except  in  early  spring,  is 
incorporated  into  a  municipality  in  March,  j  almost  as  parched  and  arid  as  the  most  desolate 
1860,  and  is  now  the  second  town  of  the  colo-  j  districts  of  Arabia.  The  principal  rivers  are 


346 


IRAN 


IRANIC  EACES,  &o. 


the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  A  wide  and  deep 
channel,  branching  off  near  Hit,  skirting  the 
Syrian  desert,  and  entering  the  Persian  gulf  by 
a  separate  mouth,  was  probably  the  ancient 
western  limit.  The  part  east  of  the  Tigris  is 
the  most  fertile,  and  forms  in  a  large  measure 
the  storehouse  of  the  remainder  of  this  district. 
Nearly  all  of  Turkish  Khuzistan,  however,  is 
but  little  cultivated,  though  its  soil  has  every 
characteristic  of  luxuriant  fertility.  The  cli 
mate  and  products  of  the  region  are  mainly  de 
scribed  in  the  articles  upon  the  two  principal 
towns,  Bagdad  and  Bassorah. 

IBM.     See  PERSIA. 

IRAXIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.  The  Iranic 
or  Persian  races  form  a  branch  of  the  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  family.  They  inhabit  a  ter 
ritory  in  the  immediate  vicinity  and  west  of 
the  Indie  races  or  Aryans  proper.  The  first 
traces  of  the  Iranic  branch  are  found  north  of 
the  Hindoo  Koosh,  near  the  elevated  plateau 
of  Pamir,  and  at  the  sources  of  the  Oxus.  In 
historic  times  the  Iranians  appear  on  the  shores 
of  the  Oxus  and  of  the  rivers  of  upper  Sogdiana, 
and  spreading  southwest  through  Badakhshan 
and  Balkh,  they  people  the  entire  country  of 
the  vast  plateau  known  in  a  limited  sense  as 
Iran  or  Persia,  excepting  the  S.  E.  corner,  in 
habited  by  the  Brahooees,  a  Deccanese  or  Dra- 
vidian  race.  The  Afghans  have  an  Iranic  lan 
guage  strongly  interwoven  with  Sanskritic  ele 
ments,  for  which  reason  some  class  them  among 
the  Indie  races.  Beyond  the  Persian  district  the 
Iranic  branch  extends  over  the  mountainous  re 
gion  of  Armenia  into  Asia  Minor.  It  is  prob 
able  that  in  the  flourishing  period  of  the  Per 
sian  empire  the  Iranic  races  were  spread  also 
over  the  plateau  on  the  Kur  as  far  N.  as  the 
Caucasus ;  it  is  less  probable  that,  as  some  sup 
pose,  they  were  scattered  over  the  regions  be 
yond  the  Caucasus,  and  mingled  with  the  Slavs. 
Colonies  of  Iranians,  however,  were  to  be 
found  as  far  as  the  Crimea,  and  mingled  with 
the  Thracians.  It  is  thus  established  that  the 
Iranians  were  in  ancient  times  the  connecting 
link  between  the  Indo-Europeans  of  Asia  and 
of  Europe.  At  an  early  period  the  Iranians 
and  Indians  probably  formed  but  a  single 
group  of  races.  The  Arya  of  the  Indie  was 
the  Air  yd  of  the  Iranic  race,  and  apparently 
they  had  the  same  religion.  In  what  period 
their  separation  took  place  is  unknown. — The 
first  Iranic  race  that  appears  in  history  is  that 
of  the  Medes.  Their  earliest  territory  is  not 
clearly  defined,  but  it  probably  comprised  very 
nearly  the  same  regions  as  their  strictly  his 
torical  habitat,  reaching  in  the  east  as  far  as 
the  Caspian  gates,  and  in  the  north  not  quite 
as  far  as  the  mountains  N.  of  Atropatene. 
The  southern  boundary  was  Susiana,  and  in 
the  west  the  territory  was  separated  from 
that  of  the  Assyrians  arid  Babylonians  by  the 
Zagros.  According  to  Berosus,  the  Medes  were 
an  important  race  as  early  as  2400  B.  C.»,  at 
which  time,  lie  says,  there  was  a  Median  dy- 
nastv  in  Babvlonia.  Svncellus  calls  Zoroaster 


the  founder  of  this  dynasty;  but  though  this 
name  may  have  been  furnished  by  Berosus  him 
self,  as  Eusebius  intimates,  it  does  not  fol 
low  that  this  Zoroaster  was  identical  with  the 
founder  of  the  Iranian  religion.  More  impor 
tant  than  this  single  statement  by  Berosus  are 
the  contents  of  the  Assyrian  cuneiform  inscrip 
tions,  which  do  not  speak  of  the  Medes  as  the 
conquerors,  but  as  the  subjects  of  the  Assy 
rian  empire.  The  oldest  notice  is  probably  one 
found  in  the  inscription  of  the  elder  Tiglath- 
pileser,  about  1100  B.  C.,  in  which  a  country 
named  Amadana  is  spoken  of  in  connection 
with  Elam  as  a  conquered  territory.  The  Medes 
are  mentioned  again  on  the  black  obelisks  of 
the  Oth  century,  and  more  frequently  in  the 
inscriptions  of  Sargon  toward  the  close  of  the 
8th  century.  lie  and  his  successors  Sennache 
rib  and  Esarhaddon  speak  of  Media  as  if  it 
were  a  distant  country,  and  the  Assyrians  evi 
dently  did  not  consider  it  as  important  to  con 
quer  as  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.  It  is  therefore 
probable  that  the  Semitic  race  was  spread  at 
that  time  much  further  over  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  Zagros  than  they  were  in  more 
recent  historical  times.  The  Assyrian  inscrip 
tions  agree  with  the  statement  of  Herodotus 
that  the  Medes  were  at  an  early  period  subjects 
of  Assyria.  He  adds  that  they  were  the  first 
people  to  cast  off  the  yoke  after  520  years,  and 
with  this  period  of  the  revolt  of  the  Medes  he 
begins  the  history  of  the  foundation  of  the 
Median  empire.  (See  MEDIA.) — The  oldest 
sources  we  possess  for  the  history  of  the  Ira 
nians  represent  them  as  divided  into  several 
races.  Those  most  frequently  mentioned  are 
the  races  of  the  western  territory.  Herodotus 
distinguishes  among  the  Medes  the  Busre,  the 
Paretaceni,  the  Struchates,  the  Arizanti,  the 
Budii,  and  the  Magi.  The  Persians  he  divides 
into  Pasargada3,  Maraphians,  Maspians,  Pan- 
thialnsans,  Derusireans,  and  the  Germanians,  all 
of  whom  were  engaged  in  husbandry,  and  four 
nomadic  tribes,  the  Daans,  Mardiaus,  Dropi- 
cans,  and  Sagartians.  The  special  territories 
occupied  by  these  tribes  are  not  known.  The 
remark  of  Herodotus  that  the  Pasargada3  were 
the  principal  tribe,  and  that  the  Achajmenides 
were  one  of  its  clans,  shows  that  each  of  these 
tribes  consisted  of  several  subdivisions.  The 
Iranic  races  are  also  to  this  day  subdivided  into 
numerous  tribes.  The  Indus  is  now  the  east 
ern  boundary  of  these  races.  Near  this  river 
dwell  the  Belooches  and  Afghans.  In  the  da- 
maun  or  borderland  of  India  are  several  Af 
ghan  tribes  which  are  sometimes  collectively 
1  designated  as  Lohani,  and  others  further  west, 
!  on  the  Solyman  mountains,  forming  together 
j  the  transition  from  the  Indie  to  the  Iranic  race. 
j  A  very  few  of  them  are  still  nomadic ;  the  oth 
ers  are  husbandmen  and  traders.  Still  further 
west  are  the  Afghans  proper,  and  S.  of  them 
|  the  Belooches,  the  latter  not  of  purely  Iranic 
:  origin.  (See  AFGHANISTAN,  and  BELOOCHIS- 
!  TAX.)  The  Afghans  are  a  well  built  people, 
I  with  an  elongated  head,  horizontal  eyes,  and 


IRAXIC   RACES  AXD   LANGUAGES 


a  dark  velvet-like  skin.  The  Tajiks  are  also 
of  Iranian  blood  and  speech.  Khanikoff  lias 
completely  disproved  the  tradition  hitherto  ac 
cepted  by  many  scholars,  that  the  Tajiks  are  a 
Semitic  people  from  Babylonia.  They  are  met 
with  among  the  Afghans  and  Belooches,  but 
are  found  in  largest  number  in  Bokhara  and 
Badukhshan,  and  many  have  settled  in  Khokan, 
Khiva,  and  Chinese  Tartary.  They  are  of  good 
middle  height  and  powerful  frame,  but  have  a 
broader  head  than  the  Afghans,  and  a  thicker 
cheek  and  nose.  In  Bokhara  and  Khiva  they 
form  the  literary  class.  They  compose  the 
largest  part  of  the  population  of  Cabool,  Can- 
dahar,  Ghuzni,  Herat,  and  Balkh.  Their  su 
perstitious  practices  clearly  show  that  fire  wor 
ship  was  their  ancient  form  of  religion ;  they 
are  now  Sunnis.  The  Barekis  and  the  Per- 
mulis  are  considered  branches  of  the  Tajiks. — 
Further  west,  mainly  on  the  borderland  of  Af 
ghanistan,  Khiva,  and  Persia,  live  the  Aimags, 
whose  language  is  of  a  very  ancient  type  and 
but  little  mixed  with  Arabic.  They  consist  of 
four  peoples,  the  Timuri,  Timeni,  Ferozkohi, 
and  Jamshidi.  Among  the  Iranic  populations 
of  Persia,  the  Bakhtiaris  and  Feilis  of  Luristan 
deserve  special  mention.  The  Persians  are 
considerably  fairer  than  the  Afghans,  and  their 
features  are  more  regular,  their  physiognomy 
having  been  much  improved  by  admixtures  of 
Georgian  and  Circassian  blood.  (See  PERSIA.) 
— Modern  research  has  established  that  the 
Kurds  also  belong  to  the  Iranian  race.  They 
are  found  in  Khorasan,  and  inhabit  the  north 
ern  slopes  and  valleys  of  the  Elburz,  but  the 
bulk  of  the  eastern  Kurds  live  on  the  Zagros 
mountains.  The  western  Kurds  have  inhab 
ited  for  a  long  period  a  portion  of  the  Arme 
nian  mountain  ranges  on  the  northern  limit  of 
the  Hesopotamian  desert.  (See  KURDISTAN.) 
Khanikoff  praises  the  beautiful  heads  and  pre 
possessing  features  of  the  Kurds.  The  Yezids, 
who  dwell  in  the  Sinjar  mountains,  X.  of  Mo 
sul,  are  also  classed  with  the  Kurds  as  Ira 
nians.  Among  the  Kurds  live  an  agricultural 
people,  called  Gurans,  whose  dialect  is  more 
closely  related  to  Persian  than  the  Kurdish. — 
N".  of  the  Kurds  the  principal  Iranic  populations 
are  the  Armenians  (see  ARMENIA),  the  inhabi 
tants  of  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian  sea, 
the  Tats,  who  live  in  Baku,  and  the  Ossetes, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Caucasus,  near  the  Dariel 
pass.  These  generally  surpass  the  Persians  in 
complexion.  The  large  black  eyes  of  the  Ar 
menians  are  admired. — LANGUAGES.  The  re 
covery  of  the  ancient  languages  of  Persia  is 
mainly  an  accomplishment  of  this  century,  and 
is  principally  due  to  the  knowledge  of  Sanskrit. 
The  two  oldest  phases  of  Iranic  speech  lay 
buried  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees  and 
in  the  cuneiform  characters.  Subsequent  to  the 
destruction  of  the  Persian  empire  by  Alexan 
der  the  Great,  the  documents  of  the  religion 
of  Ormuzd,  founded  by  Zoroaster,  were  neg 
lected  under  the  reign  of  the  foreign  princes. 
The  new  Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides 


(220-651)  reestablished  the  ancient  religion  jn 
its  former  dignity,  and  the  extant  fragments  of 
the  holy  books  were  carefully  gathered.  The 
conquest  by  the  Arabs  dethroned  the  native 
religion  again,  and  almost  wiped  it  out  of  exis 
tence.  A  few  succeeded  in  retaining  the  an 
cient  worship  in  Persia,  as  in  Yezd  and  Ker- 
man,  and  others  introduced  it  into  India.  The 
remains  of  the  holy  books  extant  at  the  time 
of  the  Arab  conquest  are  still  preserved,  partly 
in  the  original  language,  but  mostly  in  an  an 
cient  translation.  The  oldest  Iranic  form  of 
speech  known  to  us  was  probably  an  eastern 
language,  and  Spiegel  has  given  it  the  name  of 
Old  Bactrian.  Others  designate  it  as  Zend, 
which  was  originally  intended  to  be  applied  to 
the  translation,  but  was  subsequently  used  by 
mistake  for  the  language  of  the  text.  The  lan 
guage  of  the  translation  is  Huzvaresh,  which  is 
the  literary  form  of  the  Pehlevi.  Anquetil-Du- 
perron  published  in  1771  a  French  translation 
of  the  text  under  the  title  Zend-Avesta.  (See 
ZEND-AVESTA.)  The  hints  which  he  gave  of 
the  language  were  sufficient  to  prove  its  San- 
skritic  character,  and  Sir  William  Jones  was  the 
first  to  identify  it  as  such  (1789)  ;  but  a  whole 
generation  passed  before  any  real  progress  in 
the  recovery  of  the  language  was  noticeable. 
When  the  labors  of  Bopp  and  Schlegel  had 
given  a  solid  foundation  to  Sanskrit  philology, 
the  Iranian  languages  soon  gained  a  similar 
basis  through  the  labors  of  Olshausen,  Bur- 
nouf,  Hermann  Brockhaus,  Spiegel,  Wester- 
gaard,  Haug,  Justi,  Lagarde,  and  Lassen.  The 
first  attempt  at  a  grammar  of  the  Old  Bactrian 
or  Zend  language  was  made  by  Haug  in  his 
"  Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  Writing,  and 
Religion  of  the  Parsees  "  (Bombay,  18(52).  In 
1867  appeared  Spiegel's  Q-rammatik  der  Alt- 
baktrischen  Sprache,  containing  also  an  appen 
dix  on  the  dialect  of  the  Gathas.  Justi  pub 
lished  in  1864  a  Ilandlmcli  der  Zcndsprache,  in 
which  he  furnished  a  lexicon  of  Old  Bactrian, 
to  which  Paul  de  Lagarde  has  made  valuable 
additions  in  his  Beit  rage  zur  baktrischen  Lexi- 
kographie  (1868).  (See  ZEND  LANGUAGE.)  For 
the  old  Persian  language  of  the  time  of  the 
Achasmenides,  as  found  on  the  monuments  of 
Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Xerxes,  see  CUNEIFORM  IN 
SCRIPTIONS.  Benfey,  Mordtrnann,  and  others 
are  of  opinion  that  the  second  column  of  the 
trilingual  cuneiform  inscriptions  contains  the 
language  of  the  ancient  Modes. — The  language 
called  Pehlevi,  Pahlavi,  or  Huzvaresh,  is  Iranic, 
but  it  is  not  positively  known  where  and  when 
it  was  spoken.  Spiegel  assigns  it  to  the  west 
ern  portion  of  the  empire  of  the  Sassanides, 
and  considers  its  Semitic  elements  of  Xaba- 
thnean  origin.  It  was  probably  used  as  a  literary 
language  from  about  the  3d  century  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Sassanian  empire,  and  contin 
ued  in  use  for  religious  documents.  It  is  known 
through  the  translation  of  the  Avesta,  and 
through  a  few  other  religious  worksf  as  the 
Bundchesh,  and  through  inscriptions,  coins, 
and  gems.  It  is  not  always  the  same,  but  dif- 


348 


IREDELL 


IRELAND 


fers  in  these  various  remains  principally  in  a 
smaller  or  larger  infusion  of  Semitic  ele 
ments.  Milller,  Haug,  Windischmann,  Dorn, 
Mordtmann,  Olshausen,  De  Sacy,  and  Levy  are 
probably  the  most  eminent  scholars  of  Pehlevi. 
The  language  called  Parsee  or  Pazend  resembles 
Pehlevi  in  grammar,  but  its  vocabulary  has  few 
words  of  Semitic  origin,  and  is  purely  Iranic. 
It  was  probably  in  use  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Pehlevi,  the  literary  language  of  the  Sassanian 
empire,  and  finally  became  its  successor.  It 
maintained  itself  as  such  until  the  development 
of  the  modern  Persian.  "When  used  in  expla 
nation  of  ancient  religious  texts,  the  Parsee  lan 
guage  is  styled  Pazend.  Spiegel  published  in 
1851  a  grammar  of  this  language. — The  modern 
Persian  is  purely  Iranic  in  its  older  docu 
ments,  but  since  the  adoption  of  Islam  the  vo 
cabulary  has  been  full  of  Arabic  words,  though 
the  grammar  has  remained  essentially  Iranic. 
(See  PERSIA,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF.) 
East  of  the  territory  of  modern  Persian  are  the 
Iranic  dialects  of  the  Afghans  and  Belooches, 
and  west  those  of  the  Ossetes,  Kurds,  and  Ar 
menians,  noticed  in  the  articles  relating  to 
them. — See'F.  Spiegel,  Erdnische  Alterthums- 
kunde  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1871-'3). 

IREDELL,  a  "W.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
partly  bounded  W.  by  Catawba  river,  and 
drained  by  branches  of  the  Yadkin ;  area,  695 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,931,  of  whom  4,643 
were  colored.  It  has  an  uneven  surface  and  a 
good  soil.  The  Western  railroad  passes  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  67,687 
bushels  of  wheat,  315,972  of  Indian  <*>rn,  108,- 
657  of  oats,  67,071  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  13,233  of 
wool,  86,058  of  butter,  40,273  of  honey,  and 
408  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,920  horses, 
980  mules  and  asses,  2,738  milch  cows,  4,608 
other  cattle,  9,723  sheep,  15,731  swine,  and  1 
cotton  factory.  Capital,  Statesville. 

IREDELL.  I.  James,  an  American  jurist,  of 
Irish  ancestry,  born  in  Lewes,  England,  Oct.  5, 
1751,  died  in^Edenton,  N.  C.,  Oct.  20, 1799.  He 
emigrated  to  America  at  the  age  of  18,  and  was 
made  comptroller  of  the  customs  at  Port  Roan- 
oke,  now  Edenton,  N.  C.,  retaining  the  office 
for  several  years.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1770,  was  deputy  attorney  general  in  1774, 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state  in  1777, 
and  attorney  general  in  1779-'82.  In  1787  he 
began  the  collection  published  as  "  Iredell's  Re- 
visal  of  the  Statutes  of  North  Carolina"  (1791). 
In  1790  he  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court.  His  judicial  opinion  in 
the  case  of  Chisliolm  v.  Georgia  contains  the 
germs  of  all  the  later  doctrines  of  state  rights. 
The  "  Life  and  Correspondence"  of  Judge  Ire- 
dell  has  been  published  by  Griffith  J.  McRee 
(2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1857).  II.  James,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Edenton,  Nov.  2, 
1788,  died  in  Raleigh,  April  13,  1853.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1806,  studied  law, 
and  served  for  ten  years  in  the  North  Carolina 
house  of  commons,  being  twice  speaker.  In 
the  war  of  1812  he  commanded  a  company  of 


volunteers.  In  1819  he  occupied  during  one 
circuit  a  seat  on  the  bench  of  the  superior 
court,  declining  a  further  appointment.  In 

1827  he  was  governor  of  the  state,  and  from 

1828  to  1831  a  member  of  the  United  States 
senate.     He  afterward  resumed  the  practice  of 
his  profession  at  Raleigh,  and  for  many  years 
was  the  reporter  of  the  state  supreme  court. 
He  published  13  volumes  of  law  and  8  of  equi 
ty  reports.     In  1833  he  was  appointed  one  of 
three  commissioners  to  collect  and  revise  all 
the  statutes  in  force  in  North  Carolina;  the 
result  was  the  work  known  as  the  "Revised 
Statutes."    He  afterward  published  a  "  Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Executors  and  Administrators." 

IRELAND,  a  European  island,  forming  part 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  situated  between  lat.  51°  26'  and  55° 
21'  N.,  and  Ion.  5°  20'  and  10°  26'  W.  It  is 
bounded  N.,  "W.,  and  S.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
and  E.  by  St.  George's  channel,  the  Irish  sea, 
and  the  Northern  channel,  which  separate  it 
from  England  and  Scotland.  In  shape  it  is  a 
rhomboid,  the  greater  diagonal  of  which  is  300 
m.  and  the  smaller  210  across;  greatest  merid 
ional  length  230  m.,  greatest  and  smallest 
breadth  180  and  110  m. ;  area,  82,531  sq.  m. 
It  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  Leinster, 
Munster,  Ulster,  and  Connaught,  and  32  coun 
ties,  which,  with  their  population  and  chief 
towns,  are  as  follows : 


PROVINCES  AND 
COUNTIES. 

POPULATION. 

Chief  towns. 

1861. 

1871. 

LEIN8TEB. 

Carlow 

57,187 

410.252 
90,946 
124.515 
1)0,043 
71,694 
90,773 
110.373 
00,650 
90,879 
143,954 
86,479 

160.305 
5-44,818 
201.800 
217,277 
240,106 
184,252 

378.588 
190.086 
153.906 
237,31)5 
209,302 
105.768 
184,209 
126,482 
238,500 

271,478 

51.472 
405.625 
64.198 
109,302 
75.781 
64.408 
84,108 
94.480 
77,071 
78,416 
132.506 
78,509 

147.994 
516.046 
106.014 
101.313 
216,210 
122,825 

419,782 
179,221 
140.555 
277.775 
217.002 
02.688 
173.032 
112,785 
215,668 

248,257 
95,324 

245,855 
141,246 
115,311 

Carlow. 
Dublin. 
Naas. 
Kilkenny. 
Tullamore. 
Longford. 
Drogheda. 
Navan. 
Maryborough. 
Mullingar. 
Wexford. 
Wicklow. 

Ennis. 
Cork. 
Tralee. 
Limerick. 
Tipperary. 
"\Vaterford. 

Belfast. 
Armagh. 
Cavan. 
Donegal. 
Downpatrick. 
Enniskillen. 
Londonderry. 
Monaghan. 
Duugannon. 

Oalway. 
j  Carrick-on- 
)    Shannon. 
Castlebar. 
Roscommon. 
Sligo. 

Dublin    

Kilkenny  
Kind's               

Louth.          

Meath 

Queen's  

Wexford  

Wicklow              

MUNSTER. 

Clare 

Cork  
Kerry 

Limerick 

Tippcrary  
\Vaterlbrd  

ULSTER. 

Antrim  

Cavan  
Donegal                .... 

Down  

Fermanagh  

Londonderry    . 

Tyrone  

CONNAUGHT. 

Galway  

104,744 

254.796 
157,272 
124,845 

Mayo  

SlJo-Q 

Total  

5,798,624    5,402,759 

IRELAND 


349 


In  1821,  when  the  first  complete  census  was 
taken,  the  population  amounted  to  6,801,827; 
in  1831,  to  7,767,401;  in  1841,  to  8,199,853; 
in  1851,  to  6,514,473.  The  great  decrease 
from  1841  to  1851,  amounting  to  about  1,600,- 
000,  was  due  to  the  intervening  famine  and  the 
increasing  emigration.  The  number  of  inhab 
ited  houses  was  995,156  in  1861,  960,352  in 
1871. — The  coast  line  is  about  750  m.  long. 
From  Malm  head  in  the  extreme  north  to  Capo 
Clear  in  the  south,  it  is  comparatively  but  little 
broken,  and  is  low  and  flat,  except  in  the  north 
east,  where  the  shore  is  rugged  and  precipitous ; 
and  navigation  in  the  east  is  much  obstructed 
by  sunken  rocks,  bars,  and  sand  banks.  Be 
tween  the  two  points  named  the  chief  open 
ings  in  the  coast  are  the  loughs  of  Foyle,  Bel 
fast,  Strangford,  and  Carlingford ;  the  bays  of 
Dundrum,  Dundalk,  and  Drogheda;  that  of 
Dublin  with  the  artificial  harbor  of  Kingstown, 
those  of  Wexford,  Waterford,  Dungarvan,  and 
Youghal ;  the  magnificent  harbor  of  Cork,  in 
cluding  Queenstown;  and  Kinsale,  Courtmac- 
sherry,  Clonakilty,  Eosscarbery,  Baltimore, 
and  Skibbereen  harbors.  On  the  southwest, 
west,  and  north  the  coast  presents  the  aspect 
of  the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Norway, 
being  broken  into  narrow  strips  and  ragged 
fragments  by  firths  and  arms  of  the  sea.  These 
form  numerous  bays  and  harbors,  among  which 
are :  on  the  southwest  and  west,  the  bays  of 
Dunmanus,  Bantry,  Kenmare,  and  Ballinskel- 
ligs,  Valentia  harbor,  the  bays  of  Dingle  and 
Tralee,  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon,  navigable 
for  large  vessels  to  Limerick,  Liscanor  and 
Gahvay  bays  and  the  Killaries,  Clew  bay  with 
the  harbors  of  Westport  and  Newport,  Black- 
sod  bay,  and  Broad  Haven ;  further  north,  Kil- 
lala,  Sligo,  and  Donegal  bays,  with  Sheep  Ha 
ven  and  Lough  S willy.  The  shores  on  this 
side  of  the  island  are  composed  of  lofty  cliffs ; 
on  the  coast  of  Donegal  they  form  in  some 
places  a  perpendicular  wall  of  760  ft.  On  the 
northern  coast  are  the  celebrated  colonnades 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  near  Coleraine,  and 
of  the  promontories  of  Bengore  and  Fairhead, 
where  the  basalt  rests  on  chalk-white  lime 
stone,  beneath  which  appear  the  greensands  of 
the  lias.  Scattered  along  the  coast  are  196 
islands,  the  principal  of  which  are :  on  the  E. 
coast,  Lambay;  on  the  S.  E.,  the  Saltees  and 
Tuscar  rook;  on  the  S.,  Clear  island;  on  the 
W.,  the  Skelligs,  Valentia,  the  Blaskets,  the 
South  Arran  isles,  Inishbofin,  Inishturk,  Clare 
in  Clew  bay,  the  Aohill  islands,  and  the  Inish- 
kea  islets ;  and  on  the  N.,  the  North  Arran  isles, 
the  Tory  isles,  and  Rathlin.  The  total  number 
of  harbors  is  90,  of  which  14  receive  ships  of 
any  draught,  17  admit  frigates,  upward  of  30 
are  deep  enough  for  coasting  vessels,  and  25 
for  good  summer  roadsteads.  There  are  also 
numerous  inlets  which  afford  a  shelter  to  the 
largest  fishing  craft.  There  are  62  lighthouses, 
of  which  26  are  first-class  lights. — The  surface 
is  divided  into  a  central  basin  and  mountain 
masses  fringing  the  coast,  with  two  great  open 


ings  on  the  east  and  west.  Between  these 
openings  the  central  plain  extends  from  Dublin 
to  Galway  and  Clew  bay,  reaching  northward 
as  far  as  Lough  Neagh  and  southward  to  the 
borders  of  Waterford  and  Cork.  It  is  diversi 
fied  by  rich  and  rolling  uplands  rising  to  200 
and  320  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  by  fiat  tracts  of 
sterile  bog  lying  like  huge  black  patches  amid 
the  universal  green.  The  high  hills  and  moun 
tains  are  covered  to  their  summits  with  heather. 
As  compared  with  England,  the  country  has 
but  few  trees  and  patches  of  forest,  although 
in  former  times  it  bore  the  name  of  Island  of 
Woods.  Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  moun 
tain  ranges,  if  we  except  the  Slieve  Bloom  and 
Devil's  Bit  mountains,  which  stretch  in  an  irreg 
ular  curve  of  about  30  m.  through  N.  E.  Mun- 
ster  and  W.  Leinster.  Elsewhere  the  mountains 
form  isolated  masses  near  the  coast,  subsiding 
rapidly  as  they  recede  from  it.  The  principal 
groups  are:  in  the  northwest,  the  Donegal 
mounts,  highest  point  Errigal,  about  2,500  ft. ; 
in  the  northeast,  those  of  Down,  highest  point 
Slieve  Donard,  2,800  ft, ;  in  the  west,  Trusk- 
more  in  Sligo  (2,100  ft.),  Nephin  and  Muilrea 
in  Mayo  (about  2,700  ft,),  and  Twelve  Pins  in 
Galway  (2,400  ft.).  Kerry  boasts  the  loftiest 
peaks  in  Ireland:  Brandon,  3,120  ft.,  and  Cam 
Tual,  3,414  ft.  Of  the  Waterford  mountains, 
Mona  Vullagh  is  2,600  ft, ;  of  the  Wicklow, 
Lugnaquilla  is  3,000  ft. ;  of  the  Dublin,  Kippure 
is  2,470  ft.  In  Antrim  the  hills  form  an  ele 
vated  plateau  intervening  between  Lough  Neagh 
and  the  North  channel ;  Mt.  Divis  near  Bel 
fast  is  1,560  ft,,  and  Trostan  further  north  1,800 
ft. — The  great  interior  basin  is  chiefly  covered 
with  mountain  limestone,  through  which  pro 
trude  the  Slieve  Bloom  and  Slieve  Baughta 
mountains,  both  consisting  of  clay  slates  be 
tween  red  and  yellow  sandstone.  This  clay- 
slate  formation  is  the  second  in  extension.  It 
flanks  the  limestone  plain  to  the  east,  abutting 
on  the  Wicklow  granite  mountains,  extending 
thence  westward  into  Kildare  and  eastward 
through  Wicklow  and  Wexford  to  the  sea,  and 
from  the  western  side  of  the  Wicklow  moun 
tains  reaching  in  a  series  of  elevations  south 
ward  and  westward  through  Kilkenny  and 
Tipperary  to  Limerick,  Cork,  and  Kerry.  They 
compose  the  mountain  masses  of  Slievenamon, 
Knockmeledown,  and  Galtee,  together  with 
those  which  cover  Kerry,  terminating  at  Bran 
don  head.  Clay  slates  appear  on  the  S.  W. 
border  of  the  Antrim  trap  bed,  covering  Down, 
Armagh,  Monaghan,  and  Louth,  with  parts  of 
Cavan,  Meath,  Longford,  and  Roscommon. 
Through  this  clay-slate  tract  in  the  north  pro 
trude  the  granite  ridges  of  Mourne  and  Slieve 
Gullion.  The  granitic  rocks  form  the  Wicklow 
and  Mt.  Leinster  groups,  and  appear  to  the 
north  of  Galway  bay  mixed  with  greenstone 
and  quartz,  Muilrea  being  the  culminating  point. 
From  Muilrea  northward  to  Killala  lie  a  series 
of  primitive  rocks,  principally  mica  slate  and 
protruded  quartz,  forming  the  barrier  between 
the  ocean  and  the  great  central  plain.  This 


350 


IRELAND 


barrier  is  broken  only  by  the  limestone  plain 
of  Mayo,  extending  to  the  shore  of  Clew  bay. 
Mica  slate  and  granitic  ridges  extend  north 
ward  and  eastward  through  Sligo  to  Donegal, 
forming  almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  latter 
county  and  a  great  portion  of  Londonderry  and 
Tyrone.  In  the  N.  W.  part  of  this  district  the 
granite  and  quartz  are  intermixed  with  veins  of 
primitive  limestone,  which  also  mingles  with  the 
mica  slate  constituting  the  remainder.  East  of 
this  granite  and  mica  slate  district  lies  the  great 
trap  Held  of  Antrim,  the  erupted  rock  over  an 
extent  of  800  sq.  m.  capping  a  stratum  of  in 
durated  chalk,  which  rests  on  lias.  Patches  of 
the  same  metamorphic  rocks  also  appear  on  the 
coast  of  Kerry,  and  on  that  of  Antrim,  where 
they  terminate  in  Fair  head.  The  ancient  Irish 
annals  contain  many  accounts  of  land  erup 
tions  proceeding  from  volcanic  action;  and  in 
more  modern  times  two  are  noticeable :  one 
in  1490  at  the  Ox  mountains,  Sligo,  by  which 
100  persons  and  numbers  of  cattle  were  de 
stroyed  ;  and  a  volcanic  eruption  in  May,  1788, 
on  the  hill  of  Knocklade,  Antrim,  which  poured 
a  stream  of  lava  60  yards  wide  for  39  hours, 
and  destroyed  the  village  of  Ballyowen  and  all 
the  inhabitants  save  a  man,  his  wife,  and  two 
children.  The  immense  extent  of  bog  is  a  great 
obstacle  to  a  perfect  knowledge  of  Irish  geology. 
The  coal  fields,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
field  of  bituminous  coal  in  the  west  and  a  few 
patches  in  the  north,  are  south  of  the  centre  of 
the  island.  The  quality  of  the  coal  is  inferior. 
The  most  valuable  bed  is  in  Kilkenny,  and  is 
made  up  of  seven  workable  seams  of  anthracite, 
the  coal  containing  from  94  to  96  per  cent,  of 
pure  carbon.  The  largest  field  covers  a  consid 
erable  tract  in  the  southwest ;  but  the  coal  is  not 
well  adapted  for  domestic  use,  and  is  chiefly  em 
ployed  in  malting  and  lime  burning.  In  Ty 
rone,  the  district  of  Coal  Island  produces  coal 
of  good  quality  used  in  the  neighborhood;  the 
beds  seldom  exceed  a  few  inches  in  thickness. 
In  1772,  at  Ballycastle,  Antrim,  a  colliery  was 
discovered,  with  gallery  and  branches,  which, 
from  the  stalactite  pillars  and  the  sparry  in 
crustations  on  the  sides  and  supports,  is  believed 
to  have  been  worked  before  the  Norman  inva 
sion.  Lignite,  the  only  tertiary  deposit,  is  found 
on  the  S.  shore  of  Lough  Neagh.  The  clay-slate 
formation  contains  copper  ore,  the  chief  mineral 
wealth  of  Ireland,  the  principal  mines  of  which 
are  in  the  counties  of  "Wicklow,  Waterford, 
Cork,  and  Tipperary.  Lead  is  more  abundant 
than  copper ;  but  in  Ireland  the  mountain  lime 
stone  is  much  less  liberally  supplied  with  it 
than  in  England.  The  coal  measures  are  rich 
in  iron ;  and  silver  is  found  in  connection  with 
lead  ore  in  proportions  varying  from  7  to  120 
oz.  per  ton.  Native  gold  associated  with  mag 
netic  ironstone  was  found  toward  the  end  of 
the  last  century  in  Wicklow,  but  all  the  efforts 
of  the  government  to  discover  an  available  vein 
proved  fruitless.  Tinstone  also  exists  in  the 
same  locality,  but  no  working  deposits  have 
been  discovered.  Recent  explorers  have  found 


in  the  new  red  sandstone  beds  of  salt  promis 
ing  an  inexhaustible  supply.  The  other  mine 
rals  known  to-  exist  are  antimony,  zinc,  nickel, 
iron  pyrites,  alum,  clays  of  various  kinds,  gyp 
sum,  ochre,  building  stone,  marble,  and  paving 
and  roofing  slates.  Mineral  springs  occur  at 
Mallow,  where  the  water  is  20°  warmer  than 
the  atmosphere,  and  at  Castle  Connell,  near 
Limerick,  where  the  waters  are  chalybeate ;  and 
sulphur  springs  at  Swanlinbar  in  Cavan,  and  at 
Lucan  near  Dublin. — Of  the  two  kinds  of  bogs, 
the  red  or  fibrous  consists  chiefly  of  bog  moss 
(sphagnum  palustre)  ;  it  is  reddish  brown,  ap 
proaching  to  olive  when  dry.  Its  surface  is 
generally  covered  with  heath.  The  black  bog 
varies  from  dark  brown  to  perfect  black ;  in 
the  latter  case  it  becomes  very  hard  and  close- 
grained,  and  breaks  into  angular  fragments. 
The  deepest  layers  are  still  denser  and  darker, 
and  very  compact,  resembling  pitch  or  coal, 
and  emitting  when  lighted  an  offensive  odor. 
The  average  depth  of  these  bogs  is  25  ft. ;  in 
some  places  they  attain  a  depth  of  40  ft.  They 
are  always  above  the  sea  level,  their  greatest 
height  being  488  ft.  and  lowest  25  ft.  The 
peat  is  found  to  rest  on  a  blue  clay,  and  ulti 
mately  on  gravel.  The  area  of  bog  available 
for  peat  fuel  is  about  2,830,000  acres.  This 
physical  disposition  accounts  for  the  hydro- 
graphic  features  of  Ireland.  From  any  part 
of  the  country  navigable  water  can  be  reached 
within  a  distance  of  50  m.  Few  countries  are 
so  well  supplied  with  rivers  and  lakes.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Shannon,  the  largest  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  which  has  its  source  in 
the  county  Cavan  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Gulcagh, 
and  in  a  course  of  250  m.  forms  Loughs  Allen, 
Rea,  and  Derg.  The  other  principal  streams 
are  the  Blackwater,  which  has  its  estuary  near 
Youghal ;  the  Suir,  the  Nore,  and  the  Barrow, 
which  have  their  estuary  near  the  city  of  Wa 
terford;  the  Slaney,  emptying  into  St.  George's 
channel  at  Wexford;  the  Boyne,  flowing  N.  E. 
from  the  elevated  plain  of  Leinster  into  the  Irish 
sea  at  Drogheda ;  the  Bann,  rising  in  the  Mourne 
mountains,  and  flowing  northward  through 
Lough  Neagh  till  it  empties  into  the  Atlantic  at 
Coleraine;  the  Foyle,  emptying  into  the  lough 
of  that  name,  and  formed  by  the  union  of  four 
streams  from  the  interior  of  Ulster ;  the  Erne, 
falling  into  Donegal  bay ;  and  the  Liffey,  flow 
ing  into  Dublin  bay.  The  principal  of  the  nu 
merous  lakes  are  Lough  Neagh  in  Ulster,  the 
largest  lake  in  the  United  Kingdom,  covering 
98,255  acres,  and  exceeded  in  extent  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  by  only  a  few  lakes  out 
side  of  Russia  and  Sweden ;  Lough  Erne  in  Fer 
managh,  consisting  of  two  lakes  5  m.  apart,  con 
nected  by  the  fine  river  of  that  name;  Lough 
Corrib  and  Lough  Mask  in  the  west  of  Con- 
naught,  separated  by  an  isthmus  3  m.  broad; 
Lake  Conn  in  the  north  of  the  same  province ; 
and  the  lakes  of  Killarney  in  Kerry,  renowned 
for  their  beauty. — Giraldus  Cambrensis  praises 
the  mild  and  equable  climate  of  Ireland.  At 
Dublin  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  a  little 


IRELAND 


351 


lower  than  50°  F. ;  the  mean  winter  temperature 
is  40°,  spring  and  autumn  50°,  and  summer  60°. 
There  is  a  difference  of  3°  between  the  average 
temperatures  of  the  extreme  north  and  south. 
The  average  temperature  of  any  month  in  each 
season  varies  but  slightly  from  the  above  fig 
ures.  There  is  perpetual  moisture,  which  fos 
ters  vegetation  and  maintains  unfailing  pastu 
rage  ;  this  is  due  to  the  prevalence  of  westerly 
winds  which  bring  with  them  the  tepid  vapor- 
laden  atmosphere  of  the  Gulf  stream.  Hence 
the  climate  of  the  W.  coast  of  Ireland  is  milder 
than  that  of  the  "W.  coast  of  England  in  the 
same  latitude.  The  average  spring  temperature 
of  Queenstown  is  50°,  the  highest  in  the  Brit 
ish  isles.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  esti 
mated  at  36  in.,  but  in  some  elevated  regions, 
as  in  Kerry,  it  is  much  higher.  In  the  west  the 
rainfall  is  much  greater  in  winter  than  in  the 
other  seasons.  Prolonged  frosts  and  snows  are 
rare,  and  thunder  storms  are  neither  frequent 
nor  violent.  The  prevalent  winds  are  from  the 
west  and  south,  the  S.  E.  wind  predominating 
in  the  early  part  of  the  year.  Easterly  winds 
are  dry  and  keen  and  much  dreaded  by  inva 
lids.  The  climate  on  the  whole  is  very  salubri 
ous.  The  frequency  among  the  poorer  classes 
of  fevers  and  dysentery  is  attributed  less  to 
the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  exha 
lations  from  marsh  and  bog,  than  to  unwhole 
some  and  insufficient  diet,  imperfect  clothing, 
damp  and  close  dwellings,  and  want  of  clean 
liness. — One  fourth  of  the  entire  surface  is  cov 
ered  with  sterile  rock,  water,  marsh,  and  bog; 
arable  soil  of  a  mediocre  quality  composes  an 
other  fourth ;  and  the  remainder  is  a  deep  rich 
loam  generally  covering  a  calcareous  subsoil. 
This  rich  loam,  with  a  subsoil  of  inferior  depth, 
and  producing  a  luxuriant  herbage,  is  found 
throughout  Roscommon,  in  some  parts  of  Gal- 
way,  in  Clare,  and  in  other  districts.  Both 
the  loam  and  the  subsoil  attain  their  greatest 
deptli  in  Meath,  Longford,  Tipperary,  and  Lim 
erick  ;  the  Golden  Vale  district,  belonging  to  the 
last  two  counties,  is  celebrated  for  its  fertility. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Fergus  and  Shannon  the 
soil  is  different,  though  equally  productive, 
and  very  marshy  in  appearance.  These  dis 
tricts  are  called  "caucasses;"  the  substratum 
is  a  blue  silt  deposited  by  the  sea  and  partaking 
of  the  quality  of  the  upper  stratum,  thus  al 
lowing  the  whole  to  be  advantageously  ploughed 
to  any  depth.  In  Limerick  and  Tipperary  is 
another  kind  of  rich  soil,  consisting  of  a  dark, 
friable,  sandy  loam,  which  if  kept  clean  will 
yield  grain  for  several  generations ;  it  is  equally 
well  adapted  for  tillage  and  pasture,  and  sel 
dom  suffers  either  from  extreme  drought  or 
excessive  rain.  The  subsoil,  being  calcareous, 
needs  no  manuring.  In  the  north  the  quantity 
of  rich  soil  is  not  very  considerable ;  but  val 
leys  of  uncommon  fertility  are  found  in  every 
county,  even  amid  the  bleak  mountains  of  Don 
egal.  In  some  parts,  as  in  Galway,  the  rock 
protrudes  above  the  surface  in  wave-like  pro 
jections,  and  the  interstices  are  filled  with  a 
VOL.  ix.— 23 


mould  producing  a  thick  sward  very  grateful  to 
sheep.  The  only  large  tract  exclusively  devo 
ted  to  sheep  grazing  is  the  Curragh  of  Kildare, 
The  mountains  are  capable  of  cultivation  to 
a  considerable  height,  and  their  summits  with 
few  exceptions  are  tit  for  pasturage  in  summer. 
Indeed,  both  from  soil  and  climate,  Ireland  is 
naturally  a  pastoral  country ;  nor  was  it  till  1727 
that  any  systematic  effort  was  made  at  large 
culture,  when  Primate  Boulter,  as  one  of  the 
lords  justices,  urged  on  the  English  government 
the  necessity  of  enforcing  a  tillage  system.  In 
the  northern  counties  the  farms  are  general 
ly  small,  cultivated  with  the  spade,  and  yield 
potatoes,  oats,  and  flax.  In  the  northern  part 
of  Fermanagh  the  farms  are  larger,  the  tillage 
better,  and  wheat  is  largely  grown,  oats  how 
ever  being  the  chief  crop.  In  the  five  counties 
forming  the  northwest  of  Ireland,  oats  is  the 
principal  crop,  and  barley  is  raised  near  the 
sea;  and  since  the  famine  of  1846  much  of  the 
land  formerly  under  tillage  has  been  converted 
into  pasturage.  In  the  southwestern  counties 
grazing  is  more  resorted  to,  tillage  backward, 
and  the  farms  small.  In  Tipperary  and  King's 
and  Queen's  counties  the  best  farming  is  to  be 
seen,  wheat  forming  the  staple  crop.  In  Meath, 
Westmeath,  Louth,  and  Kildare  the  tillage  is 
inferior,  the  farms  larger  and  treated  after  the 
English  manner,  and  the  chief  crop  is  wheat. 
As  the  mean  summer  heat  is  56°,  th«e  finer  sorts 
of  grain  ripen  in  the  island ;  while  the  open 
winters,  by  lengthening  the  period  of  grazing, 
favor  the  rearing  of  cattle.  The  country  is 
very  deficient  in  wood,  although  it  is  said  to 
have  been  formerly  covered  with  forests.  The 
timber  found  in  the  bogs  is  oak,  fir,  yew,  holly, 
and  birch.  The  progress  of  agricultural  im 
provement,  and  the  timber  act,  which  secures 
to  the  tenant  at  the  expiration  of  his  lease  a 
pecuniary  interest  in  the  trees  he  has  planted, 
promise  a  large  supply  of  wood  in  future. 
Ireland  is  rich  in  cattle,  horses,  especially  hun 
ters,  and  sheep  (with  less  wool  than  the  Eng 
lish).  There  are  many  rabbits,  but  little  game 
excepting  deer.  Fish  abound,  especially  the 
salmon,  pike,  eel,  and  trout.  The  sunfish  fre 
quents  the  W.  coast,  which  is  occasionally  visited 
also  by  whales.  Seals  are  met  with  about  the 
exposed  headlands.  There  are  frogs,  but  no 
toads  or  serpents.  Bones  of  the  elk  or  moose 
deer  have  been  found  in  several  places.  Wolves 
were  once  numerous,  and  the  Irish  wolf  dog 
was  kept  for  hunting  them.  Of  poultry  the 
product  is  extensive.  The  flora  of  Ireland  in 
cludes  the  arbutus  unedo  along  the  lakes  of 
Killarney;  new  species  of  saxifrage  and  ferns 
have  been  discovered  on  the  Kerry  moun 
tains  ;  rare  alpine  plants  are  met  with  in  Con- 
nemara  (Galway),  Benbulben  mountain  (Sligo), 
and  in  the  county  Antrim,  and  peculiar  kinds 
of  algae  on  various  parts  of  the  coast. — The 
majority  of  Irishmen  resemble  in  temperament 
the  southern  rather  than  the  northern  races 
of  Europe.  This  is  most  apparent  in  those 
parts  of  Ireland  where  English  and  Scotch 


352 


IRELAND 


settlers  do  not  preponderate.  They  are  more 
impulsive  and  warm-hearted  than  the  people  of 
England  and  Scotland.  As  settlers  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  especially  in  the  United 
States,  the  Irish  have  proved  very  useful  and 
industrious  in  various  kinds  of  manual  occupa 
tion,  but  at  home  they  are  principally  tillers  of 
the  soil.  A  marked  improvement  in  the  con 
dition  of  the  country  has  taken  place  within 
the  last  30  years.  The  work  of  bringing  waste 
lands  into  cultivation  reduced  the  uncultivated 
land  from  6,295,735  acres  in  1841  to  5,023,984 
in  1851,  and  to  4,357,338  in  1871.  Emigration, 
which  had  been  powerfully  stimulated  by  the 
potato  disease  of  1846-'7,  showed  a  steady  de 
crease  for  several  years  after  1852.  In  that 
year  it  was  190,322;  1853, 173,148;  1854, 140,- 
555  ;  1855,  91,914;  1856,  71,724;  1858,  64,337; 
1865,  101,497;  1866,  99,467;  1867,  80,624; 
1868,  61,028;  1872,  72,763;  whole  number 
from  1851  to  1872,  2,157,257.  The  total  num 
ber  of  paupers  relieved  was,  in  1848,  2,043,505  ; 
1850,  1,174,267;  1851,  755,347;  1852,  519,775; 
1853,409,668;  1854,319,616;  1857,  190,851; 
1861,217,430;  1863,317,624;  1866,270,173; 
1868,  339,728;  1871,  282,492.  The  following 
statement  shows  the  progress  of  the  agricul 
tural  wealth  of  the  country :  land  under  culti 
vation  in  1854,  5,570,610  acres;  1858,  5,882,- 
052;  1868,  5,498,278;  1872,  5,486,522.  Of 
the  last  number,  2,090,673  were  under  cereal 
crops,  991,802  under  potatoes,  346,464  under 
turnips,  135,650  under  other  green  crops,  122,- 
003  under  flax,  and  1,799,930  were  meadow 
and  clover.  The  produce  in  1871  was  as  fol 
lows :  wheat,  705,939  quarters;  oats,  7,410,- 
814 ;  barley,  here,  and  rye,  965,709 ;  beans  and 
peas,  49,690;  potatoes,  2,793,641  tons;  turnips, 
4,246,332  ;  mangel  and  cabbage,  761,863 ;  flax, 
12,929.  The  live  stock  in  1872  consisted  of 
560,500  horses  and  mules,  180,036  asses,  4,057,- 
153  cattle,  4,262,117  sheep,  242,310  goats, 
1,385,386  pigs,  and  11,612,207  poultry.  The 
aggregate  value  of  the  live  stock  was  estimated 
in  1841  at  £21,105,808;  in  1851,  £27,737,395; 
1861,  £33,434,385;  1871,  £37,515,111.— The 
linen  manufacture  is  the  most  important  branch 
of  Irish  industry.  The  spinning  wheel  of  the 
Ulster  cottier  gave  place  to  the  spindle  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century,  when  the  first  flax- 
spinning  machinery  was  erected.  The  number 
of  flax  factories  has  increased  from  about  70  in 
1849  to  154  in  1870,  with  916,660  spindles  and 
14,834  power  looms,  employing  55,039  persons. 
One  of  the  chief  seats  of  this  manufacture  is 
Belfast.  Of  cotton  factories  there  were  14  in 
1870,  woollen  factories  61,  and  worsted  fac 
tories  3.  The  silk  manufacture,  which  was  in 
troduced  into  Dublin  by  French  emigrants  at 
the  e*nd  of  the  17th  century,  proved  unprofit 
able  ;  almost  the  only  branch  now  flourishing 
is  a  fabric  of  mixed  worsted  and  silk,  known  as 
Irish  poplin  or  tabbinet.  Lace  is  manufactured 
to  some  extent  in  Limerick.  Great  progress 
has  been  made  within  the  last  few  years  in  the 
manufacture  of  embroidered  muslin.  The  chief 


seat  of  this  industry  is  in  Glasgow ;  but  while 
the  initiatory  and  concluding  manipulations 
connected  with  it  are  almost  wholly  performed 
in  that  city  and  its  neighborhood,  the  needle 
work,  although  partly  wrought  in  Scotland,  is 
chiefly  executed  by  the  peasantry  of  Ireland. 
About  300,000  persons,  principally  females, 
are  employed  in  this  work  in  all  the  counties 
of  Ulster  and  some  localities  of  the  other  prov 
inces,  and  the  gross  value  of  the  manufactured 
goods  amounts  to  about  £1,400,000.  Spirit 
distilleries  were  established  in  Ireland  at  an 
early  period.  The  number  of  distilleries  and 
rectifying  establishments  in  1871  was  65, 
against  93  in  1835 ;  the  number  of  gallons  en 
tered  for  home  consumption  5,212,746,  against 
12,296,342  in  1838 ;  the  rate  of  duty  is  10*.  per 
proof  gallon. — Among  the  fisheries  of  Ireland, 
those  of  salmon  and  herring  are  flourishing. 
The  number  of  vessels  and  boats  employed  in 
fisheries  in  1871  was  8,999,  and  the  number  of 
men  and  boys  employed  38,629,  against  19,883 
vessels  and  boats  and  113,073  persons  in  1846. 
In  the  coasting  trade  of  Ireland  the  entrances 
in  1871  were  18,676  sailing  vessels,  tonnage 
1,598,343,  and  5,947  steam  vessels,  tonnage 
2,619,891 ;  the  clearances  were  5,947  sailing 
vessels,  tonnage  439,001,  and  8,500  steam 
vessels,  tonnage  2,660,027.  The  registered 
shipping  in  1871  numbered  651  sailing  vessels 
under  50  tons,  tonnage  19,919  ;  923  sailing  ves 
sels  above  50  tons,  tonnage  148,555 ;  60  steam 
vessels  under  50  tons,  tonnage  1,555  ;  and  142 
steam  vessels  above  50  tons,  tonnage  48,133. 
The  commerce  of  Ireland  consists  of  the  pro 
vision  trade  and  of  the  trade  in  the  produce  of 
the  country  with  Great  Britain  and  foreign 
nations.  The  exports  are  mainly  sent  to  Liver 
pool,  Bristol,  and  Glasgow,  from  Belfast,  Dun- 
dalk,  Drogheda,  ISTewry,  Waterford,  and  Lime 
rick,  and  particularly  from  Cork  and  Dublin. 
The  entrances  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign 
trade  in  1871  comprised  802  British  and  Irish, 
tonnage  282,752,  and  920  foreign,  tonnage 
343,721 ;  the  entrances  of  vessels  engaged  in 
the  colonial  trade  numbered  289  British  and 
Irish,  tonnage  125,679,  and  34  foreign,  tonnage 
15,571.  The  principal  ports  of  entry  were 
Cork,  Dublin,  Belfast,  Waterford,  Limerick, 
Londonderry,  and  Newry.  The  importation 
of  grain  into  Ireland  in  1870  comprised  6,716,- 
534  cwt.  of  wheat,  215,279  of  barley,  9,670  of 
oats,  5,738,138  of  Indian  corn,  and  193,707  of 
wheat  meal  or  flour.  By  far  the  most  exten 
sive  market  for  Irish  products  is  Great  Britain ; 
but  the  abolition  of  duties  on  this  cross-chan 
nel  trade,  which  took  place  in  1825,  has  taken 
away  the  means  of  estimating  the  imports  and 
exports.  The  total  value  of  Irish  and  British 
products  exported  direct  to  foreign  countries 
from  Ireland  in  1871  was  estimated  at  £462,- 
486.  The  direct  trade  between  Ireland  and  the 
United  States  has  of  late  decreased.  The  num 
ber  of  American  vessels  entering  Irish  ports  in 
1871  was  only  38,  tonnage  24,701.  Marble, 
porter,  ale,  whiskey,  and  manufactured  goods 


IRELAND 


from  Dublin  and  Belfast  are  among  the  Irish 
exports  to  the  United  States,  and  tobacco, 
wheat,  and  corn  among  American  imports  into 
Ireland.  In  1871  there  were  17  lines  of  rail 
way  open  in  Ireland,  of  which  the  following 
were  the  most  important :  Belfast  and  North 
ern  Counties ;  Dublin  and  Belfast  junction ; 
Dublin  and  Drogheda;  Dublin,  Wicklow,  and 
"Wexford  ;  Great  Southern  and  Western;  Irish 
Northwestern;  Midland  Great  "Western,*  Uls 
ter  ;  Waterf ord  and  Limerick.  The  aggregate 
capital  of  the  mainlines  (excluding that  of  lines 
leased  or  worked)  is  £27,028,580.  In  1871  the 
number  of  miles  open  was  1,988  (in  1872, 
2,091) ;  of  passengers  carried,  15,547,934;  gross 
receipts,  £2,272,386;  net  receipts,  £1,090,795. 
The  lines  of  inland  navigation  are  as  follows : 
Grand  canal  with  its  branches,  165|  m. ;  Royal 
canal  with  its  branches,  96J;  Shannon  naviga 
tion,  river  and  canal,  and  two  branches,  158 ; 
Lagan  navigation,  river  and  canal,  26 J;  Newry 
navigation,  do.,  35  ;  Tyrone  navigation,  do.,  4£; 
lower  Boyne  navigation,  do.,  19  ;  Barrow  navi 
gation,  do.,  42^ ;  Ulster  canal,  24 ;  Suir  navi 
gation,  16£. — Large  amounts  have  been  ad 
vanced  by  the  government  (according  to  sta 
tistics  of  1872,  £11,832,224)  for  the  improve 
ment  of  land  by  means  of  arterial  and  thorough 
drainage,  post  roads,  farm  buildings,  &c.  The 
encumbered  estates  court,  established  in  1849, 
has  brought  into  market  smaller  holdings  and 
estates  overburdened  by  debt,  and  has  proved 
of  very  great  advantage  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  country.  The  total  amount  expended  in 
the  purchase  of  property  under  control  of  the 
court  from  1849  to  1858,  when  it  was  replaced 
by  the  landed  estates  court,  was  £22,000,000, 
of  which  £3,000,000  was  invested  by  English 
and  Scotch  purchasers.  The  number  of  es 
tates  sold  was  2,380,  divided  into  more  than 
11,000  lots,  and  8,235  conveyances  have  been 
executed  by  the  commissioners.  The  total 
number  of  letters  delivered  in  1871  was  71,- 
166,000,  giving  an  average  of  13  letters  for 
each  person.  The  number  of  newspapers  pub 
lished  in  1873  was  154.  Savings  banks  were 
introduced  in  1810;  in  1845  the  amount  de 
posited  reached  nearly  £3,000,000,  but  owing 
to  the  famine  it  fell  below  £1,500,000  in  1849  ; 
a  gradual  increase  has  sirce  taken  place,  bring 
ing  the  deposits  up  again  to  £2,220,000  in 
1871.  Of  loan  societies  there  were  81,  which 
advanced  115,095  loans,  the  amount  circulated 
during  the  year  being  £542,295.  The  bank 
note  circulation  in  1871  was  about  £7,500,000. 
There  are  8  banks,  all  issuing  their  own  notes  ex 
cepting  the  Hibernian  joint  stock  company  and 
the  Royal  bank  of  Dublin.  The  most  important 
is  the  bank  of  Ireland,  which  acts  as  banker  to 
the  government,  and  which  is  bound  to  make 
weekly  returns  similar  to  those  of  the  bank  of 
England.  It  has  42  branches;  its  capital  is 
£3,000,000,  its  reserve  fund  about  £1,000,000, 
and  at  the  end  of  1872  it  circulated  notes 
to  the  amount  of  about  £3,392,000.  The  next 
most  important  establishments  are  the  Pro 


vincial  bank  of  Ireland,  with  a  capital  of 
£2,040,000  and  44  branches,  and  the  National 
bank,  with  a  capital  of  £2,500,000  and  73 
branches. — The  public  institutions  for  religious, 
benevolent,  and  educational  purposes  are  nu 
merous.  The  Episcopal  or  Anglican  was  for 
merly  the  established  church  of  Ireland,  but 
by  act  of  parliament  it  was  disestablished  on 
Jan.  1, 1871.  (See  IRELAND,  CHURCH  OF.)  The 
dignitaries  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  of 
Ireland  are  the  four  archbishops  of  Armagh, 
Dublin,  Cashel,  and  Tuam,  and  24  bishops. 
The  number  of  priests  in  1873  was  upward  of 
3,200,  nominated  by  the  bishops,  and  supported 
altogether  by  voluntary  contributions.  The 
"Presbyterian  church  in  Ireland"  in  1872  had 
627  ministers  and  553  congregations.  There 
are  eight  other  small  Presbyterian  and  three 
Methodist  organizations,  with  a  small  number 
of  Congregationalists,  Baptists,  Moravians,  and 
others.  According  to  the  census  of  1871,  there 
were  4,141,933  Roman  Catholics,  683,295  per 
sons  reporting  themselves  as  belonging  to  "  the 
church  of  Ireland  "  or  as  Protestant  Episco 
palians,  503,461  Presbyterians,  41,815  Metho 
dists,  4,485  Independents,  4,643  Baptists,  3,834 
Friends,  19,035  of  other  denominations,  and 
258  Jews. — The  chief  educational  institution 
is  the  university  of  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
founded  in  1591,  with  an  average  attendance 
of  nearly  1,200  students.  Among  the  other 
principal  seats  of  learning  are  the  queen's 
colleges  of  Belfast  (351  students  in  1871-'2), 
Cork  (253  students),  and  Galway  (141  stu 
dents),  established  by  acts  passed  in  1845  and 
1850.  Maynooth  college  and  All-Hallows  col 
lege,  Drumcondra,  are  the  chief  institutions 
for  the  education  of  Roman  Catholics  for  the 
priesthood.  The  establishment  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  university  was  agreed  upon  by  a  syn- 
odical  meeting  in  1854,  and  the  schools  were 
opened  in  the  same  year.  On  July  20,  1862, 
the  corner  stone  of  a  new  university  building 
was  laid  at  Drumcondra.  The  Roman  Catho 
lics  have  also  colleges  affiliated  with  the  Catho 
lic  university  at  Clonliffe,  Tuam,  Cloyne,  Ar 
magh,  Carlow,  Athlone,  Tullamore,  Thuiies, 
Castleknock,  Kilkenny,  Fermoy,  Longford, 
and  Ellis.  The  Presbyterians  have  a  theologi 
cal  ^college  at  Belfast,  and  Magee  college  (estab 
lished  in  1865)  in  Londonderry;  the  Metho 
dists  a  college  at  Belfast  (established  in  1868). 
The  college  of  St.  Columba,  at  Rathfarnham, 
is  an  Episcopalian  institution.  The  Alexandra 
college  in  Dublin  was  founded  in  1866  for  the 
higher  education  of  females.  The  royal  college 
of  science  for  Ireland  was  established  under 
the  authority  of  the  science  and  art  depart 
ment,  London,  in  August,  1867,  in  place  of  the 
museum  of  Irish  industry,  which  then  ceased 
to  exist.  The  church  education  society,  insti 
tuted  in  1839  for  the  education  of  its  pupils  in 
the  principles  of  the  church  of  England,  had 
52,166  pupils  in  1870,  of  whom  3,757  were 
Catholics.  Since  1837  the  grants  of  public 
money  for  the  education  of  the  people  have 


354: 


IRELAND 


been  under  the  superintendence  of  commission 
ers,  who  were  incorporated  in  1835  under  the 
name  of  the  commissioners  of  national  educa 
tion  in  Ireland.  Their  report  shows  that  on 
Dec.  31,  1872,  there  were  7,059  schools  in 
operation,  with  1,010,148  children  on  the  rolls. 
There  were  184  new  schools,  and  48  struck  off, 
showing  a  net  increase  of  136.  The  commis 
sioners  had  made  grants  for  the  erection  of  98 
additional  schools  to  accommodate  13,045  chil 
dren.  The  pupils  were  divided  in  reference  to 
religious  denominations  as  follows :  Roman 
Catholic,  804,222;  Presbyterian,  112,465; 
Episcopalian,  80,893.  There  were  125,347 
Episcopalian  pupils  mixed  with  27,312  Roman 
Catholics  under  exclusively  Protestant  teach 
ers ;  18,957  Protestant  pupils  mixed  with  11,- 
270  Roman  Catholics  under  joint  teachers  of 
both  creeds;  and  26,172  Protestant  children 
with  362,313  Roman  Catholics  under  exclu 
sively  Roman  Catholic  teachers.  These  statis 
tics  are  independent  of  the  schools  conducted 
by  the  Christian  Brothers,  which  are  numerous 
and  largely  attended ;  the  teachers  are  experi 
enced  and  well  educated,  and  have  the  confi 
dence  of  the  people.  The  national  schools  are 
open  during  the  entire  year,  five  hours  daily. 
The  books  used  are  the  same  in  every  school 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  instruc 
tion  embraces  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  geography,  geometry,  trigonometry, 
algebra,  bookkeeping,  chemistry,  hydrostatics, 
acoustics,  electricity,  mechanism,  music,  and 
drawing;  and  the  girls  in  addition  are  taught 
plain  and  fancy  sewing  and  knitting.  The  na 
tional  system  receives  but  small  assistance  from 
government ;  the  entire  amount  paid  out  of  the 
treasury  in  1872  for  teachers,  tutors,  and  work 
mistresses  was  $322,000.  The  principal  es 
tablishments  for  the  promotion  of  literature, 
science,  and  art  are  situated  in  Dublin,  among 
which  are  the  royal  Irish  academy,  the  royal 
Hibernian  academy  of  art,  and  the  royal  Dub 
lin  society ;  literary  and  mechanics'  societies  are 
scattered  all  over  the  country.  The  great  in 
dustrial  exhibition  of  1853,  called  into  existence 
by  the  exertions  of  William  Dargan,  produced 
increased  interest  in  institutions  calculated  to 
diffuse  a  knowledge  of  useful  sciences  among 
the  people.  The  foundation  for  a  national  gal 
lery  of  art  was  laid  in  Dublin  in  1859.  Medi 
cine,  the  various  branches  of  natural  history, 
archaeology,  and  other  departments  of  science 
as  well  as  of  the  fine  arts,  are  represented  by 
numerous  societies  in  Dublin,  Belfast,  and  other 
towns. — Charitable  institutions  abound  in  Ire 
land.  Infirmaries  for  counties  and  cities,  sup 
ported  by  assessment  and  governed  by  corpora 
tions,  afford  annual  relief  to  about  60,000  suf 
ferers.  Public  hospitals  for  counties,  districts, 
and  poor-law  unions  are  distributed  over  the 
country,  besides  various  private  establishments. 
The  number  of  insane  in  1871  was  18,327. 
There  are  houses  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  in 
163  unions  of  Ireland.  The  poor-law  system  is 
conducted  with  a  view  of  assisting  those  who 


cannot  support  themselves  by  their  personal  la 
bor,  but  at  the  same  time  of  discountenancing 
in  able-bodied  persons  all  dependence  on  elee 
mosynary  relief.  The  poor  rate  is  levied  under 
the  assessment  of  poundage  rate  on  the  net  an 
nual  value  of  various  kinds  of  ratable  property. 
In  1871  the  valuation  of  the  assessable  property 
was  £13,239,394,  and  the  average  poundage  Is. 
The  total  amount  expended  on  the  relief  of  the 
indigent  in  that  year  was  £685,668,  chiefly  for 
indoor  maintenance.  Out  of  282,492  persons 
assisted  during  the  year,  56,416  received  out 
door  relief. — The  number  of  offenders  tried  at 
assizes  and  quarter  sessions  has  materially  de 
creased  since  1849.  The  total  number  of  'per 
sons  committed  or  held  to  bail  in  1872  was 
4,476  (including  814  females),  of  whom  2,565 
were  convicted.  From  1865  to  1871  there 
were  21  persons  sentenced  to  death,  and  13 
were  executed.  The  number  of  county  pris 
ons  is  33,  of  city  or  town  prisons  5,  and  of 
bridewells  106.  A  law  for  the  promotion  and 
regulation  of  reformatory  schools  for  juvenile 
offenders  was  passed  in  1858.— The  govern 
ment  is  administered  by  a  lord  lieutenant  (in 
1874,  the  duke  of  Abercorn),  who  is  assisted 
by  a  privy  council  appointed  by  the  crown, 
and  by  a  chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  a  cabinet 
minister  (in  1874,  Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach). 
In  the  absence  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  he  is  re 
placed  by  lords  justices,  usually  the  primate  or 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  the  lord  chancellor,  and 
the  commander  of  the  forces.  Each  county  is 
in  charge  of  a  lieutenant,  generally  a  peer  of 
the  realm,  assisted  by  deputy  lieutenants  and 
magistrates  who  officiate  gratuitously,  and  one 
or  more  resident  paid  magistrates,  all  appoint 
ed  by  the  crown  during  pleasure.  The  cities, 
towns,  and  boroughs  are  governed  by  local 
magistrates.  Justice  is  administered  by  the 
lord  chancellor,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  four 
judges  in  each  of  the  courts  of  the  queen's 
bench,  common  pleas,  and  exchequer,  an  as 
sistant  barrister  for  each  county,  a  bankrupt 
court  with  two  judges,  and  the  judges  of  the 
prerogative  court  and  of  the  admiralty.  As 
sizes  for  criminal  and  civil  pleas  are  held  by 
two  of  the  judges  in  each  county  in  spring  and 
summer  of  every  year.  The  execution  of  the 
laws  is  intrusted  to  the  constabulary  in  the 
counties  and  the  police  in  Dublin.  The  total 
of  the  constabulary  amounted,  Sept.  30,  1871, 
to  12,274.  The  revenue  police,  organized  for 
the  suppression  of  illicit  distillation,  comprises 
about  400  officers  and  men.  The  Irish  militia 
is  composed  of  12  regiments  of  artillery  and  35 
of  infantry,  numbering  when  embodied  31,972 
men.  Ireland  is  represented  in  the  British 
parliament  by  28  representative  peers  elected 
for  life,  and  105  commoners.  Of  the  latter, 
64  represent  the  counties,  2  the  university,  12 
the  cities  and  towns  of  Dublin,  Cork,  Limerick, 
"VVaterford,  Belfast,  and  Gal  way,  and  27  the 
boroughs.  The  number  of  county  electors  in 
1871  was  175,149 ;  of  city  and  borough  elec 
tors,  48,358.  No  separate  return  of  the  reve- 


IRELAND 


355 


mie  and  expenditure  of  Ireland  has  been  given  1 
in  the  finance  accounts  since  1870  ;  the  gross  | 
amount  of  customs  collected  at  the  Irish  ports 
in  1871  was  £1,942,721,  and  the  net  amount  of 
excise  duties  received  in  1872  was  £4,056,019. 
—The  antiquities  of  Ireland  are  of  various 
kinds :  cromlechs,  cairns  (either  simple  mounds 
or  to  mark  burial  places),  pillar  stones,  bar 
rows,  duns  or  defences  of  stone,  lis  or  fortifi 
cations  of  earth,  raths  or  villages,  ancient 
stone-roofed  buildings,  round  towers  (of  which 
there  are  118,  in  height  from  35  to  120  ft.  with 
an  internal  diameter  of  10  to  16  ft.),  ecclesias 
tical  architecture  of  all  ages,  with  a  vast  num 
ber  of  castles  and  fortalices.  The  origin  and 
use  of  the  round  towers  have  been  much  dis 
cussed.  Of  recent  archaeologists,  Dr.  Petrie 
believes  them  to  be  Christian  ecclesiastical 
structures  dating  for  the  most  part  from  the 
9th  and  10th  centuries ;  Dr.  O'Brien  thinks 
they  are  phallic  monuments  of  remote  pagan 
antiquity;  and  the  Rev.  R.  Smiddy  in  1873 
claims  them  as  Christian  baptisteries.  Ancient 
weapons  of  bronze  and  ornaments  of  gold  are 
frequently  found  in  turning  up  the  soil,  the 
jewelry  especially  showing  a  high  degree  of 
artistic  skill.  The  medieval  architecture  of 
Ireland  has  been  largely  illustrated  by  the  la 
bors  of  Dr.  Petrie  and  his  school.  The  round 
or  oval  structures  of  rough  stone  and  earth, 
popularly  called  beehive  houses,  which  are  still 
found  in  great  numbers  on  the  islands  off  the 
coast  of  Connemara,  county  Galway,  are  prob 
ably  of  the  6th  or  7th  century.  Of  Cyclopean 
architecture,  the  most  remarkable  examples 
are  the  Dun  Aengus,  on  a  high  cliff  on  the 
great  Isle  of  Arran  ;  Kriockfennell  in  Limerick, 
3(10  ft.  in  circumference,  with  walls  10  ft.  thick ; 
and  the  Staigue  fort  near  Kenmare  bay,  circu 
lar,  90  ft.  in  diameter,  with  walls  18  ft.  high  and 
13  ft.  thick.  Several  ancient  oratories  built  of 
uncemented  stones  admirably  fitted,  and  their 
side  walls  and  to  some  extent  also  the  end  walls 
converging  from  the  base  to  the  summit  in 
curved  lines,  exist  in  county  Kerry.  The  most 
beautifully  constructed  and  best  preserved  of 
these  ancient  relics  is  the  oratory  of  Gallerus. 
A  building  unique  in  Ireland  is  Cormac's 
chapel,  on  the  rock  of  Cashel,  constructed  in 
the  12th  century,  covered  with  ornaments  of 
the  richest  Xorman  character,  of  the  period 
and  probably  the  work  of  Anglo-Norman  ma 
sons  and  sculptors.  The  church  or  chapel  of 
St.  Doulough's,  near  Dublin,  dating  from  the 
14th  century,  presents  a  singular  combination 
of  church,  house,  and  castle,  all  comprised  in 
the  space  of  40  ft.  long  by  16  wide.  Many 
parts  of  Ireland  abound  with  ruins,  especially 
of  old  manor  houses,  built  in  the  form  of  tow 
ers  for  defence,  and  hence  called  castles,  or 
the  Irish  towers.  They  are  of  all  periods  from 
the  12th  to  the  16th  century.  Besides  these 
there  are  numerous  real  fortified  castles,  some 
of  which  furnish  admirable  specimens  of  the 
military  architecture  of  the  middle  ages.  Many 
smaller  castles  combining  the  military  and  do-  j 


mestic  character  are  provided  with  keeps  and 
exterior  walls  like  the  baronial  castles  of  Brit 
ain.  Conspicuous  among  these  is  Bullock 
castle,  at  Dalkey,  near  Dublin,  which  protected 
the  port  of  Dalkey,  where  the  commerce  of 
Dublin  was  carried  on  for  centuries.  Among 
the  principal  tower  houses  are  Loughmore 
castle,  county  Tipperary,  Athenry  castle,  Gal- 
way,  Blarney  castle,  near  Cork,  and  Augna- 
nure  castle,  county  Galway,  on  the  borders  of 
Connemara.  Many  buildings  of  the  Elizabeth 
an  period  exist  in  Galway ;  the  finest  are  the 
Lynch  castle  and  Castle  Banks.  Few  countries 
offer  so  fine  a  field  for  the  archrcologist. — Ac 
cording  to  the  map  of  Ptolemy,  the  central 
portion  of  Ireland  was  inhabited  in  his  day  by 
the  Scoti ;  the  north  by  the  Robogdii ;  the  east 
by  the  Darnii,  Voluntii,  Eblani,  Cauci,  Mena- 
pii,  and  Coriundi ;  the  south  by  the  Brigantes, 
Vodii,  and  Ibernii;  the  west  by  the  Luceni, 
Velaborii,  Caugani,  Auteri,  Magnate,  and 
Haudinii.  In  the  Argonautica  of  Orpheus  of 
Crotona  (500  B.  C.),  the  island  is  called  lernis. 
In  the  De  Mundo,  attributed  to  Aristotle, 
"Albion"  and  " lerne "  are  mentioned.  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  alludes  to  the  latter  as  Iris  or 
Irisi,  and  Strabo  names  the  island  Itpvr}  (lerne) ; 
Caesar,  Tacitus,  and  Pliny  call  it  Hibernia; 
Mela  and  others,  Juverna.  The  native  name 
is  Ir,  Eri,  and  Erin.  The  name  of  Ogygia, 
"  most  ancient  land,"  was  also  applied  to  it  by 
Plutarch.  A  very  remote  antiquity  is  claimed 
and  supported  with  much  display  of  erudition 
by  Irish  writers.  The  researches  of  the  last 
50  years  have  exposed  the  fallacies  and  fictions 
of  previous  writers  on  Irish  history  and  anti 
quities.  "The  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters," 
as  translated  by  John  O'Donovan  and  Owen 
Connellan,  with  the  remarkable  collections  of 
erudition  forming  the  notes  to  these  volumes, 
together  with  the  researches  of  the  former  and 
Eugene  O'Curry  into  Gaelic  annals,  rare  works, 
and  unpublished  records,  appear  to  authenti 
cate  the  following  statements  in  reference  to 
ancient  Ireland.  During  the  reign  of  Ollav 
Fola,  about  900  B.  C.,  it  is  said,  a  species  of 
parliament  was  organized  by  a  triennial  as 
semblage  at  Teamor  or  Tara,  of  the  chiefs, 
priests,  and  bards,  who  digested  the  laws  into 
a  record  called  the  psalter  of  Tara.  Ollav  Fola 
also  founded  schools  of  philosophy,  astronomy, 
poetry,  medicine,  and  history,  which  were 
protected  by  his  successors.  Kimbath,  who 
reigned  about  460  B.  C.,  like  Ollav  Fola,  pro 
moted  the  civil  interests  of  his  kingdom. 
Three  reigns  afterward  Ilugony  the  Great  (300 
B.  C.)  married  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  Gaul, 
obliged  the  Picts  to  pay  tribute,  conquered  the 
Western  isles,  and  divided  Ireland  into  25  ad 
ministrative  provinces.  The  crown  was  de 
clared  hereditary  in  his  family,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  disorders  caused  by  elections.  To  this  pe 
riod  also  is  traced  the  division  of  Ireland  into 
four  provinces ;  and  in  the  1st  century  of  the 
Christian  era  a  portion  was  cut  off  from  each 
to  form  a  national  district  surrounding  the  cap- 


356 


IRELAND 


itnl.  Crintham,  one  of  Ilugony's  successors, 
married  the  daughter  of  a  Pictish  chieftain,  and 
joined  the  Picts  in  their  forays  against  the  Ro 
mans.  Tacitus  mentions  that,  about  this  time, 
an  Irish  prince  who  had  been  exiled  from  his 
country  solicited  Agricola  to  invade  Ireland, 
assuring  him  that  a  single  legion  would  be 
sufficient  to  conquer  it ;  but  there  is  no  trace 
or  record  of  Roman  occupation.  Tacitus  also 
notes  the  commerce  existing  between  Ireland 
and  Chester  in  England,  and  says  that  the  har 
bors  of  Ireland  are  better  known  than  those  of 
Britain.  Of  Crintham's  successors  it  will  suf 
fice  to  mention  Feradach,  surnamed  the  Just ; 
Tuathal  (A.  D.  95),  who  erected  temples  for 
the  sacred  fire  of  the  druids,  and  quelled  "  the 
revolt  of  the  plebeians,"  which  had  lasted  25 
years  ;  Conn  Keadcahagh,  or  Conn  of  the  hun 
dred  battles,  who  was  forced  to  give  up  half 
the  kingdom  to  Modha  Miod,  king  of  Minister, 
their  respective  shares  being  partitioned  by  a 
wall  and  ditch  from  Dublin  to  Galway,  the 
country  north  being  Leagh  Cuin,  or  Conn's 
share,  and  south  Leagh  Modha,  or  &odha's 
share — names  yet  remembered,  although  the 
division  lasted  but  a  year.  Subsequently  Conn 
became  sole  monarch.  In  the  reign  of  his 
grandson  Cormac  fiourished  the  military  broth 
erhood  of  the  Fianna  Eirionn,  commanded  by 
Finn  McCooil  or  Fingal,  and  cut  to  pieces  at 
the  battle  of  Gabra,  in  Meath,  in  the  succeed 
ing  reign.  Cormac  was  famous  in  peace  and 
war.  He  enlarged  the  educational  establish 
ment  originated  at  Tara  by  Ollav  Fola,  added 
to  the  number  of  military  academies  and  law 
schools,  and  renewed  the  statutes  concerning 
the  psalter  of  Tara  and  the  registration  of  in 
dividual  histories.  Mai  of  the  nine  hostages 
fought  in  Scotland,  England,  and  France,  and 
was  killed  by  an  arrow  on  the  banks  of  the 
Loire.  His  successor  Dathi,  pushing  his  con 
quests  through  Britain  into  Gaul,  was  killed  at 
the  foot  of  the  Alps.  He  was  the  last  pagan 
king  of  Ireland.  At  this  period  the  inhabitants 
were  Scoto-Milesians,  or  Scots  mixed  with  the 
descendants  of  an  Iberian  hero  Mileagh. — From 
the  3d  to  the  end  of  the  10th  century  the  whole 
island  took  the  name  of  Scotia,  a  term  not 
then  applied  to  the  country  now  called  Scot 
land.  Usher  and  other  historians  mention  four 
holy  men  who  had  preached  the  gospel  in  Ire 
land  before  St.  Patrick.  A  fifth  was  sent  by 
Pope  Celestine  I.,  in  the  person  of  Palladius, 
archdeacon  of  the  Roman  church.  Arriving  in 
the  reign  of  Laogare  II.,  he  was  expelled  after 
a  few  months,  and  died  in  Britain.  Patrick,  a 
native  of  Gaul,  and  a  relative  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours,  was  sent  to  Rome  by  Gerrnanus  of 
Auxerre,  and  intrusted  by  the  pope  with  the 
mission  of  converting  the  Irish  people.  He 
arrived  in  Ireland  about  the  middle  of  the  5th 
century,  and  died  in  493,  leaving  the  island 
Christian.  This  event  gave  a  considerable  im 
pulse  to  civilization.  The  churches  and  mon 
asteries  founded  by  Patrick  became  so  many 
schools,  a  zeal  for  learning  spread  among  clergy 


and  laity,  and  the  favorite  monastery  of  St. 
Patrick  at  Armagh  became  famous  as  a  school 
all  over  Europe.  For  a  time  Ireland  was  so 
noted  for  the  learning  and  piety  of  its  ecclesi 
astics  that  it  was  called  insula  sanctorum,  isle 
of  saints.  One  of  the  most  important  events 
which  happened  about  this  time  was  the  foun 
dation  of  the  Dalriadan  or  Scoto-Milesian  king 
dom  of  Albania,  the  first  colonization  of  which 
from  Ireland  took  place  about  A.  D.  238.  It 
had  been  established  with  the  aid  of  the  Malls 
or  O'Neills  of  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  when 
Columba  landed  in  Albania  in  563  he  found  at 
the  head  of  the  colony  Connal,  one  of  his  own 
blood  relatives.  Connal's  successor  Aidan  was 
anointed  king  in  lona  by  Columba  ;  and  in  590 
both  went  to  Ireland,  where,  in  the  general  as 
sembly  of  Drumceat,  Columba  obtained  a  rec 
ognition  of  the  new  Scottish  kingdom  and  the 
abolition  of  the  colonial  tribute  paid  to  the 
Irish  kings.  According  to  Bede,  in  the  year 
646  many  Anglo-Saxons  settled  in  Ireland.  In 
684  it  was  invaded  by  Egfrid,  king  of  North 
umberland,  who  ravaged  many  churches  and 
monasteries.  More  serious  predatory  incur 
sions  by  the  Scandinavians  took  place  toward 
the  close  of  the  8th  century.  Soon  the  idea  of 
a  permanent  foothold  seized  the  pirates,  and 
they  occupied  good  maritime  positions,  as  Dub 
lin,  Drogheda,  Waterford,  Limerick,  and  Wex- 
ford.  About  the  year  840  a  powerful  fleet  ar 
rived  under  Turgesius  (Tlrjorg  ? ),  who  for  near 
ly  seven  years  exercised  authority  over  a  large 
district,  proscribed  the  Christians,  dispersed 
the  schools,  burned  the  books,  and  issued  his 
mandates  from  the  high  altar  at  Clonmacnoise. 
Turgesius  was  killed  by  Malachi,  prince  of 
Westineath,  and  the  Irish,  rallying  under  the 
chief  king  Mall  III.,  broke  the  supremacy  of 
the  Danes.  Still  they  clung  to  the  seaports, 
and  by  paying  tribute  when  necessary  and 
forming  alliances  with  and  against  the  Irish 
princes,  retained  occupation  for  more  than  two 
centuries,  and  were  the  source  of  great  national 
decadence.  In  1002  Brian  Boru,  or  Boroihme, 
king  of  Minister,  expelled  the  Danes  from  his 
own  kingdom,  and,  seizing  the  national  au 
thority,  was  crowned  at  Tara  as  king  of  Ire 
land.  Ere  long  he  expelled  the  Danes  from 
the  whole  country.  Having  accomplished  this 
result,  he  further  effected  great  civil  reforms, 
founded  churches  and  schools,  opened  roads, 
built  bridges,  and  fitted  out  a  fleet.  lie  also 
introduced  the  use  of  surnames,  and  made  the 
marriage  contract  permanent.  Another  inva 
sion  by  the  Danes,  incited  by  the  king  of  Lein- 
ster,  led  to  the  decisive  battle  of  Clontarf,  Good 
Friday,  April  28,  1014,  in  which  the  power  of 
the  Danes  was  finally  broken.  Brian  was  killed 
in  his  tent  by  a  party  of  the  flying  enemy. 
His  son  and  grandson  perished  on  the  same 
occasion.  Malachi  II.,  dethroned  by  Brian, 
now  became  king.  His  death  in  1022  marks 
the  decline  of  the  Irish  monarchy.  The  coun 
try  in  the  12th  century  presented  a  scene  of 
almost  ceaseless  disorder,  the  five  kingdoms  of 


IRELAND 


357 


Ulster,  Leinster,  Meath,  Connaught,  and  Mun- 
ster,  besides  a  number  of  petty  principalities, 
being;  continually  at  war  with  each  other.  The 
island  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  degeneracy 
sadly  at  variance  with  its  former  title  of  isle 
of  saints.  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  called  the 
attention  of  Rome  to  this,  and  Pope  Eugenius 
III.  sent  Cardinal  Papiron  to  correct  abuses 
and  restore  discipline.  The  synod  of  Kells, 
held  under  his  auspices  in  March,  1152,  ac 
knowledged  the  supremacy  of  Rome,  estab 
lished  the  archbishoprics  of  Dublin  and  Tuam 
(Armagh  and  Cashel  already  existing),  and 
condemned  simony,  usury,  and  concubinage. 
In  1155  a  bull  is  said  to  have  been  issued  by 
Pope  Adrian  IV.,  the  existence  of  which  is 
denied,  conferring  the  sovereignty  of  Ireland 
upon  Henry  II.  of  England  ;  but  the  latter  did 
not  avail  himself  of  it  for  many  years.  The 
appeal  of  Dermot  McMurrough,  king  of  Lein 
ster,  to  be  reinstated  on  the  throne  from  which 
he  had  been  justly  driven,  furnished  a  pretext 
for  the  invasion  of  Ireland  by  two  bands  of 
Norman  adventurers,  one  under  Robert  Fitz- 
stephen  in  1169,  and  another  .under  Richard 
de  Clare,  earl  of  Pembroke,  commonly  called 
Strongbow,  in  the  same  year.  The  success  of 
McM urrough's  allies  aroused  the  suspicions  of 
Henry  II.,  who  issued  a  proclamation  recalling 
Strongbow  and  all  Englishmen,  under  pain  of 
outlawry.  This  course  gave  him  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Irish  the  aspect  of  a  deliverer  rather 
than  that  of  an  invader ;  and  when  in  1171  he 
arrived  at  Waterford,  many  native  princes 
accepted  him  as  liege  lord,  so  that  he  might 
settle  their  existing  difficulties,  and  guarantee 
them  their  own  possessions  and  dignities.  He 
was  called  away  in  the  next  year,  and  his  lieu 
tenants  soon  developed  a  system  of  spoliation. 
In  1177  the  king's  son  John  was  made  lord  of 
Ireland,  and  in  the  same  year  Cardinal  Vivian, 
the  pope's  legate,  convening  a  synod  at  Dub 
lin,  published  King  Henry's  title  to  Ireland 
with  the  papal  ratification.  In  1185  John  ar 
rived  with  a  fleet  of  60  ships,  was  defeated  by 
Donai  O'Brien,  and  soon  returned  with  charges 
against  Hugh  de  Lacy,  chief  of  the  English  in 
Ireland.  In  1210  King  John  arrived  in  Ireland, 
and  was  chiefly  occupied  in  chastising  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Anglo-Norman  lords.  He  di 
vided  the  country  into  counties,  established 
courts  in  Dublin,  appointed  judges,  circuits, 
and  corporations,  established  a  new  coinage, 
and  assimilated  the  currency  of  England  and 
Ireland.  In  1216  Magna  Charta,  or  the  great 
charter  of  liberties,  was  granted  to  the  Irish 
by  Henry  III.  Many  years  were  passed  in  con 
tentions  among  the  rival  English  lords  as  well 
as  the  native  chiefs.  On  May  25,  1315,  at  the 
invitation  of  several  Irish  princes,  Edward 
Bruce  landed  in  Antrim,  where  he  was  joined 
by  Donal  O'Neil,  prince  of  Ulster.  The  natives 
flocked  to  his  standard.  The  Anglo-Normans 
with  O'Conor  of  Connaught  opposed  him. 
Bruce  and  O'Neil  marched  southward,  over 
whelmed  the  Anglo-Norman  army,  captured 


1  all  the  great  towns  on  their  route,  and  went 
into  winter  quarters  at  Christmas  "  in  the  midst 
of  the  most  considerable  chiefs  of  Ulster,  Meath, 
and  Connact."  In  the  spring,  having  made  a 
triumphant  march  south,  they  returned  to  Dun- 
dalk,  when  Bruce  was  elected  and  crowned 
king.  Robert  Bruce  came  to  the  aid  of  his 
brother,  and,  after  a  successful  incursion  as  far 
as  Limerick,  returned  to  Ulster  in  May,  1317, 
the  troops  having  been  decimated  by  a  famine 
of  such  severity  as  to  compel  a  suspension  of 
hostilities,  after  "which  Robert  Bruce  returned 
to  Scotland.  In  August,  1318,  the  armies  were 
moving.  The  English  under  John  de  Berming- 
ham  were  in  the  field  first,  found  Edward 
Bruce  at  a  disadvantage,  and  defeated  and  dis 
persed  his  troops  at  Faugard,  Oct.  14,  Bruce 
himself  perishing  on  the  battle  field.  Unex 
pected  dangers  interfered  with  the  subjection 
of  Ireland.  Notwithstanding  incessant  war 
fare  between  the  Normans  and  the  natives, 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century  found  the  Irish 
language,  laws,  manners,  and  customs  univer 
sally  adopted  by  the  former,  while  marriage 
and  "  fosterage "  between  the  nobles  of  both 
races  were  making  the  Anglo-Normans  "  more 
Irish  than  the  Irish."  To  avert  this  danger, 
many  measures  were  adopted.  By  an  ordi 
nance  of  Edward  III.,  1341,  all  offices  in  Ire 
land  held  by  Irish  or  English  men  who  had 
estates  or  were  married  in  Ireland  were  to  be 
vacated,  and  filled  by  Englishmen  who  "had 
no  personal  interest  whatever  in  Ireland."  In 
1367  a  parliament  at  Kilkenny,  under  the  aus 
pices  of  the  king's  son  Lionel,  passed  the  mem 
orable  "statute  of  Kilkenny,"  directed  against 
the  English  who  adopted  Irish  customs  or  man 
ners,  arid  making  intermarriage,  fostering,  or 
trading  with  the  natives,  treason.  Near  the 
end  of  the  century  Richard  II.  twice  landed  in 
Ireland  with  a  large  force,  but  he  was  com 
pletely  baffled  by  Art  McMurrough,  who  in  the 
succeeding  reign  defied  and  fought  the  duke 
of  Lancaster  under  the  walls  of  Dublin.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  was  passed  the  "  head 
act,"  which  made  it  lawful  to  kill  "  any  persons 
going  or  coming,  having  no  faithful  man  of 
good  name  and  fame  in  their  company  in  Eng 
lish  apparel."  Henry  VII.  undertook  still  fur 
ther  to  reduce  the  country  to  a  condition  of 
complete  dependence  by  ordaining  that  no  par 
liament  should  meet  without  his  permission, 
and  no  law  be  valid  unless  sanctioned  by  the 
English  king  and  council.  To  meet  his  view  Sir 
Edward  Poynings,  then  lord  deputy,  assembled 
a  parliament  at  Drogheda  in  1495,  at  which 
was  enacted  the  "Poynings  law,"  which  took 
away  the  independence  of  the  Irish  parliament, 
making  all  its  acts  subordinate  to  that  of  Eng- 

|  land.  A  parliament  in  Dublin,  in  1537,  passed 
the  .act  of  supremacy,  declaring  Henry  VIII. 
supreme  head  of  the  church,  prohibiting  inter 
course  with  the  court  of  Rome  under  penalty 
of  prcr munir e,  and  making  it  treason  to  refuse 

I  the  oath  of  supremacy.    Henry  VIII.  also  took 

i  the  title  of  king  of  Ireland,  although  in  his  day 


358 


IRELAND 


only  an  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  country 
was  practically  subject  to  the  English  law. 
This  reign  was  marked  by  the  insurrection  of 
Lord  Thomas  Fitzgerald,  which  ended  in  the 
total  ruin  of  the  powerful  house  of  Kildare. 
Henry  introduced  the  Protestant  reformation 
into  Ireland  with  as  little  difficulty  as  he  had 
into  England.  A  few  partial  disturbances  hap 
pened,  but  nothing  of  national  importance  till 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  during  which  fierce  and 
almost  incessant  wars  were  carried  on  with  the 
Desmonds  in  Munster,  and  other  Anglo-Irish 
families  who  resisted  the  reformation.  During 
the  last  15  years  of  her  reign  the  contest  raged 
with  fury,  particularly  against  the  O'Neills, 
O'Donnells,  and  other  Ulster  princes  and  chiefs. 
It  is  estimated  that  this  war  of  Elizabeth  cost 
£3,000,000  and  200,000  lives,  about  equally 
divided  between  the  English  and  the  Irish.  A 
great  parliament  summoned  by  the  lord  deputy 
Sir  John  Perrott,  in  1585,  was  attended  by 
nearly  all  of  the  great  Irish  chiefs  and  repre 
sentatives  of  the  Anglo-Irish  families.  James 
I.  introduced  into  Ulster  many  Scotch  and  Eng 
lish  Protestant  settlers.  The  civil  wars  in  Eng 
land  supplied  the  Irish  and  Anglo-Irish  Cath 
olics  with  a  favorable  opportunity  to  make  an 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  new  settlements  and 
protect  themselves.  Accordingly,  in  1641,  an 
insurrection  broke  out  in  Ulster,  which  quickly 
spread  to  all  parts  of  the  island.  Dublin  nar 
rowly  escaped  falling  into  their  hands.  Social 
and  religious  animosities  alike  served  to  em 
bitter  the  contest,  which  was  marked  by  great 
atrocities.  As  the  abbe  MacGeoghehan  says, 
both  sides  were  culpable,  and  the  massacre 
"  was  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  barbarous  that 
lias  been  recorded  among  Christians,  both  on 
account  of  its  duration  and  the  fury  of  those 
who  were  the  authors  of  it."  In  1642  a  na 
tional  synod  established  the  "Confederation 
of  Kilkenny,"  issued  a  plan  of  provisional  gov 
ernment,  and  called  a  general  assembly  of  the 
whole  kingdom,  Oct.  23,  at  which  a  supreme 
council  of  24  (comprising  3  archbishops,  2  bish 
ops,  4  nobles,  and  15  commoners)  was  elected. 
This  power  exercised  the  functions  of  a  na 
tional  government  for  several  years,  coined 
money,  appointed  judges,  held  assizes,  commis 
sioned  officers,  and  sent  ambassadors  abroad. 
Charles  I.  negotiated  publicly  and  privately 
with  it.  Its  favorite  general,  Owen  Roe  O'Neill, 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  English  army 
at  Benburb,  June  5,  1646;  but  it  was  finally 
distracted  and  destroyed  by  intrigue.  The 
country  was  a  prey  to  anarchy  till  1649,  when 
Cromwell  appeared  on  the  scene.  He  took 
Drogheda  by  storm,  and  delivered  it  up  to  the 
license  of  his  soldiery.  One  after  another  the 
Roman  Catholic  strongholds  fell,  till  the  whole 
country  lay  at  his  mercy,  and  for  the  first  time 
English  supremacy  might  be  said  to  be  estab 
lished.  Four  fifths  of  the  whole  soil  was  con 
fiscated.  Once  more,  in  1688,  the  Catholics 
took  up  arms.  James  II.,  after  his  flight  from 
England,  presented  himself  in  Ireland,  and  was 


received  with  acclamation.  An  army  was 
speedily  organized  under  the  Irish  and  French 
officers  whom  he  had  brought  with  him.  But 
the  superior  genius  of  William  of  Orange,  dis 
played  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  in  1690, 
broke  the  current  of  the  ex-king's  success.  The 
battle  of  Aghrim  followed,  July  12, 1691,  where 
the  Irish  met  with  a  disastrous  defeat;  the  fu 
gitives  retired  to  Limerick,  and  after  a  final 
stand  surrendered,  Oct.  3, 1692,  on  terms  which 
were  violated  by  the  victors.  Renewed  confis 
cations  followed.  A  large  number  of  Roman 
Catholics  fled  the  country,  and  those  who  re 
mained  were  barely  permitted  to  exist.  The 
next  hundred  years  of  Irish  history  record  little 
else  than  relentless  persecution  of  the  Catholics. 
Even  so  late  as  toward  the  close  of  the  18th 
century  the  penal  laws  were  tyrannous.  Catho 
lics  were  not  eligible  to  offices  of  trust,  were 
not  allowed  to  serve  in  the  army  or  navy,  nor 
to  possess  arms,  nor  to  exercise  many  other  of 
the  rights  of  citizenship.  The  gloom  of  the 
penal  days  was  only  broken  by  brave  utterances 
from  noble  Protestant  men  in  behalf  of  the 
general  rights  of  the  kingdom,  such  as  Moly- 
neux's  "Case  of  Ireland  stated,"  Dean  Swift's 
"Drapier"  letters,  and  Dr.  Lucas's  protests 
against  the  encroachments  on  constitutional 
rights.  Molyneux's  book  was  burned  by  the 
common  hangman ;  a  reward  was  offered  for 
the  Drapier,  and  his  printer  arrested ;  and  Lu 
cas  had  to  find  refuge  in  England  from  laws 
enacted  by  and  for  the  English  interest  in 
Ireland.  In  1782  Henry  Grattan,  backed  by 
the  arms  of  the  volunteers  who  had  organ 
ized  to  defend  the  country  against  an  expect 
ed  French  invasion,  achieved  the  indepen 
dence  of  the  Irish  parliament  by  the  repeal  of 
the  act  6  George  I.,  the  Poynings,  and  other 
objectionable  acts.  Still  the  Catholics  had 
cause  to  sue  for  "emancipation,"  meaning 
thereby  a  complete  community  of  privileges. 
The  Protestants,  too,  had  their  grievances  on 
various  matters  connected  with  trade  and  rev 
enue.  War  with  the  American  colonies  touched 
their  interests  in  various  ways,  chiefly  by  clo 
sing  the  markets  for  their  linens,  and  by  put 
ting  a  stop  to  the  emigration  which  was  even 
then  beginning  to  be  developed.  Hence  the 
universal  emancipation  of  nations  proclaimed 
by  the  French  revolution  appealed  powerfully 
to  the  Irish  of  both  creeds.  Theobald  Wolfe 
Tone  had  founded  the  first  society  of  United 
Irishmen,  Oct.  12,  1791.  His  avowed  object 
was  to  break  the  connection  by  means  of  a  union 
of  Protestant,  Catholic,  and  Dissenter.  The 
British  government,  naturally  jealous  of  the 
discontent  everywhere  manifest,  increased  its 
severities,  suspended  the  habeas  corpus  act, 
dispersed  meetings  by  force  of  arms,  and  dis 
tributed  troops  at  free  quarters  upon  the  peo 
ple.  In  defence  the  "  United  Irishmen "  be 
came  a  secret  society,  and  besought  French 
aid.  The  recourse  to  arms  contemplated  by 
the  United  Irishmen  was  forced  to  a  premature 
culmination  by  the  government,  which  through 


IRELAND 


359 


the  viceroy  Lord  Camden  proclaimed  all  Ire 
land  under  martial  law,  March  30,  1798.  This 
led  to  great  excesses  on  the  part  of  those  in 
power,  and  localities  in  which  the  united  Irish 
organizers  had  little  hold,  like  Wexford  coun 
ty,  were  goaded  into  revolt.  The  active  civil 
war  lasted  less  than  five  months,  during  which 
many  notable  battles  occurred,  as  at  New  Ross, 
Enniscorthy,  and  Vinegar  Ilill.  England  em 
ployed  137,000  men.  Its  cost  is  variously 
estimated  at  £30,000,000  and  £50,000,000. 
The  English  lost  20,000  men,  the  Irish  50,000. 
Many  of  the  leaders  were  executed,  Lord  Ed 
ward  Fitzgerald  died  of  his  wounds  in  prison, 
and  Tone,  who  was  captured  on  board  the 
Iloche,  the  admiral's  ship  accompanying  the 
third  expedition  which  he  had  projected  from 
France  and  Hamburg,  committed  suicide  in  pris 
on.  Of  the  leaders  of  the  United  Irishmen  fully 
two  thirds  were  Protestants  and  Presbyterians. 
Lord  Cornwallis  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant, 
with  instructions  to  pursue  a  pacific  policy. 
A  bill  of  amnesty  was  passed  in  1799,  and  the 
country  settled  into  the  appearance  of  quiet. 
Government  took  advantage  of  the  rebellion  to 
hasten  the  legislative  union  of  the  two  coun 
tries,  which,  despite  the  eloquent  opposition  of 
Grattan  and  his  party,  went  into  effect  Jan.  1, 
1801.  The  articles  of  the  act  of  union  were: 
1,  that  the  two  islands  be  called  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  2,  the 
succession  to  the  throne  to  continue  as  exist 
ing,  limited ;  3,  the  kingdom  to  be  represented 
by  one  parliament;  4,  that  Ireland  be  repre 
sented  in  the  house  of  lords  by  28  temporal 
peers  elected  for  life  from  the  Irish  nobility, 
and  in  the  house  of  commons  by  100  represen 
tatives;  5,  that  the  state  churches  of  the  two 
islands  be  united,  their  doctrines  and  discipline 
being  one ;  6,  that  the  population  of  the  two 
countries  be  on  the  same  footing  as  regarded 
manufacturing,  trading,  and  commercial  privi 
leges;  7,  that  the  expenditure  be  in  the  pro 
portion  of  Britain  15  to  Ireland  2  for  20  years, 
afterward  to  be  regulated  by  parliament;  8, 
that  the  existing  laws  and  courts  be  continued, 
excepting  that  appeals  from  the  Irish  chancery 
be  to  the  British  house  of  lords.  The  extremes 
of  both  parties  were  dissatisfied.  An  insur 
rection  broke  out  in  Dublin,  July  23,  1803,  but 
was  speedily  suppressed.  Robert  Emmet,  the  ! 
young  enthusiast  who  led  it,  died  on  the  scaf-  i 
fold.  The  outbreak  had  little  other  result  than  I 
to  cause  the  revival  of  harsh  measures  and  of  ' 
agitation.  For  several  years  the  question  of  | 
Catholic  emancipation  was  a  standard  subject 
of  excitement;  it  was  periodically  mooted  in 
parliament,  and  as  regularly  thrown  out,  for 
nearly  20  years.  In  1S21  George  IV.  paid  a 
st  ite  visit  to  Ireland,  where  he  was  received 
with  demonstrations  of  loyalty.  In  1822  Ire 
land  suffered  from  a  famine,  produced,  says 
Alison,  ''  by  the  contraction  of  the  currency 
and  consequent  fall  of  the  prices  of  agricultural 
produce  50  per  cent/'  Cobbett  says  there  was 
food  enough,  but  no  money  to  purchase  it.  In 


1823  the  question  of  Catholic  emancipation  as 
sumed  larger  proportions.  Daniel  O'Connell 
was  the  most  prominent  public  man  from  this 
period  till  his  death  in  1847.  Various  associa 
tions  were  organized  in  aid  of  the  ends  for 
which  the  Catholics,  supported  by  the  liberal 
of  all  parties,  were  striving.  The  chief  of  these 
was  "the  Catholic  Association,"  of  which  the 
ostensible  object  was,  in  brief,  the  removal  of  all 
political  and  civil  disabilities.  Its  ramifications 
extended  throughout  the  country,  and  it  de 
rived  from  voluntary  contributions  a  large  rev 
enue,  known  in  the  records  of  the  time  as  u  the 
rent."  This  organization  exercised  an  impor 
tant  influence  on  the  domestic  political  policy 
of  the  country,  and  may  indeed  be  said  to  have 
effected  its  object,  for,  on  April  13,  1829,  the 
long-sought  act  of  ''Catholic  emancipation" 
received  the  royal  assent.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in 
addressing  parliament  on  the  bill,  made  the 
admission  that  scarcely  for  one  year  since  the 
union  had  Ireland  been  governed  by  the  ordi 
nary  course  of  law,  without -the  intervention 
of  insurrection  acts,  suspension  of  the  habeas 
corpus,  or  martial  rule.  O'Connell  took  his 
seat  as  member  for  Clare,  and  immediately  pro 
claimed  an  agitation  for  repeal  of  the  legislative 
union.  The  tactics  that  had  carried  the  measure 
of  emancipation  were  revived.  The  repeal 
association  followed  the  Catholic.  Combined 
with  this  primary  object  were  complicated  less 
er  issues,  such  as  a  movement  against  the  pay 
ment  of  tithes.  Of  the  8,000,000  inhabitants 
of  Ireland,  only  one  tenth  were  members  of  the 
established  Protestant  church,  yet  tithes  for  its 
support  were  exacted  indiscriminately  from  all. 
The  "tithe  war"  was  distinguished  by  many 
disgraceful  and  heart-rending  transactions,  no 
tably  the  massacre  at  Newtownbarry  and  Car- 
rickshock  in  1831,  and  at  Rathcormack  in  1834. 
At  length,  in  1838,  the  obnoxious  features  of 
the  tax  were  concealed  by  the  substitution  of 
a  fixed  rent  charge  payable  by  the  land  own 
ers.  The  parliamentary  reform  bill,  in  1832, 
gave  to  Ireland  five  more  members  in  the  house 
of  commons;  and  the  municipal  reform  act, 
in  1840,  removed  many  minor  administrative 
grievances.  In  1831  the  national  system  of  ed 
ucation  was  established  by  act  of  parliament. 
In  1833  the  expenditure  of  the  grants  for  pub 
lic  education  was  intrusted  to  the  viceroy  un 
der  the  superintendence  of  "  commissioners  of 
national  education;"  and  in  1835  these  com 
missioners  were  incorporated,  with  power  to 
hold  lands.  In  1838  the  English  poor-law  sys 
tem  was  introduced,  and  during  the  succeeding 
ten  years  received  extension  and  adaptations 
as  circumstances  required.  The  organization 
of  the  police  force  kept  pace  with  these  ameli 
orations.  In  1836  it  was  consolidated  into  the 
semi-military  arm  it  now  is.  During  the  pro 
gress  of  these  events  the  repeal  agitation  was 
j  increasing,  until  it  culminated  in  "  the  repeal 
I  year,"  1843.  Monster  meetings  were  held  at  va 
rious  places.  A  final  one,  on  a  yet  more  gigantic 
scale,  was  proposed  to  be  held  at  Clontarf,  but 


360 


IRELAND 


the  government  having  forbidden  it,  it  did  not 
take  place.  In  February,  1844,  under  the  Peel 
administration,  O'Connell  and  his  fellow  agita 
tors  were  convicted  and  sentenced  to  a  short 
term  of  imprisonment.  An  appeal  to  the  house 
of  lords  set  them  at  liberty.  The  agitation  did 
not  flourish  afterward.  In  1846  and  the  suc 
ceeding  year  a  great  famine  fell  upon  the  land, 
through  the  rotting  of  the  potato  crop,  upon 
which  most  of  the  peasantry  depended  for  sus 
tenance,  and  thousands  perished  of  hunger. 
Parliament  made  successive  grants  in  aid, 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  £10,000,000. 
Large  sums  were  subscribed  abroad ;  and  among 
other  donations,  a  cargo  of  food  was  sent  from 
the  United  States.  The  crops  of  the  two  suc 
ceeding  years  were  short,  but  gradually  plenty 
came  again.  The  young  Ireland  party,  which 
had  grown  under  the  auspices  of  O'Connell,  re 
jected  his  peace  policy,  and  remonstrated  against 
his  affiliation  with  the  English  whigs.  It  re 
ceived  great  accessions  from  the  country,  and 
on  Jan.  13,  1847,  formed  the  "  Irish  Confed 
eration."  Although  it  had  upward  of  150,000 
enrolled  men  in  its  clubs,  its  organization  was 
imperfect,  and  the  amount  of  arms  in  its  pos 
session  insignificant.  Neither  was  its  purpose 
distinctly  defined  or  understood.  John  Mitch- 
el,  seeing  nothing  in  the  famine  policy  of  the 
government  but  "  a  machinery  deliberately  de 
vised  and  skilfully  worked  for  the  entire  sub 
jugation  and  slaughter  or  pauperization  of  the 
people,"  advised  resistance  and  a  general  arm 
ing.  William  Smith  O'Brien,  C.  Gavan  Duf 
fy,  T.  F.  Meagher,  and  the  "Nation"  party 
thought  this  would  be  a  virtual  declaration  of 
war.  But  the  French  revolution  of  February, 
1848,  gave  a  great  impetus  to  Mitch  el's  views, 
and  set  all  the  confederate  orators  on  the 
path  of  revolution.  The  confederation  sent  to 
France  a  deputation,  with  an  address  which 
declared  that  the  heroism  of  the  French  repub 
lic  "  taught  enslaved  nations  that  emancipation 
ever  awaits  those  who  dare  to  achieve  it  by 
their  own  intrepidity."  The  parliament  hur 
riedly  passed  a  "treason-felony"  act.  Mitchel 
was  arrested,  tried,  and  banished  for  14  years. 
The  nationalists  desired  to  wait  for  the  har 
vest  ;  but  the  government,  as  on  former  occa 
sions,  put  forth  all  its  power  to  force  an  im 
mature  rising.  The  "  Nation,"  "  Tribune,"  and 
"  Felon,"  which  had  succeeded  Mitchel's  "Uni 
ted  Irishman,"  were  seized,  and  their  writers 
thrown  into  prison.  The  "  gagging  act "  pre 
vented  freedom  of  speech  at  the  clubs ;  and  the 
suspension  of  the  habeas  corpus  act  compelled 
those  who  were  objects  of  suspicion  to  evade 
the  authorities.  Thus  the  leaders  were  thrown 
on  the  country,  and  rewards  offered  for  them. 
Hunted  with  celerity,  they  strove  to  face  the 
emergency  in  hurried  councils  and  with  undis 
ciplined  material,  and  having  come  in  contact 
with  the  forces  at  the  slate  quarries,  Mullina- 
hone,  Killenaule,  Ballingarry,  Abbeyfeale,  and 
elsewhere,  they  were  either  captured  or  found 
safety  in  exile.  O'Brien,  Meagher,  McManus, 


and  O'Donoghue  were  sentenced  to  death  ;  Mar 
tin  and  O'Doherty  were  banished  for  a  term  of 
years  to  Australia ;  and  Doheny,  Dillon,  Devin 
Reilly,  and  O'Gorman  found  their  way  to  Amer 
ica.  Later  in  the  year  (September)  a  more  per 
sistent  effort  was  made  by  John  O'Mahony  and 
John  Savage  to  rally  the  people  in  Tipperary, 
"Waterford,  and  Kilkenny,  but  it  was  hopeless. 
The  government  had  40,000  troops  in  the  coun 
try.  None  were  executed,  the  sentence  of  death 
having  been  commuted  to  transportation,  and  in 
most  instances  pardons  were  extended  in  1856. 
In  1849  came  into  operation  the  act  establishing 
courts  for  the  sale  of  encumbered  estates.  To 
May  25,  1857,  property  had  been  sold  to  7,216 
persons,  6,902  of  whom  were  Irish,  the  rest 
English,  Scotch,  or  foreigners.  The  amount 
realized  for  the  same  was  over  £20,000,000. 
In  1849  a  serious  collision  took  place  between 
some  Orangemen  and  unarmed  Catholics  at 
Dollysbrae,  county  Down,  which  necessitated 
the  dismissal  of  Lord  Roden  and  another  Or 
ange  magistrate  from  the  commission  of  the 
peace  by  the  viceroy,  Lord  Clarendon.  In  the 
same  year  Queen  Victoria  paid  her  first  visit 
to  Ireland,  and  she  again  visited  it  in  1853  to 
witness  the  great  exhibition  of  Irish  industri 
al  products,  opened  at  Dublin,  May  12.  The 
year  1854  was  signalized  by  the  foundation  of 
a  Roman  Catholic  university.  The  political  ex 
citements  of  this  period  were  an  agitation  by 
Protestants  against  the  governmental  grant  to 
the  college  of  Maynooth,  and  by  the  Catholic 
defence  association  in  favor  of  perfect  religions 
equality.  "Tenant  right,"  with  other  secular 
questions,  under  discussion  at  the  same  time, 
produced  considerable  effervescence.  In  1857 
the  Phoenix  society  developed  some  active  rev 
olutionary  spirit  in  the  south  of  Ireland.  This 
was  followed  up  by  the  "Irish  Revolutionary 
Brotherhood,"  the  form  under  which  Fenian- 
ism  became  known  in  the  British  islands.  The 
rise  and  progress  of  the  Fenian  movement  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  is  treated  under  FE 
NIANS.  It  is  only  necessary  here  to  allude  to 
the  measures  passed  by  the  British  parliament 
growing  out  of  the  Irish  efforts  from  1857  to 
1871.  The  government  put  forth  its  most  vigi 
lant  and  effective  resources  in  Ireland,  twice 
suspending  the  habeas  corpus  to  strengthen  the 
hands  of  the  Irish  executive.  Mr.  James  Ste 
phens  was  the  controlling  influence  of  the 
j  "Revolutionary  Brotherhood "  in  Ireland,  and. 
|  the  seizure  of  his  organ,  "  The  Irish  People," 
|  in  September,  1865,  and  of  himself  in  No 
vember,  created  intense  excitement,  which  was 
more  widely  extended  by  his  escape  on  the 
24th  of  the  same  month.  The  rising  in  March, 
1867,  gave  a  great  number  of  active  spirits 
into  the  hands  of  the  government.  Follow 
ing  the  failure,  the  parliament  passed  a  re 
form  bill  extending  the  franchise;  this  was 
I  supplemented  by  Mr.  Gladstone's  bill  for  the 
I  disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  church  in  Ire- 
i  land,  which  was  followed  by  a  land-tenure  bill 
I  for  Ireland  and"  a  naturalization  bill.  Through- 


IKELAND 


IRELAND   (Cmracn  OF) 


361 


out  1868-'9  immense  meetings  were  held  in  fa 
vor  of  amnesty  for  the  political  prisoners,  in 
which  the  corporations  of  leading  cities  took 
part.  This  developed  so  much  national  spirit 
and  concentration  of  feeling  that  it  was  taken 
advantage  of  by  Mr.  Isaac  Butt,  to  direct  its 
energy  and  fervor  into  a  new  national  move 
ment  on  a  constitutional  basis.  Gentlemen  of 
all  Classes  and  religions  entered  the  "Home 
Eule  League,"  and  a  great  national  convention 
or  conference  was  held  in  Dublin,  Nov.  18, 
1873,  at  which  the  principles  and  objects  of  the 
organization  were  declared.  The  conference  sol 
emnly  asserted  the  inalienable  right  of  the  Irish 
people  to  self-government,  and  adopted  "  the 
principle  of  a  federal  arrangement,  which  would 
secure  to  an  Irish  parliament  the  right  of  legis 
lating  for  and  regulating  all  matters  relating  to 
the  internal  affairs  of  Ireland,  while  leaving  to 
the  imperial  parliament  the  power  of  dealing 
with  all  questions  affecting  the  imperial  crown 
and  government,  legislation  regarding  the  colo 
nies  and  other  dependencies  of  the  crown,  the 
relations  of  the  empire  with  foreign  states,  and 
all  matters  appertaining  to  the  defence  and 
stability  of  the  empire  at  large,  as  well  as  the 
power  of  granting  and  providing  the  supplies 
necessary  for  imperial  purposes."  In  the  elec 
tion  following  the  dissolution  of  parliament  in 
January,  1874,  the  success  of  the  home  rule  can 
didates  was  very  significant.  In  Ireland  60  no 
blemen  and  gentlemen  elected  were  pledged  to 
home  rule,  while  England  sent  28  also  pledged. 
The  new  Disraeli  administration  initiated  its 
Irish  policy  by  warning,  on  April  17,  through 
the  lords  justices,  a  national  Dublin  journal. 
The  act  having  been  brought  before  parlia 
ment,  May  1,  was  defended  by  the  secretary 
for  Ireland  on  the  ground  that  "a  spirit  of  dis 
affection  still  existed  there  which  might  be  ea 
sily  fanned  into  a  flame." — See  Giraldus  Cam- 
brensis,  TopograpJiia  Ilibernim  and  Expugnatio 
iribernm  (Frankfort,  1602,  and  in  Holinshed's 
collection) ;  Lanigan's  "  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  Ireland  to  the  13th  Century"  (4  vols.,  Dub 
lin,  1822);  Betham's  "Irish  Antiquarian  Re 
searches"  (2  vols.,  Dublin,  1826),  and  "The 
Gael  and  the  Cymbri "  (1834);  O'Connor's 
"Chronicles  of  Eri "  (2  vols.,  Dublin,  1832); 
"The  Annals  of  Ireland,"  by  James  Grace 
(Dublin,  1842);  "The  Annals  of  Ireland,"  by 
Friar  John  Glyn  (Dublin,  1849) ;  publications 
of  the  Irish  archaeological  society  (Dublin, 
1853  et  seq.);  publications  of  the  Ossianic  so 
ciety  (Dublin,  1853  etseq.)-,  O'Brennan's  "An 
cient  Ireland"  (Dublin,  1855);  "The  Four 
Masters1  Annals  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland," 
edited  by  J.  O'Donovan  (7  vols.,  Dublin,  1856) ; 
Dr.  Todd's  "Wars  of  the  Irish  and  Danes" 
(Dublin,  1858);  MacGeoghegan's  "History  of 
Ireland,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  continued  up 
to  present  date  by  John  Mitchel  (New  York, 
1874);  Gustavo  de  Beaumont,  Ulrlnnde  so- 
ciah  et  politiqiie^  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1839);  and 
Abbe  Perraud,  Etudes  sur  V  Irlande  contem- 
poraine  (Paris,  1862). 


IRELAND,  Church  of,  the  name  of  the  Irish 
branch  of  the  Anglican  Episcopal  church.  Un 
til  Jan.  1,  1871,  this  church  was  an  integral 
part  of  the  "  Church  of  England  and  Ire 
land,"  which  was  the  establishment  in  Ireland 
as  well  as  in  England.  (See  ENGLAND,  CHURCH 
OF.)  In  1868  the  house  of  commons,  on  motion 
of  Mr.  Gladstone,  resolved  to  disestablish  the 
church  in  Ireland.  The  house  of  lords  reject 
ed  the  proposition,  but  under  the  pressure  of 
public  opinion,  which  strongly  expressed  itself 
against  the  continuance  of  the  privileges  of  the 
Irish  church,  the  "royal  commissioners  on  the 
revenues  and  condition  of  the  church  of  Ire 
land"  recommended  important  reductions  as 
to  the  benefices  of  the  Irish  church.  Mr.  Glad 
stone,  having  become  prime  minister  toward 
the  close  of  the  year  1868,  introduced  in  March, 
1869,  a  new  bill  for  the  disestablishment  and 
disendowment  of  the  Irish  church,  which  was 
passed  by  both  houses  of  parliament,  and  on 
July  26  received  the  royal  assent.  By  this  act 
a  body  of  commissioners  of  church  temporali 
ties  in  Ireland  was  appointed,  in  whom  the 
whole  property  of  the  Irish  church  was  to  be 
vested  from  the  day  the  measure  received  the 
royal  assent.  A  distinction  was  made  between 
public  endowments  (valued  at  £15,500,000), 
including  everything  in  the  nature  of  a  state 
grant  or  revenue,  which  were  to  be  resumed 
by  the  state,  and  private  endowments  (valued 
at  £500,000),  which  were  defined  as  money 
contributed  from  private  sources  since  1660, 
and  which  were  to  be  restored  to  the  disestab 
lished  church.  Provision  was  made  for  com 
pensation  to  vested  interests  (including  May- 
nooth  college  and  the  rcgium  donum  of  the 
Presbyterians),  the  largest  of  which  in  the  ag 
gregate  were  those  of  incumbents,  to  each  of 
whom  was  secured  during  his  life,  provided  he 
continued  to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  bene 
fice,  the  amount  to  which  he  was  entitled,  de 
ducting  the  amount  he  might  have  paid  for 
curates ;  or  the  interest  might  under  certain 
circumstances  be  commuted  upon  his  applica 
tion  for  a  life  annuity.  Other  personal  inter 
ests  provided  for  were  those  of  curates,  perma 
nent  and  temporary,  and  lay  compensations, 
j  including  claims  of  parish  clerks  and  sextons. 
!  The  aggregate  of  the  payments  would  amount 
'  to  about  £8,000,000,  leaving  about  £7,500,000, 
giving  an  annual  income  of  about  £80,000,  at 
the  disposal  of  parliament.  AVhen  the  affairs 
of  the  establishment  should  be  wound  up,  the 
commissioners  were  to  report  to  the  queen 
that  the  objects  immediately  contemplated  by 
the  act  had  all  been  provided  for,  and  to  re 
port  the  amount  of  surplus  available  for  chari 
table  purposes.  The  actual  disestablishment 
provided  for  by  the  Irish  church  act  took 
effect  on  Jan.  1,  1871,  when  all  church  prop 
erty  became  vested  in  the  church  temporali 
ties  commissioners,  and  the  right  of  the  Irish 
bishops  to  sit  in  the  house  of  lords  ceased. 
Previously  a  general  convention  held  in  Dub 
lin  in  1870  adopted  a  constitution  for  the 


362 


IRELAND 


IRENJSUS 


church  of  Ireland.  The  church  is  governed 
by  a  general  synod,  meeting  annually  in  Dub 
lin,  and  consisting  of  a  house  of  bishops  and  a 
house  of  clerical  and  lay  delegates.  The  house 
of  bishops  have  the  right  of  veto,  and  their 
veto  prevails  also  at  the  n^xt  synod.  The 
bishops  are  elected  by  the  diocesan  convention, 
but  whenever  the  latter  fails  to  elect  a  candi 
date  by  a  majority  of  two  thirds  of  each  order, 
the  election  devolves  upon  the  house  of  bish 
ops.  The  primate  (archbishop  of  Armagh) 
is  elected  by  the  bench  of  bishops  out  of 
their  own  order.  The  property  of  the  church 
is  vested  in  a  "representative  church  body," 
which  is  composed  of  all  the  archbishops  and 
bishops,  of  one  general  and  two  lay  representa 
tives  for  each  diocese,  and  12  coopted  mem 
bers.  At  the  first  general  synod  of  the  church 
several  resolutions  against  the  introduction  of 
ritualistic  practices  were  adopted.  As  late  as 
1833  the  church  of  Ireland,  notwithstanding 
its  small  membership,  had  four  archbishoprics 
and  18  bishoprics ;  in  that  year  the  number 
of  archbishoprics  was  reduced  to  two,  Dublin 
and  Armagh ;  and  the  number  of  bishoprics  to 
ten.  five  for  each  archbishopric.  The  number 
of  oenefices  in  1873  was  1,548;  the  number  of 
curates  022.  The  population  connected  with 
the  church  of  Ireland,  according  to  the  census 
of  1861,  was  693,357,  or  11-9  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population;  in  1871,  683,295,  or  10  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population.  Immediately  on 
the  passing  of  the  Irish  church  act,  the  church 
temporalities  commissioners  took  charge  of  all 
the  property  formerly  belonging  to  the  estab 
lished  church,  and  issued  forms  of  claims  to  be 
filled  up  by  clergymen  or  other  persons  en 
titled  to  receive  a  continuance  of  clerical  in 
come  or  compensation.  The  total  number  of 
clergy  and  officers  who  had  commuted  under 
the  provisions  of  the  act  to  the  end  of  1873, 
when  the  time  expired,  was  6,162,  of  wrhom 
1,459  were  incumbents,  921  curates,  579  non 
conformist  ministers,  and  3,203  church  officers. 
The  total  number  of  non-commutants  was  415, 
of  whom  20  were  incumbents,  15  curates,  30 
nonconformist  clergy,  and  300  church  officers. 
The  total  amount  of  commutation  paid  in  re 
spect  of  claims  investigated  up  to  February, 
1873,  was  £8,259,673. 

IRELAND.  I.  Samuel,  an  English  engraver 
and  author,  born  in  London,  died  there  in 
July,  1800.  After  learning  engraving,  he  be 
came  a  dealer  in  curiosities,  scarce  books, 
prints,  &c.,  but  ultimately  turned  tourist  and 
author.  lie  visited  Holland,  Brabant,  France, 
and  various  parts  of  England,  and  published 
several  illustrated  works  of  travel  and  scenery, 
none  of  which  have  now  much  interest  or  repu 
tation,  lie  also  published  "Graphic  Illustra 
tions  of  Hogarth"  (1794-'9).  II.  William  Hen 
ry,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London  in 
1777,  died  there,  April  17,  1835.  He  was 
educated  in  France,  and  at  the  age  of  16  was 
apprenticed  to  a  conveyancer  in  his  native 
city.  Having  accompanied  his  father  to  Strat- 


ford-upon-Avon,  and  noticing  his  enthusiasm 
for  Shakespearian  relics,  he  forged  a  deed  or 
lease  containing  a  pretended  autograph  of  the 
poet,  which  he  said  he  had  found  among  some 
old  huv  papers.  The  eagerness  with  which  his 
father  believed  this  tale  induced  him  to  manu 
facture  other  documents  of  the  same  descrip 
tion  ;  and  he  finally  produced  a  play  called 
"  Vortigern,"  purporting  to  be  by  Shakespeare. 
It  deceived  many  literary  men,  and  Sheridan 
purchased  it  for  Drury  Lane  theatre,  where  it 
was  produced  with  John  Kemble  in  the  leading 
part;  but  the  total  failure  of  the  play,  joined 
with  the  attacks  of  Malone  and  others,  soon 
led  to  a  general  conviction  of  young  Ireland's 
dishonesty.  "Vortigern"  and  "Henry  II.,"  a 
similar  production,  were  printed  in  1799,  and 
the  former  was  republished  in  1832,  with  a 
facsimile  of  the  original  forgery.  Being  re 
quired  to  show  the  source  from  which  he  had 
derived  the  manuscripts,  he  confessed  his  de 
ception,  left  his  father's  house,  and  abandoned 
his  profession.  lie  passed  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  literary  pursuits,  publishing  several  novels 
which  never  had  much  popularity,  "Neglected 
Genius,"  a  poern  (1812),  &c.  A  new  edition 
of  his  "Confessions"  (1805),  containing  a  full 
account  of  his  literary  forgeries,  was  publish 
ed  in  New  York  in  1874,  with  additional  fac 
similes,  and  an  introduction  by  Richard  Grant 
White. 

IRENMJS,  Saint,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the 
church,  supposed  to  have  been  born  near  Smyr 
na  about  135,  died  in  Lyons  about  202.  In  a 
letter  to  the  Valentinian  Florinus,  Irenaeus  re 
minds  him  of  their  having  been  both  disciples 
of  Polycarp ;  he  also  studied  under  Papias,  ac 
cording  to  Jerome.  He  probably  accompanied 
Pothinus  into  Gaul,  was  ordained  priest  by 
him,  and  labored  under  him  among  the  Greek 
colonists  on  the  Rhone.  In  the  beginning  of 
177  he  was  sent  to  Rome  by  the  church  of  Ly 
ons  and  Vienne,  to  consult  with  Pope  Eleuthe- 
rus  about  the  spread  of  the  Montanistic  doc 
trines,  and  was  while  there  elected  and  conse 
crated  bishop  of  Lyons.  In  the  controversy 
relating  to  the  celebration  of  Easter,  Irenasus 
acted  as  mediator  between  the  eastern  bishops 
and  Pope  Victor  I.  About  181  he  published 
in  five  books  his  work  Adversus  Hcereses,  which 
is  considered  the  most  valuable  relic  of  early 
patristic  literature.  Of  the  original  Greek, 
only  the  greater  part  of  the  first  book  has  been 
preserved  in  the  writings  of  Epiphanius  and  of 
Hippolytus,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Irengeus;  but 
the  existing  Latin  version,  in  five  books,  is  very 
ancient,  and  perhaps  contemporary  with  the 
author.  Four  Greek  fragments  of  other  com 
positions  attributed  to  him  were  discovered  by 
Pfaff  at  Turin  in  1715.  The  first  edition  of 
his  works  is  that  of  Erasmus  (Basel,  1526,  fre 
quently  republished);  the  best  are  those  of 
Grabe  (Oxford,  1702),  Massuet  (Paris,  1710, 
and  Venice,  1734),  Stieren  (Leipsic,  1851-'3), 
Harvey  (Cambridge,  1857),  and  in  vol.  vii.  of 
Migne's  Patrologie  grecque. 


IRENE 


IRIS 


363 


IRENE,  a  Byzantine  empress,  born  of  obscure 
parentage  in  Athens  about  752,  died  on  the 
isle  of  Lesbos,  Aug.  15,  803.  She  was  an  or 
phan,  and  17  years  old  when  her  beauty  and 
genius  attracted  the  attention  of  the  emperor 
Constantino  V.  Copronymus,  who  destined  her 
to  be  the  wife  of  his  son  and  heir  Leo.  Their 
nuptials  were  celebrated  with  royal  splendor 
at  Constantinople  in  769.  Her  husband  com 
pelled  her  to  abandon  the  worship  of  images, 
but  she  gained  his  love  and  confidence,  and 
was  appointed  in  his  testament  (780)  to  ad 
minister  the  government  during  the  minority 
of  their  son  Constantine  VI.,  then  nine  years 
old.  In  786  she  assembled  at  Constantinople 
a  council  to  restore  images  in  the  churches; 
but  it  was  interrupted  by  the  garrison  of  the 
capital.  In  the  following  year  she  called  an 
other  council  at  Nica^a,  in  which  the  veneration 
of  images  was  declared  agreeable  to  Scripture 
and  reason,  and  to  the  fathers  and  councils  of 
the  church.  Constantine  was  encouraged  by 
his  favorites  to  throw  off  the  maternal  yoke, 
and  planned  the  perpetual  banishment  of  Irene 
to  Sicily.  Her  vigilance  disconcerted  the  pro 
ject,  but,  while  the  two  factions  divided  the 
court,  the  Armenian  guards  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  fidelity  which  she  exacted  to  herself 
alone,  and  Constantine  became  lawful  emperor. 
Irene  was  dismissed  to  a  life  of  solitude  in 
one  of  the  imperial  palaces,  but  her  intrigues 
led  to  several  conspiracies  for  her  restoration. 
On  the  return  of  Constantine  from  an  expedi 
tion  against  the  Arabs  in  797,  he  was  assailed 
in  the  hippodrome  by  assassins,  but  escaped, 
and  fled  to  Phrygia.  Irene  joined  her  son  and 
persuaded  him  to  return  to  the  capital.  There 
he  was  surprised  by  her  emissaries,  and  stab 
bed  in  the  eyes,  but,  according  to  Gibbon, 
survived  many  years.  Irene  ruled  the  empire 
for  five  years  with  prudence  and  energy.  In 
tercourse  was  renewed  between  the  Byzantine 
court  and  that  of  Qharlemagne,  and  she  is  said 
to  have  sent  ambassadors  (about  800)  to  nego 
tiate  a  marriage  between  that  emperor  and  her 
self,  thus  to  unite  the  empires  of  the  East  and 
West ;  but  there  is  reason  to  doubt  that  this 
was  the  object  of  the  embassy.  As  her  golden 
chariot  moved  through  the  streets  of  Constan 
tinople,  the  reins  of  the  four  white  steeds  were 
held  by  as  many  patricians  marching  on  foot. 
Most  of  these  patricians  were  eunuchs;  and 
one  of  them,  the  great  treasurer  Nicephorus, 
having  been  secretly  invested  with  the  purple, 
immediately  caused  her  arrest,  and,  after  treach 
erously  obtaining  possession  of  her  treasures, 
banished  her  to  the  isle  of  Lesbos  (802).  There, 
deprived  of  all  means  of  subsistence,  she  gained 
a  scanty  livelihood  by  spinning,  and  died  of 
grief  within  a  year.  Her  protection  of  image 
worship  has  caused  her  to  be  enrolled  among 
the  saints  in  the  Greek  calendar. 

IRETON,  Henryran  English  soldier,  son-in-law 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  born  in  Nottinghamshire 
in  1610,  died  in  the  camp  before  Limerick, 
Nov.  15,  1651.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  col 


lege,  Oxford,  and  commenced  reading  for  the 
law ;  but  his  studies  were  interrupted  by  the 
civil  war,  and  he  joined  the  parliamentary 
army.  At  the  battle  of  Naseby  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  but  escaped.  Having  married  Brid 
get  Cromwell,  Oliver's  eldest  daughter,  in 
1646,  he  was  appointed  captain  of  horse,  and 
soon  afterward  colonel.  Ireton  was  one  of 
the  most  active  in  compassing  the  death  of  the 
king,  and  signed  the  death  warrant.  Under 
the  protectorate  Cromwell  made  him  president 
of  Munster  and  afterward  lord  deputy  of  Ire 
land,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  with  much 
administrative  vigor,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  island  submitted  to  him  without  resistance. 
He  died  of  the  plague.  His  body  was  carried 
to  London,  and  buried  in  the  chapel  of  Henry 
VII.  in  Westminster  abbey.  On  the  restora 
tion  his  remains  were  exhumed,  exposed  on  a 
gibbet,  and  burned  by  the  hangman  at  Tyburn. 
The  royalists  admitted  his  ability,  but  de 
nounced  him  as  treacherous  and  hypocritical ; 
his  friends  eulogized  his  sanctity  and  talents. 
From  his  skill  in  drawing  up  ordinances,  peti 
tions,  and  declarations,  he  was  called  "the 
scribe."  A  pension  of  £2,000  from  the  con 
fiscated  estates  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  re 
fused  by  him,  was  settled  on  his  family. 

IRIARTE.     See  YHIAETE. 

IRIDIUM  (Lat.  iris,  rainbow),  a  metal  so 
named  from  the  colors  exhibited  by  its  solu 
tions;  symbol,  Ir;  chemical  equivalent,  98>56. 
It  was  discovered  by  Descotils  in  1803,  and  by 
Smithson  Tennant  in  1804.  It  occurs  native 
and  nearly  pure,  also  associated  with  osmium, 
platinum,  and  rhodium,  and  in  alloys  of  various 
proportions  of  these  metals.  An  alloy  of  one 
fifth  platinum  and  four  fifths  iridium  has  been 
met  with  in  octahedral  crystals  whiter  than 
platinum,  and  of  specific  gravity  22*06.  When 
native  platinum  is  dissolved  in  nitro-hydro- 
chloric  acid,  black  scales  remain  behind,  which 
are  composed  of  iridium  and  osmium.  These 
metals  may  then  be  separated  by  one  of  the 
methods  in  use,  and  the  iridium  is  obtained 
in  a  gray  metallic  powder,  resembling  spongy 
platinum.  It  is  very  hard,  white,  and  brittle, 
and  may  be  melted  on  lime  by  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe,  or  by  the  heat  of  the  voltaic  cur 
rent.  When  thus  fused  it  has  the  specific 
gravity  of  21 '15.  None  of  the  acids  attack 
the  pure  metal,  but  when  alloyed  with  plati 
num  it  is  readily  dissolved  by  aqua  regia, 
Iridium  black,  similar  to  platinum  black,  may 
be  obtained  by  decomposing  a  solution  of  its 
sulphate  by  alcohol.  If  heated  in  a  finely  di 
vided  state  in  the  open  air,  iridium  absorbs 
oxygen ;  it  is  also  oxidized  by  nitre  and  caustic 
potash.  Small  grains  of  iridium  containing  a 
little  platinum  are  picked  out  from  the  grains 
of  the  latter  metal,  and  from  their  extreme 
hardness  make  excellent  nibs  for  gold  pens. 

IRIS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  daughter  of  the 
sea  god  Thaumas  and  of  the  oceanide  Electra, 
and  sister  of  the  Harpies.  According  to  some 
writers  she  was  a  virgin ;  others  make  her  the 


IRIS 


IRKUTSK 


wife  of  Zephyrus  and  mother  of  Eros.  She 
was  the  personification  of  the  rainbow,  and 
messenger  of  the  gods. 

IRIS,  in  botany,  the  generic  name  of  a  num 
ber  of  beautiful  plants  belonging  to  the  natu 
ral  order  iridacece.  The  plants  of  this  order 
are  endogenous,  having  a  creeping  rootstock 
(rhizoma),  or  else  a  flat  tuber  (cormus),  equitant 
leaves,  irregular  flowers,  three  stamens,  and  an 
inferior  ovary.  They  are  represented  equally 
in  the  temperate  and  hotter  regions  of  the 
globe.  The  wild  species  of  iris  are  generally 
called  blue-flag,  and  the  cultivated  flower-de- 
luce,  from  the  French  Jieur  de  Louis,  it  having 
been  the  device  of  Louis  VII.  of  France.  Our 
commonest  blue-flag,  I.  versicolor,  is  a  widely 
distributed  plant,  its  violet-blue  flowers,  upon 
stems  1  to  3  ft.  high,  being  conspicuous  in  wet 
places  in  early  summer ;  the  root  of  this  pos 
sesses  cathartic  and  diuretic  properties,  and  is 
used  by  some  practitioners.  The  slender  blue- 
flag,  /.  Virginica,  found  in  similar  localities 
near  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  smaller  in  all  its 
parts.  A  yellowish  or  reddish  brown  species, 
resembling  the  first  named  in  appearance,  is 
/.  cuprea,  found  in  Illinois  and  southward. 
There  are  three  native  species  which  grow 
only  about  6  in.  high  and  have  blue  flowers : 
/.  verna  and  /.  cri&tata,  in  Virginia  and  south 
ward,  and  /.  lacustris,  on  the  shores  of  the 
great  lakes ;  these  are  sometimes  seen  as  gar 
den  plants.  The  orris  root  of  the  shops  is  the 


Iris  Florentine 

produce  of  1.  Florentina,  I.  pallida,  and  /. 
Germanica,  which  grow  wild  in  the  south  of 
Europe;  the  rhizomes  are  pared  and  dried, 
and  exported  from  Trieste  and  Leghorn,  chief 
ly  for  the  use  of  perfumers;  they  have  the 
odor  of  violets.  The  garden  species  of  iris  are 
numerous,  and  these  by  hybridizing  and  cross 
ing  have  produced  a  great  many  known  only 
by  garden  names.  The  dwarf  iris,  /.  pumila, 
from  3  to  6  in.  high,  flowers  very  early  and 


makes  good  edgings  to  borders ;  the  common 
flower-de-luce  of  the  gardens  is  /.  Germanica; 
the  elder-scented  flower-de-luce  is  /.  sambucina. 
There  are  several  with  yellow  and  brownish 
flowers,  among  which  are  /.  pseudacorus  and 
/.  flavescens;  the  recently  introduced  /.  Ifierica 


Mourning  Iris  (Iris  Susiana). 

presents  a  remarkable  combination  of  colors. 
These  and  many  others  are  hardy  in  our  cli 
mate,  and  readily  multiplied  by  division  of 
their  rootstocks.  /.  Susiana,  the  mourning  or 
crape  iris,  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  genus,  its 
flowers  being  very  large,  dotted  and  striped 
with  purple  on  a  gray  ground.  In  the  north 
ern  states  it  needs  winter  protection.  There  are 
several  species  of  iris  with  bulbous  roots,  and 
highly  ornamental,  such  as  the  Spanish  iris  (/. 
xiphoides)  and  the  Persian  iris  (/.  Persica), 
with  exquisitely  scented  blossoms  of  an  ele 
gant  pearly  whitish  hue,  admirably  adapted  to 
forcing  in  pots  for  the  drawing  room. 

IRISH  MOSS.     See  CAKRAGEEN. 

IRISH  SEA,  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  ocean 
which  lies  between  Scotland  on  the  north, 
England  on  the  east,  Wales  on  the  south,  and 
Ireland  on  the  west.  It  contains  the  isle  of 
Man,  Anglesea,  Holyhead,  and  a  few  islets, 
Carnarvon  and  Morecambe  bays,  and  the  estu 
aries  of  the  Dee,  Mersey,  and  Ribble,  are  its 
inlets  in  England ;  Solway  frith,  Wigtown  and 
Luce  bays,  in  Scotland;  and  Dundrum,  Car- 
lingford,  Dundalk,  and  Dublin  bays,  in  Ireland. 
The  principal  rivers  flowing  into  it  from  Great 
Britain  are  the  Esk,  Ribble,  Mersey,  and  Dee; 
from  Ireland,  the  Liffey  and  the  Boyne. 

IRKUTSK.  I.  A  government  of  Asiatic  Rus 
sia,  in  the  S.  part  of  E.  Siberia,  bordering  on 
Mongolia;  area,  271,875  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
365,810.  The  continuations  of  the  Altai  moun 
tains  form  its  S.  boundary.  The  surface  is  ele 
vated,  the  general  level  in  the  north  and  east 
being  from  2,500  to  3,000  ft.,  and  that  in  the 
south  1,200  to  2,000  ft.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Angara,-  Lena,  and  several  smaller  rivers,  and 


IROX 


365 


contains  Lake  Baikal.  It  is  rich  in  minerals, 
among  which  are  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron. 
Extensive  forests,  furnishing  excellent  timber, 
and  abounding  in  all  kinds  of  game,  occupy  a 
large  portion  of  the  country;  and  agriculture 
is  prosperously  conducted,  barley  and  rye  be 
ing  the  principal  crops.  The  pastures  support 
great  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The  sum 
mers  are  short,  but  very  warm  and  generally 
clear,  while  the  winters  are  so  cold  that  some 
times  mercury  freezes.  A  considerable  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  are  descendants  of  Russian 
exiles,  and  the  majority  of  the  natives  are 
Mongols,  Tunguses,  and  Buriats.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  government  and  of  E.  Siberia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Lower  Angara,  about 
35  m.  from  its  source  in  Lake  Baikal ;  pop. 
about  30,000.  It  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Ushakovka,  a  small  tributary  of 
the  Angara,  and  opposite  the  confluence  of  the 
Irkut  with  the  latter  river.  It  is  well  built, 
paved,  and  lighted.  The  principal  streets  run 
parallel  with  the  Angara,  on  the  banks  of 
which  are  the  exchange,  the  admiralty  offices 
and  dockyards,  the  governor  general's  palace, 
and  various  government  factories  and  work 
shops  in  which  convicts  are  employed.  In  the 
centre  of  the  city  is  a  handsome  public  square, 
on  which  front  the  houses  of  many  of  the  func 
tionaries,  and  the  guard  house.  The  school 
of  medicine,  the  gymnasium,  and  the  former 
depot  of  the  Russian  American  company  are 
line  and  spacious.  There  are  many  public 
schools,  a  high  school  for  navigation,  a  female 
orphan  school,  a  theatre,  and  a  good  bazaar. 
The  city  is  fortified,  and  has  a  citadel.  It  con 
tains  15  churches,  and  numerous  convents  and 
hospitals,  and  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop. 
Nearly  all  the  houses  are  of  wood,  neatly 
planked,  and  painted  yellow  or  gray.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  woollens,  linens, 
leather,  glass,  and  soap.  The  trade  of  Irkutsk 
is  important.  It  is  the  great  commercial  en 
trepot  between  the  Chinese  empire  and  Euro 
pean  Russia,  exporting  to  the  latter  tea,  rhu 
barb,  fruits,  porcelain,  paper,  silk,  &c.,  in  ex 
change  for  furs,  metals,  and  various  European 
goods.  It  has  a  great  fair  in  June. 

IRON,  one  of  the  elementary  substances,  pos 
sessing  when  pure  the  following  characters: 
specific  gravity,  8*1393  (Percy) ;  hardness,  4'5 ; 
crystalline  form,  isometric;  color,  silver-gray; 
lustre,  metallic;  atomic  weight,  56  (O  =  16); 
specific  heat,  0-113795.  Its  symbol  is  Fe  (fer- 
rum).  Although  seldom  found  native,  and 
never  pure,  iron  is  the  most  universally  and 
extensively  distributed  of  metals.  It  occurs 
in  large  deposits  in  the  form  of  oxide,  and 
constitutes  an  ingredient  of  nearly  all  rocks, 
soils,  and  natural  waters.  So-called  chalybeate 
mineral  springs  contain  it  in  relatively  large 
amounts.  As  a  consequence  of  this  wide  distri 
bution  in  the  inorganic  world,  it  is  found  also 
in  vegetable  and  animal  organisms,  constituting 
0-07  per  cent,  of  the  blood,  or  5 '5  to  8 '5  per 
cent,  of  the  ash  of  blood.  Pure  iron  is  un 


known  in  the  arts ;  and,  owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  procuring  it  on  a  large  scale,  its  properties 
have  been  but  slightly  investigated.  Peligot 
states  that  iron  prepared  by  the  reduction  of 
its  protochloride  by  hydrogen,  is  filamentous, 
compact,  malleable,  and  almost  as  white  as  sil 
ver.  Iron  deposited  by  the  galvanic  battery  is 
grayish  white  and  susceptible  of  a  high  polish  ; 
it  is  scarcely  attacked  by  sulphuric  or  muriatic 
acid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  is  dissolved 
on  application  of  heat,  evolving  hydrogen  free 
from  fetid  odor  (in  contradistinction  from 
manufactured  iron).  Its  malleability  is  not  af 
fected  by  rapid  cooling  after  exposure  to  a  high 
temperature.  Iron  may  be  rendered  strongly 
magnetic  by  induction,  but  loses  its  magnetic 
power,  wThen  pure,  as  soon  as  the  source  of 
magnetism,  is  removed.  Throughout  a  wide 
range  of  temperature,  from  red  heat  to  near 
its  melting  point,  iron  is  more  or  less  plastic. 
At  red  heat  it  is  readily  forged  under  the 
hammer,  and  at  white  heat  two  masses  of  iron 
can  be  firmly  and  intimately  incorporated  with 
each  other  (welded)  by  hammering  or  pressure. 
Welding,  though  not  exclusively  a  property  of 
iron,  is  possessed  by  no  other  metal  to  so  great 
a  degree.  It  is  volatilized  in  the  heat  of  the 
voltaic  arch. — Iron  is  a  metal  of  active  chemi 
cal  affinities,  and  enters  into  a  large  number  of 
compounds.  It  combines  with  oxygen  in  four 
proportions,  as  follows : 


COMPOUNDS  WITH  OXYGEN. 


For-    [    Iron,     Oxyjren 
mula.  |  per  c't.   per  c'U 


Ferrous  oxide  (protoxide  of  iron) 1  FeO  !  7T-7T    22 -23 

Ferric  oxide  (sesquioxide  of  iron) iFeaOa|  70 '00  ,  30 '00 

Ferroso-ferric  oxide  (protosesquioxide  h™.,  /-»     VO-AI  '  07-^0 

of  iron ;  magnetic  oxide). . .   f  '  Fe3O<  72  4 

Ferric  acid FeO3     53'SO    46'20 


Metallic  iron  rusts  when  exposed  to  moist  air, 
and  is  gradually  and  completely  converted  into 
oxide.  Mr.  Grace  Calvert,  investigating  the 
conditions  necessary  or  favorable  to  the  rust 
ing  of  iron,  has  found  that  it  is  not  acted  upon 
by  pure,  dry  oxygen  or  carbonic  acid,  while  it 
is  feebly  attacked  by  moist  oxygen  or  carbonic 
acid,  and  most  rapidly  by  moist  oxygen  con 
taining  traces  of  carbonic  acid,  which  forms 
first  oxide,  then  ferrous  carbonate,  and  finally 
hydrated  sesquioxide,  with  admixtures  of  fer 
rous  oxide  and  carbonate.  Carbonic  acid  and 
water  likewise  act  with  energy.  Solutions  of 
alkaline  hydrates,  carbonates,  or  bicarbonatcs 
prevent  the  rusting  of  iron,  while  a  solution 
of  sugar  promotes  it.  The  oxidation  of  iron 
may  be  hindered  by  attaching  it  to  a  more 
electro-positive  metal,  such  as  zinc,  or  promo 
ted  by  the  presence  of  a  more  electro-negative 
metal,  such  as  copper.  Under  ordinary  cir 
cumstances  zinc  will  protect  iron  when  it  cov 
ers  only  3^5-  of  the  surface  of  the  latter,  but 
in  a  solution  of  sugar  the  proportion  of  sur 
face  covered  by  zinc  must  be  1  to  15.  The  fol 
lowing  analysis  by  Grace  Calvert  gives  the 
composition  of  rust  from  Llangollen,  Wales : 


366 


IRON 


Ferric  oxide 93'094  i  Silica 0'196 

Ferrous  oxide 5'  810    Ammonia trace. 

Ferrous  carbonate. . .  .     0'  6(»5 


Calcic  carbonate. ..     .     0'295 


lOO'OOO 


Iron  decomposes  steam  at  a  red  heat  and  is 
converted  into  oxide,  hydrogen  being  libe 
rated.  But-  hydrogen  passed  over  oxide  of 
iron  at  a  red  heat  reduces  it  to  metallic  iron, 
water  being  formed.  The  character  of  the  ac 
tion  is  here  determined  by  the  relative  amounts 
of  free  hydrogen  and  steam.  If  the  former 
predominates,  reduction  takes  place ;  if  the 
latter,  oxidation.  Dilute  mineral  acids  dissolve 
iron,  converting  it  into  a  ferrous  salt,  hydro 
gen  being  evolved.  Under  certain  circum 
stances  iron  becomes  "passive,"  and  is  not 
attacked  by  strong  acids.  This  condition  is 
brought  about  in  various  ways,  and  seems  to 
be  connected  with  a  superficial  oxidation  of 
the  iron.  Iron  burns  with  brilliancy  in  oxy 
gen  gas.  Reduced  by  hydrogen  from  finely 
pulverized  oxide,  it  burns  readily  in  the  air, 
taking  fire  spontaneously  when  the  tempera 
ture  of  reduction  has  not  been  too  high,  but 
otherwise  requiring  to  be  first  ignited.  Fer 
rous  oxide  possesses  so  strong  an  affinity  for 
oxygen  that  it  is  isolated  with  difficulty.  Its 
salts  are  permanent  when  crystallized,  but 
rapidly  absorb  oxygen  when  exposed  to  the  air 
in  solution.  Ferrous  carbonate  occurs  abun 
dantly  in  nature.  The  most  important  ferrous 
salt  is  the  sulphate,  commonly  called  green 
vitriol  or  copperas,  obtained  as  an  incidental 
product  in  many  metallurgical  operations,  and 
applied  to  manifold  uses  in  the  arts.  It  forms 
a  number  of  double  salts  with  other  sulphates. 
Ferric  oxide  occurs  abundantly  in  nature.  (See 
IEOX  ORES.)  It  may  be  prepared  artificially 
by  precipitating  the  hydrate  from  solution  and 
subsequently  igniting  it,  and  also  by  simple  ig 
nition  of  the  sulphate  or  nitrate ;  its  powder 
is  red.  Ferric  oxide  and  its  salts  are  stable  in 
the  air,  but  part  with  a  portion  of  oxygen 
when  in  contact  with  organic  matter ;  a  famil 
iar  instance  is  the  rotting  of  fabrics  of  cotton 
or  linen  by  "iron  mould."  On  this  property 
depends  the  disinfecting  power  of  iron  com 
pounds.  Ferric  oxide  acts  also  as  a  carrier  of 
oxygen.  Bischof  has  shown  that  spongy  me 
tallic  iron  is  a  powerful  disinfectant,  probably 
first  becoming  oxidized  itself,  and  subsequently 
parting  with  its  oxygen  to  the  organic  mat 
ter,  then  becoming  again  oxidized,  and  so  on. 
Ferric  oxide  is  largely  used  in  the  polishing 
of  metals  and  glass.  It  forms  salts  which  do 
not  crystallize  as  readily  as  the  ferrous  salts. 
Ferroso-ferric  oxide,  generally  called  magnetic 
oxide,  is  abundant  in  nature,  and  may  be  re 
garded  as  a  compound  of  the  two  oxides,  and 
its  salts  as  compounds  of  ferrous  and  ferric 
salts ;  it  is  perfectly  stable ;  its  powder  is  black. 
Ferric  acid  is  formed  by  heating  together  fer 
ric  oxide  with  saltpetre ;  it  forms  salts  which 
are  very  unstable. — Iron  combines  with  sul 
phur  in  two  proportions,  forming  a  proto-  and 
a  bisulphide.  The  former  is  largely  used  in 


the  preparation  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  for 
chemical  purposes.  The  latter,  known  as  py- 
rite  or  iron  pyrites,  occurs  abundantly  in  na 
ture,  and  is  used  largely  as  a  source  of  sul 
phur  in  the  preparation  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Iron  forms  a  definite  compound  with  nitro 
gen,  Fe^a;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  nitro 
gen  plays  any  part  in  the  manufacture  of  iron 
or  steel.  Compounds  of  carbon,  phosphorus, 
and  silicon  with  iron  also  exist ;  the  effect  of 
these  substances  on  the  properties  of  iron  is 
discussed  below.  The  compounds  of  iron  with 
chlorine  and  cyanogen  are  of  great  importance 
in  chemistry  and  in  the  arts.  There  are  two 
chlorides,  FeCla  and  FesClc,  corresponding  to 
the  two  oxides,  and  two  double  compounds 
with  cyanogen,  potassic  ferrocyanide  or  yel 
low  prussiate  of  potash,  E^FeCeNe,  and  potas 
sic  ferricyanide,  or  red  prussiate  of  potash, 
K6FeC6Ne,  which  are  valuable  chemical  re 
agents.  The  ferrocyanide  of  iron,  or  Prussian 
blue,  Fe4,  FeCeNe,  is  formed  by  precipitation  of 
a  solution  of  a  ferric  salt  with  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash. — Iron  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  re 
constructive  tonic.  It  is  an  important  constit 
uent  of  the  animal  tissues,  and  under  ordinary 
circumstances  the  supply  normally  present  in 
the  food  is  equal  to  the  demand;  but  when 
the  number  of  red  blood  corpuscles,  which 
contain  much  iron  and  are  the  special  carriers 
of  oxygen,  is  diminished,  then  their  re-forma 
tion  may  be  promoted  by  the  administration 
of  iron  preparations.  This  condition  (anemia) 
is  the  real  indication  for  iron,  most  of  the  special 
diseases  in  which  it  is  used  being  dependent 
upon  or  accompanied  by  this  condition.  Hence 
it  is  largely  used  not  only  in  anaemia,  but  in 
neuralgic  affections,  dropsy,  Bright's  disease, 
scrofulous  affections,  incipient  phthisis,  haemor 
rhages,  the  various  diseases  of  females,  in  the 
convalescence  from  acute  diseases,  and  in  the 
protean  forms  of  debility  and  weakness.  A 
few  of  the  salts  are  astringent,  and  a  portion 
of  their  effect  is  probably  due  to  their  local  ac 
tion  upon  the  stomach.  These  may  be  used 
not  only  as  reconstructive  agents,  but  to  check 
discharges  and  arrest  hemorrhage.  Iron  is 
absorbed  in  small  quantity,  so  that  a  consider 
able  proportion  of  every  dose  passes  through 
the  bowels  unappropriated.  It  may  be  detected 
in  the  urine,  and  the  amount  normally  pres 
ent  has  been  found  increased  in  the  milk  of 
animals  to  which  iron  has  been  administered. 
The  bodily  temperature  is  raised,  the  pulse 
quickened  and  strengthened,  and  the  appetite 
and  nutrition  improved  by  its  administration. 
Headache  and  constipation  are  the  consequences 
of  too  large  doses  or  too  long  continued  use. 
The  number  of  preparations  in  use  is  exceed 
ingly  and  unnecessarily  large,  and  constantly 
increasing.  Among  them  are  metallic  iron,  a 
grayish  powder;  the  protocarbonate,  in  pills 
and  mixture;  the  sulphate;  hydrated  oxide, 
usually  called  subcarbonate ;  tincture  of  the 
chloride ;  wine  of  iron ;  tartrate  of  iron  and 
potassa ;  phosphate,  lactate,  and  iodide ;  citra* 


IRON 


367 


of  iron  and  quinia;  iron  and  strychnia,  &c. 
The  astringent  preparations  are  the  perchlo- 
ride,  subsulphate,  and  ferric  alum.  The  fresh 
ly  precipitated  sesquioxide  is  the  best  antidote 
for  arsenic.  In  cases  of  decided  antenna,  the 
stronger  preparations  of  iron  are  indicated,  as 
the  tincture  of  the  chloride,  the  perchloride, 
and  the  sulphate.  In  other  cases  the  milder 
salts  are  generally  preferred.  The  iodide  of 
iron  is  especially  adapted  to  scrofulous  affec 
tions.  The  addition  to  iron  of  nux  vomica  or 
strychnia,  or  of  bitter  tonics  like  gentian,  often 
enhances  its  therapeutic  action.  The  adminis 
tration  of  iron  is  contra-indicated  by  gastric 
or  gastro-enteric  inflammation,  by  plethora, 
fever,  and  febrile  conditions  generally.  The 
dose  of  iron  varies  with  the  preparation  used. 
It  is  a  sort  of  food,  and  is  best  given  with  or 
near  meals.  During  its  use,  the  faeces  are 
colored  dark  by  it. — In  the  arts,  iron  occurs  in 
three  forms,  as  wrought  iron,  cast  iron,  and 
steel.  Wrought  iron  is  nearly  pure,  and  highly 
malleable,  ductile,  and  weldable.  It  is  fused 
with  difficulty,  and  its  finished  forms  are  there 
fore  generally  wrought  at  a  welding  heat.  It 
contains  invariably  a  small  amount  of  chemi 
cally  combined  carbon,  0*25  per  cent,  or  less, 
and  intermingled  cinder.  Its  specific  gravity 
varies  from  7*3  to  7'8.  Its  temperature  of 
fusion  is  about  1800°  0.  or  3240°  F.  Cast  or 
pig  iron  is  in  most  respects  the  opposite  of 
wrought  iron.  It  is  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
malleable,  ductile,  or  weldable.  It  is  readily 
fusible,  and  is  therefore  always  cast  in  moulds. 
It  is  much  harder  than  wrought  iron,  and  is 
relatively  rigid  and  brittle.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  cast  iron,  exhibiting  great  diversity 
of  properties.  In  color,  the  extremes  are  white 
and  black,  with  a  number  of  intermediate 
shades  of  gray.  The  hardness  and  brittleness 
vary  through  wide  limits.  White  cast  iron  is 
the  hardest,  most  rigid,  and  most  brittle ;  it 
resists  the  action  of  the  file  and  drill,  while 
many  of  the  dark  varieties  can  be  tooled  with 
ease.  The  fusibility  of  the  different  varieties 
of  cast  iron  likewise  differs  greatly.  The  dark 
irons  generally  require  a  high  heat  for  fusion 
and  become  thinly  liquid ;  they  fill  forms  well, 
and,  as  they  expand  in  cooling,  make  sharp 
castings,  and  are  hence  often  called  foundery 
irons.  The  lighter  shades  do  not  become  so 
thinly  liquid  when  fused,  and  as  they  contract 
on  cooling  are  not  adapted  for  castings ;  they 
usually  contain  a  smaller  amount  of  foreign 
matters,  and  hence,  being  adapted  to  conversion 
into  wrought  iron,  are  called  forge  irons.  The 
specific  gravity  of  cast  iron  varies  from  G'9  to 
7'7;  its  fusing  point  is  about  1500°  C.  or  2700° 
F.  The  difference  between  gray  and  white  iron 
is  strongly  marked  in  the  molten  condition,  as 
they  flow  from  the  furnace.  Dark  cast  iron 
flo\vs  quickly  and  sets  without  any  movement 
of  the  surface ;  when  hard,  the  upper  surface 
is  smooth  and  convex.  White  iron  emits  an 
abundance  of  brilliant  sparks,  and  its  surface 
is  vigorously  agitated  by  the  formation  of  crys- 
VOL.  ix. — 24 


tals ;  the  forms  of  the  crystals  are  characteris 
tic  of  the  grade  of  the  iron ;  when  hard,  the 
surface  is  honeycombed  and  depressed.  There 
are  two  other  varieties  of  cast  iron :  specu 
lar  iron,  or  Spicy eleisen,  and  silvery  or  glazy 
iron.  They  are  both  white,  but  differ  in  char 
acter  and  composition  from  each  other  and 
from  ordinary  white  iron.  Chemically,  cast 
iron  is  further  removed  than  wrought  iron 
from  the  pure  metal ;  it  always  contains  from 
2  to  5  per  cent,  of  carbon.  The  union  of  the 
carbon  with  the  iron  may  be  either  chemical 
or  mechanical,  and  usually  both  conditions  are 
present  in  the  same  mass.  The  result  of  the 
chemical  union  of  iron  and  carbon  is  white 
iron,  while  the  mechanical  mixture  of  iron 
with  black  scales  of  graphite  is  dark-colored; 
the  preponderance  of  one  or  the  other  of 
these  conditions  gives  the  various  shades  from 
black  to  white.  Sometimes  cast  iron  is  com 
posed  of  a  mixture  of  white  and  gray  iron 
in  patches;  the  iron  is  then  called  mottled. 
The  different  grades  of  pig  iron  are  general 
ly  designated  by  numbers.  No.  1  stands  for 
highly  graphitic  open-grained  iron,  and  Nos. 
2,  3,  and  4  for  the  lighter  and  more  compact 
varieties,  passing  toward  white.  Mottled  and 
white  irons  are  generally  designated  by  name. 
Malleable  castings  (see  IRON  MANUFACTURE) 
are  cast  iron  which  has  been  rendered  partially 
malleable  without  alteration  of  form. — Steel 
holds,  both  in  physical  properties  and  in 
chemical  composition,  an  intermediate  position 
between  cast  and  wrought  iron.  It  may  be 
considered  as  a  compound  of  iron  with  0*25  to 
2  per  cent,  of  carbon.  The  limits  given  for 
carbon  in  wrought  iron,  steel,  and  cast  iron, 
viz.,  0'25  per  cent,  or  less  in  wrought  iron, 
0'25  to  2  per  cent,  in  steel,  and  from  2  to  5 
per  cent,  in  cast  iron,  are  to  be  regarded  as  ap 
proximate  only.  No  sharp  and  accurate  dis 
tinction,  based  on  chemical  composition,  can  be 
drawn  between  these  three  varieties  of  iron. 
Steel  with  the  minimum  of  carbon  (mild  or 
soft  steel)  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from 
wrought  iron ;  it  exhibits  the  properties  of 
malleability,  ductility,  and  weldability  nearly 
to  an  equal  degree  with  wrought  iron ;  while 
steel  with  the  maximum  of  carbon  (strong  or 
hard  steel)  approximates  so  nearly  to  cast  iron 
that  the  above  properties  are  almost  entirely 
wanting.  The  fusing  point  of  steel  is  interme 
diate  between  those  of  cast  and  wrought  iron. 
The  properties  that  preeminently  characterize 
steel  are  connected  with  hardening  and  temper 
ing.  When  heated  to  redness  and  sudden 
ly  cooled  by  plunging  into  water  or  other 
liquid,  it  becomes  hard  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  carbon  it  contains,  the  temperature 
to  which  it  has  been  raised,  and  the  rate  of 
cooling.  Such  hardened  steel,  being  again 
heated  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly  in  the  air, 
loses  its  hardness  to  a  degree  proportional  to 
the  temperature  to  which  it  was  reheated. 
This  process  is  called  tempering.  Hardening 
and  tempering  are  generally  regarded  as  pe- 


368 


IKON 


culiar  to  steel ;  but,  properly  considered,  they 
belong  to  all  compounds  of  iron  and  carbon. 
"Wrought  iron  contains  too  little  carbon  to 
show  much  hardening  when  rapidly  cooled 
from  a  high  temperature,  but  it  is  generally 
rendered  more  rigid  by  such  treatment.  Cast 
iron  becomes  very  hard  and  brittle  on  sudden 
cooling,  but,  since  it  is  much  more  complex  "in 
composition  than  steel,  the  circumstances  con 
trolling  the  hardening  are  not  so  well  under 
stood.  Cast  iron  which  has  been  hardened 
may  by  a  process  of  tempering  be  rendered 
soft  again.  The  precise  nature  of  the  harden 
ing  process  is  not  understood.  It  has  been 
supposed  to  result  from  a  chemical  union  of 
the  carbon  with  the  iron,  formed  at  high  tem 
perature,  and  maintained  under  rapid,  but  re 
solved  by  slow  cooling.  It  has  also  been  ascribed 
to  a  state  of  tension  or  polarity  of  the  particles, 
which  is  relieved  by  tempering.  In  the  case 
of  cast  iron  a  change  in  the  condition  of  the 
carbon  may  be  often  observed;  some  dark 
graphitic  irons  become  perfectly  white  (chill) 
on  sudden  cooling.  As  to  the  character  of  the 
union  of  iron  and  carbon  in  cast  iron,  a  dif 
ference  of  opinion  exists.  Gurlt,  Mayrhofer, 
Hahn,  and  others,  have  endeavored  to  estab 
lish  the  existence  of  definite  combinations  of 
iron  and  carbon,  such  as  FeC,  Fe2C,  Fe4C, 
Fe8C,  and  suppose  the  different  varieties  of 
cast  iron  to  be  compounds  or  mixtures  of  these 
definite  carburets  with  iron.  The  formula  of 
spiegeleisen,  in  which  the  carbon  is  all  com 
bined,  was  supposed  by  Karsten  to  be  expressed 
by  Fe4C,  which  would  require  5'8  per  cent, 
carbon,  but  this  amount  is  never  found  in  re 
ality.  Gurlt  proposed  a  lower  carbide,  Fe8C, 
which  he  supposed  to  stand  in  the  same  rela 
tion  to  gray  iron  as  Karsten's  tetracarbide  did 
to  white  iron.  These  formulas,  although  in 
teresting  and  attractive  in  a  theoretical  point 
of  view,  must  be  regarded  as  purely  imaginary. 
Isolated  analyses  may  seem  to  indicate  their 
existence,  but  extended  investigations  show 
that  the  variations  of  composition  in  cast  iron 
are  too  great  to  admit  of  any  definite  formu 
las.  In  the  molten  condition  all  the  carbon  is 
most  probably  combined  with  the  iron.  The 
separation  of  carbon  as  graphite  takes  place  on 
cooling,  and  the  amount  separated  is,  other 
things  being  equal,  determined  by  the  rate  of 
cooling.  When  we  consider  the  number  of 
factors  that  enter  into  the  case,  it  is  not  sur 
prising  that  we  fail  to  detect  any  regularity  in 
the  composition  of  cast  iron.  Durre  proposes 
a  classification  of  cast  iron  based  on  physical 
characters.  He  considers  all  pig  irons  to  be 
mixtures  of  two  different  substances,  namely, 
graphite  and  a  white  or  light  gray  matrix  or 
ground  mass,  lie  recognizes  three  types  of 
iron,  represented  by  spiegeleisen,  in  which  the 
ground  mass  forms  bold,  brilliant,  reed-like 
bundles  of  crystals;  Swedish  cannon  iron,  in 
which  it  appears  as  thin  thread-like  bundles ; 
and  Scotch  iron,  in  which  it  presents  short  in 
terlaced  figures,  almost  obscured  by  the  graph 


ite. — The  manifold  properties  possessed  by 
iron  in  its  various  forms  constitute  its  great 
value  in  the  arts.  No  other  metal  or  metallic 
combination  possesses  such  a  wide  range  of 
properties.  The  hardness  and  rigidity  of  pig 
iron,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  cast 
into  any  desired  form,  adapt  it  to  use  in  con 
struction  for  the  resistance  of  a  crushing 
weight,  and  also  to  an  infinite  variety  of  uten 
sils.  The  purer  kinds  often  possess  moreover 
great  toughness,  and  are  available  for  ordnance. 
Wrought  iron,  having  a  high  degree  of  tenaci 
ty  and  elasticity  combined  with  malleability 
and  ductility,  is  applicable  to  numberless  uses 
in  every-day  life,  particularly  those  which  re 
quire  not  only  strength,  but  the  ability  to  re 
sist  shock.  Steel  is  stronger  than  wrought  or 
cast  iron,  but  is  intermediate  between  the 
two  in  rigidity.  It  replaces  wrought  iron  ad 
vantageously  in  construction  where  strength  is 
required  in  small  bulk ;  but  it  is  excluded, 
except  in  the  softest  varieties,  where  shocks 
are  to  be  encountered.  Its  property  of  hard 
ening,  combined  with  malleability  and  duc 
tility,  adapts  it  for  the  manufacture  of  cutting 
tools.  Until  the  comparatively  recent  intro 
duction  of  the  Bessemer  process  and  the  Sie 
mens  regenerative  heating  furnace  (see  FUR 
NACE),  it  was  impossible  to  melt  wrought  iron 
on  the  large  scale;  and  the  distinction  be 
tween  wrought  iron  and  cast  steel  was  there 
fore  well  marked  in  their  physical  characters, 
steel  showing  a  homogeneous  crystalline,  and 
wrought  iron  a  more  or  less  fibrous  structure, 
due  to  the  intermingled  cinder.  This  distinc 
tion  in  physical  characters  disappears  when 
soft  iron  (that  is,  iron  with  0'25  per  cent,  or 
less  of  carbon)  is  melted  and  cast  in  moulds ; 
and  the  tendency  of  metallurgists  at  the  pres 
ent  time  is  to  call  this  product  steel,  without 
regard  to  its  contents  in  carbon  or  its  suscep 
tibility  to  hardening.  Bessemer  and  open- 
hearth  (Martin)  steels  include  products  varying 
from  hard  steel  to  soft  iron ;  they  have,  how 
ever,  the  common  property  of  homogeneity, 
whence  the  name  sometimes  applied  to  them 
of  "  homogeneous  metal."  In  both  steel  and 
wrought  iron,  therefore,  the  distinction  is  to 
be  observed  between  welded  and  cast  pro 
ducts.  (See  STEEL.) — Manufactured  iron  has 
thus  far  been  considered  in  the  present  article 
merely  as  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon.  It 
is  generally,  however,  much  more  complex  in 
composition,  and  we  will  now  consider  each 
kind  separately  in  greater  detail.  I.  CAST  IRON. 
This  is  the  product  of  the  blast  furnace  (see 
IRON  MANUFACTURE),  and  contains  a  number 
of  elementary  substances  derived  from  the  ore, 
flux,  and  fuel  used  in  its  production.  The  sub 
stances  most  commonly  met  with  (besides  car 
bon,  which  must  be  regarded  as  essential)  are 
silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  manganese,  and 
more  rarely,  or  in  smaller  quantities,  chro 
mium,  copper,  nickel,  cobalt,  titanium,  arsenic, 
antimony,  aluminum,  calcium,  and  magnesium. 
The  following  analyses  will  serve  as  examples : 


IRON 


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The  localities  of  the  samples  furnishing  the 
above  analyses,  and  their  description  as  far  as 
given,  are  as  follows:  White  iron. — 1.  Maria- 
zell,  Styria;  charcoal;  sp.  gr.  V'729.  2.  lie- 
schitza,  Hungary ;  charcoal.  3.  Cleveland,  Eng 
land  ;  coke.  4.  Medellin,  Colombia,  used  for 
stamp  heads ;  sp.  gr.  7'45.  5.  Primor,  Tyrol ; 
spiegeleisen.  6.  Sava,  Carniola,  Austria.  7. 
Froschnitz,  Styria.  8.  Bieber,  Prussia.  9.  Mil- 
sen,  Prussia.  Mottled  iron. — 10.  Cleveland, 
England.  11.  Styria:  a,  white  portion,  sp. 
gr.  7-069 ;  5,  gray  portion,  sp.  gr.  6'928.  Gray 
iron. — 12.  No  locality;  analysis  by  Fresenius. 
13.  Cleveland,  England.  14,  15,  10.  Bessemer 
iron  :  Reschitza  in  Hungary,  Neuburg  in  Sty 
ria,  and  English  (hematite).  17.  American  gun 
iron.  18.  Austrian  gun  iron.  19.  u Glazy" 
iron,  English.  The  influence  which  each  of 
these  elementary  substances  exerts  on  the  physi 
cal  properties  of  pig  iron  cannot  be  stated  with 
precision.  The  subject  is  one  of  great  com 
plexity,  and  has  not  been  thoroughly  investi 
gated.  The  following  comprises  what  is  known 
about  it.  When  iron  is  fused  in  the  presence 
of  carbon,  in  a  reducing  atmosphere — condi 
tions  which  obtain  in  the  blast  furnace — it 
combines  with  a  portion  of  carbon,  forming  a 
readily  fusible  compound.  The  condition  of 
the  carbon  in  the  molten  iron  is  not  certainly 
known,  but  it  is  probably  in  chemical  combi 
nation.  When,  however,  this  carburetted  com 
pound  solidifies,  the  carbon  may  either  remain 
in  combination,  giving  the  iron  a  white  color ; 
or  it  may  assume  the  form  of  graphitic  scales, 
mechanically  disseminated  throughout  the  mass, 
giving  it  a  black  color ;  or  both  conditions  of 
the  carbon  may  coexist,  imparting  to  the  iron 
a  shade  of  gray.  So  far  as  is  known,  these 
conditions  are  determined  by  the  rate  of  cool 
ing  of  the  iron.  When  the  iron  is  quickly 
cooled,  as  on  being  cast  in  iron  moulds  or 
poured  into  water,  the  carbon  will  remain  in 
combination ;  when  the  iron  is  cooled  slowly, 
the  carbon  has  time  to  separate,  and  a  part  at 
least  will  appear  as  graphite.  Snelus  ("Jour 
nal  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,"  vol.  i.,  p. 
28)  has  proved  conclusively  the  separate  exis 
tence  of  graphite  in  pig  iron.  Bell's  experi 
ments  ("  Chemical  Phenomena  of  Iron  Smelt 
ing  ")  seem  to  show  that  there  is  no  difference 
in  the  amount  or  condition  of  the  carbon  in 
gray  and  white  pig  iron  made  at  the  Clarence 
furnace  in  the  Cleveland  district,  England; 
and  he  considers  the  difference  of  color  to  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  white  varieties  the 
graphitic  scales  are  so  minute  as  to  be  no  longer 
visible.  His  experiments  contradict  results  ob 
tained  by  investigators  in  other  localities,  and 
have  not  as  yet  been  confirmed.  The  highly 
graphitic  variety  of  pig  iron  is  usually  pro 
duced  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  white ; 
and  it  has  been  noticed  that  when  white  iron 
is  exposed  to  the  temperature  of  a  furnace 
making  gray  iron,  it  is  changed  into  gray. 
This  has  led  to  the  opinion  that  the  tempera 
ture  of  production  is  the  sole  cause  of  the 


370 


IRON 


difference  in  the  two  varieties.  A  more  cor 
rect  statement  of  the  fact  would  perhaps  be, 
that  the  color  of  the  pig  metal,  or  in  other 
words  the  amount  of  graphite  separated,  is 
due,  other  things  being  equal,  to  the  time  or 
rate  of  cooling.  White  iron  caused  to  solidify 
very  slowly  becomes  gray ;  and  gray  iron  cooled 
quickly  becomes  white.  The  cause  of  this  dif 
ference  is  conceivable  on  one  supposition  only, 
viz. :  that  there  is  a  limited  range  of  tempera 
ture,  probably  near  the  point  of  solidification  of 
the  metal,  within  which  the  separation  of  the 
carbon  from  the  iron  takes  place,  and  that  the 
amount  of  carbon  separated  in  any  given  in 
stance  is  proportional  to  the  time  consumed 
by  the  cooling  pig  iron  in  passing  through  this 
range  of  temperature.  It  is  evident  that  the 
time  required  for  the  metal  to  cool  a  given 
number  of  degrees,  near  its  point  of  solidi 
fication,  must  depend  partly  upon  the  tempera 
ture  of  the  surrounding  moulds.  The  hotter 
the  metal  leaving  the  furnace,  the  more  will  it 
have  heated  the  moulds  as  it  approaches  solidi 
fication,  and  consequently  the  slower  will  have 
become  the  rate  of  cooling,  the  longer  will  be 
the  period  during  which  carbon  can  separate, 
and  the  larger  will  be  the  amount  of  graphi 
tic  carbon  in  the  final  product.  Carbon,  as 
already  remarked,  increases  the  fusibility  of 
iron.  In  chemical  combination  it  renders  iron 
brittle,  the  brittleness  decreasing  in  proportion 
as  the  carbon  separates  as  graphite. — Silicon 
is  nearly  always  present  in  pig  iron.  White 
iron  is  occasionally  almost  free  from  it,  but 
the  darker  sorts  may  contain  as  much  as  8 
per  cent. ;  -£  to  3  per  cent,  is  usual.  The  con 
ditions  favoring  the  production  of  a  highly 
siliconized  pig  iron  are  slow  working,  a  high 
temperature  in  the  furnace,  and  a  cinder  rich 
in  silica.  Silicon,  like  carbon,  renders  iron 
more  fusible.  The  temperature  of  solidifica 
tion  of  pig  iron  rich  in  silicon  is  therefore 
relatively  low ;  and  this  fact,  combined  with 
the  high  temperature  of  production,  affords 
ample  opportunity  for  the  carbon  to  separate 
as  graphite.  We  consequently  find  such  pig 
iron  always  highly  graphitic,  and  very  difficult 
to  chill,  or  convert  into  white  iron  by  sudden 
cooling.  In  many  articles  made  of  cast  iron, 
such  as  rolls,  car  wheels,  &c.,  it  is  desired  to 
combine  toughness  of  structure  with  a  hard 
wearing  surface.  This  is  effected  by  casting 
the  object  in  a  suitable  mould  of  iron,  so  that 
the  molten  iron  shall  be  suddenly  solidified  on 
the  outside,  and  rendered  white  to  a  moderate 
depth,  while  the  mass  of  the  casting  remains 
gray.  The  casting  is  subsequently  annealed, 
to  relieve  the  tension  caused  by  the  unequal 
cooling.  The  irons  most  suitable  for  this  pur 
pose  are  produced  with  charcoal  and  with  a 
cold  or  but  moderately,  heated  blast,  and  are 
of  exceptional  purity.  Any  considerable  amount 
of  silicon  prevents  the  iron  from  chilling.  Sili 
con  renders  iron  brittle  and  weak.  When  pres 
ent  in  very  large  quantity  it  makes  the  iron 
worthless  both  for  castings  and  for  conversion 


into  wrought  iron.  It  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  pig  iron  employed  for  making  Bessemer 
steel,  supplying  by  its  oxidation  the  greater 
part  of  the  heat  required  to  retain  the  metal  in 
a  molten  condition.  The  amount  of  silicon  in 
Bessemer  pig  iron  varies  from  1  to  3  per  cent. 
Silvery  or  glazy  pig  iron,  occasionally  produced 
when  the  furnace  is  working  very  hot  with  an 
excess  of  fuel,  is  white,  but  has  none  of  the 
properties  of  white  iron  properly  so  called,  and 
is  weak  and  worthless  for  all  purposes.  It  has 
not  been  thoroughly  investigated.  An  analysis 
(No.  19)  given  above  shows  it  to  contain  over 
5  per  cent,  of  silicon. — Sulphur  is  present  in 
many  ores  of  iron  and  in  almost  all  mineral 
coals.  The  hotter  the  furnace  and  the  more 
basic  the  cinder,  the  more  sulphur  will  be  re 
moved  in  the  cinder.  Where  the  opposite  con 
ditions  exist  a  large  part  of  the  sulphur  in  the 
charge  will  be  found  in  the  pig  iron.  The  in 
fluence  it  exerts  on  pig  iron  has  not  been  de 
termined  with  precision.  According  to  Eg- 
gertz,  0'4  per  cent,  of  sulphur  renders  pig  iron 
stronger  and  more  mottled.  Swedish  cannon 
iron  contains  from  0'07  to  O'l  per  cent,  of  sul 
phur.  It  is  the  general  impression  among  iron 
founders  that  sulphur  renders  pig  iron  harder, 
whiter,  and  more  infusible ;  but  experimental 
proof  is  wanting  on  this  point.  Phosphorus 
is  almost  always  present  in  cast  iron.  Few 
iron  ores  or  limestones  are  absolutely  free  from 
phosphorus  ;  and  almost  the  entire  amount  of 
this  element  present  in  the  charge  is  absorbed 
by  the  iron,  which  it  renders  thinly  liquid 
when  fused,  and  crystalline  and  hard  when 
solid.  Such  iron  is  well  adapted  to  form  orna 
mental  and  intricate  castings,  since  it  fills  the 
mould  well  and  brings  out  the  fine  outlines 
with  sharpness.  Less  than  0*5  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus  does  not  materially  affect  the  physi 
cal  properties  of  pig  iron ;  and  more  than 
5*5  per  cent,  renders  it  too  weak  and  brittle 
to  be  used.  The  following  table  shows  the 
amount  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  in  some 
well  known  brands  of  English  pig : 


BRANDS. 

Phosphorus, 
1  er  cent. 

Sulphur, 
per  cent. 

Whitehaven  (hematite)  
South  Wales          

0-144 
0'4'i3 

0-056 

0-0(J8 

South  Staffordshire                     ... 

0'480 

0  '  061 

0'540 

0  •  052 

Scotland                       

0-730 

0'2>3 

0-&65 

0-045 

North  Staffordshire 

1-070 

0-040 

Northamptonshire        

1-143 

0-2(>7 

1-320 

0-085 

In  the  conversion  of  pig  into  wrought  iron 
by  puddling,  the  phosphorus  and  sulphur  are 
to  a  considerable  extent  eliminated.  In  the 
conversion  into  Bessemer  steel,  however,  these 
elements  remain  with  the  iron,  and  therefore 
only  the  purest  pig  irons  can  be  used  in  this 
process.  The  maximum  amount  of  phosphorus 
(the  most  deleterious  element)  that  Bessemer 
pig  iron  may  contain  is  O'l  per  cent. — Manga 
nese  resembles  iron  in  many  of  its  chemical 


IRON 


371 


properties,  and  generally  accompanies  it  in  its 
ores.  The  amount  in  spathic  iron  ores  is  often 
large,  in  other  ores  usually  small.  Manganese 
is  reduced  from  its  oxide  with  much  more  diffi 
culty  than  iron.  When  the  manganese  forms 
an  integral  part  of  the  iron  ore,  it  is  reduced  to 
a  large  extent  together  with  the  iron  ;  but  when 
the  oxide  as  such  is  present  in  the  charge,  it 
passes  mainly  into  the  slag,  unreduced.  The 
effect  of  manganese  on  cast  iron  is  peculiar. 
Specular  iron,  generally  known  by  its  German 
name  Spiegeleisen,  made  from  spathic  ores  rich 
in  manganese,  contains  from  4  to  12  (exception 
ally  as  high  as  20)  per  cent,  of  the  latter  metal, 
and  also  nearly  5  per  cent,  of  carbon,  all  chem 
ically  combined,  and  but  a  fraction  of  1  per 
cent,  of  silicon.  On  its  freshly  fractured  sur 
face  it  is  white  and  resplendent,  with  large 
crystalline  faces.  It  is  very  hard.  Gray  pig 
iron  may  contain  as  much  as  6  per  cent,  of 
manganese  without  showing  any  tendency  to 
whiteness ;  the  effect  of  manganese  may  here 
be  counteracted  by  the  silicon.  Pig  iron  con 
taining  manganese  is  preeminently  adapted  for 
conversion  into  wrought  iron  and  steel.  The 
part  that  manganese  plays  in  these  processes 
is  not  well  understood.  It  replaces  silicon  as  a 
heat  producer  in  pig  iron  employed  in  the  Bes 
semer  process.  Spiegeleisen  is  generally  very 
pure,  and  is  almost  exclusively  used  in  steel- 
making.  The  effect  of  the  other  substances 
mentioned  above  on  the  physical  properties  of 
pig  iron  is  not  known  definitely.  II.  WROUGHT 
IROX.  By  far  the  largest  amount  of  wrought 
iron  in  the  arts  is  made  from  pig  iron  by  the 
removal  of  the  carbon,  silicon,  &c.,  through 
oxidation  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  (See 
IROX  MANUFACTURE.)  The  iron  is  removed 
from  the  furnace  in  the  form  of  a  white-hot 
ball  or  bloom,  composed  of  small  particles  of 
soft  iron,  intimately  mingled  with  cinder.  The 
cinder  is  expelled  and  the  particles  of  iron  are 
united  by  squeezing,  hammering,  or  rolling. 
Slabs  of  iron  thus  made  are  welded  by  exposing 
them  to  a  white  heat  and  rolling  them  out  to 
gether.  The  homogeneity  of  the  product  de 
pends  on  the  thoroughness  of  the  working,  and 
this  in  turn  on  the  temperature  and  the  fusi 
bility  of  the  cinder.  The  fibrous  character  of 
wrought  iron  is  due  to  the  elongation  of  the 
granules  or  crystals  of  iron  by  rolling  with  in 
termingled  cinder.  Fibre,  however,  is  not  a 
condition  inherent  in  iron,  nor  is  it  necessarily 
characteristic  of  good  or  strong  iron,  as  is  often 
supposed.  Iron  from  which  the  cinder  has  been 
removed  by  thorough  working,  or  by  fusion, 
exhibits  the  granular  crystalline  fracture  prop 
er  to  the  metal  itself ;  and  such  iron  is,  other 
things  being  equal,  stronger  than  that  showing 
well  developed  fibre.  But  fibrous  structure  is 
evidence  of  good  quality  in  iron,  in  so  far  as 
it  shows  the  absence  of  substances  (notably 
phosphorus)  which  tend  to  make  it  crystalline 
and  brittle.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  all  iron, 
even  the  most  fibrous,  shows  a  crystalline  char 
acter  Nvhen  broken  short  off ;  and  that  some 


varieties  of  crystalline  iron  may  appear  fibrous 
when  bent  and  broken  slowly.  The  specific 
gravity  of  wrought  iron  differs  according  to 
treatment.  The  following  determinations  are 
by  Kirkaldy :  rolled,  7'7626  to  7'2898  ;  ham 
mered,  7-8067  to  7-7206  ;  angle  iron,  7-7310  to 
7-5297;  sheet  iron,  7'7419  to  7'5381.  The 
physical  properties  of  wrought  iron  are  inti 
mately  connected  with  its  chemical  composi 
tion.  Carbon  is  almost  always  present  in  mi 
nute  quantity  ;  without  it,  iron  is  liable  to  take 
up  oxide  of  iron  and  become  rotten  or  "  burnt." 
In  the  analysis  of  wrought  iron  it  is  often  diffi 
cult  to  determine  whether  a  substance  is  pres 
ent  in  the  iron  itself  or  in  the  cinder.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  silicon.  The  amount 
of  silicon  in  wrought  iron  is  never  large  (dis 
regarding  cinder),  as  it  is  the  element  most 
readily  removed  by  oxidation  in  the  operation 
of  puddling.  It  is  supposed  to  render  the  iron 
weak  and  brittle.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus  are 
frequently  met  with  in  wrought  iron,  and  their 
effects  have  been  tolerably  well  determined. 
Sulphur  makes  iron  "  red  short "  or  "  hot  short," 
that  is,  brittle  at  a  red  heat.  Phosphorus,  on 
the  contrary,  makes  iron  u  cold  short,"  that  is, 
brittle  when  cold.  A  red  short  iron  can  be 
worked  cold,  and  a  cold  short  iron  hot.  Ac 
cording  to  Eggertz,  iron  with  0-04  per  cent, 
of  sulphur  can  still  be  punched  hot.  More 
than  this  amount  renders  iron  perceptibly  red 
short.  The  effect  of  phosphorus  on  wrought 
iron  differs  according  to  the  treatment  it  has 
received.  Its  tendency,  even  in  proportions 
as  low  as  O'l  per  cent.,  is  to  make  iron  coarse 
ly  crystalline  in  texture ;  this  tendency  is  in 
creased  by  prolonged  heating.  The  strength 
and  extensibility  are  thereby  decreased  and 
the  hardness  increased.  If  however  the  phos 
phorus  is  in  not  too  large  quantity  and  the 
iron  is  drawn  out  to  such  an  extent  that  on 
slow  fracture  it  exhibits  a  fibrous  structure, 
the  metal  becomes  both  strong  and  tenacious. 
The  presence  of  cinder  facilitates  the  forma 
tion  of  fibre ;  and  iron  with  an  abundance 
of  cinder  (2  to  3  per  cent.)  has  been  found 
by  Knut  Styffe  to  be  tenacious  with  0-25  to 
0*35  per  cent,  of  phosphorus.  He  considers 
that  phosphorus,  like  carbon,  raises  the  elas 
ticity  and  strength  within  the  crystalline  par 
ticles  of  the  iron  (whence  results  its  superior 
hardness),  but  that  it  does  not  increase  the 
cohesion  between  the  separate  crystals.  The 
general  impression  among  iron  workers  is  that 
phosphorus  and  sulphur  neutralize  each  other 
in  iron,  so  that  a  "neutral"  iron  can  be  made 
from  a  mixture  of  cold  and  hot  short  irons. 
Whether  the  effect  produced  by  such  a  mix 
ture  is  one  of  neutralization,  strictly  speaking, 
or  merely  of  dilution,  remains  to  be  deter 
mined.  Little  is  known  of  the  effect  of  other 
elementary  substances  on  wrought  iron.  Man 
ganese,  if  present  in  pig  iron,  is  almost  entire 
ly  removed  on  conversion  into  wrought  iron. 
Chromium,  titanium,  tungsten,  manganese, 
and  other  substances  are  sometimes  added  to 


372 


IRON 


steel  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  ap 
pear   to    modify   its    properties   materially.  — 
Prof.   Graham  ("  Chemical  Journal,"    vol.  v., 
1867),  in  his  investigations  on  the  occlusion  of 
gases  in  metals,  found  that  wrought  iron  con 
tained  many  times  its  own  hulk  of  gas,  nota 
bly  carbonic  oxide.     Mr.  John  Parry,  of  the 
Ebbw   Vale  iron  works,  Wales,    has  studied 
the  subject  more  closely,  and  found  that  all 
iron  contains   occluded  gas.      In  his  experi 
ments  the  amount  of  gas   evolved  was  not 
determined,  but  its  composition  is  as  follows  : 

Tensile  and  cmnpressive  Strength  of  various  (lescrijjtions 
of  English  Cast  Iron,    (llodgkinson.) 

KINDS. 

Tensile  strength 
per  sqi  in. 

Crushing  weight  in 
tons  per  BQ.  in. 

Lowmoor,  No.  1  

"           u    2 

LLs.             Tons. 
12,694=    5-667 
35.458=    6-901 
16,125=    7-198 
17,807  =    7-949 
23,4(18  =  10-477 
13,938=    6-222 
16.724=    7-466 
14426=    6-440 

Height  of  specimen, 
f  in.          H  in. 
28-809     25-198 
44-430      41-219 
41-459     39-616 
49-103     45-549 
47-855     46-821 
40-562     35-9C4 
52-502     45-717 
83-899     38-784 
83-988     84-856 
87-281      35-115 
34-430     83-646 

Clyde,  No.  1  ... 

u        u    2 

u           u      o 

Blaenavon,  No.  1  .... 
"    2  .... 
Brymbo,  No.  1  
"          "3  
Yniscedwyr,  No.  1  ... 
Anthracite,  No.  2  .... 

KINDS.                Carb.  oxide.    Carb.  acid.      Hydrogen.      Nitrogen. 

15,508—    6'928 
13,952  =    6-228 
13,848=    5-9f,9 

Pig  iron  : 
Spieffeleisen.  ..      17'STO          0-942         81-105         
White  iron..  ..        2  '320           6-800         84-000         C'SSO 
Gray  iron  5-200           1-600         89-700         3  '250 
Wrought  iron.   ..      34-262          9-920         54-100         1-718 
Soft  steel  24-352         16-550         52-610         6'488 

The  tensile  strength  of  Austrian  gun  iron  is 
from  30,000  to  38,000  Ibs.  ;  of  Russian,  about 
27,000  Ibs.  ;  and  of  Swedish,  about  34,000  Ibs. 
Experiments  made  by  Capt.  Rodman  of  the 
United    States  ordnance   corps,   with   Green 
wood,    Springfield,    and    Salisbury    pig    irons 
(charcoal),  and  mixtures  of  the  same,  showed 
in  16  determinations  a  minimum  specific  grav 
ity  of  7*099  and  a  maximum  of  7*307  ;  a  min 
imum  tensile   strength  of  22,179  Ibs.  and   a 
maximum  of  42,884  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch. 
The  following  determinations  of  the  strength 
of  Richmond  (Mass.)  charcoal  pig  were  made 
at  the  South  Boston  foundery.     This  iron  is 
smelted  from  pure  red  hematite,  with  temper 
ature  of  blast  varying  from  100°  to  350°  F., 
and  is  largely  used  for  ordnance  : 

The  amount  of  hydrogen  that  gray  pig  iron  is 
capable  of  absorbing  when  heated  in  an  at 
mosphere  of  this  gas  has  been  found  by  Par 
ry  to  be  20  times  its  volume.     By  increasing 
the  heat  the  gas  thus  absorbed  is  given  off. 
Of  the  effect  of  gases  on  the  physical  prop 
erties  of  iron  nothing  is  known,  and  the  part 
they  play  in  the  various  manufacturing  pro 
cesses  is   only  beginning  to   be   investigated. 
(See  IEON  MANUFACTURE.)  —  Compounds  of  iron 
with  potassium,  aluminum,  manganese,  nickel, 
lead,  antimony,  tin,  and  copper  are  known; 
but  none  of  them  have  found  important  appli 
cation  in  the    arts,   except  ferro-manganese, 
which  is  often  used  instead  of  spiegeleisen  in 
the  Bessemer  and  Martin  processes.     It  con 
tains  sometimes  over  40  per  cent  of  manga 
nese,  with  a  very  small  amount  of  carbon,  is 
acknowledged  to  give  better  results  than  spie 
geleisen,  and  would  supersede  the  latter  but 
for  its  cost.  —  Strength  of  Iron.     The  strength 

spo.,.0  p.,..,,..       Tc™"1:^f*n'.toiu-  ' 

* 

B 

C                A 

B              C 

No.  1.    7-0320 
"    2.    7-1220 
"    3.    7-1390 
"    4.    7-2549 

7  -0858 
7-1252 
7-1796 
7  -21)33 

•0909      14,379 
•0797      16.398 
•1750       16.344 
•2125      25,138 

16.C33       15.518 
19.781       18.471 
23.119      19.88T 
29,066      24,726 

limits.  Cast  iron  is  inferior  to  wrought  iron 
in  strength  when  exposed  to  tensile,  torsional, 
or  transverse  strain,  but  shows  a  very  high  re 
sistance  to  compression.  Owing  to  its  rigidity, 
it  stretches  but  slightly  under  stress,  while 
wrought  iron  elongates  considerably.  In  esti 
mating  tensile  strength,  therefore,  regard  must 
be  had  to  the  fractured  as  well  as  to  the  origi 
nal  area.  The  softest  and  purest  irons  elon 
gate  most,  and  consequently  show  a  low  ten 
sile  strength  when  referred  to  the  original 
area,  but  a  high  degree  of  resistance  when  re 
ferred  to  the  fractured  section.  A  gradual  in 
crease  in  the  amount  of  extension  under  strain 
is  noticed  from  cast  iron  through  steel  to  the 
softest  wrought  iron.  The  following  tables, 
compiled  from  the  experimental  results  of 
Hodgkinson,  Fairbairn,  Kirkaldy,  Thalen,  Rod 
man,  and  others,  show  the  limits  of  strength 
of  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  steel  under  dif 
ferent  conditions  and  treatment.  (Steel  is  in 
cluded  here  to  facilitate  comparison.  For 
more  detailed  information  with  regard  to  this 
substance,  see  STEEL.) 


Remelting  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  raised 
the  average  specific  gravity  of  this  iron  to 
7*3135,  and  the  average  tensile  strength  to 
40,022  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Fairbairn  has  de 
termined  the  transverse  strength  of  cast  iron 
rectangular  bars  from  nearly  all  the  British 
iron  works.  In  51  experiments  on  all  shades 
of  gray  pig  iron,  the  minimum  breaking 
weight  for  bars  4  ft.  0  in.  between  supports 
was  357  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  corresponding 
to  a  specific  gravity  of  6*916,  and  the  maximum 
581  Ibs.,  corresponding  to  a  specific  gravity  of 
7*122.  Irons  intermediate  in  strength,  how 
ever,  often  show  a  higher  specific  gravity. 
From  experiments  made  by  Fairbairn  to  deter 
mine  the  effect  of  hot  blast  on  the  strength  of 
pig  iron,  he  concluded  that  No.  1  irons  had 
been  deteriorated,  No.  2  slightly  injured  by  it, 
and  No.  3  improved  by  the  use  of  hot  blast. 
According  to  experiments  on  the  resistance 
to  torsion  in  cast  iron,  the  length  of  the  bar 
submitted  to  torsion  being  about  e^ght  diame 
ters,  the  ultimate  strength  of  seven  samples 
varied  from  6,176  to  10,467  Ibs.  to  the  square 


IRON 


373 


inch.  The  force  requisite  to  give  the  bar  a 
permanent  set  of  half  a  degree  is  about  nine 
tenths  of  that  which  will  break  it.  The  fol 
lowing  table  shows  the  effect  of  successive 
remeltings  on  the  strength  of  cast  iron,  from 
determinations  by  Fairbairn;  the  iron  used 
was  Eglinton  No.  3,  hot  blast : 


NO.  OF 
MELTINGS. 

Sp.  gravity. 

Mean  breaking  w'ght 
in  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  for 
bars  4  ft.  6  in.  be 
tween  supports. 

Resistance  to 

cubes  1  in. 
square. 

1... 

2. 

6-969 
6-970 

Lbs. 
490-0 
441-9 

Tons. 

44-0 
43-6 

8  
4. 

6-886 
6-938 

401-6 
413-4 

41-1 

40-7 

5  
6  

6-842 
6-771 
6-879 

431-6 
438-7 
449-1 

41-1 
41-1 
40-9 

S  

9. 

7-025 
7-102 

491-3 
546-5 

41-1 
55-1 

10  
11  

7-108 
7-113 

566-9 
651-9 

57-7 
69  '8  mean. 

12. 

7-160 

692-1 

13  
14 

7-134 
7-530 

634-8 
603-4 

73-1 
66-0 

15  
16. 

7-248 
7-330 

371-1 
351-3 

95-9 
76-7 

17  
18  

lost. 
T-385 

si2:7 

70-5 

88-0 

Melting  per  se  cannot  have  any  effect  on  the 
physical  properties  of  iron,  and  any  change 
consequent  on  melting  must  be  referred  to 
change  in  chemical  composition,  leaving  out  of 
consideration  accidental  imperfections  of  cast 
ing.  Melting  may  be  effected  in  three  ways : 
in  a  crucible,  in  a  cupola  or  shaft  furnace,  or 
in  a  reverberatory  or  air  furnace.  In  a  cruci 
ble,  by  exclusion  of  air,  the  iron  should  be  un 
changed  ;  in  a  cupola  the  atmosphere  is  redu 
cing,  and  an  increase  of  carbon  or  silicon  may 
result;  while  in  the  oxidizing  atmosphere  of 
an  air  furnace  the  silicon  and  carbon  are  gradu 
ally  removed.  The  following  tables  give  the 
strength  of  wrought  iron  of  various  manufac 
ture,  composition,  &c.,  under  varying  strains ; 
steel  is  added  for  comparison  : 


Tensile  Strength  of  Iron  Bars.    (Kirkaldy. .) 


KINDS. 

Breaking  weight  per  sq.  in. 
in  pounds. 

Difference 
between  ori 
ginal  and 
fractured 
area,  per  ct. 

Original 

area. 

Fractured 
area. 

Swedish  (charcoal)  

Staffordshire   " 

47,534 
58,086 
65,166 
59,570 

59,726 
66,3(33 
59,272 
56,447 

160,520 
150,984 
140,920 
125,130 
102.118 
97,721 
82,818 
63,8S3 

70-5 
61-6 

53-7 
52-4 
41-5 
32-1 

28-4 
10-2 

Yorkshire  "  Lowmoor  "... 
Staffordshire  B.  B.  scrap..  . 
Scotch  extra  best  best  
best  best 

"     common 

Russian  C.  C.  N  D.  .  . 

Tensile  Strength  of  Iron  Plates.    (Kirkaldy.) 


KINDS. 


Breaking  w'ght  •£ 
per  sq.  inch,  i  «2 
lengthwise. 


;     §  H.' 

Orig.     Fract'd  I  g  "3  g 
area.        area.    j  g  .S   £ 


Breaking    w'ght  •;:  ? 
per  sq.  inch,      <2  g  "S 
crosswise.         °  *   « 

1  s  I 

Fract'd  J -3  a- 


Orig. 
area. 


Yorkshire 58,686  92,403    36'5 

Btaffordshire,Brad- 

ley 160.697  70.968    15'7 

Scotch  best  boiler. '  55,176  63,180,  12'7 
Staffordshire  best 


best  

48853  53,781 

9-1 

Scotch  ship.  
"       common.  .  . 

47,730  50.035 
43,831  46,439 

4-6 
5-6 

56,546  70,919  20'3 

51,025  55,490  8-0 

48,000  51,291;  6'4 

i 

46,943  49,653  5'4 

44.366  45.521  i  2'5 

42,78343,460  1'5 


Average  Results  obtained  by  Rupture  of  64  square  Bars 
of  puddled  Steel  and  Iron  from  Surahammar,  Swe 
den;  temperature  60°  F.  (From  Knut  Stijffe's  "Iron 
and  Steel") 


|  Breaking  weight  |  Breaking 
jElonga-  Per  S(l-  in-  on  tlie  weight  per 
I  tion  by  original  me:m  area.  sq.  jn.  On 

irupt're.j — I  the  sectiom 

Lbs.          Tons.   |  of  rupture. 


Hard  puddled  steel 18  6'20  89,189 

Middling  hard  puddled 

steel 18  6-98  j  80.628 

Soft  puddled  steel ^14  10-43  '  70.272 

Puddled  iron j  14  20-36  48,319 


39-81  122,240 


35-89 
31-81 
21-55 


115,670 
112.593 
120,770 


The  elongation  given  in  this  table  is  very  low, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  experimenter,  Herr 
Thalen,  did  not  measure  the  elongation  in  that 
foot  of  length  in  which  the  fracture  took  place, 
but  in  the  other  4  ft.  of  the  length  of  the  bar. 


Results  of  Experiments  on  the   Tensile  Strength  of  Bessemer  Steel  and  Cast  Steel  at  60°  F. 
(From  Knut  Styfftfs  '•'•Iron  and  Steel") 


KINDS. 

Amount 
of  carbon 
percent. 

Amount 
of  phos- 
phorui 
per  cent. 

BREAKING  W'GHT. 

Elonga 
tion  by 
rupture. 

Load  per  sq.  in. 
at  the  limit  of 
elasticity,  Ibs. 

Original 
area,  Ibs. 

Fractured 
area,  Ibs. 

1-10 
0-34 
1-16 
0-61 

11-01- 

0-023 

0-011 

0-030 

127.564 
64,708 
189,847 
82,549 

216.153 

141,219 
159.610 
172.304 

2-9 
1C-7 
4-6 
5-5 

85.431 
34.990 
71.707 
55.925 

Rolled  Bessemer  steel  from  Oarlsdal  

Rolled  cast  steel  from  Wikmanshyttau  (Uchatius  steel)  
Tilted  cast  steel  from  Krupp.  .  . 

Results  of  Experiments  on  the  Tensile  Strength  of  Iron  at  60  F°.    (From  Knut  Sty/e's  "Iron  and  Steel") 


Amount  of 

Amount  of 

BREAKING   1 

8QUAR 

VKIGIIT   PER 
E   INCH. 

Elongation 

Load  per  sq. 
inch  at  the 

per  cent. 

On  original 
area,  Ibs. 

On  fractured 
area,  Ibs. 

by  rupture 
per  cent. 

limit  of 
elaiticity,  Ibs. 

0-21 

0-068 

58  944 

130  5^3 

20-5 

36,025 

"    from  Cleveland  
"           u            "    from  Dudley  
"            "            "    from  Motala  works,  Sweden  .  . 
Rolled  iron  made  in  charcoal  hearth.  Sweden  
"       "        "     in  Lancashire  hearth,  Sweden  — 

0-07 
0-09 
0-20 
0-18 
0-07 

0-295 
0-34(5 
0-020 
0-264 
0-022 

72.531 
47,553 
52.631 
63.473 
45,014 

109.723 
62,032 
100.665 
76.864 
192,753 

18-7 
7-4 
17-3 

8-2 
22-0 

28,683 

29,506 
40.485 
24,360 

374 


IRON 


Results  of  Experiments  on  the  effect  of  Hardening  on  the  Extensibility  and  Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel. 
(From  Knut  Styffe's  **  Iron  and  Steel.") 


KINDS. 

Treatment  of  bar  before  experiment. 

Amount 
of  carbon 
per  cent. 

Breaking  weight 
per  sq.  inch, 
original  area,  Ibs. 

Ratio  bet'n  area 
of  fracture  and 
orig.  mean  area. 

Bessemer  steel  from  Ilogbo.  .  . 

Heated  to  redness  and  hardened  in  water  

0-33 

79873 

0'42 

Uchatius    steel  from    "VVik-J 

Heated  to  redness  and  slowly  cooled  in  warm  coal  dust. 
Strongly  heated  and  hardened  in  oil  

0-33 
1*22 

51,259 
101,851 

0-'27 
I'OO 

ruanshyttan  1 

Puddled  iron  from  Suraham-  j 
mar  j 
Iron  made  in  charcoal  hearth  | 

Heated  to  redness  and  slowly  cooled  in  warm  coal  dust. 
Heated  to  redness  and  hardened  in  water  
Heated  to  redness  and  slowly  cooled  in  hot  coal  dust.. 
Heated  to  redness  and  hardened  in  water  

1-22 

0-20 
0-20 
0-09 

84.S14 
68,757 
46,730 
61?  581 

0-50 
0-79 
0-36 
0-33 

from  Lesjuforss  j 

Heated  to  redness  and  slowly  cooled  in  hot  coal  dust 

O'OS 

44877 

0'32 

Results  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  of  Iron  rolled 
cold.    (Fairbairn.) 


CONDITION  OF  BAR. 

Br'king  weight 
per  sq.  in.,  tons. 

Strength 
(untouched  =: 

rooo). 

Untouched  (black) 

26-173 

1-000 

Rolled  cold 

89  •  388 

1-500 

Turned  

27-119 

1*086 

The  resistance  of  cold  rolled  iron  to  tension, 
compression,  and  transverse  strain,  and  also  its 
hardness,  are  increased  in  nearly  the  same  ratio 
as  its  breaking  weight.  The  following  table  ex 
hibits  the  results  of  experiments  to  determine 
the  strength  of  the  iron  from  two  exploded 
boilers,  compared  with  other  brands  of  Ameri 
can  iron  and  English  Lowmoor  boiler  plate : 


KINDS. 

Average  breaking 
weight  per  sq.in.,lbs. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Latter  less  than 
former  per  cent. 

Exploded  boiler,  steamer  Westfield,  83  experiments 

41  653 

50182 

99  012 

42 

Sli^o  boiler  plate  16  experiments        ... 

54123 

57012 

51  813 

American  flange  iron,  15  experiments  

42.144 

53  277 

Tank  iron,  6  experiments,  3  makers  •< 

43,831 
42,011 

53,174 
48,525 

86.111 

85679 

32 

28 

Exploded  boiler   steamer  Red  Jacket    2  experiments 

41,249 

49000 

52.277 
56000 

33,003 
49  000 

33 
25 

English  best  Lowmoor  boiler  plate,  5  experiments  

56,984 

64,000 

55,300 

14 

The  great  variation  in  strength  in  the  iron 
from  the  exploded  boilers  was  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  wrenching  and  twisting  accompany 
ing  the  explosion.  From  the  foregoing  tables 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  physical  properties  of 
iron,  strength,  elasticity,  &c.,  vary  according 
to  composition  and  treatment.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  conclusions  of  Knut  Styffe 
("The  Elasticity,  Extensibility,  and  Tensile 
Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel,"  translated  by  0. 
P.  Sandberg,  London,  1869):  "The  limit  of 
elasticity,  the  absolute  strength,  and  the  exten 
sibility  are  to  a  great  extent  dependent,  in  both 
iron  and  steel,  on  the  mechanical  treatment  to 
which  the  material  has  been  submitted,  and  on 
the  temperature  to  which  it  has  been  exposed, 
either  during  working  or  subsequently.  By 
cold-hammering,  cold-rolling,  and  other  forms 
of  mechanical  treatment  applied  at  a  low  tem 
perature,  both  the  limit  of  elasticity  and  the 
absolute  strength  are  increased ;  while  by  the 
same  treatment  the  extensibility  is  diminished. 
In  these  respects  heating  produces  an  opposite 
effect.  When  the  proportion  of  carbon  in  iron 
or  steel  is  increased,  while  the  other  conditions 
remain  the  same,  the  limit  of  elasticity,  as  well 
as  the  absolute  strength,  is  to  a  certain  extent 
increased ;  but  the  extensibility,  on  the  contrary, 
is  diminished.  The  absolute  strength,  which 
in  good  soft  iron  may  be  estimated  in  round 
numbers  at  48,034  Ibs.  or  21'44  tons  per  square 
inch,  seems  to  attain  its  maximum  in  steel  con 
taining  about  1-2  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  is 
then  in  good  cast  steel  or  Bessemer  steel  about 


137,240  Ibs.  or  61'26  tons  per  square  inch.  A 
small  proportion  of  phosphorus  in  iron  gener 
ally  raises  the  limit  of  elasticity  and  the  abso 
lute  strength,  and  therefore  also  the  hardness  of 
the  metal ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  diminishes 
its  extensibility,  provided  that  the  iron  during 
its  manufacture  has  been  so  much  drawn 
out  that  on  slow  rupture  it  exhibits  a  fibrous 
fracture.  By  admixture,  however,  of  slag 
(which  always  makes  the  iron  unsound  and 
difficult  to  be  re-formed  when  heated,  but 
which  facilitates  the  development  of  a  fibrous 
structure),  an  iron  containing  0'25  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus  seems  capable  of  acquiring  nearly 
the  same  extensibility  as  an  iron  which  con 
tains  only  traces  of  phosphorus.  The  presence 
of  slag  also  seems  to  oppose  the  tendency  of 
the  iron  to  become  when  strongly  heated  crys 
talline,  and  therefore  cold-short.  By  heating 
and  sudden  cooling  (hardening),  the  limit  of 
elasticity  is  raised,  while  the  extensibility  is  di 
minished,  not  only  in  steel,  but  also  in  iron. 
The  absolute  strength  likewise  is  increased  by 
hardening,  if  this  be  performed  in  a  manner 
adapted  to  the  quality  of  the  material.  Hard 
ening  in  water  without  subsequent  moderate 
heating  (tempering)  generally  diminishes  the 
strength  of  hard  steel  to  a  very  considerable  ex 
tent  ;  while  hardening  in  oil  does  not  occasion 
this  inconvenience,  provided  the  heat  previous 
to  hardening  has  not  been  too  high."  Styffe 
likewise  gives  the  result  of  an  elaborate  series 
of  experiments  on  the  strength  of  iron  and 
steel  at  different  temperatures  from  — 40°  F. 


IRON 


375 


to  418°  F.,  from  which  he  deduces  the  follow 
ing  conclusions:  "The  absolute  strength  of 
'iron  and  steel  is  not  diminished  by  cold,  but 
even  at  the  lowest  temperature  which  ever  oc 
curs  in  Sweden,  it  is  at  least  as  great  as  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  (about  60°  F.).  At  tem 
peratures  between  212°  and  392°  F.,  the  abso 
lute  strength  of  steel  is  nearly  the  same  as  at 
the  ordinary  temperature ;  but  in  soft  iron  it 
is  always  greater.  In  neither  steel  nor  iron  is 
the  extensibility  less  in  severe  cold  than  at  the 
ordinary  temperature ;  but  from  266°  to  320° 
F.  it  is  generally  diminished,  not  to  any  great 
extent  in  steel,  indeed,  but  considerably  in  iron. 
The  limit  of  elasticity  in  both  steel  and  iron 
lies  higher  in  severe  cold  ;  but  at  about  284°  F. 
it  is  lower,  at  least  in  iron,  than  at  the  ordina 
ry  temperature."  In  the  experiments  on  which 
these  conclusions  are  based,  the  strength  was 
determined  by  a  gradually  increasing  strain. 
The  result  is  quite  different  if  the  strain  is  ap 
plied  suddenly,  that  is,  if  the  iron  or  steel  is 
submitted  to  shock,  as  is  shown  in  the  follow 
ing  experiments  made  by  C.  P.  Sandberg  (ap 
pendix  to  the  work  of  Knut  Styffe)  : 

Height  of  Full  of  Ball  (weighing  9  cu-t.}  required  to  break 
each  Rail  (Iron)  at  different  temperatures.  Distance 
between  supports  4/1;  length  of  rail  10  ft.  5  in. 


WORKS  WHERE  RAILS  WERE 
MADE. 

TEMPERATURE. 

64°  F.,  ft.  35°  F.,  ft.  10°  F.,  ft. 

Aberdare,  Wales  

45 

56 
35-5 
45-3 
5G 
5G 
35 
45 
35 
35 

26 
26 
11 
5 

1 

5 

8 

is 

U                             U    ' 

u       

.;;        ;;  

Le  Creusot,  France  

u                     u 

Dorlodot's,  Belgium 

Average  of  7  English  rails. . 

"          5  French    " 

"          2  Belgian    " 

"          3  English,    5  French, 

and  2  Belgian  rails 


35 

22 

3D 

49-6 

3!) 

2G 

39 


11 

5 

9 

4 

9-3 
14-2 

6-5 

11 


Mr.  Sandberg  concludes  from  these  experi 
ments  that  for  such  iron  as  is  usually  employed 
for  rails  in  Wales,  Franco,  and  Belgium,  the 
breaking  strain,  as  tested  by  sudden  blows  or 
shocks,  is  considerably  influenced  by  cold ;  such 
iron  exhibiting  at  10°  F.  only  from  one  third 
to  one  fourth  of  the  strength  which  it  possess 
es  at  SO0.  The  ductility  and  flexibility  of  such 
iron  he  finds  also  much  affected  by  cold ;  rails 
broken  at  10°  showing  on  an  average  a  perma 
nent  deflection  of  less  than  one  inch,  while  the 
other  halves  of  the  same  rails,  broken  at  84°, 
showed  a  set  of  more  than  four  inches  before 
fracture.  lie  says  that  at  summer  heat  the 
strength  of  Aberdare  rails  was  20  per  cent, 
greater  than  that  of  Creusot  rails;  but  that  in 
winter  the  latter  were  30  per  cent,  stronger 
than  the  former.  The  confusion  in  the  state 
ments  regarding  the  strength  of  iron  and  steel 


at  different  temperatures  has  arisen  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  experimental  determinations 
the  difference  between  the  effect  of  a  gradually 
increased  and  a  suddenly  applied  strain  has 
been  overlooked.  The  experiments  of  Mr. 
Sandberg  are  conclusive  on  this  point,  and  con 
firm  the  universal  experience  that  iron  and 
steel  tools  and  utensils  are  much  more  liable  to 
break  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather.  The 
breaking  of  rails  in  winter  has  also  been  re 
ferred  to  the  hardness  and  rigidity  of  the  road 
bed  ;  no  experiments  have  yet  been  made  that 
confirm  this  view. — A  very  thorough  investiga 
tion  of  the  strength  of  wrought  iron  at  differ 
ent  temperatures  was  made  by  a  committee  of 
the  Franklin  institute  of  the  state  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  consisting  of  Prof.  AV.  Pi.  Johnson,  Prof. 
A.  D.  Bache,  and  Benjamin  Reeves,  from  1832 
to  1837.  These  experiments  were  73  in  num 
ber,  at  temperatures  from  212°  to  1317°  F.  A 
remarkable  anomaly  was  discovered  in  the  be 
havior  of  iron  at  a  temperature  between  500° 
and  600°.  About  572°  was  found  to  be  the 
temperature  of  the  maximum  strength  of  iron ; 
and  the  best  qualities  then  shosved  a  tenacity 
15*17  per  cent,  over  that  possessed  by  the  same 
iron  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Sir  William 
Fairbairn  made  a  similar  observation  on  South 
Staffordshire  iron.  It  showed  from  60°  to 
325°  a  regular  increase  of  tenacity  from  62,- 
186  Ibs.  to  84,046  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  or  30 
per  cent.  Mr.  Clay  has  determined  the  effect 
of  repeated  workings  on  the  tensile  strength 
of  wrought  iron  as  follows : 


Lbs.  per 
gq.  in. 


1.  Puddled  iron.. .. ;  43.904 

2.  Eeheated 52.864  ..    ~. 

3.  "•        '•  59.5S5  II    9. 

4.  "        59,585  10. 

5.  "        57.344  11. 

G.          "        !  61,S24  12. 


7.  Eeheated . . . 


Lbs.  per 
•q.  in. 


59.5S5 
57.344 
57.344 
54,104 
51.968 
43.904 


The  increase  of  strength  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  increase  of  homogeneity,  and  the  subse 
quent  decrease  to  an  oxidation  of  the  iron. — 
A.  Wohler  (Ueber  die  Festigkeitsversuclie  ron 
Eisen  und  StaJiT)  has  investigated  the  effect  of 
repeated  strains  on  iron  and  steel,  and  has 
shown  that  the  rupture  of  a  material  may  be 
effected  by  frequently  applied  strains,  none  of 
which  exceed  the  limit  of  rupture;  that  the 
destruction  of  cohesion  depends  on  the  differ 
ences  of  tensions  which  form  the  limits  of  the 
oscillations  of  the  strain ;  and  that  the  absolute 
amount  of  the  extreme  tensions  is  only  of  im 
portance  in  so  far  as  the  differences  of  strain 
which  effect  rupture  decrease  with  the  increas 
ing  tension.  When  a  fibre  passes  from  a  state 
of  tension  to  a  state  of  compression,  or  vice 
Tersa,  we  should  consider  the  tensional  strain 
as  positive,  and  the  compressive  strain  as  neg 
ative,  so  that  the  variation  will  be  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  tensional  and  compressive  strains. 
This  condition,  often  called  the  "fatigue "of 
metals,  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


376 


IRON 


IRON-CLAD  SHIPS 


KINDS. 

Ultimate  breaking  strain 
in  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch. 

Elonga 
tion  per 

Strain  applied  in  Ibs. 
per  sq.  inch. 

Difference  in 

and 
minimum. 

No.  of  applications  before 
fracture. 

Orig.  area. 

Fract'd  area. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

"Wrought  iron,  Phoenix  companj',  I 
1S57.  .          j 

47,080 
109,675 

' 

C6,126 

135,997 

17-8J 
12'1-j 

51,360 
38,520 
47.0sO 
47.0SO 
85,600 
49.220 
85.600 
17.050 
10,700 

0 
0 
21.400 
25.680 
0 
0 
37,450 
0 
0 

51.360 

38.520 
25,6sO 
21.400 
85,600 
49,220 
48.150 
17.050 
10,700 

800 
4S0.852 
2,373,424 
4,000,000  not  broken. 
18.741 
13.200.000  not  broken. 
12,000.000  not  broken. 
3,140 
7,600,000  not  broken. 

Cast-steel  axle,  Krupp,  1862  
Piece  of  cast-iron  cylinder,  Stettin  . 

The  effect  of  vibration  on  fibrous  iron,  it  has 
been  generally  supposed,  is  to  make  it  crystal 
line.  Experimental  evidence  is  however  lack 
ing  on  this  point.  Iron  subjected  to  vibratory 
shocks  may  become  weak  and  break  from  "fa 
tigue,"  or  by  reason  of  poor  material  or  bad 
working ;  but  there  are  no  facts  to  prove  that 
weakening  is  the  result  of  a  passage  from  the 
fibrous  to  the  crystalline  condition. — Prof. 
Robert  II.  Thurston  has  investigated  the  effect 
of  unintermitted  static  stress  on  wrought  iron 
and  steel  strained  beyond  the  limit  of  elastici 
ty,  and  has  found  that  they  do  not  lose  their 
power  of  resistance  or  yield  in  the  slightest  de 
gree.  He  has  further  determined  that  iron 
and  steel,  if  strained  beyond  the  limit  of  elas 
ticity,  and  left  under  the  action  of  the  distort 
ing  force  which  has  been  found  just  capable 
of  equilibrating  their  power  of  resistance,  gain 
resisting  power  to  a  degree  which  has  a  limit 
in  amount  approximating  closely,  if  not  coin 
ciding  with,  the  ultimate  resistance  of  the  ma 
terial,  and  which  had  a  limit  as  to  time  in  ex 
periments  hitherto  made  of  three  or  four  days. 
Releasing  the  piece  entirely  and  again  submit 
ting  it  to  the  same  force  immediately  does  not 
produce  this  strengthening  effect. — The  pro 
duction  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  United  States 
in  1872  was  as  follows,  in  tons  of  2,000  Ibs. : 

Iron  and  steel  rails 941,992 

Other  rolled  and  hammered  iron 1,000.000 

Forges  and  bloomaries 58,000 

Cast  steel 82.000 

Bessemer  steel 110,500 

Martin  steel 8,000 

Pig  iron 2,830,070 

The  following  is  the  production  of  England, 
Prussia,  and  Sweden  for  1871,  and  France  for 

1872: 


COUNTRIES. 

Pig  iron. 

Wrought  iron. 

Steel. 

England  

Prussia 

6,627,179 
1,327,934 
1,299.390 
292.850 

5.56 

897.273- 
971,389 
183,989 

5,175 

211.367 
152.409 

34,b88 

France  
Sweden  

IRON.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Missouri,  drain 
ed  by  affluents  of  the  St.  Francois  and  Big  Black 
rivers;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6.278,  of  whom  852  wrere  colored.  Iron  moun 
tain  and  Pilot  Knob  are  on  the  N.  E.  border. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  mountainous.  There 
are  large  forests  of  oak,  hickory,  pine,  and  ce 
dar.  Iron  ore  is  abundant,  and  other  metals 


are  found.  The  St.  -Louis  and  Iron  Mountain 
railroad  crosses  the  county.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  12,221  bushels  of  wheat, 
90,385  of  Indian  corn,  and  28,141  of  oats. 
There  were  690  horses,  919  milch  cows,  1,703 
othe'r  cattle,  3,178  sheep,  and  4,714  swine;  5 
manufactories  of  carriages,  1  of  charcoal,  1  of 
pig  iron,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Ironton. 
II.  A  S.  county  of  Utah,  extending  from  Col 
orado  on  the  E.  to  Nevada  on  the  W. ;  area, 
9,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,277.  It  is  inter 
sected  in  the  E.  by  the  Colorado  river,  and 
crossed  in  the  W.  by  the  "Wasatch  mountains. 
Iron  ore  is  found  in  this  range,  and  at  its  base 
is  some  land  suitable  for  agriculture,  but  much 
of  the  county  is  unavailable.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  8,917  bushels  of  wheat, 
2,857  of  Indian  corn,  21,276  of  potatoes,  17,968 
Ibs.  of  wool,  21,355  of  butter,  and  736  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  732  horses,  2,114  cattle,  4,502 
sheep,  and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Parowan. 

IRON-CLAD  SHIPS,  or  Armored  Ships,  vessels 
covered  or  plated  with  iron  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  them  impenetrable  to  the  fire  of  ar 
tillery.  The  idea  of  strengthening  the  sides  of 
ships  so  as  to  enable  them  to  resist  attack  is 
nearly  as  old  as  the  art  of  navigation  itself. 
From  the  time  of  the  Norman  freebooters, 
who  protected  themselves  by  ranging  their 
bucklers  along  the  sides  of  their  vessels,  down 
to  the  battle  between  the  Kearsarge  and  the 
Alabama  in  1864,  in  which  the  sides  of  the 
former  were  protected  by  hanging  chains  over 
the  bulwarks,  and  from  the  time  of  the  Ro 
mans,  who  built  their  triremes  with  castellated 
prows,  to  the  English,  who  have  covered  their 
frigates  with  plates  of  solid  iron,  all  nations 
have  sought  by  means  more  or  less  perfect  to 
make  their  ships  impenetrable,  and  to  render 
them  invincible  in  battle.  The  first  attempts 
at  making  iron-clad  vessels  were  made  by  the 
Normans  in  the  12th  century,  who  put  an  ar 
mature  or  belt  of  iron  around  their  vessels, 
just  above  the  water  line  ;  this  belt  terminated 
in  front  by  a  spur.  In  some  instances  this  ar 
mature  was  converted  into  a  curtain  of  iron  or 
brass  reaching  above  the  bulwarks  for  the  pro 
tection  of  the  combatants.  The  crusaders  of 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries  protected  their 
ships  in  a  similar  manner.  Pedro  of  Aragon 
in  1354  ordered  the  sides  of  his  ships  to  be 
covered  with  leather  or  raw  hide  to  protect 
them  against  incendiary  compounds.  Andrea 
Doria,  who  commanded  in  the  expedition 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


against  Tunis  in  1535,  had  one  vessel  plated 
with  lead  in  his  fleet,  furnished  by  the  knights 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem ;  and  at  the  battle  of 
Lepanto  (1571)  many  of  the  Genoese  ships 
were  strengthened  by  blindages  or  bulwarks 
composed  of  heavy  beams,  old  sails,  cordage, 
&c.  In  1782  the  chevalier  d' Argon,  on  the 
suggestion  of  M.  de  Verdun,  at  the  unsuccess 
ful  siege  of  Gibraltar,  constructed  and  used  10 
floating  batteries  having  their  tops  bomb-proof, 
and  the  sides  protected  by  parapets  6  ft.  thick, 
composed  of  hard  wood  reenforced  by  cork 
wood,  leather,  and  bars  of  iron.  These  float 
ing  batteries  carried  214  guns  of  large  calibre, 
of  which  72  were  reserves,  and  for  several 
hours  at  close  range  withstood  the  heavy  fire 
of  artillery  concentrated  upon  them.  They 
yielded  finally  only  to  red-hot  shot,  and  all 
but  one  were  burnt  or  blown  up.  In  1814, 
toward  the  end  of  the  war  with  England  and 
after  the  success  of  the  first  steamboats,  Robert 
Fulton  proposed  to  construct  a  floating  battery 
for  the  United  States  government,  capable  of 
steaming  five  or  six  miles  per  hour,  and  having 
walls  proof  against  the  heaviest  artillery.  The 
hope  of  breaking  the  blockade  of  the  Hudson 
and  Chesapeake  caused  this  proposition  to  be 
received  with  enthusiasm.  The  vessel  was  be- 


FIG.  1.— Dernologos  (elevation). 

gun  in  June  and  launched  in  October  of  the 
same  year ;  but  owing  to  delays  in  completing 
her  machinery,  she  was  not  ready  for  service 
till  June,  1815,  after  the  declaration  of  peace. 
This  battery,  called  the  Demologos,  was  150  ft. 
long,  and  was  composed  of  two  hulls  coupled 
together,  but  separated  by  an  open  space  13  ft. 
wide.  The  wheel  was  placed  between  the  two 
hulls.  The  battery  and  machinery  were  pro 
tected  by  a  wooden  wall  about  6  ft.  thick  and 
extending  3  ft.  below  the  water  line.  The  ar 
mament  consisted  of  30  32-pdr.  guns.  The 


FIG.  2.— Demologos  (section). 

speed  of  the  vessel  reached  nearly  six  knots 
per  hour.  Her  name  was  changed  to  the  Ful 
ton  after  the  death  of  that  distinguished  engi 
neer.  This  vessel  seems  to  have  been  far  ahead 


!  of  her  time,  and,  although  never  used  in  war 
fare,  was  doubtless  superior  to  anything  of  the 
kind  ever  built  up  to  that  day.  She  was  de 
stroyed  by  the  explosion  of  her  magazine  in 
1829.  In  1838  the  Fulton  II.  was  constructed, 
but  with  improved  engines  and  greater  speed. 
She  was  a  true  side-wheel  steamer,  and  her 
wooden  walls  are  said  to  have  been  covered  with 
a  thin  plating  of  iron. — In  1826  an  anonymous 
writer  in  Paris  proposed  the  construction  of 
iron  or  iron-clad  frigates,  the  walls  of  which 
should  have  a  thickness  sufficient  to  resist  can 
non  shot,  asserting  that  when  the  enemy  should 
have  adapted  the  Paixhans  system  of  hori 
zontal  shell  firing  wooden  ships  would  no 
longer  serve  for  the  purposes  of  war.  This 
was  a  correct  idea,  but  only  an  idea  at  that 
time;  and  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  find  the 
real  inventor  of  iron-plated  ships,  or  ironclads, 
as  they  are  now  commonly  called.  The  idea  was 
public  property  and  the  natural  outgrowth  of 
the  improvements  made  in  artillery ;  the  in 
ventors  were  those  of  all  nations  who  gave  the 
idea  form  and  feasibility.  The  remarkable  re 
sults  obtained  by  the  employment  of  Paix- 
hans's  system  of  artillery  called  the  attention 
of  all  nations  to  the  means  of  defending  both 
ships  and  land  batteries  from  the  destructive 
effect  of  horizontal  shell  firing.  Some  experi 
ments  were  made  in  1834  at  Metz  and  Gavres 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  power  of 
different  materials  to  resist  penetration,  in 
consequence  of  which  Gen.  Paixhans  recom 
mended  that  the  French  vessels  of  war  should 
be  strengthened  by  plating  them  with  iron ;  but 
this  was  rejected  by  the  board  of  naval  con 
struction  in  1841.  In  1835  Mr.  John  Podd 
Drake  proposed  to  the  English  naval  depart 
ment  the  protection  of  the  machinery  of  steam 
men-of-war  by  iron  plating  4J  in.  thick,  and  in 
1841  he  promulgated  the  idea  of  iron-clad 
blockading  ships. — In  1842  Robert  L.  Stevens 
of  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  proposed  to  the  United 
States  government  the  construction  of  iron 
clad  steam  batteries  for  the  purpose  of  de 
fending  the  commercial  ports  from  the  chances 
of  bombardment  by  hostile  fleets.  After  rec 
ognizing  the  importance  of  this  idea,  the  gov 
ernment  decided  to  make  a  series  of  experi 
ments  with  the  view  of  determining  the  best 
arrangement  for  the  walls  of  such  batteries. 
These  experiments  demonstrated  that  an  iron 
wall  4$  in.  thick  was  sufficient  to  resist  the 
largest  projectiles  then  in  use.  The  construc 
tion  of  one  battery  was  decided  upon,  but  it 
was  not  commenced  till  1854.  From  the  best 
information  which  can  be  obtained,  her  length 
over  all  is  420  ft.,  her  breadth  52  ft.,  depth 
from  fighting  deck  28  ft.,  draught  of  water 
with  coal  and  stores  on  board  20  ft.  6  in., 
fighting  draught  22  ft.  6  in.  The  vessel  is  an 
iron  screw  steamer,  secured  by  longitudinal 
bulkheads,  by  a  heavy  box  keelson  running 
from  stem  to  stern,  and  by  shot-proof  decks 
and  continuous  side  armor.  She  has  two  screw 
propellers  working  independently,  each  being 


O'-Q 

t>  I  O 


IRON-CLAD  SHIPS 


driven  by  four  compact  beam  engines  working 
entirely  below  the  water  line.  Cylinders  are 
3  ft.  9  in.,  with  3  ft.  6  in.  stroke,  driven  by  10 
boilers  and  capable  of  developing  8,600  horse 
power.  The  leading  principles  of  this  ves 
sel's  construction  are  as  follows:  1.  When 
ready  for  action  the  ship  is  to  be  settled  2 
ft.  lower  in  the  water,  by  letting  water  into 
compartments  which  can  again  be  emptied 
rapidly  by  powerful  steam  pumps  provided 
for  that  purpose;  this  is  done  in  order  to 
save  the  weight  and  cost  of  the  additional  ar 
mor  which  would  otherwise  be  necessary ;  to  al 
low  a  natter  slope  and  secure  greater  resistance 
of  the  armor ;  to  employ  the  resistance  of  the 
water ;  to  give  the  vessel  a  greater  speed  by 
expelling  the  water  from  her  compartments, 
and  to  enable  her  when  thus  lightened  to  enter 
harbors  into  which  she  could  otherwise  not  go. 
2.  The  use  of  inclined  instead  of  vertical  pla 
ting,  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  direc 
tion  and  throwing  off  instead  of  stopping  the 
enemy's  projectiles.  The  side  plating  consists 
of  the  best  iron  slabs  3-J  in.  thick,  laid  upon  a 
triangular  backing  of  locust  timber  extending 
outside  the  shell  of  the  vessel  from  stem  to 
stern,  and  to  a  depth  of  4  ft.  below  the  water 
line  when  the  vessel  is  ready  for  action.  From 
the  outer  edge  of  this  side  protection  the  shot- 
proof  casemate  or  main  armor  proceeds,  up 
ward  and  inward,  at  an  angle  of  one  vertical 
to  two  horizontal,  to  a  height  of  28  ft.  from 
the  bottom  of  the  ship,  and  5|-  ft.  from  the 
fighting  line,  where  it  is  covered  by  a  flat  shot- 
proof  deck.  The  main  armor  extends  only 
over  the  engine's  boilers,  blowing  and  pump 
ing  machinery,  that  is,  107  ft.  forward  and  74 
ft.  aft  the  centre.  Its  ends  slope  upward  and 
inward  at  a  similar  angle,  from  the  21-foot 
deck,  which  is  shot-proof,  and  which  extends 
forward  and  aft  the  armor  to  the  extreme  bow 
and  stern.  The  inclined  armor,  or  casemate, 
is  composed  of  6J  in.  of  iron  plates,  backed 
by  14  in.  of  locust  timber,  in  which  are  im 
bedded  six-inch  wrought-iron  girders  2  ft. 
apart.  The  whole  is  lined  with  half -inch  plate 
iron.  It  is  supported  by  the  engine  frames,  by 
heavy  braces  and  girders  between  the  boilers, 
and  by  the  frames  and  sides  of  the  ship.  The 
horizontal  shot-proof  decks  are  composed  of  1^ 
in.  of  iron  plates,  resting  on  six-inch  wrought- 
iron  girders,  filled  in  with  locust  timber  and 
backed  with  half-inch  iron  plate.  The  guns 
will  be  loaded  by  being  pivoted  to  a  hole  in 
the  deck  protected  by  a  shot-proof  hood,  be 
low  which  is  a  steam  cylinder  of  which  the 
piston  rod  is  the  ramrod  of  the  gun.  All  the 
machinery  and  men  for  working  the  guns  are 
thus  within  the  shot-proof  armor.  The  guns  are 
protected  by  a  covering  of  wrought-iron  armor 
in  addition  to  their  own  immense  thickness, 
and  will  be  trained  by  steam  power.  The 
shot-proof  deck  fore  and  aft  the  central  case 
mate  affords  ample  accommodation  for  men  and 
officers.  Above  this  deck,  and  flush  with  the 
28-foot  gun  deck,  which  forms  the  top  of  the  ; 


casemate,  is  a  light  deck,  extending  at  the  sides 
of  the  casemate,  and  forward  and  aft  from 
stem  to  stern.  The  entire  28-foot  or  gun  deck 
is  thus  level  (excepting  the  usual  camber),  and 
unencumbered  over  the  whole  vessel.  Only 
the  part  of  it  that  forms  the  top  of  the  case 
mate  is  shot-proof.  Above  the  28-foot  deck  are 
flying  bulwarks  to  be  turned  down  in  time  of 
action.  The  height  of  the  bulwarks  from  the 
water  at  the  load  line  will  be  13|  ft.  The  14- 
foot  deck  affords  ample  space  for  stores,  and  for 
the  salt-water  tanks  designed  for  settling  the 
vessel  to  the  fighting  line.  Below  the  14-foot 
deck,  forward  of  the  boilers,  are  the  blowers 
and  pumping  engines  and  coal  bunkers.  Abaft 
the  engines  are  coal  bunkers  also.  Capacity 
for  coal,  1,000  tons.  The  vessel  will  have  two 
light  masts  for  emergencies,  but  will  not  ordi 
narily  carry  sails.  Her  projector  claimed  that 
her  iron  casemate,  6|  in.  thick  backed  by  14 
in.  of  hard  timber,  and  standing  at  the  acute 
angle  of  one  base  to  two  perpendicular,  is 
a  stronger  protection  than  has  ever  been  ap 
plied,  and  that  at  the  same  time  it  is  compara 
tively  light,  as  its  extent  is  reduced  by  con 
fining  it  to  the  central  part  of  the  vessel,  and 
by  immersing  the  vessel  to  a  deeper  fighting 
draught.  The  parts  of  the  vessel  fore  and 
aft  the  central  casemate  are  also  thoroughly 
protected  by  a  horizontal  deck,  which  is  not 
only  shot-proof  but  one  foot  below  the  fight 
ing  water  line.  The  water  protection,  as  far 
as  it  can  be  judiciously  employed,  is  at  once  the 
most  perfect  and  cheapest  armor.  3.  The  side 
protection,  extending  from  stem  to  stern,  is 
intended  to  answer  these  four  important  pur 
poses :  1,  protection  from  projectiles  ;  2,  from 
disaster  by  collision ;  3,  increasing  the  immersed 
beam,  and  the  consequent  stability  of  the  ship 
when  fighting;  4,  adding  in  a  very  great  de 
gree  to  the  horizontal  and  vertical  strength 
and  stiffness  of  the  vessel.  4.  The  immense 
power  of  the  engines  and  the  fine  lines  are  in 
tended  to  give  a  much  higher  speed  than  has 
been  attained  by  any  sea-going  war  or  com 
mercial  steamer.  The  sharpness  of  her  lines 
is  unprecedented  in  any  government  practice, 
and  in  any  except  the  latest  and  most  success 
ful  commercial  practice.  5.  The  ability  of  the 
vessel  to  turn  rapidly  round  on  her  own  centre, 
without  making  headway,  by  means  of  two 
screws,  instead  of  occupying  the  time  and  ma 
king  the  circuit  required  by  all  other  war  ves 
sels,  it  is  thought,  will  give  her  remarkable  and 
important  facilities  for  manoeuvring  when  in 
action.  6.  The  employment  of  barbette  guns, 
or  on  the  top  of  the  casemate  instead  of  within 
it,  gives  the  free  range  of  the  entire  horizon. 
Three  guns  can  be  fired  at  a  time  in  line  with 
the  keel,  forward  or  aft.  7.  As  there  is  no 
casemate  over  the  guns,  the  enemy  cannot  pour 
shot  and  shell  into  port  holes  at  close  quar 
ters  ;  for  the  same  reason  the  guns  will  not  be 
limited  to  the  few  degrees  of  range  permitted 
by  the  ports,  but  can  sweep  the  horizon.  The 
cost  and  weight  of  the  casemates  over  the  guns 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


379 


are  dispensed  with,  and  the  seven  guns  thus 
arranged  will  be  as  formidable  as  a  whole 
broadside  arranged  in  the  ordinary  way.  This 
vessel  was  still  incomplete  when  it  was  an 
nounced  to  be  sold  by  auction  on  Oct.  2,  1874, 
by  the  state  of  New  Jersey,  to  which  it  was 
bequeathed  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Stevens. — The  ex 
periments  of  the  American  government  to  test 
the  theories  of  Mr.  Stevens  were  repeated  by  the 
English  admiralty  at  Woolwich.  A  target  was 
constructed  of  14  thicknesses  of  sheet  iron,  or 
about  24-  in.,  riveted  together  and  backed  by  2 
ft.  of  oak.  It  was  fired  at  with  64-  and  32-pdr. 
guns,  at  a  distance  of  375  yards;  32  projec 
tiles  were  used,  8  of  which  broke  the  plating, 
but  none  of  which  succeeded  in  piercing  the 
target.  A  new  series  of  experiments  was  made 
in  France  in  1843  and  1844,  at  the  request  of 
the  prince  de  Joinville;  and  in  1845  M.  Dupuy 
de  Lome  published  a  memoir  urging  the  con 
struction  of  iron-plated  frigates,  having  thin 
ner  plating  than  it  was  generally  thought  ex 
periment  had  shown  to  be  necessary,  but  car 
rying  fewer  guns  of  heavier  calibre.  The  ex 
periments  up  to  that  time  had  not  indicated 
clearly  enough  the  manner  of  constructing  the  . 
walls  of  ships,  and  as  Dupuy  de  Lome's  me 
moir  demanded  still  further  experiments,  the 
construction  of  ironclads  was  not  yet  under 
taken.  In  1846  the  English  admiralty  made 
further  experiments  with  32-pdr.  guns  at  200 
yards,  against  targets  composed  of  iron  plates 
riveted  together.  The  results  were  thought 
to  be  unfavorable,  and  no  further  steps  were 
taken  at  that  time  toward  the  employment 
of  iron  in  the  construction  of  ships  of  war. 
In  1847  M.  Gervaize  proposed  a  screw  ship 
composed  entirely  of  iron,  and,  basing  his  opin 
ions  on  the  experiments  undertaken  at  Gavres 
in  1843-'5,  he  asserted  that  the  impenetrabili 
ty  of  iron  walls  is  as  much  greater  than  that 
of  wood,  as  the  penetrating  power  of  solid  shot 
is  greater  than  that  of  shell,  and  that  conse 
quently  the  true  machine  for  naval  warfare  is 
the  iron  ship.  He  also  claimed  the  possibility 
of  using  such  vessels  as  rams,  owing  to  their 
superior  swiftness  and  solidity.  These  ideas 
were  also  put  aside  for  the  time  being,  and 
further  experiments  were  undertaken,  without 
any  notable  results  till  active  operations  in  the 
war  of  England  and  France  against  Russia  had 
taken  place  in  1854.  It  was  then  found  that 
the  English  and  French  war  ships  drew  too 
much  water  to  get  within  close  range  of  the 
forts  in  the  Baltic,  and  hence  it  became  neces 
sary  to  construct  vessels  of  lighter  draught  and 
greater  force.  The  emperor  of  the  French  au 
thorized  M.  Guieysse  to  make  such  further  ex 
periments  as  might  be  found  necessary  in  de 
ciding  upon  the  plan.  These  were  made  at 
Vincennes,  and  resulted  in  a  determination  to 
lay  the  iron  plates  on  an  elastic  backing  of  wood, 
and  to  have  the  plates  rolled  to  the  required 
thickness  rather  than  composed  of  thin  plates 
united  together.  The  plans  of  Guieysse  were 
adopted,  and  five  floating  batteries,  the  De 


vastation,  Tonnante,  Lave,  Foudroyante,  and 
Congreve,  were  begun.  They  were  160  ft. 
long  at  the  water  line,  42  ft.  wide,  and  8  ft. 
draught.  Their  armament  consisted  of  16  50- 
pdr.  guns  under  the  cuirasse  and  2  12-pdrs. 
on  the  forecastle ;  the  plating  was  composed 


FIG.  3.— The  Devastation. 

of  4£  in.  of  iron  backed  by  8  in.  of  oak.  The 
engines  were  of  225  horse  power,  with  boil 
ers  designed  to  act  under  a  pressure  of  75 
Ibs.  to  the  square  inch.  The  first  of  these 
vessels  was  launched  in  March,  1855,  and  the 
rest  soon  after.  At  the  same  time  that  the 
order  for  these  vessels  was  given  the  French 
minister  of  marine,  M.  Ducos,  sent  the  plans 
to  the  English  government;  but  Sir  James 
Graham,  the  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  hesi 
tated  much  before  deciding  to  build  any  of  this 
new  class  of  ships.  As  a  preliminary  measure 
the  experiments  made  at  Vincennes  were  tested 
at  Portsmouth  in  September,  1854,  in  the  pres 
ence  of  Gamier  and  Guieysse.  The  results 
were  satisfactory,  and  on  Oct.  3  the  admiralty 
ordered  the  construction  of  five  batteries  of 
the  new  type.  Although  they  were  sea-going 
vessels,  they  were  without  claims  as  ships,  being 
designed  simply  for  strong  floating  batteries. 
The  French  vessels  of  this  class  were  towed  to 
the  Baltic  by  the  screw  frigates.  On  Oct.  17 
the  Lave,  Tonnante,  and  Devastation  attacked 
the  fortress  of  Kinburn  at  close  range,  and, 
although  they  were  hit  many  times,  succeeded 
after  five  hours  and  a  quarter  in  silencing  the 
enemy's  guns.  The  performances  of  these 
vessels  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  utility  or  sound 
ness  of  the  idea  on  which  they  had  been  con 
structed,  and  at  once  attracted  the  attention 
of  naval  constructors  throughout  the  world  to 
the  necessity  not  only  of  vessels  of  this  class 
for  harbor  defence  and  attack,  but  also  of  having 
iron-clad  cruisers  and  rams  of  high  speed  and 
fine  sea-going  qualities.  The  French  them 
selves  were  the  first  to  profit  by  their  own 
experience,  and  at  Toulon  on  March  4,  1858, 
under  the  orders  of  Napoleon  III.,  began  the 
construction  of  the  Gloire,  an  iron-plated  screw 
frigate  of  the  first  class.  Her  form  does  not 
essentially  differ  from  that  of  the  ordinary 


FIG.  4.— The  Gloire. 

wooden  frigates  of  the  French  navy,  although, 
as  she  is  also  intended  to  act  as  a  ram,  her 
bows  have  a  peculiar  form  specially  designed 
for  crushing  the  sides  of  her  opponents.  Her 
length  over  all  is  250  ft.,  breadth  of  beam  55  ft. ; 
her  armament  consists  of  36  guns  of  0-3  in. 
calibre.  Her  armor,  which  covers  only  her 


380 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


sides  amidships,  consists  of  solid  plates  4^-  in. 
thick,  backed  by  2  ft.  of  timber.  The  com 
pletion  of  this  ship  marks  an  epoch  of  the  great 
est  importance  in  naval  warfare  and  architec 
ture.  From  that  day  wooden  ships  gave  way 
to  a  new  class  practical 
ly  impenetrable  to  the 
projectiles  of  artillery, 
and  endowed  with  speed 
and  sea -going  qualities 
equal  to  those  of  the 
vessels  they  were  des 
tined  to  replace.  The 
science  of  ordnance  and 
gunnery  also  received  a 
new  impulse,  as  guns  of 
larger  calibre  and  great 
er  penetrating  power  be 
came  necessary.  Every 
subsequent  improvement 
in  the  construction  of 
iron-clad  ships  has  been 
followed  if  not  preceded 
by  a  corresponding  im 
provement  in  artillery, 
and  in  no  branch  of  hu 
man  industry  have  greater  ingenuity  or  more 
persistent  efforts  been  displayed.  Shortly 
after  the  Gloire  was  begun,  the  French  laid 
the  keels  of  the  Normandie  and  the  Invincible 
on  the  same  plans,  and  the  Couronne  on  the 
plans  suggested  by  M.  Audinet.  The  construc 
tion  of  these  ships  was  looked  upon  by  all 
maritime  nations  as  betraying  an  intention  on 
the  part  of  Napoleon  III.  to  make  France  the 
principal  naval  power  of  the  world,  and  was 
regarded  by  the  English  as  a  direct  challenge 
which  could  only  be  properly  met  by  the  con 
struction  of  a  fleet  of  still  more  formidable 
vessels.  Accordingly  the  admiralty  ordered 
the  building  of  the  Warrior,  and  shortly  after 
ward  of  the  Black  Prince,  Defence,  and  Queen. 
These  vessels  were  the  forerunners  of  a  new 
fleet  composed  entirely  of  ironclads,  built  at  an 
enormous  cost,  but  making  good  her  position 
as  the  first  naval  power  of  the  world.  The 
plating  of  the  Warrior,  like  that  of  the  Gloire, 
is  only  4|  in.  thick,  and  is  applied  amidships 
only.  It  is  backed  by  18  in.  of  teak,  and  is  of 
uniform  thickness,  designed  to  resist  68-pdr. 
shot  and  shell.  She  is  a  long,  handsome 
frigate,  masted  and  rigged  as  usual,  and  sails 
faster  than  the  Gloire,  but  owing  to  her  greater 
length  is  not  so  handy  at  sea.  The  Defence 
and  the  Resistance,  constructed  upon  the  same 
plan,  but  smaller,  soon  followed.  About  the 
same  time  the  French  built  the  Magenta  and 
the  Solferino,  admirable  vessels,  but  as  war 
ships  in  some  respects  less  effective  than  the 
Gloire.  The  example  of  France  and  England 
was  soon  followed  by  the  second-class  naval 
powers.  Austria  undertook  the  construction 
of  two  frigates  and  Italy  of  two  corvettes  in 
I860.— Up  to  this  time  all  the  efforts  of  con 
structors  had  been  directed  to  the  building  of 
vessels  after  the  old  patterns,  simply  using  iron 


instead  of  wood,  or  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
wooden  walls  of  old  ships,  without  any  essential 
modification  of  form  or  change  of  model.  The 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States 
gave  a  great  impulse  to  invention  in  this  direc- 


FIG.  5.— The  St.  Louis. 

tion.  The  seizure  of  the  important  points  on 
the  Mississippi  river  below  Cairo  enabled  the 
confederates  to  erect  batteries  and  to  stop 
navigation,  and  rendered  it  necessary  for  the 
Union  fleets  to  be  accompanied  by  ironclads. 
The  first  of  these  were  constructed  by  James 
B.  Eads,  a  civil  engineer  residing  in  St.  Louis. 
He  built  the  St.  Louis,  Carondelet,  Cairo, 
Mound  City,  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and  Pitts 
burgh  in  1861,  and  later  the  Benton  upon  the 
model  known  subsequently  as  the  "turtle- 
back."  They  were  plated  with  iron  slabs  2£ 
in.  thick  and  11  in.  wide,  rabbeted  together 
and  laid  on  a  4-inch  backing  of  oak  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  and  each  armed  with 
13  9-  and  10-inch  guns.  These  vessels  were 
built  under  the  orders  of  the  war  department, 
and  were  the  first  ironclads  actually  employed 
in  warfare  by  the  United  States.  While  they 
were  not  impenetrable  to  the  fire  of  heavy 
rifles,  or  even  to  the  8-  and  10-inch  columbiads 
used  by  the  confederates,  they  did  excellent  ser 
vice  till  the  end  of  the  war.  Mr.  Eads  designed 
and  constructed  the  Osage  and  the  Neosho  after 
the  model  of  the  Monitor,  each  having  a  turret 
carrying  two  11 -inch  guns.  The  turret  pla 
ting  was  6  in.  thick,  the  hull  plating  2|  in.,  the 
deck  plating  1  in.,  while  the  draught  of  water 
was  only  4  ft.  They  were  145  ft.  long  and  45 
ft.  wide.  He  also  designed  the  Winnebago, 
the  Milwaukee,  the  Chickasaw,  and  the  Kick- 
apoo,  each  carrying  two  turrets,  the  sides  of 
which  were  8  in.  thick,  with  hull  plating  3  in. 
thick,  and  deck  plating  1£  in.  They  were  each 
226  ft,  long,  56  ft,  wide,  and  drew  only  6  ft. 
Each  turret  carried  two  11-inch  guns. — The 
confederates,  shortly  after  the  commencement 
of  hostilities,  seized  the  navy  yard  at  Norfolk, 
in  the  harbor  of  which  the  wooden  frigate 
Merrimack  had  been  scuttled  and  sunk.  They 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


3S1 


raised  her,  cut  down  her  sides,  and  converted 
her  into  an  iron-clad  ram,  which  they  called 
the  Virginia.  She  was  covered  with  railroad 
iron,  laid  on  in-  an  oak  hacking  inclined 
at  about  45°  to  the  water  surface.  She  was 
armed  with  10  9-  and  10-inch  guns,  and  on 
March  8,  18G2,  sallied  out  upon  the  ship 
ping  in  Hampton  Roads,  sinking  the  frigate 
Cumberland  by  ramming,  and  subsequently  de 
stroying  the  Congress.  On  the  9th  she  resumed 
operations,  and  after  a  contest  with  the  frigate 
Minnesota  was  met  by  the  Monitor,  a  novel 
ship  constructed  by  John  Ericsson  of  New 
York,  which  after  a  brief  but  remarkable  com 
bat  disabled  and  drove  the  Virginia  back  to 
Norfolk.  This  combat  marks  one  of  the  most 
notable  epochs  in  naval  warfare,  and  changed 
the  course  of  naval  construction  throughout  the 
world.  The  essential  feature  of  this  vessel  was 
a  revolving  turret,  composed  of  wrought-iron 
plates  an  inch  thick,  bolted  together  till  a  thick 
ness  of  8  in.  had  been  obtained.  The  turret 
was  20  ft.  in  diameter  and  9  ft.  high ;  it  con 
tained  two  11-inch  Dahlgren  guns,  trained  side 
by  side  and  revolving  with  the  turret,  and 
throwing  solid  shot  weighing  166  Ibs.,  with  a 
charge  of  15  Ibs.  of  powder.  The  hull  of  the 
vessel  itself  was  of  iron,  127  ft.  long,  36  ft. 
2  in.  wide,  and  12  ft.  depth  of  hold.  Her 
extreme  length  over  all  was  173  ft.,  extreme 


FIG.  6.— The  Monitor  (elevation). 

width  41  ft.  6  in.  She  had  a  very  low  free 
board,  and  sat  so  deep  in  the  water  that  she 
seemed  submerged.  She  was  built  at  Green- 
point  (Brooklyn),  N.  Y.,  in  100  days,  and  cost 
$275,000.  The  plan  upon  which  she  was  built 
is  known  as  the  turreted  or  monitor  system, 
and  was  invented  by  Theodore  R.  Timby  of 
Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.  The  essential  part  of  the 
plan  was  conceived  when  he  was  a  boy,  and  the 
germ  of  the  whole  invention  was  embodied  in 
a  model  which  he  completed  in  1841.  On  Jan. 
18,  1843,  he  filed  his  first  caveat  for  the  inven 
tion  in  the  United  States  patent  office.  His 
specifications  were  "  f or  a  revolving  metallic 
tower,  and  for  a  revolving  tower  for  a  floating 
battery  to  be  propelled  by  steam."  In  the  same 
year  he  completed  and  exhibited  an  iron  model 
showing  all  the  essential  parts  of  the  system  as 
subs3quently  adopted,  and  still  later  another, 
which  he  presented  to  the  emperor  of  China 
through  Mr.  Caleb  Gushing,  the  American  min 
ister.  In  1848  a  committee  of  congress  made 
a  favorable  report  to  the  secretary  of  war  upon 
the  system.  This  was  several  years  previous 
to  the  time  when  Capt.  Coles  of  the  English 
navy  claimed  to  have  invented  the  turret. 
When  the  civil  war  broke  out  Mr.  Timby  con 
structed  a  fifth  model  of  his  invention,  embody 
ing  all  the  improvements  which  he  had  made. 
His  patents  covered  the  broad  claim  "for  a  re 


volving  tower  for  offensive  and  defensive  war 
fare,  whether  used  on  land  or  water."  When 
therefore  the  monitors  were  to  be  built,  the  con 
structors  at  once  recognized  the  validity  of  his 
claim,  and  paid  him  a  liberal  sum  for  the  right 
to  use  his  invention.  Fig.  7  presents  the  sec- 


FIG.  7.— Timby's  Revolving  Turret. 

tion  of  a  naval  tower  designed  by  Mr.  Timby. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  40  ft.  in  diameter,  with 
space  for  six  guns.  Revolving  once  a  minute, 
its  capacity  would  be  one  shot  aimed  at  any 
given  point  every  ten  seconds.  Thus  it  seems 
to  be  clear  that  the  idea  upon  which  the  moni 
tor  system  is  based  was  invented  and  first  pre 
sented  to  public  notice  by  Mr.  Timby ;  but  it 
remained  for  Ericsson  to  give  it  practical  ap 
plication  in  this  country,  and  Capt.  Coles  in 
England,  although  the  latter  did  not  at  first 
propose  to  use  revolving  turrets. — The  results 
of  the  combat  in  Hampton  Roads  were  far- 
reaching  in  effect;  they  demonstrated  not 
only  the  destructive  power  and  practical  in 
vulnerability  of  ironclads,  but  the  utter  in 
ability  of  wooden  frigates,  no  matter  how 
armed  or  commanded,  to  contend  with  them. 
It  was  the  first  contest  between  the  new  and 
the  old  systems,  and  left  no  uncertainty  as  to 
their  relative  merits.  All  maritime  nations 
addressed  themselves  actively  to  the  transfor 
mation  of  their  old  wooden  steamships,  wher 
ever  they  were  sound,  by  cutting  down  and 
plating  their  sides,  and  to  supplying  themselves 
with  ships  built  according  to  the  new  system. 
The  English  displayed  extraordinary  activity 
in  this  direction;  public  opinion  forced  the 
government  to  build  monitors  as  well  as  iron 
clad  frigates ;  also  to  employ  the  best  talents 
the  country  afforded  in  improving  her  system 
of  artillery,  as  well  as  in  experimenting  upon 
the  best  combinations,  whether  of  iron  or  of 
wood,  for  constructing  impenetrable  armor. 
Mr.  E.  J.  Reed,  secretary  of  the  society  of  naval 
architects,  was  called  to  the  post  of  chief  con 
structor,  and  began  at  once  a  radical  modifica 
tion  of  the  English  naval  marine.  In  1863  the 
Bellerophon,  representing  the  ideas  which  Mr. 
Reed  had  carried  into  the  English  admiralty, 
was  put  upon  the  stocks.  The  Warrior  and 


382 


IRON-CLAD  SHIPS 


the  earlier  English  ironclads  were  constructed 
with  deep  frames  running  in  a  longitudinal  di 
rection  through  the  greater  part  of  the  ship's 
hull,  comhined  with  numerous  strong  trans 
verse  frames,  formed  of  plates  and  angle  irons. 
In  fact,  up  to  the  height  of  the  armor,  the  lon 
gitudinal  framing  of  the  older  ironclads  closely 
resembles  that  of  the  roadway  of  a  common 
English  girder  bridge  of  iron,  in  which  the 
principal  or  longitudinal  strength  is  contribu 
ted  by  the  continuous  girders  that  stretch  from 
pier  to  pier,  and  the  transverse  framing  con 
sists  of  short  girders  fitted  between  and  fas 
tened  to  the  continuous  girders.  If  such  a 
structure  be  conceived  to  be  curved  trans 
versely  to  a  ship's  shape,  and  the  under  side 
to  be  covered  with  iron  plating,  a  fair  idea 
will  be  had  of  the  construction  of  the  hull  of 
the  Warrior.  If  instead  of  this  arrangement 
the  continuous  longitudinal  girders  be  con 
siderably  deepened  and  the  transverse  girders 
be  replaced  by  "bracket  frames,"  and,  after 
curving  these  to  the  ship's  form,  both  the  upper 
and  lower  side  thereof  be  iron-plated,  a  cor 
respondingly  good  idea  will  be  had  of  the  con 
struction  of  the  hull  of  the  Bellerophon.  In 
other  words,  the  construction  of  the  latter  is 
identical  with  the  cellular  system  of  the  Menai 
and  other  tubular  bridges,  which  best  combines 
lightness  and  strength  in  wrought-iron  struc 
tures  of  tubular  cross  section.  This  double- 
skinned  or  tubular  system,  in  addition  to  giv 
ing  greater  strength  and  safety  than  the  single- 
skinned  system,  is  also  better  adapted  to  resist 
the  explosive  effect  of  torpedoes,  which  are 
fast  becoming  one  of  the  most  important  ad 
juncts  to  naval  warfare.  No  ship's  bottom  can 
be  made  strong  enough  to  resist  the  shock  of 
a  torpedo's  explosion,  and  consequently  Mr. 
Reed  provided  as  far  as  possible  against  the 
danger  of  sinking  by  dividing  his  ships  into 
water-tight  compartments.  Notwithstanding 
the  superior  strength  and  safety  thus  given  to 
the  Bellerophon,  the  weight  of  her  hull  was 
considerably  less  than  it  would  have  been  if 
built  of  wood,  and  was  very  much  less  than 
the  total  weight  of  armor,  armament,  and 
equipment.  In  the  wood-built  ironclads  the 
weight  of  hull  was  generally  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  total  weight  carried,  and  in  the 
earlier  built  ironclads  the  hull  was  heavier  than 
the  cargo.  In  the  Black  Prince  the  weight  of 
hull  was  4,909  tons,  and  the  total  weight  car 
ried  4,281  tons.  In  the  Bellerophon  the  hull, 
with  thick  skin  plating  and  extra  girders,  was 
3,652  tons,  while  the  total  weight  carried  was 
3,798  tons.  In  the  case  of  the  Monarch,  a 
turret  ship  built  after  this  system,  the  weight 
of  the  hull  is  3,674  tons,  while  the  weight  car 
ried  is  4,632  tons.  In  all  the  later  ships  con 
structed  by  Mr.  Reed  the  carrying  power  is 
much  greater  than  the  weight  of  the  hull,  and 
is  due  mainly  to  the  improved  structural  ar 
rangements  introduced  by  him.  This  system 
is  known  among  naval  constructors  as  the 
"bracket-plate  system,"  and  is  now  generally 


employed  even  by  the  private  ship  builders  of 
England  who  build  ships  of  war. — Iron-clad 
ships  are  substantially  of  two  forms  or  types : 
those  in  which  the  batteries  are  protected  by 
armor  laid  upon  the  walls  of  the  ships,  such 
as  the  New  Ironsides,  Warrior,  Hercules,  and 
Bellerophon,  and  those  carrying  their  batteries 
in  turrets,  such  as  the  Miantonomoh,  Monitor, 
Glatton,  Thunderer,  and  Devastation;  and 
they  are  divided  into  classes  according  to  their 
uses  for  cruising,  defending  harbors,  guarding 
coasts,  or  operating  upon  rivers  and  lakes. 
While  there  is  a  certain  similarity  in  all  the 
vessels  of  each  class,  there  are  also  many  dif 
ferences  in  details,  according  to  the  intended 
use.  The  Warrior  is  armed  only  at  the  middle, 
with  4|-inch  plates,  while  both  bow  and  stern, 
I  including  the  steering  gear,  are  exposed  to  shot 
and  shell.  In  all  the  more  recent  English 
ships  this  central  battery  or  "box"  has  been 
enlarged  by  a  continuous  belt  of  armor  extend 
ing  from  stem  to  stern,  and  protecting  the 
region  of  the  water  line  and  steering  gear. 
The  Warrior's  armor  is  of  uniform  thickness ; 
but  in  recent  ships  the  most  vital  parts,  such 
as  the  region  of  the  water  line  and  over  the 
machinery,  have  been  further  protected  by 
thick  armor,  additional  backing,  and  iron  bulk 
heads  fitted  inside.  The  Warrior  possesses 
only  broadside  fire ;  all  the  later  vessels  have 
their  fighting  capacity  increased  by  bow  and 
stern  fire  of  greater  or  less  extent.  The  War 
rior  has  only  her  main-deck  battery  armor- 
plated;  recent  ships  have  a  protected  upper- 
deck  battery.  The  Warrior  has  her  guns  well 
spread  out ;  later  ships  carry  their  battery  con 
centrated,  and  composed  of  much  heavier  guns. 
The  Warrior  was  made  extremely  long  with  a 
view  to  speed  ;  recent  ships  are  much  shorter 
in  proportion,  and  are  handled  more  easily. 
The  Warrior  has  a  single-skinned  hull  and  com 
paratively  light  and  weak  framing  ;  later  ships 
are  double-skinned,  with  deep,  strong  framing 
and  water-tight  compartments.  The  armor  of 
the  Warrior,  as  before  stated,  is  only  4^  in. 
thick ;  that  of  the  Bellerophon  is  6  in.,  of  the 
Hercules  9  in.,  of  the  Hotspur  11  in.,  and  that 
on  the  sides  of  the  monitors  Glatton,  Thunderer, 
and  Devastation  is  12  in.,  while  their  turrets  are 
14  in.  Presuming  that  the  resistance  offered 
by  armor  plates  to  penetration  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  thickness,  which  is  approximate 
ly  correct,  the  armory  of  the  Bellerophon  is 
nearly  twice  as  strong  as  that  of  the  Warrior, 
of  the  Hercules  about  seven  times,  of  the  Hot 
spur  six  times,  of  the  Glatton  seven  times,  and 
of  the  turrets  of  the  latter  nearly  ten  times. 
The  guns  (rifled)  used  by  the  Warrior  weigh 
4f  tons,  those  of  the  Bellerophon  12  tons,  of 
the  Hercules  18  tons,  of  the  Glatton  25  tons; 
while  those  of  the  Thunderer  and  Devastation 
weigh  30  tons.  The  necessity  of  carrying  such 
armor  and  guns,  and  of  firing  ahead  and  astern, 
as  well  as  from  the  broadside,  has  rendered  es- 
;  sential  many  changes  in  the  sizes,  forms,  and 
i  arrangements  of  the  sides,  decks,  and  batteries 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


383 


of  armored  ships.  The  introduction  of  twin 
screws,  and  the  necessity  of  having  light- 
dniught  vessels  for  coast  and  harbor  defence, 
have  also  led  to  further  differences.  When 
the  first  English  ironclads  were  constructed, 
the  most  powerful  guns  used  by  their  ships 
of  war  were  68-pdrs.  or  8-inch  smooth-bore 
guns.  The  Americans  then  used  9-  and  10-inch 
guns,  and  4^-inch  armor  plating  was  deemed 
sufficient  when  properly  backed  and  supported. 
This  thickness  of  armor  backed  in  various  ways 
forms  the  protection  of  a  large  number  of  the 
English  and  French  ironclads.  In  the  first  iron 
ships,  the  Warrior,  Black  Prince,  Achilles, 
Defence,  Resistance,  Hector,  and  Valiant,  the 
4J-inch  armor  was  backed  by  18  in.  of  teak 
fitted  outside  the  hulls ;  and  in  the  wooden 
ships  the  armor  was  bolted  on  the  outside  of 
the  planking.  In  the  Minotaur  class  the  pla 
ting  was  increased  to  5£  in.,  but  the  back 
ing  was  reduced  to  9  in.,  so  that  practically  the 
sides  of  the  latter  class  are  of  the  same  strength 
as  those  of  the  Warrior  class.  In  the  Belle- 
rophon  the  armor  plating  is  6  in.  and  the  back 
ing  10  in.,  but  it  is  still  further  strengthened 
by  having  the  skin  plating  1^  in.  thick,  or 
nearly  an  inch  thicker  than  in  the  older  iron- 
built  vessels.  The  armor  of  sea-going  broadside 
ships  has,  according  to  some  English  authorities, 
reached  its  greatest  thickness  in  the  Hercules, 
which  has  9-inch  armor  at  the  water  line, 
8-inch  on  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
broadside,  and  6-inch  on  the  remainder,  with 
teak  backing  10  and  12  in.  thick  outside  the  1£- 
inch  skin  plating.  Below  the  lower  deck,  and 
down  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  armor,  the 
spaces  known  as  the  u  wing  passages"  are 
filled  in  with  solid  teak  backing,  inside  of  which 
there  is  an  iron  skin  f  in.  thick,  supported  by 
vertical  frames  7  in.  deep.  The  total  protec 
tion  in  the  region  of  the  water  line  therefore 
consists  of  11J  in.  of  iron,  of  which  9  in.  are 
in  one  thickness,  and  40  in.  teak  backing.  The 
trial  of  a  target  at  Shoeburyncss,  constructed 
to  represent  this  part  of  the  ship's  side,  proved 
that  it  was  virtually  impenetrable  to  the  GOO- 
pdr.  rifle  gun.  But  the  maximum  thickness  of 
armor  carried  must  not  be  considered  to  have 
been  yet  attained.  Coast-defence  vessels  and 
rams  have  been  built  to  carry  11-  and  12-inch 
armor,  and  ships  have  been  designed  and  will 
doubtless  be  built  for  sea-going  purposes  to 
carry  15.  18,  and  20  in.  of  armor,  either  in  tur 
rets  or  broadsides.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  as  improvements  are  made  in  the  manu 
facture  and  working  of  heavy  guns,  correspond 
ing  additions  will  be  made  to  the  thickness  of 
armor.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  foresee  in  what 
way  the  competition  between  guns  and  ships 
will  terminate.  Grouping  the  iron-clad  ships 
of  the  English  navy  according  to  the  thickness 
of  their  armor  and  backing,  without  regard  to 
the  greater  or  less  extent  of  the  surface  pro 
tected,  but  dividing  them  into  iron-built  and 
wood-built,  and  remembering  that  turret  armor 
is  generally  a  little  stronger  than  the  side 
VOL.  ix. — 25 


armor,  the  precedin 
as  follows  : 


facts  may  be  summarized 


IRON-BUILT. 


VESSELS. 

Armor. 

Back- 

Skin 
plating. 

Remarks. 

Scorpion  
Wivern  

Inches. 

9 

Inches. 

The  weakest  of  Eng 
lish  ironclads. 

Viper  

But      very      slightly 

Vixen  
Waterwitch  
Warrior  
Black  Prince  
Achilles  
Defence 

10 

( 

stronger  than  the 
above. 

Resistance  
Hector  .  . 

-  4* 

18 

$ 

All  of  equal  strength 

Valiant  

to  resist  shot. 

Prince  Albert  
Agincourt 

. 

Minotaur  
Northumberland  . 

Bellerophon  
Penelope  

6 
6 

9 
10 

10 

i 

"! 

HJ 

The  greater  thickness 
of    skin    plating   in 
this  and  most  of  the 
following  ships  is  ob 
viously  equivalent  to 
an   increase    in    the 
thickness  of  armor. 
Armor  only  5  in.  thick 
on  some  parts  of  the 

Invincible  

broadside. 

Audacious...  ... 
Vanguard  .  .  !  ... 
Iron  Duke  
Swiftsure  
Triumph 

6 

10 

H 

These  have  8-inch  ar 
mor  on  the  water- 
line  belt. 

Monarch  

I    f 

.  { 

The  Captain    had    8- 

Captain  

Sul-  j  On      sides 
tan   |    generally. 

p..     I  On  sides  .  . 

p^te05': 

Glatton  .  .  . 

\    ( 

9 

8 

6 
11 

8 
11 

12 

12 

10 
10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

*} 

it. 
it 

H 
ii 

H 
li 

H 

inch    armor   in    the 
wake  of  the  turret. 
An  additional  protec 
tion  of  about  30  in. 
of  teak,  backed  by  a 
J-inch  iron  skin,  in 
the  'neighborhood  of 
the  water  line. 

Thunderer  

(-12 

18 

it 

Devastation  

j 

WOOD-BUILT. 


VESSELS. 

Atmor. 

Thickness  of 

side. 

Caledonia  

Inches. 
1 

Inches. 

Ocean  .  .                       ...          .... 

1 

Prince  Consort  .  . 

2P} 

Royal  Oak 

Zealous 

Pallas 

Favorite 

Research 

Enterprise 

Royal  Sovereign 

Royal  Alfred 

Repulse  

Lord  Clyde* 

Lord  Warden*  . . 


*  These  two  ships  have  an  inner  skin  of  H-inch  iron,  and  a 
strake  of  f:$-lnch  armor  at  the  water  line,  and  the  frame  is 
filled  in  solid  behind  the  armor;  so  that  in  addition  to  the 
outer  and  inner  armor,  the  whole  thickness  of  the  side  is 
available  to  resist  penetration.  In  all  the  other  wooden  ships 
water  can  enter  when  the  outside  planking,  which  is  only  8  or 
'.  10  in.  thick,  is  penetrated. 


384: 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


The  information  contained  in  the  preceding 
summary  of  the  English  ironclads  is  illustrated 
in  the  accompanying  engravings,  showing  speci 
men  blocks  cut  from  the  sides  of  the  ships  which 
may  be  taken  as  fair  representatives  of  the  va 
rious  classes.  The  section  from  the  side  of  the 
Ivalamazoo  may  be  regarded  as  fairly  represent 
ing  the  strongest  class  of  American  monitors. 
The  latest  publication  concerning  the  English 
iron-clad  navy  (April,  1874)  gives  a  list  of  55 
vessels,  of  which  41  are  sea-going  ships  and  14 
are  available  for  harbor  and  coast  defence.  Of 
the  sea-going  ships  5  are  in  the  course  of  con 
struction,  and  9  are  not  fit  to  go  to  sea,  or 
worth  making  fit ;  and  9  more  which  are  not 


yet  available  for  service  should  also  be  de 
ducted,  leaving  18  now  about  ready.  Of  the 
14  coast-defence  ironclads,  only  9  are  fit  for 
service;  the  other  5  are  on  foreign  stations 
and  said  to  be  not  worth  taking  home.  The 
French  ironclads  Gloire,  Magenta,  and  Sol- 
ferino  have  armor  a  little  over  4^  in.  thick, 
worked  upon  ordinary  wooden  hulls.  The 
iron-built  frigate  Couronne  and  the  small 
wooden  floating  batteries  of  the  Palestro  class 
carry  about  the  same  thickness  of  armor.  All 
the  other  floating  batteries  are  iron-built  and 
have  5^-inch  armor.  The  frigates  of  the  Flan- 
dre  class  and  the  ram  Taureau  have  armor  a 
little  less  than  6  in.  thick  laid  upon  wooden 


Gloire. 


Thunderer. 


Bellerophon. 


Monarch. 


Devastation.  Kalamazoo.  Lord  Clyde. 

FIG.  8.— Sections  of  the  Sides  of  Iron-clad  Ships  of  the  Various  Classes. 


Royal  Oak. 


hulls,  while  the  corvettes  and  second-class 
frigates  of  the  Alma  class  have  armor  5T8¥  in. 
thick  at  the  water  line,  and  4  and  4-^  in.  on 
the  other  parts.  The  vessels  of  the  Marengo 
class,  corresponding  very  nearly  to  the  English 
Invincible  class,  have  7TVinch  armor  at  the 
water  line,  and  from  4  to  P>V  in.  on  other  parts. 
The  rams  of  the  Belier  class  have  7-  and  8|- 
inch  armor.  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
the  French  ironclads  are  wood-built,  the  armor 
being  simply  laid  upon  the  outside  planking, 
without  inner  skin  plating  or  longitudinal 
girders  to  give  greater  strength.  They  are 
therefore  weaker  than  the  English  ships  even 
when  the  armor  and  backing  are  equal. — 
In  the  American  sea-going  ironclads,  what  is 


known  as  laminated  armor  has  been  largely  if 
not  almost  exclusively  used.  This  was  ren 
dered  necessary  at  first  by  the  fact  that  thick 
armor  plates  could  not  be  produced  by  the 
rolling  mills  in  anything  like  sufficient  quanti 
ties  ;  but  a  few  ships  like  the  Roanoke  and  New 
Ironsides  have  been  made  with  solid  armor, 
the  former  having  plates  5£  in.  thick  and  the 
latter  4r|  in.  With  this  exception,  the  armor 
of  our  ironclads  is  made  up  of  consecutive 
plates  averaging  1  in.  thick,  but  backed,  as  in 
some  of  the  monitors,  by  armor  stringers  or 
plank  armor  of  small  breadth  and  moderate 
thickness.  Experiments  made  by  the  English 
admiralty  at  Shoeburyness  prove  this  laminated 
armor  to  be  far  inferior  to  solid  armor  in  power 


IROtf-CLAD  SHIPS 


385 


of  resistance,  and  that  no  amount  of  strength 
ening  can  compensate  for  the  defects  of  the 
laminated  system.  The  resistance  of  single  ar 
mor  plates,  shown  by  direct  experiment  for  all 
thicknesses  up  to  5|  in.  to 
vary  as  the  square  of  the 
thickness,  does  not  obtain 
in  laminated  armor.  For 
example,  a  4-inch  solid  plate 
would  be  16  times  as  strong 
as  a  1-inch  plate,  but  would 
not  be  four  times  as  strong 
as  four  1-inch  plates  riv 
eted  together,  although  it 
would  be  much  stronger 
than  the  laminated  struc 
ture.  Excluding  the  Roan- 
oke  and  New  Ironsides  and 
the  river  ironclads,  which 
leaves  only  the  Monitor 
class,  the  armor  of  the 
American  ironclads  may  be 
briefly  summarized  as  fol 
lows  :  The  original  Monitor 
had  her  hull  protected  by 
five  layers  of  1-inch  plate, 
diminishing  first  to  4  in. 
and  then  to  3  in.  in  thickness  below  the  wa 
ter  line;  her  turret,  as  previously  stated,  was 
built  of  eight  layers  of  1-inch  iron.  The 
wood  backing  of  the  hull  armor  was  27  in. 
thick,  bolted  to  -jj-inch  iron  skin  plating.  The 
Passaic  class  have  armor  of  the  same  thick 
ness  as  the  first  Monitor,  but  have  39  in.  of 
wood  backing.  The  Canonicus  class  have  five 
layers  of  1-inch  plates,  supported  by  two  ar 
mor  stringers  let  into  27  in.  of  wood  backing; 
their  turrets  have  11  layers  of  1-inch  plates. 
The  Miantonomoh  and  the  Monadnock,  which 
are  wood-built,  are  protected  much  like  the 
Canonicus.  The  Puritan  and  the  Dictator 
have  six  layers  of  1-inch  plates  on  their  sides, 
with  42  in.  of  wood  backing;  their  turrets  are 
15  in.  thick,  made  up  of  two  drums,  with 
segments  of  wrought-iron  hoops  5  in.  thick 
placed  between  the  drums,  which  are  com 
posed  of  layers  of  1-inch  plates.  In  the  Kala- 
mazoo  class  the  total  thickness  of  hull  ar 
mor  is  6  in.,  made  up  of  two  layers  of  3-inch 
plates,  backed  by  30  in.  of  oak,  still  further 
strengthened  near  the  water  line  with  three 
armor  stringers,  8  in.  square,  let  into  the  back 
ing,  and  only  a  few  inches  apart.  This  is  by 
far  the  most  formidable  armor  carried  by  any 
of  the  American  monitors ;  and  while  there  are 
in  some  places  14  in.  of  iron,  there  is  no  part 
of  it  nearly  so  strong  as 'it  would  be  with  that 
thickness  in  solid  plates.  The  turrets  of  the 
Kalamazoo  are  15  in.  thick,  like  those  of  the 
Dictator,  but  none  of  thorn  have  any  backing 
or  wood  about  them.  The  rapid  diminution 
in  thickness  of  armor  on  these  vessels  is  a  se 
rious  defect,  leaving  no  ground  for  comparison 
with  corresponding  English  ships.  The  Dic 
tator,  for  instance,  2^  ft.  below  the  water  line, 
has  but  two  1-inch  plates,  and  at  3  ft.  only  one. 


Fig.  9  shows  a  section  of  the  Dictator's  armor, 
with  one  of  the  English  turreted  ship  Thun 
derer.  Though  generally  unfit  for  cruisers,  the 
monitors  are  well  adapted  to  coast  and  harbor 


FIG.  9.— Sections  of  the  Armor  of  the  Thunderer  and  Dictator. 

defence.     The  present  strength  of  the  United 
States  iron-clad  navy  is  as  follows : 


NAME. 

Rate. 

Guns. 

Tonnage. 

Ajax                    .     . 

Fourth  

2 

550 

A  Igoma  

Fourth  

2 

4S3 

Amphitrite         

Third  

4 

874 

Fourth  

2 

550 

Camanche  

Fourth  

2 

496 

Catskill 

Fourth.  .  .  . 

496 

Fourth. 

4 

450 

Cohoes    .         .                  .... 

Fourth  

2 

4S3 

Second  

10 

2.127 

Dictator 

Second. 

2 

1  7;",0 

Etlah 

Fourth  

2 

4S8 

Hero 

Fourth  

1 

4S3 

Iris  

Fourth  
Fourth  

2 
2 

488 

4'  6 

Kewavdin  

Fourth  

4 

540 

Klamath  
Koka 

Fourth  
Fourth  

2 
2 

4S3 
4S3 

Lehigh  

Fourth  

2 

496 

Mahopac                 

Fourth  

2 

550 

Fourth 

2 

550 

Massachusetts  

Second  
Third 

4 

4 

2.127 
1  225 

Minnetonka  
Modoc    

Fourth  
Fourth. 

1 
1 

488 
4^ 

Monadnock  

Third  

4 

1,091 

Montauk  ....         

Fourth. 

2 

496 

Nahant 

Fourth. 

2 

4!'6 

Nantucket  
Napa 

Fourth  
Fourth 

2 
1 

4% 
4S8 

Nausett  

Fourth  

2 

4S3 

Nebraska 

Second 

4 

2125 

Niobe 

Fourth 

2 

4«8 

Orepon  

Second 

4 

2,1-27 

Otsepo 

Fourth. 

1 

4«3 

Passaic  
Piscatnqua  . 

Fourth  
Fourth. 

2 
1 

496 
483 

2 

1  870 

Roanoke  ....           

Second. 

6 

2.260 

Saupus 

Fourth. 

2 

650 

Shawnee  
Suncook 

Fourth  
Fourth. 

2 

483 
43 

Terror 

Third 

4 

1,0«5 

I'mpqua  

Fourth  

2 

4*8 

Wassuc 

Fourth  

1 

4C3 

Fourth. 

4 

WO 

Wyandotte  

Y  a7oo                               .  .   .  . 

Fo'irth  
Fourth  

2 

2 

5^-0 
4^3 

Yuma  

Fourth  

2 

4<v3 

386 


IRON-CLAD  SHIPS 


— In  the  earlier  English  ironclads  the  armor 
extended  over  a  portion  of  the  broadside  only, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Warrior,  whose  length  is 
380  ft.,  and  the  armored  portion  only  213  ft., 


FIG.  10. — Warrior. 

leaving  the  extremities  of  the  ship  entirely  un 
protected.  At  the  ends  of  the  armored  por 
tion  iron-plated  bulkheads  are  built  across  the 
ship,  making  with  the  side  armor  a  central  or 
"  box  "  battery  extending  to  a  little  more  than 
6  ft.  below  the  water  line.  This  box  battery, 
or  partial  protection,  is  also  adopted  on  the 
Black  Prince,  Defence,  and  Resistance,  but  has 
been  modified  by  the  addition  of  a  belt  of  pla 
ting  extending  from  the  upper  to  the  main 
decks,  before  and  abaft  the  broadside  armor,  on 
the  Hector  and  Valiant.  The  main  deck  on 


FIG.  11.— Hector. 

which  the  guns  are  fought  is  thus  protected 
throughout  its  entire  length,  but  the  extremi 
ties  between  wind  and  water  are  quite  un 
protected.  Both  these  plans  of  disposing  the 
armor  were  considered  unsatisfactory,  and  in 
the  Minotaur  and  converted  ships  of  the  Cale 
donian  class,  the  "  complete  protection  sys 
tem,"  in  which  the  armor  extends  from  stem 
to  stern,  and  6  ft.  below  the  water  line,  was 
adopted.  This  system  is  followed  in  nearly 
all  the  monitors,  both  English  and  Amer 
ican,  and  in  nearly  all  the  French  ships.  The 
great  development  in  the  power  of  ordnance 
has  led  not  only  to  increased  thickness  of 
armor,  but  to  different  modes  of  disposing  it. 
In  the  Bellerophon  and  Hercules,  and  in  oth- 


FIG.  12. — Hercules. 

er  large  English  ships,  an  arrangement  of  the 
armor  consisting  of  a  middle  course  between 
the  Warrior  and  Minotaur  has  been  adopted. 


FIG.  13.— Achilles. 

The  Achilles,  a  ship  of  the  Warrior  class,  had 
the  water-line  belt  added.  This  plan  of  plating 
is  known  as  the  central  battery  and  armor  belt 
system.  In  this  arrangement  the  great  weight 
of  the  armor  and  battery  is  amidships,  and  the 


FIG.  14.— Invincible. 


ends  of  the  ship  are  not  overloaded  as  in  the 
complete  protection  system.  An  important  mod 
ification  of  the  method  of  applying  the  armor 
is  shown  in  the  engraving  of  the  Invincible, 
by  which  the  plating  is 
continued  up  to  such  a 
height  above  the  upper 
deck,  amidships,  as  to 
protect  four  heavy  guns 
mounted  at  the  angles  of  an  octagonal  bat 
tery,  of  which  the  ends  are  closed  by  trans 
verse  iron-plated  bulkheads.  Previously  to 
the  design  of  this  arrangement  the  Lord  Clyde 


FIG.  15. -Lord  Clyde. 

and  Lord  Warden  were  supplied  with  power 
ful  armored  bow  batteries  on  the  upper  deck, 
but  the  arrangement  of  the  Invincible  has 
many  advantages.  In  their  recent  ships  the 
French  have  abandoned  the  complete  protec 
tion  system,  and  adopted  the  central  battery 
and  armor  belt  system,  and  generally  follow 
the  varieties  of  English  practice.  The  Ameri 
can  practice,  as  shown  in  the  New  Ironsides 
and  Roanoke,  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
central  box  or  partial  protection  system.  In 
the  monitor  system  the  practice  has  been  suf 
ficiently  indicated.  With  the  low  freeboards 
of  these  vessels,  the  armor  that  would  other 
wise  go  upon  the  sides  has  to  be  spread  upon 
the  deck  to  prevent  penetration  by  plunging 
and  vertical  fire,  to  which  they  are  peculiarly 
liable.  The  English  admiralty  have  designed 
an  arrangement  of  armor  which  they  apply  to 
what  they  call  "breastwork  monitors."  They 
resemble  American  monitors,  in  having  their 
upper  decks  at  comparatively  small  height  above 
water ;  but  instead  of  having  these  decks  flush, 
except  where  the  turrets,  funnels,  air  shafts, 
and  hatchway  casings  rise  above 
the  deck,  they  have  a  space  amid 
ships  surrounded  by  an  armored 
breastwork,  which  rises  several 
feet  above  the  deck,  and  encloses 
the  parts  just  mentioned.  By  this  means  the 
height  of  the  freeboard  is*  materially  increased 
for  a  great  part  of  the  ship's  length ;  the 
height  of  the  turret  parts 
above  water  is  made  much 
greater  than  is  usual  in 
American  monitors ;  and 
the  liability  to  serious  in 
jury,  resulting  from  the 


FIG.  1C.— Cerberus. 

perforation  of  the  deck  and  funnels,  and 
from  heavy  blows  upon  the  base  of  the 
turrets,  is  much  reduced.  The  Cerbe 
rus  is  a  fair  representation  of  the  breast 
work  monitors. — The  monitor  or  turret 


IRON-CLAD   SHIPS 


3S7 


system  possesses  many  advantages,  but  also 
under  some  circumstances  so  many  disadvan 
tages  that  its  introduction  has  occasioned  much 
diversity  of  opinion  among  naval  officers  and 
constructors  throughout  the  world.  The  ad 
vantages  are  as  follows :  the  facility  with  which 
large  guns  may  be  smoothly  and  easily  trained, 
and  with  which  the  same  guns  may  be  used  in  all 
directions ;  the  small  size  of  the  ports,  and  the 
difficulty  of  hitting  them  ;  the  low  freeboard, 
and  consequently  small  target  offered  to  the  ene 
my's  fire;  the  great  thickness  which  may  be 
given  to  the  armor,  and  the  great  size  and  pene 
trating  power  which  may  be  given  to  the  few 
guns  protected  by  it.  As  fighting  ships,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  monitors  may  not  be 
made  superior  to  any  other  form  of  ironclad 
yet  invented.  The  only  serious  defect  which 
has  been  developed  in  their  fighting  power  is 
the  liability  of  the  turret  as  originally  con 
structed  to  become  jammed  by  being  struck  at 


FIG.  17. — Eads's  Revolving  Battery. 

or  near  the  junction  with  the  deck,  so  that  it 
will  not  revolve.  This  defect  has  been  par 
tially  remedied  by  the  use  of  a  massive  ring 
of  iron,  surrounding  the  base  of  the  turret, 
and  by  the  breastwork  system.  A  still  better 
remedy  has  been  introduced  by  James  13.  Eads, 
C.  E.,  of  St.  Louis,  who  constructed  stationary 
turrets  and  arranged  the  guns  so  that  they  might 
be,  traversed  in  pairs,  as  shown  in  fig.  17.  the 
greatest  defect  in  this  system  is  that  ships 
constructed  after  the  original  Monitor  model 
are  poorly  adapted  for  sea-going  purposes, 
and  hence  cannot  be  made  first-class  cruis 
ers.  This  opinion  is  not  controverted  by  the 
fact  that  the  Miantonomoh  and  similar  ships 
have  crossed  the  ocean  in  various  directions. 
It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  no  monitor, 
with  turrets  standing  upon  the  low  deck,  un 
protected  by  breastworks,  with  hatchways,  air 
shafts,  and  low  turret  tops  opening  through 
her  deck  only  two  or  three  feet  above  the 
water  line,  can  be  considered  as  a  satisfactory 


sea-going  vessel.  On  the  other  hand,  with 
such  improvements  as  have  been  or  may  here 
after  be  made,  this  class  of  ships  are  and  will 
probably  remain  unrivalled  for  harbor  and 
coast  defence,  and  for  use  against  land  bat 
teries  and  fortifications,  and  may  ultimately 
be  made  to  serve  successfully  as  cruisers.  Two 
circular  monitors,  the  Kiev  and  Novgorod,  de 
signed  by  Admiral  PopofF,  have  been  construct 
ed  by  the  Russian  government,  for  use  in  the 


FIG.  18. — Kussian  Circular  Monitor,  Elevation  and  Deck. 

North  and  Black  seas.  These  batteries  are 
called  Popoffka,  and  are  about  100  ft.  in  diam 
eter,  bordered  with  wood  and  lined  with  cop 
per,  after  the  system  followed  in  the  construc 
tion  of  the  Raleigh  in  England.  Their  draught 
is  about  12  ft.,  height  of  upper  deck  above 
water  about  2  ft.,  and  displacement  about  2,530 
tons.  Their  stability  in  the  water  is  secured 
by  12  keels.  The  middle  of  the  vessels  is  sur 
mounted  by  a  turret  30  ft.  in  diameter  and 
7  ft.  high,  carrying  two  steel  11-ton  8-inch 
breech-loading  rifies.  The  lower  part  of  the 
hull  is  double-skinned,  the  outer  skin  being 
about  |  in.  thick,  and  the  inner  one  J  in. 
The  space  between  is  about  3  ft.  and  divided 
into  water-tight  compartments.  They  are  pro 
pelled  by  six  separate  engines  and  screws,  each 
working  up  to  80  horse  power.  Their  speed 
is  about  9  knots  per  hour;  complements  of 


Fro.  19.— Deck  of  Russian  Circular  Monitor. 

officers  11,  men  85  to  00.  The  hull  armor  is 
composed  of  two  strokes  of  plates  each  2£  ft. 
wide,  the  upper  one  about  9  in.  thick  and  the 
lower  about  7  in.,  backed  by  7  and  9  in.  of 
teak  respectively.  The  turrets  are  constructed 


388 


IRON-CLAD  SHIPS 


in  the  same  manner,  but  the  plates  are  9  in» 
thick  throughout.  This  system  seems  to  be 
capable  of  great  expansion  as  affording  the 
means  of  constructing  batteries  practically  in 
destructible,  and  capable  of  carrying  any  weight 
of  armor  or  armament. — The  offensive  powers 
of  ironclads,  in  common  with  those  of  other 
ships  of  war,  are  measured  by  the  number  and 
power  of  their  guns,  the  rapidity  with  which 
they  may  be  loaded  and  fired,  and  the  facility 
with  which  they  may  command  all  points 
within  range.  The  wooden  frigates  of  the 
English  navy  in  use  before  the  construction  of 
ironclads  carried  32-pdrs.  and  68-pdrs. ;  while 
the  Americans  used  42s,  64s,  and  9-  and  10- 
inch  Dahlgren  smooth-bore  shell  guns,  which 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  they  increased 
to  11-inch  guns.  Subsequently  they  adopted 
13-  and  15-inch  iron  guns  of  the  Dahlgren 
model,  cast  after  the  Rodman  process,  the  15- 
inch  guns  throwing  solid  shot  weighing  450 
Ibs.,  with  a  charge  of  60  Ibs.  It  is  now  pro 
posed  to  make  and  use  on  the  monitors  20-inch 
guns  throwing  shot  weighing  1,080  Ibs.,  with 
a  charge  of  powder  weighing  from  120  to  250 
Ibs.  It  is  thought  to  be  practicable  to  con 
struct  and  use  even  25-  or  30-inch  guns  of  this 
model.  This  system  is  based  upon  the  idea  of 
a  heavy  projectile  of  large  size  moving  at  com 
paratively  low  velocity,  instead  of  an  elonga 
ted  projectile  moving  at  a  high  velocity,  and 
is  termed  the  "  racking  or  battering  "  system, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  English  "punch 
ing  system,"  based  upon  the  use  of  rifle  guns 
throwing  large  elongated  shot  at  higher  ve 
locities.  The  latter,  instead  of  using  the  68- 
pdr.  (8-inch)  gun,  which  failed  to  penetrate 
the  Warrior's  armor  at  200  yards,  now  use 
6^-ton  rifle  guns,  which  would  pierce  it  at 
500  yards,  12-  and  18-ton  guns,  which  would 
do  the  same  at  2,000  and  3,000  yards,  and 
25-ton  guns,  which  would  probably  penetrate 
any  ironclad  afloat,  except  perhaps  the  Her 
cules,  at  4,000  yards.  They  have  made  and 
will  use  on  the  Thunderer  and  Devastation 
30-ton  rifles,  throwing  shot  weighing  600  Ibs. 
They  contemplate  the  construction  and  use 
at  an  early  day  of  TO-  and  80-ton  rifles,  and 
ultimately  will  doubtless  construct  them  of 
still  greater  weights  and  power.  The  projec 
tile  of  the  6i~ton  guns  is  7  in.  in  diameter  and 
weighs  115  Ibs.,  taking  a  charge  of  22  Ibs.; 
that  of  the  12-ton  gun  is  9  in.  in  diameter, 
weighs  250  Ibs.,  and  is  fired  with  43  Ibs.  of 
powder;  that  of  the  18-ton  gun  is  10  in.  in  di 
ameter,  weighs  400  Ibs.,  and  is  fired  with  60 
Ibs.  of  powder ;  while  those  for  the  25-  and 
30-ton  guns  are  12  in.  in  diameter,  weigh  600 
Ibs.,  and  are  fired  with  VO  Ibs.  and  100  Ibs.  of 
powder  respectively.  Great  differences  of  opin 
ion  prevail  with  reference  to  the  merits  of  these 
two  systems,  but  experiments  made  by  the  Eng 
lish  seem  to  fairly  indicate  the  superiority  of 
the  punching  system.  They  show,  for  instance, 
that  the  15-inch  smooth-bore  gun,  throwing  a 
spherical  solid  shot  weighing  484  Ibs.,  with  a 


charge  of  50  Ibs.  of  English  powder  (said  to  be 
equal  to  60  Ibs.  of  American  powder),  would 
fail  to  penetrate  the  Lord  Warden's  side  (see 
fig.  8)  at  any  range,  while  the  English  9-inch 
12-ton  gun,  with  .an  elongated  shot  weighing 
250  Ibs.  and  a  43-lb.  charge,  would  penetrate 
her  at  1,000  yards.  They  also  show  that  the  15- 
inch  smooth-bore  gun  would  not  penetrate  the 
Warrior  at  a  greater  range  than  500  yards, 
while  the  Y-inch  6^-ton  rifle,  weighing  only 
about  one  third  as  much,  would  penetrate  her 
at  the  same  distance  with  a  charge  of  22  Ibs. 
and  a  shot  weighing  115  Ibs.  As  a  matter  of 
course,  the  rifles  of  12,  18,  25,  and  30  tons 
would  penetrate  at  correspondingly  increased 
distances.  On  the  other  hand,  there  seems  to 
be  but  little  doubt  that  the  American  guns 
have  greater  battering  power;  the  real  question 
at  issue  is  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  penetra 
tion  and  battering  or  racking.  The  English 
and  the  French  prefer  the  former,  and  for  appa 
rently  sound  reasons,  while  the  Americans  as 
yet  prefer  the  latter  and  point  to  the  experience 
of  the  civil  war  in  vindication  of  their  opinion. 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  ironclads 
disabled  or  captured  by  them  from  the  confed 
erates  were  hastily  constructed  and  poorly  ar 
mored,  and  carried  light  guns  in  comparison 
with  those  of  the  well  built  and  strongly  ar 
mored  ships  of  the  European  navies.  The 
advocates  of  the  racking  system  lay  particu 
lar  stress  upon  the  u  smashing "  of  the  sides 
of  the  casemated  ship  Atlanta  by  the  15-inch 
shot  of  the  monitor  Weehawken,  at  a  range  of 
300  yards ;  but  the  Atlanta  was  not  a  first-class 
ship  in  any  respect.  There  is  now  but  lit 
tle  doubt  that  the  United  States  government 
will  be  forced  to  abandon  the  racking  system 
in  its  future  vessels,  or  better  still,  to  combine 
it  with  the  punching  system. — Iron-clad  Earns. 
The  introduction  of  steam  men-of-war  gave 
rise  to  numerous  proposals  for  reviving  the 
ancient  method  of  naval  warfare,  that  of  dis 
abling  or  sinking  an  enemy  by  ramming;  and 
when  the  Gloire  and  the  Warrior  were  built, 
their  bows  were  designed,  strengthened,  and 
projected  with  this  object  in  view.  In  all  suc 
ceeding  ironclads  more  or  less  efficient  pro 
visions  have  been  made  to  adapt  the  bows  t'o 
the  same  purpose.  In  the  American  navy  a 
special  class  of  small  swift  river  steamers  were 
fitted  up  specially  for  this  purpose  during  the 
civil  war.  The  confederates  built  several  ex 
traordinary  crafts  of  this  class,  designed  spe 
cially  for  harbor  defence,  among  the  most 
notable  of  which  was  the  Merrimack  already 
mentioned.  Most  if  not  all  of  the  monitors 
were  also  strengthened  for  ramming,  and  sev 
eral  of  the  engagements,  particularly  those  on 
the  Mississippi,  were  greatly  influenced  if  not 
decided  by  ramming.  The  French  and  English 
followed  the  example  of  the  Americans,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  war  they  had  genernlly  adopted 
the  opinion  of  our  naval  officers  that  "  every 
ironclad  should  be  an  unexceptionable  ram ;  in 
other  words,  susceptible  herself  of  being  used 


IROX-CLAD  SHIPS 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


389 


as  a  projectile."  The  victory  of  the  Austrian 
over  the  Italian  fleet  at  Lissa  in  1866  was  in  a 
great  measure  due  to  the  excellent  services  of 
the  Austrian  ship  Ferdinand  Max,  which  ram 
med  and  sunk  the  American-built  frigate  Re 
d'ltalia  and  damaged  other  ships  severely.  It 
afforded  conclusive  evidence  of  the  great  re 
sults  which  may  be  achieved  by  the  proper  use 
of  this  method  of  attack,  and  attracted  renewed 
attention  to  the  construction  and  manoeuvring 
of  iron-clad  rams.  In  order  that  a  ship  may  be 
efficient  as  a  ram,  it  is  obvious  that  she  should 
be  swift  and  handy  under  steam,  so  as  to  en 
able  her  not  only  to  overtake  her  enemy,  but 
to  hit  her  directly  and  squarely  in  the  side. 
These  qualities  are  incompatible  with  either 
great  size  or  great  length.  Hence  the  ram 
should  have  moderate  dimensions  and  propor 
tions,  in  combination  with  powerful  machinery, 
twin  screws,  and  improved  means  of  steering. 
As  to  the  proper  form  of  ram  bows,  there  are 
some  differences  of  opinion  among  naval  con 
structors.  Some  favor  stems  reaching  forward 
above  water,  others  prefer  upright  or  nearly 
upright  stems ;  but  the  majority  are  decidedly 
in  favor  of  the  under-water  prow,  spur,  or 
eperon,  which  has  been  generally  adopted  in 
European  navies.  The  advocates  of  the  for 
ward-reaching  stem,  like  that  shown  in  the 
Warrior,  think  that  there  is  an  advantage  in 
delivering  the  blow  above  water  rather  than 
under,  particularly  in  ramming  low-decked 
monitors  or  ships  with  low  sides,  on  the  ground 
that  there  is  a  probability  of  overrunning  the 
enemy  and  making  the  weight  of  the  ram 
ming  ship  aid  in  sinking  her.  The  advo 
cates  of  the  upright  stem,  like  that  shown 
in  the  Achilles  and  Invincible,  assert  that  the 
blow  delivered  thereby  is  not  so  local  in  its 
effect,  and  that  this  form  of  bow  can  be  more 
readily  disengaged  after  ramming;  while  the 
advocates  of  the  spur  bow  (shown  in  the  Lord 
Clyde)  believe  that  it  is  specially  adapted  to 
sink  an  enemy  by  penetrating  the  weak  side 
below  the  armor,  and  particularly  about  the 
rudder,  and  that  it  possesses  greater  penetra 
ting  power  than  any  other  bow.  Mr.  Reed,  late 
English  naval  constructor,  holds  that  this  form 
possesses  special  advantages  against  American 
.monitors,  the  armor  of  which  generally  termi 
nates  at  comparatively  slight  depth  below  wa 
ter. — The  following  table  shows  the  strength 
of  the  iron-clad  navies  of  the  world  in  1873: 


COUNTRIES. 

It 

* 

111 
S|  * 

<  c 

COUNTRIES. 

Number  of 
ships. 

Ajr^re^ate 
numi.er  of 
guns. 

Great  Britain... 

54 
44 

721  : 

857 

Sweden  &  Nor- 

18 

23 

Germany  

1 

79 

Turkey  

22 

127 

Austria 

11 

1  (!() 

2 

Italy  

22 

2l)7  i 

United  States 

4* 

121 

Bnain 

7 

145 

Brazil 

18 

64 

Holland  
Denmark  
Eussia  

20 
6 
25 

61 
69 

180 

Chili  
Peru  

General  total  . 

2 
6 

806 

24 
2,344 

— See  "  Ordnance  and  Armor,"  by  A.  L.  Hoi- 
ley  (New  York,  1865);  "History  of  the  Navy 
during  the  Rebellion,"  by  the  Rev.  C.  B.  Boyn- 
ton  (New  York,  1867-'8);  "System  of  Naval 
Defences,"  by  James  B.  Eads  (New  York, 
1808);  uOur  Iron-clad  Ships,"  and  "Ship 
Building  in  Iron  and  Steel,"  by  E.  J.  Reed 
(London,  1869);  U  Art  naval  d  ^exposition 
universelle  de  Paris  en  1867,  by  Vice  Admiral 
Edmond  Paris  (Paris,  1869)  ;  "Reports  of  the 
Committee  appointed  by  the  Lords  Commis 
sioners  of  the  Admiralty  to  examine  the  De 
signs  upon  which  Ships  of  War  have  recently 
been  constructed"  (London,  1872);  La  marine 
cuirassee,  by  M.  P.  Dislere  (Paris,  1873);  and 
reports  of  the  secretary  of  the  navy. 

IRON  MANUFACTURE,  Since  the  reduction  of 
iron  from  its  ores  is  an  operation  of  simple 
character,  requiring  merely  that  the  ore  shall 
be  in  contact  with  burning  fuel  in  an  enclosed 
space,  or  in  the  midst  of  the  fire,  it  is  not  surpri 
sing  that  the  process  was  employed  in  remote 
antiquity.  The  Greeks  attributed  the  discovery 
of  iron  to  the  burning  of  the  forest  on  the  moun 
tain  of  Ida  in  Crete  about  1500  B.  C.  The 
rapidity  with  which  iron  rusts  on  exposure  is 
no  doubt  the  reason  why  so  few  ancient  articles 
of  this  material  are  preserved.  Pliny  quaintly 
says:  "Nature,  in  conformity  with  her  usual 
benevolence,  has  limited  the  power  of  iron,  by 
inflicting  upon  it  the  punishment  of  rust ;  and 
has  thus  displayed  her  usual  foresight  in  ren 
dering  nothing  in  existence  more  perishable 
than  the  substance  which  brings  the  greatest 
dangers  upon  perishable  mortality."  Copper 
and  bronze  are  not  so  liable  to  oxidation,  and 
are  consequently  better  preserved.  Iron  is  oc 
casionally  found  in  the  metallic  state  in  mete 
orites,  but  its  amount  is  too  small  to  be  of  im 
portance  to  any  nation.  There  is  abundant 
historic  testimony  to  the  great  antiquity  of 
iron.  The  Bible  contains  a  great  number  of 
references  to  it.  Wilkinson  says :  "  Iron  and 
copper  mines  are  found  in  the  Egyptian  desert, 
which  were  worked  in  old  times ;  and  the 
monuments  of  Thebes  and  even  the  tombs  about 
Memphis,  dating  more  than  4,000  years  ago, 
represent  butchers  sharpening  their  knives  on 
a  round  bar.  of  metal  attached  to  their  aprons, 
which  from  its  blue  color  can  only  be  steel ; 
and  the  distinction  between  the  bronzed  and 
iron  weapons  in  the  tomb  of  Rameses  III.,  one 
painted  red,  the  other  blue,  leaves  no  doubt  of 
both  having  been  used  (as  in  Rome)  at  the  same 
period.  In  Ethiopia  iron  was  much  more 
abundant  than  in  Egypt."  According  to  Dio- 
dorus,  the  Egyptians  assigned  the  art  of  work 
ing  iron  to  their  great  national  divinity  Osiris, 
thus  implying  that  it  was  known  from  time 
immemorial.  Herodotus  and  Pausanias  men 
tion  that  the  Lydian  king  Alyattes,  the  father 
of  Croesus,  who  died  about  570  B.  C.,  present 
ed  as  an  offering  at  Delphi  a  curiously  inlaid 
iron  saucer  made  by  Glaucus,  an  inhabitant  of 
Chios.  Botl\I)iodorus  and  Herodotus  mention 
the  island  of  Elba  as  abounding  in  ironstone, 


390 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


and  describe  the  method  of  melting  it.  In  the 
time  of  yEschylus  (born  in  525  B.  C.)  the  Cha- 
lybes  were  famous  workers  in  iron,  and  Cha- 
lybia  was  called  the  mother  of  iron.  Strabo, 
writing  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  era, 
speaks  of  the  iron  mines  of  Chalcis  in  Eubraa 
as  almost  exhausted  by  the  extensive  mining 
operations  of  the  Athenians.  He  also  mentions 
iron  brought  from  Britannia,  and  speaks  of  the 
mines  of  Elba,  famous  to  this  day,  then  called 
by  the  Greeks,  from  the  blazing  tire  of  its  iron 
works,  yEthalia.  Pliny  the  Elder  devotes  two 
chapters  of  his  "  Natural  History  "  (xxxiv.  14, 
15)  to  an  account  of  iron,  its  uses  and  manu 
facture,  lie  speaks  of  an  iron  statue  of  Her 
cules  by  Alcon  at  Thebes,  and  bowls  of  iron  in 
the  temple  of  Mars  at  Rome ;  of  different  qual 
ities  suited  to  different  purposes,  some  being 
adapted  for  hardening  into  steel,  or  else  pre 
pared  in  another  manner  for  making  thick  an 
vils  or  heads  of  hammers  ;  and  of  the  Serican, 
Parthian,  and  Norican  irons.  He  was  aware 
of  the  magnetic  property  of  iron,  and  speaks 
of  an  iron  statue  of  Arsinoe,  sister  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphia,  which  it  was  proposed  to  suspend 
in  air,  in  a  temple,  by  means  of  a  vaulted  roof 
of  loadstone.  Iron  of  great  antiquity  has  been 
found  in  eastern  countries.  Belzoni  describes 
the  discovery,  under  the  feet  of  one  of  the 
sphinxes  unearthed  by  him  at  Karnak,  of  an 
iron  sickle,  which  he  considers  to  be  at  least  as 
old  as  the  age  of  the  Ptolemies.  It  was  of  the 
same  form  as  those  depicted  in  the  tombs  at 
Memphis.  At  Memphis  iron  has  been  found  in 
the  ancient  structures,  and  two  pieces  have 
been  taken  from  the  great  pyramid  of  Gizeh. 
Layard  discovered  at  Nimrud  a  large  num 
ber  of  articles  showing  great  knowledge  and 
skill  in  working  this  metal  possessed  by  the 
Assyrians.  Most  of  them,  having  been  whol 
ly  converted  into  oxide,  fell  to  pieces  when 
touched.  Among  the  objects  found  were  ar 
mor  scales,  daggers,  shields,  heads  of  spears 
and  arrows,  a  pick,  a  double-handed  saw,  arti 
cles  of  combined  bronze  and  iron  (the  former 
having  been  cast  around  the  latter),  part  of  a 
stand  consisting  of  an  iron  ring  with  three 
feet  of  bronze,  &c.  Iron  ornaments  of  the 
ancient  Chaldeans  have  been  discovered,  but 
no  implements,  showing  that  with  them  iron 
was  still  a  precious  metal.  The  most  remark 
able  evidences  of  the  progress  made  by  the  an 
cients  in  iron  metallurgy  are  found  in  India, 
although,  strangely  enough,  the  art  as  prac 
tised  in  that  country  at  the  present  day  is  ex 
tremely  rude  and  simple.  In  the  remains  of 
temples  are  found  iron  beams,  one  of  which 
measures  24  ft.  in  length  and  8- in.  in  section. 
The  famous  Delhi  wrought-iron  pillar,  called 
Cuttub  Minar,  at  the  mosque  of  the  Cuttub 
Shaw,  is  upward  of  48  ft.  long.  Its  lower  di 
ameter  is  about  1G£  in.,  its  upper  diameter  12 
in.  It  contains  upward  of  80  cubic  feet  of 
metal,  and  weighs  17  tons.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  erected  A.  D.  319.  .  Ho\v  such  a 
forging  could  have  been  effected  is  a  mystery. 


The  only  probable  suggestion  hitherto  brought 
forward  is,  that  it  was  made  by  welding  each 
bloom  directly  to  the  previously  made  bloom, 
and  that  as  the  column  grew  in  height  the 
furnace  was  elevated  by  throwing  up  a  mound 
of  earth,  so  that  the  top  of  the  pillar  formed, 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  and  the  blooms  as 
soon  as  formed  were  directly  welded  to  the 
top  of  the  still  glowing  pillar. — From  some 
obscure  remarks  by  ancient  writers  it  has  been 
inferred  that  cast  as  well  as  wrought  iron  is  of 
great  antiquity ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  ancients  practised  the  art  of  steel  making 
described  by  Vanoccio  Bizingucco  in  1540  and 
by  Agricola  shortly  after,  which  consisted  in  im 
mersing  pieces  of  soft  iron  in  a  bath  of  molten 
iron.  This  \ve  can  only  conceive  possible  by  sup 
posing  the  metal  bath  was  well  carbonized.  The 
evidence  for  this  is  however  very  slight.  Aris 
totle  writes :  "  Iron  may  be  cast  so  as  to  be  made 
liquid  and  to  harden  again ;  and  thus  it  is  they 
work  to  make  steel."  Pliny  in  describing  the 
process  of  iron  smelting  says :  u  It  is  a  remark 
able  fact  that  when  the  ore  is  fused,  the  metal 
becomes  liquefied  like  water,  and  afterward  ac 
quires  a  spongy  brittle  texture."  This  may  re 
fer,  however,  to  the  liquefaction  of  the  cinder. 
Diodorus  gives  a  clearer  and  more  comprehen 
sible  account  of  the  smelting  process  on  the 
island  of  Elba,  and  says  nothing  about  molten 
metal:  "The  workmen  employed  first  cut  the 
stone  in  pieces,  and  then  melt  them  in  furnaces 
built  and  prepared  for  the  purpose.  In  these 
furnaces  the  stones,  by  the  violent  heat  of  the 
fire,  are  melted  into  several  pieces  in  form  like 
great  sponges."  This  description  might  equally 
apply  to  the  bloomary  practice  of  the  present 
day. — Though  so  little  is  known  of  the  meth 
ods  employed  by  the  ancients  for  the  reduction 
of  iron  from  its  ores,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
they  were  similar  to  those  still  in  use  in  east 
ern  countries,  which  have  been  practised  from 
time  immemorial.  A  low  stack,  either  built 
of  clay  or  excavated  on  the  hillside,  with  open 
ings  at  the  bottom  for  draught  of  air  or  for  an 
artificial  blast,  is  all  the  apparatus  required  for 
the  successful  manufacture  of  iron.  The  fur 
naces  of  India  are  usually  from  3  to  f>  ft.  high 
and  from  10  to  18  in.  in  diameter.  The  blast, 
supplied  by  bellows  made  of  skins,  is  forced, 
into  the  furnace  through  clay  tuyeres.  The 
furnace  is  charged  with  ore  and  charcoal  alter 
nately,  until  the  requisite  amount  of  ore  has 
been  added.  After  a  blast,  varying  from  3  to 
4  up  to  18  hours,  a  mass  of  soft  malleable  iron 
mingled  Avith  cinder  is  removed  from  the  fur- 
|  mice,  either  by  breaking  away  the  lower  part 
j  of  the  stack,  or  by  lifting  the  bloom  out  of 
]  the  top  with  tongs.  The  weight  of  the  iron 
bloom  varies  from  4  or  5  up  to  200  Ibs.  It  is 
hammered  while  still  hot,  reheated  and  again 
hammered,  until  the  greater  part  of  the  cin- 
!  der  is  expelled. — The  knowledge  of  the  nieth- 
i  od  of  reducing  iron  was  probably  introduced 
into  Europe  from  the  East,  but  when  arid  by 
whom  is  unknown.  Traces  of  early  workings 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


in  Styria  and  England  are  abundant.  The 
method  employed  differed  from  that  in  use  at 
present  in  India.  Charcoal  and  ore  were 
placed  in  a  furnace  consisting  of  a  small  hearth, 
generally  rectangular,  provided  with  a  tuyere 
in  the  rear  wall,  and  resembling  a  blacksmith's 
forge.  This  form  of  furnace  has  descended  to 
the  present  day,  and  is  still  in  use  in  many 
places.  The  Catalan  forge,  used  mainly  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  American  (a  modified  Ger 
man)  forge,  now  chiefly  confined  to  Canada 
and  northern  New  York,  are  the  most  promi 
nent  examples  of  this  ancient  method.  (See 
BLOOMARY.)  The  nature  of  the  process  in  low 
furnaces  or  hearths  is  extremely  simple.  The 
iron  in  the  ore  is  reduced  by  the  carbon  and 
carbonic  oxide,  and,  not  being  fusible  at  the 
temperature  of  the  furnace,  agglutinates  or 
welds  together  to  a  pasty  mass,  which  grad 
ually  sinks  and  accumulates  in  the  bottom  of 
the  furnace.  The  completeness  of  the  reduc 
tion  depends  on  the  time  of  exposure  and  the 
amount  of  charcoal  used.  When  reduction  is 
incomplete,  the  unreduced  ore  fuses  and  min 
gles  with  the  iron.  When  silica  is  present  in 
the  ore,  as  is  almost  always  the  case,  it  unites 
with  a  portion  of  ferrous  oxide  and  forms  a 
basic  ferrous  silicate  or  fusible  cinder,  part  of 
which  flows  off,  while  part  remains  incorpo 
rated  with  the  iron  and  is  largely  expelled  in 
the  subsequent  working.  Complete  reduction 
is  therefore  never  attainable  in  low  furnaces, 
and  the  loss  of  iron  is  greater  the  more  sili- 
cious  the  ore.  Rich  ores  consequently  are  the 
only  ones  adapted  to  the  process.  The  iron 
produced  in  low  furnaces  is  generally  of  su 
perior  quality,  because  the  impurities  of  the 
ore,  not  being  reduced  at  the  comparatively  low 
temperature  which  prevails,  pass  off  in  the 
cinder.  But  the  iron  is  apt  to  lack  uniformity 
both  in  structure  and  in  composition.  The 
tendency  to  increase  the  height  of  the  furnace, 
in  order  to  increase  the  yield  and  thereby 
diminish  the  cost,  was  thwarted  by  the  produc 
tion  of  a  fluid  iron,  which  was  probably  for 
ages  a  waste  product,  since  no  method  of  util 
izing  it  was  known.  The  absorption  of  car 
bon  by  iron  and  its  conversion  into  steel  or 
cast  iron  which  is  readily  fusible  depend  main 
ly  on  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  and  this  in  turn 
on  the  amount  and  pressure  of  blast.  Increas 
ing  the  height  of  a  furnace  necessitated  a 
stronger  blast  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  a 
higher  column  of  material ;  and  carburization 
of  the  iron  necessarily  follows.  The  progress 
of  development  from  the  low  furnaces  and 
hearths  to  the  modern  high  furnaces  was  there 
fore  slow ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  art  of  ma 
king  castings  and  the  method  of  converting  cast 
into  wrought  iron  were  discovered,  that  mod 
ern  iron  metallurgy  took  its  rise.  According 
to  Verlit,  cast  iron  was  kno\vn  in  Holland  in 
the  13th  century,  and  stove  plates  were  made 
from  it  in  Alsace  in  1400.  Ancient  ornament 
al  castings  have  been  found  in  Sussex,  England, 
which  have  been  referred  by  Lower  to  the 


14th  century ;  but  Karsten  says  that  the  sys 
tematic  production  of  iron  for  foundery  pur 
poses  cannot  be  traced  with  certainty  to  an 
earlier  period  than  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 
According  to  Lower,  the  first  cast-iron  cannon 
made  in  England  were  cast  by  Ralph  Hogge  in 
1543.  Up  to  the  year  1595  Thomas  Johnson 
had  made  for  the  earl  of  Cumberland  42  can 
non  weighing  three  tons  apiece.  The  method 
of  converting  cast  into  wrought  iron,  by  expo 
sing  the  fluid  iron  to  a  blast  of  air,  was  dis 
covered  very  early.  It  is  mentioned  distinctly 
by  Agricola,  who  died  in  1555  ;  but  the  regular 
manufacture  of  wrought  iron  by  this  method 
began  some  time  later.  In  Styria,  where  the 
pure  spathic  ores  have  been  regularly  smelted 
since  the  year  712,  there  were  in  1025  19 
Stuckofen  or  Wolfofen  (shaft  furnaces  10  to 
16  ft.  high),  producing  mainly  malleable  iron, 
which  was  taken  from  the  furnace  in  a  mass 
(Stuck  or  Wolf}.  The  process  lasted  about 
18  hours,  and  the  weight  of  the  mass  often 
reached  1,300  to  1,400  Ibs.  There  was  also 
produced  at  the  same  time  more  or  less  fluid 
carburized  iron.  The  form  of  the  furnace  re 
sembled  two  truncated  cones  placed  base  to 
base,  a  construction  which  has  been  retained 
to  a  great  extent  to  the  present  day.  In  1760 
so-called  Flossofen,  25  ft.  high,  were  introduced, 
and  white  pig  iron  was  regularly  and  continu 
ously  made.  This  iron  was  subsequently  de- 
carburized  and  converted  into  wrought  iron  in 
charcoal  hearths.  From  this  time  the  St'uck- 
ofen  gradually  disappeared.  They  lingered  in 
some  localities  for  a  long  time  owing  to  the 
demand  which  still  continued  for  Stackofen 
iron,  than  which  nothing  could  be  purer ;  but 
finally,  during  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century,  they  had  entirely  ceased  to  exist.  The 
Flossafen  gradually  enlarged  into  the  Bluunfen 
or  Blaseofen,  of  which  there  were  34  in  Styria 
in  18(54.  These  furnaces  are  from  28  to  46  ft. 
high,  and  differ  from  the  modern  blast  furnace 
mainly  in  having  a  closed  breast  with  tapping 
openings  for  iron  and  cinder,  while  the  blast 
furnace  has  an  open  fore  hearth,  originally  de 
signed  doubtless  to  permit  the  dipping  out  of 
fluid  iron  for  castings,  and  now  generally  re 
tained  on  account  of  the  facility  of  access  it 
gives  to  the  interior  of  the  hearth  of  the  fur 
nace,  in  case  obstructions  or  deposits  have  to 
be  removed.  Of  late  years  the  closed  front  has 
been  adopted  in  many  large  blast  furnaces  with 
success;  but  the  fore-hearth  construction  is 
still  the  prevalent  one.  Increasing  the  height 
of  the  furnace  and  the  strength  of  the  blast  had 
for  its  immediate  effect  the  more  perfect  ex 
traction  of  the  iron  and  a  decided  economy  of 
fuel.  The  addition  of  lime  as  a  flux  to  silicious 
ores  likewise  facilitated  the  complete  extrac 
tion  of  the  iron.  The  cinder  thus  produced, 
instead  of  being  rich  in  iron,  as  was  previously 
the  case,  contained  only  the  earthy  ingredients 
of  the  ore  with  but  a  trace  of  iron.  The  cin 
ders  produced  in  low  furnaces  were  for  a  long 
time  successfully  smelted  in  the  Blauofen. — In 


392 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


England  the  birth  of  the  iron  manufacture 
dates  back  to  the  days  of  the  early  Britons,  and 
relics  of  the  iron  smelting  of  the  Romans  are 
abundant.  In  the  16th  century  the  iron  manu 
facture  had  increased  to  such  an  extent  that,  in 
order  to  check  the  rapid  destruction  of  the 
forests,  restrictions  were  laid  on  the  cutting  of 
wood  for  charcoal,  by  laws  enacted  in  1558, 
1581,  and  1584.  As  a  consequence  the  iron 
manufacture  declined,  until  in  the  early  part 
of  the  18th  century  there  were  but  59  iron 
works  in  the  country.  The  supply  of  iron  at 
this  time  was  mainly  from  Russia,  Sweden,  and 
Spain.  Numerous  attempts  were  made  to  use 
mineral  or  pit  coal  for  smelting  iron,  and  pat 
ents  for  alleged  discoveries  were  freely  granted ; 
but  no  manufacture  based  on  mineral  coal  was 
established  till  1619,  when  Dud  Dudley  ob 
tained  his  patents.  He  successfully  carried  on 
the  manufacture  for  many  years,  making  iron 
cheaply  and  of  good  quality ;  but,  being  much 
persecuted  by  envious  rivals,  he  finally  suc 
cumbed  to  his  misfortunes,  and  dying  left  no 
record  of  his  invention  behind.  It  .was  not  till 
1735  that  the  next  successful  attempt  was  made 
to  use  mineral  coal.  At  that  time  the  difficul 
ties  of  the  case  were  again  conquered  by  Abra 
ham  Darby,  who,  before  using  the  coal  in  the 
furnace,  submitted  it  to  the  same  process  as 
wood  undergoes  in  its  conversion  into  char 
coal  ;  in  other  words,  he  converted  the  coal 
into  coke.  From  this  time  the  progress  of  the 
English  iron  industry  was  rapid.  In  the  cen 
tury  following  Darby's  discovery,  bellows  gave 
way  to  blowing  cylinders,  and  water  power  to 
steam,  which  greatly  increased  the  efficiency 
and  yield  of  the  furnace ;  while  the  application 
of  the  hot  blast  by  Neilson  in  Scotland,  and 
the  utilization  of  the  waste  gases  by  Aubertot  in 
France,  added  vastly  to  its  economy  of  working. 
— The  blast  furnace  consists  of  a  vertical  shaft 
of  circular  section  lined  with  fire  brick.  The 
lowest  part  is  ordinarily  in  the  form  of  a  cylin 
der,  and  is  known  as  the  hearth.  In  the  ma 
sonry  of  the  hearth  are  built  the  tuyeres  (two 
to  eight  in  number),  which  are  hollow  trun 
cated  cones  of  metal  supplied  with  a  constant 
current  of  cold  water.  Into  these  tuyeres  pro 
ject  the  nozzles  of  the  pipes  that  supply  the 
blast.  The  part  of  the  hearth  below  the  tuyeres 
is  called  the  crucible ;  in  it  the  iron  and  slag 
accumulate  until  tapped  off.  The  hearth  is 
prolonged  toward  the  front  of  the  furnace  (fore 
hearth),  and  is  closed  by  the  dam  and  covered 
in  by  the  tymp  arch.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
dam  is  a  channel  communicating  with  the  bot 
tom  of  the  crucible  through  which  the  iron  is 
tapped  off,  and  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  dam 
is  a  notch  (cinder  notch)  over  which  the  cinder 
flows.  The  tymp  arch  is  covered  by  the  tymp, 
a  long  hollow  casting  through  which  water 
circulates.  The  sloping  walls  connecting  the 
hearth  with  the  widest  part  (belly)  of  the  fur 
nace  are  called  the  boshes,  the  angle  which 
they  form  with  the  horizontal  line  being  called 
the  angle  .of  the  boshes.  In  many  furnaces  the 


hearth  expands  into  and  is  continuous  with 
the  boshes.  From  the  widest  part  of  the  fur 
nace  the  walls  usually  slope  inward  toward  the 
mouth,  which  may  be  either  permanently  open, 
or  provided  with  a  mechanical  arrangement  by 
which  it  is  kept  closed  except  during  charging. 
There  are  openings  in  the  walls  of  the  furnace, 
close  to  the  top  of  the  stack  where  it  is  closed, 
and  some  distance  down  where  it  is  open,  to 
conduct  off  the  escaping  gas.  Until  compara 
tively  recently  furnaces  were  built  entirely  of 
masonry,  the  outer  walls  consisting  of  massive 
stone  work.  At  the  present  day  this  heavy 
construction  has  been  almost  entirely  super 
seded  by  slender  stacks  encased  in  brick  work 
and  surrounded  by  sheet  iron.  In  building  a 
blast  furnace,  the  main  body  of  the  shaft  is 
supported  on  pillars,  usually  of  cast  iron,  and 
is  entirely  independent  of  the  boshes  and  hearth, 
which  are  put  in  subsequently,  and  can  be  re 
moved  and  repaired  without  interfering  with 
the  upper  portion  of  the  furnace.  In  the  Biitt- 
genbach  system  of  construction  the  main  shaft 
consists  of  one  layer  only  of  fire  brick  18  in. 
thick,  without  outer  casing  of  any  kind.  The 
charging  floor  on  the  top  of  the  furnace  is  sup 
ported  by  hollow  cast-iron  columns,  which 
serve  .also  to  conduct  down  the  gas  to  the 
stoves.  This  construction  is  mainly  recom 
mended  by  its  cheapness.  The  dimensions  of 
blast  furnaces  vary  greatly.  The  height  ranges 
from  30  to  100  ft.,  the  greatest  diameter  from 
6  to  30  ft,,  and  the  capacity  from  500  to  40,000 
cubic  feet.  The  relative  dimensions  of  hearth, 
boshes,  and  throat  likewise  vary  greatly.  The 
cause  of  this  great  variation  in  dimensions  is 
partly  due  to  differences  in  ores  and  fuels,  and 
partly  to  the  fact  that  there  are  no  fixed  prin 
ciples  of  blast-furnace  construction  that  have 
found  general  acceptance.  The  more  refractory 
the  ore  and  the  more  dense  the  fuel,  the  larger, 
as  a  rule,  is  the  furnace  ;  but  as  to  the  proper 
outline  of  the  interior  there  is  great  difference 
of  opinion.  Most  metallurgists  are  so  far  agreed 
as  to  have  abandoned  the  flat  boshes,  narrow 
mouths,  and  abrupt  changes  of  outline  of  the 
older  furnaces ;  but  further  than  this  there  is 
no  uniformity  in  modern  blast-furnace  construc 
tion.  The  following  are  some  of  the  considera 
tions  "which  should  determine  the  dimensions 
and  outlines  of  blast  furnaces.  The  tempera 
ture  attained  in  the  hearth,  upon  which  the 
nature  and  quality  of  the  iron  depend,  is  the 
result  of  a  number  of  factors,  such  as  pressure 
or  penetration  cf  blast,  character  and  amount 
of  fuel,  and  diameter  of  hearth.  The  last  is 
readily  fixed  when  the  others  are  known.  The 
regular  working  of  the  furnace  depends  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  regular  descent  of  the 
charges.  Now,  as  the  charge  diminishes  in 
bulk  in  descending,  owing  to  the  reduction  of 
the  iron  and  the  combustion  of  the  fuel,  the 
capacity  of  the  furnace  should  diminish  corre 
spondingly  ;  that  is,  the  walls  should  taper 
downward.  The  amount  of  this  tapering,  or 
in  other  words  the  angle  of  the  boshes,  should 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


393 


correspond  to  the  rate  of  the  shrinkage,  which 
is  more  rapid  as  the  charge  approaches  the 
tuyeres.  This  principle  is  generally  recognized ; 
but  it  is  applied  in  practice  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  furnace  only.  It  seems  rational  to  sup 
pose  that  advantage  would  result  hy  applying 
it  to  the  whole  length  of  the  furnace,  and 
making  the  greatest  diameter  correspond  to 
that  part  where  the  charge  occupies  the  great 
est  bulk,  namely,  at  the  mouth.  The  difficulty 
of  properly  distributing  the  charges  over  a 
wide  mouth  is  however  at  present  a  practical 
objection ;  and  it  may  be  also  that  the  reac 
tions  in  the  upper  zone  of  the  furnace,  by  which 
carbon  is  deposited,  would  be  unfavorably 
affected  by  such  a  construction.  The  height 


FIG.  1. 

of  the  furnace  depends  primarily  on  the  nature 
of  the  charge.  If  this  is  disposed  to  crumble, 
or  is  composed  of  fine  particles  that  might 
pack  and  impede  the  passage  of  the  blast,  a 
high  furnace  would  be  inadmissible  ;  but,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  higher  the  furnace  the 
greater  is  its  yield  and  economy  of  working, 
as  the  reducing  gases  are  more  thoroughly  in 
tercepted  and  utilized.  Fig.  1  is  a  vertical  sec 
tion  through  the  fore  hearth  of  a  German  blast 
furnace  built  entirely  of  masonry.  Its  height 
is  48  ft.  and  greatest  diameter  14  ft.  Fig.  2  is 
a  vertical  section  of  a  blast  furnace  at  Chicago. 
It  is  60  ft.  high  and  17  ft.  in  greatest  diameter. 
The  top  is  closed  by  a  u  bell  and  hopper."  The 
upright  column  at  the  side  is  the  gas  conductor. 
Fig.  3  is  an  elevation  of  the  same  furnace  show- 


FIG.  3. 


394 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


ing  the  sheet-iron  casing. — The  essential  acces 
sories  of  the  blast  furnace  are  the  blowing  en 
gines,  hot-blast  ovens,  and  hoist.  The  blowing 
engines  are  of  three  kinds,  the  vertical  beam, 
the  horizontal,  and  the  upright  engine.  The 
latter  has  been  generally  introduced  of  late 
years,  owing  to  its  compactness  and  efficiency. 
One  of  the  largest  blowing  engines  ever  erected 
is  a  beam  engine  at  Dowlais  in  Wales.  The 
blowing  cylinder  is  12  ft.  diameter  with  12  ft. 
stroke.  With  19  strokes  per  minute  it  dis 
charges  51,528  cub.  ft.  per  minute  at  a  pressure 
of  3  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  capable  of  supply 
ing  six  large  furnaces  and  four  fineries.  From 
the  blowing  cylinders  the  air  passes  to  the  hot- 
blast  ovens.  These  consist  of  a  series  of  cast- 
iron  pipes,  arranged  in  a  fire-brick  chamber,  and 


FIG.  4. 


heated  by  the  combustion  of  the  gases  drawn 
from  the  top  of  the  furnace.  The  gases  are 
generally  burnt  in  a  special  combustion  cham 
ber,  and  the  products  of  combustion  only  pass 
into  the  chamber  containing  the  pipes.  Equa 
ble  heating  without  danger,  of  injury  to  the 
pipes  is  thus  effected.  This  arrangement  is 
shown  in  fig.  4.  Recently  Siemens's  system  of 
regenerative  heating  (see  FUKXACE)  has  been 
applied  to  hot-blast  stoves,  and  a  much  higher 
temperature  of  blast  attained  than  could  be 
produced  by  the  simple  combustion  of  the  gas. 
Whitwell's  and  Cowper's  stoves  are  both  con 
structed  on  this  system.  The  former  are  being 
extensively  adopted.  They  consist  of  two  "  re 
generators"  of  fire  brick,  which  are  heated 
alternately  by  the  combustion  of  the  furnace 


gases.  While  one  is  heating,  the  blast  passes 
through  the  other,  and  the  currents  of  air  and 
gas  are  changed  at  intervals  of  about  half  an 
hour.  The  temperature  of  the  blast  ordinarily 
employed  varies  greatly.  A  few  furnaces  are 
still  blown  with  cold  blast,  where  it  is  desired 
to  produce  an  iron  of  superior  quality;  but 
usually  the  blast  is  heated  from  500°  to  1000° 
F.  The  hotter  the  blast,  the  sooner  the  pipes 
in  the  ovens  burn  out,  and  therefore  the  tem 
perature  rarely  reaches  1000°  with  iron  pipes. 
In  Whitwell's  stoves  a  temperature  of  1500° 
may  be  obtained;  but  it  does  not  generally 
rise  above  1200°  or  1400°.  The  pressure  of 
blast  varies  from  1  Ib.  per  inch  to  5  or  G  Ibs. 
Charcoal  furnaces  are  usually  blown  with  the 
lowest  pressure,  anthracite  furnaces  with  the 
highest,  and  coke  furnaces  with 
a  pressure  of  3  or  4  Ibs.  Oc 
casionally  furnaces  are  situated 
on  a  hillside,  and  the  stock  of 
ore  and  fuel  is  on  a  level  with 
the  mouth  of  the  furnace ;  but 
ordinarily  lifts  or  hoists  are  re 
quired  to  raise  the  materials  of 
the  charge  from  the  ground  to 
the  top  of  the  furnace.  There 
is  a  great  variety  of  lifts,  em 
bracing  among  others  the  hy 
draulic,  the  pneumatic,  and  the 
steam  lift. — The  blast-furnace 
process,  expressed  in  its  sim 
plest  form,  is  as  follows  :  The 
furnace  is  charged  with  ore, 
fuel,  and  limestone,  which 
gradually  descend  the  shaft  as 
the  smelting  proceeds.  The 
air  of  the  blast,  on  coming  in 
contact  with  the  incandescent 
fuel,  is  converted  into  carbonic 
acid  gas,  but,  speedily  taking  up 
another  atom  of  carbon,  is  re 
duced  to  carbonic  oxide,  which, 
together  with  the  inert  nitro 
gen  of  the  air,  rises  through  the 
descending  charge,  abstracts 
the  oxygen  of  the  ore,  and  pass 
es  out  of  the  mouth  as  carbonic 
acid.  When  the  reduced  iron 
reaches  the  vicinity  of  the  tuyeres,  it  takes  up 
carbon,  melts,  and  drops  down  into  the  crucible 
of  the  furnace,  while  the  earthy  ingredients  of 
the  ore,  flux,  and  fuel  unite  and  form  a  fluid 
cinder,  which  likewise  drops  into  the  cru 
cible  and  floats  on  the  top  of  the  molten  iron. 
At  regular  intervals  the  iron  is  tapped  off 
into  moulds  of  sand  or  iron,  where  it  cools 
in  "  pigs."  The  foregoing  expresses  merely 
the  general  progress  and  final  results  of  the 
blast-furnace  process.  In  practice  it  has  been 
found  that  the  changes  which  take  place  are 
very  complicated  arid  involved,  and  depend  on 
a  great  number  of  conditions.  The  phenomena 
of  iron  smelting  have  recently  been  the  sub 
ject  of  searching  investigation;  and  we  are 
mainly  indebted  for  our  present  knowledge 


MANUFACTURE 


395 


to  the  studios  of  Bell  in  England,  Tunner  in 
Austria,  Akerman  in  Sweden,  and  Gruner  in 
France.  What  follows  contains  the  principal 
results  of  these  investigations,  especially  those 
of  I.  Lowthian  Bell,  which  have  been  the  most 
extensive  and  the  most  fruitful  of  valuable 
conclusions.  The  mutual  reactions  of  carbon, 
carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  metallic  iron, 
and  oxide  of  iron  are  expressed  in  the  fol 
lowing  formulas: 

FeA  +  2/CO  = 

xFe  +  yCOi  = 

xYe+yCO  =  YexO,+yG 
Fe.,0, 


=  2CO 

These  reactions  show  that  carbonic  oxide  not 
only  abstracts  oxygen  from  oxide  of  iron,  but 
also  imparts  oxygen  both  to  metallic  iron  and 
to  its  lower  oxide  ;  that  carbonic  acid,  which 
results  from  the  reduction  of  iron  by  carbon 
or  carbonic  oxide,  may  also  oxidize  metallic 
iron;  and  that  carbonic  acid  is  capable  of  ta 
king  up  a  second  atom  of  carbon.  The  nature 
of  the  reaction  in  any  given  instance  is  de 
pendent  mainly  on  the  temperature,  and  also 
on  the  relative  proportions  of  the  gases.  The 
breaking  up  of  carbonic  oxide  and  the  depo 
sition  of  its  carbon  was  discovered  by  Bell. 
The  conditions  governing  this  remarkable  re 
action  have  been  studied  by  him  and  by  Gruner. 
The  following  are  the  results  of  Gruner's  ex 
periments  on  this  point  :  On  passing  carbonic 
oxide  over  a  fragment  of  iron  ore  at  a  tempera 
ture  of  300°  to  400°  C.  (572°  to  752°  F.),  the 
latter  is  gradually  reduced,  the  reduction  pro 
gressing  from  the  surface  to  the  interior  of 
the  mass.  When  metallic  iron  is  formed  on 
the  surface,  the  ore  cracks  and  expands,  and 
becomes  covered  with  a  fine  deposit  of  carbon. 
This  carbon  deposition  diminishes  as  the  re 
duction  of  the  ore  proceeds  ;  and  were  it  pos 
sible  to  effect  complete  reduction  in  this  way, 
it  would  finally  entirely  cease.  Pure  carbonic 
oxide  is  not  decomposed  by  metallic  iron  at 
300-400°  C.  ;  but  when  the  carbonic  oxido  is 
mixed  with  carbonic  acid,  deposition  of  carbon 
takes  place.  The  amount  of  the  COa  must  not, 
however,  exceed  1  volume  to  2  volumes  of  CO. 
This  deposited  carbon  is  not  pure,  but  contains 
5  to  7  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron,  and  also  some 
oxide  of  iron,  mainly  magnetic.  The  forma 
tion  of  this  deposit  of  ferruginous  carbon  is 
the  result  of  the  mutual  reaction  of  two  mo 
lecules  of  carbonic  oxide,  whereby  2  CO  =  CO2 
+  C;  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  there 
should  be  present  simultaneously  metallic  iron 
and  ferrous  oxide,  the  former  to  fix  the  carbon 
and  the  latter  to  hold  for  an  instant  the  oxygen, 
losing  it  again  by  the  action  of  carbonic  oxide. 
The  following  formulas  express  the  reactions: 
3FeO  +  CO  =  Fc3O4  +  C,  and  Fe3O4  +  CO  = 
3FeO  +  CO2;  and  so  on  indefinitely,  provided 
that  the  reducing  action  of  carbonic  oxide  is 
tempered  by  a  certain  amount  of  carbonic  acid. 


If  the  temperature  is  raised  to  a  red  heat  the 
deposition  ceases,  and  the  carbon  already  de 
posited  unites  with  the  remaining  oxide  of  the 
ore.  It  is  probable  that  the  deposited  carbon 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  final  reduction 
of  the  ore  in  the  blast  furnace.  The  dissocia 
tion  of  carbonic  oxide  (2CO  =  CO2  +  C)  is  ac 
companied  with  a  development  of  heat,  every 
unit  of  carbon  deposited  corresponding  to  an 
evolution  of  3,134  heat  units. — The  tempera 
ture  at  which  the  iron  ore  begins  to  lose  oxy 
gen  in  the  blast  furnace  depends  on  the  mo 
lecular  constitution  of  the  ore  and  the  relative 
amount  of  carbonic  oxide  in  the  gas.  Bell  has 
found  that  the  temperature  of  incipient  reduc 
tion  of  oxide  of  iron  by  pure  carbonic  oxide 
varies  from  141°  C.  (285°  F.)  to  208°  C.  (407° 
F.),  according  to  the  nature  of  the  oxide  or  ore. 
The  temperature  at  which  carbonic  *acid  begins 
to  oxidize  metallic  spongy  iron  was  found  by 
him  to  be  about  the  temperature  of  melting  zinc, 
417°  C.  (782°  F.).  In  both  cases  the  energy 
of  the  action  is  promoted  by  increasing  the 
temperature,  but  the  oxidizing  action  of  the 
carbonic  acid  increases  in  a  greater  ratio  than 
the  reducing  action  of  the  carbonic  oxide. 
The  point  of  equilibrium  of  the  two  gases 
toward  metallic  spongy  iron  at  different  tem 
peratures  was  found  to  be : 

Low  red  heat 150  vols.  of  C02  for  each  100  vols.  of  CO. 

Full        'l        47 

Approaching  white 
ness 11  " 

The  point  of  equilibrium  of  a  mixture  of  car 
bonic  oxide  and  carbonic  acid  toward  oxide  of 
iron  depends  likewise  on  the  temperature,  and 
also  on  the  molecular  structure  of  the  oxide. 
At  a  red  heat  a  mixture  of  100  volumes  of  car 
bonic  oxide  and  600  of  carbonic  acid  is  nearly 
neutral  to  calcined  Cleveland  ore,  while  at  417° 
C.  the  point  of  equilibrium  is  found  in  a  mix 
ture  containing  100  volumes  of  carbonic  oxide 
to  50  of  carbonic  acid.  Again,  a  mixture  of 
equal  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic 
oxide  at  a  temperature  of  417°  C.  is  found  to 
reduce  Eisencrz  spathic  ore  actively.  The  tem 
perature  at  which  carbon  (coke)  begins  to  de 
compose  carbonic  acid  is,  according  to  Bell,  410° 
C.  (770°  F.). — The  composition  of  blast-furnace 
gases  at  different  levels  of  the  furnace  has  been 
investigated  by  a  number  of  observers.  The 
following  analyses  are  by  Bell  and  Tunner : 

Wear  Furnace,  80  ft.  hiah.  Capacity,  17,500  cub.  ft. 
Consumption  per  ton  of  iron,  23-5  nets,  of  coke  and 
12-8  cwts.  limestone.  Ore,  roasted  carbonate.  (Bell.) 


LEVELS. 

BY   VOLUME. 

BY  WEIGHT. 

N. 

CO. 

C02. 

N. 

CO. 

C02. 

At  mouth                   60-57 

29-99 

9-44  i  ftii-fl 

28-2      14".) 

16}  ft.  from  top  .       65-46 
26     "      -            .       (57-09 

31-66 
28-54 

2-88 
4-37 

64-8 
65-5 

30  -S 
27-8 

4-4 
6-7 

39    "      "            .       65-76 

31  -98 

2-26     64-<> 

31-6 

8-5 

5-2  J  "      "            .        64-43 

84-66 

0-91      64-5 

34-1 

1-4 

65    "      "            .       65-05 

34-64 

0-31      64-9 

34-6 

OT> 

70*  «      "            .       05-22 

84-78 

....      65-2 

34-8       0-0 

76*  "      ';            at 

the  tuyeres  62-76 

35-59 

1-65      62-7 

34-7       2-6 

396 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


Wrlna  Furnace,  86  //.  high.  Capacity,  1.200  cub.  ft. 
Consumption,  14  cwts.  of  charcoal  per  ton  of  iron. 
(Tunner.) 


LEVELS. 


At  mouth 

18  ft.  from  top 
25* 

28    "      "     " 
82    "      "      " 


BY    VOLUME. 


BY    WEIGHT. 


N.         CO.       CO2.       II.         N.         CO.        CO2 


5-61  56-32  24-40  13'67  0'8»  64'90  23*81  20'DO 
3'3i)  50-47  24-21  11-93  I'Ol  53'38  25'f>2  iy-7i» 
8-93  56-71  25-i)2  13-44  0-27  54'57  24-87  20"29 
3'4o  5(5-48  27-!»5  12-12  0'24  55'00  26-26  18'50 
2-91  56-62  28-42|12'05  0-20  54'34  27'32  1&-14 
1-5457-5238-00  2-940-11  57'35  37'93,  4'61 


The  hydrogen  in  the  gases  from  the  Wear  fur 
nace  was  not  determined ;  it  is  never  present 
in  large  quantity,  and  plays  no  important  part 
in  the  blast-furnace  process.  Hydrocarbons 
and  cyanogen  are  also  sometimes  present  in 
small  quantity.  The  former  are  abundant  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  furnace,  when  raw  bitu 
minous  coal  is  used.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the 
above  analyses  that  the  escaping  gases  still 
contain  a  considerable  amount  of  carbonic 
oxide.  An  ideal  furnace  process  would  be  one 
in  which  the  carbonic  oxide  was  completely 
utilized,  and  only  carbonic  acid  escaped  from 
the.  furnace.  From  the  experiments  of  Bell, 
quoted  above,  it  is  evident  that  such  a  condi 
tion  is  practically  impossible ;  yet  the  relative 
amount  of  carbonic  oxide  is  a  measure  of  the 
economy  of  working.  Formerly  the  gases 
were  allowed  to  burn  at  the  mouth  of  the  fur 
nace  ;  now  they  are  invariably  utilized,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  to  heat  the  blast,  raise  steam 
for  the  blowing  engines,  or  roast  ores.  The 
gases  likewise  possess  a  certain  amount  of 
sensible  heat,  from  which  also  the  economy  of 
working  may  be  judged.  The  ultimate  practi 
cal  economy  of  fuel  that  can  be  attained  in  the 
furnace  is  reached  when  the  gases  contain  such 
a  relatively  small  amount  of  caybonic  oxide 
that  they  are  no  longer  capable  of  reducing  the 
ore  at  the  temperature  at  which  they  leave  the 
furnace. — In  the  year  1829  there  were  used  in 
Scotland  about  eight  tons  of  coal  In  the  form  | 
of  coke  to  produce  one  ton  of  pig  iron ;  at  the 
present  time  in  Cleveland  the  consumption  of 
coal  is  but  33  cwts.  per  ton  of  iron.  This  great 
economy  of  fuel  has  been  reached  by  increas 
ing  the  dimensions  of  the  furnace,  by  com 
plete  utilization  of  the  carbonic  oxide  in  the 
escaping  gases,  and  by  the  use  of  heated  blast. 
Increasing  the  height  and  diameter  of  the  fur 
nace  prolongs  the  contact  of  the  charge  with 
the  hot  reducing  gases,  whereby  the  sensible 
heat  of  the  latter  is  more  completely  trans 
ferred  to  the  descending  materials,  and  the  re 
ducing  power  of  the  carbonic  oxide  is  more 
thoroughly  utilized.  Widening  the  throat  and 
mouth  of  the  furnace  has  the  same  effect,  by 
decreasing  the  rapidity  of  the  gaseous  current, 
It  would  at  first  sight  appear  that  the  dimen 
sions  of  the  furnace  could  be  so  far  increased 
as  to  intercept  the  total  amount  of  sensible 
heat.  This  is  found  not  to  be  the  case  in 


practice.     BeU  has  shown  by  experiment  that 
the  temperature  of  the  gases  at  the  mouth  of  a 


furnace  having  a  height  of  80  ft.  and  a  capacity 
of  12,000  cub.  ft.  is  not  materially  higher  than 
that  of  gases  from  furnaces  103^-  ft.  high  with 
a  capacity  of  33,000  cub.  ft.  The  cause  of  this 
has  been  shown  by  Bell  to  be,  that  there  is 
a  constant  source  of  heat  production  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  furnace,  caused  by  the  re 
duction  of  the  ore  and  the  deposition  of  car 
bon  ;  and  increasing  the  height  of  the  furnace 
merely  serves  to  raise  this  zone  of  reduction. 
From  the  reduction  of  the  ore  by  carbonic 
oxide,  the  heat  development  is  very  small,  as 
a  given  weight  of  oxygen  uniting  with  iron  or 
carbonic  oxide  produces  in  either  case  nearly 
the  same  amount  of  heat.  According  to  Du- 
long,  one  litre  of  oxygen  gas  gives  6,21(5  units 
of  heat  when  it  combines  with  iron,  and  6,200 
when  it  combines  with  carbonic  oxide.  But 
the  heat  development  by  the  dissociation  of 
carbonic  oxide,  as  described  above,  is  3,134 
heat  units  for  each  unit  of  carbon  deposited. 
The  utilization  of  the  carbonic  oxide  in  the 
gases  for  heating  blast  or  boilers  directly  ef 
fects  a  saving  of  a  corresponding  amount  of 
coal.  The  saving  of  fuel  consequent  on  heat 
ing  the  blast  is  very  marked.  The  cause  of 
this  saving  was  for  a  long  time  sought  in  vain. 
On  the  first  introduction  of  the  hot  blast  in 
Scotland  it  was  found  that  by  burning  5  cwts. 
of  coal  to  heat  the  blast  to  450°  F.  there  was 
effected  a  saving  of  47  cwts.  of  coal  in  the  fur 
nace  ;  and  by  burning  8  cwts.  of  coal,  to  heat 
the  blast  to  612°  F.,  the  saving  was  83  cwts.  or 
69  per  cent.  Experience  has  shown  that  the 
economy  of  fuel  attained  by  the  use  of  hot 
blast  depends  on  the  height  of  the  furnace  and 
on  the  reducilility  of  the  ore.  The  higher 
the  furnace  and  the  more  susceptible  the  ore 
to  the  reducing  action  of  carbonic  oxide,  the 
smaller  is  the  saving  of  fuel  effected.  The 
enormous  saving  shown  in  the  Scotch  furnaces 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  both  conditions  were 
favorable  to  the  use  of  hot  blast,  viz. :  the  fur 
nace  was  low  and  the  ores  were  refractory. 
The  economy  of  fuel  by  hot  blast  in  modern 
high  blast  furnaces  does  not  often  exceed  10  to 
12  cwts.  of  coke  per  ton  of  pig  iron.  The  ideal 
working  of  the  blast  furnace  is  as  follows:  A 
certain  amount  of  fuel  is  burned  before  the 
tuyeres,  and  generates  enough  heat  to  melt  the 
reduced  iron  and  the  cinder.  The  carbonic 
oxide,  which  is  the  end  result  of  this  combus 
tion,  ascends  through  the  ore,  which  it  reduces 
to  metallic  iron,  and  passes  out  of  the  furnace 
as  carbonic  acid.  It  is  found,  however,  that 
the  minimum  amount  of  fuel  that  will  melt 
the  iron  and  cinder  does  not,  under  the  con 
ditions  that  obtain  in  the  blast  furnace,  supply 
sufficient  carbonic  oxide  to  do  the  work  of  re 
duction.  It  has  further  been  found  that  the 
rapidity  of  the  reduction  of  the  ore  depends  on 
its  molecular  constitution,  or  the  proportion 
that  carbonic  oxide  bears  to  carbonic  acid  in 
the  gases,  and  on  the  temperature.  Let  it  be 
supposed  that  in  a  blast  furnace  working  Avith 
a  given  quantity  of  fuel,  a  certain  ore  requires 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


397 


seven  hours  for  complete  reduction,  while  an 
other  ore  requires  fourteen  hours.  If  it  is 
now  desired  to  smelt  the  refractory  ore  so  as  to 
have  a  production  equal  to  that  afforded  by  the 
first  ore,  it  is  necessary  either  to  give  it  four 
teen  hours'  exposure  or  to  increase  the  rapidity 
of  reduction.  The  first  of  these  conditions  is 
accomplished  by  doubling  the  height  of  the 
furnace,  and  the  second  by  increasing  the  tem 
perature  through  the  use  of  more  fuel.  In  the 
latter  case  there  is  no  more  heat  utilized,  in 
spite  of  the  greater  amount  of  fuel,  than  when 
smelting  the  easily  reducible  ores,  presuming 
that  they  have  approximately  the  same  compo 
sition.  It  is  merely  the  rate  of  reduction  that 
is  increased  ;  and  the  excess  of  heat  passes  off 
in  the  escaping  gases.  Of  these  two  methods 
of  smelting  refractory  ores,  the  latter  was  the 
one  adopted  until  a  comparatively  recent  peri 
od,  when  increased  height  of  furnace  was  found 
to  give  the  same  result.  As  an  instance  may 
be  given  a  Scotch  furnace  53  ft.  high  and  using 
40  cwts.  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron  produced  from 
black-band.  By  adding  18  ft.  to  the  height 
the  amount  of  fuel  was  reduced  to  28  cwts. 
Akerman  in  Sweden  was  the  first  to  suggest 
what  is  probably  the  principal  cause  of  the 
economy  in  using  hot  blast.  The  heat  which 
is  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  in 
the  furnace  is  contained  in  the  carbonic  oxide 
formed  and  in  the  accompanying  nitrogen, 
while  the  heat  that  is  conveyed  by  the  blast  is 
not  attended  with  the  development  of  any  gas 
eous  products,  and  does  not  therefore  increase 
the  bulk  of  the  gases  in  the  furnace.  Now,  as 
the  temperature  of  the  gases  is  inversely  as 
their  bulk,  it  follows  that  the  temperature  of 
the  furnace  must  be  higher  when  using  hot 
blast,  arid  the  rate  of  reduction  corresponding 
ly  rapid.  Further,  the  rapidity  of  the  upward 
current  will  be  diminished,  and  the  more  thor 
ough  will  be  the  reducing  action  of  the  car 
bonic  oxide.  It  has  been  shown  that  increas 
ing  the  height  of  the  furnace  beyond  a  certain 
limit  only  serves  to  raise  the  zone  of  reduction, 
and  does  not  cause  further  saving  of  fuel.  The 
theoretical  limit  of  temperature  of  the  blast  is 
attained  when  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed  in 
the  furnace  is  so  far  replaced  by  the  heat  in 
the  blast,  that  the  carbonic  oxide  formed  is 
just  sullicient  to  do  the  work  of  reduction. 
This  point  has  never  been  reached  in  practice; 
but  the  significant  circumstance  has  been  no 
ted,  that  the  rate  of  saving  for  a  given  number 
of  degrees  decreases  as  the  temperature  of  the 
blast  is  raised. — From  the  above  it  will  be  evi 
dent  that  the  ultimate  practical  economy  of 
fuel  attainable  in  blast  furnaces  depends  on  a 
number  of  conditions.  In  the  Cleveland  dis 
trict,  England,  where  the  furnaces  have  attain 
ed  colossal  dimensions  and  the  blast  is  heated 
to  over  1000°  F.,  the  lowest  consumption  of 
coke  per  ton  of  No.  3  pig  (s3e  IRON)  is  about 
21  cwts. ;  while  at  the  Wrbna  furnace  in  Aus 
tria,  which  is  but  30  ft.  high,  and  where  the 
temperature  of  blast  is  752°  F.,  the  consump 


tion  of  charcoal  is  but  13-20  cwts.  per  ton  of 
iron.  The  daily  production  of  furnaces  is  de 
pendent  on  the  same  conditions  as  determine 
the  consumption  of  fuel,  and  also  on  the  rate 
of  driving  of  the  furnace,  i.  <?.,  the  amount  of 
blast  in  a  given  time.  The  extremes  are  small 
charcoal  furnaces  yielding  but  4  to  5  tons  per 
day,  and  large  furnaces  yielding  80  tons  per 
day.  The  absolute  amount  of  heat  produced 
in  the  blast  furnace,  the  amount  absorbed  in 
work  done,  and  the  amount  lost  by  radiation 
and  in  the  gases,  have  been  calculated  by  a 
number  of  authorities.  The  following  is  Bell's 
estimate  expressed  in  cwt.  heat  units  per  ton 
of  iron  produced : 


HEAT    PRODUCTION. 

Oxidation  of  carbon 81.536  units. 

Contributed  by  blast 11,'J19«  * 

HEAT   ABSORPTION. 

Evaporation  of  water  in  coke 812  units. 

Reduction  of  iron 23,108  " 

Carbon  impregnation 1.440  " 

Expulsion  of  CO2  from  limestone 5,054  u 

Decomposition  of  this  CO2 5.243  " 

"  water  in  blast 2,720  " 

Phosphorus,    sulphur,   and    silicon    re 
duced 4,174  " 

Fusion  of  pig  iron G.6HO  " 

ta  slag 10,720  " 


93,455 


75,376 
HEAT   LOSS. 

Transmission  through  walls  of  furnace.     3. (558  units. 

Carried  off  in  tuyere  water 1,81 8    " 

'•     pases 8.8(50    " 

Expansion  of  blast,  loss  from  hearth,  &c.    3.743    u 

18,079 

93,455 

— Occasionally  ores  occur  which  contain  the 
proper  proportion  of  earthy  matters  to  form  a 
fusible  slag  (self-fluxing  ores).  When  this  is 
not  the  case,  the  substances  in  deficiency  must 
be  added ;  arid  this  may  often  be  advantage 
ously  accomplished  by  mixing  ores  of  different 
characters.  In  the  large  majority  of  cases, 
limestone  is  added  as  fiux,  since  most  ores 
contain  silica  and  alumina,  which  with  the  lime 
form  a  fusible  slag.  It  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance  that  the  composition  of  the  ores 
and  fluxes  should  be  accurately  determined,  in 
order  that  a  slag  (cinder)  may  be  formed  of 
the  desired  fusibility.  Blast-furnace  slags  are 
usually  double  silicates  of  alumina  and  lime, 
in  which  the  latter  is  often  partially  replaced 
by  magnesia,  oxide  of  manganese,  and  (when 
the  reduction  is  incomplete)  by  protoxide  of 
iron.  The  fusibility  increases  with  the  amount 
of  silica,  up  to  about  GO  per  cent,  of  the  latter, 
and  decreases  with  the  amount  of  lime.  Basic 
slags  are  white  and  stony  in  character,  and  re 
quire  a  very  high  temperature  for  fusion.  The 
conditions  in  the  furnace  producing  such  a 
slag  are  therefore  favorable  to  the  complete 
reduction  of  the  ore  and  the  formation  of  a 
highly  carburetted  siliconized  iron.  Basic  slags 
also  take  up  sulphur  in  considerable  quantities. 
White  iron  is  generally  accompanied  with  a 
more  acid  cinder,  which  sometimes  contains 


398 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


considerable  oxide  of  iron.     When  this  is  the 
case,  it  is  called  a  scouring  cinder.     The  fol 


lowing  analyses  show  the  composition  of  sev 
eral  varieties  of  blast-furnace  slags  : 

ELEMENTS. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

42-17 
13-59 
33-02 
1-23 
0-27 
8-31 
0-64 

5 

61-06 
5-38 
19-81 
3-29 
2-63 
7-12 

Silica  

33-48 
15-13 
32-82 
0-76 
1-62 
7-44 
2-22 
1-92 
0-15 

43-07 
14-85 
28-92 
2-53 
1-37 
5-87 
1-90 
1-84 

27-65 
24  -69 
40-00 
0-72 
0-35 
3-55 
1-95 
1-45 
0-26 

Alumina  
Lime 

Ferrous  oxide  

Manganese  oxide  

Magnesia    . 

Sulphide  of  calcium  
Alkalies. 

Phosphoric  acid  
Total  

100-54 

100-35100-62 

99-23 

99-29 

Nos.  1  and  2  are  from  raw  coal,  used  at  Dow- 
lais,  Wales,  the  first  making  gray,  the  second 
white  iron;  3,  coke,  at  Clarence,  England, 
making  gray  iron  from  Cleveland  ores ;  4,  an 
thracite,  at  Boonton,  1ST.  J.,  making  gray  forge 
iron;  5,  charcoal  iron,  at  Gosberg,  Sweden. 
Slags  are  classified,  according  to  the  ratio  which 
the  oxygen  of  the  silica  bears  to  the  oxygen  of 
the  bases,  as  tri-,  bi-,  mono-,  and  subsilicates. 
According  to  Bodemann,  the  most  fusible  sili 
cate  of  lime  and  alumina  is  a  bisilicate  of  the 
following  composition:  silica  56  per  cent., 
lime  30,  alumina  14.  Blast-furnace  slag  is 
almost  entirely  a  waste  product,  and  one  that 
is  very  difficult  to  dispose  of.  Acres  of  valu 
able  land  are  often  sacrificed  as  a  dumping 
ground  for  it.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  utilize  it,  and  with  considerable  success. 
Building  brick,  paving  stone,  hydraulic  cement, 
sand  for  mortar,  &c.,  have  been  successfully 
made;  but  no  regular  manufacture  has  yet 
been  introduced  that  can  work  up  even  a  mi 
nute  fraction  of  the  ever-increasing  slag  pro 
duction  of  the  world. — WROUGHT  IKON  is  either 
made  directly  from  the  ore  or  from  pig  iron. 
In  the  former  case  the  process  is  one  of  reduc 
tion  of  the  iron  from  its  oxide ;  in  the  latter 
it  is  one  of  oxidation  of  the  carbon,  silicon, 
&c.,  of  the  pig  iron.  Although  the  iron  pro 
duced  in  low  furnaces  and  bloomaries  is  usually 
of  great  purity,  yet  owing  to  the  small  produc 
tion  and  the  waste  of  iron,  and  the  necessity  of 
rich  ores  and  charcoal,  the  direct  process  has 
almost  entirely  disappeared  from  civilized  coun 
tries,  as  it  is  not  able  to  compete  commercially 
with  the  indirect  production  of  wrought  iron 
from  pig.  (See  BLOOMARY.)  The  conversion 
of  pig  into  wrought  iron  is  effected  either  in  a 
hearth  similar  to  a  bloomary  or  in  a  reverber- 
atory  furnace.  The  nature  of  the  process  is 
the  same  in  both  cases,  and  consists  in  the 
oxidation  of  the  silicon,  manganese,  carbon, 
phosphorus,  sulphur,  &c.,  in  the  pig  iron,  by 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  also  by  that  of 
oxide  of  iron.  The  latter  is  generally  added 
as  such,  but  is  ahvays  formed  in  the  process 
itself.  The  oxygen  in  the  solid  form  is  the 
most  active,  since  it  can  be  intimately  incor 
porated  with  the  iron,  while  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  merely  acts  on  the  surface  of  contact. 


The  order  in  which  the  foreign  substances  in 
the  pig  iron  are  removed  is  that  in  which  they 
are  named  above ;  or,  more  especially,  all  these 
substances  are  oxidized  coincidently,  but  the 
rate  of  oxidation  is  in  the  order  given.  The 
iron  is  also  promptly  oxidized,  and  forms  with 
the  silica  resulting  from  the  oxidation  of  the 
silicon  a  basic  iron  silicate,  or  cinder,  which 
reacts  on  the  carbon  and  silicon  remaining, 
converting  them  into  oxides,  while  an  equiva 
lent  amount  of  metallic  iron  is  reduced.  Iron 
thus  serves  as  a  carrier  of  oxygen  to  the  non- 
metallic  elements.  This  interchange  of  ele 
ments  continues  until  the  iron  is  nearly  or 
quite  decarburized.  Manganese,  if  present  in 
the  pig  iron,  may  replace  the  iron  in  the  cin 
der,  but  it  does  not  act  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  carrier  of  oxygen.  The  hearth  process, 
now  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  moun 
tainous  region  of  southern  Europe,  Sweden, 
and  South  Wales,  was  previous  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  the  method  universally 
employed  for  the  conversion  of  pig  iron.  The 
process  is  a  very  simple  one.  The  iron  is  melt 
ed  with  charcoal  and  exposed  while  molten  to 
the  direct  action  of  a  blast  of  air  from  one  or 
two  inclined  tuyeres  in  the  side  of  the  hearth. 
The  iron  gradually  loses  carbon,  silicon,  phos 
phorus,  &c.,  and  is  converted  into  a  pasty  lump 
or  bloom  which  is  hammered  into  slabs.  The 
process  in  its  essential  features  is  the  same 
everywhere,  but  owing  to  slight  variations  in 
construction  of  hearth  or  in  the  details  of 
manipulations  it  has  received  a  great  variety 
of  names.  In  Sweden  there  are  three  methods 
employed,  the  Walloon,  the  Franche-Comte, 
and  the  Lancashire.  The  latter,  which  is  the 
one  most  generally  used  and  most  economical 
of  fuel,  will  be  briefly  described.  The  hearth 
is  quadrangular,  and  formed  of  cast-iron  plates. 
The  tuyere  side  is  slightly  inclined  inward,  the 
opposite  side  and  the  back  are  inclined  out 
ward,  and  the  front  is  vertical.  The  bottom 
plate  is  cooled  by  running  water.  The  blast  is 
supplied  by  one  or  two  tuyeres  at  a  tempera 
ture  of  210°  to  390°  F.,  and  at  a  pressure  of 
1  to  1-|  Ib.  per  square  inch.  The  waste  heat 
from  the  hearth  is  used  to  heat  the  blast  and 
also  the  pig  iron  previous  to  charging.  The 
manipulation  consists  in  piling  up  the  already 
heated  •  pig  iron  to  the  amount  of  200  to  250 
Ibs.  on  the  burning  charcoal,  and  melting 
down.  As  the  molten  metal  drops  past  the 
blast  it  is  partially  oxidized,  and  the  oxide 
thus  formed,  together  with  the  rich  basic 
cinder  remaining  from  the  previous  opera 
tions,  act  with  the  blast  in  decarburizing  the 
iron.  The  imperfectly  refined  iron,  which 
sinks  to  the  bottom,  is  broken  up  with  an 
iron  bar  and  brought  repeatedly  before  the 
tuyere,  until  the  iron  is  rendered  thoroughly 
soft  and  malleable.  Finally,  a  high  heat  is 
given,  and  the  iron  is  collected  in  a  mass  or 
bloom  in  the  bottom  of  the  hearth.  It  is  then 
taken  out  and  forged  under  a  trip-hammer  to  a 
prismatic  shape.  The  process  lasts  about  1^  to 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


399 


!$•  hour.  The  yield  of  blooms  is  about  87  per  I 
cent,  of  the  pig  iron,  and  the  consumption  of  j 
charcoal  one  ton  to  a  ton  of  blooms.  The  iron  is  ' 
subsequently  heated  in  a  gas  furnace  and  forged  j 
out  into  bars.  All  the  Swedish  bar  iron  used  i 
in  Sheffield  for  conversion  into  steel  is  made  j 
by  this  process,  except  that  from  Dannemora, 
which  is  made  by  the  more  expensive  Walloon 
process.  The  latter  consumes  three  tons  of 
charcoal  to  a  ton  of  blooms,  with  a  yield  of 
but  80  per  cent.  Formerly  the  process  of  re 
fining  pig  iron  previous  to  its  conversion  into 
wrought  iron  was  extensively  employed,  but 
at  present  this  practice  is  falling  into  disuse. 
It  consists  in  exposing  the  molten  pig  iron 
in  an  elongated  rectangular  hearth  to  blasts  of 
air  from  two  or  three  tuyeres  on  each  side. 
The  operation  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  that 
already  described,  but  is  interrupted  be 
fore  all  the  carbon  is  removed,  and  while 
the  metal  is  still  molten.  The  metal  is 
then  run  out  on  an  iron  plate,  where  it 
solidifies  in  plates  about  3  in.  thick.  Gray 
pig  is  used  in  the  refining  or  running-out 
fire ;  and  the  change  that  is  effected  con 
sists  mainly  in  the  removal  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  silicon  and  a  little  of  the  car 
bon,  the  resulting  refined  or  "fine"  metal 
being  white  and  more  easily  and  quickly 
converted  into  wrought  iron  than  the 
original  gray  pig. — Puddling  consists  in 
melting  down  pig  iron  on  the  bed  of  a 
reverberatory  furnace  heated  by  flame, 
and  stirring  it  actively  in  an  oxidizing 
atmosphere,  until  it  has  become  malle 
able.  This  process  was  first  successfully 
introduced  by  Henry  Cort  in  England 
in  1784.  Although  others,  notably  the 
brothers  Cranage  in  1766  and  Peter  On 
ions  in  1783,  had  plainly  indicated  in  pat 
ent  specifications  the  essential  operations 
in  puddling,  yet  to  Cort  belongs  the  credit 
of  having  made  the  process  a  practical 
success.  For  some  time  puddling  was 
performed  on  a  sand  bottom,  which  made 
the  operation  tedious,  and  caused  great 
waste  of  iron  by  the  formation  of  an  ex 
cessive  amount  of  cinder.  In  1818  Samuel  B. 
Rogers  introduced  iron  bottoms,  by  the  use  of 
which  the  production  of  the  furnace  was  great 
ly  increased,  and  the  waste  of  iron  lessened. 
Before  the  puddling  furnace  is  used,  the  iron 
bottom  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  cin 
ders  or  scrap  wrought  iron,  and  exposed  for 
a  long  time  to  an  oxidizing  atmosphere,  so 
as  to  form  a  refractory  lining.  The  essential 
parts  of  a  puddling  furnace  are  the  fireplace, 
hearth,  and  flue.  The  fireplace  is  from  one 
third  to  two  thirds  the  size  of  the  hearth. 
The  draught  of  the  fire  is  effected  by  a  high 
chimney,  and  often  there  is  a  blast  under  the 
grate.  Either  bituminous  coal  or  anthracite 
may  be  used  as  fuel.  The  hearth  is  generally 
rectangular  or  oval.  It  is  formed  of  a  bottom 
plate  and  sides  of  cast  iron,  and  ends  of  fire 
brick,  called  the  fire  and  the  flue  bridges.  The 
VOL.  ix. — 26 


side  castings  are  hollow,  as  are  also  the  bridges, 
to  allow  of  a  circulation  of  air  for  cooling. 
There  are  recesses  in  the  side  castings,  in  which 
is  put  the  fix  or  fettling,  which  is  either  rich 
iron  ore  or  roasted  cinder.  The  waste  heat 
passing  off  in  the  flue  is  usually  utilized  to 
heat  steam  boilers.  Fig.  5  shows  a  vertical 
and  horizontal  section  of  a  puddling  furnace 
with  steam  boiler.  Sometimes  puddling  fur 
naces  are  built  of  double  the  usual  size,  with  a 
working  door  on  each  side.  In  these  the  charge 
is  twice  the  usual  amount,  and  two  puddlers 
work  together.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
puddling  furnaces,  built  mainly  with  a  view  to 
economize  fuel  or  to  better  regulate  the  com 
bustion.  Gas  furnaces  have  never  come  into 
very  general  use  for  puddling.  The  pig  iron 
used  for  puddling  is  mostly  the  lighter  gray 


FIG.  5. 

iron  and  white  iron.  The  highly  graphitic  va 
rieties  are  apt  to  be  rich  in  silicon,  which  makes 
a  large  amount  of  fluid  cinder,  prolongs  the 
operation,  and  causes  great  loss  of  iron.  Gray 
iron  requires  a  high  temperature  for  fusion, 
but  becomes  thinly  fluid,  while  white  iron  is 
sluggish  when  melted.  The  former  therefore 
generally  yields  an  iron  of  better  quality,  as  it 
can  be  more  thoroughly  worked.  The  pud 
dling  process  may  be  divided  into  four  stages  : 
1,  melting  down  the  charge;  2,  incorporation 
of  the  fettling ;  3,  boiling ;  and  4,  uniting  the 
soft  iron  to  balls.  When  the  charge  is  com 
pletely  melted,  it  is  stirred  to  render  it  uni 
form.  The  temperature  is  then  somewhat  low 
ered  in  order  to  allow  the  cinder  which  has 
formed  on  the  surface  and  the  oxide  of  iron  of 
the  fettling  to  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with 
the  iron.  The  temperature  is  then  raised  again, 


400 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


and  the  mass  of  metal  begins  to  "boil"  from 
the  escape  of  carbonic  oxide,  which  burns  with 
a  blue  flame  on  the  surface.  Finally  the  ebul 
lition  becomes  less  rapid,  and  little  bright 
points  of  soft  iron  appear.  The  iron  is  then 
said  to  "  come  to  nature.1'  The  stirring  or 
rabbling  is  continued  incessantly,  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  lumps  of  imperfectly  decar- 
burized  iron.  When  the  operation  is  complete, 
the  puddler  forms  a  number  of  balls  of  the 
pasty  iron,  of  about  60  to  80  Ibs.  each.  As 
soon  as  the  balls  are  formed,  the  damper  is 
lowered  in  order  to  prevent  the  waste  of  iron 
by  burning.  During  the  whole  course  of  the 
puddling  the  working  door  remains  closed,  and 
the  rabbling  tools  are  introduced  through  a 
small  notch  in  the  lower  side  of  the  door. 
When  the  balls  are  ready  for  removal,  the  door 
is  opened  and  the  balls  are  taken  singly  to  the 
hammer  or  squeezer.  The  duration  of  the 
process  is  from  1£  to  If  hour,  the  loss  of  iron 
10  to  15  per  cent.,  and  the  consumption  of 
fuel  from  16  to  30  cwts.,  according  to  charac 
ter  of  fuel,  size  of  charge,  &c.  Sometimes 
the  term  puddling  is  restricted  to  the  working 
of  white  or  nearly  white  iron  in  a  furnace 
without  fettling,  and  the  term  boiling  is  ap 
plied  to  the  process  described  above.  Such 
boiled  iron  is,  other  things  being  equal,  supe 
rior  to  puddled  iron.  As  the  oxidation  of  the 
carbon  and  silicon  is  mainly  effected  by  the 
oxide  of  iron  of  the  fettling,  there  should  be  a 
gain  of  malleable  iron  over  the  pig  iron  charged, 
instead  of  a  loss ;  since  for  every  18  parts  of 
carbon  removed  from  the  pig  iron  56  parts  of 
iron  are  reduced  from  the  oxide,  and  for  every 
42  parts  of  silicon  removed  there  are  also  56 
parts  of  iron  reduced.  In  the  ordinary  pud 
dling  furnace,  however,  with  the  strongly  ox 
idizing  atmosphere,  the  loss  of  iron  more  than 
compensates  for  this  gain.  Siemens  has  suc 
ceeded,  in  his  gas  furnaces,  in  obtaining  a  yield 
of  wrought  iron  equal  to  the  weight  of  pig 
charged ;  but  Danks,  in  his  rotary  puddler,  de 
scribed  below,  has  obtained  nearly  the  theo 
retical  amount  of  gain. — The  quality  of  the 
wrought  iron  produced  by  puddling  depends 
on  the  composition  of  the  pig  iron  used,  and 
on  the  care  and  thoroughness  of  working.  The 
removal  of  silicon  and  carbon  is  easily  effected 
by  good  working ;  but  phosphorus  and  sulphur 
are  never  completely  removed.  According  to 
Parry,  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  and 
80  per  cent,  of  sulphur  is  ordinarily  elimi 
nated.  The  manner  of  removal  of  phospho 
rus  is  somewhat  doubtful.  Percy  thinks  it  is 
mainly  in  the  form  of  phosphide  of  iron, 
which  is  more  fusible  than  the  iron,  and  is 
hence  carried  off  with  the  cinder.  It  has, 
however,  been  noticed  that  the  more  basic 
the  cinder,  the  more  phosphorus  it  contains ; 
which  renders  it  probable  that  phosphorus  is 
present  in  the  cinder  in  the  form  of  phosphoric 
acid.  Sulphur  is  said  to  be  principally  removed 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  process,  which  is 
consequently  prolonged  when  highly  sulphur 


ous  pig  iron  is  puddled.  This  prolongation 
of  the  operation  tends  to  make  a  highly  fibrous 
iron,  probably  owing  to  the  fact  (see  IRON) 
that  the  cinder  becomes  very  basic  and  more 
infusible,  and  is  hence  not  so  readily  expelled  by 
rolling  or  hammering.  The  purer  the  pig  iron 
treated,  that  is,  the  less  sulphur  and  phos 
phorus  it  contains,  the  shorter  may  the  opera 
tion  be,  and  the  more  granular  and  crystal 
line  the  product.  Puddled  steel  is  made  in 
the  same  way  as  wrought  iron,  but  from  pure 
pig  iron,  containing  not  too  much  silicon.  The 
operation  is  stopped  before  all  the  carbon  is 
oxidized,  and  a  steely  product  is  obtained.  The 
presence  of  manganese  is  here  an  advantage ; 
since,  as  has  been  before  mentioned,  oxide  of 
manganese  in  the  cinder  does  not  oxidize  the 
carbon  of  the  pig  iron.  Tap  or  puddling  cin 
der  is  composed  mainly  of  silica  and  oxides  of 
iron ;  it  may  be  considered  as  a  tribasic  sili 
cate  of  ferrous  oxide,  containing  also,  at  times, 
ferric  and  magnetic  oxide.  Phosphoric  acid  and 
sulphur  are  also  generally  present.  Such  cin 
der  is  used  either  raw  or  roasted  in  the  blast 
furnace,  yielding  when  in  large  quantity  an  in 
ferior  quality  of  iron,  known  as  cinder  pig ;  or 
it  is  used  after  roasting  as  fettling  for  the  pud 
dling  furnace.  The  following  analysis  is  of 
tap  cinder  made  from  common  white  iron : 
silica,  7'71 ;  ferrous  oxide,  66-32  ;  ferric  oxide, 
8'27 ;  manganese  oxide,  1*29;  alumina,  1*63; 
lime,  3-91;  magnesia,  0'34 ;  sulphur,  1'78; 
phosphoric  acid,  8'07;  total,  99-32.— There 
have  been  proposed  from  time  to  time  a  great 
number  of  fluxes  and  purifying  agents  for  use 
in  the  puddling  process;  they  are  mainly  di 
rected  against  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  par 
ticularly  the  latter.  The  following  are  a  few 
of  the  substances  proposed :  oxide  of  manga 
nese,  common  salt,  iodide  of  potassium,  nitre, 
litharge,  copperas,  chloride  of  calcium,  lime, 
and  fluoride  of  calcium.  Manganese  generally 
exerts  a  favorable  influence  in  all  iron  and  steel 
processes.  Its  action  is  not  well  understood, 
except  so  far  as  it  hinders  the  decarburization 
of  pig  iron  when  it  replaces  iron  in  cinder.  It 
is  not  probable  that  it  affects  eithur  sulphur  or 
phosphorus  in  the  puddling.  The  volatilization 
of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  as  chlorides  has 
long  been  a  favorite  theory;  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  chloride  of  sodium  or  any  other 
chloride  acts  in  this  way.  The  oxidation  of 
phosphorus  in  pig  iron  takes  place  readily ;  and, 
if  the  cinder  present  is  sufficiently  basic,  the 
phosphoric  acid  will  remain  combined ;  if  not, 
the  phosphorus  will  recombine  with  the  iron. 
(See  Bessemer  process,  under  STEEL.)  A  highly 
basic  iron  cinder,  as  above  mentioned,  retains 
a  large  amount  of  phosphoric  acid,  but  if  in 
stead  of  oxide  of  iron  a  stronger  base  is  sub 
stituted,  the  phosphoric  acid  will  be  still  more 
firmly  held  in  combination.  The  alkalies  and 
alkaline  earths  have  proved  to  be  valuable  de- 
phosphorizers ;  and  it  is  probable  that  salt, 
nitre,  and  chloride  of  calcium  act,  in  this  re 
spect,  solely  by  virtue  of  their  respective  bases. 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


401 


Henderson  used  a  mixture  of  fluoride  of  cal 
cium  or  flnor  spar  and  titaniferous  iron  ore  for 
the  purification  of  pig  iron,  with  good  effect. 
It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  fluorine 
exerts  any  direct  action  on  the  phosphorus,  or 
whether  the  effect  is  due  simply  to  the  lime 
present  in  a  highly  fusible 
compound. — When  the  balls 
of  soft  iron  are  ready  in  the 
puddling  furnace,  they  are 
taken  directly  to  the  ham 
mer  or  squeezer.  The  trip 
hammers  formerly  employed 
are  now  generally  replaced 
by  steam  hammers,  which 
are  more  efficient  and  man 
ageable.  Squeezers  are  now 
very  generally  used  for  the 
first  treatment  of  the  pud 
dled  ball.  The  form  gen 
erally  used  in  the  United  States  is  Burden's 
rotary  squeezer.  Fig.  6  shows  a  horizontal 
section,  different  in  construction,  but  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  Burden  squeezer.  The 
revolving  corrugated  cylinder  is  excentric  to 
the  frame  in  which  it  turns,  and  the  ball  in 


|  obtained  which  will  combine  the  properties  of 
all  the  varieties  used.  Thus  it  is  customary,  in 
making  piles  for  rails,  to  put  a  granular  iron 
on  the  top  and  a  fibrous  iron  in  the  body,  so 
that  the  finished  rail  shall  have  a  hard  wearing 
surface  and  a  tough  web  and  flange.  Smooth 


FIG.  C. 

its  passage  is  considerably  condensed,  while  a 
large  part  of  its  cinder  is  expelled.  From 
the  hammer  or  squeezer,  the  bloom  is  taken 
while  still  hot  to  the  rolls,  where  it  is  passed 
through  a  number  of  grooves,  and  formed 
into  a  slab  or  bar,  called  puddled  or  muck 
bar.  This  is  still  rough,  and  must  be  reheat 
ed  and  again  rolled  before  it  is  ready  for  the 
market.  The  muck  bar  is  generally  broken  up 
in  lengths  of  two  or  three  feet,  made  into  a 
pile,  and  raised  to  a  welding  heat  in  a  rever- 
beratory  or  gas  furnace.  This  white-hot  pile 
is  put  through  another  set  of  rolls  and  grad 
ually  reduced  in  size  until  it  forms  merchant 
bar  iron.  The  more  iron  is  worked  in  this 
way  within  certain  limits,  the  more  homoge 
neous  it  becomes.  Fig.  7  shows  a  merchant 
train  of  three  high  rolls  with  grooves  of  differ 
ent  shapes  and  sizes.  The  most  varied  forms 
of  iron  are  made  by  means  of  rolls  or  with 
appropriately  shaped  grooves.  By  piling  iron 
of  different  qualities  a  finished  product  may  bo 


FIG.  7. 


rolls  are  used  for  making  plates  and  sheet  iron. 
These  rolls  are  provided  with  a  mechanism  by 
which  they  can  be  approximated  after  each 
pass  of  the  metal.  The  limits  of  dimensions 
within  which  iron  may  be  worked  are  very 
great.  Sheet  iron  has  been  rolled  out  to  the 
thinness  of  the  finest  paper,  and  armor  plates 
have  been  made  over  a  foot  in  thickness  and 
weighing  33  tons. — The  operation  of  puddling 
is  extremely  laborious,  requiring  great  muscu 
lar  strength  and  endurance.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  substitute  machine  for  hand 
labor  in  this  process,  with  but  partial  success. 
The  mechanical  puddiers,  so  called,  are  mostly 
contrivances  by  which  the  rabble  can  be  moved 
about  in  the  furnace  with  merely  the  guidance 
of  the  workman.  These  machines,  although 
they  have  worked  well,  have  never  come  into 
general  use.  Another  similar  contrivance  is 
the  revolving  rabble.  This  is  extremely  sim- 

Ele  and  requires  no  expensive  machinery;  it 
5  said  to  give  good  results.  Richardson's  pro 
cess  consisted  in  blowing  air  through  a  hollow 
rabble,  which  was  moved  about  the  hearth. 
The  process  of  oxidation  here,  as  in  the  Bes 
semer  process,  proceeded  rapidly ;  the  iron  soon 
came  to  nature,  and  the  manual  labor  was 
confined  to  the  operation  of  balling.  Not 
withstanding  its  apparent  success,  this  process 
is  nowhere  in  use  at  present.  Attention  was 
early  directed  to  the  construction  of  rotary  or 
oscillating  puddling  furnaces ;  but  the  insuper 
able  difficulty  encountered  was  the  formation 
of  a  lining  that  would  stand  the  scouring  effect 
of  the  metal.  This  difficulty  has  been  over 
come  by  Mr.  Samuel  Danks  of  Cincinnati,  who 
has  constructed  and  introduced  the  first  prac 
tical  and  efficient  rotary  puddler.  It  consists 
of  a  revolving  chamber,  fire  grate,  and  mov 
able  head  piece  communicating  with  the  flue. 
The  puddling  chamber,  5  to  6  ft.  in  diameter 
and  3  to  4  ft.  long,  is  made  of  two  end  pieces 
banded  with  wrought  iron,  and- provided  with 
detachable  rings  on  the  part  most  exposed  to 
the  fire.  They  rest  on  carrying  rollers,  permit 
ting  free  rotation.  The  two  ends  are  con- 


402 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


nected  by  a  series  of  stave  plates  to  form  a  cyl 
inder,  these  have  hollow  ribs  running  longi 
tudinally,  which  serve  the  double  purpose  of 
holding  the  fettling  and  keeping  it  cool.  The 
cylinder  is  open  at  both  ends ;  one  buts  against 
the  ring  that  is  fastened  to  the  bridge  plate, 
and  the  other,  which  serves  as  a  doorway, 
against  the  movable  head  piece.  The  chamber 
is  made  to  revolve  by  a  special  engine  attached 
to  it  by  means  of  a  toothed  wheel.  The  fire 
place  is  large,  and  is  provided  with  blast  under 
the  grate  and  over  the  fire,  by  means  of  which 
the  heat  and  character  of  the  flame  are  easily 
regulated.  Fig.  8  shows  a  vertical  section 
through  the  fireplace  chamber  and  head  piece. 
The  chamber  is  lined  in  the  following  manner : 
The  initial  lining  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
pulverized  ore  and  pure  lime,  worked  with 
water  to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paste.  The 
inner  surface  of  the  chamber  is  completely 
covered  with  this  mortar  in  a  layer  projecting 
about  one  inch  over  the  hollow  ribs.  After 


this  has  become  hard,  the  furnace  is  ready 
for  the  fettling.  About  one  fifth  of  the  whole 
quantity  of  iron  ore  required  is  thrown  into 
the  furnace  in  the  form  of  powder.  The  fur 
nace  is  then  heated  up  and  made  to  revolve 
slowly  until  the  ore  is  completely  melted.  The 
apparatus  is  then  stopped,  and  that  part  of  the 
ore  which  has  not  been  consumed  in  glazing 
the  initial  lining  forms  a  pool  in  the  bottom  of 
the  chamber,  into  which  are  put  a  number  of 
lumps  of  ore  of  such  a  size  that  they  project 
2  to  0  in.  above  the  surface.  This  is  allowed  | 
to  set,  and  then  another  lot  of  pulverized  ore  is 
put  in,  which  is  melted  in  the  same  way,  and 
a  pool  collected  on  another  part  of  the  surface, 
into  which  lumps  are  put  as  before.  About  2 
to  2£  tons  of  ore  are  required  to  fettle  a  700-lb. 
rotary  furnace.  The  iron  may  be  either  charged 
in  the  solid  form  or  run  in  molten  from  a 
cupola.  "When  in  the  solid  form,  it  has  been 
found  advantageous  to  have  it  granulated  or 
otherwise  finely  divided,  in  order  to  hasten  the 
melting.  A  quantity  of  hammer  or  roll  cinder 


is  added  with  each  charge,  as  is  usual  in  pud 
dling.  When  the  iron  is  thoroughly  melted, 
the  furnace  is  made  to  revolve  once  or  twice  a 
minute  for  the  first  five  or  ten  minutes.  A 
stream  of  water  is  then  injected  through  the 
stopper  hole  along  and  just  above  the  line  of 
contact  between  the  floating  cinder  and  the  in 
ner  surface  of  the  vessel,  on  the  descending 
side.  The  cinder  is  thus  partially  solidified, 
and  carried  down  with  the  molten  iron  and  in 
timately  mixed  with  it.  AVhen  the  iron  be 
gins  to  thicken  under  this  treatment,  the  rota 
tion  is  stopped  and  the  heat  raised  until  the 
cinder  melts  thoroughly  and  floats  on  top  of 
the  iron,  when  it  is  tapped  off.  The  furnace 
is  again  put  into  motion  at  the  rate  of  six  to 
eight  revolutions  a  minute,  which  causes  the 
charge  to  be  dashed  about  violently  in  the  fur 
nace.  When  the  iron  begins  to  come  to  na 
ture,  the  velocity  of  the  apparatus  is  reduced 
to  two  or  three  revolutions  per  minute,  when 
the  ball  speedily  forms.  The  movable  head 
piece  is  pushed  to  one  side  and 
the  ball  is  removed  in  one  mass. 
Special  machinery  is  needed  to 
work  these  large  blooms,  which 
in  the  furnaces  hitherto  con 
structed  weigh  700  Ibs.  The 
yield  of  puddled  bar  is  usually 
about  10  per  cent,  more  than 
the  weight  of  the  pig  charged, 
which  is  due  to  the  reduction 
of  the  iron  of  the  fettling. 
Owing  to  the  thorough  work 
ing  of  the  iron,  and  the  inti 
mate  contact  of  every  particle 
of  the  pig  iron  with  the  fet 
tling,  the  product  is  much  more 
uniform  and  pure  than  that 
made  by  hand  puddling.  Since 
the  successful  introduction  of 
Danks's  furnace,  a  number  of 
rotary  puddlers  have  been  in 
vented,  which,  though  they  may  differ  in  mech 
anism  from  Danks's  puddler,  are  yet  lined 
and  fettled  in  the  same  manner.  In  Sellers's 
rotary  puddler  the  chamber  is  egg-shaped, 
and  the  flame  from  the  fire,  instead  of  pass 
ing  through,  returns  and  goes  out  at  the  end 
through  which  it  came. — Pig  iron  may  be  com 
pletely  decarburized  by  heating  in  an  oxidizing 
atmosphere,  at  a  temperature  below  that  of 
fusion.  The  removal  of  the  carbon  is  effected 
gradually  and  slowly  from  the  surface  to  the 
centre.  This  process  is  used  extensively  for 
making  the  so-called  "  malleable  castings"  (see 
IRON),  also  often  malleable  iron.  Only  articles 
of  less  than  an  inch  in  thickness  are  generally 
so  treated,  on  account  of  the  length  of  time  re 
quired  for  conversion.  White  iron,  which  is 
best  adapted  for  the  purpose,  is  cast  in  moulds, 
and  the  articles  thus  formed  are  packed  in  ox 
ide  of  iron  and  exposed  to  a  red  heat  for  five 
or  six  days.  When  cold  they  are  taken  out, 
and  are  found  to  be  tough  and  malleable  if 
the  iron  from  which  they  were  made  was  of 


IRON  MANUFACTURE 


403 


suitable  quality,  and  the  conversion  has  been 
uniformly  effected.  The  following  analyses 
by  Dr.  R.  W.  Davenport  show  the  progress  of 
decarburization : 


ELEMENTS. 

Original 
casting. 

After 
annealing. 

After  second 
annealing. 

Silicon         

0-445 

0-433 

0-449 

Phosphorus  
Manganese  

0-815 
0-529 

0-827 
0-535 

0-815 
0-525 

Sulphur       

0-059 

0-007 

0-031 

Carbon 

8'480 

1-510 

O'lOO 

These  analyses  likewise  show  that  the  process 
is  simply  one  of  decarburization,  and  that  the 
other  elements  present  are  not  materially  af 
fected.  Dr.  Davenport  noticed  in  a  casting  J 
in.  thick,  which  had  been  converted  to  the  depth 
of  -|-  in.,  that  the  remaining  %  in.  was  darker 
in  color  than  the  original  iron  used,  and  analy 
sis  showed  that  it  contained  graphitic  carbon. 
The  separation  of  carbon  from  combination 
may  therefore  possibly  be  the  first  step  in 
the  process  of  conversion. — Within  the  last 
30  years  there  have  been  a  great  number 
of  attempts  to  make  wrought  iron  and  steel 
direct  from  the  ore  without  the  use  of  the 
blast  furnace.  These  direct  processes  differ 
from  the  bloomary  process,  in  which  the  same 
result  is  accomplished,  by  the  reduction  of 
the  ore  at  a  temperature  below  fusion,  and 
the  formation  of  iron  sponge.  The  sponge  thus 
formed  contains  nearly  all  the  iron  in  the  me 
tallic  state  besides  the  earthy  ingredients  of 
the  ore  unaltered.  To  remove  the  earthy  mat 
ters  and  consolidate  the  iron,  it  is  worked  up 
to  a  bloom  in  a  reverberatory  or  gas  furnace, 
or  in  a  bloomary  hearth,  and  then  hammered 
or  rolled  in  the  usual  way.  The  process  of  re 
duction  or  sponge  making  is  very  simple.  The 
ore  is  either  mixed  with  the  fuel  (preferably 
charcoal)  in  a  cylinder  or  cupola  furnace  and 
heated  to  redness,  or  is  exposed  to  a  current 
of  hot  carbonic  oxide  gas.  When  reduction 
is  ended,  the  sponge,  which  oxidizes  readily 
owing  to  its  porous  condition,  should  be  cooled 
in  a  reducing  atmosphere  before  removal.  If 
the  process  of  reduction  has  been  sufficiently 
prolonged,  and  the  sponge  fully  cooled  before 
removal,  the  product  shoald  contain  at  least 
95  per  cent,  of  iron  in  the  metallic  state.  A 
great  loss  of  iron  has  hitherto  been  experi 
enced  in  working  up  this  sponge,  especially 
when  made  from  poor  ores  containing  consid 
erable  silica.  In  balling  the  iron  in  a  puddling 
furnace,  the  loss  of  iron  is  excessive,  owing 
to  its  porous  condition.  This  has  been  the 
principal  cause  of  the  failure  of  nearly  all  the 
modern  direct  methods  for  making  wrought 
iron.  Chenot's  process,  which  20  years  ago 
seemed  to  be  successfully  established  as  a  met 
allurgical  and  economical  process,  and  which 
furnished  a  large  amount  of  iron  and  steel 
of  excellent  quality,  is  now  abandoned.  The 
same  fate  has  befallen  Yates's,  Renton's, 
Gurlt's,  and  other  processes  which  promised 


success.  A  new  application  of  iron  sponge 
has  been  found  in  steel  making  in  the  open- 
hearth  regenerative  furnace ;  and  it  is  now 
probable  that  iron  sponge  will  find  an  eco 
nomic  application.  In  the  Martin  process  for 
making  steel  or  homogeneous  iron  (see  STEEL), 
wrought-iron  scrap  is  added  to  a  bath  of  molten 
pig  iron  until  the  percentage  of  carbon  remain 
ing,  in  consequence  of  this  addition,  is  very 
low,  or,  with  the  aid  of  an  oxidizing  flame,  even 
perfectly  removed.  Iron  sponge  added  in  this 
way  to  a  pig-iron  bath  loses  iron  to  the  extent 
merely  of  saturating  the  silica  it  contains  in 
the  formation  of  a  cinder.  In  very  pure  ores 
this  loss  is  consequently  very  small.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  Mr.  Thomas  S.  Blair  of  Pitts 
burgh  successfully  utilizes  the  sponge  made  by 
his  process,  which  is  one  of  great  simplicity, 
on  the  principle  of  Chenot's,  with  certain  im 
provements  in  apparatus.  His  redaction  cyl 
inders  are  40  ft.  high  and  3  ft.  in  internal 
diameter.  The  upper  half  is  exposed  to  a 
bright  red  heat  from  burning  gas  on  the  out 
side,  and  the  lower  half  is  provided  with  a 
water  jacket  for  cooling  the  reduced  product. 
Into  the  top  of  the  cylinder  is  inserted  a  thim 
ble  of  cast  iron  6  ft.  long  and  28  in.  in  di 
ameter,  leaving  an  annular  space  of  4  in.  be 
tween  it  and  the  cylinder.  Into  this  space  are 
charged  charcoal  in  small  fragments  and  po\v- 
der,  and  ore  in  pieces  not  larger  than  an  egg. 
The  carbonic  oxide  resulting  from  the  reduc 
tion  of  the  ore  burns  inside  the  thimble,  and 
the  gas  from  the  producers  outside  the  cylin 
der.  The  charge  thus  becomes  rapidly  heated 
through  in  this  narrow  space,  and  when  it 
spreads  over  the  whole  diameter  of  the  stack, 
6  ft.  from  the  top,  it  is  all  red  hot.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  stack  there  is  a  sleeve  which 
when  raised  allows  the  already  thoroughly 
cooled  sponge  and  the  charcoal  charged  in 
excess  to  run  out.  The  sponge  is  drawn  at 
regular  intervals,  and  in  the  mean  time  the 
sleeve  is  luted  with  clay.  No  air  gains  access 
to  the  stack  while  drawing,  as  the  column  of 
finely  divided  iron  and  coal  forms  an  effectual 
packing.  The  sponge  is  separated  as  far  as 
practicable  from  the  charcoal  and  compressed 
by  hydraulic  pressure  into  ingots,  which  are 
added  directly  or  after  previous  heating  to  the 
bath  of  metal  in  a  Siemens  or  other  form  of  re 
generative  furnace.  Owing  to  the  great  sim 
plicity  of  the  process,  iron  sponge  is  a  much 
cheaper  product  than  pig  iron.  Siemens  has 
invented  a  number  of  sponge  processes,  which 
are  all  connected  with  the  use  of  his  regen 
erative  furnace.  None  of  them  have  ever 
come  into  general  use.  Since  the  introduc 
tion  of  Danks's  puddler  he  has  employed  a 
rotary  cylinder  similar  to  this  for  the  direct 
production  of  iron.  The  chamber  is  lined  with 
a  refractory  material  and  heated  on  the  regene 
rative  principle.  The  ore  is  first  melted,  then 
I  the  charcoal  or  coke  is  added,  and  the  vessel  ro- 
i  tated.  Reduction  takes  place  energetically,  and 
i  a  ball  of  soft  iron  is  speedily  formed.  Siemens 


404: 


IRON  MASK 


IRON  MOUNTAIN 


claims  small  waste  of  iron  and  a  great  econo 
my  of  fuel  for  this  process.  It  may  be  regard 
ed  as  a  perfected  form  of  the  bloomary  process. 
IRON  MASK,  Man  in  the,  a  state  prisoner  of 
France  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  died  in 
the  Bastile,  Nov.  19,  1703.  Some  critics  have 
denied  the  existence  of  such  a  person,  but  late 
investigations  have  established  it  beyond  ques 
tion.  The  register  kept  by  Dujunca,  chief  turn 
key  of  the  Bastile,  proves  that  the  prisoner  was 
committed  on  Thursday,  Sept.  18, 1698,  having 
been  brought  thither  from  the  island  of  Ste. 
Marguerite  by  Saint-Mars,  who  exchanged  in 
that  year  the  governorship  of  the  state  prison 
there  for  that  of  the  Bastile.  The  removal  was 
made  with  extraordinary  precaution  and  se 
crecy.  The  prisoner  wa,s  carried  in  a  close  lit 
ter,  which  preceded  that  of  Saint-Mars,  and 
was  accompanied  by  a  mounted  guard.  His 
face  was  covered  with  a  black  velvet  mask, 
fastened  with  steel  springs,  which  he  was  for 
bidden  to  remove  on  pain  of  instant  death. 
He  was  not  allowed  to  speak  to  any  one  except 
his  governor,  who  watched  him  with  jealous 
care  and  always  kept  a  pair  of  pistols  at  hand 
to  destroy  him  in  case  he  made  an  effort  to  re 
veal  himself.  When  in  the  Bastile  he  was  at 
tended  at  meals  and  at  his  toilet  by  Saint-Mars 
himself,  who  removed  personally  and  examined 
or  destroyed  the  linen  which  he  had  worn,  lest 
he  might  make  known  his  secret  by  means  of 
some  mark  on  it.  At  mass  he  was  forbidden 
to  speak  or  to  show  himself,  and  the  invalides 
who  stood  by  with  loaded  muskets  had  orders 
to  shoot  him  if  he  made  the  attempt.  After  his 
death  everything  which  had  been  used  or  worn 
by  him  was  burned.  He  was  buried  in  the  ceme 
tery  of  St.  Paul. — Since  the  time  of  Voltaire, 
who  first  gave  shape  to  the  story  of  the  mask, 
numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  establish 
his  identity.  Writers  have  advanced  various  the 
ories  regarding  him,  some  of  which  are  :  that  he 
was  the  fruit  of  an  intrigue  between  Anne  of 
Austria,  queen  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  the  duke  of 
Buckingham,  born  in  1626 ;  the  illegitimate  son 
of  the  same  queen  by  an  unknown  father,  born 
in  1631;  and  a  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV., 
born  a  few  hours  after  the  king,  and  disposed 
of  thus  to  avoid  a  disputed  succession.  But 
there  is  little  evidence  that  any  of  these  ever 
existed.  Theories  have  also  been  put  forth  in 
regard  to  a  number  of  real  persons,  among 
whom  are  the  English  duke  of  Monmouth,  the 
reputed  son  of  Charles  II.  and  Lucy  Walters  ; 
the  count  of  Vermandois,  an  illegitimate  son 
of  Mile,  de  la  Valliere  by  Louis  XIV. ;  the  duke 
of  Beaufort,  prominent  in  the  insurrection  of 
the  Fronde ;  Henry,  son  of  Oliver  Cromwell ; 
Avedick,  the  Armenian  patriarch,  who  was 
treacherously  seized  by  De  Ferriol,  French  am 
bassador  at  the  Porte;  Fouquet,  marquis  of 
Belle-Isle,  minister  of  finance,  and  reputed  rival 
of  the  king  in  the  affections  of  Mile,  de  la  Val 
liere  ;  and  Ercole  Mattioli,  a  secret  agent  of 
the  duke  of  Mantua,  who  was  arrested  in  1679 
for  divulging  one  of  the  intrigues  by  which 


Louis  XIV.  sought  to  obtain  possession  of  Ca- 
sale.  The  claim  of  Mattioli  to  the  distinction, 
first  advanced  by  M.  Delort,  and  again  by  Lord 
Dover  in  1826,  is  ably  upheld  by  Marius  Topin 
in  "The  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask"  (Paris  and 
London,  1869) ;  but  a  late  book  by  T.  Jung,  a 
staff  officer  of  the  French  army,  entitled  La  ve- 
rite  sur  la  masque  defer  (Paris,  1873),  makes  it 
appear  probable  that  Mattioli  was  never  in  the 
Bastile,  but  died  at  Ste.  Marguerite  in  1694. 
M.  Jung,  who  has  investigated  the  subject  with 
minute  care,  shows  that  in  1691  the  mask  was 
spoken  of  as  a  prisoner  of  20  years'  stand 
ing,  and  then  proves  the  following :  that  in  Oc 
tober,  1681,  Saint-Mars  was  transferred  from 
Pignerol,  a  fortress  on  the  borders  of  Savoy, 
of  the  donjon  of  which  he  had  had  command 
for  nearly  1 6  years,  to  Exiles,  a  fort  on  the 
frontier  of  Piedmont,  and  that  he  then  took 
with  him,  in  a  litter  strictly  guarded,  two  pris 
oners;  that  on  or  previous  to  Jan.  5,  1687,  one 
of  these  prisoners  died,  and  that  in  April  fol 
lowing  Saint-Mars  was  transferred  to  Ste.  Mar 
guerite,  and  took  with  him  a  single  prisoner, 
who  was  carefully  guarded  and  watched.  By 
a  chain  of  strong  circumstantial  evidence  he 
connects  the  mask  with  the  latter  prisoner,  and 
with  the  survivor  of  the  two  removed  in  1681 
from  Pignerol  to  Exiles.  He  endeavors  next 
to  prove  his  identity  with  the  chevalier  de 
Kiffenbach,  or  d'Harmoises,  who  was  arrested 
with  others  in  March,  1673,  at  Peronne,  charged 
with  complicity  in  a  plot  to  murder  the  king, 
and  sent  to  the  Bastile.  In  1674  a  prisoner 
was  transferred  from  the  Bastile  to  Pignerol, 
but  the  evidence  is  scarcely  strong  enough  to 
establish  his  identity  with  the  prisoner  of  1673, 
and  it  is  still  less  certain  that  the  one  of  1674 
was  of  the  pair  transferred  to  Exiles.  But  if 
M.  Jung  has  not  fully  proved  his  case,  he  has 
confined  future  research  to  very  narrow  limits. 
IRON  MOUNTAIN,  a  remarkable  deposit  of 
specular  iron  ore  on  the  S.  E.  border  of  Wash 
ington  co.,  Missouri,  about  40  m.  S.  W.  of  St. 
Genevieve,  the  nearest  point  on  the  Mississippi. 
The  locality  is  connected  with  St.  Louis  by 
rail.  It  is  described  by  Dr.  Litton  in  the  sec 
ond  annual  report  of  the  geological  survey  of 
Missouri  (1855),  and  by  Prof.  Raphael  Pum- 
pelly  and  Dr.  Adolf  Schmidt  in  the  volume  on 
"  Iron  Ores  and  Coal  Fields  "  of  the  new  geo 
logical  survey  (1873).  The  later  account,  being 
based  on  more  extensive  and  minute  examina 
tions,  with  the  advantage  of  exposures  made  by 
continued  mining  operations,  is  the  more  ac 
curate.  The  Iron  mountain  deposit  occurs  in 
the  azoic  rocks,  which  reach  their  most  exten 
sive  surface  development  in  the  region  forming 
the  northern  part  of  Madison,  Iron,  and  Rey 
nolds,  and  the  southern  part  of  St.  Francis  and 
Washington  counties,  constituting  the  exposed 
portions  of  the  skeleton  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Ozark  range,  and  appearing  as  knobs  1,400 
to  1,800  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  300  to  700 
ft.  above  the  valleys  at  their  bases.  These 
knobs  form  an  archipelago  of  granitic  and  por- 


IRON  MOUNTAIN 


405 


phyritic  islands  in  the  lower  Silurian  strata  of 
dolomite  and  gritstone,  which  surround  and 
separate  them.  These  azoic  crystalline  rocks, 
having  been  apparently  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  since  before  the  upper  Silurian  period,  at 
least,  have  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  at 
mospheric  agency  for  enormous  periods,  and 
under  this  long-continued  influence  have  under 
gone  remarkable  changes.  The  gradual  remo 
val  of  the  soluble  constituents  has  left  impor 
tant  residuary  deposits  in  the  Silurian  strata 
of  clay,  flint,  crystalline  quartz,  iron  sulphuret, 
galena,  &c.,  and  in  the  pre-Simrian  rocks  of 
iron  ore.  The  destructive  action  of  atmos 
pheric  agencies  is  developed  both  in  the  disin 
tegration  and  decomposition  of  large  bodies 
of  rocks  en  masse,  and  in  the  formation  and 
subsequent  gradual  disintegration  of  polygonal 
blocks  on  the  surface.  In  Iron  mountain  the 
former  is  characteristically  the  case,  the  por 
phyry  of  which  the  hill  (now  250  ft.  high,  and 
covering  about  500  acres)  largely  consisted, 
having  been  entirely  changed  to  clay.  The 
accumulation  of  insoluble  residuum  from  this 
decomposition  and  denudation  has  left  a  re 
markable  surface  deposit  of  iron  ore,  covering 
the  whole  of  the  hill  in  a  mantle  of  ore  detri 
tus,  associated  with  clay.  The  internal  struc 
ture  of  the  hill  is  indicated  by  the  mining  ex 
cavations  at  and  near  the  summit,  and  on  the 
spur  called  Little  Iron  mountain.  It  appears 
to  consist  of  deposits  of  most  irregular  form, 
lying,  as  magnetic  observation  has  seemed  to 
show,  in  zones  extending  N.  N.  E.,  being  nearly 
the  course  of  the  ridge  of  porphyry  of  the  spur 
of  which  Iron  mountain  is  the  southwestern 
termination.  At  the  summit  an  immense  mass 
of  solid  ore  is  exposed ;  and  the  decomposed 
porphyry  adjoining  it  is  traversed  in  all  direc 
tions  by  veins  of  various  sizes  and  irregular 
shape,  forming  a  network  of  ore  and  rock. 
Little  Iron  mountain,  a  western  continuation 
of  the  main  hill,  contains  similar  irregular 
veins  and  masses  of  ore,  the  smaller  of  which 
frequently  show  crystals  of  apatite.  At  or 
near  the  surface  the  apatite  has  been  removed, 
leaving  the  impressions  only  of  the  crystals, 
frequently  lined  with  delicate  drusy  quartz : 
hence,  in  such  seams,  the  surface  ore  shows 
least  phosphorus.  All  the  ores  of  this  region 
are  characterized  by  great  purity.  Those  of 
Iron  mountain  are  in  general  very  rich  and 
very  uniform,  nearly  free  from  sulphur  both 
on  the  surface  and  in  depth,  and  carrying  a 
variable  proportion  of  phosphorus,  which  rarely 
exceeds  0-12  per  cent.  The  ore  is  specular, 
containing  over  00  per  cent,  (sometimes  97  per 
cent.)  of  peroxide  of  iron.  Porphyry  is  en 
closed  in  it  in  large  masses  which  can  be  easily 
separated,  apatite  occasionally  in  small  crystals, 
and  quartz  in  drusy  aggregations  resulting  from 
infiltration  into  small  cavities  or  fissures.  All 
Iron  mountain  ore  is  magnetic,  some  of  it 
strongly  so,  with  distinct  polarity,  though  the 
greater  part  of  it  acts  but  slightly  on  the 
needle.  The  amount  of  ore  in  this  deposit  is 


beyond  calculation.  The  main  body  has  a 
thickness  of  at  least  50  ft,  and  continues  in 
definitely  in  depth.  Some  distance  beyond  the 
base  of  the  mountain  an  artesian  well,  sunk  to 
the  depth  of  152  ft.,  passed  through  iron  ore 
and  clay  16  ft.,  sandstone  34  ft.,  dolomite  7-J- 
in.,  gray  sandstone  7£  in.,  "hard  blue  rock" 
37  ft.,  "pure  iron  ore"  5  ft.,  porphyry  7  ft., 
iron  ore  50  ft. — Pilot  Knob,  in  Iron  co.,.6  in. 
S.  of  Iron  mountain,  is  a  conical  hill  nearly 
circular,  about  GOO  ft.  high  and  a  mile  in  diam 
eter  at  the  base,  composed  chiefly  of  porphyry, 
porphyry  conglomerates,  and  beds  of  hard 
specular  iron  ore.  The  top  is  conglomerate 
140  ft.  thick,  consisting  of  more  or  less  angu 
lar  pebbles  of  porphyry  cemented  with  iron 
ore,  and  containing  frequent  layers  and  bodies 
of  ore.  The  lowest  layer  of  the  conglomerate 
is  in  some  places  workable  as  iron  ore,  the 
matrix  consisting  mainly  of  finely  divided  spec 
ular  oxide,  with  clay.  Below  this  lies  the  ore 
bed  proper,  46  ft.  thick,  and  divided  into  two 
beds,  about  31  ft.  above  the  lower  foot  wall, 
by  a  persistent  slate  seam  10  in.  to  13  ft.  thick. 
The  upper  bed  is  distinctly  stratified  flag  ore, 
and  considerably  leaner  than  the  lower,  which 
presents  a  very  compact  and  hard  stratified 
peroxide.  Under  this  ore  bed  is  a  series  of 
porphyries.  The  maximum  superficial  extent 
of  the  ore  bed  appears  to  be  about  200,000 
square  yards.  It  dips  S.  "NV.  about  13°.  The 
ore  differs  in  quality  from  most  of  the  other 
specular  ores  in  the  state.  It  is  steely  gray 
with  a  tint  of  sky-blue,  very  faint  lustre,  crys 
talline  to  granular  structure,  lamellar  and 
jointed,  and  very  brittle.  The  streak  is  uni 
formly  dark  red.  The  fine  ore  from  the  con 
glomerate  has  polaric  magnetism,  and  all  the 
Pilot  Knob  ores  are  slightly  attracted  by  a 
magnet,  when  they  are  ground  fine.  Those 
from  the  beds  immediately  above  and  below 
the  slate  seam,  however,  do  not  disturb  an  or 
dinary  compass  needle. — At  Cedar  hill,  Shep 
herd  mountain,  and  other  localities,  similar  de 
posits  of  magnetic  specular  iron  ore  occur.  Dr. 
Schmidt  holds  that  these  specular  ore  depos 
its  have  been  formed  by  infiltration  from  cha 
lybeate  waters.  At  Iron  mountain  he  believes 
such  waters  to  have  deposited  oxide  of  iron  in 
numerous  large  and  small  fissures  in  the  por 
phyries.  At  Pilot  Knob  he  believes  the  iron 
ore  beds  to  have  been  formed  by  gradual  re 
placement  of  the  constituents  of  the  porphyry 
with  ore,  effected  by  solutions  similar  to  those 
which  caused  Iron  mountain  and  other  deposits. 
This  view  is  supported  by  chemical  as  well  as 
geological  considerations. — The  Iron  mountain 
company  in  1871  shipped  262,477  tons  of  ore; 
in  1872,  371,474  tons,  of  which  143,431  tons 
were  consumed  in  Missouri.  In  1 873  there  were 
16  furnaces  employing  the  ores  of  this  region, 
7  using  charcoal  and  9  stone  coal,  able  to  pro 
duce  in  a  year  of  ten  months,  about  176,000 
tons  of  iron.  The  production  of  1872  was 
126,652  tons,  from  211,177  tons  of  ore,  indi 
cating  a  yield  of  about  60  per  cent,  of  iron 


406 


IRON  ORES 


from  the  ore.  These  specular  oxides  of  the 
azoic  rocks  of  Missouri  are  proving;  immensely 
important,  not  only  to  the  western  states,  but 
also  to  the  general  iron  industry  of  the  country. 
The  demand  for  the  ores  is  large,  on  account  of 
their  richness  and  purity,  which  render  them 
suitable  for  admixture  with  magnetites,  &c.,  of 
other  localities,  and  adapt  them  especially  for 
the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  for  use  in  the 
Bessemer  process,  and  of  wrought  iron  by  the 
direct  process. 

IROX  ORES.  The  term  iron  ore  is  limited 
to  oxides  of  iron,  either  as  such  or  in  combi 
nation  with  water  or  carbonic  acid.  Other 
compounds  of  iron,  as  for  example  the  sulphide, 


are  not  adapted  for  iron  making.  The  term  is 
further  limited  to  deposits  of  sufficient  purity 
and  richness  to  render  smelting  profitable. 
These  factors  differ  in  different  localities.  Both 
the  ferric  and  magnetic  oxides  occur  in  nature, 
sometimes  nearly  pure ;  they  are  called  re 
spectively  hematite  (red  or  anhydrous  hema 
tite)  and  magnetite.  Ferric  oxide  also  occurs 
in  combination  with  water  in  various  definite 
proportions ;  these  compounds  are  called  hy 
drous  or  brown  hematites.  Ferrous  oxide  is 
a  component  of  many  minerals,  but  only  the 
ferrous  carbonate  is  important  as  an  ore  of 
iron  ;  it  is  known  as  spathic  ore.  Mineralogi- 
cally  iron  ores  may  be  grouped  as  follows  : 


ORES. 

Formula. 

Crystalline  form. 

Hardness. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Color  of  powder. 

Per  ct. 

metallic 
iron. 

Water. 

Carbon 
ic  acid. 

HEMATITE  
Limonite 

Fe203 

Fe203.3II00 
Fe2O3.21i:o 
2Fe0Oq,3HoO 
Fe;os,HaO 
2Fe203,II2O 

Ferr 
Hexagonal  

Ferric  Oxi 

ic  Oxide 
5-5-6-5 

de  Hydr 

5-5-5 
2-5 
5-5-5 
5-5-5 
5-6 

5  Carbon 
3-5^-5 

letic  Ox 
5-5-6-5 

-lied  11 
4-5-5-3 

ated—Br 
8-6-4 

8-6-4 
4-4-4 
3-5-3-7 

ate  —  Spo 
3-7-3-9 

:de—3fai 

4-9-5-2 

ematite. 
1  Cherry  red  t6  reddish  brown..  . 

men  If  ematite. 

Yellowish  brown  to  rusty  yellow 
Ochre  vellow        

70-00 

52-34 

57-14 
59-90 
G3-03 
C6'28 

48-27 
79-41 

25-23 

18-37 
14-48 

10-11 

5-33 

37-G8 

Xanthosiderite. 
LIMONITE  
Gothite    . 

Massive  or  fibrous 
Massive  or  earthy. 
Orthorhombic  .... 

Yellowish  brown  
Brownish  to  ochre  yellow  
Keddish 

Turgite  

SlDERITE. 

FeO,C02 
Fe304 

Ferrou 
Hexagonal  

Magf 

tide  Ore. 
White 

MAGNETITE  

jnetite. 
Black 

Iron  ores  rarely  occur  in  masses  of  mineralogi- 
cal  purity.  The  hydrous  hematites  are  so  close 
ly  related  in  their  formation,  occurrence,  and 
physical  appearance,  that  their  distinction  is 
sometimes  impossible  without  chemical  analy 
sis,  but  generally  the  groups  are  readily  distin 
guishable.  The  color  of  the  powder,  or  streak, 
is  very  characteristic,  Turgite  here  forms  an 
exception  to  the  rule ;  but  it  is  easily  recog 
nized  on  heating,  since  it  decrepitates  and  gives 
off  water.  Nearly  all  the  iron  ores  contain 
earthy  substances.  These  are  commonly  silica, 
alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  &c. ;  silica  usually 
predominating.  These  substances  are  removed 
in  the  cinder  on  smelting.  Manganese  accom 
panies  iron  in  nearly  all  its  ores,  but  for  the 
most  part  in  small  quantities ;  the  spathic  ores 
contain  the  largest  proportion.  Under  favor 
able  conditions  the  manganese  is  reduced  in 
the  furnace  and  unites  with  the  iron ;  usually, 
however,  the  greater  part  goes  into  the  cinder. 
Sulphur  is  found  in  many  ores,  either  in  the 
form  of  sulphuric  acid  or  as  iron  pyrites.  Ac 
cording  to  the  conditions  of  the  smelting,  the 
sulphur  may  enter  either  the  iron  or  the  cinder. 
Phosphorus,  in  the  form  of  phosphoric  acid,  is 
present  in  most  iron  ores,  either  combined  with 
the  oxide  of  iron,  or  mechanically  disseminated 
as  apatite  (calcic  phosphate).  It  is  the  most 
dreaded  of  all  the  impurities  of  iron  ores,  since 
no  method  has  been  discovered  of  eliminating 
it  in  tlifi  blast  furnace  ;  nearly  the  total  amount 


of  phosphorus  in  the  ore  goes  into  the  iron. 
Titanium,  as  titanic  acid,  is  present  in  many 
ores,  especially  magnetites.  It  renders  the  ores 
very  difficult  to  smelt  in  the  blast  furnace ;  it 
is  generally  mainly  removed  in  the  cinder,  but 
occasionally  some  of  it  unites  with  the  pig  iron. 
Chromium  in  small  amount  is  not  an  unusual 
ingredient  of  iron  ores ;  on  smelting  it  prob 
ably  passes  mainly  into  the  pig  iron.  Zinc  is 
very  commonly  present  in  minute  amounts ; 
it  is  completely  volatilized,  and  forms  incrus 
tations  of  white  oxide  around  the  furnaces.  A 
brief  description  of  the  leading  varieties  of  iron 
ore  deposits,  and  their  distribution,  particular 
ly  in  the  United  States,  is  all  that  will  be 
attempted  in  this  article. — 1.  Hematite.  The 
term  hematite  (Gr.  &//«,  blood)  is  properly  ap 
plied  to  the  sesquioxide  only,  since  this  has 
a  red  powder  ;  but  Theophrastns  speaks  of 
di/LtaTiTiK  gavOr/,  or  yellow  hematite — probably 
an  ochreous  limonite.  The  ferric  or  sesquioxide 
occurs  in  several  varieties.  The  specular  ore  has 
a  crystalline  structure,  often  forming  beautiful 
splendent  rhombohedral  crystals.  The  famous 
mines  on  the  island  of  Elba,  worked  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  furnish  this  va 
riety  in  great  purity.  Sometimes  the  structure 
is  foliated  or  micaceous,  giving  the  ore  a  greasy 
appearance  and  feel ;  it  is  then  called  micaceous 
hematite.  The  more  common  varieties  are  the 
compact,  columnar,  and  fibrous.  It  occurs  also 
in  concretions  or  botrvoidal  masses.  Its  color 


IRON  ORES 


407 


is  brownish  red  to  iron  black  (red  hematite). 
Occasionally  it  is  earthy  in  character  (red  ochre). 
An  argillaceous  variety  is  known  as  clay  iron 
stone,  or  argillaceous  hematite.  It  is  also  often 
oolitic  in  character.  All  the  varieties  have  the 
red  streak  in  common.  Hematite  is  found  with 
the  iron  partially  replaced  by  titanium,  giving 
rise  to  various  mineral  species,  such  as  mena- 
cannite  and  ilmenite.  They  have  the  general 
formula  (Ti,  Fe,  Mu,  Mg)aO8,  and  contain  from 
3*5  to  59  per  cent,  of  titanic  acid.  The  hema 
tite  ores  are  as  a  rule  of  great  purity,  and  from 
them  is  made  a  large  proportion  of  the  finer 
varieties  of  iron  and  steel.  Nearly  all  the  Bes 
semer  pig  iron  in  England  and  America  is  made 
from  red  hematite.  "  It  occurs  in  rocks  of  all 
ages.  The  specular  variety  is  mostly  confined 
to  crystalline  or  metamorphic  rocks,  but  is 
also  a  result  of  igneous  action  about  some  vol 
canoes,  as  at  Vesuvius.  Many  of  the  geological 
formations  contain  the  argillaceous  variety  or 
clay  ironstone,  which  is  mostly  a  marsh  for 
mation,  or  the  deposit  over  the  bottom  of  shal 
low,  stagnant  water ;  but  this  kind  of  clay  iron 
stone  (that  giving  a  red  powder)  is  less  com 
mon  than  the  corresponding  variety  of  limon- 
ite  or  siderite.  The  bods  that  occur  in  meta 
morphic  rocks  are  sometimes  of  very  great 
thickness,  and,  like  those  of  magnetite  in  the 
same  situation,  have  resulted  from  the  altera 
tion  of  stratified  beds  of  ore,  originally  of  marsh 
origin,  which  were  formed  at  the  same  time 
with  the  enclosing  rocks,  and  underwent  meta- 
morphism,  or  a  change  to  the  crystalline  con 
dition,  at  the  same  time."  (Dana.)  The  hema 
tite  ores  are  widely  distributed.  Immense 
beds  occur  in  Chili,  and  it  is  said  in  other  South 
American  states.  The  mines  of  Norway,  Swe 
den,  Lorraine,  Switzerland,  Saxony,  Bohemia, 
and  the  Ilartz  also  contain  this  ore.  Unusually 
pure  varieties  are  found  in  the  mountain  lime 
stone  of  the  carboniferous  system  in  Cumber 
land  and  North  Lancashire,  England ;  and  re 
markably  fine  fibrous  hematite  is  mined  in 
AY  ales.  At  Bona,  Algeria,  there  are  extensive 
deposits  of  pure  hematite,  which  is  exported 
to  France,  England,  and  the  United  States  for 
the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  steel.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  immense  deposits  of 
specular  ore  in  the  azoic  rocks  of  the  Mar- 
quette  region,  south  of  Lake  Superior.  These 
deposits  probably  consist  chiefly  of  martite, 
which  is  sesquioxide  of  iron  crystallizing  in 
isometric  forms,  and  supposed  to  be  pseudo- 
morphous  after  magnetite.  According  to  this 
hypothesis,  the  Marquette  ore  beds  were  once 
all  magnetite  in  composition,  and  have  been 
changed  to  sesquioxide  by  the  addition  of 
oxygen.  Some  of  these  deposits  present  mass 
es  of  absolutely  pure  ferric  oxide;  the  major 
ity,  however,  are  more  or  less  silicious,  contain 
ing  streaks  and  masses  of  jasper.  The  amount 
of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  is  small,  and  the 
ores  are  consequently  well  adapted  for  the 
manufacture  of  steel.  They  furnish  a  large 
proportion  of  the  Bessemer  pig  iron  of  the 


United  States.  Missouri,  which  is  one  of  the 
richest  states  in  iron  ores  on  the  North  Ameri 
can  continent,  contains  specular  ore  in  por 
phyry  and  in  sandstone,  as  well  as  in  dis 
turbed  and  drifted  deposits,  and  also  strata  and 
drifted  deposits  of  compact  and  earthy  red 
hematites,  supposed  to  be  in  many  cases  the 
product  of  an  alteration  of  the  specular  ores. 
The  most  famous  deposits  are  those  of  Iron 
mountain  and  Pilot  Knob.  At  Iron  mountain, 
which  is  the  largest  ore  deposit  in  Missouri,  a 
hill  of  decomposed  porphyry  250  ft.  high  is 
traversed  by  numerous  ore  seams,  and  cut  in 
two  by  an  enormous  vein  of  specular  ore  from 
40  to  60  ft.  thick,  besides  being  covered  with 
surface  ore  in  rounded  bowlders  and  fragments 
of  variable  size,  in  a  stratum  usually  from  1  to 
5  ft.  thick.  At  Pilot  Knob  the  ore  is  not  in 
veins,  but  forms  a  regular  bed  in  the  porphyry 
of  blue  conglomerate.  Shepherd  mountain, 
Cedar  hill,  and  other  localities  show  similar 
deposits.  The  Missouri  specular  deposits  in 
sandstone  belong  to  the  lower  Silurian  forma 
tion,  and  seem  to  have  been  originally  formed 
in  lenticular  shape.  The  red  hematites  of  the 
carboniferous  formation  of  Missouri  extend 
over  large  areas,  as  beds  impregnating  or  re 
placing  the  ferruginous  sandstone.  All  the 
Missouri  specular  iron  is  more  or  less  magnetic, 
and  in  some  cases  it  possesses  polarity.  Specu 
lar  ores  and  massive  or  earthy  and  oolitic  red 
hematites  occur  in  the  great  azoic  region  of 
northern  New  York,  in  St.  Lawrence,  Clinton, 
and  other  counties.  The  Sterling,  Parish,  and 
other  mines  are  famous.  The  Rossie  hematites 
are  now  brought  in  considerable  quantity  to 
the  Hudson  river,  for  smelting  with  the  mag 
netites  of  Lake  Champlain.  It  is  said  that 
these  hematites  are  so  nearly  pure  as  to  per 
mit  the  use  of  a  considerable  portion  of  them, 
in  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  pig.  In  North 
and  South  Carolina  a  micaceous  ferric  oxide 
in  schistose  rocks,  called  itabiryte  or  specular 
schist,  occurs.  It  is  found  also  in  great  beds 
in  Canada.  In  some  parts  it  is  a  rich  ore  of 
iron,  and  in  others  passes  into  ordinary  chlo- 
ritic  schists.  The  Laurentian  system  in  Can 
ada  contains  beds  of  hematites,  or  oligist  iron 
ore,  in  large  irregular  masses,  as  on  Lake  Ni- 
pissing,  arranged  in  the  planes  of  stratification. 
Similar  ore  occurs  in  small  beds  in  the  Pots 
dam  sandstone.  Specular  ores  occur  in  Mary 
land,  Virginia,  and  other  southern  states,  but 
do  not  yet  constitute  so  important  a  source  of 
iron  production  as  the  brown  hematites,  mag 
netites,  and  argillaceous  carbonates.  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire  also  present  red  hematite 
deposits,  the  largest  of  which  is  on  the  Aroos- 
i  took  river  in  the  former  state.  The  finest  iron 
i  ore  of  this  variety  yet  discovered  west  of  the 
I  Missouri  river  is  the  deposit  of  red  hematite 
j  near  Rawlins,  Wyoming  territory.  It  is  mas- 
j  sive  and  very  pure,  and  has  been  mined  to  a 
;  considerable  extent  and  shipped  to  Salt  Lake, 
1  where  it  has  been  charged  in  the  lead-smelt- 
i  ing  furnaces,  as  a  fiux  for  the  production  of 


408 


IRON  ORES 


an  iron  slag. — 2.  Hydrous  or  Brown  Hematite 
(brown  ore,  bog  ore,  ochre,  lake  ore,  marsh 
ore).  The  brown  hematites  belong  to  the  most 
recent  iron  formations,  and  occur  in  great 
abundance.  They  constitute  a  series,  in  which 
the  physical  characters  vary  as  the  proportion 
of  water  diminishes,  passing  from  earthy  va 
rieties  having  a  yellowish  streak  to  compact 
masses,  with  brown  streak  inclining  to  red. 
Turgite,  which  has  the  lowest  amount  of  wa 
ter,  and  is  therefore  nearest  to  red  hematite, 
has  already  a  red  streak.  The  usual  condi 
tion  of  hydration  is  that  of  limonite,  which  • 
may  be  regarded  as  the  typical  brown  hema 
tite.  The  other  varieties  enumerated  are  ex 
ceptional.  This  ore  occurs  in  a  great  variety 
of  conditions,  as  earthy  or  ochreous  masses,  or 
in  concretionary,  stalactitic,  or  hard,  compact, 
mammillary,  and  botryoidal  aggregations.  It 
has  often  a  distinct  f ossiliferous  character,  and 
is  associated  with  vegetable  and  animal  re 
mains.  All  the  varieties  yield  water  when 
heated,  and  all  except  turgite  give  a  yellowish 
or  brownish  streak.  Brown  hematites  differ 
widely  as  regards  purity.  Usually  they  contain 
considerable  silica  and  phosphoric  and  some 
times  sulphuric  acid,  and  are  consequently 
rarely  employed  exclusively  for  the  finer  vari 
eties  of  iron  and  steel.  They  however  supply 
a  large  proportion  of  the  iron  that  is  used  for 
castings.  "  Limonite  occurs  in  secondary  or 
more  recent  deposits,  in  beds  associated  at 
times  with  barite,  siderite,  calcite,  aragonite, 
and  quartz,  and  often  with  ores  of  manganese ; 
also  as  a  modern  marsh  deposit.  It  is  in  all 
cases  a  result  of  the  alteration  of  other  ores, 
through  exposure  to  moisture,  air,  and  carbon 
ic  or  organic  acids,  and  is  derived  largely  from 
the  change  of  pyrite,  siderite,  magnetite,  and 
various  mineral  species  (such  as  mica,  horn 
blende,  and  augite),  which  contain  iron  in  the 
protoxide  state.  It  consequently  occupies,  as 
a  bog  ore,  marshy  places  over  most  countries 
of  the  globe,  into  which  it  has  been  borne  by 
streamlets  from  the  hills  around;  and  in  the 
more  compact  form  it  occurs  in  stalactites  as 
well  as  in  tuberose  and  other  concretionary 
forms,  frequently  making  beds  in  the  rocks 
which  contain  the  minerals  that  have  been  al 
tered  into  it.  In  moist  places,  where  a  slug 
gish  streamlet  flows  into  a  marsh  or  pool,  a 
rust-yellow  or  brownish  yellow  deposit  often 
covers  the  bottom,  and  an  iridescent  film  the 
surface  of  the  water  ;  the  deposit  is  a  growing 
bed  of  bog  ore.  The  iron  is  transported  in 
solution  as  a  protoxide  carbonate  in  carbonated 
waters,  a  sulphate,  or  as  a  salt  of  an  organic 
acid.  The  limonite  beds  of  the  Green  moun 
tain  region  were  shown  by  Percival  to  be  al 
tered  beds  of  pyritiferous  micaceous  and  argil 
laceous  schist ;  and  the  same  is  held  by  Lesley 
as  true  also  of  the  other  beds  of  the  Atlantic 
border,  from  New  England  and  New  York, 
through  Pennsylvania  (Mt.  Alto  region  and 
others),  to  Tennessee  and  Alabama."  (Dana.) 
Brown  hematite  is  the  most  universally  dif 


fused  of  all  the  ores  of  iron,  and  furnishes  a 
large  proportion  of  the  iron  of  the  world.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  distributed  very  widely 
and  abundantly.  Large  deposits  occur  in  New 
England,  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Salisbury  and  Kent,  Conn.,  and  in  Columbia 
and  Dutchess  counties,  N.  Y.  The  ores  of 
these  deposits  are  highly  prized.  Similar  de 
posits  of  limonite  are  traced  in  a  zone  extend 
ing  from  the  Hudson  river  to  Alabama,  along 
the  line  of  the  north  flank  of  the  South  moun 
tain,  Blue  Ridge,  and  Smoky  mountain  range, 
and  also  in  the  lower  Silurian  limestone  val 
leys  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  Nittany 
valley,  Kishicoquilis,  &c. ;  and  again,  under 
similar  geological  conditions,  in  East  Tennes 
see,  where  the  deposits  near  Embreeville  are 
estimated  by  Lesley,  Maynard,  and  others  to 
contain  many  millions  of  tons  of  excellent 
ore.  Western  North  Carolina  and  northwest 
ern  Georgia  contain  portions  of  the  same 
zone,  which  ends  in  the  magnificent  deposits 
of  Alabama.  The  siderite  clay  ironstones  of 
the  carboniferous  and  other  rocks  frequent 
ly  furnish  by  oxidation  deposits  of  brown  he 
matite.  This  is  the  case  particularly  near  the 
outcrop,  but  sometimes  also  throughout  large 
deposits.  The  lignites  of  New  Mexico,  Colo 
rado,  and  Montana  are  accompanied  by  ores 
of  this  character.  The  same  is  the  case  in  the 
Appalachian  region,  for  instance  at  Brady's 
Bend,  Pennsylvania,  in  West  Virginia,  and 
elsewhere,  and  among  the  carboniferous  iron 
ore  deposits  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  &c. 
Large  deposits  of  limonite  occur  in  dolomite, 
associated  with  zinc  ores,  in  Arkansas.  Texas 
is  also  abundantly  supplied  with  this  ore. 
Brown  hematite  (bog  ore  and  ochre)  is  found 
in  large  quantities  in  Canada,  particularly 
in  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  where  it  overlies 
superficial  deposits  of  clay  arid  sand.  The  dis 
tribution  of  brown  iron  ores  in  other  countries 
is  so  nearly  universal  that  the  localities  need 
not  be  named.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the 
extensive  deposits  of  Styria  and  Carinthia  in 
Austria,  and  of  Nassau  on  the  Rhine,  are  cele 
brated  for  their  purity  and  freedom  from 
phosphorus — an  element  which,  by  reason  of 
the  usual  organic  origin  of  such  deposits,  is 
most  likely  to  be  found  in  them.  The  univer 
sality  of  this  ore  naturally  follows  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  ultimate  result  of  the  chemi 
cal  metamorphosis  of  all  other  kinds  of  iron 
ore ;  so  that  wherever  any  ore  of  iron  is  ex 
posed  to  oxidizing  agencies  and  moisture,  some 
form  of  limonite  or  hydrated  ferric  oxide  of 
iron  is  certain  to  occur.  The  term  limonite  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  /£j//wv,  moist  grassy 
land,  and  refers  to  that  variety  which  is  known 
as  bog  ore  or  marsh  ore.  Famous  ochreous 
deposits  occur  at  Brandon,  Vt.  At  Pointe  du 
Lac  and  St.  Ann,  Montmorenci,  Canada,  are 
remarkable  localities  of  the  ochre,  and  at  the 
latter  place  it  is  seen  in  the  process  of  forma 
tion.  The  deposit  varies  from  4  to  IT  ft.  in 
thickness,  and  covers  an  area  of  four  acres. — 


IRON"  ORES 


409 


3.  Spathic  Ore,  or  Siderite.  This  ore  is  never 
found  as  pure  ferrous  carbonate,  part  of  the 
iron  being  invariably  replaced  by  manganese, 
liine,  or  magnesia.  The  percentage  of  iron 
given  in  the  table  above  is  therefore  theoreti 
cal,  and  is  never  perfectly  attained.  The  ore 
is  found  crystallized,  massive,  and  concretion 
ary  ;  in  the  latter  form  it  is  called  sphteroside- 
rite.  It  is  for  many  purposes  the  most  valu 
able  ore  of  iron,  owing  to  its  general  freedom 
from  injurious  ingredients,  its  easy  reduci- 
bility,  and  the  presence  of  manganese  (from  1 
to  10  per  cent,  of  oxide,  exceptionally  as  high 
as  25  per  cent.),  which  always  enhances  its 
value.  It  is  not  very  extensively  distributed  in 
nature,  but  a  few  localities  contain  it  in  large 
deposits.  It  is  almost  the  only  material  used 
in  the  preparation  of  spiegeleisen.  (See  IROX.) 
Ferrous  carbonate  also  forms  the  basis  of  the 
carboniferous  blackband  ores,  and  of  most 
of  the  clay  ironstones,  which  are  very  exten 
sively  distributed.  The  ferrous  carbonate  is  in 
these  ores  intimately  associated  with  argilla 
ceous,  silicious,  and  often  carbonaceous  matter. 
It  frequently  contains  also  sulphur  as  iron 
pyrites,  and  phosphorus  as  calcic  phosphate. 
These  ores  are  therefore  much  less  pure  than 
the  spathic  ore  properly  so  called,  and  yield 
irons  of  a  much  inferior  character.  The  car 
bonated  ores,  when  heated,  lose  their  carbonic 
acid,  and  their  ferrous  oxide  is  converted  into 
magnetic  oxide.  They  are  always  calcined  be 
fore  smelting.  The  carboniferous  blackbands 
contain  usually  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  and  may  be  roasted  without  the  addi 
tion  of  fuel.  On  roasting  they  lose  half 
their  weight.  Spathic  ore  becomes  brown  or 
brownish  black  on  exposure,  owing  to  a  per- 
oxidatiou  of  the  iron  and  its  passing  into 
limonite ;  and  by  a  subsequent  loss  of  water  it 
may  pass  into  red  hematite.  The  occurrence 
of  spathic  ore  is  limited  principally  to  the 
crystalline  slates  and  the  older  sedimentary 
rocks,  the  most  extensive  and  characteristic 
deposits  being  in  the  Devonian  formation. 
The  most  noted  localities  are  Siegen,  Rhenish 
Prussia ;  Kamsdorf  and  Stahlberg  in  Thurin- 
gia;  Osnabruck  in  Westphalia;  the  Erzberg 
near  Eisenerz  in  Styria,  in  the  Devonian ;  and 
the  Erzberg  near  Iliittenberg  in  Carinthia. 
England  has  also  deposits  in  the  Brendon 
hills  in  Somersetshire,  and  at  Exmoor,  South 
Moulton,  and  Walscott  in  Devonshire ;  also  at 
Weerdale,  Durham.  A  remarkable  series  of 
deposits  of  impure  or  earthy  carbonate  is  found 
in  the  different  members  of  the  lias  formation 
in  the  Cleveland  hills,  Xorth  riding  of  York 
shire,  England.  The  main  deposit  is  in  the  mid 
dle  lias,  showing  a  workable  seam  from  8  to  13 
ft.  thick;  it  is  believed  to  extend  throughout  the 
whole  of  Cleveland  proper.  In  this  region  of 
England  the  manufacture  of  iron  has  readied 
a  higher  stage  of  development  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  The  principal  deposit 
of  siderite  in  the  United  States  is  at  Roxbury, 
Conn.,  in  a  vein  of  quartz,  traversing  gneiss. 


The  clay  ironstones  are  met  with  in  both  the 
carboniferous  and  tertiary  (brown  coal)  forma 
tions.  In  England,  Scotland,  Westphalia,  and 
other  regions,  the  blackband  ore  (carbonaceous 
carbonate)  forms  the  basis  of  an  extensive  in 
dustry.  This  ore,  as  found  in  Westphalia,  con 
tains  an  extraordinary  amount  of  phosphoric 
acid,  in  some  layers  as  much  as  30  to  60  per 
cent.,  and  in  others  20  to  25  per  cent.  The 
blackband  ores  are  of  subordinate  importance 
in  the  United  States,  though  they  have  been 
found  in  the  coal  regions  of  western  Pennsyl 
vania.  Earthy  carbonates  occur  extensively 
in  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  &c. — i. 
Magnetite.  Magnetic  iron  ore  occurs  generally 
in  large  masses,  but  with  distinctly  crystalline 
structure.  It  also  occurs  in  the  form  of  sand, 
concentrated  by  fiuviatile  or  tidal  action  from 
the  debris  of  rocks  containing  it.  It  is  readily 
recognized  by  its  black  color  and  streak,  and  by 
its  being  attracted  by  the  magnet.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Thessalian  district  of  Mag 
nesia,  bordering  on  Macedonia,  or,  according 
to  Pliny,  from  Magnes,  who  first  discovered  it. 
There  is  a  magnesian  variety  in  which  part  of 
the  ferrous  oxide  is  replaced  by  magnesia,  and 
a  titaniferous  variety  in  which  a  part  of  the 
iron  is  replaced  by  titanium.  This  variety 
bears  the  same  relation  to  magnetite  as  iserine 
to  hematite.  The  amount  of  titanic  acid  varies 
through  wide  limits.  Magnetic  ore  is  often 
found  in  a  state  of  almost  absolute  purity ;  more 
generally  it  is  associated  with  apatite  (calcic 
phosphate),  iron  pyrites  and  other  sulphides, 
quartz,  and  earthy  ingredients.  It  supplies  a 
large  amount  of  the  finest  iron  and  steel  of  com 
merce.  The  iron  industry  of  Sweden  is  based 
almostly  entirely  on  magnetic  ores.  "  Magne 
tite  is  mostly  confined  to  crystalline  rocks,  and 
is  most  abundant  in  metamorphic  rocks,  though 
found  also  in  grains  in  eruptive  rocks.  In  the 
azoic  system,  the  beds  are  of  immense  extent, 
and  occur  under  the  same  conditions  as  those 
of  hematite.  It  is  an  ingredient  of  most  of 
the  massive  variety  of  corundum  called  emery. 
By  deoxidation  through  organic  matter  it  is 
changed  to  protoxide,  which  may  become  a 
carbonate ;  by  oxidation  it  becomes  hematite." 
(Dana.)  The  principal  European  occurrences 
of  magnetic  ore  are  at  Arendal  in  Norway; 
Dalarne,  Westmanland,  Wermland,  Dannemora, 
Uto,  and  Smaland  in  Sweden  ;  in  Finland,  and 
in  the  Ural.  In  the  United  States  there  are 
are  vast  beds  in  the  azoic  of  the  Adirondack 
region,  Warren,  Essex,  and  Clinton  counties, 
in  northern  New  York ;  also  in  northern  New 
Jersey,  in  Morris,  Sussex,  Warren,  and  Passaic 
counties,  where  it  is  found  in  beds  conform 
able  with  the  azoic  gneiss,  and  also  intimately 
disseminated  in  the  gneissic  strata.  In  eastern 
Pennsylvania  there  are  several  localities,  the 
most  noted  being  Cornwall  in  Lebanon  co.  In 
Canada  it  is  found  at  Hull,  Grenville,  Madoc, 
&c.  In  North  Carolina,  at  Greensboro,  there  is 
an  extensive  titaniferous  belt  of  magnetites. 
Large  deposits  are  known  in  Sierra  co.,  Call- 


410 


IKON  ORES 


forma,  and  in  Oregon. — 5.  FranTclinite.  This 
is  an  ore  analogous  in  composition  to  magne 
tite,  but  part  of  the  iron  is  replaced  by  man 
ganese  and  zinc.  Its  formula  is  (Fe,  Mn, 
Zn)O,  (Fe,  Mn)aO8.  It  crystallizes  in  the  iso 
metric  system ;  specific  gravity  about  5  ;  hard 
ness  5 '5  to  6*5  ;  streak  dark  reddish  brown. 
It  contains  about  46  per  cent,  of  iron,  17  of 
manganese,  and  13'5  of  zinc.  It  occurs  at 
Franklin  furnace  and  Stirling  Hill,  1ST.  J.  It 
is  first  treated  to  extract  the  zinc,  and  the  resi 
dues  are  then  smelted  for  spiegeleisen. — The 
reducibility  of  iron  ores  depends  more  on  their 
molecular  structure  than  their  chemical  compo 
sition.  While  the  natural  magnetites  are  classed 
with  the  more  refractory  ores,  owing  to  their 
dense  structure,  the  magnetic  oxide  resulting 
from  the  roasting  of  spathic  ore  is  reduced 
with  ease.  The  same  contrast  is  noticed  be 
tween  the  anhydrous  and  hydrous  hematites. — 
The  distribution  of  the  iron  ores  of  the  United 
States,  with  relation  to  the  resources  of  the 
country  in  mineral  fuel,  has  been  well  stated 
in  the  ''Report  on  Iron  and  Steel"  of  Mr. 
Abram  S.  Hewitt,  United  States  commissioner 
to  the  Paris  exposition  of  1867,  as  follows: 
"  The  position  of  the  coal  measures  of  the  Uni 
ted  States  suggests  the  idea  of  a  gigantic  bowl 
filled  with  treasure,  the  outer  rim  of  which 
skirts  along  the  Atlantic  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  thence  returning  by  the  plains  which  lie 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  mountains, 
passes  by  the  great  lakes  to  the  place  of  begin 
ning,  on  the  borders  of  Pennsylvania  and  New 
York.  The  rim  of  this  basin  is  filled  with  ex- 
haustless  stores  of  iron  ore  of  every  variety, 
and  of  the  best  quality.  In  seeking  the  natural 
channels  of  water  communication,  whether  on 
the  north,  east,  south,  or  west,  the  coal  must 
cut  this  metalliferous  rim,  and  in  turn  the  iron 
ores  may  be  carried  back  to  the  coal,  to  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  the  carboniferous 
ores,  which  are  quite  as  abundant  in  the  United 
States  as  they  are  in  England,  but  hitherto 
have  been  left  unwrought,  in  consequence  of 
the  cheaper  rate  of  procuring  the  richer  ores 
from  the  rim  of  the  basin.  Along  the  Atlantic 
slope,  in  the  highland  range  from  the  borders 
of  the  Hudson  river  to  the  state  of  Georgia,  a 
distance  of  1,000  miles,  is  found  the  great  mag 
netic  range,  traversing  seven  entire  states  in 
its  length  and  course.  Parallel  with  this,  in 
the  great  limestone  valley,  which  lies  along  the 
margin  of  the  coal  field, "are  the  brown  hema 
tites,  in  such  quantities  at  some  points,  espe 
cially  in  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama,  as 
fairly  to  stagger  the  imagination.  And  finally, 
in  the  coal  basin  is  a  stratum  of  fossiliferous 
ore,  beginning  in  a  comparatively  thin  seam  in 
the  state  of  New  York,  and  terminating  in  the 
state  of  Alabama,  in  a  bed  of  15  feet  in  thick 
ness,  over  which  the  horseman  may  ride  for 
more  than  100  miles.  Beneath  this  bed,  but 
still  above  water  level,  are  to  be  found  the  coal 
seams,  exposed  upon  mountain  sides,  whose 
flanks  are  covered  with  magnificent  timber, 


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IRON  ORES 


IRONS 


411 


available  cither  for  mining  purposes  or  the 
manufacture  of  charcoal  iron.  Passing  west 
ward,  in  Arkansas  and  Missouri  is  reached  that 
wonderful  range  of  red  oxide  of  iron,  which, 
in  mountains  rising  hundreds  of  feet  above 
the  surface,  or  in  beds  beneath  the  soil,  culmi 
nates  at  L:ike  Superior  in  deposits  of  ore  which 
excite  the  wonder  of  all  beholders  ;  and  return 
ing  thence  to  the  Atlantic  slope,  in  the  Adi- 
rondacks  of  New  York,  is  a  vast  undeveloped 
region,  watered  by  rivers  whose  beds  are  of 
iron,  and  traversed  by  mountains  whose  foun 
dations  are  laid  upon  the  same  material ;  while 
in  and  among  the  coal  beds  themselves  are 
found  scattered  deposits  of  hematite  and  fos- 
siliferous  ores,  which,  by  their  close  proximity 
to  the  coal,  have  inaugurated  the  iron  industry 
of  our  day.  From  these  vast  treasures  the 
world  may  draw  its  supply  for  centuries  to 
come,  and  with  these  the  inquirer  may  rest  con 
tented,  without  further  question;  for  all  the 
coal  of  the  rest  of  the  world  might  be  deposit 
ed  within  this  iron  rim,  and  its  square  miles 
would  not  occupy  one  quarter  of  the  coal  area 
of  the  United  States." — The  table  on  the  pre 
ceding  page  gives  analyses  of  various  ores  from 
different  localities,  indicated  by  numbers  as  fol 
lows:  A..  Hematites.  1.  Whitehaven,  Cumber 
land,  England.  2.  Iron  mountain,  Missouri; 
specular  ore  from  vein.  (The  phosphoric  acid  is 
the  average  of  four  determinations  in  as  many 
samples,  varying  from  0*252  to  O'OSl  per  cent.) 
3.  Pilot  Knob,  Missouri ;  specular  ore  from 
main  ore  bed.  B.  Hydrous  Hematites.  4.  Lake 
ore,  Sweden.  (Phosphoric  acid  varies  from 
0-051  to  1-213  per  cent)  5.  Katahdin  furnace, 
Piscataquis  co.,  Me.,  resulting  from  the  decom 
position  of  iron  pyrites.  6,  Silicious  ore,  York 
co.,  Pa.  7.  Pennsylvania  furnace  ore-bank, 
Centre  co.,  Pa,  C.  Carbonates.  I.  Spathic  ore. 
8.  Miisner  Stahlberg,  Prussia.  9.  Calcined 
spathic  ore  from  Altenberg,  Styria,  used  for 
Bessemer  process  at  Neuberg.  10.  Brendon 
hill,  Somersetshire,  England.  II.  Earthy  car 
bonates.  11.  Gubbin  ironstone,  Dudley,  S.  Staf 
fordshire,  England.  12.  Sphrerosiderite  from 
Ahaus,  Prussia.  13.  Eston,  Cleveland,  Eng 
land;  main  seam.  14.  Carbonate  ore  from 
Fayette  co.,  Pa.  III.  Blackband.  15.  Shel- 
ton,  X.  Staffordshire,  England.  Ifi.  West- 
phalian  blackband,  low  grade.  17.  Best  West- 
phalian,  roasted.  D.  Magnetites.  18.  Danne- 
mora  ore,  Sweden.  19.  Granrot  ore,  Sweden. 
20.  Lake  Champlain,  "new  bed"  ore,  unusual 
ly  free  from  apatite.  21.  A  sample  from  New 
Hope  mine,  Morris  co.,  N.  J.  (The  ores  in 
northern  New  Jersey  are  very  variable  in  re 
gard  to  silica  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  for 
mer  varies  from  2  to  40  per  cent.,  the  latter 
from  0  to  3  per  cent.  Low  percentages  of  both 
silica  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  freedom  from 
sulphur,  are  usual.)  22.  Titaniferous,  from  I 
Greensboro,  N.  C.  The  following  table  shows  j 
the  amount  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  con-  I 
tained  in  most  of  the  Swedish  and  in  some  of 
the  Prussian  ores : 


LOCALITIES  AND  ORES. 

Sulphur, 
per  cent. 

Pliosplio- 
rus,  per  ct. 

Eastelp,  Sweden,  magnetite  

O'Oll 

0-0006 

Pershyttan,  "               •'        

O'OOT 

0'0130 

Lerberg,         "                '' 

trace. 

0'0013 

Manias,         "               "        

0  '  0070 

Hillfmg,         "               "        

6:02 

O'OOoO 

Prague,    Byberg,    and    Nyberg,    Sweden, 

magnetite 

0  •  QSl 

0'0170 

Fiirola,   Sweden,  magnetite 

O'OG 

O'OIOO 

Nartorp,        "               "        

0-07 

o-oioo 

Stenebo,      '   "               "        

0-09 

0-0300 

Danuemora,  "               "         

0-037 

0-0060 

Near  Wiesbaden,  Prussia,  red  hematite.  .  .  . 

trace. 

0-310 

•     Coblentz,           k       

« 

0-210 

"       brown  "       ...  . 

0-03 

0-150 

"     "Wiesbaden,       "            '•       " 

trace. 

0-210 

Limburg,                    "        spathic  ore  ... 

0-60 

0-017 

Oberlahn,                   " 

0-32 

0-012 

Werbenbach,              "             "        ll    
Westphalia,                "       blackband  

0-564 
0-020 

o-oio 

0-360 

Ehine  Province,          "        brown  hematite. 

0-OUO 

Westphalia, 

0-042 

— Treatment  of  Ores.  Iron  ores  are  generally 
used  in  the  blast  furnace  in  the  condition  in 
which  they  are  mined,  but  sometimes  they 
are  submitted  to  a  preliminary  treatment.  The 
carbonate  ores  are  invariably  roasted  before 
smelting.  This  drives  off  the  carbonic  acid; 
the  ferrous  is  converted  into  magnetic  oxide; 
and  the  ore  is  rendered  not  only  richer  but 
much  more  porous,  and  thereby  more  readily 
reduced.  Ores  containing  much  sulphur  are 
also  roasted  with  access  of  air,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  sulphur  is  driven  off  as  sulphurous 
acid.  Heavy  compact  ores  are  occasionally 
roasted  to  render  them  friable.  Roasting  may 
be  effected  in  open  heaps  or  within  brick  walls 
by  piling  the  ore  and  fuel  (wood  or  brush)  in 
layers,  and  allowing  it  to  burn  out.  This 
method  is  far  less  thorough  and  efficient  than 
roasting  in  shaft  furnaces.  In  the  latter  case 
the  fuel  (small  coal)  and  ore  may  be  charged 
alternately,  or  gas  (from  the  blast  furnace  or 
suitable  generators)  may  be  used.  The  opera 
tion  is  continuous.  Brown  hematites  often 
occur  mixed  largely  with  clay  and  other  earthy 
matters ;  they  are  then  submitted  to  a  dressing 
or  concentrating  process  by  washing,  in  which 
the  lighter  clay  is  washed  off  and  the  heavier 
ore  remains. — Forge  and  mill  cinders,  produced 
in  puddling  and  heating  iron,  are  very  rich  in 
iron,  containing  from  40  to  75  per  cent.  Al 
though,  strictly  speaking,  they  are  not  ores  of 
iron,  yet  they  are  used  for  reduction  in  the 
blast  furnace.  Their  use  in  large  quantity  is 
attended  with  disadvantage,  owing  to  the  fa 
cility  with  which  they  melt  and  escape  reduc 
tion.  Puddling  cinder,  moreover,  contains  the 
greater  part  of  the  impurities  of  the  iron  from 
which  it  is  made,  and  yields  therefore  inferior 
iron.  Roasting  renders  the  cinder  more  infu 
sible,  and  also  effects  a  partial  purification. 

IRONS,  William  Josiali,  an  English  clergyman 
and  author,  born  at  Iloddesden,  Hertfordshire, 
Sept.  12,  1812.  He  graduated  at  Queen's  col 
lege,  Oxford,  in  1833,  was  some  time  a  curate  in 
the  suburbs  of  London,  afterward  vicar  of  Bark- 
way,  Hertfordshire,  and  of  Brompton,  Middle 
sex,  and  in  1860  was  made  prebendary  of  St. 


412 


IRONTON 


IROQUOIS 


Paul's,  London.  In  1870  he  was  chosen  Bamp- 
ton  lecturer,  and  the  same  year  became  rector 
of  Wadingham,  Lincolnshire,  and  rural  dean. 
Dr.  Irons  has  published  a  number  of  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  :  "  The  Whole 
Doctrine  of  Final  Causes"  (1836);  "Parochial 
Lectures"  (three  series,  1887-'47);  "The  The 
ory  of  Development  examined  "  (1846) ;  "  Ser 
mons  for  the  People  "  (2  vols.,  1859) ;  "  The  Bible 
and  its  Interpreters,  its  Miracles  and  Prophe 
cies;"  "The  Idea  of  the  National  Church" 
(1861),  in  the  volume  of  "Replies  to  Essays 
and  Reviews;"  and  "  Christianity  as  taught  by 
St.  Paul"  (Bampton  lectures,  1870). 

IRONTOff,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Law 
rence  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  river,  142  in.  above 
Cincinnati,  and  100  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Columbus; 
pop.  in  1860,  8,691 ;  in  1870,  5,686.  It  is  built 
above  the  highest  floods,  at  the  foot  of  lofty 
hills,  in  the  centre  of  the  "Hanging  Rock" 
iron  region,  embracing  a  portion  of  S.  Ohio 
and  N.  E.  Kentucky,  of  which  it  is  the  princi 
pal  business  point.  Its  iron  trade  amounts  to 
about  $7,000,000  a  year,  and  is  rapidly  increas 
ing.  The  Iron  railroad,  13  m.  long,  connects 
it  with  the  N.  part  of  the  county.  It  is  light 
ed  with  gas,  supplied  with  water  by  the  Holly 
system,  and  contains  four  blast  furnaces,  two 
rolling  mills,  a  nail  factory,  a  machine  shop, 
a  stove  and  hollow  ware  foundery,  two  boiler 
works,  a  hoe  factory,  two  saw  and  planing 
mills,  &  boat-building  establishment,  a  tannery, 
two  breweries,  two  national  banks,  several 
graded  public  schools  including  a  high  school, 
a  tri-weekly,  a  semi-weekly,  and  three  weekly 
(one  German)  newspapers,  and  15  churches. 
Ironton  was  laid  out  in  1849  by  the  Ohio  iron 
and  coal  company,  and  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1865. 

IROQUOIS,  or  Six  Nations,  a  confederation  of 
Indians  formerly  occupying  central  New  York, 
and  exercising  controlling  influence  over  all 
surrounding  tribes.  They  consisted  when  first 
known  to  the  French  of  five  nations :  the  Ag- 
megue  (called  Maquas  or  Mohawks  by  their 
Algonquin  neighbors),  the  Oneidas,  Onondagas, 
Cayugas,  and  Senecas.  Lakes  or  rivers  bearing 
these  names  still  mark  the  places  of  their  resi 
dence.  As  a  league  they  called  themselves  Ho- 
denosaunee  or  Hotinonsionni,  meaning  "  they 
form  a  cabin."  Of  this  cabin  the  fire  was  in  the 
centre  at  Onondaga,  and  the  Mohawk  was  the 
door.  Each  tribe  had  its  name  as  a  collection 
of  individuals,  and  a  symbolical  name  as  a  body 
corporate;  thus  the  Mohawk  tribe  was  the 
She  Bear.  According  to  their  own  tradition, 
they  resided  on  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  down 
as  Gaspe,  but  were  driven  back  south  of  Lake 
Ontario  by  the  Algonquin  tribes.  From  this 
it  may  be  inferred  that  those  found  by  Cartier 
at  Montreal  in  1534  were  really  Iroquois.  Soon 
afterward  the  Susquehannas,  a  kindred  tribe, 
nearly  exterminated  the  Mohawks.  When 
Champlain  began  to  settle  Canada  he  found  the 
Iroquois  at  war  with  all  the  Canada  Indians, 
from  the  Hurons  on  Lake  Huron  to  the  Micmacs 


in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  In  May,  1609, 
Champlain  with  some  Hurons  and  Montagnais 
defeated  an  Iroquois  force  on  Lake  Champlain. 
In  1615  he  joined  the  Hurons  in  an  expedition 
against  a  town  not  far  from  Onondaga.  But 
the  Iroquois  made  a  firm  peace  with  the  Dutch, 
and,  obtaining  firearms,  invaded  Canada  in 
1621.  They  also  made  war  on  the  Mohegans, 
and  killed  the  Dutch  commander  at  Albany, 
who  had  joined  their  enemies.  When  the 
French  recovered  Canada  in  1632  they  found 
the  Iroquois  dominant.  In  1639  they  destroy 
ed  a  town  of  the  Dinondadies ;  in  1642  they 
cut  off  all  communication  between  the  Hurons 
and  the  French,  defeated  a  large  party,  and  cap 
tured  a  Jesuit  missionary.  They  made  peace 
in  1645,  but  renewed  the  war  in  1646,  killing 
Father  Jogues  and  Piskaret,  a  great  Monta 
gnais  chief.  They  then  beset  the  French  and 
their  allies  with  large  forces,  compelling  the 
Hurons  to  abandon  some  towns.  Others  were 
taken  by  storm  in  1648-'9,  and  numbers  of  the 
llurons  perished  with  their  missionaries.  One 
whole  division  of  the  Hurons  submitted  and 
were  incorporated  among  the  Senecas.  The 
Iroquois  then  subdued  the  Dinondadies  and 
the  Neutral  nation.  In  1651  they  nearly  anni 
hilated  the  Attikamegues  and  besieged  Three 
Rivers,  killing  the  French  governor  of  the  town. 
They  then  absorbed  many  of  the  fugitive  Hu 
rons  who  had  taken  refuge  with  the  French ; 
but  being  pressed  by  the  Erics  and  Susquehan 
nas,  they  made  peace  with  the  French,  who 
began  a  settlement  at  Onondaga  in  1655.  They 
also  renewed  their  alliance  with  the  Dutch. 
While  French  missionaries  were  laboring  to 
convert  them,  they  crushed  the  Fries,  Tiogas, 
and  other  tribes,  and  carried  their  operations 
from  the  Abenakis  on  the  east  to  the  Illinois 
on  the  west  and  the  Susquehannas  on  the  south. 
They  soon  made  war  on  the  French  and  defied 
New  England.  Garakonthie,  the  Onondaga 
chief,  restored  peace  with  the  French  in  1665, 
although  the  Mohawks  and  Oneidas  kept  up 
the  war  till  1666,  when  the  French  twice  in 
vaded  the  Mohawk  country.  Then  for  a  time 
French  missions  were  renewed  in  their  coun 
try.  They  subdued  the  Susquehannas  in  1675 
after  a  long  war,  and  attacked  the  Shawnees 
and  Mohegans.  The  English  as  masters  of 
New  York  began  to  use  the  Iroquois  to  carry 
out  their  designs ;  they  sent  them  against  the 
Illinois,  Miamis,  and  Ottawas,  in  order  to  sub 
due  those  tribes  and  control  the  fur  trade. 
The  French  under  De  la  Barre  and  Denonville 
invaded  the  Iroquois  cantons  in  1684  and  1687. 
Though  peace  was  made  in  1688,  the  Iroquois 
the  next  year  attacked  and  destroyed  Lachine  in 
Canada,  killing  200,  which  led  the  French  to  re 
taliate  by  destroying  Schenectady  in  1690.  The 
Iroquois  took  part  in  English  operations  against 
Canada  in  1690  and  1691,  but  the  French  in 
1693  and  1696  ravaged  the  Mohawk  and  Onon 
daga  territory.  This  war  was  very  destructive 
to  the  league,  which  lost  1,500  out  of  2,800 
j  fighting  men,  and  became  averse  to  further 


IROQUOIS 


413 


hostilities.  Their  next  operations  were  against 
southern  tribes,  the  Conoys,  Tuteloes,  Choc- 
taws,  and  Oatawbas ;  but  they  took  in  the  kin 
dred  Tuscaroras  as  a  sixth  nation,  though  with 
out  sachems.  The  French  gave  up  all  claim  to 
the  Iroquois  in  1713,  gathering  their  converts 
in  villages  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  where  they 
still  exist  at  Caughnawaga,  Lake  of  the  Two 
Mountains,  and  St.  Regis.  In  the  wars  between 
England  and  France,  which  deprived  the  latter 
of  Canada,  the  Iroquois  were  generally  neutral, 
although,  influenced  by  Sir  William  Johnson, 
they  joined  in  the  campaign  against  Dieskau, 
in  which  the  Mohawks  lost  their  chief  Ilen- 
drick,  and  also  served  against  Niagara.  Alarm 
ed  at  the  progress  made  by  the  English,  the 
Iroquois  joined  Pontiac  and  slaughtered  many 
of  them  at  Beaver  Creek,  Venango,  Fort  Pitt, 
and  on  the  Niagara.  Johnson  finally  renewed 
treaties  with  them  in  1764  and  1766,  and  in 
1768  by  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix  obtained, 
for  £10,460  7*.  &?.,  a  grant  of  all  lands  not 
within  a  line  which  whites  were  not  to  pass, 
running  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee  to 
the  Delaware.  English  authority  being  now 
supreme,  vigorous  attempts  were  made  to  con 
vert  them  to  Christianity,  the  previous  efforts 
having  met  with  little  success.  The  Episcopal 
church  made  an  enduring  conquest  in  the  Mo 
hawk  tribe.  Yet  the  Iroquois  were  not  all 
peaceful.  A  part  of  the  western  Iroquois  were 
in  arms  in  1774,  and  fought  against  the  whites 
at  the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant,  one  of  the 
fiercest  in  border  history.  When  the  Ameri 
can  revolution  began,  the  Iroquois  led  by  the 
Johnsons  adhered  to  the  crown,  while  the 
French  Iroquois  in  Canada  inclined  to  the 
cause  of  the  United  States.  Led  by  Brant, 
the  Iroquois  defeated  several  parties  of  troops 
and  massacred  the  people  at  Wyoming  and 
Cherry  Valley.  Col.  Butler  retaliated  by  de 
stroying  Unadilla  and  Oghkwaga,  and  Gen. 
Sullivan  in  1779  ravaged  their  western  can 
tons  ;  but  Brant  in  turn  scourged  the  frontiers 
and  punished  the  Oneidas,  who  were  friendly 
to  the  Americans.  The  close  of  the  war  left 
the  Iroquois  at  the  mercy  of  the  exasperated 
Americans,  and  nearly  all  emigrated  except  the 
Oneidas  and  Tuscaroras,  settling  on  Grand  riv 
er,  Canada.  By  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix, 
Oct.  23,  1784,  the  United  States  confirmed  the 
Oneidas  and  Tuscaroras  in  their  lands,  and 
guaranteed  to  the  other  tribes  the  lands  in 
their  actual  possession,  on  their  ceding  to  the 
general  government  all  W.  of  a  line  beginning 
on  Lake  Ontario  at  the  mouth  of  Oyonwayea 
creek,  running  S.  to  the  mouth  of  Buffalo 
creek,  and  thence  to  the  N.  line  of  Pennsylva 
nia,  which  it  followed  W.  and  S.  to  the  Ohio. 
This  was  confirmed  by  the  treaties  of  1789, 
1790,  and  1794.  New  York  in  1785  and  1788 
purchased  the  lands  of  the  Oneidas,  Tuscaroras, 
Onondagas,  and  Cayugas,  except  a  reservation 
for  each.  The  Mohawks  had  removed  to  Cana 
da;  the  Cayugas  broke  up  in  1795,  some  joining 
the  Senecas,  some  going  to  Canada,  and  some 


to  the  west.  In  1826  and  1839  all  the  Seneca 
land  except  the  Tonawanda  reservation  was 
sold,  it  is  asserted,  by  persons  holding  no  power 
in  the  tribe.  In  1840,  430  Oneidas  and  500  Sene 
cas  emigrated  to  Canada.  In  1820  some  Oneidas 
settled  at  Green  bay,  where  they  purchased 
lands.  A  party  of  several  tribes  was  lured 
beyond  the  Missouri  in  1846,  but  nearly  all 
perished.  Some  Senecas  who  had  joined  the 
Shawnees  were  more  fortunate.  The  war  of 
1812  arrayed  the  English  and  American  Iro 
quois  against  each  other ;  but  they  have  since 
been  at  peace. — While  the  league  subsisted,  each 
tribe  was  divided  into  families,  those  of  the 
Bear,  Wolf,  and  Tortoise  in  all  the  tribes,  and 
others  in  some  only.  Each  family  had  certain 
sachemships  hereditary  in  the  female  line. 
These  sachems  formed  the  ruling  body  of  the 
league,  Onondaga  being  the  central  point  or 
council  fire,  and  the  Atotarho  or  Sagochienda- 
guete,  the  head  Onondaga  sachem,  being  the 
chief  of  the  league.  No  one  could  marry  in 
his  own  tribe;  the  children  belonged  to  the 
mother's  tribe.  Their  cosmogony  was  that  of 
the  Hurons,  and  they  worshipped  Agreskoi  by 
offerings  of  flesh,  tobacco,  and  human  sacrifice. 
They  honored  genii  or  spirits,  especially  those 
of  maize,  pumpkins,  and  beans.  After  the  la 
bors  of  the  French  missionaries,  God,  under  the 
name  Niio  (Lieu)  or  Hawenniio  (lie  is  the  mas 
ter),  seems  to  have  been  the  object  of  worship 
among  the  so-called  pagan  party.  They  interred 
the  dead  temporarily,  and  every  tenth  year  col 
lected  all  the  remains  in  one  long  grave  lined 
with  furs,  adding  kettles,  arms,  &c.  Prisoners 
were  either  adopted  or  tortured  and  put  to  death 
at  the  stake.  The  men  wore  a  breech  cloth,  the 
women  a  short  petticoat,  and  both  wore  moc- 
casons,  leggins,  and  in  colder  weather  a  fur 
mantle.  The  houses  were  of  bark  laid  over  an 
arched  arbor-like  frame.  In  their  greatest 
prosperity  they  numbered  not  more  than  15,- 
000,  and  they  are  now,  according  to  the  ofii- 
cial  American  and  Canadian  reports  of  1873, 
13,660,  distributed  as  follows:  7,034  in  Can 
ada,  viz.,  759  Mohawks  on  Quinte  bay,  2,992 
of  the  Six  Nations  on  Grand  river,  633  Onei 
das  on  the  Thames,  1,491  Caughnawagas  at 
Sault  St.  Louis,  911  at  St.  Regis,  and  about  250 
at  the  lake  of  the  Two  Mountains;  6,626  in 
the  United  States,  viz.,  5,141  Senecas,  Ononda 
gas,  Oneidas,  Cayugas,  Tuscaroras,  and  St.  Re 
gis  in  New  York,  1,279  Oneidas  at  Green  bay, 
and  206  Senecas  in  the  Quapaw  agency.  The 
most  eminent  men  of  the  nation  were  Garakon- 
thie,  the  friend  of  the  French,  Dekanisora,  Ta- 
werahe,  Kryn  or  the  Great  Mohawk,  Hendrick, 
Cornplanter,  Farmer's  Brother,  Brant,  Red 
Jacket,  Ganeodiyo,  the  prophet  and  reformer  of 
the  heathen  band,  Dr.  Wilson,  Col.  Ely  S.  Par 
ker,  who  served  on  Grant's  staff  and  became 
commissioner  of  Indian  affairs,  and  Cusick,  a 
Tuscarora,  who  wrote  a  curious  account  of 
early  Iroquois  traditional  history.  The  missions 
of  various  bodies  have  made  most  of  the  Iro 
quois  Christians;  the  Mohawks  and  Oneidas 


414 


IROQUOIS 


IRRIGATION 


are  Episcopalians;  the  villages  near  Montreal 
are  Catholics ;  Baptists,  Congregationalists,  and 
Methodists  have  also  made  converts.  The  lan 


guage  of  the  tribes  was  first  reduced  to  gram 
matical  form  by  the  Jesuit  Bruyas,  who  also 
made  a  dictionary  of  the  "  Radical  Words  of 
the  Mohawk  Language  "  (New  York,  1862) ;  an 
Onondaga  dictionary  by  an  unknown  French 
author  was  printed  in  New  York  in  1860;  and 
a  sketch  of  Iroquois  grammar  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Cuoq  in  his  Etudes  philologiqucs  sur  quelques 
langiies  samages  (Montreal,  1866).  A  very 
full  grammar  and  dictionary  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Marcoux  remains  unpublished.  "The  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  "  has  been  several  times  print 
ed  in  Mohawk,  and  prayer  books  and  devotional 
treatises  in  the  Caughnawaga  dialect ;  and  some 
portions  of  the  Bible  in  Mohawk  and  Seneca. 
— The  special  works  on  the  tribe  are  Cusick's 
"  Sketches  of  Ancient  History  of  the  Six  Na 
tions  "  (Tuscarora,  1826) ;  Colden's  "  History  of 
the  Five  Nations"  (New York,  1727;  reprinted, 
1866;  London,  1747,  1755);  Morgan's  "League 
of  the  Iroquois"  (Rochester,  1851) ;  School- 
craft's  "  Notes  on  the  Iroquois  "  (New  York, 
1846);  "The  Iroquois,  or  the  Bright  Side  of 
Indian  Character,"  by  Minnie  Myrtle  (Anna  C. 
Johnson)  (New  York,  1855);  Stone's  "Life  of 
Brant"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1838,  1864)  and  "Life  of 
Red  Jacket "  (1841,  1866)  ;  and  Williams,  "Life 
of  Tehoraguanegen,  alias  Thomas  Williams" 
(1859). 

IROQUOIS,  an  E.  county  of  Illinois,  bordering 
on  Indiana  and  drained  by  the  Ivankakee  river ; 
area,  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,782.  It  has 
a  level  surface,  much  of  which  is  prairie,  and 
the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  county  is 
traversed  by  the  Chicago  branch  of  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad,  and  by  the  Toledo,  Peoria, 
and  Warsaw,  the  Oilman,  Clinton,  and  Spring 
field,  and  the  Chicago,  Danville,  and  Vincennes 
lines.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  67,- 
640  bushels  of  wheat,  23,250  of  rye,  799,810  of 
Indian  corn,  430,746  of  oats,  27,293  of  flax 
seed,  87,127  of  potatoes,  54,495  Ibs.  of  wool, 
30,194  of  flax,  358.672  of  butter,  and  63,947 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  12,716  horses,  10,- 
345  milch  cows,  21,135  other  cattle,  14,986 
sheep,  and  21,764  swine;  7  manufactories  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  cooperage,  1  distil 
lery,  and  6  flour  mills.  Capital,  Middleport. 

IRBAWADDY,  Irawadi,  or  Airavati  ("  great 
river,"  or  "elephantine  river"),  the  principal 
stream  in  India  E.  of  the  Brahmapootra.  It 
rises  on  the  confines  of  Thibet  and  Burmah, 
at  the  E.  extremity  of  the  Snowy  range  of 
the  Himalaya,  about  Lit.  28°  N.,  Ion.  98°  E., 
flows  S.  across  the  territory  of  Burmah,  which 
it  divides  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  and 
traverses  the  state  of  Pegu  in  British  Bur 
mah,  entering  the  bay  of  Bengal  and  the  gulf 
of  Martaban  by  several  mouths  which  form  an 
extensive  delta.  Its  whole  length  is  1,000  m. 
It  separates  140  m.  below  the  S.  frontier  of 
Burmah  into  two  branches,  the  eastern  of 
which  is  named  the  Rangoon  or  Siriam  from 


the  principal  cities  on  its  banks,  and  falls  into 
the  gu-lf  of  Martaban,  while  the  western,  called 
the  Bassein,  enters  the  bay  of  Bengal  near 
Cape  Negrais.  The  delta  is  formed  by  numer 
ous  offsets  from  both  these  branches.  The 
Irrawaddy  has  two  striking  deviations  from  its 
general  southerly  course :  one  just  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Tapan,  about  lat.  24°  15',  where 
it  makes  a  bold  curve  in  the  Shape  of  the 
letter  S ;  and  the  other  at  Amarapura,  where 
it  turns  sharply  W.,  and,  after  receiving  the 
waters  of  its  largest  tributary,  the  Khyen- 
Dwen,  flows  successively  S.,  S.  W.,  and  again 
S.  The  principal  cities  and  towns  on  its 
banks  are  Bhamo  (a  trading  town  having 
a  considerable  traffic  with  China),  Amara 
pura  and  Ava,  former  capitals,  Mandelay,  the 
present  capital  of  Burmah,  Pagan,  Maloon, 
Prome,  Bassein,  and  Rangoon.  From  above 
the  junction  of  the  Khyen-Dwen  to  Maloon 
the  Irrawaddy  spreads  itself  over  a  channel 
reaching  during  the  inundation  from  June  to 
September  to  a  width  of  4  or  5  m.  It  is  then 
restricted  between  steep  and  hilly  banks,  and 
does  not  expand  again  considerably  until  it  has 
passed  Prome.  It  is  navigable  to  Ava  at  all 
seasons  by  boats  drawing  3  ft.  of  water,  and 
during  the  rains  vessels  of  200  tons  can  ascend 
to  Bhamo,  a  distance  of  800  m.  from  the  sea. 
Two  steam  navigation  companies  run  steamers 
on  the  Irrawaddy,  making  60  trips  a  year. 
Klaproth  and  the  Chinese  geographers  consider 
the  Irrawaddy  a  continuation  of  the  Sanpo  of 
Thibet;  but  the  latter  river  is  now  generally 
admitted,  though  not  positively  ascertained,  to 
be  identical  with  the  Brahmapootra. 

IRRIGATION,  the  watering  of  lands  by  cur 
rents  distributed  over  or  near  the  surface,  and 
also  by  temporarily  flooding  them.  It  is  ono 
of  the  oldest  of  arts,  \vas  practised  by  the  an 
cient  Egyptians,  Arabians,  Assyrians,  Babylo 
nians,  and  Chinese,  and  has  always  formed  a 
part  of  the  agriculture  of  the  countries  border 
ing  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  valley  of  March 
in  Yemen,  Arabia,  was  irrigated  by  waters 
distributed  from  a  vast  reservoir  made  by  a 
dam  2  m.  long  and  120  ft.  high,  constructed 
by  an  Adite  monarch  of  Saba,  probably  long 
before  the  times  of  Solomon.  This  dam  was 
built  of  enormous  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  and 
must  have  been  a  work  of  no  mean  engineer 
ing  skill,  as  it  stood  and  restrained  the  current 
of  a  large  stream  of  70  tributaries  for  about 
2,000  years,  when  it  burst  with  desolating  ef 
fect.  The  canal  of  the  Pharaohs,  connecting 
ancient  Pelusium  with  the  Red  sea,  was  con 
structed  for  purposes  of  irrigation.  The  plains 
of  Oman  in  Arabia  are  watered  by  subter 
ranean  canals  supplied  by  reservoirs  in  the 
mountains,  and  a  vegetation  of  rare  ^ luxuri 
ance,  consisting  of  most  of  the  fruits  and 
grains  of  Persia  and  India,  is  produced  in  con 
sequence.  The  plains  of  Assyria  and  Baby 
lonia  were  covered  with  an  immense  system 
of  canals,  some  of  them  hundreds  of  miles  in 
length,  intended  partly  for  irrigation  and  part- 


IRRIGATION 


415 


1  y  for  navigation ;  and  their  rnins  are  among' 
the  interesting  antiquities  of  those  countries. 
Into  some  of  these  canals  the  water  was  raised 
by  machines  which  consisted  of  rude  buckets 
worked  by  oxen,  in  much  the  same  manner 
still  practised  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  ir 
rigation  was  performed  with  water  flowing  di 
rectly  from  the  Nile,  or  raised  out  of  it,  or,  as 
was  often  the  case,  from  wells.  The  most  an 
cient  machine  was  the  sweep,  or  bucket  sus 
pended  from  a  balanced  pole,  such  as  was  gen 
erally  used  many  years  ago  in  this  country,  and 
is  still  in  some  parts  at  the  present  time.  Af 
terward  the  chain  of  pots,  or  saMyeh,  was  used, 
as  it  also  was  by  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 
At  present  water  is  raised  from  the  Nile  by 
means  of  Persian  wheels,  which  differ  from 
the  chain  of  pots  by  the  vessels  being  hung 
upon  the  periphery  of  a  large  wheel,  and  so 
adjusted  as  to  tip  over  and  empty  their  con 
tents  into  a  trough  when  they  arrive  at  a  cer 
tain  height,  instead  of  being  placed  upon  an 
endless  chain  or  rope. — In  the  agriculture  of 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain  great  attention  is  paid 
to  irrigation.  The  Romans  during  several  cen 
turies  constructed  extensive  works,  which  are 
still  in  use.  The  water  is  carried  not  only  over 
the  grass  lands  and  the  rice  fields,  but  between 
the  ridges  in  the  grain  fields  and  through  the 
vineyards  round  the  roots  of  the  vines.  The 
distribution  of  it  is  controlled  by  a  regular  sys 
tem.  The  state  itself  claims  the  waters  of  all 
the  rivers  of  Lombardy ;  and  in  the  Venetian 
territories  all  the  springs  and  collections  of  rain 
water  belong  to  the  government.  The  use  of 
the  waters  of  the  rivers  is  rented  out  at  a  cer 
tain  price  by  the  hour  or  half  hour,  or  for  so 
many  days  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
Persons  are  entitled  to  make  canals  through 
the  lands  of  others  lying  between  them  and 
the  river,  on  paying  for  the  damage  thus  caused. 
The  channels  for  leading  the  water  into  the 
lands  and  the  parallel  channels  alternating  with 
them,  placed  at  about  6  in.  lower  elevation  for 
conveying  the  water  away,  are  laid  out  with 
great  regularity,  at  distances  usually  of  about 
22  ft.  between  them.  In  summer  the  water  is 
allowed  to  flow  through  them  for  several  hours 
about  once  a  week,  but  ihe  flow  is  steadily 
kept  up  from  October  to  April,  except  at  the 
time  of  cutting  the  grass.  In  northern  Italy 
lands  that  can  be  irrigated  rent  for  one  third 
more  than  the  same  class  of  lands  not  thus  im 
proved.  On  the  American  continent,  the  an 
cient  inhabitants  of  Peru  were  found  by  their 
Spanish  conquerors  in  the  use  of  the  most 
costly  works  constructed  for  irrigating  their 
lands.  Prescott  says:  " Canals  and  aqueducts 
were  seen  crossing  the  low  lands  in  all  direc 
tions,  and  spreading  over  the  country  like  a 
vast  network,  diffusing  fertility  and  beauty 
around  them."  In  the  article  AQI-EDUCT  the 
wonderful  magnitude  of  some  of  these  works 
has  been  noticed.  The  Aztecs  of  Mexico  also 
made  use  of  similar  means  to  counteract  the 
VOL.  ix. — 27 


|  natural  dryness  of  their  atmosphere ;  and  in  the 
i  beautiful  gardens  of  Iztapalapan,  watered  by 
canals  and  aqueducts,  and  moistened  by  the 
spray  of  fountains,  was  exhibited  to  the  as 
tonished  Spaniards  a  perfection  of  horticulture 
at  that  time  unknown  in  their  own  country. — 
Irrigation  on  a  large  scale  and  by  the  Italian 
method  was  attempted  in  England  in  the  16th 
century,  on  the  estate  of  Babraham  in  Cam 
bridgeshire  ;  but  the  system  was  not  fairly  es- 
I  tablished  as  an  important  branch  of  agriculture 
until  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen 
tury.     Of  late  years   what   are   called   water 
meadows  have  become  a  common  feature  in 
some  of  the  best  cultivated  counties,  especially 
in   Wilts,    Devon,    Somerset,   and   Gloucester, 
and   also   in   the   southern   part  of   Scotland. 
Some  peculiar  methods  have  been  introduced, 
as  that  of  irrigating  with  currents  of  liquid  ma 
nure;  and  the  sewerage  of  Edinburgh  is  dis- 
I  tributed  on  the  same  principle  with  the  most 
I  beneficial  results  over  the  meadows  that  lie  be- 
j  low  the  level  of  the  city.     The  grass  grown 
I  upon  the  meadows  thus  watered  has  to  be  cut 
about  once  a  month  from  April  to  November, 
and  it  is  described  as  remarkably  tender  and 
succulent,  admirably  adapted   as   a   milk-pro 
ducing  food  for  cows.      With  some  exceptions 
the  general  practice  is  not  to  leave  the  water 
j  standing  upon  the  lands ;  but  taking  it  from  a 
running  stream   (which   should  be  tapped  if 
j  practicable  far  enough  above  the  meadow  for 
the  water  to  flow  in  from  the  bottom  of  the 
current,  where  it  is  most  charged  with  sedi 
ment),  it  is  conveyed  in  a  main  channel  around 
the  further  margin  of  the  meadow,  and  numer 
ous  side  branches  lead  off  in  nearly  parallel  lines 
into  its  central  portions,  each   tapering  to  a 
point.     These   are   commonly  interlocked  by 
j  others  proceeding  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
j  the  main  channel,  on  the  lower  side  of  its  cir- 
i  cuit,  as  it  passes  back  to  the  river.     The  second 
I  set,  being  at  a  lower  level  than  the  first,  serve 
as  drains,  conveying  the  water  that  overflows 
,  from  the  first  to  the  main  channel,  which  in 
the  latter  part  of  its  course  is  no  longer  a  feecl- 
:  er  but  a  drain.     The  water  is  allowed  to  flow 
|  through  this  system  as  often  as  may  be  desira 
ble,  care  being  taken  that  it  shall  not  lie  at  rest 
at  any  time,  the  effect  of  which  is  found  to  be 
a  tendency  to  cause  the  growth  of  a  coarse 
grass.     This  method  is  called  bed-work  irriga 
tion,  from  the  ground  being  laid  out  in  nearly 
|  regular  beds  by  the  channels.     It  is  applica- 
i  ble  only  to  tolerably  level  land.     By  another 
|  method,  called  catch  work,  irrigation  is  conve- 
i  niently  applied  to  uneven  ground.     One  set  of 
channels  follow  the  contour  lines  of  the  ground, 
each  retaining  its  own  level.     These  are  crossed 
nearly  at  right  angles  by  numerous  other  small 
channels,  which  are  fed  at  their  upper  ends  by 
the  main  gutter,  and  the  water  is  directed  by 
stops  of  clods  of  earth  into  the  level  side  chan 
nels,  which  are  filled  as  may  be  desired.     The 
laying  out  of  the  work  and  management  of  the 
operation,  so  as  to  distribute  the  water  uniform- 


4-1 G 


IRRIGATION 


IRVINE 


ly,  in  the  proper  quantities,  and  at  the  right 
times,  require  good  judgment,  close  attention, 
and  much  experience.  The  irrigating  season 
in  England  is  the  colder  portion  of  the  year, 
commencing  in  October  or  November,  and  ter 
minating  in  March  or  April.  The  letting  the 
water  on  or  off  during  frosty  weather  is  to  be 
avoided,  as  a  crust  of  ice  may  root  out  the 
grass  as  it  thaws.  As  nearly  as  may  be,  with 
reference  to  this  danger,  the  water  is  allowed 
to  flow  through  the  channels  for  two  or  three 
weeks  at  a  time,  and  is  then  drawn  completely 
off,  so  that  the  ground  may  become  as  thor 
oughly  dry  as  possible.  In  this  condition  it  is 
left  for  live  or  six  days,  when  if  there  is  no 
fear  of  freezing  the  operation  is  repeated  ;  and 
so  on  through  the  winter.  When  the  grass 
begins  to  vegetate,  the  periods  of  irrigation 
should  be  shortened,  and  cease  entirely  when 
it  is  sufficiently  forward  to  make  good  pasture. 
The  effect  of  this  practice  is  often  very  stri 
king  ;  the  grass  is  brought  forward  very  early 
in  the  spring.  After  feeding  off  one  crop  or 
mowing  the  grass,  the  land  is  sometimes  again 
irrigated  for  a  short  time  to  great  advantage. 
A  second  crop  is  ready  to  be  cut  by  the  time 
the  first  has  ripened  on  the  dry  meadows. 
Three  or  four  crops  of  grass  are  thus  obtained 
in  each  season. — But  the  perfection  of  irriga 
tion  is  when  it  is  combined  with  thorough  un 
der-draining.  The  water  flowing  in  brings 
with  it  in  solution  and  suspension  various  min 
eral  and  organic  substances  suitable  for  the 
food  of  plants.  By  evaporation  and  by  vari 
ous  chemical  reactions  the  soluble  ingredients 
may  be  set  free,  when  they  become  entangled 
with  the  other  foreign  matters  in  the  grass  and 
in  the  soil  beneath,  both  of  which  act  as  filters. 
Thus  the  finely  comminuted  sediments  and  the 
soluble  salts  are  equally  distributed  among  the 
rootlets,  and  these  are  refreshed  by  the  new 
supplies  furnished  by  each  repetition  of  the 
process.  By  the  drains  the  excess  of  moisture 
is  soon  removed,  stagnation,  so  injurious  to 
vegetation,  is  prevented,  and  the  elements  that 
feed  the  plants  below  the  surface  are  kept  in  a 
similar  condition  of  healthy  renewal  with  those 
of  the  air  circulating  among  the  branches  and 
adding  to  the  vegetable  growth  by  assimilation 
going  on  through  the  leaves.  The  benefits  de 
rived  from  the  process  vary  of  course  with  the 
quality  of  the  ingredients  brought  in  by  the 
water,  according  as  these  are  more  or  less  suit 
ed  to  the  requirements  of  the  soil  and  of  the 
crop.  The  hard  water,  charged  with  carbon 
ate  of  lime,  which  it  has  gathered  in  flowing 
through  a  limestone  region,  brings  a  valuable 
fertilizing  ingredient  to  silidous  soils  deficient 
in  lime ;  and  the  clayey  sediment  washed  out 
of  alluvial  bottoms  is  spread  with  the  most 
beneficial  effect  over  loose  sandy  soils.  Some 
times  organic  liquid  manures,  such  as  the  drain 
age  of  farmyards  and  leachings  of  compost 
heaps,  are  supplied  to  the  soil  by  being  min 
gled  with  the  water  used  in  irrigating  ;  but  the 
principal  object  of  irrigation  is  to  supply  mois 


ture,  as  it  is  always  easy  to  add  manure  in  a 
solid  form. — Much  attention  is  now  given  to 
the  subject  of  irrigation  in  that  portion  of  the 
United  States  lying  between  the  Mississippi 
river  and  the  Rocky  mountains  ;  so  that  a  vast 
region,  some  of  which  w^as  long  known  as  the 
Great  American  desert,  bids  fair  in  time  to  be 
for  the  most  part  brought  under  fair  cultiva 
tion.  The  Mormons  in  Utah  by  means  of  irri 
gation  render  their  barren  country  fertile.  The 
general  plan  with  them,  and  also  in  California, 
is  to  lead  the  water  in  canals  from  the  rivers 
or  the  mountains,  and  allow  it  to  flow  over  the 
fields,  either  through  small  channels  made  in 
the  soil,  or  over  the  even  surface. 

IRVINE,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  sea 
port  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  on  both  banks  of 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  1  m.  above  its 
entrance  into  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  20  m.  S.  "W. 
of  Glasgow ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,866.  It  has  a  fe 
male  academy,  ship  yards,  and  some  manufac 
tories  of  book  muslins,  jaconets,  and  checks. 
The  harbor,  having  become  shallow  from  sand 
bars,  now  admits  only  vessels  of  about  100  tons. 

IRVINE,  William,  an  American  soldier,  born 
near  Enniskillen,  Ireland,  about  1742,  died  in 
Philadelphia,  July  30,  1804.  He  graduated  at 
Dublin  university,  studied  medicine  and  sur 
gery,  and  was  appointed  surgeon  on  board  a 
ship  of  war,  serving  during  a  part  of  the  war 
of  l756-'63  between  Great  Britain  and  France. 
On  the  declaration  of  peace  he  emigrated  to 
America,  and  in  1764  settled  in  Carlisle,  Pa. 
At  the  opening  of  the  revolution  he  took  part 
with  the  colonies.  lie  was  a  member  of  the 
provincial  convention  assembled  July  15,  1774, 
until  he  was  appointed  by  congress,  Jan.  10, 
1776,  colonel  of  the  6th  battalion  of  the  Penn 
sylvania  line,  and  was  ordered  to  join  the  army 
in  Canada.  He  was  made  prisoner  at  the  bat 
tle  of  Three  Rivers  in  June  of  the  same  year, 
and  was  released  on  parole,  Aug.  3,  but  was 
not  exchanged  until  April,  1778.  In  July, 

1778,  he  was  a  member  of  the  court  martial 
which  tried  Gem  Charles  Lee.     On  May  12, 

1779,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  briga 
dier  general,  and  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  2d  brigade  of   the   Pennsylvania  line. 
In  the  unsuccessful  attack  of  Gen.  Wayne  at 
Bull's  Ferry,  July  21  and  22,  1780,  he  com 
manded  his  brigade.     In  the  autumn  of  1781 
he  was  ordered  to  Fort  Pitt,  to  take  command 
of  the  troops  on  the  western  frontier,  where 
he  remained  till  Oct.  1,  1783.     In  1785  he  was 
appointed  agent  for  the  state  under  an  "act 
for  directing  the  mode  of  distributing  the  do 
nation   lands   promised  to  the  troops  of  the 
commonwealth."    lie  became  a  member  of  con 
gress  in  1787,  and  was  selected,  with  Messrs. 
Gilrnan   and   Kain,    one   of    the   commission 
ers  for  settling  the   accounts   of   the   United 
States  with  the  several  states.     He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  convention  for  revising  the  consti 
tution  of  Pennsylvania,  and  again  from  17!)3  to 

|  17i>5  a  member  of  congress.     In  17!>4  he  was 
assigned  to  the  command  of   the   Pennsylva- 


IRVING 


41' 


ma  troops  for  quelling  the  "  whiskey  insur 
rection,"  and  took  an  active  part  in  all  the 
most  important  movements.  In  March,  1801, 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  military 
stores  at  Philadelphia.  lie  was  president  of 
the  state  society  of  the  Cincinnati  at  his  death. 
IRVING,  Edward,  a  Scottish  preacher,  born  at 
Annan,  Dumfriesshire,  Aug.  4,  1792,  died  in 
Glasgow,  Dec.  8,  1834.  He  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh  in  1809,  in  his  19th 
year  was  appointed  mathematical  teacher  in 
an  academy  at  Iladdington,  and  in  1812  rector 
of  an  academy  at  Kirkcaldy,  where  he  remain 
ed  seven  years,  pursuing  at  the  same  time  the 
studies  required  of  a  candidate  for  the  minis 
try  of  the  church  of  Scotland.  He  was  li 
censed  to  preach  by  the  presbytery  of  Annan 
in  1815,  but  received  no  invitation  to  settle  as 
a  pastor,  and  continued  to  teach  till  1818, 
when  he  went  to  Edinburgh.  In  1819  he  be 
came  Dr.  Chalmers's  assistant  in  Glasgow, 
where  he  continued  three  years,  when  he  re 
signed,  having  been  called  to  the  charge  of  the 
Caledonian  church,  Hatton  Garden,  London,  a 
small  remnant  of  a  congregation  in  connection 
with  the  church  of  Scotland.  He  was  ordain 
ed  by  the  presbytery  of  Annan,  and  entered 
upon  his  ministry  in  1822.  Within  a  few 
months  of  his  settlement  there  crowds  press 
ed  to  his  weekly  services.  The  nobility,  mem 
bers  of  parliament,  judges  and  barristers,  phy 
sicians,  clergymen,  dissenters,  and  noted  beau 
ties  besieged  the  doors,  attracted  no  less  by 
the  eloquence  and  power  than  by  the  plain- 
spoken  originality  of  the  preacher.  "With  a 
view  to  break  up  the  routine  habit  of  mind, 
which  he  conceived  destroyed  the  effect  of 
preaching  generally,  he  adopted  a  style  of  dis 
course  different  from  the  usual  form  of  ser 
mon,  which  he  called  "  orations."  A  series  of 
these,  entitled  "Orations  for  the  Oracles  of 
God,"  which  were  preached  in  182:3,  he  pub 
lished  in  the  same  year  in  a  volume  with  an 
other  series  entitled  "  An  Argument  for  Judg 
ment  to  Come,  in  Nine  Parts."  This  was  the 
first  of  his  published  writings.  In  1824  the 
foundations  of  a  new  church  in  Regent  square 
were  laid,  which  was  intended  to  more  fully 
accommodate  his  thronging  audiences.  In 
this  year  he  was  called  upon  to  deliver  a 
missionary  discourse,  the  sentiments  of  which 
were  so  contrary  to  tho  views  of  the  London 
missionary  society  for  which  he  preached,  as 
to  occasion  much  dissatisfaction.  This  dis 
course  was  published  about  a  year  after  its 
delivery,  much  enlarged,  under  the  title  "For 
Missionaries  after  the  Apostolic  School,  a  Se 
ries  of  Orations,  in  Four  Parts:  Part  I.,  the 
Doctrine."  The  other  three  parts  never  ap 
peared.  In  1825  he  delivered  a  course  of  lec 
tures,  afterward  published,  entitled  "  Babylon 
and  Infidelity  Foredoomed."  On  Christmas 
day  of  the  same  year  he  first  began  to  make 
known  his  convictions  in  relation  to  the  sec 
ond  and  personal  advent  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  nearness  of  that  great  event. 


In  1826  he  fell  in  with  a  Spanish  work  enti 
tled  "  The  Coming  of  Messiah  in  Majesty  and 
Glory,  by  Juan  Josafat  ben  Ezra,"  which  pur 
ported  to  be  written  by  a  Christian  Jew,  but 
was  in  reality  the  work  of  Lacunza,  a  South 
American  Jesuit.  lie  undertook  the  transla 
tion  of  this  work,  which  confirmed  his  atten 
tion  to  the  subject  of  Messianic  prophecy,  and 
from  this  time  it  became  a  leading  thought  with 
him.  lie  wrote  an  introduction,  which  occu 
pies  half  of  an  octavo  volume,  and  which  is 
regarded  as  one  of  his  best  works.  The  book 
appeared  in  1827.  About  the  same  time  his 
attention  was  called  by  the  death  of  one  of  his 
children  to  the  subject  of  infant  baptism,  which 
resulted  in  a  series  of  "Homilies  on  the  Sacra 
ments,"  of  which  only  the  first  volume,  on 
baptism,  was  published  (12mo,  1828).  From 
this  he  was  led  to  enter  more  fully  into  the 
great  doctrine  of  the  incarnation,  to  the  expo 
sition  of  which  he  devoted  much  labor,  both 
in  preaching  and  in  controversial  writings; 
affirming 'the  perfect  oneness  of  Christ  with 
us  in  all  the  attributes  of  manhood,  including 
its  infirmities  and  liability  to  temptation.  On 
this  account  he  was  charged  with  asserting  the 
sinfulness  of  Christ's  human  nature.  What  he 
really  taught  was,  that  Jesus  Christ  took  from 
his  mother  human  nature,  such  as  it  was  in 
Adam  after  the  fall,  though  in  him  without 
actual  sin.  It  is  asserted  that  his  teaching  on 
this  subject  was  the  origin  of  a  revival  of  a 
similar  strain  of  teaching  in  a  portion  of  the 
English  church.  In  1828  he  visited  Scotland, 
and  preached  to  thronging  congregations  in 
the  principal  places.  At  Kirkcaldy,  his  old 
home,  the  crowded  galleries  of  the  old  church 
fell,  and  about  35  persons  were  killed.  At 
this  time  he  opposed  the  abolition  of  the  test 
act,  advocated  by  Chalmers,  and  in  1829  pub 
lished  a  book  entitled  "Church  and  State," 
arguing  for  an  organic  connection  between 
the  two.  In  1830  he  was  tried  by  the  London 
presbytery  for  heretical  views  of  the  incarna 
tion,  lie  resisted  the  authority  of  the  presby 
tery,  on  the  ground  of  irregularity  in  the  trial, 
and  left  them,  appealing  to  the  church  of  Scot 
land.  In  this  he  was  sustained  by  his  own 
church  with  great  unanimity.  All  this  time 
the  interest  in  the  study  of  prophecy  was  kept 
alive  by  Irving  and  his  friends,  and  took  prac 
tical  form  in  a  series  of  conferences  of  those 
interested  which  were  held  at  Albury  park,  Sur 
rey,  under  the  patronage  of  Henry  Drummond, 
Esq.,  and  by  the  publication  of  a  quarterly  pe 
riodical  entitled  "  The  Morning  Watch,"  to 
which  Irving  was  a  copious  contributor.  In 
the  spring  of  1830  reports  came  to  London  of 
some  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  Port  Glasgow  in  Scotland,  consisting 
of  what  appeared  to  be  supernatural  utter 
ances,  i.  e.,  words  spoken  under  the  impulse 
of  a  supernatural  power,  partly  in  the  vernac 
ular  and  partly  in  forms  of  language  that 
were  not  known,  and  in  connection  with  them 
the  healing  of  the  sick.  When  this  report  was 


418 


IRVING 


received,  some  of  the  persons  associated  with 
Mr.  Irving  in  the  study  of  prophecy,  and  in 
the  hope  of  the  second  coming  of  Christ, 
deemed  it  proper  to  investigate  the  matter. 
Accordingly,  several  gentlemen  residing  in 
London  made  a  journey  to  Glasgow  to  inquire 
into  the  nature  of  these  phenomena.  After  a 
careful  scrutiny  these  persons  were  satisfied 
that  it  was  in  reality  a  revival  of  the  "  spirit 
ual  gifts"  common  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
church,  and  specially  referred  to  in  St.  Paul's 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  Soon  after  the 
same  phenomena  appeared  in  London,  at  first 
in  private  meetings  of  members  of  the  estab 
lished  church,  and  afterward  in  Irving's  con 
gregation.  A  full  account  of  these  "  spiritual 
gifts"  was  given  by  Irving  himself  in  "Eraser's 
Magazine"  in  1830.  The  consequence  of  his 
course  in  this  matter  was  the  loss  of  his  great 
popularity,  and  an  opposition  in  his  own  con 
gregation.  His  writings  were  censured  by  the 
general  assembly  of  1831,  and  in  1832  this  op 
position  resulted  in  his  expulsion  by-  the  trus 
tees  from  the  building  which  had  been  erected 
for  his  use,  after  a  hearing  before  the  London 
presbytery.  His  adherents,  numbering  about 
800  communicants,  met  at  first  in  a  hall  in 
Gray's  Inn  road.  They  resolved  to  build,  and 
money  was  collected  for  the  purpose,  but  were 
forbidden  by  utterances  which  they  regarded 
as  divine ;  and  after  some  months  they  hired 
a  house  in  Newman  street,  with  a  hall  which 
had  been  used  by  West  the  artist  as  a  picture 
gallery,  the  house  being  taken  for  a  parsonage. 
Irving  was  now  (March,  1833)  arraigned  before 
the  presbytery  of  Annan  in  Scotland  upon 
a  charge  of  heresy  and  irregularity,  and  de 
posed.  His  defences  are  among  his  best  ora 
torical  efforts.  The  portion  of  the  congrega 
tion  that  adhered  to  him  retained  at  first  the 
Presbyterian  order  of  worship  and  constitu 
tion  of  membership ;  but  this  was  early  modi 
fied  through  the  agency  of  the  prophetical 
utterances  which  abounded  among  them. 
Attention  had  been  directed  to  the  restora 
tion  of  apostles  and  prophets  as  the  most  fun 
damental  constituent  of  the  church ;  and  some 
time  in  1832,  at  a  meeting  for  prayer  held  in  a 
private  house,  it  is  asserted,  one  of  those  pres 
ent  was  declared  in  the  word  of  prophecy  to 
be  an  apostle,  and  exhorted  to  the  exercise  of 
his  office,  in  conveying  "the  Holy  Ghost  by 
the  laying  on  of  hands."  When  Mr.  Irving 
had  been  deposed  in  Scotland  he  ceased,  in 
obedience  to  what  he  believed  to  be  a  spirit 
ual  utterance,  from  fulfilling  priestly  functions, 
confining  himself  to  the  work  of  a  preacher  or 
deacon  until  he  should  receive  a  new  ordina 
tion  from  the  spirit.  On  April  5,  1833,  he  be 
lieved  that  this  supernatural  ordination  was 
conferred,  when  by  the  hands  of  the  apostle 
he  was  constituted  "  angel,"  or  chief  pastor  or 
bishop  of  the  church.  Wilks  says  ("  Life  of 
Edward  Irving,"  London,  1K54) :  "  It  seems 
to  be  generally  supposed  that  Irving  appointed 
the  apostles,  not  that  he  was  appointed  by 


them."  The  facts  are  the  reverse  of  this.  The 
movement  did  not  begin  in  his  church,  nor 
as  the  result  of  his  teaching,  although  he 
at  an  early  period  gave  his  adhesion  to  it. 
That  he  held  a  prominent  position  in  the 
movement  is  manifest,  but  the  form  which  it 
took  was  not  the  result  of  any  plan  or  theory 
of  his,  nor  was  it  fully  and  finally  developed 
until  some  years  after  his  death.  Not  long 
after  these  events  his  health  failed.  In  the 
autumn  of  1834  he  set  out,  in  obedience  as  he 
supposed  to  the  word  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  on  a 
journey  to  Scotland,  where  he  died.  His  per 
sonal  characteristics  were  striking.  He  was  at 
least  six  feet  high;  his  limbs  were  well  pro 
portioned;  black  hair  clustered  in  profusion 
over  his  lofty  forehead,  and  descended  in  curls 
upon  his  massive  shoulders;  his  eyes  were 
dark  and  piercing,  though  affected  by  a  squint ; 
on  his  lips  sat  the  firmness  of  a  ruler  and  trem 
bled  the  sensibility  of  a  poet.  He  associated 
and  lived  in  the  world  without  restraint,  join 
ing  in  the  forms  and  fashions  of  a  mixed  so 
ciety,  and  was  remarkable  at  the  same  time 
for  blamelessness  of  life.  His  morals  were  un 
tainted,  his  conscientiousness  exact.  A  collec 
tion  of  his  "  Sermons,  Lectures,  and  Occasional 
Discourses"  was  published  in  1828  (3  vols. 
8vo,  London).  Since  his  decease  two  series 
of  his  works  have  been  published  under  the 
editorship  of  his  nephew,  the  Rev.  G.  Carlyle; 
the  one  entitled  "The  Collected  Writings  of 
Edward  Irving"  (5  vols.,  London,  1864-'5) ;  the 
other,  "  The  Prophetical  Works  of  Edward  Ir 
ving"  (2  vols.,  London,  18(37-70).  Mrs.  Oli- 
phant's  memoir  of  him  (1862)  is  very  complete, 
and  in  the  main  accurate ;  and  a  review  of  it  in 
the  "New  Englander"  for  July  and  October, 
1863,  supplements  it  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner. — The  church  in  Newman  street  be 
came  the  centre  of  a  widely  extended  commu 
nity,  which  began  very  rapidly  to  spread 
throughout  the  British  isles.  In  the  next  two 
years  after  Irving's  death  additional  persons 
were  called  to  be  apostles,  until  the  number 
of  twelve  had  been  completed,  when  they 
were  as  a  whole  set  apart,  or  separated  to  the 
work  to  which  they  had  been  called,  and  grad 
ually  the  organization  of  the  church  was  per 
fected.  The  constitution  of  this  body  claims 
to  be  the  perfect  development  of  that  which 
was  established  in  the  beginning  of  the  Chris 
tian  church.  Its  characteristic  feature  is  the 
fourfold  ministry  of  "  apostles,  prophets,  evan 
gelists,  and  pastors  and  teachers,"  referred  to 
by  St.  Paul  in  chapter  iv.  of  his  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians.  Within  this  fourfold  classification 
are  comprehended  the  three  orders  of  the 
church  catholic,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons. 
The  collective  apostolate  is  the  head  of  the 
episcopate,  and  holds  the  relation  of  centre  of 
unity  to  the  whole  church.  The  body  declines 
any  name  but  that  of  the  "  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church,"  holding  this  not  exclusively  of  all 
other  churches,  but  as  the  only  name  by  which 
the  church  should  consent  to  be  known.  The 


IKYING 


419 


church  disclaims  all  sectarian  aims.  It  assumes 
this  movement  to  be  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  for  the  blessing  of  the  entire  Christian 
church  throughout  the  world.  It  does  not 
seek  to  proselyte,  but  is  content  with  bearing 
a  witness  to  the  truth  and  strengthening  all 
who  desire  to  maintain  the  truth.  It  recog 
nizes  all  the  baptized  as  members  of  the  one 
church,  and  each  several  Christian  community 
according  to  the  measure  of  the  truth  it  holds. 
The  whole  system  of  teaching,  worship,  and 
discipline  is  founded  upon  the  doctrine  of  the 
incarnation,  or  the  true  and  real  manhood  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  its  application  to 
man  by  means  of  sacraments  and  ordinances. 
Jesus  is  the  Lord,  and  all  ministries  on  earth 
are  but  forms  by  which  his  presence  is  made 
effective  in  the  church.  The  worship  is  con 
ducted  by  means  of  a  ritual  which  embodies 
portions  of  the  rituals  in  use  in  all  different 
sections  of  the  church,  Greek,  Eoman,  and 
Protestant.  It  makes  use  of  material  emblems 
and  signs  as  far  as  they  are  significant  of  spir 
itual  truths.  Architecture,  music,  and  painting, 
vestments  of  divers  colors,  incense,  lights,  all 
are  employed  as  symbols  of  spiritual  truths. 
When  the  numbers  and  means  admit,  the  wor 
ship  is  conducted  with  all  the  magnificence 
that  its  importance  justifies,  while  it  is  also 
capable  of  adaptation  to  very  narrow  circum 
stances.  The  eucharist  is  celebrated  every 
Lord's  day.  Daily  morning  and  evening  wor 
ship  is  maintained.  All  the  members  pay 
tithes  of  their  increase,  which  are  applied  to 
the  support  of  the  priesthood,  besides  offerings 
for  other  purposes.  The  great  object  of  in 
terest  to  all  the  believers  is  the  hope  of  the 
speedy  coming  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  when 
the  dead  in  Christ  shall  be  raised,  and  they 
who  are  looking  for  him  shall  undergo  the 
change  of  their  bodies  which  is  spoken  of  by 
St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xv.  About  the  year  1846 
the  movement  began  to  spread  into  other  parts 
of  Europe,  especially  Germany.  There  are  in 
London  seven  churches,  which  collectively  re 
present  the  unity  of  the  whole  church.  The 
number  of  churches  and  congregations  in  the 
British  isles  (1874),  including  these,  is  between 
80  and  90.  In  north  Germany  there  are  nearly 
as  many,  in  Switzerland  six  or  eight;  and  there 
are  scattering  congregations  in  other  countries 
of  Europe.  There  are  no  published  statistics 
from  which  the  number  of  ministers  or  peo 
ple  can  be  obtained ;  they  amount  to  several 
thousands.  In  the  United  States  there  is  only 
one  fully  organized  church  ;  this  is  in  New 
York,  and  there  are  four  smaller  congrega 
tions  connected  with  it  in  Connecticut  and 
Boston.  In  Canada  there  are  four  churches. — 
Mr.  Irving's  works  throw  but  little  light  on 
the  principles  of  the  church  as  such.  Some 
of  the  works  relating  to  it  are:  "The  Liturgy 
and  other  Divine  Offices  of  the  Church ;" 
"Readings  on  the  Liturgy"  (1  vol.  and  2  parts 
of  another,  London,  1851) ;  "Chronicle  of  Cer 
tain  Events  which  have  taken  place  in  the 


Church  of  Christ,  principally  in  England,  be 
tween  the  Years  1826  and  1852"  (London, 
1852);  "Defence  of  John  Canfield  Sterling, 
Presbyter,"  &c.  (New  York,  1852);  "A  Letter 
from  David  Morris  Fackler  to  the  Right  Rev. 
G.  "W.  Doane,  Bishop  of  New  Jersey "  (New 
York,  1852);  "The  Permanency  of  the  Apos 
tolic  Office  as  distinct  from  that  of  Bishops, 
with  Reasons  for  believing  that  it  is  now  re 
vived  in  the  Church,  by  a  Presbyter  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church"  (New  York, 
1852)  ;  "  The  True  Constitution  of  the  Church 
and  its  Restoration,"  by  the  Rev.  William 
Watson  Andrews  (New  York,  1854);  "The 
True  Apostolic  Succession,  a  Letter  to  Rev. 
Francis  Vinton,"  by  John  S.  Davenport  (New 
York,  1858) ;  "Edward  Irving  and  the  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,"  by  the  same  (1863);  "The 
Purpose  of  God  in  Creation  and  Redemption," 
the  most  complete  exposition  of  the  principles 
of  the  movement  (Edinburgh,  1865) ;  and 
"  Christian  Unity  and  its  Recovery,"  by  John 
S.  Davenport  (1866). 

IRVING,  Theodore,  an  American  clergyman, 
nephew  of  Washington  Irving,  born  in  New 
York,  May  9,  1809.  At  the  age  of  19  he  joined 
his  uncle  in  Spain,  and  resided  for  three  years 
in  Madrid,  Paris,  and  London,  attending  lec 
tures,  and  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of 
modern  languages.  He  was  appointed  pro 
fessor  of  history  and  belles-lettres  in  Geneva 
(now  Ilobart)  college,  New  York,  in  1836, 
which  post  he  occupied  for  12  years.  In  1848 
he  was  chosen  to  be  professor  in  the  same 
department  in  the  free  academy  (now  college 
of  the  city)  of  New  York,  but  resigned  in  May, 
1852.  Two  years  later  he  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Episcopal  church,  and  became  rector  of 
Christ's  church,  Bay  Ridge,  L.  I. ;  was  for 
many  years  rector  of  St.  Andrew's  and  after 
ward  of  Ascension  parish,  Staten  Island ;  and 
is  now  (1874)  rector  of  St.  John's  school  for 
young  ladies,  New  York  city.  He  has  pub 
lished  "  Conquest  of  Florida  by  Hernando  de 
Soto "  (18-35;  new  ed.,  1857),  and  devotional 
works  entitled  "  The  Fountain  of  Living  Wa 
ters"  (1854;  4th  ed.,  1855),  "Tiny  Footfall" 
(1869),  and  "More  than  Conqueror"  (1873). 

IRVING,  Washington,  an  American  author, 
born  in  New  York,  April  3,  1783,  died  at  Sun 
ny  side,  near  Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  28,  1859. 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  William  Irving,  who 
was  descended  from  an  ancient  family  in  the 
Orkneys ;  his  mother  was  English.  Washington 
Irving  left  school  in  his  16th  year,  and  began 
the  study  of  law.  But  his  passion  was  for  lit 
erature,  and  in  1802  he  commenced  in  the 
"Morning  Chronicle"  a  series  of  papers  on 
dramatic  and  social  subjects  and  local  occur 
rences,  under  the  signature  of  "Jonathan  Old- 
style."  In  1804,  being  threatened  with  con 
sumption,  he  visited  Europe,  spending  several 
months  in  the  south  of  France  and  Italy.  At 
Rome  in  1805  he  became  intimate  with  Wash 
ington  Allston,  and  under  his  tuition  made  a 
serious  attempt  to  become  a  painter,  but  was 


420 


IRVING 


satisfied  at  the  end  of  three  days  that  his  talent 
was  not  for  art.  He  next  visited  Switzerland, 
the  Netherlands,  Paris,  and  London,  and  re 
turned  home  in  March,  1806,  to  resume  his  law 
studies ;  but  he  never  practised.  With  his  broth 
er  William  and  James  K.  Paulding  he  started 
a  serial  entitled  "  Salmagmidi,  or  the  Whim- 
Whams  and  Opinions  of  Launcelot  Langstaff, 
Esq.,  and  others,"  which  appeared  at  irregular 
intervals  in  small  18mo,  published  by  an  eccen 
tric  bookseller  named  David  Longworth.  The 
first  number  was  issued  on  Jan.  24,  1807.  Its 
local  allusions,  personal  hits,  and  constant  vein 
of  humor  gave  it  immediate  success,  and  it 
reached  the  20th  number.  It  is  understood 
that  the  poetical  epistles  were  contributed  by 
William  Irving,  and  the  prose  papers  about 
equally  by  himself  and  his  two  associates. 
"  Salmagundi "  found  favor  also  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlantic.  In  1809  appeared  "A 
History  of  New  York,  from  the  Beginning  of 
the  World  to  the  End  of  the  Dutch  Dynasty, 
&c.,  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker."  This  was 
begun  by  Peter  and  Washington  Irving  as  a 
burlesque  on  a  hand-book  of  the  city  of  New 
York  which  had  just  been  published ;  but  Peter 
soon  sailed  for  Europe,  and  Washington  elab 
orated  the  work  and  extended  it  to  two  vol 
umes.  Previous  to  its  appearance  an  adver 
tisement  was  inserted  in  the  "Evening  Post" 
inquiring  for  "  a  small  elderly  gentleman 
dressed  in  an  old  black  coat  and  cocked  hat, 
by  the  name  of  Knickerbocker,"  who  was  said 
to  have  disappeared  from  the  Columbian  hotel 
in  Mulberry  street,  and  left  behind  "a  very 
curious  kind  of  a  written  book."  The  work 
was  accepted  by  many  respectable  but  some 
what  stupid  readers  as  a  veritable  history,  and 
Goller,  a  German  editor,  gravely  cites  it  in 
illustration  of  a  historical  passage.  Some  of 
the  descendants  of  the  old  Dutch  families  were 
seriously  offended  by  its  burlesque  of  their  an 
cestors,  and  Irving  finally  found  it  necessary  to 
insert  an  apologetic  preface.  In  1810  he  wrote 
a  sketch  of  Thomas  Campbell  for  a  Philadel 
phia  edition  of  his  poems,  and  in  1813-'14  edit 
ed  the  "  Analectic  Magazine"  in  Philadelphia, 
to  which  he  contributed  several  biographies  of 
American  naval  commanders.  In  1814  he  be 
came  aide-de-camp  and  military  secretary  to 
Gov.  Tompkins,  and  in  1815  sailed  for  Europe, 
having  meanwhile  become  a  silent  partner  in 
the  mercantile  business  of  two  of  his  brothers. 
In  London  he  was  intimate  with  many  of  the 
literary  men  of  the  day,  especially  Procter  and 
Campbell,  and  by  the  latter  was  introduced  to 
Scott  at  Abbotsford.  \\  Irving's  house  soon  be 
came  bankrupt,  and  he  was  compelled  to  write 
for  a  living.  His  rambles  about  England  and 
Scotland  had  given  him  much  of  the  material 
for  the  "  Sketch  Book,"  which  was  sent  home 
in  fragments  and  published  in  pamphlet  num 
bers  during  1818.(  Several  of  the  sketches 
were  copied  in  the  London  "Literary  Gazette," 
and  Irving  offered  the  work  for  republication 
to  Murray  and  Constable,  by  each  of  whom  it 


was  declined,  in  spite  of  Scott's  warm  recom 
mendation.  He  then  put  the  first  volume  to 
press  at  his  own  expense  (1820),  but  the  fail 
ure  of  the  publisher  stopped  its  issue.  In  this 
crisis  Scott  arrived  in  London  and  prevailed 
upon  Murray  to  purchase  the  manuscript  for 
£200,  which  price  he  doubled  when  the  book 
proved  successful.  The  "Sketch  Book"  con 
tained  "  Pdp  Van  Winkle  "  and  the  "  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,"  which  are  perhaps  the  most 
widely  celebrated,  and  are  certainly  the  most 
strikingly  original,  of  all  his  creations./  He 
spent  the  winter  of  1820  in  Paris,  and  iri  1821 
wrote  "Bracebridge  Hall,  or  the  Humorists" 
(2  vols.,  London,  1822),  producing  120  pages  of 
it  in  ten  days.  Murray  paid  1,000  guineas  for 
the  copyright,  without  seeing  the  manuscript. 
Irving  passed  the  next  winter  in  Dresden,  re 
turned  to  Paris  in  1823,  and  in  1824  published 
his  "Tales  of  a  Traveller"  (2  vols.,  London), 
for  which  Murray  paid  £1,500.  This  work 
met  with  severe  criticism  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  In  1826  Alexander  II.  Everett,  Uni 
ted  States  minister  to  Spain,  commissioned  Ir 
ving  to  translate  the  documents  relative  to 
Columbus  which  had  just  been  collected  by 
Navarrete.  With  this  material  at  command  he 
wrote  his  "  History  of  the  Life  and  Voyages 
of  Christopher  Columbus "  (4  vols.,  London, 
1828),  for  which  he  received  3,000  guineas 
from  the  publisher  and  one  of  the  50-guinea 
gold  medals  offered  by  George  IV.  for  histori 
cal  composition.  This  history  gained  imme 
diate  popularity,  and  was  highly  praised  by  the 
reviewers,  more  than  restoring  the  favor  which 
its  author  seemed  to  have  lost  by  his  preceding 
work.  After  a  tour  in  the  south  of  Spain  he 
published  his  "  Chronicles  of  the  Conquest  of 
Granada"  (2  vols.,  London,  1829),  for  which 
Murray  paid  £2,000,  losing  money  by  it.  The 
"Voyages  of  the  Companions  of  Columbus" 
appeared  in  1831,  and  in  1832  the  "Alham- 
bra  "  (2  vols.,  London),  a  portion  of  which  was 
written  in  the  old  Moorish  palace,  where  Irving 
spent  three  months.  In  July,  1829,  he  had  re 
turned  to  London,  having  been  appointed  sec 
retary  of  the  American  legation  there.  In 
1831  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  The  recall  of  the 
minister  deprived  him  of  his  office,  and  in 
May,  1832,  he  returned  to  New  York,  where  a 
public  dinner,  at  which  Chancellor  Kent  pre 
sided,  was  given  in  his  honor.  In  the  summer 
of  the  same  year  he  accompanied  Commissioner 
Ellsworth  in  the  removal  of  the  Indian  tribes 
across  the  Mississippi,  and  the  result  was  his 
"Tour  on  the  Prairies"  (1835),  which,  to 
gether  with  "Abbotsford  and  Newstead  Ab 
bey"  (1835)  and  "Legends  of  the  Conquest  of 
Spain  "  (1835),  forms  the  "  Crayon  Miscellany." 
"Astoria"  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1836),  which 
professes  to  give  the  early  history  of  the  fur 
station  of  that  mime  in  Oregon,  was  written 
from  the  author's  remembrance  of  visits  in  his 
youth  to  the  station  of  the  northwest  far  com- 
jpany  at  Montreal,  and  from  documents  fur- 


IRWIN 


ISABELLA 


421 


nished  by  John  Jacob  Astor.  The  "Adven 
tures  of  Captain  Bonneville,  IT.  S.  A.,  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Far  West,"  was  pub 
lished  in  1837  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia),  and  in 
1839-'41  Irving  contributed  to  the  "Knicker 
bocker  Magazine "  a  series  of  articles  which 
with  others  were  collected  in  a  volume  enti 
tled  "  Wolfert's  Roost"  (New  York,  1855).  In 
1841  he  wrote  a  life  of  Margaret  Miller  David 
son,  to  accompany  her  posthumous  works.  He 
was  United  States  minister  to  Spain  from  1842 
to  1846,  and  on  his  return  prepared  for  publi 
cation  in  separate  form  his  biography  of  Oliver 
Goldsmith  (New  York,  1849),  which  was  origi 
nally  prefixed  to  a  Paris  edition  of  Goldsmith's 
works,  and  also  published  "Mahomet  and  his 
Successors"  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1850),  com 
posed  partly  from  materials  collected  in  Madrid. 
In  1848-'50,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  G.  P.  Put 
nam,  he  revised  his  entire  works,  which  were 
issued  by  that  publisher  in  15  uniform  volumes, 
and  met  with  a  large  sale.  Irving's  last,  long 
est,  and  most  elaborate  work,  "  The  Life  of 
George  Washington"  (5  vols.,  New  York, 
1855-' 9),  occupied  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
the  final  volume  appearing  only  three  months 
before  his  death.-JFrom  the  time  when  the 
"Sketch  Book"  was  published  Irving  had  a 
wide  circle  of  appreciative  readers,  which  has 
never  diminished.  In  the  department  of  pure 
literature  he  was  the  earliest  classic  writer  of 
America,  and  in  the  opinion  of  many  he  re 
mains  the  first.  The  remarkable  clearness  and 
purity  of  his  English,  the  freshness  of  many  of 
his  themes,  and  the  genial  spirit  in  which  he 
handles  all,  seem  to  have  secured  for  his  works 
a  permanent  active  circulation.  During  his 
lifetime  000,000  volumes  were  sold  in  Ameri 
ca,  and  since  his  death  the  sale  has  averaged 
more  than  30,000  a  year.  On  account  of  the 
early  death  of  a  young  lady  to  whom  he  was 
attached,  Matilda  Hoffman,  he  never  married. 
For  several  years  before  his  death  he  resided 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson,  near  Tarry- 
town,  in  an  old  Dutch  mansion  which  he  chris 
tened  "Sunnyside."  This  place  is  the  scene 
of  the  "Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,"  and  Ir 
ving's  house  was  the  original  of  the  castle 
of  Baltus  van  Tassel.  In  private  life  Irving 
was  very  even-tempered,  hospitable,  genial,  and 
generous,  with  an  almost  feminine  delicacy 
of  manners  and  conversation.  lie  was  a  com 
municant  of  the  Episcopal  church.  He  died 
suddenly  from  disease  of  the  heart,  and  was 
buried  in  the  graveyard  at  Tarrytown,  the  fu 
neral  procession  passing  through  the  famous 
"Sleepy  Hollow."  Ilia  "Life  and  Letters" 
(5  vols.,  New  York,  1861-'7)  was  edited  by 
his  nephew  Pierre  M.  Irving,  who  also  col 
lected  and  edited  his  "  Spanish  Papers,  and 
other  Miscellanies"  (3  vols.,  1866). 

IRWIX,  a  S.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  N.  | 
E.  by  Ocmulgee  river,  and  traversed  by  the  Al- 
lapaha  ;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  j 
1,837,  of  whom  296  were  colored.     It  has  a  ! 
level  surface  and  a  sandy  soil,  which  is  not  ' 


very  fertile  except  in  the  S.  E.  part.  Pine 
forests  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  land. 
The  Brunswick  and  Albany  railroad  touches 
the  S.  W.  corner.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  27,875  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,165 
of  oats,  23,220  of  sweet  potatoes,  16,510  Ibs. 
of  wool,  and  153  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
257  horses,  9,021  cattle,  7,372  sheep,  and  7,458 
swine.  Capital,  Irwinville. 

ISAAC  (Ueb.Yitz'Tiafc,  will  laugh,  whose  birth 
caused  laughter),  the  second  patriarch  of  the 
Hebrews,  son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah,  younger 
brother  of  Ishmael,  and  father  of  Jacob  and 
Esau  by  Rebekah.  The  narrative  of  his  life  is 
contained  in  Genesis,  according  to  which  he 
was  born  when  his  father  was  100  years  old, 
was  circumcised  on  the  8th  day  of  his  life,  was 
about  to  be  sacrificed  by  his  father  on  Mt. 
Moriah,  but  was  saved  by  divine  interposition, 
lived  partly  as  a  nomad,  partly  as  an  agri 
culturist,  in  the  southern  region  of  Canaan  and 
in  Philistia,  and  died  blind  at  the  age  of  180, 
after  bestowing  his  chief  blessing  on  his  younger 
son  Jacob,  who,  by  the  advice  of  his  mother, 
had  disguised  himself  to  resemble  Esau. 

ISAAC  I.,   Conmenns,   a  Byzantine   emperor, 
died  in   1061.     He   was  the   son   of  Manuel 
Comnenus,  prefect  of  the  East,  but  early  lost 
his  father,  and  was  brought  up  by  the  emperor 
Basil  II.     He  married  the  daughter  of  the  cap- 
j  tive  king  of  Bulgaria,  and  was  living  privately 
j  in  Paphlagonia  when  in   1057  a  conspiracy 
!  raised  him  to  the  throne  in  the  place  of  Michael 
'  VI.     He  repulsed  the  Hungarians  in  1059,  but 
j  was  a  weak  and  incompetent  ruler,  and  the 
I  same  year  abdicated  and  retired  to  a  monas 
tery,  where  he   remained  till  his  death.     He 
left  no  son,  but  the  family  of  Comneni,  after 
I  an  interval  of  20  years,  occupied  the  Byzantine 
throne  for  a  century. 

ISAAC  II.,  Angelus,  a  Byzantine  emperor, 
born  in  1154,  put  to  death  in  1204.  A  de 
scendant  of  the  Comneni  through  his  grand 
mother,  he  held  various  offices  under  the  em 
peror  Manuel  I.  He  fell  under  the  displeasure 
of  Andronicus  Comnenus,  who  ordered  him  to 
be  put  to  death ;  but  a  popular  revolution  de 
livered  him  and  placed  him  upon  the  throne 
in  1185.  He  made  himself  detested  by  his 
vices  and  incapacity,  and  was  dethroned  by  his 
brother  Alexis  III.  in  1195,  and  deprived  of  his 
sight.  When  the  crusaders  took  Constantino 
ple  in  1203,  they  restored  Isaac  to  the  throne; 
but  he  was  again  dethroned  and  put  to  death 
by  Alexis  Ducas  in  the  following  year. 

ISABELLA,  a  central  county  of  the  southern 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  intersected  by  Chippewa 
river;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,4,113. 
The  surface  is  nearly  level,  and  mostly  covered 
with  forests,  principally  of  pine  and  sugar 
maple.  The  Flint  andPere  Marquette  railroad 
crosses  the  N.  E.  corner.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  2f,786  bushels  of  wheat, 
18,984  of  Indian  corn,  21,382  of  oats,  39,001  of 
potatoes,  87,854  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,268  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  568  horses,  867  milch 


422 


ISABELLA 


cows,  1,532  other  cattle,  1,911  sheep,  and  1,375 
swine.     Capital,  Mt.  Pleasant. 

ISABELLA  I.,  the  Catholic,  queen  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  born  in  Madrigal,  Old  Castile,  April 
23, 1451,  died  Nov.  26, 1504.  She  was  the  daugh 
ter  of  John  II.  of  Castile  by  his  second  wife, 
Isabella  of  Portugal,  and  was  therefore  descend 
ed  through  both  parents  from  the  famous  John 
of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.  She  was  little 
more  than  three  years  old  when  her  father 
died,  leaving  his  crown  to  Henry,  the  offspring 
of  his  first  marriage  with  Maria  of  Aragon. 
Until  her  12th  year  Isabella  lived  with  her 
mother  in  retirement  in  the  small  town  of 
Arevalo.  On  the  birth  of  the  princess  Juana, 
Henry  removed  his  sister  to  court,  the  better 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  party  for  secu 
ring  the  succession  to  her  instead  of  Juana. 
Remote  as  seemed  her  chances  of  a  crown, 
with  her  elder  brother  on  the  throne,  an  heir 
to  his  body,  and  another  brother  living,  Isa 
bella  was  yet  thought  a  fit  match  for  the  first 
princes  of  Europe.  "  Her  hand  was  first  so 
licited,"  says  Prescott,  "  for  that  very  Ferdi 
nand  who  was  destined  to  be  her  future  hus 
band,  though  not  till  after  the  intervention  of 
many  inauspicious  circumstances."  She  was 
next,  at  the  age  of  11,  betrothed  to  his  brother 
Carlos,  aged  40.  This  unequal  union  was  pre 
vented  by  the  death  of  Carlos  by  poison,  and  in 
1464  Henry  promised  her  hand  to  Alfonso  of 
Portugal.  Isabella  opposed  this  summary  dis 
position  of  her  person,  saying  that  "  the  in 
fantas  of  Castile  could  not  be  given  in  mar 
riage  without  the  consent  of  the  nobles  of  the 
realm."  An  insurrection,  headed  by  the  mar 
quis  of  Villena  and  his  uncle,  the  archbishop 
of  Toledo,  had  been  stirred  up  partly  by  the 
belief  of  many  nobles  that  the  princess  Juana 
(often  known  as  la  BeUranejci),  to  whom  the 
king  had  caused  the  oath  of  fealty  to  be  taken, 
was  the  offspring  of  an  amour  between  the 
queen  and  the  royal  favorite  Beltran  de  la 
Cueva.  The  confederates  proclaimed  the  trans 
fer  of  the  sceptre  from  Henry  to  his  brother 
Alfonso,  and  collected  an  army  to  support  their 
cause.  Henry  sought  to  detach  the  chief  con 
spirators  by  marrying  Isabella  to  the  brother 
of  the  marquis  of  Villena,  the  profligate  Don 
Pedro  Giron,  grand  master  of  the  order  of 
Calatrava.  The  princess  vowed  to  plunge  a 
dagger  into  Don  Pedro's  heart  rather  than  sub 
mit  to  such  dishonor,  but  the  grand  master  died 
suddenly  on  his  journey  to  the  nuptials.  Two 
years  later  (1468)  Alfonso  died,  and  the  in 
surgents  offered  the  crown  to  Isabella.  She 
refused  it,  but  expressed  her  willingness  to  suc 
ceed  her  brother  ;  and  an  accommodation  was 
soon  effected  with  Henry,  by  the  terms  of 
which  the  queen  was  to  be  divorced,  and  Isa 
bella  was  recognized  as  heir  to  Castile  and 
Leon,  with  the  right  to  choose  her  own  hus 
band,  subject  to  the  king's  approval.  Isabella's 
claim  to  the  succession  was  soon  afterward 
solemnly  ratified  by  the  cortes.  Henry  paid 
little  regard  to  the  terms  of  this  agreement, 


and  made  another  effort  to  force  her  to  marry 
the  king  of  Portugal.  Policy  and  affection  in 
clined  her  to  the  suit  of  Ferdinand,  prince  of 
Aragon,  and,  incensed  at  her  brother's  threats 
of  imprisonment,  she  resolved  to  take  matters 
into  her  own  hands,  and  returned  the  Ara- 
gonese  envoy  a  favorable  answer.  Ferdinand 
signed  the  marriage  contract  at  Cervera,  Jan. 
7,  1469,  guaranteeing  to  his  consort  all  the 
essential  rights  of  sovereignty  in  Castile  and 
Leon.  Henry  at  once  despatched  a  force  to 
seize  his  sister's  person,  but  Isabella  escaped 
to  Valladolid,  and  sent  word  to  Ferdinand  to 
hasten  the  marriage.  The  young  prince,  un 
able  to  procure  an  escort,  as  his  father  was 
then  at  war  with  the  insurgent  Catalans  and 
utterly  bankrupt,  travelled  in  the  disguise  of  a 
servant  with  six  companions  to  Osma,  esca 
ping  the  troops  of  Henry  posted  to  cut  off  his 
progress,  and  thence  journeyed  in  more  fitting 
state  to  Valladolid,  where  the  marriage  cere 
mony  took  place,  Oct.  19,  1469.  Henry  now 
declared  Isabella  to  have  forfeited  all  the  ad 
vantages  guaranteed  by  the  previous  treaty, 
and  proclaimed  Juana  his  lawful  successor. 
The  kingdom  became  divided  by  two  hostile 
factions,  Henry  receiving  the  countenance  of 
France,  but  Isabella  gradually  winning  the  af 
fections  and  allegiance  of  the  Castilians  by  her 
virtues  and  sagacity.  At  length,  on  Dec.  11, 
1474,  the  king  died,  and  two  days  later  Isa 
bella  was  proclaimed  queen  at  Segovia.  Most 
of  the  nobles  swore  allegiance,  but  the  party 
of  Juana  was  still  powerful,  and  it  was  not 
until  after  a  war  with  Alfonso  of  Portugal, 
who  had  been  affianced  to  Juana,  that  the 
queen's  authority  was  fully  recognized.  From 
this  time  her  career  was  brilliant.  She  applied 
herself  to  reform  the  laws  and  internal  admin 
istration  of  the  realm,  to  encourage  literature 
and  the  arts,  and  to  modify  the  stern  and  crafty 
measures  of  her  husband.  Though  the  life  and 
soul  of  the  war  against  the  Moors,  in  which 
she  personally  took  part,  even  wearing  armor, 
which  is  still  preserved  at  Madrid,  she  was 
opposed  to  the  cruelty  which  was  then  the  es 
tablished  policy  toward  that  people;  and  if  she 
decreed  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Castile, 
and  gave  a  reluctant  consent  to  the  introduc 
tion  of  the  inquisition,  it  was  from  a  convic 
tion  that  the  safety  of  the  Catholic  faith  de 
manded  this  sacrifice  of  her  private  feelings. 
The  encouragement  of  Christopher  Columbus 
|  is  the  deed  by  which  she  is  best  known  to  pos 
terity  ;  the  squadron  with  which  he  discovered 
America  was  equipped  at  her  expense.  She 
opposed  the  reduction  of  the  Indians  to  slavery, 
and  when  a  cargo  of  these  captives  was  sent  by 
Columbus  to  Spain,  she  ordered  them  to  be 
transported  back  to  their  own  country.  "With 
the  aid  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  she  reformed  the 
religious  orders,  establishing  thereby  as  firm  a 
discipline  in  the  church  as  she  had  already  in 
troduced  into  the  state.  Neither  wealth  nor 
station  ever  shielded  criminals  from  her  dis 
pleasure,  and  the  sword  of  justice  fell  with 


ISABELLA  II. 


423 


equal  certainty  upon  the  nobility,  the  clergy, 
and  the  common  offender.  The  masculine  in 
tellect,  the  feminine  charms,  and  the  rare  vir 
tues  of  Isabella  have  been  a  favorite  theme 
for  historians  of  all  subsequent  times,  and  the 
affection  in  which  all  her  subjects  held  her 
person  is  still  cherished  throughout  Spain  for 
her  memory.  The  sudden  deaths  of  Don  Car 
los,  Don  Pedro  Giron,  and  her  brother  Al 
fonso,  so  opportunely  for  her  interests,  left  no 
stain  of  suspicion  upon  her.  For  Ferdinand 
she  always  entertained  the  warmest  affection, 
which  was  not  always  faithfully  returned.  Her 
genuine  piety  colored  every  action  of  her  life. 
In  person  she  was  equally  beautiful  as  in  char 
acter.  She  had  a  clear  complexion,  light  blue 
eyes,  and  auburn  hair.  She  had  five  children : 
Isabella,  married  to  Emanuel  of  Portugal; 
Juan,  a  virtuous  prince,  who  died  in  1497,  aged 
20 ;  Juana,  who  married  Philip,  archduke  of 
Austria,  and  was  the  mother  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V. ;  Maria,  who  espoused  Emanuel 
after  the  death  of  her  sister;  and  Catharine, 
the  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  (See 
FERDINAND  V.) 

ISABELLA  II.  (MARIA  ISABEL  LTJISA),  ex-queen 
of  Spain,  born  in  Madrid,  Oct.  10,  1830.  She 
is  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII.  and 
his  fourth  wife,  Maria  Christina.  The  ques 
tion  of  her  succession  to  the  throne  caused  in 
Spain  a  bloody  civil  war.  Her  father,  having 
no  son,  repealed  (March  29,  1830)  the  Salic 
law,  introduced  into  Spain  by  Philip  V.,  and 
named  the  expected  offspring  of  his  fourth 
marriage  to  succeed  him,  thus  excluding  his 
brother  Don  Carlos,  who  was  then  heir  pre 
sumptive  by  virtue  of  that  law.  Ferdinand 
dying  Sept.  29,  1833,  Isabella,  then  only  three 
years  old,  was  proclaimed  queen.  Don  Carlos 
took  up  arms,  supported  by  a  large  body  of 
adherents,  known  as  Carlists.  The  contest 
gradually  assumed  the  worst  form  of  civil  war, 
the  clergy  taking  sides  with  Don  Carlos,  while 
the  queen's  party  was  identified  with  that  of 
the  exaltadoa,  liberals,  or  constitutionalists; 
the  queen  mother,  who  had  taken  the  title  of 
regent,  having  guaranteed  a  constitution  to 
Spain.  The  young  queen  was  supported  by 
the  majority  of  the  people,  and  in  1834  it  was 
almost  unanimously  agreed  by  the  legislative 
cortes  that  Don  Carlos  and  his  descendants 
should  be  for  ever  excluded  from  the  Spanish 
throne ;  a  decree  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
constituent  cortes  in  1830.  Peace  was  vir 
tually  concluded  at  the  end  of  August,  1839,  at 
Vergara,  by  the  convention  between  the  Carlist 
general  Maroto  and  Gen.  Espartero,  the  most 
successful  of  the  constitutionalist  commanders, 
and  Don  Carlos  fled  to  France.  During  the 
course  of  the  struggle  the  queen  regent  vacil 
lated  between  the  two  parties  of  moderation,  or 
conservatives,  and  exaltados,  or  liberals.  The 
ministry  of  Mendizabal  modified  the  constitu 
tion,  enlarged  the  electoral  law,  and  introduced 
other  reforms;  but  the  juntas,  still  dissatisfied, 
demanded  the  constitution  of  1812,  which  was 


finally  extorted  by  the  insurrection  of  Madrid, 
June  18,  1837.  The  great  insurrections  of 
Barcelona  and  of  Madrid  in  1839  caused  the 
flight  of  the  queen  mother  into  France  (Octo 
ber,  1840).  Espartero  now  became  head  of 
the  government,  and  on  May  8,  1841,  was  de 
clared  regent,  but  was  finally  compelled  by  an 
insurrection  of  the  friends  of  Christina  and  the 
radicals  to  abdicate ;  the  cortes,  by  advancing 
the  majority  of  the  queen  11  months,  placed 
her  on  the  throne,  Nov.  10,  1843.  Gen.  Nar- 
vaez,  who  had  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  insurrection,  became  chief  of  the  cabinet 
in  1844,  and  in  the  following  year  the  consti 
tution  was  modified  in  a  reactionary  sense. 
On  Oct.  10,  1846,  under  the  influence  of  Louis 
Philippe,  she  was  married  to  her  cousin,  Don 
Francisco  de  Asis,  and  at  the  same  time  her 
sister  Maria  Ferdinanda  Luisa  was  married  to 
the  duke  of  Montpensier.  This  alliance  gave 
rise  to  sinister  comments,  and  resulted  in  do 
mestic  unhappiness  and  in  injurious  reports  in 
regard  to  the  conjugal  fitness  of  the  king  and 
the  conjugal  fidelity  of  the  queen.  Isabella 
established  alliances  with  Austria  and  Prussia, 
and  in  1849  sent  an  army  to  aid  the  pope. 
An  attempted  assassination  of  the  queen  in 
1852  was  turned  to  account  by  the  conser 
vatives,  who  procured  the  dissolution  of  the 
cortes  and  the  adoption  of  repressive  mea 
sures.  Several  liberal  generals  having  been 
banished,  on  June  28,  1854,  Gens.  O'Donnell 
and  Dulce  headed  a  military  and  civil  insurrec 
tion  in  Madrid,  and  succeeded  in  reestablishing 
a  liberal  government.  The  queen  mother  fled 
again  to  France,  and  the  queen  proclaimed  an 
amnesty,  opened  a  new  cortes,  and  legalized 
the  sale  of  church  property.  In  1856  an  at 
tempted  coup  d'etat  by  O'Donnell,  and  the 
suppression  of  revolts  in  the  south  of  Spain, 
gave  the  queen  more  power,  and  reestablished 
the  constitution  of  1845.  This  induced  the 
most  reactionary  measures,  which  in  turn 
brought  about  a  year  later  the  fall  of  the  Nar- 
vaez  cabinet  and  the  formation  of  a  more  lib 
eral  ministry  (October,  1857).  A  war  with 
Morocco,  undertaken  by  O'Donnell,  was  suc 
cessfully  terminated  in  April,  1860.  The  in 
tervention  in  Mexican  affairs  jointly  with  the 
French,  and  under  the  lead  of  Prim,  in  1861-'2, 
was  speedily  cut  short  by  that  general.  Waste 
ful  enterprises  in  Santo  Domingo  and  against 
Peru  and  Chili  proved  entirely  fruitless.  In 
1865  Isabella  was  compelled  by  the  resignation 
of  her  ministers  to  give  her  sanction  to  the 
bill  repealing  the  law  of  1861,  by  which  the  re 
public  of  Dominica  was  incorporated  with  the 
monarchy;  and  in  the  same  year  she  ordered 
the  sale  of  all  the  crown  property,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  the  royal  residences  and  entailed  es 
tates,  for  the  benefit  of  the  nation.  In  1866, 
under  the  influence  of  the  priests  and  a  new 
Xarvaez  cabinet,  she  abolished  freedom  of  the 
press  and  placed  public  instruction  in  the  hands 
|  of  the  clergy.  Insurrections,  instigated  and 
partly  led  by  Prim,  broke  out  in  that  and  the 


ISABELLA  OF  ENGLAND 


ISAR 


following  year  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
but  failed  for  want  of  organization.  Gonzalez 
Bravo,  the  successor  of  Narvaez  at  the  head  of 
the  cabinet,  carried  reaction  still  further,  until 
in  September,  1868,  a  revolt  began  at  Cadiz 
which  speedily  spread  over  all  Spain,  and  re 
sulted  in  the  queen's  flight  to  France,  with  her 
children,  her  lover  Marfori,  and  her  chaplain 
Claret.  (See  PRIM,  and  SEKEAXO.)  Napoleon 
III.  put  at  her  disposal  the  castle  at  Pan,  whence 
she  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  Spanish  peo 
ple,  protesting  against  the  revolution.  On  Sept. 
20, 1868,  her  deposition  was  declared  at  Madrid, 
and  on  Nov.  6  she  took  up  her  residence  in 
Paris,  where  she  has  since  remained,  with  the 
exception  of  an  interval  spent  at  Geneva  during 
the  Franco-German  war.  On  June  25,  1870, 
she  abdicated  her  claim  to  the  throne  of  Spain  in 
favor  of  her  son,  Alfonso  Francisco  de  Asis  Fer 
nando,  &c.  (born  Nov.  28,  185T),  prince  of  As- 
turias,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Alfonso  XII. 

ISABELLA  OF  ENGLAND.  See  EDWARD  II. 
and  III. 

ISABELLA  OF  VALOIS.  See  ELIZABETH  OF 
VALOIS. 

ISABEY.  I.  Jean  Baptist®,  a  French  miniature 
painter,  born  in  Nancy,  April  11,  1767,  died 
April  18,  1855.  lie  studied  historical  painting 
under  David,  but  commenced  his  career  by 
making  portraits  in  crayons.  About  1800  he 
determined  to  apply  the  principles  of  high  art 
to  miniature  painting,  and  in  1802  his  repu 
tation  was  established  by  an  extensive  work, 
representing  the  first  consul  reviewing  his 
troops  in  the  court  of  the  Tuileries ;  and  thence 
forth  he  remained  at  the  very  head  of  this 
bra-nch  of  his  art.  Napoleon  I.,  with  whom 
he  had  been  intimate  in  his  youth,  appointed 
him  his  miniature  painter  in  ordinary,  and 
the  members  of  the  Bonaparte  family  and 
the  marshals  and  great  dignitaries  of  the  em 
pire  sat  to  him,  besides  many  sovereigns  and 
statesmen  of  Europe,  of  whom  he  painted  a 
greater  number  than  any  contemporary.  His 
Table  des  marechaux,  on  a  large  slab  of  porce 
lain,  representing  Napoleon  surrounded  by  his 
most  famous  generals,  is  a  good  specimen  of 
his  large  portrait  pieces.  Ilis  picture  of  one 
of  the  conferences  at  Vienna,  whither  he  had 
followed  Maria  Louisa  on  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon  in  1814,  is  valuable  from  the  num 
ber  of  historic  portraits  it  embraces.  II.  Eugene 
Louis  Gabriel,  a  French  marine  and  landscape 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris, 
July  22,  1804.  He  studied  art  under  his  father. 
His  "  Battle  of  the  Texel "  (1839)  is  in  Ver 
sailles,  and  his  "Embarking of  Ruyter"  (1851) 
in  the  Luxembourg.  His  later  works  include 
"The  Alchemist"  (1865)  and  "The  Tempta 
tion  of  St.  Anthony"  (1869). 

IS.HTS,  one  of  the  ten  Attic  orators,  born  at 
Chalcis,  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the  4th 
century  B.  C.  lie  went  at  an  early  age  to 
Athens,  was  instructed  in  oratory  by  Lysias 
and  Isocrates,  composed  judicial  orations  for 
others,  and  founded  a  school  of  rhetoric  in 


which  Demosthenes  is  said  to  have  studied.  In 
antiquity  64  orations  were  ascribed  to  him,  of 
which  11  are  extant,  all  relating  to  disputed  in 
heritances.  The  best  separate  edition  is  that 
by  Schomann  (8vo,  Greifswald,  1831).  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  Sir  William  Jones 
(London,  1794). 

ISAIAH,  the  first  of  the  great  Hebrew  proph 
ets,  son  of  Amoz,  flourished  under  Kings  Uz- 
ziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  from  about 
760  to  700  B.  C.  Ahaz  was  consoled  by  his 
prophecies  when  King  Rezin  of  Damascus  and 
Pekah  of  Israel  warred  against  Judah.  But  his 
chief  activity  falls  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
during  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  As 
syria.  (See  HEBREWS,  vol.  viii.,  p.  589.)  The 
leading  themes  of  his  prophecies  are  denunci 
ations  of  vice  and  oppression,  announcements 
of  impending  ruin,  and  the  promise  of  regen 
eration  and  a  universal  reign  of  justice.  The 
eloquent  style  and  sublimity  of  thought  of  the 
main  portions  of  the  book  of  Isaiah  give  him 
the  highest  rank  among  the  prophets.  The 
last  27  chapters,  which  differ  in  diction  and 
topics,  treating  of  the  victories  of  Cyrus,  the 
fall  of  Babylon,  and  the  return  of  the  Jews  to 
Jerusalem,  are  generally  considered  by  critics 
to  be  by  some  author  of  the  time  of  the  captiv 
ity,  whose  name  is  unknown,  and  who  is  often 
designated  as  the  second  Isaiah.  Some  other 
chapters  (xiii.,  xxxiv.,  xxxv.,  &c.)  are  also  re 
garded  as  productions  of  unknown  authorship. 
Among  the  best  commentators  are  Lowth  (Lon 
don,  1775),  Gesenius  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1820-'21), 
Ilitzig  (2  vols.,  Heidelberg,  1833),  J.  A.  Alex 
ander  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1846-'7),  Barnes  (2 
vols.,  1848),  Drechsler  (3  vols.,  completed  by  De- 
litzsch  and  Ilahn,  1857),  Knobel  (3d  ed.,  1861), 
Delitzsch  (1866),  and  Ewald  (2d  ed.,  1867). 

ISANTI,  an  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  inter 
sected  by  St.  Francis  or  Rum  river ;  area,  450 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,035.  The  surface  is 
somewhat  diversified.  Timber  is  found  along 
the  river  banks.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  16,025  'bushels  of  wheat,  2,523  of  rye, 
8,699  of  Indian  corn,  11,860  of  oats,  11,544  of 
potatoes,  58,331  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  5,432  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  225  horses,  600  milch 
cows,  1,149  other  cattle,  975  sheep,  and  395 
swine.  Capital,  Cambridge. 

ISAR  (anc.  Isarits),  a  river  of  Germany,  a 
tributary  of  the  S.  or  right  bank  of  the  Dan 
ube,  about  200  m.  long.  It  rises  in  Tyrol  about 
6  m.  N.  E.  of  Innspruck,  passes  for  about  80 
in.  through  a  wild  and  partly  uninhabited  Al 
pine  region,  until  it  reaches  with  torrent-like 
velocity  the  Bavarian  town  of  Tolz,  25  m.  S. 
of  Munich  ;  it  falls  into  the  Danube  2  m.  be 
low  Deggendorf .  Besides  Munich,  the  Isar  wa 
ters  Landshut,  Landau,  and  other  towns,  but  is 
not  navigable  excepting  downward  from  Tolz, 
and  then  only  for  rafts.  It  contains  many 
large  bogs  and  forms  numerous  islands ;  has 
many  affluents  from  the  Ammer,  Wiirm,  and 
other  lakes;  and  is  said  to  have  once  been 
j  a  mountain  lake  extending  far  beyond  Tolz. 


ISAURE 


ISftRE 


425 


The  circle  of  Upper  Bavaria  was  formerly 
known  as  that  of  the  Isar. 

ISAIRE,  Clenienee,  a  French  patroness  of 
poetry,  born  in  Toulouse  about  1450,  died  there 
about  1500.  She  belonged  to  a  distinguished 
family,  according  to  some  authorities  to  that 
of  the  counts  of  Toulouse.  She  was  never 
married,  and  devoted  her  wealth  to  the  pro 
motion  of  poetry  by  restoring  the  floral  games 
at  the  academy  of  Toulouse.  She  annually 
devoted  large  amounts  to  the  endowment  of 
prizes  for  the  best  poetical  contributions,  and 
the  academy  continues  to  derive  from  her  legacy 
an  annual  income  of  over  10,000  francs  for  the 
still  existing  floral  games. 

ISA1  III  \,  in  ancient  geography,  a  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  by  Phrygia,  Lycaonia, 
Cilicia,  and  Pisidia,  containing  few  towns,  and 
known  to  the  ancients  chiefly  by  the  marauding 
excursions  of  the  Isauri,  who  dwelt  in  its  moun 
tain  fastnesses.  The  Romans  sent  an  army 
against  them  in  78  B.  0.  under  Servilius,  who 
reduced  them  to  submission  and  gained  the  sur 
name  of  Isauricus.  As  they  continued  their 
depredations,  the  Romans  tried  with  little  suc 
cess  to  check  them  by  confining  them  within  a 
circle  of  fortresses.  In  the  3d  century  the 
Isaurians  and  Cilicians  united  themselves  into 
one  nation,  and  one  of  their  chiefs,  Trebellia- 
nus,  assumed  the  title  of  Roman  emperor  (204), 
but  was  conquered  and  put  to  death.  They 
were  formidable  to  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
and  two  of  their  race,  Zeno  (474-'91)  and  Leo 
III.  (718-'41),  rose  to  the  Byzantine  throne. 
The  capital  of  Isauria  was  Isaura,  at  the  foot  of 
Mt,  Taurus,  a  strong  and  rich  city,  whose  in 
habitants  destroyed  it  and  themselves  by  fire 
when  they  could  no  longer  resist  the  siege  of 
Perdiccas,  shortly  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  again  destroy 
ed  by  Servilius. 

ISCIIIA  (anc.  sEnaria  and  Inarime),  an  island 
of  Italy,  in  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  N".  entrance 


of  the  bay  of  Naples;  area,  26  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  25,000.  Its  coasts  are  steep  and  rocky. 
Near  its  centre  is  the  volcano  of  Epomeo,  2,500 
ft.  above  the  sea;  its  last  eruption  was  in  1301. 
There  are  also  12  smaller  volcanoes.  The  in 
tervening  valleys  are  of  extraordinary  fertility, 
producing  corn,  wine,  and  fruits  in  abundance. 
Its  warm  baths,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
are  those  of  Casamicciola  and  Lacco,  are  much 
frequented,  and,  with  its  salubrious  climate  and 
luxuriant  vegetation,  make  it  a  favorite  resort 
in  every  season  of  the  year.  The  chief  town, 
Ischia,  has  about  6,300  inhabitants,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  Catholic  bishop.  Its  castle,  a  pic 
turesque  structure,  stands  on  a  high  isolated 
rock  of  volcanic  tufa  and  ashes,  which  rises 
out  of  the  sea  opposite  the  island  of  Vivara, 
and  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  mole. 
It  was  built  by  Alfonso  I.  of  Arragon  in  the 
12th  century. 

IS( IIL,  or  Ischil,  a  fashionable  watering  place 
in  Upper  Austria,  on  the  river  Traun,  in  the 
centre  of  five  or  six  valleys,  surrounded  by 
picturesque  mountains,  27  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Salz 
burg;  pop.  in  1869,  7,126.  In  the  vicinity  are 
extensive  salt  works,  established  in  1822.  It 
contains  several  churches  and  schools,  and  sul 
phur,  rnud,  and  saline  vapor  baths.  A  suspen 
sion  bridge  crosses  the  Traun,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Ischl.  It  is  a  favorite  resort  of  the  Aus 
trian  nobility  and  of  the  present  emperor. 

ISEGHEM,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  West  Flanders,  7  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Oourtray ; 
pop.  in  1867,  7,955.  It  has  important  manu 
factories  of  cotton,  linen,  hats,  thread,  ribbon, 
and  soap,  breweries,  and  tanneries,  and  a  large 
trade  in  cattle. 

ISELLV,  Henri  Frederic,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Clairegoutte,  Ilaute-Saone,  about  1825. 
He  exhibited  various  works  in  1849,  and  has 
since  produced  busts  of  Murat  and  others  for  the 
museum  of  Versailles,  "  Observation,1'  an  alle 
gorical  bust,  "  The  Genius  of  Fire,"  and  "  Eury- 
pylus"  for  the  new 


pylus 
Louvr 


(_':istle  of  Iscbiu. 


nivre,     and    other 
busts  and  statues. 

ISERE,  a  S.  E.  de 
partment  of  France, 
in  Dauphiny,  bound 
ed  W.  and  X.  by  the 
Rhone,  which  sepa 
rates  it  from  the  de 
partments  of  Loire, 
Rhone,  and  Ain,  and 
on  the  E.  and  S.  bor 
dering  on  Savoie, 
Ilautes- Alpes,  and 
Drome ;  area,  3,200 
s<|.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1872, 
575,784.  It  is  named 
from  the  river  Isere 
(anc.  /x«m),  which 
lio\vs  through  it  gen 
erally  S.  W.  from  Sa 
voie,  passes  Greno 
ble,  and  falls  into  the 


426 


ISERLOHN 


ISINGLASS 


Rhone  near  Valence,  Drome,  after  a  course  of 
180  m.,  for  more  than  80  of  which  it  is  navi 
gable.  The  surface  of  the  department  in  the 
south  is  very  mountainous,  hut  in  the  centre 
and  north  it  frequently  expands  into  extensive 
plains.  There  are  at  least  20  mountain  peaks, 
the  lowest  over  6,000  ft.  high,  and  the  most 
elevated,  belonging  to  the  Pelvoux  group,  on 
the  border  of  Hautes-Alpes,  over  13,000  ft. 
The  soil  of  the  lowlands  is  in  general  very 
fertile.  Agriculture  is  in  an  advanced  state. 
The  quantity  of  wine  made  annually  averages 
over  5,000,000  gallons;  that  made  in  the  val 
ley  of  the  Rhone  has  been  long  celebrated. 
The  production  of  silk  is  an  important  branch 
of  industry.  There  are  mines  of  iron,  cop 
per,  lead,  and  coal ;  and  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
zinc,  and  antimony  are  found.  The  staple 
manufactures  are  hardware,  linens,  and  cotton 
yarn.  The  department  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements  of  Grenoble,  Saint-Marcellin,  La 
Tour-du-Pin,  and  Vienne.  Capital,  Grenoble. 

ISERLOHX,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Westphalia,  15  m.  W.  of  Arnsberg; 
pop.  in  1871,  15,763.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  bronze,  needles, 
&c.  The  manufacture  of  iron  was  in  operation 
there  in  the  middle  ages.  That  of  brass  dates 
from  the  18th  century.  The  other  manufac 
tures  are  silks,  velvet,  broadcloth,  ribbons, 
leather,  and  paper.  The  country  around  Iser- 
lohn  is  diversified  with  picturesque  ruins,  rocks, 
glens,  and  valleys.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town 
is  the  celebrated  Felsenmeer  (sea  of  rocks), 
and  a  remarkable  sounding  cave  containing 
fossil  bones. 

ISERNIA  (anc.  JEsernia),  a  town  of  southern 
Italy,  in  the  province  and  24  m.  "W.  of  the  city 
of  Campobasso,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines, 
and  near  the  source  of  the  Volturno;  pop. 
about  7,500.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  modern 
wall,  founded  on  the  massive  remains  of  an 
ancient  one.  In  the  middle  is  a  fine  fountain, 
with  six  rows  of  arches  supported  on  columns 
of  white  marble;  this,  as  well  as  the  manu 
factories  of  the  town,  is  fed  by  an  ancient 
aqueduct  hewn  in  the  rock  for  a  long  distance 
and  at  a  great  depth.  Isernia  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  has  cloth  and  earthenware  manufac 
tories  and  paper  mills,  and  an  extensive  trade. 
Until  1780  it  was  crowded  during  the  September 
fair  with  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  Sts.  Cosma 
and  Damiano,  who  were  supposed  to  have  ex 
traordinary  healing  powers,  and  to  whom  of 
ferings  were  made  of  red  wax  models  of  the 
parts  of  the  body  affected  by  disease ;  these 
finally  became  so  scandalous  that  the  govern 
ment  suppressed  the  practice.  In  1805  the 
town  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake. 

ISIIMAEL,  son  of  Abraham  and  Hagar,  born 
in  Mamre.  After  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Sarah, 
she  persuaded  Abraham  to  banish  Ilagar  and 
Ishmael,  and  from  that  time  Ishmael  dwelt  as  a 
hunter  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran.  His  12  sons 
became  the  heads  of  12  tribes  dwelling  in  the 
Arabian  desert  between  Egypt  and  the  Eu 


phrates,  under  the  name  of  Ishmaelites  or  Ila- 
garenes. — In  the  10th  century  A.  D.  the  name 
of  Ishmaelites  or  Ismaelians  was  assumed  by 
a  Mohammedan  secret  society  in  Syria  and 
Persia.  (See  ASSASSINS.) 

ISIDORE  MERCATOR,  also  called  PECCATOR 
and  PsErDO-IsmoEE,  the  supposed  author  of 
the  false  decretals.  (See  CAXOX  LAW,  and  DE 
CRETALS.) 

ISIDORUS.  I.  Of  Ckarax,  a  geographer  in  the 
early  part  of  the  1st  century.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  work  in  which  the  Greek  and  Ro 
man  world  and  the  Parthian  empire  were  de 
scribed.  There  are  several  quotations  in  Pliny 
from  this  treatise,  the  extant  fragments  of 
which  have  been  repeatedly  published  in  mod 
ern  times  among  the  remains  of  the  Geogra- 
p/iici  Minor cs.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Miller 
(Paris,  183!)).  II.  Of  Seville,  a  saint  of  the  Latin 
church,  born  in  Cartagena,  Spain,  died  April 
4,  636.  He  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Seville 
about  600,  and  was  esteemed  the  most  eloquent 
orator,  the  profoundest  scholar,  and  the  ablest 
prelate  of  his  age.  In  619  he  presided  at  the 
second  council  of  Seville,  and  in  633  at  the 
great  council  of  Toledo.  He  wrote  on  science, 
art,  history,  and  theology;  the  most  curious 
and  important  of  his  works  is  Originum  sive 
Etymologiarum  Libri  XX.,  an  encyclopaedia 
of  all  the  arts  and  sciences  then  known.  The 
best  complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of 
F.  Arevali  (Rome,  1797-1803).  The  fragments 
of  his  treatise  De  Fide  Caiholica  contra  Judci'os, 
after  the  Paris  and  Vienna  MSS.,  are  given 
by  Karl  Weinhold  in  vol.  vi.  of  the  Bibliotliek 
der  altesten  deutscJien  Literaturdenlimaler  (Pa- 
derborn,  1874). 

ISINGLASS  (perhaps  from  icing  glass;  Ger. 
Haitsenblase,  sturgeon's  bladder,  isinglass),  a 
kind  of  edible  gelatine,  which  consists  of  the 
dried  air  bags,  sounds,  or  swimming  bladders  of 
fishes.  It  was  known  to  the  ancients  by  the 
name  of  ichihyocolla  or  fish  glue,  and  is  often 
alluded  to  by  Dioscorides  and  Pliny.  In  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  world  it  is  obtained  from 
different  fishes,  and  the  isinglass  of  commerce 
is  consequently  of  various  qualities.  The  best 
is  found  among  the  varieties  imported  from 
Russia,  particularly  that  which  is  brought  to 
St.  Petersburg  from  Astrakhan,  and  said  to  be 
obtained  from  the  sturgeon  called  the  beluga 
(acipenser  huso)  of  the  Caspian  sea  and  the 
rivers  which  flow  into  it,  a  species  which  at 
tains  a  length  of  25  ft.  According  to  some 
authorities,  the  sound  is  cut  open,  washed,  and 
then  exposed  to  the  air,  the  inner  silvery  mem 
brane  outward.  This  membrane  is  then  strip 
ped  off,  placed  in  damp  cloths,  and  kneaded  in 
the  hands.  Taken  out  and  dried,  it  forms  the 
leaf  isinglass ;  folded  like  sheets  of  paper,  it  is 
the  book  isinglass;  wound  in  the  form  of  a 
horse  shoe  or  lyre  around  three  pegs,  it  forms 
the  varieties  known  as  long  or  short  staple. 
According  to  Martin,  the  inner  membrane  is 
removed  by  beating  and  rubbing,  and  the 
thicker  membrane  is  preserved.  The  isinglass 


ISINGLASS 


ISLA 


427 


called  Samovey  is  brought  from  Taganrog. 
The  leaf,  book,  and  short  staple  from  this 
place  are  all  of  inferior  quality.  The  varieties 
from  the  Ural  and  Siberia  are  better.  The 
Brazilian  isinglass,  imported  from  Para  and 
Maranhao,  is  obtained  in  various  forms  dis 
tinguished  as  pipe,  lump,  and  honeycomb.  It 
appears  to  be  the  product  of  different  kinds 
of  fish,  and  to  be  prepared  with  little  care.  It 
is  largely  used  in  brewing  establishments  for 
fining  the  liquors ;  and  though  it  is  too  impure 
for  domestic  uses,  it  is  largely  employed  to 
adulterate  the  better  kinds.  Its  presence  may 
be  detected  by  the  isinglass  failing  to  dissolve 
readily  and  completely  in  hot  water,  and  by  its 
forming  with  this  an  opalescent  and  milky  jelly 
in  which  may  be  observed  the  insoluble  shreds 
common  to  the  Brazilian  article.  Its  smell  also 
is  often  disagreeable,  while  that  of  the  pure 
Russian  isinglass  is  as  inoffensive  as  the  odor 
of  seaweed,  which  it  somewhat  resembles. 
The  isinglass  of  New  York  and  New  England 
is  obtained  from  the  sounds  of  the  codfish 
(morrhua  vulgar  is)  and  of  the  common  hake 
(phycis  Americanus).  They  are  macerated  in 
water,  and  afterward  rolled  out  in  long  strips 
a  few  inches  wide.  The  quality  of  this  isin 
glass  is  poor,  its  solution  not  readily  obtained, 
and  its  color  dark.  It  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  Brazilian.  Other  varieties  are 
produced  in  other  maritime  countries. — All 
isinglass  has  to  undergo  a  process  of  refining 
before  it  is  fit  for  making  jellies,  blanc-mange, 
&c.  The  best  beluga  leaf  is  imported  in  circu 
lar  sheets,  the  most  perfect  of  which  are  some 
times  2  ft.  in  circumference,  and  weigh  from  8 
to  16  oz.,  in  some  instances  reaching  even  4 
Ibs.  These  are  carefully  picked  over,  and  all 
the  discolored  parts  are  cut  away  and  put  aside 
for  uses  of  less  importance.  The  assorted  leaf 
is  then  passed  through  successive  pairs  of  iron 
rollers,  until  it  is  converted  into  thin  ribbons 
of  uniform  width,  which  are  afterward  by 
other  machinery  slit  into  fine  shreds.  Inferior 
sheet  gelatine  is  sometimes  introduced  between 
two  sheets  of  isinglass  before  rolling,  and  thus 
incorporated  with  it.  Isinglass,  being  a  nearly 
pure  gelatine,  should  have  little  or  no  color; 
and  being  commonly  prepared  without  expo 
sure  to  high  degrees  of  heat,  it  should  be 
tougher  and  more  elastic  than  the  other  forms 
of  this  substance.  It  therefore  makes  a  most 
adhesive  cement.  For  this  purpose  it  is  swol 
len  with  cold  water  and  then  placed  in  diluted 
alcohol.  The  vessel  containing  it  is  then  put 
into  cold  water,  which  is  to  be  heated  to  boil 
ing.  The  jelly  forms  the  cement,  which  may 
be  kept  from  mouldincss  and  other  change  by 
the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  any  essential  oil. 
It  is  known  as  the  "  diamond  cement,"  and  is 
also  the  adhesive  substance  of  court  plaster. 
Gum  ammoniac  is  sometimes  introduced,  espe 
cially  by  the  Turks,  who  use  the  cement  for 
fastening  precious  stones,  mending  broken 
porcelain,  glass,  &c.  Isinglass  has  also  been 
used  for  the  window  lights  of  vessels,  being 


covered  with  a  transparent  varnish  which  is 
not  affected  by  moist  air.  Hence,  sheets  of 
mica  prepared  for  similar  uses,  as  in  the  doors 
of  stoves,  are  popularly  called  isinglass.  (See 
MICA.) — Besides  the  methods  already  stated  of 
detecting  fraudulent  mixtures  with  isinglass, 
the  microscope  may  be  used  to  render  the  dif 
ferent  textures  apparent.  The  ash  of  isinglass 
seldom  exceeds  £  of  1  per  cent.,  and  is  red; 
that  of  gelatine  is  white,  and  in  quantity  not 
less  than  3  per  cent. 

ISIS,  the  principal  goddess  of  the  Egyptians, 
the  wife  of  Osiris,  and  the  mother  of  Ilorus, 
with  whom  she  formed  the  most  popular  triad 
in  Egyptian  mythology.  (See  OSIRIS.)  She 
was  adored  as  the  great  benefactress  of  Egypt, 
who  had  instructed  her  people  in  the  art  of 
cultivating  wheat  and  barley,  which  were  al 
ways  carried  in  her  festal  processions.  In 
Greece,  where  her  worship  was  introduced  at 
a  very  early  period,  she  was  occasionally  ad 
dressed  as  Pelagia,  the  queen  of  the  sea.  From 
Greece  her  worship  passed  into  Italy,  and  was 
established  in  the  first  century  B.  C.  at  Rome, 
where  it  became  popular.  In  43  B.  C.  the 
triumvirs,  in  order  to  ingratiate  themselves 
with  the  people,  commanded  a  temple  of  Isis 
and  Serapis  to  be  founded,  and  publicly  sanc 
tioned  their  worship.  The  principal  Roman 
temple  of  Isis  stood  in  the  Campus  Martins, 
and  hence  the  goddess  was  often  called  Isis 
Campensis.  The  Romans  identified  with  her 
a  native  goddess  of  the  Gauls,  Sicilians,  and 
Germans.  The  priests  of  Isis  wore  linen  gar 
ments,  and  her  votaries  in  the  public  proces 
sions  wore  masks  representing  the  heads  of 
dogs.  In  works  of  art  she  usually  appears 
with  the  figure  and  face  of  Juno,  arrayed  in  a 
long  tunic,  wearing  a  wreath  of  lotus  flowers, 
and  in  her  right  hand  a  sistruin. 

ISLA,  Jose  Francisco  de,  a  Spanish  author, 
born  in  Segovia  in  1703,  died  in  Bologna  in 
1781.  He  early  became  famous  as  a  Jesuit 
preacher  and  a  satirical  poet.  His  first  works 
were  directed  against  an  extravagant  religious 
festival  at  Salamanca  in  1727,  and  a  royal 
pageant  at  Pampeluna  in  1746 ;  but  he  man 
aged  his  sarcasm  so  adroitly  that  the  authori 
ties  of  the  latter  city  at  first  regarded  his  effu 
sion  as  complimentary,  though  subsequently  he 
left  the  city,  and  probably  was  expelled.  His 
published  sermons  (l729-'54)  show  a  marked 
improvement  upon  the  prevailing  tone  of  the 
itinerant  friars,  and  he  reformed  this  effective 
ly  by  his  celebrated  romance  Historia  del  fa- 
moso  predicador  Fray  Gerundio  de  Campazas. 
The  first  volume,  printed  without  his  knowl 
edge  in  1758,  was  eagerly  bought  up  ;  the  de 
risive  epithet  of  Fray  Gerundio,  henceforward 
applied  to  vulgar  preachers,  put  an  end  to 
their  vocation  ;  but  the  government  was  obliged 
to  withdraw  the  license  for  its  publication  in 
obedience  to  the  clamors  of  the  clergy.  The 
inquisition  condemned  the  book  in  1760,  but 
did  not  molest  the  author,  who  was  protected 
by  his  increasing  popularity.  The  violent  ex- 


428 


ISLAM 


ISLE  ROYALE 


pnlsion  of  his  order  in  1767,  requiring  his 
sudden  departure,  gave  a  shock  to  his  health 
from  which  he  never  recovered,  and  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  Bologna.  The  manu 
script  of  his  second  volume  having  reached 
London',  Baretti  published  it  in  English  (1772); 
and  complete  Spanish  editions  soon  appeared 
at  Bayonne  and  elsewhere,  Isla's  friend  Fran 
cisco  Lobon  de  Salazar,  a  priest  at  Villagarcia, 
in  whose  house  he  had  written  the  work,  ap 
pearing  as  the  author  in  the  earliest  and  in 
some  of  the  later  editions  to  elude  the  censor 
ship.  ,  In  1813  the  work  was  published  in 
Madrid  in  4  vols. ;  and  though  again  interdict 
ed  next  year,  it  continued  to  have  a  large  cir 
culation.  Ticknor  finds  in  its  plan  some  re 
semblance  to  k'Don  Quixote,"  and  in  its  exe 
cution  he  compares  it  to  Rabelais.  Isla's 
works  also  include  Cicero,  a  satirical  poem 
in  16  cantos.  Permission  to  print  it  was  de 
nied,  and  the  manuscript  was  presented  in 
1844  to  the  library  of  the  Athenreum  of  Bos 
ton,  Mass.,  together  with  some  of  Isla's  auto 
graph  letters.  His  letters  to  his  sisters  and 
brother-in-law,  Cartas  familiares,  were  pub 
lished  posthumously  in  6  vols.,  1785-'6. — See 
Vida  de  J.  F.  de  Ma,  by  J.  I.  de  Salas 
(Madrid,  1803). 

ISLAM,  an  Arabic  word,  signifying  full  sub 
mission  to  God.  It  is  used  by  Mohammedans 
to  designate  their  religion,  and  also  the  whole 
body  of  believers,  or  those  who  accept  the  for 
mula  of  faith :  "  There  is  no  God  but  Allah, 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet."  This  for 
mula  or  profession  of  faith  is  understood  to  in 
clude  five  essential  articles  of  religion :  1,  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  divine  unity  and  of 
the  mission  of  Mohammed  ;  2,  observance  of 
prayer ;  3,  almsgiving ;  4,  keeping  the  fast  of 
Ramadan ;  5,  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  The 
Shiahs,  or  adherents  of  Ali,  who  are  dominant 
in  Persia,  add  to  the  declaration  of  faith,  "  Ali 
is  the  vicar  of  God."  But  the  Sunnis,  or  or 
thodox  Mohammedans,  who  form  the  majority 
of  the  church  of  Islam,  reject  this. 

ISLAND,  a  N".  W.  county  of  Washington  ter 
ritory,  bounded  S.  and  S.  W.  by  Admiralty  in 
let,  and  W.  by  Rosario  strait ;  area,  200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  626.  It  comprises  Hat,  Cama- 
no,  and  Whitby  islands,  the  last  being  60  m. 
long,  of  irregular  width,  and  noted  for  its  fer 
tile  soil  and  salubrious  climate.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  3,271  bushels  of 
wheat,  4,856  of  oats,  13,069  of  barley,  15,043 
of  potatoes,  9,297  Ibs.  of  wool,  11,395  of  but 
ter,  and  1,942  tons  of  hay.  There  were  214 
horses,  433  milch  cows,  579  other  cattle,  3,099 
sheep,  and  1,108  swine ;  1  flour  mill,  1  saw 
mill,  and  3  establishments  for  building  and  re 
pairing  ships.  Capital,  Coupeville. 

ISLAY,  or  Isla,  an  island  of  Scotland,  the 
southernmost  of  the  Hebrides,  15  in.  from  the 
coast  of  Argyleshire,  to  which  it  belongs ; 
length  24  m.,  breadth  17  m. ;  area,  154,000 
acres,  of  which  20,000  are  cultivated  ;  pop.  in 
1871,  8,143.  The  surface  of  the  E.  part  is 


hilly  and  mostly  wooded,  but  the  remainder  is 
generally  level.  Some  of  its  summits  are  1,500 
ft.  high.  It  contains  several  small  lakes  and 
rivers,  which  abound  with  salmon  and  trout. 
Loch  Finlaggan,  near  its  centre,  is  about  3  in. 
in  circumference.  In  this  lake  is  an  islet  where 
the  Macdonalds,  the  "lords  of  the  isles,"  once 
resided,  and  where  the  ruins  of  their  castle  still 
are.  The  climate  is  moist,  but  tolerably  heal 
thy.  The  soil  of  the  lowlands  is  very' fertile 
and  well  cultivated.  The  staple  manufacture 
is  whiskey,  which  is  of  superior  quality,  and 
of  which  over  400,000  gallons  are  made"  year 
ly.  Lead  and  copper  mines  have  been  opened. 
In  1843  the  island  was  purchased  as  an  invest 
ment  by  the  late  Mr.  Morison  of  London  for 
$2,225,000.  Chief  town,  Bowmore. 

ISLE  OF  FRANCE.     See  MAURITIUS. 

ISLE  OF  MAN.     See  MAX. 

ISLE  OF  PINES.     See  FIXES. 

ISLE  OF  WIGHT,  England.     See  WIGHT. 

ISLE  OF  WIGHT,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N".  E.  by  the  estuary  of  James  river, 
and  S.  AY.  by  the  Black-water;  area,  400  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,320,  of  whom  3.446  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  generally  level  and  di 
vided  between  swamps,  pine  forests,  and  form 
ing  lands.  The  soil  is  thin  and  sandy.  The 
Norfolk  and  Petersburg  and  Seaboard  and 
Roanoke  railroads  cross  the  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  160,733  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  17,823  of  oats,  17,957  of  Irish 
and  30,411  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  1,312  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  829  horses,  1,226  milch 
cows,  2,237  other  cattle.  1,510  sheep,  11.423 
swine,  and  6  saw  mills.  'Capital,  Smithfield. 

ISLE  ROYALE,  an  island  in  Lake  Superior, 
forming  part  of  Keweenaw  co.,  Michigan.  55 
m.  N.  W.  of  Keweenaw  point,  15  m.  from  the 
Canada  shore,  intersected  by  the  48th  parallel 
and  the  89th  meridian ;  length  from  K  E.  to 
S.  W.  about  45  m.,  greatest  breadth  9m.;  area, 
225  sq.  m.  It  has  no  permanent  population. 
The  shores  are  generally  rocky  and  broken, 
with  several  deep  inlets.  A  large  number  of 
rocky  islets  are  clustered  about  it,  especially 
off  the  N.  E.  and  S.  "W.  extremities.  Much  of 
the  island  is  covered  with  trees,  and  a  longitu 
dinal  ridge  rises  at  some  points  more  than  700 
ft.  above  the  lake.  Extensive  veins  of  native 
copper  have  recently  been  discovered  on  this 
island,  many  of  which  have  been  worked  by 
some  ancient  people,  whose  stone  hammers 
and  copper  knives  and  other  tools  are  found 
in  great  numbers  in  the  pits.  Some  of  the  ex 
cavations  on  the  N".  side  extend  continuously 
more  than  two  miles,  and  are  connected  by 
underground  drains,  one  of  which  was  cut 
through  rock  for  a  distance  of  60  ft.,  and  had 
been  covered  throughout  with  large  timbers, 
now  broken  and  decayed.  The  stone  hammers 
weigh  from  10  to  30  Ibs.,  some  of  them  hav 
ing  a  groove  for  a  handle,  and  the  copper  tools 
have  been  hardened  by  fire.  The  miners  ex 
hibited  great  skill  in  tracing  the  veins,  and  fol 
lowed  the  deposits  of  sheet-like  copper,  re- 


ISLES   OF   SHOALS 


ISMAILIA 


429 


jecting  the  nuggets.  Some  copper  arrow 
heads  have  been  found  on  the  island,  and  a 
rude  wooden  bowl  3  ft.  in  diameter.  At  an 
indentation  which  forms  a  good  harbor  on  the 
S.  side,  where  a  stream  40  ft.  wide  has  cut  a 
passage  through  the  rocks  and  forms  a  consid 
erable  cataract,  the  apparent  site  of  an  ancient 
town  has  been  discovered.  It  was  on  an  ele 
vated  slope  overlooking  the  lake.  No  human 
remains  have  been  found.  At  least  one  gene 
ration  of  immense  forest  trees  has  grown 
over  all  the  mines.  One  is  now  worked  by  a 
New  York  company.  A  few  deer  frequent  the 
island,  and  it  is  overrun  with  rabbits. 

ISLES  OF  SHOALS,  a  group  of  islets  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  10  m.  S.  E.  of  Portsmouth,  N". 
II.;  pop.  in  1850,  131  ;  in  1860,  152;  in  1870, 
94.  Their  names  are  Appledore  or  Hog  island, 
Haley's  or  Smutty  Nose,  Malaga,  Cedar,  Duck, 
Gosport  or  Star,  White,  Seavey's,  and  Lon 
doner's.  Malaga  is  permanently  connected 
with  Haley's  by  a  breakwater,  and  at  low 
water  Cedar  is  also  connected  with  Haley's, 
and  Seavey's  with  White.  Star,  White,  Sea 
vey's,  and  Londoner's  islands  form  part  of 
Rockingham  co.,  N.  II.,  and  constitute  the 
town  of  Gosport ;  the  others  belong  to  York 
co.,  Me.  The  three  largest  are  Appledore,  con 
taining  about  400  acres;  Star,  150  acres;  and 
Haley's,  •which  with  Cedar  and  Malaga  com 
prises  100  acres.  On  White  island,  the  western 
most  except  Londoner's,  is  a  lighthouse  (lat. 
42°  58'  N.,  Ion.  70°  37'  20"  W.),  with  a  re 
volving  light  87  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  visible 
15  m.  The  islands  consist  of  rugged  ledges, 
and  contain  little  vegetation.  A  steamer  runs 
daily  from  Portsmouth  in  summer,  accom 
modating  the  numerous  visitors  who  resort 
hither  to  enjoy  the  sea  air  and  the  facilities 
for  boating  and  lishing.  On  Appledore  there 
is  a  large  hotel,  with  the  private  residence  of 
the  proprietors.  Star  island  contained  nearly 
all  the  inhabitants, 
arid  had  a  church,  a 
school,  a  monument 
to  Capt.  John  Smith, 
erected  in  1864,  and 
the  ruins  of  an  old 
fort;  but  in  1872  a 
company  bought  out 
the  inhabitants,  and 
have  built  a  large 
hotel  for  the  accom 
modation  of  summer 
visitors.  Haley's  isl 
and  has  a  wharf,  a 
public  house,  and  a 
few  buildings. — The 
islands  are  believed 
to  have  been  discov 
ered  by  Champlain 
in  1605.  They  were 
visited  by  Capt.  John 
Smith  in  1014,  who  called  them  Smith's  isl 
ands,  but  the  name  was  not  retained.  They 
were  early  visited  by  fishermen,  and  the  fish 


eries  have  been  the  chief  support  of  the  in 
habitants.  During  the  revolution  most  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  for  more  than  a  century  had 
numbered  from  300  to  400,  removed  to  the 
mainland. — Mrs.  Celia  Thaxter,  who  resides  on 
Appledore,  and  whose  father  was  for  six  years 
keeper  of  the  lighthouse  on  White  island,  has 
published  a  volume  descriptive  of  the  islands 
("  Among  the  Isles  of  Shoals,"  Boston,  1873), 
and  a  number  of  poems  illustrative  of  them. 

ISLINGTON.     See  LONDON. 

ISMAELIANS.     See  ASSASSINS. 

ISMAIL,  or  Ismail-Tutchkov,  a  town  of  Ron- 
mania,  in  Moldavia,  situated  on  the  Kilia,  the 
N.  arm  of  the  Danube,  36  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Ga- 
latz  and  135  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Jassy;  pop.  in  1866, 
20,869.  It  contains  the  remains  of  a  fine  Tur 
kish  palace,  and  many  Greek  and  Armenian 
churches,  and  is  an  important  seat  of  trade  be 
tween  Russia  and  Turkey.  The  new  town  of 
Tutchkov  was  added  to  it  about  1830.  Its  com 
merce  has  been  checked  by  the  increasing  busi 
ness  of  Galatz,  Braila,  and  Sulina,  though  the 
exports  of  grain,  wool,  tallow,  and  hides  con 
tinue  to  be  of  some  importance. — Ismail  enjoyed 
great  military  and  commercial  prominence  un 
der  the  Turks,  and  contained  20  mosques  and 
many  khans,  bazaars,  and  fine  houses.  The 
Russians  took  it  in  1770,  and  stormed  it  again 
in  1790  under  Suvaroff,  when  they  lost  20,000 
men,  and  put  the  Turkish  garrison  of  30,000  to 
the  sword  and  nearly  reduced  the  place  to  ash 
es.  Having  been  partially  rebuilt,  the  Russians 
again  captured  it  in  1809.  In  1812  it  was  for 
mally  ceded  to  Russia,  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
of  Bucharest,  and  it  was  the  strongest  fortress 
of  the  Russian  province  of  Bessarabia  till  1856, 
when  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  the 
fortifications  were  razed  and  Ismail  was  re 
stored  to  Turkey  together  with  other  parts  of 
S.  Bessarabia.  It  became  a  free  port  (tobacco 
and  war  material  excepted)  Jan.  1,  1873. 


Ismailia. 

ISMAILIA,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
N.  shore  of  Lake  Timsah,  on  the  Suez  canal, 
and  on  the  railroads  leading  from  Alexandria 


430 


ISMAIL  PASHA 


and  Cairo  to  Suez;  pop.  in  1870,  about  4,000. 
It  was  founded  in  1863,  to  serve  as  a  central 
seat  for  the  administration  of  the  work  on  the 
Suez  canal,  which  had  been  simultaneously  be 
gun  at  Suez  and  Port  Said.  It  was  named  af 
ter  the  khedive.  In  consequence  of  its  favor 
able  situation  it  seems  destined  to  become  a 
place  of  great  commercial  importance. 

ISMAIL  PASHA,  or  Ismail  I.,  khedive  of  Egypt, 
born  in  Cairo  in  1830.  He  is  a  son  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  and  his  mother  was  a  Circassian  woman, 
lie  was  educated  in  Paris,  and  returning  to 
Egypt  soon  after  his  father's  death,  Nov.  9, 
1848,  he  became  a  determined  opponent  of  the 
new  viceroy  Abbas  Pasha.  The  latter  accused 
him  in  1853  of  complicity  in  the  assassination 
of  one  of  his  favorites,  but  the  charge  was  not 
substantiated.  Abbas  suddenly  died  next  year, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Said  Pasha,  who  em 
ployed  his  nephew  Ismail  abroad  and  at  home, 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  administration 
during  his  visit  to  Europe  in  1862,  and  made 
him  gencral-in-chief  of  the  army,  in  which  ca 
pacity  he  distinguished  himself  by  restoring 
tranquillity  in  the  territory  of  Soodan.  On 
the  death  of  Said,  Jan.  18,  1863,  he  succeeded 
him  as  fifth  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  acquired  an 
enormous  fortune  through  the  production  of 
cotton  during  the  American  civil  war.  The 
difficulties  with  M.  de  Lesseps  in  regard  to  the 
Suez  canal  were  settled  in  1864,  and  Ismail  be 
came  thenceforward  the  most  active  promoter 
of  the  enterprise.  While  residing  occasionally 
in  his  superb  palace  at  Ermighian  on  the  Bos 
porus,  he  lived,  as  in  Cairo,  in  a  truly  oriental 
style  of  magnificence,  lavished  large  sums  of 
money  upon  Turkish  officials,  and  so  ingra 
tiated  himself  with  the  sultan  and  his  court 
that  he  secured  in  1866  the  long  coveted  priv 
ilege  of  a  direct  line  of  succession  for  his  dy 
nasty,  which  makes  the  eldest  of  his  three  sons, 
Hussein,  his  heir  apparent.  In  the  same  year 
he  voluntarily  increased  his  tribute  to  the  sul 
tan,  with  whom  he  cooperated  at  the  same 
time,  with  30,000  Egyptian  troops,  against  the 
Cretans.  New  and  important  prerogatives 
were  consequently  granted  to  him  in  1867,  to 
gether  with  the  titles  of  highness  and  khedive ; 
but  Ismail  was  not  satisfied  with  these,  and 
put  forward  the  most  extraordinary  preten 
sions,  threatening  to  withdraw  his  army  from 
Crete,  and  even  to  seize  that  island,  in  case  of 
non-compliance.  The  intervention  of  foreign 
powers  caused  him  to  abate  his  pretensions, 
and  for  a  time  appeased  the  exasperated  sultan. 
But  the  viceroy,  not  content  to  extend  his 
sway  over  the  upper  Nile  (1868)  and  over  the 
White  Nile  through  Sir  Samuel  Baker  (1869), 
continued  to  make  foreign  loans  for  the  in 
crease  of  his  army  and  navy,  proposed  the  de- 
neutralization  of  the  Suez  canal,  invited  the 
potentates  of  Europe  to  attend  its  opening 
(Nov.  17,  1869),  and  acted  as  a  completely  in 
dependent  sovereign  to  such  an  extent  that 
after  the  closing  of  these  festivities  the  sultan's 
long  cherished  design  of  curbing  his  vassal's 


ambition  was  immediately  carried  out.  Ismail 
was  commanded  to  reduce  his  army  to  30,000 
men,  to  recall  his  order  for  the  construction  of 
ironclads  and  breech-loaders  in  Europe,  and  to 
discontinue  the  contraction  of  loans  in  foreign 
markets ;  and  he  was  threatened  with  instant 
deposition  in  case  of  disobedience.  Disap 
pointed  in  the  hope  of  support  from  Russia 
and  other  powers,  the  khedive  reluctantly  post 
poned  his  schemes  and  submitted  to  the  sul 
tan's  will  (Dec.  9).  When,  despite  this  agree 
ment,  he  made  another  attempt  to  conclude  a 
foreign  loan  in  1870,  Abdul  Aziz  put  an  end  to 
it  by  publicly  denouncing  the  illegality  of  the 
proceeding.  Within  the  next  few  years  their 
relations  were  apparently  smoother,  owing  to 
the  altered  condition  of  the  balance  of  power 
in  Europe  consequent  upon  the  Franco-Ger 
man  war  and  other  events,  and  also  to  the 
khedivc's  increasing  wealth  and  judicious  man 
ner  of  dispensing  it  in  Constantinople.  He 
obtained  not  only  a  confirmation  of  all  pre 
vious  prerogatives  (June  9,  1873),  but  new  con 
cessions  which  give  him  absolute  control  over 
the  organization  and  extension  of  his  army, 
and  the  right  of  making  loans  and  commercial 
treaties.  He  is  still  restricted  in  the  acquisi 
tion  of  ironclads,  in  the  intercourse  with  for 
eign  powers,  and  in  some  other  respects,  but 
otherwise  is  an  absolute  sovereign ;  and  he  is 
acting  as  such  in  extending  his  authority  in 
various  parts  of  Abyssinia  and  on  all  the  bor 
ders  of  the  Nile.  Early  in  1874  he  achieved 
an  important  victory  over  the  sultan  of  Dar- 
foor,  and  sent  in  the  same  year  another  expe 
dition  up  the  Nile  under  Capt.  Gordon,  osten 
sibly  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade.  At 
the  same  time  he  is  bringing  the  rude  tribes 
in  his  outlying  dominions  under  the  influence 
of  civilization  by  drawing  military  cordons 
round  those  ill-defined  regions,  and  by  building 
public  roads  and  promoting  agriculture.  His 
successful  aggressive  policy  became  however  in 
1874  a  fresh  source  of  uneasiness  for  the  sultan, 
though  he  had  the  latter's  sanction  for  taking 
military  possession  of  the  Suez  canal,  which 
compelled  M.  de  Lesseps,  with  whom  differences 
had  arisen,  to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  in 
ternational  tonnage  commission.  Like  nearly 
all  rulers  of  Egypt  from  time  immemorial,  the 
khedive  holds  the  whole  land  in  fee  simple, 
as  it  were,  and  his  subjects  work  it  on  his  ac 
count  and  on  his  own  terms.  Through  his  en 
terprise  and  activity  immense  progress  has 
been  made  in  industrial  development  and  the 
execution  of  public  works  of  all  kinds;  and 
the  whole  business  of  the  country  being  under 
his  control,  his  wealth  is  incalculable,  while 
the  mass  of  his  subjects,  and  particularly  the 
fellahs  or  peasantry,  remain  in  a  condition  of 
serfdom  and  pauperism.  He  has  embellished 
Cairo  and  Alexandria,  and  introduced  the  gay 
fashionable  life  of  Paris ;  employs  many  for 
eigners  in  the  army,  navy,  and  other  branches 
of  service;  is  a  munificent  patron  of  archaeo 
logical,  geographical,  and  ethnological  research- 


ISMID 


ISOMERISM 


431 


es ;  has  established  a  library  in  the  ministry  of 
education,  rich  in  oriental  works ;  and  has  ena 
bled  Rohlfs  to  explore  the  Libyan  desert.  The 
clear  complexion  which  he  has  inherited  from 
his  Circassian  mother  gives  Ismail  rather  the 
appearance  of  an  Englishman  than  of  an  orien 
tal.  He  is  of  medium  stature,  inclined  to  the 
obesity  of  his  family,  with  small  gray  eyes  and 
a  shrewd  expression  of  countenance. 

ISMID,  or  Iskimid  (anc.  Nicomedid)  a  town 
of  Turkey  in  Asia,  in  the  vilayet  of  Khodaven- 
dighiar,  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of  Ismid, 
50  m.  S.  E.  of  Scutari;  pop.  about  8,000.  It 
is  beautifully  situated,  but  the  interior  of  the 
town  is  wretched,  and  but  few  relics  remain 
of  Nicomedia.  Greek  and  Armenian  prelates 
and  a  Turkish  pasha  reside  here,  and  there  is 
a  small  community  of  Armenians  converted  to 
Protestantism.  The  port  is  accessible  to  the 
largest  ships.  Silk  and  pottery  are  manufac 
tured.  Tokolyi,  the  leader  of  the  Hungarian 
Protestants  against  Leopold  I.,  died  in  Ismid, 
and  is  buried  there.  (See  NICOMEDIA.) 

ISNARD,  Maximia,  a  French  revolutionist, 
born  in  Grasse,  Provence,  Feb.  10,  1751,  died 
there  in  1830.  In  the  legislative  assembly  in 
1791  he  gained  notoriety  for  his  eloquence  and 
boldness,  contributed  to  the  insurrection  of 
Aug.  10,  1792,  and  was  reflected  to  the  con 
vention,  lie  then  joined  the  Girondists,  voted 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  was  instrumental 
in  establishing  the  committee  of  public  safety, 
opposed  the  Montagnards,  and  was  prosecuted. 
His  Herculean  strength  enabled  him  to  escape 
the  officers  who  came  to  arrest  him  in  June, 
1793,  and  he  took  refuge  with  a  friend.  lie 
reappeared  in  the  assembly  after  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  and  subsequently  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  council  of  500,  to  which  he  belonged 
for  one  year.  Thenceforth  he  devoted  him 
self  to  literary  and  philosophical  pursuits,  and 
gradually  became  religious.  Among  his  publi 
cations  is  a  lyric  poem  of  some  merit,  Dithy- 
rambe  sur  V  immortalite  de  Vame,  dedicated  to 
Pope  Pius  VII. 

ISOCRATES,  an  Athenian  orator,  born  in  436 
B.  C.,  died  in  338.  His  father,  Theodorus,  was 
a  rich  musical  instrument  maker  of  Athens, 
and  gave  his  son  the  best  education  attainable 
in  the  city.  Tisias,  Gorgias,  Theramenes,  and 
Socrates  were  his  teachers.  His  natural  ti 
midity  and  weak  voice  precluded  public  speak 
ing,  and  he  devoted  himself  to  lecturing  on 
rhetoric.  He  first  taught  in  the  island  of 
Chios ;  but  his  success  there  was  not  very 
great,  and  he  was  chiefly  engaged  in  regulating 
the  political  constitution  of  the  island,  lie 
then  returned  to  Athens,  where  he  soon  had 
100  pupils  at  a  charge  of  1,000  drachma}  each. 
He  also  derived  a  considerable  revenue  from 
writing  orations.  Plutarch  says  that  Nicocles, 
king  of  Cyprus,  gave  him  20  talents  for  his 
oration  Hp6^  NIKOK/.ECI.  lie  was  never  willing 
to  take  part  in  public  affairs,  and,  when  ap 
pointed  trierarch  in  355,  excused  himself  on 
account  of  illness.  This  refusal,  considering 
VOL.  ix.— 28 


his  ample  means,  occasioned  much  ill  will 
against  him.  In  362,  from  policy,  he  accepted 
the  office,  and  although  it  was  the  most  expen 
sive  which  a  private  citizen  could  undertake, 
he  filled  it  with  great  liberality  and  splendor. 
Isocrates  taught  principally  political  oratory. 
The  most  eminent  statesmen,  orators,  philoso 
phers,  and  historians  of  the  time  were  educa 
ted  in  his  school,  and  he  always  selected  prac 
tical  subjects,  proposing  to  them  chiefly  the 
political  events  of  his  own  time  as  a  study. 
His  orations,  though  written  to  be  delivered  in 
his  school,  were  copied  and  recited  in  all  the 
countries  inhabited  by  Greeks.  In  his  Are- 
opagiticus  he  urges  Athens  to  adopt,  as  her 
only  safeguard,  the  ancient  democracy  of  Solon. 
In  his  Panegyricus  he  is  equally  warm  in  his 
exhortations  to  all  the  Greeks  to  unite  against 
the  barbarians.  In  his  "Philip,"  an  oration 
addressed  to  the  king  of  Macedon,  he  entreats 
the  king  to  unite  with  the  Greeks,  and  lead 
them  against  the  Persians.  But  Isocrates  was 
not  a  practical  statesman,  and  he  was  uncon 
sciously  urging  Philip  to  become  the  ruler  of 
the  Grecian  states,  an  object  which  the  king 
was  then  secretly  planning.  His  Panathena- 
icus,  a  eulogy  on  Athens,  was  written  when  he 
was  94  years  of  age.  After  the  victory  of  the 
Macedonians  over  his  countrymen  at  Chscronea, 
he  was  unwilling  to  survive  the  destruction 
of  their  liberties,  and  destroyed  himself.  The 
writings  of  Isocrates  were  all  carefully  studied 
and  elaborated ;  he  is  said  to  have  taken  over 
ten  years  to  write  his  Panegyricus.  They  are 
remarkable  for  their  flow  of  elegance  and  mel 
ody,  the  precisely  turned  sentences  and  periods 
making  the  style  almost  monotonous.  Of  28 
genuine  orations  of  his,  21  have  come  down  to 
us,  8  of  which  were  written  for  judicial  cases, 
and  were  intended  to  serve  as  models  for  foren 
sic  writing.  Besides  these,  there  are  titles  and 
fragments  of  27  others,  and  also  10  letters, 
some  of  which  are  undoubtedly  spurious.  His 
works  have  been  translated  into  English  by 
Sadlier,  Dinsdale,  and  Gillies,  and  also  into 
French,  but  unsuccessfully.  The  best  text  is 
Bekker's. 

ISOMERISM  (Gr.  lao^  equal,  and  //epof,  part), 
a  term  used  in  chemistry  to  express  the  rela 
tion  existing  between  those  subscances  which, 
while  they  possess  the  same  ultimate  composi 
tion,  exhibit  essentially  different  chemical  and 
physical  properties,  the  term  isomeric  is  oft 
en  applied  indiscriminately  to  several  classes 
of  bodies  which  will  here  be  separately  con 
sidered.  Strictly  speaking,  it  ought  perhaps 
now  to  be  confined  to  those  cases  in  which  the 
elements  composing  the  dissimilar  substances 
are  both  quantitatively  and  qualitatively  the 
same.  Difference  of  properties  can  here  be 
readily  explained  by  admitting  that  the  ele 
ments  of  the  different  bodies  are  arranged  or 
grouped  in  different  ways.  Thus  both  formiate 
of  ethyle  and  acetate  of  methyle — very  differ 
ent  substances — have  the  ultimate  composition 
expressed  by  the  formula  CaHeOa,  sometimes 


432 


ISOMERISM 


written  CalliaCh.     They  are  however  proxi- 
mately  composed  of 


Formic  anhydride.  .C2H203 
Oxide  of  ethyle C4II100 

C6Hia04 


Acetic  anhydride. .  .C4TT8O3 
Oxide  of  methyle. . . C2II6O 


C6H1204 


That  such  compounds  really  contain  different 
proximate  constituents  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  they  afford  different  products  when  de 
composed  under  similar  conditions.  Hence 
they  are  regarded  as  distinct  chemical  sub 
stances,  and  not  as  modifications  of  one  and 
the  same  body.  The  different  grouping  of  the 
elements  of  these  compounds  has  been  com 
pared  to  that  of  letters  in  words  like  ate,  eat, 
tea,  &c.,  on  the  arrangement  of  which  the 
meaning  of  the  word  is  entirely  dependent. 
All  bodies  which  are  thus  isomeric  with  each 
other,  all  that  have  absolutely  the  same  ulti 
mate  composition,  must  of  course  possess  iden 
tical  equivalent  weights.  Such  substances  are 
often  called  metameric  (Gr.  //e-d,  indicating 
change  or  alteration),  in  contradistinction  to 
polymeric  substances  (Gr.  Tro/li'f,  many),  which 
are  composed  of  similar  elements  united  in  the 
same  relative  proportion  in  each  case,  but  in 
different  absolute  quantities  ;  the  equivalent 
weights  in  which  these  substances  combine 
with  other  bodies  being  unlike.  This  distin 
guishes  them  from  members  of  the  preceding 
class,  in  which  both  the  relative  and  absolute 
number  of  equivalents  are  the  same.  Very 
many  polymeric  substances  are  known,  whole 
series  of  organic  compounds  being  formed  of 
them.  As  an  example,  olefiant  gas  and  cetene 
both  contain  85  '7  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  14*3 
per  cent,  of  hydrogen.  If  nothing  were  known 
of  their  chemical  comportment,  the  empirical 
formula  CH2  would  be  applicable  to  both  ;  but 
by  studying  their  properties  it  has  been  found 
that  20  and  411  have  united  to  form  olefiant 
as,  the  rational  formula  of  which  is  therefore 
,  and  its  combining  equivalent  28  ;  while 
160  and  3211  have  united  to  form  cetene, 
which  has  consequently  the  rational  formula 
Ci6H32,  and  the  equivalent  number  224.  Be 
tween  these  two  bodies  there  are  14  others 
polymeric  with  them  and  with  each  other. 
Differences  like  this  have  been  compared  to 
those  between  words  like  ma,  mamma,  tar, 
tartar,  &c.,  which  contain  the  same  letters 
arranged  in  the  same  way,  but  in  different 
quantities.  The  arrangement  of  the  elements 
in  polymeric  substances  is  not  however  of 
necessity  the  same;  thus,  the  ether  of  wood 
spirit  is  polymeric  with  common  alcohol  ;  yet 
the  rational  formula  of  the  former  is  CH«O  ; 
of  the  latter,  CJIeO.  —  Until  a  comparatively 
recent  period  it  was  the  prevalent  opinion 
among  chemists  that  bodies  of  similar  composi 
tion  must  of  necessity  possess  similar  properties. 
Any  observations  tending  to  throw  doubt  upon 
the  correctness  of  this  belief  were  considered 
erroneous.  Even  the  discovery,  by  "Wohler  and 
Liebig,  that  cyanic  and  fulminic  acids  are  of 
like  percentage  composition  although  they  pos 


ga 
Ca 


sess  very  different  properties,  was  attributed  to 
errors  of  observation,  and  generally  discredit 
ed.  Faraday's  investigation  of  several  isome 
ric  hydrocarbons  in  1825  first  proved  the  fal 
lacy  of  this  supposed  law.  Its  exceptions,  be 
ing  now  more  carefully  observed,  were  found 
to  be  very  numerous.  In  1830  Berzelius  pro 
posed  that  they  should  be  classified  as  isomeric 
substances.  It  was  however  soon  perceived 
that  the  doctrine  of  isomerism  could  not  with 
propriety  be  employed  to  explain  the  cause  of 
all  the  differences  which  had  been  observed ; 
least  of  all,  to  explain  those  which  occur  among 
the  elements  themselves — bodies  which,  from 
his  inability  to  decompose  them,  the  chemist  is 
forced  to  regard  as  simple.  In  1840  Berzelius 
suggested  that  these  peculiarities  might  depend 
upon  some  absolute  difference  of  quality  in  the 
different  varieties  of  a  substance,  and  not  upon 
any  dissimilarity  in  the  arrangement  or  number 
of  its  molecules.  He  proposed  the  term  allo- 
tropism  (Gr.  d/l/^rpoTrof,  of  a  different  nature) 
to  express  this  idea,  which  has  ever  since  stead 
ily  gained  favor,  although  directly  opposed  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  immutability  of  matter,  one 
of  the  principal  tenets  on  which  the  chemistry 
of  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  was 
based.  Allotropism  is  of  special  interest  from 
the  fact  that  several  of  the  most  common  and 
best  known  elements  may  occur  in  two  or  more 
allotropic  states.  Thus,  pure  charcoal  (lamp 
black),  graphite,  and  the  diamond  are  essential 
ly  identical  chemical  substances.  The  element 
phosphorus,  as  it  commonly  occurs,  is  as  oft, 
waxy,  yellowish  white,  exceedingly  inflamma 
ble,  and  very  poisonous  substance,  with  a  strong 
odor  and  taste,  luminous  in  the  dark,  and  read 
ily  soluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  may 
easily  be  transformed,  however,  into  another 
allotropic  state,  in  which  it  is  of  a  dark  red,  near 
ly  black,  color;  is  hard,  brittle,  and  devoid  of 
taste  or  smell,  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  of  poison 
ous  properties ;  is  not  luminous,  and  is  complete 
ly  insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  differs 
moreover  from  ordinary  phosphorus  in  spe 
cific  gravity,  and  entirely  in  its  affinity  for  oth 
er  substances.  Indeed,  it  is  not  known  that 
it  is  itself  combustible;  for  it  maybe  heated 
without  undergoing  change  to  about  500°  F., 
at  which  temperature  it  is  reconverted  into  or 
dinary  phosphorus.  These  two  conditions  of 
phosphorus  are  so  utterly  unlike  in  all  their 
properties,  excepting  the  weight  of  their  equiv 
alent,  that  were  it  not  in  the  power  of  chemists 
to  prove  their  identity  by  converting  them  one 
into  the  other,  they  would  without  hesitation 
be  considered  distinct  elements.  Similar  in 
stances  occur  among  gases.  For  example,  or 
dinary  oxygen  gas  may  be  converted  into  an 
allotropic  modification  called  ozone,  which  pos 
sesses  properties  entirely  different  from  those 
of  the  original  oxygen.  Chlorine  gas  also,  ac 
cording  to  Prof.  J.  "W.  Draper  of  New  York, 
after  exposure  to  strong  sunlight,  possesses  the 
power  of  combining  with  hydrogen  even  in  the 
dark,  and  exhibits  other  properties  unlike  those 


ISOMEPJSM 


433 


of  chlorine  which  has  been  kept  from  the  light. 
Several  other  elements  are  known  to  be  capa 
ble  of  existing  in  two  or  more  allotropic  states ; 
and  a  considerable  number  of  compound  bodies 
occur  under  different  modifications,  which,  it 
is  not  unlikely,  may  yet  be  found  to  depend 
upon  the  allotropism  of  one  or  more  of  their 
elements.  Indeed,  these  instances  are  so  com 
mon  that  some  chemists  have  been  led  to  be 
lieve  that  most  if  not  all  of  the  elements  may 
exist  in  distinct  allotropic  states.  It  has  not 
as  yet,  however,  been  wTell  ascertained  to  how 
great  an  extent  the  peculiar  state  of  an  element 
can  influence  the  properties  of  the  compounds 
it  may  form  by  uniting  with  other  bodies. 
Schonbein,  the  discoverer  of  ozone,  was  confi 
dent  that  it  exists,  as  such,  chemically  combined 
in  several  oxides.  Other  chemists  have  referred 
the  dissimilar  varieties  of  certain  compounds  of 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  &c.,  to  the  allotropism 
of  their  elements.  Berzelius  long  ago  pointed 
out  that  the  different  states  of  sulphide  of 
mercury,  iodide  of  mercury,  &c.,  were  proba 
bly  to  be  attributed  to  a  similar  cause.  Berthe- 
lot  has  advanced  the  opinion  that  the  allotro 
pic  modifications  of  sulphur  are  intimately  con 
nected  with,  if  not  directly  dependent  upon, 
the  electrical  relation  which  this  substance 
bears  to  the  elements  with  which  it  is  or  has 
been  united.  When  separated,  by  agents  which 
are  without  action  upon  it,  from  those  com 
pounds  in  which  it  acts  as  an  electro-positive 
body,  as  in  sulphurous  acid,  it  is  amorphous 
and  insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  and  other 
neutral  solvents.  On  the  contrary,  when  ob 
tained  from  compounds  in  which  it  plays  the 
part  of  an  electro-negative  element,  as  in  sul 
phuretted  hydrogen,  it  is  susceptible  of  crys 
tallization,  and  is  soluble  in  bisulphide  of  car 
bon,  &c.  Berthelot  also  states  that  the  modi 
fications  of  selenium  exhibit  a  similar  comport 
ment,  and  has  suggested  that  the  different 
states  of  phosphorus  may  in  like  manner  rep 
resent  respectively  electro-negative  (ordinary 
phosphorus)  and  electro-positive  (red  phos 
phorus)  conditions.  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  these  views,  which  are  of  prime  impor 
tance  in  their  bearing  upon  the  theory  of  sub 
stitutions,  are  almost  identically  the  same  with 
those  concerning  chlorine  published  some 
years  since  by.  Prof.  Draper.  Although  the 
correctness  of  the  observations  of  both  these 
chemists  has  been  called  in  question  by  other 
observers,  it  cannot  as  yet  be  admitted  that 
their  views  have  been  disproved  ;  they  still  de 
serve  the  most  careful  consideration.  The  ap 
parent  relation  between  some  of  the  phenome 
na  of  allotropism  and  those  exhibited  by  sub 
stances  when  in  the  so-called  nascent  state  (a 
phrase  used  in  reference  to  the  well  established 
fact  that  many  bodies  can  be  made  to  combine 
with  other  substances  with  much  greater  facil 
ity  at  the  instant  when  they  escape  from  some 
of  their  combinations  than  at  any  other  time) 
has  been  remarked  by  several  chemists.  In 
timately  connected  with  this  view  is  the  theory 


of  chemical  polarity  advanced  by  Brodie 
(•'  Philosophical  Transactions,"  1850,  p.  759), 
who  assumes  that  under  certain  conditions,  as 
at  the  moment  when  a  body  enters  into  combi 
nation,  a  chemical  difference  exists  between 
the  particles  of  which  the  body  is  composed ; 
so  that  these  particles  are  to  one  another  in 
a  peculiar  relation  which  is  expressed  by  the 
terms  positive  and  negative  (+  and  — ).  Sev 
eral  of  the  phenomena  of  allotropism  may  be 
explained  by  this  theory.  Thus,  ozone  may  be 
regarded  as  polarized  (active)  oxygen,  while 
ordinary  oxygen  is  that  in  which  the  positive 
and  negative  particles  are  combined,  and  in 
the  quiescent  state.  In  like  manner  ordinary 
white  and  red  phosphorus  represent  respective 
ly  polarized  and  indifferent  conditions.  It  is 
customary  to  speak  of  the  different  allotropic 
states  of  a  substance  as  if  each  were  something 
absolute,  and  not  liable  to  any  variation.  But 
there  are  numerous  facts  which  go  to  prove 
that  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and  that  the 
peculiar  characteristics  of  the  allotropic  condi 
tions  of  several  bodies  are  themselves  subject 
to  certain  variations.  In  support  of  this  view 
may  be  instanced  the  great  diversity  of  prop 
erties  exhibited  by  different  specimens  of 
graphite  and  the  various  kinds  of  coke  allied 
to  it,  or  by  the  different  sorts  of  sulphur. — In 
addition  to  the  several  classes  of  phenomena 
already  alluded  to,  the  peculiarities  of  which 
are  strongly  marked,  there  is  another  class  of 
analogous  facts  which  deserves  mention.  Many 
well  known  substances  exhibit  differences  in 
hardness,  color,  specific  gravity,  solubility,  &c., 
according  to  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
have  been  produced.  Thus,  carbonate  of  lime, 
when  precipitated  from  a  cold  solution  of  a  salt 
of  lime,  is  readily  soluble  in  an  aqueous  solu 
tion  of  chloride  of  ammonium ;  on  the  other 
hand,  when  in  the  form  of  marble  it  is  scarcely 
at  all  soluble  in  this  menstruum.  Red  oxide 
of  mercury,  which  has  been  prepared  by  pre 
cipitation  in  the  wet  way,  is  decomposed  with 
much  greater  facility  when  heated  than  that 
obtained  by  exposing  nitrate  of  mercury  to  a 
high  temperature.  These  differences,  though 
subject  to  considerable  variations,  are  rarely 
strongly  marked.  Since  they  do  not  affect  to 
any  great  extent  the  chemical  behavior  of  the 
substance,  they  are  not  classed  as  allotropic 
conditions,  but  are  supposed  to  depend  upon 
different  states  of  aggregation  of  the  substance. 
Some  of  these  variations  are  probably  more  in 
timately  connected  with  allotropism  than  has 
heretofore  been  admitted ;  thus,  the  dissimilar 
properties  exhibited  by  different  specimens  of 
silicic  acid  would  now  be  attributed  by  most 
chemists  to  the  known  allotropism  of  its  com 
ponents.  But  most  differences  of  this  sort  are 
so  slight  that  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  being 
dependent  upon  allotropism ;  they  seem  rather 
to  be  allied  to  those  variations  to  which,  as  al 
ready  stated,  even  the  allotropic  conditions  of 
substances  are  themselves  liable.  It  would  ap 
pear  indeed  as  if  every  substance,  in  each  of 


434: 


ISOMERISM 


ISPAHAN 


its  allotropic  conditions,  must  have  a  point  of 
maximum  activity,  at  which  point  its  proper 
ties  are  normal,  subject  however,  like  every 
thing  else  in  nature,  to  perturbations  by  which 
its  peculiar  properties  may  be  somewhat 
changed.  In  compound  bodies  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  distinguish  bet\veen  allotropism  and 
isomerism  properly  so  called ;  indeed,  both  may 
occur  at  once,  i.  <?.,  both  the  arrangement  and 
quality  of  the  elements  of  two  or  more  sub 
stances  of  the  same  ultimate  composition  may 
be  unlike.  There  is  also  a  large  class  of  bodies 
to  which  the  general  term  isomeric  is  still  ap 
plied,  some  of  which  may  be  allotropic,  while 
many  are  probably  polymeric.  As  examples 
may  be  mentioned  the  numerous  metallic  ox 
ides  which  undergo  changes  when  heated.  The 
very  remarkable  circumstance  noticed  in  this 
connection,  that  these  bodies  while  undergoing 
change  give  off  a  quantity  of  heat  which  they 
must  have  previously  possessed  in  a  combined 
or  latent  form,  has  led  some  chemists  to  seek 
for  an  explanation  of  all  the  phenomena  of  al 
lotropism  by  assuming  that  heat  is  a  material 
constituent  of  substances,  capable  of  modifying 
their  properties  according  as  it  is  combined 
with  them  in  greater  or  less  quantity.  This  is 
however  entirely  matter  of  conjecture,  and,  in 
view  of  our  limited  knowledge  respecting  the 
true  nature  of  heat,  can  hardly  be  admitted. 
Nor  has  the  direct  influence  of  heat  been  proved 
in  all  the  cases  of  allotropism  which  have  been 
studied.  That  it  is  nevertheless  intimately  con 
nected  in  some  way  with  these  phenomena  is 
evident.  This  is  of  special  interest  in  view  of 
the  changes  which  heat  is  known  to  effect  in 
the  ordinary  conditions  of  matter ;  the  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous  forms,  which  all  substances 
are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  assuming,  being 
unquestionably  dependent  upon  the  tempera 
ture  to  which  they  are  exposed.  These  condi 
tions  must  not  however  become  confounded 
with  those  dependent  on  allotropism,  which 
are  essentially  different.  Other  chemists  have 
regarded  allotropic  modifications  as  dependent 
upon  different  states  of  aggregation  of  the  hy 
pothetical  atoms  of  which,  as  they  suppose,  all 
bodies  are  formed.  In  their  eyes,  the  chemical 
peculiarities  of  charcoal  depend  upon  its  amor 
phous  state ;  those  of  the  diamond  are  differ 
ent  because  it  is  crystalline,  and  those  of  graph 
ite  unlike  those  of  the  diamond  because  its 
crystals  belong  to  another  system.  They  would 
call  the  ordinary  state  of  phosphorus  crystal 
line,  the  other  condition  amorphous,  and  refer 
all  difference  of  properties  to  this  difference  of 
form.  Diversity  of  crystalline  structure,  or  its 
entire  absence,  is  however  evidently  only  one 
of  the  many  differences  of  properties  inciden 
tal  to  allotropism ;  in  many  cases  it  must  be 
regarded  as  a  consequence  of  the  latter,  by  no 
means  as  its  cause.  At  all  events,  the  cases  of 
allotropism  which  occur  among  gases  cannot 
be  explained  by  this  theory.  Others,  without 
paying  special  attention  to  crystalline  form, 
have  supposed  that  all  cases  of  isomerism,  taken 


in  its  widest  meaning,  depend  upon  variations 
in  the  grouping  of  the  molecules  of  bodies. 
They  even  refer  the  instances  which  have  here 
been  classed  under  allotropism  to  differences 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  particles  of  matter 
of  which  the  elements  themselves  are  composed. 
But  few,  however,  now  hold  this  opinion,  the 
doctrine  of  allotropism  being  generally  admit 
ted.  Although  the  mere  term  allotropism  con 
veys  no  definite  idea  of  the  different  conditions 
of  matter  which  it  indicates,  and  is,  strictly 
speaking,  nothing  more  than  a  convenient  name 
for  a  class  of  phenomena  as  yet  inexplicable, 
the  fact  which  it  denotes,  that  an  element  can 
exhibit  the  properties  of  two  different  sub 
stances,  is  of  preeminent  importance.  Im 
portant  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  isom 
erism  have  been  made  in  modern  times  by  But- 
lerow,  Kekule,  Erlenmeyer,  and  Gibbs.  (See 
ALLOTEOPISM.) 

ISOMETRIC  PROJECTKW  (Gr.  loo$,  equal,  and 
/j£-pov,  measure),  a  species  of  drawing,  used 
chiefly  by  engineers,  in  which  the  perspective 
plane  of  the  paper  must  be  imagined  as  making 
equal  angles  with  the  three  principal  dimen 
sions  of  the  figure,  and  the  eye  at  an  infinite 
distance.  Thus  lines  in  the  three  principal  di 
rections  will  be  drawn  on  the  same  scale,  and 
that  scale  the  same  for  all  parts  of  each  line. 

ISOMORPHISM  (Gr.    loos,    equal,    and 


form),  in  chemistry,  the  property  possessed  by 
certain  bodies  of  replacing  each  other  in  com 
pounds  without  causing  in  these  an  essential 
change  of  crystalline  form.  The  bodies  that 
thus  replace  each  other  possess  themselves 
similar  forms,  and  are  said  to  be  isomorphous. 
Familiar  examples  of  this  mutual  replacement 
in  minerals  are  of  the  protoxides  of  iron  and 
manganese,  and  of  lime  and  magnesia.  Chlo 
rine,  bromine,  and  iodine  possess  this  relation 
toward  each  other;  also  arsenic  and  phos 
phorus^  and  the  acids  of  these  elements.  The 
term,  as  proposed  by  Mitscherlich,  strictly  signi 
fies  similarity  of  form  ;  it  is  now  applied  to  sub 
stances  which  are  not  only  similar  in  their  crys 
talline  form,  but  are  analogous  in  their  chemi 
cal  composition.  The  study  of  isomorphism 
has  greatly  facilitated  the  classification  of  com 
pounds  and  the  determination  of  atomic  weights. 

ISOPODS,  a  group  of  14-footed  crustaceans, 
so  called  because  their  thoracic  feet,  the  three 
anterior  in  one  series  and  the  four  posterior  in 
another,  are  nearly  equal;  the  branchiae  are 
six  pairs  and  abdominal.  Some  inhabit  the 
sea,  where  they  are  generally  parasitic  on  other 
animals  ;  others  are  terrestrial,  living  in  dark 
and  damp  places,  like  the  wood  lice  and  sow 
bug.  The  eyes  are  sessile  or  not  placed  upon 
stalks,  and  the  head  is  distinct  from  the  seg 
ment  bearing  the  first  pair  of  feet. 

ISOTHERMAL  LINES.     See  CLIMATE. 

ISPAHAN,  or  Isfahan  (anc.  Aspadana),  a  city 
of  Persia,  of  which  it  was  formerly  the  capital, 
in  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi,  210  m.  S.  of 
Teheran,  in  lat.  32°  39'  K,  Ion.  51°  44'  E.  ;  pop. 
probably  not  more  than  00,000.  It  stands  in 


ISPAHAN 


435 


the  midst  of  a  broad  plain  watered  by  the  river 
Zeinderud,  which  rises  in  the  hill  districts  W. 


paintings  by  native   artists,  representing  the 
achievements  of  Nadir  Shah  and  other  Persian 


of  the  city,  and  flows  eastward,  finally  disap-     conquerors.    The  college  of  Hussein,  a  brilliant- 


pearing  in  the  desert.  For  miles  around  the 
city  stretch  groves,  orchards,  corn  fields,  vine 
yards,  and  shady  avenues,  interspersed  with 
the  ruins  of  deserted  toAvns  and  palaces.  On 
approaching  the  city  from  the  south,  travellers 
cross  the  river  by  three  beautiful  and  massive 
bridges,  which  lead  into  spacious  gardens  wa 
tered  by  canals,  and  surrounded  by  numer 
ous  pleasure  houses.  A  broad  shaded  avenue 
leads  from  one  of  these  bridges  to  the  great 
bazaar  of  Shah  Abbas,  an  enormous  length  of 
building  vaulted  above  to  exclude  heat  but  ad 
mit  air  and  light.  Hundreds  of  unoccupied 
shops  line  the  sides  of  this  once  crowded  mart 
of  commerce,  after  traversing  which  for  nearly 
two  miles  the  traveller  enters  the  great  square 
of  Ispahan,  the  magnificent  Maidan  Shah,  an 
oblong  open  space  of  upward  of  40  acres.  In 


Court  of  the  Gnmd.  Mosque,  Ispahan. 


the  centre  of  two  sides  of  this  square  are  su 
perb  mosques,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  other 
sides  are  great  gates  leading  to  the  bazaars  and 
to  the  royal  mosque.  Around  the  rest  of  the 
square  are  stately  edifices  o^  uniform  architec 
ture,  once  used  as  apartments  for  the  nobility 
and  officers  of  the  Persian  court,  but  now  ruin 
ous  and  desolate.  In  the  S.  part  of  the  city  is 
an  extensive  pleasure  ground,  called  the  Tcha- 
har  Bagh,  consisting  of  eight  gardens  or  "  par 
adises,"  watered  by  canals,  basins,  and  foun 
tains,  adorned  with  palaces,  and  enclosed  by 
lofty  walls.  The  most  sumptuous  of  these 
palaces  is  the  Tchehel  Situn,  or  "  Forty  Col 
umns."  The  columns  from  which  the  name  is 
derived  are  in  the  principal  hall,  and  arc  inlaid 
with  mirrors  so  as  to  resemble  pillars  of  glass. 
The  walls  and  roof  are  decorated  with  the  same 
fragile  material,  interspersed  with  flowers  of 
gold.  Behind  this  hall  are  many  fine  apart 


ly  colored  tile-covered  structure,  the  shah's 
mosque,  and  the  three-storied  All  gate,  which 
is  the  highest  edifice  in  the  city,  are  among  the 
finest  buildings.  Ispahan  was  formerly  dis 
tinguished  for  the  excellence  of  its  manufac 
tures,  which  consisted  of  all  kinds  of  woven 
fabrics,  from  the  most  costly  gold  brocade  to 
the  most  ordinary  calico  or  coarse  cotton ;  of 
gold  and  silver  trinkets,  paper,  pen  cases,  orna 
mental  book  covers,  firearms,  swords,  glass,  and 
earthenware.  These  goods  were  sent  to  near 
ly  all  parts  of  Asia,  Ispahan  being  a  central 
emporium  on  the  great  line  of  traffic  between 
Afghanistan,  India,  and  China  on  the  east,  and 
Turkey,  Egypt,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
west.  The  trade  of  the  city,  however,  has 
greatly  diminished,  and  its  manufactures  are 
now  comparatively  inconsiderable.  The  wine 
of  Ispahan  is  thought 
not  much  inferior  to 
that  of  Shiraz.  The 
inhabitants  are  gen 
erally  educated,  so  that 
almost  every  one  can 
read  and  write,  and 
even  the  shopkeepers 
and  artisans  are  famil 
iar  with  the  works  of 
the  principal  Persian 
poets.  The  merchants, 
who  form  a  distinct 
class,  are  shrewd  and 
enterprising.  —  On  the 
S.  side  of  the  Zeinde- 
rud,  which  at  Ispahan 
is  said  to  resemble  the 
Seine  at  Paris  in  mag 
nitude,  is  the  Armenian 
suburb  of  Julfa.  This 
place  was  founded 
about  1603  by  Shah 
Abbas,  who  transport 


ed  to  it  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Armenian 
town  of  Julfa  on  the  Araxes,  and  gave  them 
full  toleration  for  their  religion,  and  valuable 
privileges  as  merchants.  This  colony  pros 
pered  for  more  than  a  century,  and  once  con 
tained  30,000  people  and  24  churches.  It  has 
now  greatly  decayed,  and  has  not  more  than 
3,000  inhabitants,  and  the  Armenians  are  for 
bidden  any  of  the  outward  observances  of  their 
faith. — Ispahan  is  mentioned  by  historians  as 
early  as  the  3d  century.  By  the  caliphs  of 
Bagdad  it  was  made  the  capital  of  their  Per 
sian  provinces.  Tamerlane  captured  it  in  1387, 
massacred  70,000  of  the  inhabitants,  and  nearly 
ruined  the  city.  It  recovered  at  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century,  and  was  the  favorite  abode 
of  the  monarchs  of  the  Sufi  dynasty.  It  was 
visited  in  1673  by  the  French  traveller  Chardin, 
who  resided  there  four  years,  and  who  de 
scribes  it  as  a  great  city  24  m.  in  circuit,  with 


ments,  one  of  which  is  embellished  with  large  ,  160  mosques,  48  colleges,  1,800  caravansaries, 


436 


ISRAEL 


ISSUE 


273  public  baths,  and  a  population  of  GOO, 000. 
Other  authors  state  the  population  at  upward 
of  1,000,000.  There  are  said  to  have  been 
1,400  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  at  the 
height  of  its  prosperity.  But  in  1722  it  was 
taken  by  the  Afghans  after  a  siege  of  eight 
months/  and  its  buildings  were  defaced  and 
people  massacred  in  frightful  numbers.  This 
catastrophe  nearly  destroyed  the  city.  The 
seat  of  government  was  removed  tirst  to  Shi- 
raz,  and  afterward  to  Teheran.  Although  the 
traveller  rides  for  miles  through  deserted 
streets,  ruined  buildings,  and  silent  squares, 
Ispahan  is  still  the  most  stately  and  beautiful 
city  of  Persia;  but  the  traces  of  its  original 
splendor  are  fast  disappearing. 

ISRAEL.     See  JACOB. 

ISRAELITES.     See  HEBBEWS. 

ISRAELS,  Josef,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
Groningen  in  1824.  He  studied  in  Amsterdam 
and  Paris,  and  resides  at  the  Hague.  His  best 
known  works  are  "The  Tranquil  House,"  in  a 
private  collection  in  Brussels;  "The  Ship 
wrecked,"  "The  Cradle,"  and  "The  Mother," 
all  in  London;  "The  True  Support,"  in  pos 
session  of  the  count  of  Flanders,  brother  of 
Leopold  II. ;  and  "  The  Children  of  the  Sea," 
in  the  gallery  of  the  queen  of  Holland.  One 
of  his  genre  pictures  brought  7,150  florins  at 
the  public  sale  of  Baron  van  Reede  van  Oudts- 
horn's  collection  at  Amsterdam  in  1874. 

ISSAQIENA,  a  W.  county  of  Mississippi,  bound 
ed  "W.  by  the  Mississippi  river  and  S.  E.  by  the 
Yazoo,  which  is  navigable  by  steamboats ;  area, 
720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,887,  of  whom  6,146 
were  colored.  It  is  drained  by  Big  Sunflower 
river,  Deer  creek,  and  Steel's  bayou,  and  has  a 
low  and  level  surface,  portions  of  which  are 
often  inundated.  The  soil  is  rich.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  82,825  bushels  of  In 
dian  corn,  5,105  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  15,821 
bales  of.  cotton.  There  were  562  horses,  931 
mules  and  asses,  619  milch  cows,  1,559  other 
cattle,  and  1,675  swine.  Capital,  Tallulah. 

ISSOIRE,  a  town  of  Auvergne,  France,  in 
the  department  of  Puy  de-Dome,  at  the  conflu 
ence  of  the  Crouze  and  the  Allier,  81  m.  W.  S. 
"W.  of  Lyons;  pop.  in  1866,  6,294.  It  has  a 
fine  church  of  the  llth  century,  a  college,  cop 
per  works,  and  an  active  trade. 

ISSOUDO,  a  town  of  Berry,  France,  in  the 
department  of  Indre,  on  the  river  Theols  and 
on  the  railway  from  Orleans  to  Limoges,  22  in. 
S.  W.  of  Bourges;  pop.  in  1866,  14,261.  It 
contains  the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  in  the  12th 
century,  and  has  four  churches,  a  theatre,  man 
ufactories  of  cloth  and  faience,  and  an  impor 
tant  trade  in  corn  and  wine. 

ISSUE.  I.  In  law,  used  in  deeds  and  wills 
to  signify  descendants.  When  employed  in  a 
deed,  the  term  has  a  definite  meaning.  It  is  al 
ways  construed  to  be  a  word  of  purchase,  des 
ignating  persons  in  being,  and  vesting  in  each 
of  them  an  original  interest.  It  cannot  be  a 
word  of  limitation,  for  that  would  confer  on  is 
sue,  whether  in  being  or  not,  derivative  interests 


devolved  upon  them  through  descent  from  the 
original  taker ;  and  such  estates  of  inheritance 
can  be  created  in  deeds  only  by  the  word  heirs. 
We  have  used  the  word  purchase  in  its  techni 
cal  sense.  In  law,  all  estates  are  acquired  either 
by  purchase  or  by  descent;  and  it  therefore 
follows  that  all  estates  not  acquired  by  de 
scent  or  by  inheritance  are  acquired  by  pur 
chase. — The  construction  of  the  word  issue  in 
wills  has  involved  much  uncertainty  and  diffi 
culty  ;  for  it  is  a  term  of  the  most  extensive 
import.  It  may  embrace  all  descendants  to  the 
remotest  degree,  or  may  be  limited  to  imme 
diate  descendants,  or  confined  to  some  particu 
lar  class  of  descendants  living  at  a  given  time. 
Of  the  rules  of  construction  established  by  the 
discussion  of  this  perhaps  most  vexed  question 
in  the  wThole  range  of  legal  learning,  it  must 
suffice  to  state  only  the  most  general.  In  a 
will,  issue  may  be  regarded  as  a  word  either  of 
limitation  or  of  purchase.  If  real  estate  be  de 
vised  either  directly  to,  or  by  way  of  executed 
trust  for,  a  "person  and  his  issue,"  the  word 
is  here  taken  to  be  one  of  limitation ;  and  it 
confers  on  the  devisee  an  estate  tail.  Yet  if  it 
clearly  appear  from  any  expressions  in  the  will 
that  the  testator  did  not  intend  to  give  such  an 
estate,  or  that  by  issue  he  meant  children,  or 
any  particular  class  of  descendants,  then  the 
word  will  be  construed  as  a  word  of  purchase ; 
and  it  will  then  comprise  all  who  can  claim  as 
descendants  from  him  to  whose  issue  the  be 
quest  is  made. — The  different  phrases  which 
express  default  of  issue  have  been  the  subjects 
of  frequent  and  very  nice  construction.  The 
failure  of  issue  may  be  what  is  called  a  definite 
failure,  when  the  will  fixes  a  definite  time  for 
such  failure,  as  if  the  devisee  die  "without  issue 
living  at  the  time  of  his  death;"  or  it  may  be 
indefinite,  when  no  period  is  fixed,  but  the  con 
tingency  continues  so  long  as  the  devisee  has 
any  descendants.  A  limitation  over  after  a 
definite  failure  of  issue  is  good ;  but  not  upon 
an  indefinite  failure,  for  the  contingency  is  too 
remote.  In  the  case  therefore  of  a  devise  to  A 
in  fee,  with  remainder  to  another  upon  A's 
death  without  issue,  the  limitation  over  is  void, 
and  A's  estate  in  fee  is  reduced  to  an  estate  tail. 
This  is  the  general  rule  of  the  common  law, 
though  in  the  L^nited  States  the  courts  seek  to 
evade  its  authority,  and  often  avail  themselves 
of  slight  circumstances  to  support  the  execu 
tory  devise.  They  have  done  so  when  the  limi 
tation  was  to  the  brother  of  A  if  the  latter  died 
without  children;  or  to  "survivors"  when 
either  of  several  devisees  should  die  "  without 
issue  alive,"  or  "without  lawful  issue."  In 
many  of  the  states  much  of  the  difficulty  is  ob 
viated  by  express  statutory  enactments.  The 
American  cases  generally  follow  the  English 
common  law  rule  in  regard  to  limitations  over 
upon  the  bequest  of  chattels;  and,  by  confi 
ning  the  expression  "without  issue"  to  issue 
living  at  the  death  of  the  first  taker,  support 
executory  devises.  II.  In  pleading,  the  point 
or  matter  in  contest  between  the  parties  to  a 


ISSUE 


ISTHMIAN  GAMES 


437 


suit.  When  in  the  course  of  their  alternate 
pleadings  the  parties  have  reached  a  specific 
matter  which  one  of  them  affirms  but  the  other 
denies,  they  are  said  to  be  at  issue,  or,  in  the 
ancient  language  of  the  law,  ad  exitum,  or  at 
the  end  of  their  pleadings.  An  issue  may  be 
either  of  law  or  of  fact.  When  a  defendant  de 
murs  to  the  plaintiff's  allegation,  that  is,  denies 
its  sufficiency  as  matter  of  law  to  support  the 
plaintiff's  action,  he  is  said  to  tender  an  issue  in 
law,  and  the  other  party  is  compelled  to  accept 
it.  But  if  the  defendant  traverse  the  plaintiff's 
fact  and  propose  to  refer  the  matter  disputed 
to  some  mode  of  trial,  he  tenders  an  issue  of 
fact.  The  plaintiff  may  demur  to  the  traverse 
or  may  join  issue ;  indeed,  he  must  do  so  when 
the  issue  is  well  tendered.  An  issue  of  fact  is 
properly  framed  upon  a  direct  negation  or  denial 
of  an  averment.  As  the  object  is  to  reach  the 
precise  and  essential  subject  for  decision,  the 
pleadings  should  develop  some  matter  either 
of  law  or  fact  which,  when  decided,  shall  dis 
pose  of  the  whole  controversy.  They  must 
therefore  be  directed  not  merely  to  the  produc 
tion  of  an  issue,  but  to  the  production  of  one 
which  is  material.  For  issue  joined  upon  an 
immaterial  point,  that  is,  a  point  not  decisive 
of  the  right  of  the  case,  is  fatally  defective,  and 
judgment  upon  any  verdict  found  will  be  ar 
rested  by  the  court.  Further,  as  in  respect  to 
any  single  subject  of  suit  the  decision  of  one 
material  point  may  decide  the  action,  it  has  be 
come  a  rule  that  the  pleadings  shall  tend  not 
only  to  materiality,  but  also  to  singleness  in  the 
issue ;  in  other  words,  no  plea  may  allege  sev 
eral  distinct  matters,  when  any  one  of  these 
would  singly  support  the  action.  Finally,  this 
single  material  issue  must  be  so  particular  in 
its  character  as  to  point  out  distinctly  the 
nature  of  the  matter  in  controversy.  Upon 
the  declaration  the  parties  may  join  general  or 
special  issue ;  issues  joined  on  later  pleadings 
in  the  suit  are  called  simply  issues  without 
other  description.  The  general  issue  denies  all 
the  material  allegations  in  the  declaration,  or 
rather  it  enables  the  defendant  to  demand  proof 
of  all  of  them.  A  special  issue,  properly  speak 
ing,  is  the  denial  of  one  of  several  substantive 
facts  which  are  essential  to  the  right  of  action. 
A  traverse  of  one  essential  point  is  plainly  as 
complete  a  denial  of  the  plaintiff's  right  of  re 
covery,  as  the  traverse  of  his  whole  declara 
tion  by  a  general  issue  could  be.  The  legisla 
tion  both  in  England  and  the  United  States  has 
for  some  time  been  in  the  direction  of  requiring 
the  specific  fact  in  controversy  to  be  put  plainly 
in  issue  by  the  pleadings. — Feigned  issues  are 
sometimes  framed  in  chancery  for  the  purpose 
of  submitting  disputed  questions  of  fact  to  the 
ordinary  modes  of  trial  at  law.  Thus,  if  it  be 
contested  whether  A  is  the  heir  of  B,  the  fact 
will  be  sent  to  be  tried  in  a  law  court  upon  a 
fictitious  suit.  For  example,  one  party  may 
declare  that  he  wagered  with  another  that  B 
was  the  heir  of  A ;  he  then  avers  that  he  is  so, 
and  demands  the  wager.  The  defendant  ad 


mits  the  wager,  but  avers  in  reply  that  B  is 
not  the  heir  of  A.  Upon  these  allegations 
issue  is  joined,  and  the  fact  is  decided  in  the 
usual  modes.  Feigned  issues  may  also  be  em 
ployed  by  suitors  in  courts  of  law  for  deter 
mining  a  single  point  expeditiously. 

ISSUS,  an  ancient  town  of  Cilicia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Issus,  cele 
brated  for  the  battle  fought  near  it  in  333  B. 
C.,  in  which  Alexander  the  Great  defeated 
Darius.  Its  exact  site  is  uncertain.  The  battle 
also  between  the  army  of  Septimius  Severus 
and  Niger  (A.  D.  194)  was  fought  near  Issus. 

ISTAPA,  or  Istapam,  a  port  on  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Guatemala,  in  Central  America,  in 
lat.  13°  53'  N.,  Ion.  90°  43'  W.,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Michatoyat.  Alvarado  here  built  the 
vessels  in  which  he  sailed  against  Pizarro  and 
Almagro  in  Peru,  in  1533.  It  remained  the 
only  port  of  Guatemala  on  that  side  of  the 
continent  till  1853,  when  it  was  abandoned  for 
a  point  called  San  Jose,  12  m.  N.,  which  was 
supposed  to  have  fewer  disadvantages.  Both 
Istapa  and  San  Jose,  however,  are  entirely 
open  to  the  sea,  and  vessels  are  unable  to 
approach  nearer  than  1|-  m.  from  the  shore, 
where  they  are  obliged  to  anchor  on  a  bottom 
of  shifting  sands,  prepared  to  stand  out  to  sea 
at  a  moment's  warning. 

ISTER.     See  DANUBE. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES,  one  of  the  four  great  na 
tional  festivals  of  Greece,  celebrated  on  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth  in  April  or  May  of  every 
alternate  year,  in  the  second  and  fourth  years 
of  each  Olympiad.  The  story  of  their  origin 
is  as  follows :  Athamas,  king  of  Orchomenus, 
had  by  his  second  wife  Ino  a  son  named  Meli- 
certes,  whom  together  with  his  mother  he  pur 
sued  in  a  fit  of  madness.  In  order  to  escape 
from  him  they  jumped  into  the  sea.  Ino  wras 
changed  into  a  sea  goddess,  and  the  body  of 
Melicertes  was  washed  ashore  and  buried  by 
his  uncle  Sisyphus,  who  was  directed  by  the 
nereids  to  pay  him  heroic  honors  under  the 
name  of  Palaemon.  Sisyphus  accordingly  es 
tablished  the  Isthmian  games  in  honor  of  Nep 
tune  and  Paloamon.  The  games,  however,  fell 
into  disuse,  and  were  for  a  time  entirely  inter 
rupted,  till  Theseus  organized  them  anew  in 
honor  of  Neptune.  In  the  6th  century  B.  0. 
they  became  Pan-Hellenic  festivals.  Until  the 
overthrow  of  Corinth  by  Mummius  (146  B.  C.), 
the  games  were  conducted  by  the  Corinthians, 
though  the  Athenians  held  the  places  of  honor, 
the  Trpoedpia  or  front  seats.  The  privilege  was 
then  given  to  the  people  of  Sicyon,.  After 
the  rebuilding  of  Corinth  by  Cresar,  they  were 
again  managed  by  that  city,  but  the  people  of 
Sicyon  had  the  exclusive  right  to  sit  as  judges. 
They  continued  regularly  till  Christianity  be 
gan  to  spread,  when  they  fell  into  decay,  but 
were  still  celebrated  under  Constantine  and 
Julian.  The  Isthmian  games,  like  the  Olym 
pic,  consisted  of  all  kinds  of  athletic  sports, 
wrestling,  boxing,  gymnastics  of  every  sort, 
racing  on  foot  and  in  chariots,  and  also  con- 


438 


ISTRIA 


ITALIC  RACES 


tests  in  music  and  poetry.  The  Romans  added 
to  tliem  gladiatorial  shows  and  lights  of  wild 
beasts,  which  were  continued  to  the  time  of 
the  final  decay  of  the  festival.  The  prize  was 
a  simple  garland  of  pine  leaves.  Solon,  in  his 
legislation,  ordered  the  sum  of  100  drachma  to 
be  paid  to  any  one  who  took  a  prize  at  the 
Isthmian  games,  and  500  to  any  one  taking  an 
Olympic  prize. 

ISTltIA  (anc.  Histria),  a  peninsula  and  mar- 
graviate  of  Austria,  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  the 
Adriatic ;  area,  including  the  Quarnero  islands, 
1,907  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  255,000.  It  now 
forms,  conjointly  with  the  circle  of  Gorz  and 
the  city  of  Trieste,  the  Littoral  province,  but 
has  its  own  diet.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants 
are  Roman  Catholics.  It  is  in  general  moun 
tainous,  particularly  toward  the  north,  where 
the  surface  is  occupied  by  offsets  of  the  Julian 
Alps.  The  highest  elevation  is  Monte  Mag- 
giore,  about  4,500  ft.  The  coasts  are  irregular 
and  indented  by  numerous  good  harbors.  The 
soil  is  not  remarkably  fertile,  but  excellent 
olives,  and  grain,  wine,  lemons,  and  silk,  are 
produced.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  extensively 
reared  in  the  mountainous  districts,  and  the 
coast  fisheries  and  salt  works  employ  a  consid 
erable  number  of  the  inhabitants.  The  chief 
towns  are  Capo  d'Istria,  Pirano,  Isola,  Ro- 
vigno,  Pola,  Dignano,  and  Pisino.  The  people 
of  the  towns  are  mostly  Italians,  and  those  of 
the  rural  districts  of  Slavic  origin. — In  remote 
antiquity  the  Istrians  were  an  Illyrian  tribe, 
and  were  engaged  in  piratical  enterprises,  but 
prior  to  the  second  Punic  war  were  reduced  to 
submission  by  Roman  consuls.  They  were 
again  reduced  by  the  consul  Claudius  Marcel- 
lus  (183  B.  C.)  and  the  consul  C.  Claudius 
Pulcher  (177  B.  C.),  and  did  not  again  revolt. 
Under  Augustus  Istria  was  incorporated  with 
upper  Italy.  The  most  flourishing  period  of 
its  ancient  history  was  while  the  Roman  gov 
ernment  was  fixed  at  Ravenna.  It  formed  a 
separate  margraviate  in  the  10th  century,  and 
was  subject  successively  to  the  dukes  of  Ca- 
rinthia  and  of  Dalmatia.  The  Italian  part  of 
Istria  was  held  by  the  Venetians  from  the  13th 
century  till  1797,  the  eastern  part  being  incor 
porated  with  Carinthia  and  subject  to  the  house 
of  Austria.  Both  portions  were  ceded  to  Na 
poleon  I.,  and  reconquered  by  Austria  in  1813. 

ISTIRIZ,  Francisco  Xavicr  de,  a  Spanish  states 
man,  born  in  Cadiz  in  1790,  died  in  April,  1871. 
After  the  fall  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  the 
restoration  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  those  in  Cadiz 
who  were  discontented  with  the  rule  of  the 
latter  were  accustomed  to  meet  in  the  house  of 
the  brothers  Isturiz,  which  was  known  as  the 
casa  Otomana.  This  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  movement  led  by  Riego  (Jan.  1,  1820), 
"  which  made  an  anarchy  of  three  years  suc 
ceed  a  despotism  of  six."  Xavier  de  Isturiz 
went  to  Madrid,  where  he  aided  in  establishing 
liberal  clubs  ;  and  having  thereby  placed  him 
self  in  opposition  to  Arguelles  and  Martinez 
de  la  Rosa,  who  represented  the  moderate  con-  ] 


stitutionalists,  he  excited  public  opinion  against 
them,  especially  after  his  election  to  the  cortes 
in  1822.  In  1823,  while  president  of  this  body, 
he  voted  for  the  suspension  of  the  royal  pow 
er.  Condemned  to  death  after  the  restoration, 
he  fled  to  London,  where  he  was  a  partner  in 
the  mercantile  house  of  Zulueta.  Pardoned 
by  the  amnesty  of  the  queen  regent  Maria 
Christina  in  1834,  he  returned  to  Spain,  where 
he  at  once  engaged  in  democratic  agitation  and 
provoked  the  rising  of  the  national  guard, 
whose  object  was  the  overthrow  of  the  minis 
ter  Toreno,  but  which  was  suppressed  by  Que- 
sada.  Shortly  afterward  his  friend  Mendiza- 
bal  became  prime  minister,  and  made  Isturiz 
his  most  intimate  adviser.  In  November,  1835, 
he  was  appointed  president  of  the  chamber  of 
procuradorcs.  a  sort  of  state  council.  The 
chamber  proved  too  liberal,  which  caused  a 
quarrel  and  a  duel  between  Isturiz  and  Men- 
dizabal.  After  the  fall  of  the  latter  in  183G, 
Isturiz  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  af 
fairs  and  president  of  the  council,  but  soon 
grew  unpopular  with  all  parties.  The  tumults 
of  August,  1836,  which  resulted  in  the  procla 
mation  of  the  constitution  of  1812,  compelled 
him  to  take  refuge  a  second  time  in  England, 
whence  he  went  to  France.  Having  returned 
to  Spain  in  1838,  he  was  elected  to  the  cortes, 
and  was  its  president  in  1839.  lie  negotiated 
the  marriages  of  the  young  queen  and  her  sis 
ter.  In  1848  and  again  in  1850  he  was  sent  as 
minister  to  England,  and  in  1856  to  Russia. 
On  Jan.  5,  1858,  he  became  president  of  the 
Spanish  senate,  and  10  days  after  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  and  president  of  the  council, 
but  was  soon  superseded.  The  same  year  he 
was  again  sent  as  minister  to  England.  He 
signed,  in  conjunction  with  M.  de  Flahault 
and  Earl  Russell,  the  convention  of  Oct.  31, 
1861,  relative  to  Mexico.  From  March,  1863, 
to  October,  1864,  he  was  minister  to  France. 

ITACOLIMITE  (from  Itacolumi,  a  mountain  of 
Brazil),  a  granular  silicious  rock,  of  laminated 
structure,  found  with  talcose  slates  and  more 
or  less  intermixed  with  talc  or  with  mica.  It 
is  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  flexibility,  sheets 
of  it  bending  back  and  forth  as  if  jointed  with 
in.  It  is  of  particular  interest  from  its  occur 
rence  at  the  localities  in  the  gold  regions  where 
diamonds  are  found.  It  is  met  with  in  Brazil, 
the  Ural  mountains,  and  in  Georgia  and  North 
and  South  Carolina.  In  the  last  named  state 
Mr.  Oscar  Lieber  has  observed  the  passage  of 
the  itacolumite  into  a  true  sandstone  or  a  con 
glomerate,  proving  its  sedimentary  origin. 

ITALIC  RACES  Ai\D  LANGUAGES,  In  one  sense 
all  the  various  races  that  occupied  the  Italian 
peninsula  in  ancient  times  belong  to  the  Italic 
group ;  in  a  more  exact  classification,  only 
those  races  and  languages  are  comprised  in 
this  division  whose  characteristics  show  that 
they  form  a  distinct  branch  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  family.  In  the  former  sense 
we  find  that  Liguria  in  upper  Italy  was  in 
habited  by  an  ancient  people  called  the  Ligures 


ITALIC  KACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


439 


or  Ligurians,  of  whose  origin  nothing  authentic 
has  been  recorded,  and  of  whose  language  no 
monuments  are  extant.  Several  modern  wri 
ters  have  maintained  the  Celtic  origin  or  affinity 
of  the  Ligurians,  while  others  have  denied  that 
they  have  any  connection  with  the  Indo-Euro- 
peans.  The  Gauls  of  upper  Italy,  according  to 
the  authorities  followed  by  Livy,  immigrated 
in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  they  are 
classed  as  Celts.  The  inhabitants  of  Venetia, 
the  Veneti  in  the  west,  and  the  Carni  in  the  east, 
are  spoken  of  by  Polybius  as  a  different  people 
from  the  Gauls  their  neighbors,  and  as  using  a 
different  language.  Herodotus  represents  the 
Veneti  as  an  Illyrian  tribe,  but  it  seems  that  the 
name  Illyrian  was  given  indiscriminately  to  all 
the  mountaineers  of  the  K  and  E.  coasts  of  the 
Adriatic.  Modern  scholars  are  inclined  to 
consider  the  Veneti  as  related  to  the  Illyrians 
or  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Albanians. 
There  is  good  reason  for  referring  their  neigh 
bors  the  Istrians  to  the  same  stock;  but  the 
Carni  were  more  probably  Celtic.  The  Eu- 
ganei,  whom  Livy  describes  as  once  great  and 
powerful,  and  occupying  the  whole  tract  be 
tween  the  Alps  and  the  sea,  were  of  little  im 
portance  in  historical  times,  and  there  are  no 
data  from  which  to  deduce  their  ethnological 
relation.  The  affinity  of  the  Etruscans  also 
has  not  yet  been  established,  and  they  have 
been  variously  classed  as  Semites,  Indo-Euro- 
peans,  and  Mongolians ;  but  it  is  probable  that 
their  origin  will  some  day  be  determined,  as 
we  are  in  possession  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
monuments  of  their  language  to  lead  finally  to 
their  interpretation,  while  the  linguistic  mate 
rial  of  the  other  nations  consists  only  in  prop 
er  names  and  a  few  words  scattered  through 
the  writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
Japygians  of  the  S.  E.  portion  of  Italy  seem 
to  have  been  composed  of  several  tribes  or 
nations,  among  which  were  the  Messapians, 
Salentines,  and  Peucetians.  Niebuhr  considers 
the  name  as  etyrnologically  connected  with  the 
Latin  Apulus.  The  Apulians  properly  so  called 
were  probably  a  branch  of  the  great  Oscan  or 
Ausonian,  and  not  of  the  Sabellian  race.  The 
Daunians,  neighbors  of  the  Peucetians,  were 
from  their  first  appearance  in  history  com 
pletely  blended  with  the  Apulians.  The  Peuce 
tians,  however,  retained  a  separate  nation 
ality  to  a  comparatively  late  period.  On  the 
Calabrian  peninsula  were  the  Messapians  or 
Calabrians  proper  and  the  Salentines.  Both 
races  are  represented  in  ancient  tradition  as 
Cretans,  and  it  seems  that  they  were  closely 
related  to  the  Hellenic  races,  as  they  adopted 
with  great  facility  the  manners  and  arts  of  | 
Greek  settlers.  Modern  authorities  consider 
the  Calabrians  and  Messapians  as  of  the  same  j 
tribe.  Traces  still  remaining  of  the  Messapian  j 
dialect  have  confirmed  the  opinion  of  their 
Pelasgic  or  Hellenic  origin,  as  their  language 
appears  to  have  differed  from  Greek  to  no 
greater  degree  than  the  Macedonian  and  other 
dialects.  Manv  of  the  oldest  tribes  of  Italv  j 


are  described  by  ancient  writers  as  belong 
ing  to  the  Pelasgic  race!  (See  PELASGIAXS.) 
A  large  portion  of  central  Italy  was  occu 
pied  from  an  early  period  by  a  people  whom 
the  Greeks  called  Opicans  and  the  Latins  Os- 
cans,  and  whom  many  identify  with  the  Auso- 
nians  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Auruncans  of 
the  Romans.  The  Volsci  and  their  neighbors 
the  ^Equi  also  were  probably  of  Oscan  race. 
It  is  believed  that  the  Latini  or  inhabitants  of 
Latium  were  composed  of  two  distinct  races, 
the  one  more  closely  related  to  the  Greek  or 
Pelasgic  stock,  the  other  to  the  Italic  race 
proper;  but  when  the  Latin  people  first  ap 
peared  in  history,  these  two  elements  were 
certainly  blended  into  one,  and  they  and  their 
language  are  always  regarded  by  Roman  wri 
ters  as  an  organic  whole.  The  oldest  form  of 
the  Latin  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  the  ex 
tant  monuments  of  the  Oscan  language.  It  is 
difficult  to  determine  the  precise  relation  which 
the  primitive  Oscans  bore  to  the  Sabines  or 
Sabellians,  but  there  are  strong  reasons  for 
supposing  that  both  nations  were  members  of 
the  same  family  or  race.  It  seems  certain  that 
the  immigration  of  the  Sabellians  cannot  be 
carried  back  to  a  very  remote  age.  When  first 
mentioned  they  had  not  been  long  established 
in  central  Italy,  and  their  extension  further 
south  took  place  soon  after  the  establishment 
of  Greek  colonies  in  the  south  of  the  penin 
sula.  The  original  territory  of  the  Sabines  was 
the  central  Apennines,  whence  they  descend 
ed  and  pressed  upon  an  Oscan  race  whom 
they  expelled  from  the  valleys  about  Reate. 
The  Sabines  gradually  extended  as  far  as  the 
region  still  known  as  La  Sabina,  and  separate 
colonies  of  Sabines  established  themselves  to 
the  east  and  west  of  their  early  abode.  The 
most  celebrated  of  these  were  the  Samnites 
and  the  Piceni  or  Picentes.  The  Sabine  de 
scent  of  the  Peligni  is  clearly  attested,  and  the 
close  connection  of  these  with  the  Marsi,  Mar- 
rucini,  and  Vestini  renders  it  probable  that 
these  four  nations  were  of  the  same  ethnic  ori 
gin.  The  Frentani,  Hirpini,  and  Lucanians  are 
also  usually  described  as  separate  Samnite  colo 
nies,  and  the  Bruttians  seem  to  have  been  a 
mixed  population,  made  up  of  Lucanian  con 
querors  and  (Enotrian  serfs.  But  though  the 
Sabellian  race  reached  thus  from  the  neighbor 
hood  of  Ancona  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Bruttium,  it  appears  to  have  been  a  race  of 
conquering  warriors  who  rapidly  blended  with 
the  Oscan  population  whom  they  subdued. 
The  most  ancient  people  of  Italy,  on  the  unani 
mous  testimony  of  ancient  authors,  were  the 
Umbrians.  who  at  a  very  early  period  were  a 
great  and  powerful  nation  in  the  northern  half 
of  central  Italy.  According  to  Xenodotus  of 
Troezen,  the  Sabines  themselves  were  a  branch 
of  the  Umbrians.  Philological  research  has 
clearly  established  that  the  Umbrian  language 
was  quite  distinct  from  the  Etruscan,  and 
closely  related  to  the  Oscan  as  spoken  by  the 
Sabellian  tribes,  and  also  to  the  old  Latin.  This 


440 


ITALIC  EACES 


ITALY 


seems  to  warrant  the  now  generally  received 
opinion  that  the  Umbrians,  Oscans,  and  Latins, 
or  at  least  the  most  important  element  of  them, 
as  well  as  the  Sabines  and  their  descendants, 
were  branches  of  one  race,  or  form  a  distinct 
and  independent  group  of  races  belonging  to" 
the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family. — LAN 
GUAGES.  The  Italic  group  of  languages  is  di 
vided  into  two  distinct  classes,  the  Umbro- 
Samnite  or  Umbro-Oscan  and  the  Latin.  Os- 
can  and  Umbrian  bear  about  the  same  relation 
to  Latin  as  the  Ionic  bears  to  the  Doric  dialect 
in  Greek,  and  the  differences  between  Oscan 
and  Umbrian  are  no  greater  than  those  between 
Sicilian  and  Spartan  Doric.  The  most  ancient 
if  not  the  only  extant  Umbrian  record  of  im 
portance  is  the  celebrated  Iguvine  or  Eugubian 
inscription  on  seven  bronze  plates  found  in  1444 
at  Gubbio,  the  ancient  Iguvium  in  Umbria.  It 
is  now  in  the  town  hall  of  Gubbio.  The  Oscan, 
Samnite,  or  Sabellian  language  is  preserved 
only  in  a  few  inscriptions.  The  Cippus  Abel- 
lanus,  which  dates  from  shortly  after  the  second 
Punic  war,  contains  a  treaty  of  alliance  between 
the  citizens  of  Abella  and  the  neighboring  town 
of  Nola,  where  it  is  now  preserved.  The  Ta~ 
lula  Bantina  is  a  bronze  tablet  found  in  1790 
at  Oppido,  8  m.  from  Banzi,  an  ancient  town 
of  Apulia.  This  tablet  furnished  the  starting 
point  for  the  study  of  these  languages,  as  it 
contains  an  inscription  in  both  Latin  and  Oscan. 
Another  bronze  tablet  was  recently  discovered 
at  Agnone,  in  northern  Samnium,  which  con 
tains  a  dedication  of  various  sacred  offerings. 
The  Oscan  language  prevailed  extensively  in 
Campania,  and  numerous  inscriptions  have  come 
to  light  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  several 
of  which  have  been  copied  and  translated,  and 
all  of  them  are  published  from  time  to  time  in 
the  official  reports  of  the  progress  of  the  exca 
vations.  The  language  of  the  Latins  was  spo 
ken  before  the  emigration  of  the  Samnites  by 
the  Ausonians  in  Campania,  by  the  Itali  proper 
in  Lucania  and  Bruttium,  and  probably  also 
by  the  Siculians  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Sicily. 
In  Latium  proper  it  was  developed,  through 
the  influence  of  the  Etruscans  and  Umbro- 
Samnites,  into  the  Latin  language,  which  be 
came  the  prevailing  speech  of  Italy  and  was 
finally  known  as  the  Roman  language  (lingua 
Romano),  and  gave  rise  to  the  modern  dialects 
now  described  as  the  Romance  languages.  (See 
LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE,  and  RO 
MANCE  LANGUAGES.) — For  the  Umbrian  lan 
guage,  see  Grotefend,  Rudimenta  Lingua 
Umlrica  (Hanover,  1835-'9);  Aufrecht  and 
Kirchhoff,  Die  umbrischen  Spracndenl:muler 
crldutert  (Berlin,  1849-'51)  ;  and  Huschke, 
Die  igurischen  Tafeln,  containing  a  grammar 
and  glossary  (Leipsic,  1859).  For  the  Oscan 
language,  see  Grotefend,  Rudimenta  Linguae 
OSCCR  (Hanover,  1839);  Mommsen,  OsMsche 
Studien  (Berlin,  1845)  ;  Kirchhoff,  Deis  Stadt- 
recM  Ton  Bantia  (Berlin,  1853)  ;  Huschke, 
Die  oskizchen  und  sitkcUischcn  Sprachdenlc- 
maler  (Elberfeld,  1856),  which  contains  also  a 


grammar  and  glossary  of  the  language.  For 
comparative  purposes,  see  Mommsen,  Die  un- 
teritalischen  Dialecte  (Leipsic,  1850);  Corssen, 
De  Volscorum  Lingua  (Naumburg,  1858),  and 
several  articles  in  Kuhn's  Zeitschrift  fur  xer- 
gleichende  Spraclncissenschaft;  and  Corpus  In- 
scriptionum  Latinarum  Consilio  et  Auctoritate 
Academics,  Litterarum  Regice  Borussicce  editum 
(Berlin,  1869  et  seq.}. 

ITALY,  a  kingdom  of  southern  Europe,  com 
prising  the  Italian  peninsula  and  the  islands  of 
Sardinia  and  Sicily,  between  lat.  36°  38'  and 
46°  40'  K,  and  Ion.  6°  30'  and  18°  33' E.  The 
island  of  Corsica  and  the  district  of  Nice  (which 
encloses  the  independent  principality  of  Mona 
co)  belong  geographically  to  Italy,  but  politi 
cally  to  France ;  the  republic  of  San  Marino  is 
also  included  in  Italy  geographically,  but  is  an 
independent  state.  The  origin  of  the  name  It 
aly  is  differently  explained  by  ancient  writers. 
According  to  Timseus  and  Yarro,  it  is  derived 
from  ira?i(5f,  calf  or  ox,  meaning  a  country  in 
which  cattle  abound;  while  Thucydides  and 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  assume  the  exist 
ence  of  a  mythical  king  named  Italus,  to  whom 
the  country  owes  its  name.  The  kingdom  is 
bounded  N.  W.  by  France,  N.  by  Switzerland 
and  Austria,  N.  E.  by  Austria,  E.  by  the  Adri 
atic  and  the  Ionian  sea,  and  S.  and  W.  by  the 
Mediterranean.  The  total  area  of  the  kingdom 
was  officially  estimated  in  the  work  Italia  Eco- 
nomica  (Rome,  1873)  at  114,409  sq.  m.,  while 
other  official  publications  of  the  Italian  gov 
ernment  give  114,850  and  114,372  sq.  m. ;  the 
population,  according  to  the  first  complete  cen 
sus,  taken  Dec.  31,  1871,  amounted  to  26,801,- 
154.  Italy  has  been  until  recently  merely  a 
geographical  and  ethnographical  division  of  Eu 
rope,  but  not  a  political  unit.  During  the  mid 
dle  ages  it  was  divided  into  independent  com 
monwealths,  republican  and  monarchical,  which 
were  constantly  changing  in  name,  number, 
and  extent.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  (1815)  di 
vided  the  Italian  territory  into  the  kingdoms 
of  Sardinia  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  the  States  of 
the  Church,  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  the 
duchies  of  Parma,  Lucca,  and  Modena,  the  Lom- 
bardo-Venetian  kingdom  (which  was  united 
with  Austria),  the  republic  of  San  Marino,  and 
the  principality  of  Monaco.  Lucca  ceased  to 
be  an  independent  state  in  1847;  the  king  of 
Sardinia  in  1859  and  1860  annexed  Lombardy, 
Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany,  a  part  of  the  Papal 
States,  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  in  February, 
1861,  assumed  the  title  king  of  Italy.  In  1866 
Venetia  was  incorporated  with  Italy,  and  in 
1870  the  remainder  of  the  Papal  States.  The 
kingdom  is  at  present  (1874)  divided  into  69 
provinces,  which  are  again  subdivided  into 
districts  (circondarii)  and  communes.  The 
names  of  the  principal  old  divisions  are  still  in 
common  use,  though  they  have  no  longer  any 
political  significance.  The  following  table  ex 
hibits  the  area,  number  of  districts,  number  of 
communes,  and  population  of  the  provinces  and 
large  historic  divisions,  ancient  and  modern : 


S 


ITALY 


441 


NAMES  OF  PROVINCES 
AND  LARGE   DIVISIONS. 

Area. 

Dis 
tricts. 

Com 
munes. 

Pop. 
in  1S72. 

PIEDMONT. 

Alessandria  

1.952 
2,755 

6 
4 

344 
263 

688.361 
618232 

Novara  

2.526 

4,068 

6 
5 

438 

442 

624.985 
972  986 

Total 

11,301 

21 

1487 

2  899  564 

LIGURIA. 

1  589 

5 

210 

716759 

467 

2 

107 

l'->7  053 

Total 

2  056 

7 

817 

040  Qi  t> 

LOMBAEDY, 

1  088 

3 

306 

868  152 

Brescia  

1,644 
1  050 

5 
3 

285 

518 

456,023 
477  642 

Cremona  

632 

3 

135 

800  595 

962 

11 

67 

288  942 

Milan 

1  155 

5 

313 

1  009  794 

Pavia                 

1,292 

4 

263 

'448?435 

Sondrio    

1  262 

1 

78 

111  241 

Total 

9  085 

35 

1  965 

3  460  824 

00 

VBNETIA. 

1  971 

1 

66 

175232 

Padua        

755 

s 

103 

864  430 

651 

8 

63 

200  835 

Treviso  
Udino 

941 
2515 

8 
17 

96 
180 

852,538 

481  586 

Venice     

850 

7 

51 

337  538 

1  061 

11 

113 

867  437 

Yieenza  

1,016 

10 

1-23 

363',161 

Total  

9,060 

76 

795 

2.642,807 

EMILIA. 

1,391 

3 

58 

439,232 

Ferrara  

1.010 

3 

16 

215.369 

Forli                    

719 

3 

40 

234,090 

966 

3 

45 

273  231 

Parma  
Piacenza  
Eavenna  
RejMo 

1,251 
905 
742 

877 

3 

2 
3 

2 

50 
48 
21 
45 

264.381 
225,775 
221.115 

240,635 

Total  

7,921 

22 

323 

2,113,823 

MARCHES. 

Ancona 

736 

1 

51 

262.349 

Ascoli-Piccno  

809 

2 

71 

203,0;  )4 

Macerato 

1,057 

2 

54 

23(5.994 

Pesaro  ed  Urbiuo  
Total  

1,144 
3,746 

2 

7 

73 
249 

213.072 
915.419 

TTMBRIA. 

Perugia  

3270 

6 

173 

549  601 

TUSCANY. 

Arezzo  .   . 

1,278 

1 

41 

234,645 

Florence  
Grosseto 

2/263 

1,707 

4 
1 

78 
20 

766.824 
107.457 

Leghorn  . 

126 

2 

5 

118.851 

Lucca  
Massa  e  Carrara  .  .  . 
Pisa.    . 

576 

687 
1,180 

1 
3 

2 

22 
35 

40 

280.399 
1(51,944 

265.959 

Siena  

1,465 

2 

37 

206,446 

Total  

9,287 

16 

278 

2,142.525 

LATIUM. 

Rome  .  .  . 

4  601 

5 

2°7 

836  704 

ABRUZZO   AND   MOLISE. 

Aquila  

2510 

4 

127 

332  784 

Campo  Basso 

1  778 

3 

134 

864  208 

Chieti  . 

1  105 

3 

i-n 

.",:  'i  list! 

Teramo  

1  284 

2 

74 

246,004 

Total... 

6677 

12 

456 

1  2^°  98° 

NAMES  OF  PROVINCES 
AND  LARGE  DIVISIONS. 

Area. 

Dis 
trict*. 

Com 
munes. 

Pop. 
in  1672. 

CAMPANIA. 

Avellino  

1.409 
638 
2,307 
412 
2,126 

3 
3 
5 
4 
4 

128 
73 
185 

69 
159 

375,691 
232,003 
697.403 
907,752 
541,733 

Benevento 

Caserta 

Naples  
Salerno  

Total..  .     . 

6,942 

19 

614 

2,754,592 

APCLIA. 

Bari  

2,293 
2.953 
3,293 

3 

3 
4 

53 

53 
180 

236 

604,540 
322,758 
493,594 

l,42i  »>92 

Foggia  

Leccc. 

Total 

8,539 

10 

BASILICATA. 

Potenza 

4,122 

4 

124 

510,543 

CALABRIA. 

Catanzaro 

2.307 
2,841 
1,515 

4 
4 
3 

152 
151 
107 

412.226 

440.4(58 
353,603 

Cosenza  

Ee<rgio 

Total 

6,663 

11 

410 

1,206,302 

SICILY. 

Caltanisetta  

1,455 
1,970 
1,491 
1  768 

3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
3 

28 
64 
41 
99 
76 
32 
20 

3GO 

230,066 
495,415 
289,018 
420,649 
617.673 
294.885 
236,383 

Catania  

Girgenti  

Messina 

Palermo  

1.964 
1.429 
1,214 

11.291 

5.257 

4,142 

Syracuse.  .  . 

Trapani  

Total 

24 

2,534,099 

SARDINIA. 

Cagliari  

4 

5 

258 
110 

393  203 
243,452 

Sassari  

Total  

9,399 
114.409 

9 

368 

636,660 

Total  Italy 

284 

8,332  (26,801.154 

— The  length  of  the  coast  line  of  Italy,  exclu 
sive  of  the  islands  (for  the  description  of  which 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  respective  articles), 
is  upward  of  2,000  m.  The  western  portion 
of  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Genoa  is  called  Ri 
viera  di  Ponente,  shore  of  the  setting  sun ;  it 
is  lofty  and  precipitous,  and  extends  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Roja  at  Ventimiglia  to  Genoa. 
From  Genoa  to  Spezia  is  the  Riviera  di  Levante, 
shore  of  the  rising  sun,  offering  less  of  alpine 
characteristics,  but  still  bold  and  mountainous. 
From  the  mouth  of  the  Arno  to  that  of  the 
Tiber,  the  coast  in  Tuscany  is  occasionally  bold, 
but  for  the  most  part  low  and  swampy,  with 
several  bays  toward  the  south.  In  the  former 
Papal  States  it  is  almost  everywhere  low  and 
marshy,  scarcely  raised  above  the  sea  level  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Ostia,  and  S.  of  the  Tiber 
presents  the  same  dull  level  aspect,  broken  only 
by  the  headland  and  large  projecting  moles  of 
Porto  d'Anzio.  The  Neapolitan  coast  along 
the  Tyrrhenian  sea  is  for  the  most  part  bold 
and  rocky,  and  scooped  out  into  broad  and  deep 
bays,  whose  shores  are  dotted  with  historic  cit 
ies  and  towns.  The  part  washed  by  the  Ionian 
sea,  from  the  straits  of  Messina  to  Cape  Riz- 
zuto,  is  /faced  by  steep  rocks  backed  by  alpine 
heights.  Beyond  Taranto,  and  almost  through- 


ITALY 


out  the  whole  peninsula  of  Otranto,  the  shore 
is  low  and  sandy;  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gulf  of  Taranto  lies  the  only  marshy  district 
along  the  coast  of  the  Ionian  sea.  From  Cape 
Santa  Maria  di  Leuca  the  shore  is  only  broken 
by  the  spur  on  which  stand  Mts.  Gargano  and 
Sant'  Angelo,  and  the  gulfs  of  Manfredonia 
and  Venice.  From  the  river  Tronto  the  shore 
is  Hat  and  sandy  as  far  as  Ancona,  between 
the  promontories  of  Monte  Ciriaca  and  Mon 
te  Conero.  Thence  northward  to  Rimini  the 
coast  rises  gradually,  to  subside  rapidly  beyond 
that  city  into  a  series  of  sandy  islands,  lagoons, 
and  pestilential  marshes,  extending  almost  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Isonzo.  The  principal  har 
bors  along  this  vast  line  of  coast  arc :  on  the 
west,  Genoa,  Spezia,  Leghorn,  Civita  Vecchia, 
Gaeta,  Naples,  and  Reggio ;  on  the  south,  Ta 
ranto  ;  on  the  east,  Brindisi,  Bari,  Ancona,  Rimi 
ni,  Chioggia,  and  Venice.  The  most  important 
islands  along  the  coast  are  Elba,  Ischia,  and  Ca 
pri  on  the  west. — The  surface  of  the  peninsula  is 
divided  by  its  mountain  ranges  into  a  wonder 
ful  diversity  of  sublime  alpine  scenery,  upland 
valleys,  broad  plains,  pestilential  lowland  and 
marsh,  and  numerous  lakes  surrounded  by  ev 
ery  charm  of  nature.  Between  the  steep  north 
ern  wall  of  the  Alps  and  the  ridges  of  the  Ap 
ennines,  to  the  west  and  south,  stretches  the 
great  Lombard  plain,  the  most  fertile  region  in 
Europe,  watered  by  the  Po  and  the  Adige,  the 
two  largest  rivers  of  Italy.  From  Bologna 
and  Imola,  on  the  S.  extremity  of  this  plain, 
to  the  straits  of  Messina,  the  remainder  of 
the  peninsula  is  divided  by  the  Apennines  into 
a  broad  mountainous  belt,  marked  by  lofty 
peaks  clad  with  forests  to  their  summits,  by 
numberless  valleys  between  the  parallel  ranges 
or  their  interlocking  spurs,  and  by  rolling  up 
lands  and  plains  available  for  all  the  purposes 
of  husbandry.  Between  the  central  ridges  and 
the  seashore  lie  wide  bands  of  marshy  and 
pestilential  country,  and  several  plains  which, 
though  far  inferior  in  extent  and  fertility, to 
that  of  Lombardy,  possess  considerable  impor 
tance.  These  are,  on  the  W.  side,  Campagna 
di  Roma  with  the  Pontine  Marshes,  and  the 
Campagna  Felice  near  Naples ;  on  the  E.  side, 
the  Apulian  plain,  anciently  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  Grecian  civilization,  now  almost  a  des 
ert  and  thinly  populated  (the  plain  of  Basilica- 
ta),  extending  in  the  south  along  the  shore  of 
the  Ionian  sea,  on  which  formerly  nourished  | 
the  Greek  cities  of  Sybaris  and  Ileraclea. — The 
great  mountain  systems  are  the' Alps  and  the  | 
Apennines,  including  the  Sub-Apennine  ranges.  | 
The  former  begin  on  the  axis  of  the  Ligurian 
chain,  not  far  from  the  source  of  the  Bormida, 
and  sweep  round  in  an  irregular  semi-elliptic 
curve  along  the  frontiers  of  France,  Switzer 
land,  and  Austria,  to  the  western  declivities  of 
the  Carnic  Alps.  The  latter  from  Monte  Ap- 
pio  in  the  Maritime  Alps  stretch  X.  E.  arid  E.  j 
around  the  gulf  of  Genoa,  and  from  Monte  Ci- 
mono  on  the  confines  of  Emilia  and  Tuscany  i 
extend  to  the  straits  of  Messina.  (See  ALPS,  j 


and  APENNINES.)  The  Sub-Apennines  lie  whol 
ly  AY.  of  the  main  chain,  to  which  they  do  not 
appear  geologically  to  belong,  and,  under  the 
appellations  of  Tuscan,  Roman,  and  Neapolitan 
Sub-Apennines,  extend  to  Mt.  Vesuvius  in  the 
south,  and  terminate  at  Punta  della  Campanel- 
la  opposite  the  island  of  Capri ;  they  embrace 
a  great  part  of  the  plain  of  the  Arno  and  the 
Campagna  di  Roma.  Of  the  innumerable  val 
leys  of  the  sub-Alpine  region,  the  most  re 
nowned  are  the  Val  di  Clusone,  once  the  refuge 
of  the  Waldenses,  that  of  the  Dora  Susina  above 
Turin,  the  Val  d'Aosta,  and  the  Valtellina,  with 
such  as  are  formed  by  the  other  affluents  of  the 
Po  and  those  of  the  Ticino,  the  Adige,  and  the 
Piave,  as  well  as  by  the  rivers  that  empty  into 
the  great  lakes.  Along  the  Apennines  are  the 
Val  d'Arno,  those  of  the  Tiber,  Volturno,  &c., 
and  the  beautiful  upland  valleys  of  the  centre 
and  south. — Italy  has  but  two  rivers  of  impor 
tance,  viz.,  the  Po  and  the  Adige.  The  former, 
with  a  length  of  about  400  m.,  waters,  with  its 
tributaries  (the  Ticino,  Adda,  Oglio,  and  Min- 
cio  on  the  N.  bank,  the  Tanaro,  Trebbia,  Taro, 
Secchia,  and  Panaro  on  the  8.  bank),  a  plain 
extending  over  300  m.  in  length  and  170  in 
breadth.  The  Adige,  descending  from  the 
Alps,  flows  in  a  semicircle  to  the  east,  falling 
into  the  Adriatic  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
Po ;  it  is  navigable  only  to  a  short  distance 
above  Verona.  Nearly  all  the  other  rivers  are 
mere  mountain  torrents,  having  a  short  course 
and  no  considerable  depth  ;  hence  they  afford 
very  limited  facilities  to  commerce.  The  most 
noted  of  them  are  the  Brenta,  Piave,  and  Ta- 
gliamento  in  the  north,  the  Arno  and  Tiber  in 
the  centre,  and  the  Garigliano,  Volturno,  and 
Silaro  (Sele)  in  the  south.  The  mouths  of  most 
small  rivers  of  S.  Italy  are  surrounded  with 
swamps,  the  noxious  gases  of  which  generate 
malaria  and  render  the  surrounding  districts 
almost  uninhabitable.  Nine  principal  canals, 
chiefly  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  were  con 
structed  during  the  middle  ages  in  Lombardy 
and  Venetia.  The  finest  of  these,  the  Naviglio 
Grande  or  Ticinello,  between  the  Ticino  and 
Milan,  was  begun  in  1179  ;  it  is  28  m.  long  and 
navigable  for  vessels  of  large  size.  Piedmont 
is  intersected  by  about  250  canals.  This  sys 
tem  was  perfected  at  an  early  period,  and  proved 
extremely  beneficial  to  agriculture.  The  most 
extensive  lakes,  several  of  which  are  celebra 
ted  for  the  picturesqueness  of  their  surrounding 
scenery,  belong  to  upper  Italy.  Lago  Maggio- 
re,  40  m.  long,  has  a  depth  of  about  2,500  ft. ; 
its  surface  is  about  700  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea ;  it  is  fed  chiefly  by  the  river  Ticino. 
The  lake  of  Lugano  belongs  mainly  to  Switzer 
land.  The  lake  of  Como,  35  m.  long,  and  of 
great  depth,  is  fed  by  the  river  Adda  and  a  large 
number  of  smaller  streams.  Lake  Iseo,  15  m. 
long,  is  chiefly  supplied  by  the  Oglio.  Lake 
Garda,  which  belongs  partly  to  Tyrol,  is  33  m. 
long,  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  carry  vessels  of 
the  greatest  draught.  Besides  these,  there  are 
the  lake  of  Bientina  in  Tuscany,  the  lake  of 


ITALY 


443 


Perugia  (Trasimeno)  in  TJmbria,  and  the  lakes  of 
Bolsena  and  Bracciano  in  the  province  of  Koine. 
— Italy  offers  a  rich  and  in  many  respects  an 
almost  unexplored  field  to  the  geologist.  Gran 
ite,  porphyry,  and  gneiss  are  found  at  botli 
the  northern  and  southern  extremities,  as  well 
as  in  the  centre.  Monte  Corvo  and  other 
peaks  in  the  Abruzzi  are  of  compact  quartz, 
which  also  covers  large  tracts  in  Calabria. 
Aspromonte  on  the  straits  of  Messina  consists 
almost  exclusively  of  primitive  rocks.  The 
mass  of  the  Apennines  is  composed  of  lime 
stone,  chalk,  and  sandstone,  through  which  at 
various  points  throughout  their  whole  extent 
masses  of  serpentine  have  erupted,  or  have 
been  injected  between  the  strata.  This  rock 
forms  an  important  component  of  the  Ligurian 
Apennines.  Commencing  near  Savona,  and 
showing  itself  for  a  considerable  space  inland 
as  far  as  Voltaggio,  and  toward  the  sea  to 
Genoa,  it  forms  many  detached  groups  of  hills, 
and  ceases  to  be  prominent  only  at  Orbetello, 
in  the  province  of  Grosseto.  It  also  rises  in 
great  masses  near  Bobbio  and  Fornovo,  and 
between  Sassuolo  and  Modena  in  the  basin  of 
Lombardy.  The  great  dislocations  and  con 
tortions  of  strata  in  the  Ligurian  chain  are 
attributed  to  the  eruption  of  this  rock.  Gneiss, 
mica  slate,  clay  slate,  talc  slate,  and  limestone 
form  together  the  lowest  stratified  series  tilt 
ed  up  by  the  serpentine ;  above  them  lies  an 
assemblage  of  argillaceous  slates,  marly  sand 
stones  and  slates,  sandstones,  and  limestones ; 
while  uppermost  are  marly  limestones  and  a 
sandstone  called  in  the  country  macigno,  with 
impressions  of  marine  plants.  Upon  these  arc 
tertiary  deposits  in  horizontal  stratification, 
of  limited  extent  and  in  detached  spots,  on  the 
Mediterranean  side,  but  forming  in  Piedmont 
and  Lombardy  a  continuous  zone  on  the  north 
ern  slope  of  the  chain  from  Ceva  to  Fornovo. 
The  macigno  is  the  prevailing  stratified  rock 
in  the  northern  Apennines;  it  contains  subordi 
nate  beds  of  limestone,  but  no  metallic  veins  or 
deposits,  and  is  supposed  to  extend  southward 
as  far  as  Cortona.  In  this  part  of  the  chain  are 
extensive  tracts  of  crystallized  limestone,  which 
exfend  southward  along  the  shore  of  the  Medi 
terranean,  forming  the  brocatello  marble  of 
Siena,  the  hill  of  San  Giuliano  near  Pisa,  and 
insulated  hills  at  Piombino,  Civita  Vecchia, 
and  Capo  Circello.  The  Alpi  Appuane,  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines  and 
containing  the  Carrara  marbles,  are  composed 
(according  to  Hoffmann)  of  Jura  limestone,  the 
crystalline  state  of  which  is  due  to  the  heat 
contemporaneous  with  the  eruption  of  the 
serpentine.  Eastward  and  southward  from 
Liguria,  the  Apennines  are  chiefly  composed 
of  limestone ;  it  forms  the  Apennines  of  Tus 
cany,  Romagna,  Fabriano,  Foligno,  and  the 
Abruzzi,  extending  through  the  provinces  of 
Potenza  and  Bari  to  the  extremity  of  Otranto. 
Throughout  the  northern  portion  of  the  Lom 
bard  plain  limestone  is  the  prevailing  rock. 
Above  this  limestone,  and  almost  coextensive 


with  it,  is  chalk  with  its  accompanying  rocks ; 
it  stretches  along  the  coast  of  Genoa  and  into 
j  Parma,  crosses  Modena  and  Tuscany,  forms  to 
the  south  a  long  narrow  belt  along  the  E.  side 
of  the  limestone,  and  after  some  partial  breaks 
reaches  Cape  di  Leuca,  where  its  white  cliffs 
form  a  landmark.  In  the  north  of  the  Nea 
politan  territory  a  large  oval  tract  of  chalk  is 
enclosed  by  the  limestone.  Above  chalk  and 
limestone  are  tertiary  sandstones,  travertine, 
and  marl,  occupying  a  considerable  portion  of 
Tuscany  and  of  central  Piedmont,  but  stretch 
ing  chiefly  in  a  narrow  belt  along  the  E.  coast 
from  near  Rimini  to  Monte  Gargano ;  thence 
the  same  band  spreads  out  and  is  continued  to 
the  gulf  of  Taranto.  On  the  coast  of  Tuscany 
and  in  the  Roman  territory,  particularly  in  the 
Pontine  Marshes,  are  found  partial  tracts  form 
ed  by  immense  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits, 
and  covering  the  preceding  strata ;  but  it  is  in 
the  plains  of  Lombardy,  on  the  N.  TV.  shore  of 
the  Adriatic,  and  filling  the  greater  part  of  the 
basin  of  the  Po,  that  these  deposits  are  most 
conspicuous:  Besides  these  formations,  there 
are  in  Italy  four  distinct  volcanic  districts,  dis 
tributed  from  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Venice 
to  Sicily.  The  first  is  that  of  the  Euganean 
hills,  extending  from  near  Padua  to  Este,  and 
separated  from  the  Alps  by  the  Paduan  plain. 
The  next  and  largest  district  is  in  the  Ro 
man  territory,  where  it  forms  three  remark 
able  groups,  the  Monti  Albani,  with  Monte  Ca- 
vo  (anc.  Jtfons  Albamis) ;  the  Monti  Cimini, 
stretching  from  the  Tiber  to  Civita  Vecchia ; 
and  on  the  road  from  Siena  to  Rome  a  group 
to  which  belong  the  lofty  volcanic  mass  of  Ra- 
dicofani,  and  4  m.  away  Monte  Amiato,  5,794 
ft.  above  the  sea.  The  lakes  of  Bolsena,  Brac- 
ciano,  Vico,  Albano,  and  Nemi  are  in  this  dis 
trict,  all  or  most  of  them  the  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes.  At  the  foot  of  Monte  Amiato  is  a 
hot  crystal  spring,  holding  in  solution  a  con 
siderable  amount  of  sulphur  and  carbonate  of 
liuie,  of  which  advantage  is  taken  to  form 
casts.  The  water  is  allowed  to  fall  in  broken 
showers  upon  moulds,  and  the  calcareous  de 
posit  hardens  into  cameos  and  intaglios  of  ex 
quisite  beauty.  The  Terra  di  Lavoro  or  Cam 
pania  Felice  (now  province  of  Caserta)  in  Naples 
is  the  third  district,  subdivided  into  several 
marked  groups :  the  Roccamonh'na  group  to 
the  north  of  the  Campanian  plains ;  the  Phle- 
grrean  Fields,  embracing  the  country  around 
Baja  and  Pozzuoli,  together  with  the  neigh- 
I  boring  islands,  and  the  lakes  Averno,  Lucrino, 
Fusaro,  and  Anagno ;  and  Mt.  Vesuvius.  The 
last  volcanic  district  is  in  Apulia,  having  for 
its  centre  the  huge  mass  of  Monte  Volture,  and 
for  its  highest  peak  the  Pizzuto  di  Melfi,  4,357 
ft.  In  the  widest  crater  are  two  small  lakes. 
The  pools  of  Ampsanctus  (Lo  Mofete)  are  in 
this  district,  in  a  wooded  valley  south  of  Tri- 
I  gento;  they  emit  carbonic  acid  and  sulphurc-t- 
j  ted  hydrogen. — The  mineral  wealth  of  Italy  lias 
!  been  famed  from  remote  times.  In  the  Col  di 
Tenda  are  mines  of  lead  and  silver,  considered 


444 


ITALY 


as  a  prolongation  of  those  of  Argentiere  in 
the  French  department  of  Hautes-Alpes,  or  of 
those  of  Pezey  in  Savoy.  Piedmont  is  rich 
in  metals ;  the  Val  d' Anzasca  is  renowned  for 
its  auriferous  pyrites,  the  Val  di  Macagnaga 
for  its  beds  of  auriferous  schists,  and  the  Val 
d'Aosta  for  copper  pyrites.  In  the  serpentine 
rocks  bordering  the  gulf  of  Genoa  are  rich  ores 
of  copper,  not  sufficiently  appreciated  in  the 
country ;  while  the  mountains  of  Modena  are 
filled  to  their  very  summits  with  ores  of  iron, 
lead,  and  silver,  and  most  valuable  deposits  of 
copper.  The  Apuan  Alps  adjacent  to  the  Mo 
dena  chain,  and  forming  the  northern  frontier 
of  Tuscany,  are  traversed  by  veins  of  quick 
silver,  magnetic  iron  ore,  and  argentiferous 
copper  and  lead  ores.  The  silver  was  worked 
by  the  ancients,  as  the  numerous  remains  in 
the  neighborhood  attest.  On  the  seashore  are 
the  ruins  of  the  Etruscan  city  of  Luna,  which 
had  for  its  emblem  a  crescent,  the  symbol  of 
silver  dedicated  to  Diana.  All  through  the 
middle  ages  the  most  violent  contests  raged 
between  the  local  lords  and  the  city  of  Lucca 
for  the  possession  of  these  mines ;  the  latter 
remained  mistress  of  them,  and  coined  their 
silver  into  money.  They  were  afterward  open 
ed  afresh  by  the  Medici ;  and  the  Bottino 
mines  are  still  worked  and  productive.  The 
central  and  southern  districts  of  Tuscany  are 
equally  favored  with  metalliferous  deposits, 
among  which  the  mines  of  Terricio  and  Cas- 
tellina  in  the  centre,  and  those  of  Monte  Cati- 
ni  near  Volterra,  deserve  special  mention.  The 
latter,  known  even  to  the  Etruscans,  were  re 
opened  not  many  years  ago,  and  now  yield 
enormous  profits.  Further  off  are  the  mines 
of  Campiglia,  from  which  the  Etruscans  drew 
the  greater  part  of  their  bronze.  During  the 
middle  ages  also  various  mines  of  iron,  lead, 
copper,  silver,  alum,  and  sulphur  were  worked 
with  great  success  in  Massa  Maritima,  hence 
called  Massa  Metallifera  to  distinguish  it  from 
Massa  Carrara.  All  over  the  face  of  the  coun 
try,'  now  covered  with  marsh  and  ravaged  by 
fever,  ancient  pits  and  ruins  of  old  founderies 
are  counted  by  the  hundred.  This  same  re 
gion,  in  the  districts  between  Massa  and  Monte 
Catini,  contains  the  famous  soffioni  or  vapor 
vents,  utilized  for  the  extraction  of  boracic 
acid.  The  districts  of  Siena  and  Grosseto  also 
have  silver  and  copper  mines ;  and  in  southern 
Tuscany,  besides  these,  are  veins  of  quicksilver 
at  Selvina,  Pian  Castagnajo,  and  Castellazzero, 
and  lodes  of  antimony  at  Montanto  and  Pereta. 
All  these  districts  are  on  the  W.  flank  of  the 
Apennines,  or  rather  on  a  littoral  chain  which 
is  a  continuation  of  that  skirting  the  coast 
of  Genoa ;  hence  it  has  been  denominated  the 
metalliferous  chain.  The  former  States  of 
the  Church  are  poor  in  metallic  deposits; 
but  the  Calabrias  possess  iron  lodes  and  an 
cient  silver  mines.  The  most  important  pro 
duct  of  the  Italian  mines  is  sulphur,  which  is 
found  in  the  island  of  Sicily  and  exported  in 
large  quantities.  Sea  salt  is  likewise  an  im 


portant  article  of  export.  The  average  annual 
produce  of  the  most  important  mineral  produc 
tions  is  as  follows:  salt,  440,000  tons;  sul 
phur  (1864),  198,000;  coal  (1862-'6),  49,500; 
raw  iron,  27,500;  lead  (1862-'6),  4,500;  raw 
copper  (1862-'6),  550;  zinc  (1865),  88;  mer 
cury,  25;  silver  (1865),  7;  gold  (1864),  482  Ibs. 
— Fossil  remains  of  uncommon  interest  are 
I  found  in  various  parts  of  the  peninsula.  Be 
sides  the  great  abundance  of  fossil  shells  in 
Lombardy  and  Piedmont,  the  soil  covering  the 
marine  deposits  is  filled  with  bones  of  the 
mastodon,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  other  large 
quadrupeds.  But  it  is  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  and  particularly  in 
the  basins  forming  the  upper  Val  d'Arno,  that 
the  most  extraordinary  discoveries  have  been 
made.  The  skeleton  of  a  whale  20  ft.  long 
was  found  in  the  marl  at  Arquato  in  the  for 
mer  district;  while  in  the  latter,  among  the 
lacustrine  deposits  left  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
Apennines,  are  enormous  quantities  of  bones 
of  great  quadrupeds  of  extinct  species  and  be 
longing  to  warm  climates.  Skeletons  of  the 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  mastodon,  and  hippopota 
mus  are  so  abundant  that  the  valley  is  like  a 
vast  cemetery,  and  the  peasants  were  formerly 
in  the  habit  of  enclosing  their  gardens  with 
legs  and  thigh  bones  of  elephants. — There  is  no 
part  of  Italy  not  possessed  of  a  soil  naturally 
fertile,  or  capable  of  being  made  productive  by 
labor  and  artificial  means.  The  vast  plains  of 
Piedmont  and  Lombardy  have  a  soil  equalled 
in  fertility  only  by  that  of  Campania  Felice, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  peninsula,  being  of 
calcareous  and  volcanic  formation,  is  almost 
everywhere  susceptible  of  tillage.  The  Apen 
nines  in  many  places  are  cultivated  in  terraces 
to  their  very  summits.  Even  in  the  most  win 
try  district  of  the  centre,  only  the  highest 
peaks  are  naked ;  the  inferior  ranges  are  cov 
ered  with  forests,  the  pine  tree  highest  up,  the 
oak  beneath,  and  the  chestnut  near  the  plain 
or  valley;  while  lower  still  the  fig  tree  and 
olive  flourish.  The  soil  yields  abundant  har 
vests  everywhere  in  these  central  valleys,  or 
affords  rich  and  perennial  pastures.  The  un 
productive  plains  of  the  former  kingdom  of 
Naples  were  once  under  high  cultivation,  and 
the  home  of  a  numerous  people.  The  vast 
marshes  on  the  east  and  west  anciently  fed  a 
large  population ;  parts  of  them  have  been  re 
claimed  in  recent  times,  and  the  present  gov 
ernment  of  Italy  has  manifested  the  intention 
of  restoring  the  remainder  to  agricultural  uses. 
In  the  volcanic  districts  the  tufa  and  lava  form 
a  soil  favorable  to  husbandry. — The  climate  of 
Italy  is  generally  considered  the  most  genial 
and  wholesome  in  all  Europe,  but  proportion 
ately  to  the  number  of  inhabitants  the  mortali 
ty  is  greater  there  than  in  any  other  European 
country.  In  summer  the  burning  heat,  unre 
lieved  by  refreshing  showers,  withers  all  vege 
tation,  parches  the  ground,  and  imparts  to  the 
landscape  a  gloomy  brownish  tint.  In  many 
places  a  subterranean  heat  periodically  sends 


ITALY 


445 


forth  noxious  gases.  The  lagoons  and  marshes 
which  border  the  coast  generate  poisonous 
miasmata.  Besides  all  this,  legions  of  noxious 
insects  fill  the  air  and  infest  the  dwellings. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  districts  in  Italy  which 
in  regard  to  salubriousness  compare  favorably 
with  any  in  the  world.  In  respect  to  its  cli 
mate  it  may  be  divided  into  four  regions.  Of 
these  the  first  comprises  upper  Italy,  1ST.  of  the 
Apennines,  between  lat.  46°  40'  and  43°  30'  N. 
There  the  temperature  in  winter  is  sometimes 
as  low  as  10°  F. ;  the  snow  remains  on  the 
ground  from  10  to  14  days  ;  the  lagoons  on  the 
Adriatic  are  frequently  covered  with  ice ;  and 
though  the  mulberry  tree  and  rice  are  raised  to 
perfection,  the  more  tender  fruits  of  a  southern 
climate  ripen  only  in  sheltered  localities.  Night 
frosts  begin  as  early  as  November,  and  continue 
until  March  or  April.  Even  in  the  summer 
months  piercing  cold  N".  winds  are  not  uncom 
mon.  The  second  region,  extending  from  lat. 
43°  30'  to  41°  30'  N.,  is  that  of  the  olive  tree 
and  orange.  Frost  and  snow  appear  regularly 
only  in  the  higher  mountain  districts,  but  occa 
sionally  snow  may  be  seen  even  in  the  valleys 
and  plains.  The  third  region  extends  over 
2£  degrees  of  latitude,  comprising  nearly  the 
whole  continental  portion  of  the  former  king 
dom  of  Naples.  There  the  thermometer  sel 
dom  falls  below  26°  F. ;  snow  is  very  rarely 
seen  except  on  the  highest  mountains,  and 
never  remains;  aloes  and  other  semi-tropical 
plants  thrive  even  in  unprotected  localities. 
In  the  fourth  region,  comprising  the  southern 
most  part  of  the  peninsula,  as  well  as  Sicily, 
the  thermometer  scarcely  ever  falls  below  the 
freezing  point  of  water;  snow  and  ice  are 
unknown  except  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Et 
na;  tropical  fruits,  dates,  sugar  cane,  and  the 
cotton  plant  thrive  in  the  open  air ;  aloes  are 
so  common  that  they  are  planted  for  hedge 
rows ;  a  serene  sky  of  the  deepest  blue  spans 
the  earth  and  bracing  sea  breezes  temper  the 
heat.  But  at  the  same  time  this  portion  of 
Italy  often  suffers  from  the  common  draw 
backs  of  tropical  regions,  droughts  and  hot 
winds  (siroccos),  equally  obnoxious  to  human 
and  vegetable  life.  Earthquakes  and  volcanic 
eruptions,  causing  sometimes  an  appalling  loss 
of  life,  occur  frequently  in  lower  Italy  and 
Sicily.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  as 
follows  :  Milan,  55'4° ;  Rome,  50°  ;  and  Naples, 
Gl°. — The  vegetable  productions  of  Italy  par 
take  of  its  semi-tropical  character.  At  Bordi- 
ghera,  on  the  Riviera  di  Ponente,  are  found 
groups  of  indigenous  palm  trees.  In  the  basin 
of  the  Po  the  mulberry  tree  abounds,  and 
great  crops  of  rice  are  raised.  Thence  south 
ward  the  same  contrasts  of  climate  and  vege 
tation  strike  the  traveller,  as  he  proceeds  from 
the  bare  shore  into  the  interior,  or  leaves  the 
central  ridge  and  its  valleys  for  the  coast.  In 
the  coldest  uplands  of  the  Abruzzi  there  often 
occur  heavy  falls  of  snow  as  late  as  June  ; 
while  40  m.  to  the  south  the  olive,  fig  tree,  and 
orange  thrive  luxuriantly.  In  Calabria  the 


shores  are  lined  with  groves  of  orange  and  cit 
ron  trees,  the  gardens  are  filled  with  the  date 
palm,  the  fields  are  divided  by  hedges  of  aloes 
and  pomegranate,  and  in  the  fields  the  sugar 
cane  and  cotton  plant  are  cultivated.  The  for 
ests  of  evergreen  oak  and  arbutus  which  form 
a  feature  of  the  landscape  have  an  undergrowth 
of  oleander  and  cistus.  On  the  uplands  a  short 
distance  from  the  coast  the  forests  are  of  oak 
and  chestnut,  and  higher  up  still,  in  the  table 
lands  of  Pollino  and  the  Sila,  the  country  is 
covered  with  firs  and  pines,  which  afford 
grateful  shade  and  rich  pasture  in  midsummer 
to  the  large  herds  of  cattle.  On  the  shores  of 
the  Adriatic,  exposed  to  the  N.  E.  winds,  is 
found  a  vegetation  entirely  different.  Italy  is 
above  all  an  agricultural  country.  It  produces 
all  kinds  of  cereals,  but  wheat  is  used  princi 
pally  as  a  breadstuff  by  the  wealthy,  and  maize 
by  the  poor.  The  latter  also  consume  great 
quantities  of  pulse  and  chestnuts.  The  potato 
is  beginning  to  be  extensively  cultivated  in 
upper  Italy.  Vegetables  of  all  sorts  are  raised 
in  great  abundance.  The  most  luscious  fruits 
ripen  spontaneously,  such  as  oranges,  lemons, 
citrons,  figs,  almonds,  carob  beans,  and  dates. 
The  sugar  cane,  though  extensively  cultivated 
in  lower  Italy  and  Sicily,  is  inferior  in  quality 
to  that  of  the  West  Indies.  The  cotton  plant 
has  been  raised  successfully  in  Calabria  and 
Sicily  since  1862.  The  culture  of  tobacco 
has  always  been  limited,  and  its  manufacture 
and  sale  are  now  a  monopoly  of  the  govern 
ment.  Hemp  and  flax  are  grown  for  home 
consumption.  Saffron,  safflower,  and  capers 
are  exported.  Silk  is  the  most  important  pro 
duct,  and  its  value  is  yearly  increasing  with 
the  foreign  trade  of  Italy.  The  olive  is  indi 
genous  to  almost  every  part  of  the  peninsula, 
and  its  culture,  like  that  of  silk,  is  constantly 
increasing  in  importance.  The  attention  of 
Italian  economists  and  agriculturists  has  been 
lately  turned  to  the  improved  cultivation  of 
the  grape,  and  large  quantities  of  wine  are  ex 
ported  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  The 
wines  of  lower  Italy  and  Sicily  equal  in  body 
and  flavor  the  best  wines  of  Spain  and  Portu 
gal  ;  but  those  of  upper  and  central  Italy, 
from  want  of  careful  preparation,  are  not  in 
such  general  demand.  The  Italian  government 
is  endeavoring  to  introduce  improved  methods 
of  agriculture.  About  85  per  cent,  of  the  area 
is  productive,  and  13  per  cent,  unproductive  soil. 
The  former  may  again  be  divided  into  48  per 
cent,  of  arable  and  wine  land,  25  per  cent,  of 
meadows  and  pastures,  5  per  cent,  of  olive  and 
chestnut  forests,  and  22  per  cent,  of  woodland. 
The  average  annual  yield  of  the  principal  agri- . 
cultural  products  is  estimated  as  follows : 


Wheat 

Indian  corn 

Barley  and  oats. . 

Eve 

Rice  . . . 


10n.G50.000  bushels. 
4S.OOO.OOO        " 
22.150,0'  0        " 
7.!  1 50. 000        " 
4.5(10.000        " 


Other  grain 1x450.000 

Total  grain 200.700,000 


446 


ITALY 


Potatoes 27,250.000  bushels. 

Hemp 111,100,000  pounds. 

Flax 30,100,000 

Cotton 22,000,000 

Tobacco 7,200,000 

Olive  oil 42,250,000  gallons. 

Wine 800,000,000        " 

— The  animal  kingdom  is  not  represented  by 
many  species  in  Italy.  The  domestic  animals 
common  to  all  Europe,  including  horses,  .cat 
tle,  sheep,  swine,  goats,  asses,  and  mules,  are 
raised.  Animal  food  being  not  as  extensively 
used  as  in  more  northern  countries,  but  little 
attention  is  paid  to  the  improvement  of  breeds. 
Swine  are  principally  raised  in  Parma  and  the 
N.  E.  provinces  of  the  late  Papal  States,  where 
the  manufacture  of  sausages  is  carried  on  upon 
a  large  scale.  The  dairy  products  of  Parma, 
especially  cheese,  are  largely  exported  to  for 
eign  countries.  The  number  of  horses,  mules, 
and  asses  in  1872  was  reported  to  be  1,500,000 ; 
of  cattle,  3,700,000;  of  buffaloes,  40,000;  of 
sheep,  8,800,000 ;  of  goats,  2,200,000 ;  of  swine, 
3,900,000.  The  coast  fishery  employs  a  great 
amount  of  tonnage  and  capital.  Tunny  and 
anchovies  are  caught  in  immense  numbers,  and 
the  latter  are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Oysters  are  obtained  from  beds  in  the  Adri 
atic,  but  are  poor  in  quality.  The  sea  fur 
nishes  also  a  great  variety  of  smaller  shell  fish, 
which  are  used  as  food  by  the  lower  classes,  or 
as  delicacies  by  the  wealthy. — The  increase  of 
the  population  of  Italy  since  1861,  when  a  cen 
sus  was  taken  in  the  countries  at  that  time  form 
ing  part  of  the  kingdom,  has  been  about  0*72 
per  cent,  annually.  Of  the  3,382  communes 
into  which  the  kingdom  is  divided,  1  (Naples) 
had  in  1872  a  population  of  more  than  400,000, 
4  (Rome,  Palermo,  Turin,  and  Milan)  above 
200,000,  5  above  100,000,  12  above  50,000, 
25  above  30,000,  and  22  above  25,000.  The 
Italians  now  constitute  a  compact  national 
ity,  although  they  are  descended  from  a  num 
ber  of  different  races  who  have  successively 
obtained  the  mastery  of  the  country.  The 
Gallic  (Celtic)  and  Roman  elements  have  be 
come  the  principal  ingredients  of  Italian  na 
tionality,  but  few  traces  of  the  character  of 
the  aboriginal  population  being  now  discerni 
ble.  In  upper  Italy  the  Germanic  element  has 
contributed  its  share ;  even  the  name  of  Lom- 
bardy  is  derived  from  that  of  a  German  tribe. 
In  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  the  Arab  element 
enters  into  the  mixture  of  national  character 
istics.  In  1872  the  population  of  other  than 
Italian  nationalities  was  estimated  at  about 
330,000.  Of  these,  140,000  were  French  (chiefly 
in  the  circles  of  Aosta,  Pinerolo,  and  Susa,  in  the 
province  of  Turin),  58,000  Albanians  (in  south 
Italy),  35,000  Jews,  30,000  Slovens  (in  the 
province  of  Udine),  25,000  Germans  (chiefly  in 
a  few  mountain  valleys  of  the  provinces  of  No- 
vara  and  Turin,  and  in  the  provinces  of  Vi- 
cenza  and  Verona),  21,000  Greeks,  and  7,000 
Catalonians  (in  the  town  of  Alghero  and  its 
vicinity  in  Sardinia).  Only  the  written  lan 
guage  is  the  same  in  all  parts  of  Italy,  while 


the  vernacular  of  the  common  people  consists 
of  various  dialects,  almost  as  unlike  each  other 
as  different  tongues.  It  is  in  Tuscany  that  the 
Italian  language  is  spoken  in  its  utmost  purity. 
But  while  the  Florentine  dialect  excels  in 
purity  and  delicacy,  the  Roman  pronunciation 
and  accent  are  most  admired ;  hence  to  speak 
Italian  with  perfect  grace  one  must  unite  la 
lingua  Toscana  e  la  locca  Eomana.  The  Ital 
ian  has  generally  a  fine  exterior.  He  is  rather 
slim  than  stout,  but  strong  and  agile.  A 
dark  complexion,  an  expressive  countenance, 
sparkling  eyes,  black  hair,  and  a  grave  gait 
combine  to  render  the  native  of  Italy  prepos 
sessing.  A  great  proportion  of  the  inhabi 
tants  retain  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Roman  conquerors  of  the  world.  The  decline 
of  the  Italian  military  greatness  was  followed 
by  eminence  in  letters.  Italy  was  long  the 
foremost  nation  of  Europe  in  literature,  art, 
and  science,  and  she  has  given  birth  to  some 
of  the  greatest  men  of  modern  times.  There 
are  numerous  high  schools,  academies,  lyce- 
ums,  and  universities,  and  the  last  enjoyed 
during  the  middle  ages  a  world-wide  reputa 
tion,  though  they  are  now  eclipsed  by  some  of 
the  German  seats 'of  learning.  The  number  of 
universities  in  1873  was  22,  of  which  17  were 
royal,  4  (Ferrara,  Perugia,  Camerino,  and  Ur- 
bino)  provincial,  1  (the  Sapienza  in  Rome)  pa 
pal.  The  17  royal  universities  had  in  1873  the 
following  number  of  professors  and  students : 


UNIVERSI 
TIES. 

Pro 
fessors. 

Students. 

UNIVERSI 
TIES. 

fessors. 

Students. 

Bologna  
Naples  
Padua  
Palermo  
Pavia  

53 
73 
65 
56 
45 

577 

i,i2i" 

306 

718 

Catania  
Genoa  
Macerata  .  . 

Messina  .  .  . 
Mod  en  a.  .  .  . 

3S 
46 

20 
36 
42 

233 
460 
115 
112 
815 

Pisa      

66 

503 

Parma 

47 

270 

Rome  
Turin  

51 
69 
30 

584 
1,403 
38 

Sassari  
Siena  

31 
32 

74 
118 

Total.... 

7S3 

6,957 

The  theological  faculty  has  been  abolished  at 
all  these  universities.  Bologna,  Catania,  Ge 
noa,  Messina,  Naples,  Padua,  Palermo,  Pavia, 
Pisa,  Rome,  and  Turin  have  four  faculties 
each ;  Cagliari,  Modena,  and  Parma  three ;  and 
the  others  two.  The  institutions  of  secondary 
instruction  in  1870  comprised  352  gymnasia 
(104  royal)  and  272  technical  schools,  and  for 
more  advanced  pupils  142  lyceums  and  89  in 
dustrial  and  technical  special  schools.  Ele 
mentary  education  is  to  be  compulsory,  but 
the  attendance  at  the  primary  schools  is  still 
far  from  being  satisfactory.  In  1872  there 
were  34,213  public  and  9,167  private  elemen 
tary  schools,  together  43,380;  the  number  of 
pupils  was  1,745,467.  Immense  literary  trea 
sures  are  stored  in  public  libraries.  The  prin 
cipal  of  these  are  the  Vatican  and  the  Miner 
va  libraries  at  Rome ;  the  Borbonica  and  the 
Brancacciana  at  Naples ;  the  university  libra 
ry  at  Bologna;  the  Ambrosian  at  Milan;  the 
library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice ;  the  royal  library 


ITALY 


447 


at  Turin ;  and  the  libraries  at  Florence,  Brescia, 
Ferrara,  and  Parma.  Literary  and  scientific 
societies  have  heen  numerous  in  Italy  ever 
since  the  14th  century,  but  only  a  few  of  -them 
have  retained  their  vitality.  Among  them  the 
accademia  della  Crusca  at  Florence,  the  royal 
institute  at  Milan,  and  the  academy  of  sci 
ences  at  Turin,  are  the  most  prominent.  Mu 
seums,  cabinets  of  art,  and  picture  galleries 
are  found  almost  everywhere,  rendering  Italy 
the  Mecca  of  artists.  Observatories  exist  in 
Rome,  Bologna,  Padua,  Milan,  Florence,  Na- 
ples,  and  Palermo.  The  number  of  charitable 
institutions  of  various  kinds  is  enormous.  The 
Roman  Catholic  religion  is  recognized  as  the 
religion  of  the  state,  but  all  others  are  tolera 
ted.  The  civil  and  political  rights  of  the  citi 
zens  are  independent  of  their  profession  of 
any  religion.  The  Roman  Catholic  church 
has  47  archbishops,  21 7  bishops,  and  8  abbots 
with  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction.  The  pope, 
though  no  longer  recognized  as  a  sovereign, 
continues  to  enjoy  extensive  prerogatives, 
which  are  regulated  by  the  law  of  May  13, 
1871.  His  person  is  sacred  and  inviolable ;  the 
Italian  government  renders  to  him  the  honors 
of  a  sovereign,  and  cruarantees  to  him  a  yearly 
donation  of  3,225,000  lire  ($622,500).  The 
number  of  Catholic  priests  is  about  100,000. 
The  convents  and  monasteries  of  Italy  were 
abolished  in  1866,  and  in  1873  this  law  was 
extended  to  the  city  and  province  of  Rome. — 
The  industry  and  commerce  of  Italy  have 
greatly  declined  since  the  middle  ages,  when 
the  republics  of  upper  Italy  were  the  commer 
cial  centres  of  the  continent,  and  held  the 
same  position  which  during  the  17th  century 
was  held  by  the  Netherlands,  and  which  since 
the  18th  century  has  been  held  by  Great 
Britain.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  king 
dom  of  Italy  a  new  impulse  has  been  given  to 
the  development  of  industry  in  Tuscany  and 
most  of  the  northern  provinces.  About  13  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population  derive  their  sup 
port  from  industrial  pursuits.  The  number 
of  chambers  of  commerce  and  industry  in 
1873  was  71.  In  point  of  ship  building  Italy 
occupies  a  prominent  place  among  the  mari 
time  states  of  Europe ;  it  is  most  extensively 
carried  on  in  Liguria.  Musical  instruments  are 
manufactured  in  all  the  large  cities.  The  silk 
manufactures  of  Italy  are  the  most  important 
in  Europe,  and  are  one  of  the  great  sources  of 
national  wealth ;  the  number  of  spindles  em 
ployed  in  silk  spinning  is  about  3,000,000.  Of 
the  other  manufactures,  those  of  earthenware, 
straw  goods,  glass,  artificial  flowers,  and  mac- 
caroni  and  other  fine  pastes,  are  of  special  im 
portance.  The  principal  articles  of  export  are : 
from  Piedmont,  oil,  oranges,  wine,  corals,  silk, 
rice,  fish,  wood,  hides ;  from  Tuscany,  oil,  fish, 
silk,  straw  goods,  marble,  salt  meat ;  from  Na 
ples  and  Sicily,  oil,  sulphur,  sumach,  almonds, 
lemons,  grain,  licorice,  alcohol,  wool,  skins, 
silk ;  from  Parma,  silk,  cattle,  grain,  cheese, 
wool;  from  Modena,  wine,  silk,  fruit,  marble, 
YOL.  ix. — 29 


oil ;  from  the  former  Papal  States,  grain,  wool, 
oil,  beeswax,  silk,  cattle.  The  total  value  of 
the  commercial  movement  of  Italy  from  1869 


to  1872  was  as  follows: 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

18T2. 

Imp'rts  $180.000,000 
Exp'rtsj    153,000,000 

$171.000,000 
146,000,000 

$180,000,000 
20(J,000,000 

$229.000,000 
225,000,000 

The  value  of  the  Italian  transit  trade  amounted 
in  1870  to  $1,780,000.  The  shipping  of  Italy, 
owing  to  its  favorable  situation,  is  of  great  im 
portance.  The  number  of  merchant  vessels 
belonging  to  the  kingdom  in  1873  was  19,600 
(118  steamers),  and  there  were  also  about  12,- 
300  fishing  boats.  The  seafaring  population 
in  1870  included  180,800  adult  males.  The 
number  of  entries  in  the  Italian  ports  in  1870 
was  90,001  loaded  vessels,  tonnage  8,347,506, 
and  28,723  vessels  in  ballast,  tonnage  1,363,346 ; 
of  these,  73,368  loaded  vessels,  tonnage  4,939,- 
943,  and  25,941  vessels  in  ballast,  tonnage 
983,317,  belonged  to  the  coast  navigation.  The 
aggregate  length  of  railroads  in  operation  in 
1872  was  4,148  m. ;  aggregate  length  of  tele 
graph  lines,  12,009  m. ;  aggregate  length  of 
wires,  37,218  m.  The  number  of  large  moneyed 
institutions  is  considerable,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  the  national  bank  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  at  Rome,  founded  in  1849,  a  bank  of 
issue,  with  a  capital  of  $40,000,000,  having  es 
tablishments  in  Florence,  Genoa,  Milan,  Naples, 
Palermo,  Rome,  Turin,  and  Venice. — The  con 
stitution  of  Italy  is  based  on  the  fundamental 
statute  of  Sardinia  of  March  4,  1848.  The 
kingdom  is  a  representative  monarchy,  heredi 
tary  in  the  male  line  of  the  royal  house  of 
Savoy.  The  king  attains  his  majority  when 
18  years  old,  and  must  belong  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  On  entering  upon  the  gov 
ernment  he  must  in  the  presence  of  both  cham 
bers  take  an  oath  to  support  the  constitution. 
He  exercises  the  legislative  power  conjointly 
with  a  national  parliament  consisting  of  a  sen 
ate  and  a  chamber  of  deputies.  The  senate  is 
composed  of  the  princes  of  the  royal  family 
who  are  of  age,  and  an  unlimited  number  of 
members  appointed  by  the  king  for  life.  The 
senators  must  be  40  years  of  age  or  over,  and 
belong  to  certain  classes  of  citizens,  as  arch 
bishops,  bishops,  deputies,  ministers,  other  high 
officers  of  the  state,  generals,  admirals,  mem 
bers  of  the  provincial  councils  or  of  the  Turin 
academy  of  science,  persons  Avho  have  distin 
guished  themselves  in  behalf  of  the  country,  or 
who  for  three  successive  years  have  paid  3,000 
lire  of  direct  taxes.  In  1873  the  senate  had 
317  members.  The  members  of  the  chamber 
of  deputies  are  elected  by  a  majority  of  all 
citizens  who  are  25  years  of  age  and  pay  a  cer 
tain  amount  of  taxes  (in  most  provinces  40 
lire)  or  of  rent.  Some  classes  of  the  popula 
tion,  as  members  of  the  academies,  of  the 
chambers  of  commerce  and  industry,  professors, 
state  officers,  physicians,  lawyers,  &c.,  have  the 
right  of  voting  in  virtue  of  their  educational 


448 


ITALY 


qualification,  without  regard  to  their  property. 
The  kingdom  is  divided  into  508  electoral 
colleges,  each  of  which  elects  a  deputy  for  the 
term  of  five  years.  No  election  is  valid  unless 
at  least  one  third  of  the  inscribed  voters  appear 
at  the  polls.  The  average  number  of  inhabi 
tants  for  every  electoral  college  was  52,955. 
The  assregate  number  of  electors  enrolled  on 
the  roll  list  of  1870  was  528,932,  being  1'97  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population.  The  number 
who  took  part  in  the  election  was  238,448,  or 
45 '8  per  cent,  of  those  enrolled.  All  voters  30 
years  old  or  over  are  eligible  as  deputies.  The 
chambers  are  convoked  annually,  and  their  sit 
tings  are  public.  All  citizens  are  equal  before 
the  law,  and  have  equal  rights  and  duties.  The 
constitution  of  the  provinces  and  communes 
is  based  upon  the  law  of  March  20,  1865.  For 
local  administration,  each  province  has  a  pro 
vincial  council  elected  by  the  communes  for  a 
term  of  five  years,  and  a  provincial  deputa 
tion  which  is  convoked  by  the  provincial  coun 
cils.  The  affairs  of  a  commune  are  adminis 
tered  by  a  communal  council  elected  for  five 
years,  and  by  a  municipal  giunta  elected  by  the 
municipal  council.  The  chief  of  the  communal 
administration  is  the  sindaco,  who  is  appointed 
by  the  king  for  a  term  of  three  years  from 
among  the  members  of  the  communal  council. 
The  ministry,  which  is  responsible  to  the 
chambers,  consists  of  nine  sections:  foreign 
affairs,  interior,  justice  and  public  worship, 
finances,  war,  navy,  public  instruction,  public 
works,  and  agriculture  and  commerce.  At  the 
head  of  each  of  the  provinces  is  a  prefect,  who 
is  assisted  by  a  prefectural  council.  At  the 
head  of  each  circle,  except  the  one  in  which 
the  prefect  resides,  there  is  a  sub-prefect  (or 
district  commissioner  in  the  divisions  excep 
tionally  termed  districts)  ;  the  prefect  attends 
to  the  duties  of  the  sub-prefect  in  his  own  cir 
cle.  For  the  administration  of  justice  there 
are  4  courts  of  cassation  (in  Turin,  Florence, 
Naples,  and  Palermo),  24  courts  of  appeal,  97 
courts  of  assize,  162  civil  and  correctional  tri 
bunals,  and  1,903  pretorships. — By  the  new  law 
on  the  reorganization  of  the  army  which  was 
presented  to  the  chambers  on  Dec.  20, 1872,  the 
liability  to  military  service  is  made  universal, 
the  exceptions  formerly  allowed  being  reduced 
to  an  insignificant  number.  The  annual  con 
tingent  is  to  be  100,000  men,  of  whom  from 
75,000  to  80,000  are  to  be  taken  for  the  first 
class,  whose  term  of  service  is  three  years  (for 
the  cavalry  five  years) ;  the  remainder  enter 
the  second  class,  to  which  the  former  belong 
after  the  expiration  of  their  active  service. 
The  time  of  service  in  the  second  class  is  19 
years ;  in  the  second  and  first  classes  together, 
22  years.  The  actual  strength  of  the  army  in 
March,  1873,  was  as  follows:  standing  army, 
on  the  peace  footing  (men  actually  under  arms), 
183,205;  men  on  unlimited  furlough,  358,370; 
total  on  war  footing,  541,575 ;  to  which  must 
be  added  provincial  troops  202,081,  making  the 
total  armed  forces  in  time  of  war  743,656. 


The  national  guard  (corresponding  to  the  Ger 
man  landsturm),  which  was  first  organized  in 
1848,  may  be  called  upon  for  the  defence  of  the 
monarchy,  and  for  the  preservation  of  peace 
and  order  at  home.  To  it  all  citizens  belong 
from  their  21st  to  their  55th  year,  except  those 
who  are  in  the  army.  The  standing  army  is 
divided  into  six  corps  cParmee,  each  corps  con 
sisting  of  three  divisions  and  each  division  of 
two  brigades,  four  or  six  battalions  of  bersa- 
glieri  or  riflemen,  two  regiments  of  cavalry, 
and  from  six  to  nine  companies  of  artillery. 
The  provincial  militia  is  divided  into  battal 
ions  and  companies,  and  when  fully  organized 
is  to  comprise  960  companies  of  infantry,  16 
of  riflemen,  and  10  of  sappers.  The  national 
guard. consists  exclusively  of  infantry  divided 
into  battalions,  of  which  there  were  343  organ 
ized  in  1873.  The  navy  in  1872  consisted  of 
59  steamers,  22  of  which  were  ironclads,  and 
17  transports;  total,  76  vessels,  carrying  653 
guns.  It  is  manned  by  11,200  sailors  and  660 
engineers  and  working  men,  with  1,271  officers, 
including  1  admiral,  5  vice  admirals,  12  rear 
admirals,  and  102  captains. — The  finances  of 
the  kingdom  have  from  its  first  year  been  in 
an  unsatisfactory  condition.  In  every  year 
the  expenditures  have  considerably  exceeded 
the  revenue,  as  this  table  of  budgets  shows : 


Revenue. 

Expenditure. 

Deficit. 

1861... 
1862 

$94.700,000 
102  400  000 

$155.300,000 
162100000 

$60.600.000 
69,700000 

1863  
1864 

118,700,000 
124  700  000 

180,400,000 
174,100.000 

61,700.000 
49.400.000 

1865  
1866  
1867 

129,100,000 
153,200,000 
153  000  000 

168.400.000 
175,800,000 
196,900,000 

89,300.000 
22,600.000 
43.900.000 

1868  

152,700,000 

189.700,000 

87  000  000 

1869  
1870  
1871. 

155.400.000 
1S8.500.000 
230.400.000 

190.100,000 
214,600,000 
24(5.700,000 

84,700.000 
31,100,000 
16,300.000 

1872  
1873. 

250,300.000 

252,600,000 

263.800,000 
297.800,000 

13,  500,000 
45,000,000 

The  alarming  deficits  were  but  slightly  covered 
by  augmented  revenue ;  the  larger  portion  of 
them  had  to  be  met  partly  by  loans  and  partly 
by  the  sale  of  state  property  and  monopolies. 
Thus  in  1867  the  sum  of  $116,000,000  was 
levied  on  church  property;  in  1868  the  state 
monopoly  on  tobacco  was  made  over  to  a  French 
company  in  consideration  of  a  loan  of  $34,- 
700,000;  and  in  1864  the  state  railways  had 
been  sold  for  $38,600,000.  As  a  result  of  these 
deficits  a  very  heavy  public  debt  has  rapidly 
accumulated,  amounting  at  the  end  of  1872  to 
a  nominal  capital  of  $1,741,900,000.  The  total 
charges  on  account  of  the  public  debt,  compri 
sing  "interest,  management,  and  sinking  fund, 
were  estimated  at  $146,000,000,  an  amount 
representing  more  than  one  half  of  the  total 
ordinary  revenue  of  the  kingdom. — The  early 
history  of  Italy  is  closely  connected  with  that 
of  the  Roman  state.  Among  the  earliest  in 
habitants  of  the  country  we  find  the  Etruscans 
or  Tuscans,  Umbrians,  Oscans,  Siculi,  Latins, 
Volsci,  ./Equi,  Sabines,  Peligni,  Marsi,  Marru- 


ITALY 


449 


cini,  Vestini,  Ilernici,  (Enotrians,  Daunians  or 
Apulians,  Japygians,  Peucetians,  Messapians, 
and  numerous  other  tribes,  besides  various 
Grecian  colonies  in  the  southern  part  or  Mag- 
na  Grtocia.  The  name  Italy,  however,  which 
replaced  the  Greek  appellation  of  Hesperia  or 
Hesperia  Magna,  was  originally  applied  only 
to  the  peninsula  stretching  southward  from 
Squillace  on  the  gulf  of  that  name,  and  grad 
ually  extended  to  more  northern  parts,  until 
the  time  of  Augustus,  when  it  received  its  full 
extension,  embracing  the  provinces  of  Liguria, 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  Venetia,  and  Istria,  in  the 
north ;  Etruria,  Umbria,  Picenurn,  Samnium, 
Latium,  and  Campania,  in  the  centre  or  Italy 
proper;  and  Apulia,  Calabria,  Lucania,  and 
Bruttium,  in  the  south  or  Magna  Grascia.  Po 
etically  the  country  was  also  called  (Enotria, 
Ausonia,  Opica,  Tyrrhenia,  and  Japygia,  from 
various  parts  of  the  whole,  and  Saturnia,  be 
cause  Saturn  was  said  to  have  once  reigned 
over  it.  Augustus  divided  Italy  into  11  re 
gions,  which  division  prevailed  during  the  lat 
ter  period  of  the  history  of  the  Roman  empire. 
Since  the  downfall  of  the  western  division  of 
that  empire  the  Italian  peninsula  has  been  the 
theatre  of  a  political  history  which  in  its  gen 
eral  features  resembles  that  of  Germany,  being 
a  continuous  shifting  of  boundaries  and  contest 
of  dynasties,  relieved  by  temporary  successes 
of  municipal  self-government  in  the  free  cities 
of  upper  Italy,  and  by  the  brilliant  develop 
ment  of  literature,  commerce,  and  the  fine  arts. 
Odoacer,  having  dethroned  the  last  West  Ro 
man  emperor,  Romulus  Augustulus  (A.  D.  470), 
assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy;  but  in  493 
he  succumbed  to  Theodoric  the  Great,  king  of 
the  Ostrogoths,  and  for  a  time  the  entire  pen 
insula  was  united  under  Gothic  dominion. 
The  Byzantine  generals  Belisarius  and  Narses 
conquered  it  for  the  emperor  Justinian  about 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  and  it  was  ruled 
by  Byzantine  viceroys  (exarchs).  In  568  the 
Lombards  (Longobards)  invaded  Italy  and  es 
tablished  a  powerful  kingdom,  the  name  of 
which  has  been  preserved  to  this  day  for  a 
small  portion  of  its  territory.  They  introduced 
Germanic  feudal  institutions,  and  thus  comple 
ted  the  transition  of  Italy  from  the  ancient 
forms  of  political  and  social  life  to  those  of  the 
middle  ages.  Venice,  founded  by  fugitives 
during  the  barbarian  invasions  of  the  5th  cen 
tury  ;  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  reduced  to  a 
small  portion  of  the  late  Papal  States ;  Rome, 
and  a  portion  of  the  coast  districts  of  lower  It 
aly  (duchies  of  Amalfi  and  Gaeta),  maintained 
their  independence  after  having  for  some  time 
remained  in  a  nominal  relation  of  vassalage  to 
the  Byzantine  empire.  During  the  latter  half 
of  the  8th  century,  the  Lombards  threatening 
Rome,  which  until  then  had  been  ruled  by  pa 
tricians,  the  aid  of  Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks, 
was  invoked  by  the  pope.  Pepin,  having  con 
quered  the  exarchate,  ceded  it  to  the  head  of 
the  church.  Charlemagne,  following  up  the 
victories  of  his  father,  subjected  the  Lombard 


I  kingdom  (774)  and  annexed  it  to  the  Prankish 
empire.  On  Christmas  day,  800,  Charlemagne 
was  crowned  by  Pope  Leo  III.  Roman  em 
peror,  and  thus  the  occidental  empire  was  re 
established.  Practically  that  title,  which  was 
eagerly  coveted  for  many  centuries  by  the 
rulers  of  Germany,  was  a  pretext  for  territo 
rial  conquests  in  Italy.  When  in  843  the 
empire  of  Charlemagne  was  divided  among  his 
grandsons,  the  Italian  provinces  fell  to  the 
share  of  Lothaire,  but  the  rule  of  the  Carlo- 
vingians  lasted  scarcely  for  a  generation.  Du 
ring  a  period  of  anarchy  and  civil  war  Guy 
of  Spoleto,  Berenger  of  Friuli,  Hugh  of  Pro 
vence,  Berenger  of  Ivrea,  and  Lothaire,  son 
of  Hugh,  successively  obtained  an  uncertain 
mastership.  Lothaire  having  been  poisoned 
in  950  by  Berenger,  his  widow  Adelaide  ap 
pealed  to  Otho  I.,  king  of  Germany,  who  mar 
ried  her,  conquered  Lombardy  (951),  and  in 
another  campaign  obtained  the  imperial  crown. 
In  lower  Italy,  the  duchy  of  Benevento  and 
the  republics  of  Naples,  Gaeta,  and  Amalfi, 
though  undisturbed  by  the  strifes  in  the  north 
ern  and  central  divisions  of  the  peninsula,  had 
for  a  long  time  to  contend  against  the  Sara 
cens,  who  had  conquered  Sicily  in  827,  and 
invaded  lower  Italy  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  century.  Their  attacks  having  at  last  been 
definitely  repulsed,  lower  Italy  once  more  re 
turned  under  Byzantine  rule,  and  remained  so 
for  nearly  a  century  more,  while  the  great 
er  portion  of  the  peninsula  was  held  in  sub 
jection  by  Germany.  For  50  years  the  Ger 
man  dominion  was  comparatively  undisturbed. 
From  the  year  1000  the  hatred  of  the  Italians 
against  the  foreign  rulers,  diligently  fostered 
by  the  clergy,  manifested  itself  in  frequent  lo 
cal  insurrections  and  civil  wars;  but  during 
the  llth  century  the  German  kings  succeed 
ed  in  maintaining  their  authority.  In  lower 
Italy  the  Byzantine  rule  was  gradually  over 
turned  by  the  Normans,  who,  having  con 
quered  Apulia  and  Calabria,  also  wrested  the 
islands  of  Sicily  and  Malta  from  the  Arabs. 
This  new  realm,  consolidated  by  Robert  Guis- 
card  (1057-'85)  and  the  two  Rogers  (1085- 
1154),  became  a  strong  point  of  support  for 
the  popes  in  their  contests  with  the  German 
sovereigns.  Their  power  increased  so  rapidly 
that  Henry  IV.,  the  successor  of  the  mightiest 
of  all  the  German  rulers  over  Italy  (Henry  III.), 
was  compelled  to  humble  himself  before  Greg 
ory  VII.  (1077).  The  Lombard  kingdom  thence 
forward  gradually  resolved  itself  into  several 
prosperous  municipalities,  some  of  which  be 
came  powerful  commonwealths,  able  to  contend 
successfully  even  against  the  mighty  Swabian 
(Ilohenstaufen)  dynasty  of  Germany.  Milan, 
Venice,  Pisa,  and  Genoa  became  the  centres 
of  the  movement  for  national  independence. 
Milan  formed  the  league  of  the  Lombard  mu 
nicipalities,  which,  allied  with  the  popes,  op 
posed  the  exertions  of  the  Ilohenstaufen  to 
I  erect  Italy  into  a  hereditary  kingdom  for  their 
!  own  dynasty.  The  national  party  subsequent- 


450 


ITALY 


ly  assumed  the  name  of  Guelphs  (from  the  Ba 
varian  dynasty  of  the  Welfs,  the  most  power 
ful  opponents  of  the  imperial  rule  in  Ger 
many),  while  the  partisans  of  the  emperors 
were  known  under  the  name  of  Ghibellines  (a 
corrupt  form  of  Waiblingen,  one  of  the  seats 
of  the  Swahian  or  Hohenstaufen  dynasty).  A 
long  continued  struggle  ended  in  the  victory 
of  the  Guelphs,  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  being 
compelled  to  recognize  the  autonomy  of  the 
cities  belonging  to  the  league.  As  an  offset  to 
these  reverses  he  obtained  the  kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  with 
the  daughter  of  the  last  Norman  king.  When, 
by  internal  dissensions  and  bloody  civil  wars, 
the  power  of  the  free  cities  in  upper  Italy 
seemed  to  be  exhausted,  Frederick  II.  made 
another  effort  to  obtain  complete  mastery; 
but  his  successes  were  only  temporary,  and  the 
German  dynasty  was  completely  overthrown 
in  upper  Italy  (1254),  while  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  was  wrested  from  them  by 
Charles  of  Anjou.  In  the  mean  time  muni 
cipal  liberty  in  the  free  cities  of  upper  and 
central  Italy  had  been  gradually  subverted  by 
petty  dynasties,  and  the  second  half  of  the 
13th  century  witnessed  a  long  series  of  fierce 
party  struggles,  the  designations  of  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines  being  kept  up,  the  former  by 
the  popular  or  democratic  party,  the  latter  by 
the  aristocratic.  The  aristocracy  was  defeated 
in  Venice,  Genoa,  and  in  Florence,  whence  all 
noblemen  were  banished  (1282)  ;  but  soon  af 
terward  the  victorious  popular  party  was  torn 
into  hostile  factions,  and,  though  still  able  to 
frustrate  the  efforts  of  the  German  emperor 
Henry  VII.,  who  attempted  to  regain  the  do 
minion  of  Italy  (1312),  they  succumbed  in  the 
different  states  to  petty  tyrants.  Thus  Pisa 
fell  under  the  rule  of  Uguccione  della  Faggiola 
(1314),  and  Lucca  under  that  of  Castruccio 
Castracani  (1316) ;  Padua  became  a  principal 
ity  under  the  Carrara  dynasty  (1318),  Alessan 
dria,  Tortona,  and  Cremona  under  the  Vis- 
contis,  Mantua  under  the  Gonzagas  (1328),  and 
Ferrara  under  the  Estes.  The  Polenta  family 
ruled  in  Ravenna,  the  Scala  family  in  Verona, 
the  Pepoli  family  in  Bologna.  Genoa  expelled 
the  leading  families  of  the  Guelph  and  Ghibel- 
line  parties,  and  elected  its  first  doge,  Simone 
Boccanegra  (1339).  In  Rome  the  democratic 
party,  led  by  Cola  di  Rienzi,  was  successful  for  a 
brief  time  (1347).  Besides  all  the  miseries  en 
gendered  by  these  feuds  and  dissensions,  armies 
of  robbers,  consisting  of  discharged  soldiers, 
plundered  the  country,  a  terrible  famine  (1347) 
decimated  the  population,  and  a  plague,  the 
most  horrible  of  which  we  have  any  account, 
mowed  down  two  thirds  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  peninsula.  Yet  in  the  midst  of  these  in 
flictions,  science,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts 
flourished  as  they  had  never  done  before,  and 
the  very  plague  which  made  Italy  a  vast  ceme 
tery  furnished  the  dark  background  on  which 
Boccaccio  drew  the  light  fantastical  pictures 
of  his  Decameronc.  In  lower  Italy,  Charles  of 


Anjou,  having  lost  the  island  of  Sicily  by  a 
popular  outbreak  (the  Sicilian  vespers,  March 
30,  1282),  consolidated  his  dynasty  in  Naples, 
and  the  country  enjoyed  comparative  tranquil 
lity.  In  1382  Queen  Joanna  was  dethroned  and 
assassinated.  The  usurper,  Charles  of  Duraz- 
zo,  shared  her  fate  in  1386,  and  her  grandson 
maintained  himself  for  28  years.  Toward  the 
latter  half  of  the  14th  century  and  during  the 
15th  five  states  were  predominant:  Naples, 
the  Papal  States,  Florence,  Milan,  and  Venice ; 
while  the  smaller  states  gradually  dwindled 
down  to  utter  insignificance.  From  Milan  the 
Visconti  dynasty  threatened  all  the  neighbor 
ing  princes,  and  gradually  subjected  Lombardy 
to  their  rule.  Having  become  extinct  in  1447, 
they  were  succeeded  by  the  Sforza  dynasty. 
In  Florence  the  Medici  family  rose  by  their 
wealth  and  prudence  to  supreme  power.  Ven 
ice,  under  a  strong  oligarchical  government, 
conquered  Padua,  Verona,  Vicenza,  and  a  por 
tion  of  Dalmatia,  established  colonial  govern 
ments  in  the  Grecian  archipelago  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  Black  sea,  and  remained  victori 
ous  in  many  struggles  with  the  Turks  and  with 
Naples.  Its  former  powerful  rival  Genoa  had, 
after  a  feud  of  centuries,  been  compelled  to 
acknowledge  the  superior  power  of  Venice. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  Italy 
became  the  theatre  of  desolating  wars  between 
the  rival  French  and  Austrian  dynasties.  The 
struggle  was  opened  in  1494  by  the  attempt 
of  Charles  VIII.  of  France  to  conquer  Naples; 
after  many  vicissitudes  French  hopes  were 
finally  crushed  by  the  defeat  of  Pavia  in  1525. 
From  that  time  Italy  enjoyed  comparative  peace 
for  over  150  years,  during  which  period  its  ter 
ritorial  and  political  relations  became  more  and 
more  consolidated.  In  Florence  the  Medici 
obtained  hereditary  power ;  the  principality  of 
Montferrat  fell  to  the  Gonzagas  of  Mantua 
(1536) ;  Parma  and  Piacenza  to  the  Farnese 
family,  descendants  of  Pope  Paul  III. ;  Milan 
and  Naples  were  secured  to  Spain  by  the  em 
peror  Charles  V. ;  in  the  extreme  N.  "\Y.  por 
tion  of  Italy  the  ducal  house  of  Savoy  obtained 
Piedmont.  Venice,  whose  naval  and  commer 
cial  supremacy  had  declined  after  the  discovery 
of  the  passage  around  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
lost  the  island  of  Candia  in  1669,  but  recon 
quered  the  Peloponnesus,  which  it  had  for 
merly  held.  New  troubles  and  changes  were 
caused  by  the  Avars  of  France  under  Louis 
XIV.  Savoy  and  Piedmont  were  repeatedly 
occupied  by  France.  In  l706-'7  Austria  con 
quered  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Montferrat,  and 
ceded  the  last  to  Piedmont ;  by  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  she  obtained  Sardinia  and  Na 
ples,  but  in  1720  exchanged  the  former  for 
Sicily,  which  had  been  given  to  Piedmont. 
The  Farnese  family  having  become  extinct, 
Parma  and  Piacenza  were  given  to  the  Span 
ish  prince  Charles  in  1731,  but  fell  to  Aus 
tria  in  1738,  when  Charles  ascended  the  throne 
of  Naples.  In  Tuscany  the  Medici  family  be 
came  extinct  in  1737,  and  was  succeeded  by 


ITALY 


451 


Francis  Stephen  of  Lorraine,  husband  of  the 
Austrian  empress  Maria  Theresa.  Parma  and 
Piacenza  were  conquered  by  the  Spanish  prince 
Philip,  and  were  conferred  upon  him  as  a  he 
reditary  duchy  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(174S).  Thus  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  a  large  portion  of  Italy  had  lost  its 
independence,  being  subject  to  the  dynasties  of 
Lorraine,  Bourbon,  and  Savoy.  The  republics 
of  Genoa  and  Venice  were  mere  shadows  of 
what  the}r  had  been.  The  political  and  social 
life  of  the  country  became  a  settled  apathy 
and  seemingly  hopeless  decay,  down  to  the 
time  of  the  French  revolution.  In  1792  a 
French  army  invaded  Savoy,  which  was  an 
nexed  to  France  in  1790.  In  1797  Bonaparte 
surrendered  Venice  to  Austria,  and  erected 
Milan,  Mantua,  a  portion  of  Parma,  and  Mo- 
dena  into  the  Cisalpine  republic;  Genoa  was 
transformed  into  the  Ligurian  republic,  and 
the  Papal  States  into  the  Roman  republic 
(1798).  Naples,  having  sided  with  Austria, 
was  invaded  by  the  French,  the  king  Ferdinand 
IV.  expelled,  and  his  kingdom  formed  into  the 
Parthenopean  republic  (1799).  During  Bona 
parte's  campaign  in  Egypt  the  allied  Austrians 
and  Russians  reconquered  upper  Italy,  and  the 
British,  Russians,  and  Turks  lower  Italy ;  but 
in  a  brief  campaign  Bonaparte  restored  the 
French  supremacy  (1800).  By  the  peace  of 
Luneville  the  duke  of  Parma  obtained  Tuscany 
under  the  designation  of  the  kingdom  of  Etru- 
ria,  and  Parma  fell  to  France.  In  1802  the  Cis 
alpine  was  changed  into  the  Italian  republic, 
under  the  presidency  of  Bonaparte,  and  in  1805 
into  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  administered  by  Na 
poleon's  stepson  Eugene  Beauharnais.  Guas- 
talla  was  annexed  to  the  new  kingdom,  and 
Piombino  and  Lucca  were  given  in  fief  to  Na 
poleon's  sister,  Elisa  Bacciochi.  By  the  peace 
of  Presburg,  Venice,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia  were 
added  to  the  Italian  kingdom,  the  area  of  which 
then  comprised  35,400  sq.  m.,  with  a  popula 
tion  of  5,657,000.  In  the  following  year  Guas- 
talla,  the  Ligurian  republic,  Parma,  and  Pia 
cenza  were  completely  annexed  to  France, 
while  Naples  was  once  more  made  a  kingdom 
for  Joseph  Bonaparte,  who  was  succeeded  by 
Murat  in  1808.  In  that  year  the  Etrurian 
kingdom  and  the  Papal  States  were  added  to 
France,  but  Istria  and  Dalmatia  were  separated 
from  Italy,  and  united  to  the  new  Illyrian 
kingdom,  while  a  portion  of  the  Tyrol  was 
added  to  Italy.  The  last  effort  of  Austria  to 
regain  its  former  power  having  been  frustrated 
by  Archduke  Charles's  successive  defeats  in 
Bavaria  (April,  1809),  the  supremacy  of  Napo 
leon  in  Italy  remained  undisturbed  until  his 
power  was  broken  by  the  Russian  campaign 
and  the  successful  rising  of  Germany.  Murat 
of  Naples  made  common  cause  with  Austria 
(Jan.  11,  1814),  and  the  French  army  was  ex 
pelled  from  Italy,  while  Napoleon  fell.  Murat, 
who  was  to  have  been  confirmed  in  the  posses 
sion  of  Naples  for  the  support  lent  to  the  ene 
mies  of  his  benefactor,  was  dethroned  by  a 


counter-revolutionary  movement,  and  in  an  at 
tempt  to  reconquer  his  kingdom  died  by  sen 
tence  of  a  court  martial  (1815).  Under  the 
new  territorial  arrangements  of  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  the  king  of  Sardinia  was  reinstated 
in  his  former  possessions,  to  which  Genoa  was 
added  ;  Lombardy  and  Venetia  were  given  to 
Austria,  and  united  into  a  kingdom ;  Modena 
Mirandola,  Reggio,  Massa,  and  Carrara  were 
transferred  to  the  dynasty  of  Hapsburg-Este  ; 
in  Tuscany  the  Hapsburg-Lorraine  dynasty  was 
restored;  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla  fell 
to  the  empress  Maria  Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon; 
Lucca  to  the  Bourbon  princess  Maria  Louisa; 
the  Papal  States  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  were  restored  to  their  former  rulers ; 
and  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Comino  remained  in 
the  hands  of  England.  The  republic  of  San 
Marino  and  the  petty  principality  of  Monaco 
had  been  undisturbed  through  all  these  chaotic 
changes. — The  wishes  of  the  advocates  of  na 
tional  unity,  independence,  and  constitutional 
liberty  having  been  baffled  by  the  simple  res 
toration  of  the  ante-revolutionary  institutions, 
dissatisfaction  and  hatred  of  the  foreign  rulers 
engendered  conspiracies  and  secret  societies 
(carbonari),  whose  extent  and  power  increased 
in  the  same  ratio  as  the  restrictive  measures 
adopted  against  the  people.  In  1820  and  1821 
revolutionary  outbreaks  occurred  in  Naples  and 
Sardinia,  and  the  rulers  of  these  states  were 
compelled  to  promise  measures  of  reform  ;  but 
the  congress  of  Laybach  ordered  the  suppres 
sion  of  these  movements,  and  the  complete  sub 
jugation  of  the  revolutionary  party  by  the  Aus 
trian  armies  was  followed  by  a  long  period  of 
reaction  and  vindictive  persecution.  The  gov 
ernment  of  Tuscany  was  at  that  time  compara 
tively  liberal,  and  continued  so  until  Sardinia 
assumed  the  lead  of  the  national  aspirations  of 
Italy  in  1848.  In  February,  1831,  new"  popular 
risings  took  place  in  Parma,  Modena,  and  the 
Papal  States,  but  were  again  suppressed  by  Aus 
trian  armies.  In  the  following  year  the  Ro- 
magna  made  another  effort  to  throw  off  the  papal 
rule,  in  consequence  of  which  an  Austrian  army 
crossed  the  frontier,  while  a  French  army,  in 
spite  of  the  protest  of  the  pope,  occupied  An- 
cona,  and  held  it  till  1838.  The  political  state 
of  Italy  remained  apparently  tranquil,  but  vio 
lent  outbreaks  from  time  to  time  proved  the 
existence  of  strong  dissatisfaction,  which  was 
fostered  by  secret  organizations,  such  as  the 
(riovine  Italia  (young  Italy),  and  by  men  like 
Mazzini,  who  began  his  career  as  a  political  agi 
tator  as  early  as  1831.  A  new  era  seemed  to 
dawn  upon  Italy  when  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  Pius  IX.  (June,  1846). 
Pius  inaugurated  a  series  of  moderately  liberal 
reforms,  and  was  hailed  as  the  political  saviour 
of  his  country.  Tuscany  and  Sardinia  follow 
ed  the  example  set  by  the  pope,  and  a  customs 
union  was  effected  between  the  three  states 
(1847).  Partial  liberty  of  the  press  and  popu 
lar  representation  were  conceded  or  promised. 
About  that  time  the  principality  of  Lucca  was 


452 


ITALY 


united  with  Tuscany,  and  the  reigning  family  of 
the  former,  after  the  death  of  Maria  Louisa, 
obtained  the  duchy  of  Parma,  according  to  the 
stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  Vienna.  Sicily  rose 
in  January,  1848,  against  the  king  of  Naples, 
and  declared  its  independence.  The  king,  in 
order  to  reconcile  his  subjects,  gave  them  a 
liberal  constitution,  which  was  soon  broken. 
In  upper  Italy  the  French  revolution  of  Feb 
ruary  became  the  signal  for  a  popular  rising 
against  the  Austrian  rule.  Radetzky,  the  com 
mander  of  the  Austrian  army,  was  compelled 
to  relinquish  Lombardy  and  fall  back  on 
Verona.  The  king  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert, 
took  the  lead  in  the  struggle,  occupied  Lom 
bardy,  and  seemed  in  a  fair  way  to  conquer 
Venice ;  but  two  brilliant  victories  of  Radetzky 
turned  the  scale  against  the  popular  cause,  and 
the  Austrian  rule  was  reestablished.  Venice, 
however,  held  out;  Rome  (whence  the  pope 
had  fled,  Nov.  24)  and  the  duchies  were  re- 
publicanized ;  and,  encouraged  by  the  reverses 
of  the  Austrians  in  Hungary,  the  king  of  Sar 
dinia  once  more  ventured  to  measure  swords 
with  Radetzky.  But  in  a  brief  campaign 
(March,  1849)  he  was  utterly  routed,  and  the 
very  existence  of  the  Sardinian  kingdom  seemed 
to  depend  upon  the  good  will  of  the  Austrian 
general.  The  duchies  were  restored  to  their 
former  rulers,  and  guarded  by  Austrian  troops. 
Rome,  after  an  obstinate  defence  under  Gari 
baldi  and  others,  was  restored  to  the  pope  by 
a  French  army  of  occupation.  Venice  sur 
rendered  in  August,  1849.  While  in  Naples, 
Modena,  and  the  Papal  States  severe  reaction 
ary  measures  followed  the  overthrow  of  the 
popular  movement,  the  new  king  of  Sardinia, 
Victor  Emanuel,  fostered  liberal  institutions, 
and  the  Austrian  government  sought  to  recon 
cile  the  people  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia  by 
conferring  upon  them  some  material  benefits, 
such  as  the  construction  of  railroads,  the  im 
provement  of  the  port  of  Venice,  reforms  in 
the  tariff  and  the  postal  system,  &c.  But  all 
these  efforts  proved  unavailing  to  overcome 
the  antipathies  of  the  people,  and  on  Feb.  6, 
1853,  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Milan  which 
was  suppressed  without  great  effort.  In  1857 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  overthrow  the  king 
of  Naples  was  made  by  a  small  band  of  re 
publicans,  led  by  Col.  Pisacane ;  and  about  the 
same  time  a  republican  insurrection  occurred 
at  Genoa.  The  fact  that  Pisacane  had  made 
his  attempt  on  board  a  Sardinian  steamer 
which  he  had  forcibly  taken  possession  of,  and 
which  was  afterward  seized  by  the  Neapolitan 
government,  gave  rise  to  an  acrimonious  cor 
respondence  between  Sardinia  and  Naples; 
and  in  1858  a  war  seemed  imminent,  but  was 
averted  by  timely  intercession.  In  conse 
quence  of  Orsini's  attempt  on  the  life  of  the 
French  emperor  (Jan.  14,  1858),  a  special  law 
against  all  "suspected  individuals"  was  enact 
ed  in  Sardinia,  and  this  fact  was  considered  as 
a  significant  symptom  of  the  intimate  relations 
existing  between  that  kingdom  and  France. 


Austria  at  that  time  began  to  suspect  the  in 
tentions  of  her  neighbors,  and  by  a  series  of 
liberal  measures  and  promises  endeavored  to 
strengthen  her  foothold  in  Lombardy  (July, 
1858).  Simultaneously  she  tried  to  form  an 
Italian  league;  but,  though  Modena  and  Na 
ples  were  willing  to  enter  into  all  Austrian 
projects,  the  duchess  regent  of  Parma,  whose 
husband  had  been  assassinated  in  1854,  and  the 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany  declined.  When,  in 
August,  1858,  it  became  known  that  Sardinia 
had  ceded  to  Russia  a  locality  suitable  for  a 
navy  yard  at  Villafranca,  and  that  Russia  had 
sought  to  purchase  the  principality  of  Monaco 
and  applied  to  the  king  of  Naples  for  the  ces 
sion  of  a  naval  depot  at  Brindisi,  the  opinion 
became  general  that  a  triple  alliance  against 
Austria,  the  soul  of  which  was  the  Sardinian 
minister  Cavour,  was  on  the  point  of  being  con 
cluded.  This  opinion  obtained  further  strength 
when  Prince  Napoleon  sought  a  matrimonial 
alliance  with  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Sar 
dinia.  On  New  Year's  day,  1859,  a  few  words 
spoken  by  Napoleon  III.  to  the  Austrian  am 
bassador  dispelled  all  doubts  in  regard  to  his 
hostile  intentions.  While  the  preparations  for 
war  on  both  sides  were  going  on,  the  people 
of  Italy  became  assured  that  it  was  not  a 
change  of  foreign  supremacy,  but  really  the 
liberation  and  national  organization  of  Italy, 
which  the  French  emperor  intended  to  accom 
plish.  Dreading  the  approach  of  a  revolution, 
the  king  of  Naples  set  free  many  prominent 
political  prisoners.  On  April  21  the  Austrian 
general  Gyulai  sent  an  ultimatum  to  the  king 
of  Sardinia,  and  crossed  the-  Ticino  in  three 
columns,  April  26-29.  The  duke  of  Modena, 
the  duchess  of  Parma,  and  the  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  unable  to  make  head  against  a  pop 
ular  rising,  quitted  their  states;  the  duke  of 
Modena  taking  his  political  prisoners  along 
with  him,  and  transferring  them  to  the  dun 
geons  of  the  Austrian  fortress  of  Verona.  For 
nearly  a  month  no  open  hostilities  occurred, 
the  Austrians  contenting  themselves  with  plun 
dering  the  rich  district  of  Lomellina.  Their 
left  wing  having  been  defeated  near  Monte- 
bello  (May  20),  and  the  enemy  being  on  the 
point  of  outflanking  their  right  wing  (bat 
tles  of  Palestro,  May  31  and  June  1),  they 
recrossed  the  Ticino  and  were  routed  in  a  great 
open  battle  near  Magenta  (June  4).  The  con 
sequence  of  this  defeat  was  the  relinquishment 
by  the  Austrians  of  Milan  and  the  entire  N. 
W.  portion  of  Lombardy,  which  in  the  mean 
time  had  been  invaded  by  Garibaldi.  Without 
risking  a  defence  of  the  lines  of  the  Adda  and 
Oglio  rivers,  they  retreated  to  the  line  of  the 
Mincio.  There,  in  the  great  battle  of  Solferino, 
they  were  defeated  (June  24),  but  under  circum 
stances  which  made  it  appear  doubtful  whether 
!  the  French  would  be  able  successfully  to  con- 
I  tend  with  them  on  the  ground  of  their  famous 
I  quadrilateral  of  fortresses.  Considering  this 
i  uncertainty,  as  well  as  the  threatening  atti- 
I  tude  of  Prussia,  the  French  emperor  suddenly 


ITALY 


453 


concluded  a  truce,  which  was  immediately 
followed  by  a  personal  interview  between  the 
two  emperors  (July  11)  at  Villafranca.  There 
the  preliminaries  of  a  peace  were  arranged, 
by  which  Lombardy,  exclusive  of  the  impor 
tant  fortresses  of  Mantua  and  Peschiera,  was 
ceded  to  Sardinia,  which  had  to  pay  for  this 
conquest  a  sum  of  $42,000,000.  Venetia  was 
continued  to  Austria.  The  restoration  of  the 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany  and  the  duke  of  Mo- 
dena  was  stipulated  for,  the  question  about 
Parma  being  left  open.  A  promise  was  held 
out  to  Italy  of  the  formation  of  an  Italian 
confederation  under  the  honorary  presidency 
of  the  pope.  Intense  discontent  arose  in  Italy 
when  these  stipulations  became  known.  The 
people  of  the  duchies  and  likewise  of  the  Ro- 
magna  (the  insurrection  in  the  other  provinces 
of  the  Papal  States  had  been  quelled  by  the 
mercenary  troops,  principally  at  Perugia,  June 
20)  united  in  their  protestations  against  the 
restoration  of  their  former  rulers.  They  sol 
emnly  transferred  their  allegiance  to  the  king 
of  Sardinia,  but  he  thought  best  still  to  refuse 
the  crown  proffered  to  him,  and  to  substitute 
Signer  Buoncompagni  for  the  prince  of  Cari- 
gnan,  to  whom  the  regency  was  subsequently 
offered.  The  peace  was  signed  at  Zurich  in 
accordance  with  the  original  stipulations  of 
Villafranca,  Nov.  10.  The  final  settlement  of 
the  affairs  of  the  duchies  was  to  be  effected  by 
a  European  congress,  the  meeting  of  which 
was  expected  to  take  place  in  January,  1860. 
This,  however,  was  delayed  or  prevented  by 
subsequent  diplomatic  developments.  A  few 
weeks  before  the  time  fixed  upon  for  the  meet 
ing  of  the  congress,  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  The 
Pope  and  the  Congress "  was  published  in 
Paris,  which,  though  bearing  the  name  of  M. 
de  La  Gueronniere  as  author,  was  generally  un 
derstood  to  have  been  written  by  the  French 
emperor  or  under  his  direction.  Its  leading  doc 
trine  was  that  the  revolted  Papal  States  should 
not  be  forced  to  return  to  their  allegiance,  and 
that  the  pope  must  be  restricted  as  a  temporal 
sovereign  to  a  very  small  territory  and  to 
limited  authority.  This  was  followed  by  a  let 
ter  from  the  emperor  to  the  pope,  in  which 
the  latter  was  vainly  urged  to  sacrifice  the 
revolted  provinces,  and  a  promise  was  held 
out  to  him  that  the  possession  of  the  remain 
der  should  be  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  ap 
proaching  congress.  In  February  the  French 
government  demanded,  and  on  March  24  the 
Sardinian  government  granted,  the  cession  to 
France  of  Savoy  and  Nice  as  an  indemnity  for 
the  expenses  incurred  in  the  recent  war  against 
Austria.  The  insurrection  which  broke  out 
in  Sicily  on  April  4  was  destined  to  lead  step 
by  step  to  that  unity  of  Italy  so  long  the  dream 
of  her  patriots.  The  Sardinian  prime  minister 
Cavour  at  first  outwardly  condemned  the  insur 
rection,  and  made  some  show  of  opposing  the 
part  which  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers  were 
preparing  to  take  in  it.  But  the  latter  em 
barked  at  Genoa  on  Mav  5  with  his  followers 


on  board  a  Sardinian  steamer,  landed  at  Mar 
sala  on  the  llth,  and  on  the  14th  assumed  the 
dictatorship  of  the  island  in  the  name  of  Vic 
tor  Emanuel.  On  Aug.  3  the  latter  was  there 
proclaimed  king  of  Italy;  on  the  19th  Garibal 
di  landed  at  Reggio,  and  on  the  27th  was  pro 
claimed  dictator  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Cavour 
now  threw  off  the  mask  ;  Admiral  Persano  and 
his  fleet  cooperated  with  Garibaldi  in  the  south, 
and  the  Sardinian  armies,  which  had  been 
wresting  from  the  pope  one  after  another  of 
his  provinces,  received  orders  to  proceed  to 
Naples.  The  victories  gained  by  Garibaldi  at 
Cajazzo  and  on  the  Volturno,  the  flight  of 
Francis  II.  to  Gaeta,  and  the  subsequent  sur 
render  of  that  stronghold,  Feb.  13,  1861,  re 
moved  the  last  real  obstacles  toward  national 
unity.  Time,  it  was  then  said,  would  soon  re 
store  Venice  to  Italy,  and  the  shadow  of  sov 
ereignty  still  left  to  the  pope  was  felt  by  all  to 
be  merely  a  question  for  diplomacy  to  settle. 
On  Feb.  18  the  first  Italian  parliament  assem 
bled  at  Turin,  and  on  the  26th  the  deputies  de 
creed  to  Victor  Emanuel  the  title  of  king  of  It 
aly.  The  decree  was  promulgated  on  March 
17,  and  the  title  officially  recognized  by  Eng 
land  on  the  30th,  by  France  on  June  15  ;  and 
the  other  powers,  after  some  delay  and  hesita 
tion,  acknowledged  the  accomplished  fact  of 
Italian  nationality.  Cavour,  dying  in  June, 
1861,  was  succeeded  as  prime  minister  by  Ri- 
casoli.  Garibaldi,  abetted  by  some  of  the  most 
ardent  votaries  of  unity,  feeling  aggrieved  by 
the  cession  to  France  of  Nice  and  Savoy,  by  the 
presence  in  Rome  of  French  troops,  and  by  the 
keeping  up  in  that  city  of  the  papal  sovereignty, 
published  a  proclamation  in  August,  1862,  call 
ing  on  the  people  to  resist  foreign  oppressors, 
landed  in  Calabria  on  the  24th,  and  was  de 
feated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  government 
troops  on  the  28th  at  Aspromonte.  The  French 
occupation  of  Rome  continued  to  embarrass 
Italian  statesmen,  amid  all  the  financial  and 
social  problems  which  demanded  of  them  an 
immediate  practical  solution.  On  Sept.  15, 
1864,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  France  stip 
ulating  for  the  evacuation  of  Rome  within  a 
specified  time,  and  providing  for  the  transfer 
of  the  seat  of  government  from  Turin  to  Flor 
ence.  The  announcement  of  this  latter  mea 
sure  caused  serious  disturbances  in  Turin,  and 
these  were  followed  by  another  Garibaklian 
rising  in  Lombardy,  which  was  suppressed  by 
the  government.  On  May  13,  1865,  the  king 
of  Italy  took  up  his  residence  in  Florence,  the 
minister  of  finance  having  previously  demand 
ed  of  parliament  permission  to  raise  a  loan  of 
$88,000,000.  Meanwhile  the  king  and  his  min 
isters  sought  to  enter  into  negotiations  with 
the  pope  relating  to  the  nomination  of  bishops, 
and  a  peaceful  adjustment  of  the  reciprocal 
claims  of  the  holy  see  and  the  new  national 
government ;  but  Signor  Vegezzi,  who  had 
been  accredited  as  special  envoy  from  Victor 
Emanuel  to  the  pope,  failed  to  bring  about  a 
conciliation.  Earlv  in  1866  negotiations  were 


454: 


ITALY 


opened  with  Prussia  aiming  at  an  alliance  which 
should  eventually  compel  Austria  to  give  up 
Venetia.  On  April  8  a  conditional  treaty  of 
alliance  was  concluded  with  Prussia,  and  the 
most  active  preparations  were  made  for  war. 
The  king  and  Gen.  Lamarmora  joined  the  army 
on  June  17;  on  the  20th  war  was  declared; 
the  Italian  army  crossed  the  Mincio  June  23, 
and  on  the  following  day  was  defeated  with 
great  loss  at  Custozza ;  Garibaldi  and  his  vol 
unteers  were  also  beaten  by  the  Austrians  at 
Monte  Suello  in  Tyrol,  July  3  ;  and  on  the  20th 
the  Italian  fleet  under  Persano~was  defeated 
with  great  loss  at  Lissa  in  the  Adriatic,  by  the 
Austrian  admiral  Tegetthoff .  But  in  the  mean 
while  the  war  in  its  general  aspects  had  been 
decided  against  Austria  by  the  battle  of  Sa- 
dowa  (July  3),  and  Francis  Joseph,  in  order  to 
conciliate  Italy,  had  vainly  renounced  his  Ital 
ian  possessions.  (See  AUSTEIA,  vol.  ii.,  p.  150.) 
By  the  peace  concluded  Oct.  3,  Venetia  was 
ceded  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the  king 
made  his  public  entry  into  Venice  Nov.  7.  At 
this  time  the  friendly  relations  existing  be 
tween  Italy  and  France  were  imperilled  by  the 
attack  made  on  Rome  by  volunteers  under  Gari 
baldi.  France  had  withdrawn  her  troops  from 
the  Roman  territory,  leaving  temporary  garri 
sons  in  Rome  and  Civita  Vecchia ;  but  at  the 
same  time  she  encouraged  the  pope  to  raise  an 
army  for  the  defence  of  Rome,  allowed  a  legion 
to  be  recruited  on  her  soil  for  that  purpose,  and 
permitted  her  own  soldiers  to  enlist  in  the  pon 
tifical  service.  To  this  legion  were  soon  added 
bodies  of  volunteers  from  every  Catholic  coun 
try,  even  Lower  Canada  furnishing  a  contin 
gent.  The  advance  of  Garibaldi,  only  appa 
rently  opposed  by  the  cabinet  under  Rattazzi, 
was  condemned  by  a  proclamation  of  the  new 
ministry  under  Menabrea,  Oct.  27,  1867,  and 
government  troops  were  sent  forward  into  the 
papal  territory  to  control  his  movements ;  and 
on  the  28th  a  body  of  French  troops  debarked 
at  Civita  Vecchia,  which  defeated  the  Garibal- 
dian  forces  at  Mentana,  Nov.  3.  In  the  prece 
ding  month  of  May  the  financial  situation  had 
become  so  critical,  that  the  king  in  a  message 
to  parliament  gave  up  his  own  share  of  the 
civil  list,  and  proposed  the  sale  of  church 
lands  and  the  reduction  of  the  public  expendi 
ture.  A  few  days  afterward  French  capitalists 
advanced  $86,000,000  for  the  proposed  sale, 
and  in  August  a  bill  was  passed  legalizing  the 
sale.  These  and  similar  measures,  inaugurated 
chiefly  under  the  Lanza  cabinet,  helped  to  main 
tain  the  national  credit ;  but  the  political  situ 
ation  consequent  upon  the  presence  of  French 
troops  and  other  foreign  soldiers  in  Rome  con 
tinued  to  become  more  and  more  embarrassing. 
There  were  frequent  risings  and  disturbances 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  general  unea 
siness,  increased  by  the  presence  and  appeals  of 
Mazzini,  at  length  induced  the  king,  in  Septem 
ber,  1870,  to  address  a  letter  to  the  pope  an 
nouncing  that  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  Ital 
ian  troops  was  indispensable  to  the  public  tran 


quillity.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-Ger 
man  war  the  French  emperor  had  withdrawn 
his  last  soldier  from  Italy  (Aug.  21) ;  on  Sept. 
12  the  government  troops  took  possession  of 
Viterbo,  and  on  the  20th,  after  a  brief  resis 
tance,  they  entered  Rome.  This  event  was 
notified  to  the  European  courts  by  a  circular 
of  Oct.  18.  In  the  beginning  of  December 
the  Italian  parliament  met  and  declared  Rome 
the  capital  of  Italy.  On  the  26th  of  that  month 
the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  was  completed,  and 
hailed  as  inaugurating  an  era  of  great  com 
mercial  prosperity  for  the  peninsula.  On  May 
13,  1871,  the  Italian  parliament,  still  sitting  at 
Florence,  passed  the  act  known  as  the  bill  of 
the  papal  guarantees,  which  defined  the  situa 
tion  of  the  sovereign  pontiff  and  regulated  the 
relations  of  church  and  state.  The  pope  was 
to  remain  in  possession  of  the  Vatican  with  its 
dependencies,  known  as  the  "Leonine  City," 
and  of  the  Lateran  and  Castel  Gandolfo.  On 
July  2  Victor  Emanuel  made  his  solemn  entry 
into  Rome,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  the  Qui- 
rinal.  The  opening  of  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel 
to  traffic  was  celebrated  at  Turin  on  Sept.  17. 
On  Nov.  27  the  king  opened  the  first  Italian 
parliament  held  in  Rome,  and  at  the  close  of  his 
inaugural  discourse  announced  that  the  tunnel 
ling  of  Mont  St.  Gothard  would  be  speedily 
undertaken.  During  1872  Italy  enjoyed  com 
parative  political  'and  social  tranquillity,  and 
was  only  visited  by  a  fearful  eruption  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  beginning  April  24,  lasting  a  week, 
and  causing  great  destruction  of  life  and  prop 
erty,  and  by  autumnal  inundations  in  the  basin 
of  the  Po,  which  left  80,000  persons  dependent 
upon  public  charity.  The  debates  of  the  par 
liament  in  May  were  rendered  memorable  by 
an  attempt  of  the  government  to  introduce  a 
bill  granting  privileges  to  the  heads  of  religious 
corporations  in  Rome,  and  by  the  vehement 
opposition  offered  to  it  by  the  party  of  the 
left,  headed  by  Prince  Emmanuele  Ruspoli. 
The  debates  were  attended  by  popular  demon 
strations,  rioting,  and  bloodshed.  On  Oct.  20 
the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  the  Roman  col 
lege  and  the  three  other  houses  occupied  by 
them  in  Rome ;  and  on  the  same  day  the  first 
scientific  congress  held  in  Rome  met  in  the 
capitol  under  the  presidency  of  Count  Mamiani. 
(See  VICTOR  EMANT'EL.) — The  most  impor 
tant  historical  works  on  Italy  are :  Guicciar- 
dini,  Storia  d> Italia  (10  vols.,  Pisa,  1819-'20; 
English  translation  by  A.  P.  Goddard,  10  vols., 
London,  1763);  Muratori,  Annali  d?  Italia  (12 
vols.,  Milan,  1741-'9) ;  Botta,  Storia  d?  Italia 
dal  1789  «M814  (Paris,  1824),  and  Storia 
ft  Italia  dal  1490  al  1814  (Paris,  1832)  ;  Gual- 
terio,  Gli  ultimi  ritolgimenti  italiani  (6  vols., 
Palermo,  1869);  Lebret,  Geschicktevonltalien 
(1778-'87);  Leo,  Oeschickte  der  italienischen 
Staaten  (1829-'32) ;  Reumont,  Beitrage  evr 
italienisclien  Oe&cMchte  (1853-'7);  Fantin  des 
Odoards,  Histoire  d? Italic  (1802-'3)  ;  Sismon- 
di,  Histoire  des  republiques  italiennes  (16  vols., 
Paris,  1807-'18 ;  later  eds.  in  10  and  8  vols. ; 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


455 


abridged  in  English,  1  vol.,  London,  1832); 
Wrightson,  "  History  of  Italy  from  the  French 
Revolution  to  1850  "  (London,  1855) ;  Arriva- 
bene,  "  Italy  under  Kins;  Victor  Emanuel  "  (2 
vols.,  London,  1862).  The  principal  travellers 
in  Italy  who  have  given  accounts  of  their  tours 
in  letters,  journals,  or  more  elaborate  works, 
are  Montaigne,  Evelyn,  Gray,  Smollett,  Dr. 
Moore,  Goethe,  Joseph  Forsyth,  Mine,  de  Stael 
("  Corinne  "),  J.  0.  Eustace,'  Henry  Matthews, 
Lady  Morgan,  Miss  Eaton,  W.  S.  Rose,  Hans 
Christian  Andersen  (u  The  Improvisatore "), 
Mrs.  Kemble,  William  Spalding,  and  George  S. 
Hillard.  See  also  Fulchiron,  Voyage  dans  Vita- 
lie  meridionale,  centrale  et  septentrionale  (7 
vols.,  Paris,  184T-'58);  II.  Alford,  "Letters 
from  Abroad"  (2d  ed.,  London,  1865);  and 
Taine,  Voyage  en  Italie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1866  ; 
English  translation-  by  J.  Durand,  2  vols.,  New 
York,  1869  ;  1  vol.,  1874). 

ITALY,  Language  and  Literature  of.  The  term 
Italian  language  is  applied  in  literary  history 
to  what  is  at  present  the  universal  vehicle  of 
official  communication,  religious  instruction, 
epistolary  correspondence,  and  general  litera 
ture  throughout  Italy.  But  it  is  only  in  Tus 
cany  and  parts  of  the  adjacent  provinces  that 
this  is  the  household  speech  of  even  the  educa 
ted  classes.  In  Piedmont,  Lombardy,  the  Ve 
netian  and  Ligurian  territories,  in  a  great  part 
of  the  former  States  of  the  Church,  and  in  the 
Neapolitan  provinces,  as  well  as  in  Sicily  and 
Sardinia,  all  alike  employ  local  dialects  in  or 
dinary  oral  intercourse.  Persons  of  even  mod 
erate  culture  are,  indeed,  able  everywhere  to 
use  Tuscan  freely,  though  always  with  local 
peculiarities  of  pronunciation  and  expression ; 
but  the  vernacular  is  the  habitual  medium  of 
thought,  and,  as  Biondelli  emphatically  states, 
the  written  productions  of  non-Tuscan  authors 
are  translations.  The  parentage  and  formation 
of  this  Tuscan  or  Italian  constitute  a  much  dis 
cussed  and  most  interesting  linguistic  problem. 
According  to  Giuseppe  Micali,  ancient  Italy 
most  probably  had  a  common  language  of  many 
dialects,  which  were  divided  into  two  main 
branches,  the  dialects  of  Etruria  and  Umbria, 
represented  chietly  by  the  Iguvian,  and  the 
Sabine,  Samnian,  and  Oscan,  which  included 
the  Marscian,  Volscian,  and  Hernician.  Greek 
was  spoken  in  the  south,  in  Magna  Gratia. 
The  Latin  was  the  dialect  used  by  the  mixture 
of  Pelasgian  Siculi  and  Osci  from  the  Abruzzi, 
who  together  formed  the  historical  Latini  on 
the  lowlands  about  the  Tiber.  Their  idiom 
became  in  time  the  official  language  of  the  Ro 
man  republic  and  empire.  This  supremacy  of 
the  Latin,  apart  from  any  intrinsic  excellence 
of  its  own,  may  have  contributed  to  the  neg 
lect  and  debasement  of  the  cognate  dialects. 
In  this  debasement  the  Latin  itself  must  have 
shared  during  the  occupation  of  Italy  by  the 
barbarians.  Whether  the  local  dialects  recov 
ered  their  old  popular  ascendancy  while  the 
governmental  language  of  Rome  was  in  dis 
favor  with  the  conquerors,  is  a  matter  of  con 


jecture.  It  is  certain  that  the  Oscan  became 
extinct  in  the  1st  century  B.  C.,  and  that  the 
Etruscan  continued  to  be  spoken  under  the  re 
public  and  the  empire  down  to  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century  A.  I).,  as  attested  by  Aulus 
Gellius.  But  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  along  the 
shores  of  the  Adriatic,  as  far  at  least  as  Ancona, 
the  Celtic  was  spoken  at  the  epoch  of  the 
Gothic  domination,  and  contributed,  according 
to  (.).  M.  Toselli,  more  elements  to  the  Italian 
than  did  the  Latin  itself.  Thus  many  of  these 
local  dialects  survived  through  the  middle  ages, 
were  modified  by  the  inriuence  and  literature 
of  the  church,  and  are  more  or  less  faithfully 
represented  by  the  vernacular  idioms  of  mod 
ern  Italy.  The  common  roots  of  all  of  them 
are  traced  to  an  Indo-European  stem  ;  but  the 
formation  and  growth  of  the  modern  Italian 
has  not  been  conclusively  shown  to  be  derived 
from  any  known  parentage,  as  the  pedigree  of 
English  is  carried  back  to  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Norman  French.  Three  theories  have  been  ad 
vanced  on  this  subject.  The  first  asserts  the  Ital 
ian  to  have  anciently  coexisted  with  the  Latin  ; 
the  latter  being  the  language  of  the  learned, 
of  public  oratory,  and  of  legal  documents, 
while  the  former,  as  the  Romano,  ru&tica,  was 
the  language  of  the  common  people  and  of  or 
dinary  conversation,  and  maintained  its  ground 
after  the  other  had  died  with  the  aristocracy. 
Such  is  the  theory  of  Leonardo  Bruni,  Cardi 
nal  Bembo,  Saverio  Quadrio,  and  others.  The 
second  maintains  that  the  primitive  dialects 
lived  in  spite  of  neglect  and  proscription,  and, 
modified  by  time,  concurred  with  the  Latin  to 
form  the  basis  of  modern  Italian.  This  hy 
pothesis  has  the  authority  of  Muratori,  Fonta- 
nini,  Tirabosclii,  Denina,  Ginguene,  and  Sis- 
mondi.  A  third  theory,  which  is  that  of  Maffei, 
affirms  that  Italian  is  merely  a  corrupt  Latin, 
without  any  admixture  of  foreign  tongues. 
But  no  facts  are  adduced  to  support  this  theory 
of  a  gradual  change  of  Latin  into  modern  Ital 
ian  speech.  Latin  died  like  Moeso-Gothic,  and, 
in  Italy  at  least,  left  no  lineal  descendant, 
though  the  present  speech  of  Rome,  as  it  is 
nearest  in  lineage,  is  probably  nearest  also  in 
character  of  all  the  modern  Italian  dialects  to 
the  vernacular  language  of  old  Rome  at  her 
best  period.  Mediaeval  Latin,  it  is  true,  be 
came  corrupt,  and  was  often  mixed  with  words 
borrowed  from  the  vulgar  idioms ;  but  it  still 
remained  essentially  Latin,  and  as  yet  no  well 
authenticated  remains  have  been  found  of  a 
transitional  stage  from  the  old  classical  to  the 
modern  Italo-Romance  dialects.  When  the 
modern  Tuscan  was  first  used  in  literary  com 
position  in  the  13th  century,  it  was  in  idiom, 
grammar,  and  structure  what  it  is  to-day.  The 
writers  of  that  age  used  the  familiar  speech  of 
their  firesides;  and  Italian  was  full-grown, 
ripe,  and  perfect  when  the  first  native  poet 
embodied  his  inspiration  in  it.  If  we  trace  it 
up  chronologically,  we  find  that  Isidore  of 
Seville  in  the  7th  century  mentions  the  lingua 
Italica  as  distinct  from  the  Latin,  Ciampi 


456 


ITALY  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


finds  that  it  was  in  use  in  the  5th  century ;  and 
in  960  Gonzo  attests  its  use  among  the  educa 
ted  classes,  while  Wittekind  mentions  its  being 
spoken  under  the  name  of  lingua  JRomana  by 
the  emperor  Otho  I.  (936 -'73).  Pope  Gregory 
V.  (996-'9)  delivered  his  instructions  to  the 
people  in  the  same.  It  was  spoken  at  the 
court  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  (1212-'50) 
as  the  lingua  Siciliana,  of  which  the  oldest 
authentic  specimen  is  a  rude  song  by  Ciullo 
d'Alcamo  (about  1195).  The  Sienese  idiom  of 
Folcachiero  is  more  chaste,  but  somewhat  later 
in  date.  Thus,  already  in  the  13th  century  the 
Italian  language  had  attained  its  regular  forms 
in  the  north,  centre,  and  south  of  Italy.  While 
other  modern  European  languages,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Icelandic,  were  still  in  their 
infancy,  Dante  (1265-1321)  did  most  of  all  in 
developing  and  consolidating  the  native  ele 
ments,  legitimating  the  exotic  accessions,  and 
polishing  the  whole  language.  In  the  14th 
century  the  language  was  still  further  per 
fected  by  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio.  To  the 
latter  part  of  the  15th  century  and  the  begin 
ning  of  the  16th  belong  the  works  of  artists 
and  scientific  men  like  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
who  enriched  the  language  with  a  new  termi 
nology,  and  those  of  Machiavelli,  the  father  of 
Italian  prose.  Pietro  Bembo,  Giovanni  Rucel- 
lai,  Jacopo  Sannazaro,  Trissino,  Ariosto,  Tasso, 
Guarini,  and  others  followed,  raising  it  in  re 
finement  and  melody  above  all  other  European 
languages.  Angelo  Beolco  di  Piuzzante,  a  Pa- 
duan  (1502-'42),  wrote  six  comedies,  in  which 
each  person  speaks  his  native  dialect :  a  method 
analogous  to  the  use  of  Prakrit  in  Indian 
dramas.  Benedetto  Varchi,  a  Florentine  (1502 
-'65),  reformed  the  orthography  and  estab 
lished  the  grammar.  Grazzini  with  Leonardo 
Salviati  founded,  in  the  accademia  della  Crusca 
at  Florence,  a  tribunal  of  the  language  (1582). 
The  influence  of  French  on  European  languages 
during  the  17th  century  began  to  be  exerted  on 
the  Italian,  especially  on  its  syntax.  Algarotti 
was  the  chief  fosterer  of  this  influence.  But 
Monti  and  Perticari  strenuously  and  successful 
ly  resisted  this  denationalization,  and  restored 
to  their  cherished  tongue  the  direction  impart 
ed  to  it  in  the  14th  century. — The  following 
details  relate  to  the  illustre  fdvella  of  Dante, 
unless  a  dialect  be  mentioned.  The  compara 
tive  harmony  of  intonation  of  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  languages  is  a  matter  of  individual 
preference.  We  place  the  Italian  first  with  re 
spect  to  music,  but  prefer  the  Spanish  as  to  the 
numerus  or  euphony  of  speech.  Only  five  Ital 
ian  words  end  in  consonants  (three  liquids), 
viz.:  il,  in,  con,  non,  per.  By  dropping  e  and 
o  after  liquids  only,  other  words  are  made  to 
end  in  them,  thus:  parlarono,  or  parlaron ; 
dropping  n,  parlaro  ;  also  parlar,  which  is  also 
the  infinitive  (from  parlare)  or  the  negative 
imperative.  Too  many  words  end  in  *  (plural 
from  e,  o,  and  from  a  masculine,  and  second 
person  singular  of  verbs) ;  for  instance :  Kapete, 
amid  miei,  che  tutti  i  celelri  poeti  italiani 


sieno  stati  colmi  di  allori  ed  onori,  nei  sccoli 
passati.  The  sound  of  h  exists  only  in  the 
lingua  toscana.  The  Spanish  has  only  one 
rough  sibilant,  ch  (as  in  our  church),  whereas 
the  Italian  has  this,  written  ce,  ci,  as  well  as 
the  sound  of  our  sh  (in  ship),  written  see,  sci  ; 
moreover,  ge,  gi  (as  in  English  gem),  the  double 
consonants  ts  and  dz  (both  written  z),  of  which 
the  former  supplants  the  melting  sound  of  the 
Latin  tia,  tie,  tio,  as  in  tristezza,  pazienza,  na- 
zione  (for  tristitia, patientia,  natio),  &c.  0<jgi, 
fuggire,  iiccidere,  and  the  like,  exaggerate  the 
harshness  by  a  preceding  sound  of  d  and  t. 
The  ratio  of  initial  and  medial  consonants  to 
the  vowels  is  as  two  to  one  in  Latin,  while  they 
are  about  equal  in  number  in  Italian.  Besides 
the  above  mentioned  sounds,  there  are  I,  d,  f, 
/,  m,  n,  p,  q,  v,  as  in  English ;  c  like  &  in  the 
same  positions  as  in  English,  and  g  hard  (writ 
ten  ch,  gh,  before  e,  i)  ;  j  medial  sound,  like 
our  y  in  yes,  but  as  final  it  is  a  long  i ;  r  al 
ways  rolling;  t  always  hard  (in  old  writings 
also  like  z) ;  s  as  in  English  sun,  rose,  never  as 
in  vision,  mission,  the  i  retaining  its  distinct 
sound,  as  in  m-si-o-ne.  The  letters  Ic,  W,  x,  and 
y  are  not  used,  and  ph,  th  are  represented  by  f, 
t,  as  in  filosofia,  teatro.  II  only  occurs  in  ho, 
hai,  ha,  hanno  (Latin  luibeo,  holes,  halet,  halent, 
which  Metastasio  wrote  d,  di,  d,  anno),  and  com 
bined  in  ch,  gh.  The  I  and  n  mouillh  of  the 
French  are  written  with  gli  and  gn.  The  vow 
els  sound  as  in  the  words  father,  pat ;  fete,  pet ; 
marine,  pm ;  note,  not ;  too,  put.  The  Italian 
accent  is  strongly  marked,  and  affects  one  of 
the  four  last  syllables  of  words;  hence  its 
adaptability  to  pentameter  and  hexameter  verse, 
and  its  singularly  musical  prosody.  Rhyme  is 
only  accessory.  The  mark  (')  is  only  used  for 
the  sake  of  instruction ;  the  sign  of  the  grave 
accent  is  written  on  the  finals  of  abbreviated 
words,  such  as  cittd,  merce,  di,  virtu,  do  (for 
cittade,  mercede,  die,  mrtude,  Lat.  quod),  &c. 
— In  richness  of  augmentatives  and  diminu 
tives,  both  of  endearment  and  aversion,  the 
Spanish  is  equal  and  the  Karalitic  (in  Greenland) 
superior  to  the  Italian.  The  definite  article  is 
more  multiform  than  in  the  cognate  languages. 
This  is  due  to  its  contraction  with  prepositions 
and  also  with  non,  thus:  del,  dalla,  al,  nello, 
coi,  pel,  frai,  sugli,  nol,  &c.  There  are  two 
forms  of  the  masculine :  il,  lo,  plural  i,  gli. 
The  auxiliary  verbs  are  due  to  the  influence  of 
the  Teutonic  tongues,  though  faint  traces  of  a 
similar  use  of  esse  and  habere  may  be  found  in 
ancient  low  Latin.  Conciseness  of  expression 
is  obtained  by  the  following  means :  a,  by  using 
the  infinitive  of  a  verb  as  a  substantive,  thus  : 
il  parlar  xezzoso,  genteel  speech;  l>,  by  joining 
pronouns,  when  regimens,  to  the  imperative, 
infinitive,  or  gerund,  thus  :  datemelo,  give  it  to 
me  ;  il  pensarne  mi  consola,  the  very  thought 
of  it  consoles  me;  raccontandoglielo,  in  telling 
it  to  him,  &c. ;  c,  by  dropping  the  final  e  or  o 
after  liquids,  mostly  before  words  commencing 
with  consonants  (see  above);  d,  by  dropping 
final  vowels  or  syllables  before  both  consonants 


ITALY  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATTTEE) 


457 


and  vowels,  with  or  without  the  sign  of  the 
apostrophe,  even  of  initial  vowels,  as  in  the 
following  from  Dante: 


and 


Quando  i1  udf  nomar  se  stesso  il  padre  (mio), 
lo  vo1  con  voi  della  mia  donna  dire 


(for  to  udii,  isoglio}.  The  construction  is  di 
rect,  inversion  frequent,  and  the  whole  phrase 
ology  freer,  bolder,  and  more  variable  than  in 
French.  On  the  other  hand,  some  terminations 
are  fatiguingly  long,  unless  the  writer  be  mas 
ter  of  his  style,  and  ornaments  of  speech  often 
superfluous.  The  poetic  idiom  differs  more 
from  the  prosaic  than  in  any  other  living  lan 
guage  of  Europe,  not  only  on  account  of  great 
licenses  in  the  alteration,  addition,  and  omission 
of  sounds,  but  also  by  a  multitude  of  exclusive 
ly  poetic  words. — The  area  of  the  Italian  lan 
guage  comprehends  the  whole  peninsula  and 
the  islands  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  &c. ;  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Ticino,  and  parts  of  the  Grisons 
and  Valais ;  south  Tyrol,  some  cities  of  Istria 
and  of  Dalmatia,  and  partly  the  Ionian  islands. 
A  rough  idiom  of  Mediterranean  navigators, 
and  a  jargon  known  as  the  lingua  franca,  are 
spoken  in  the  Levant.  Many  of  the  dialects 
differ  as  much  from  the  cultivated  Italian  as 
it  differs  from  Spanish,  and  some  even  more. 
This  is  owing  to  the  ancient  local  varieties  of 
the  Romana  rustica  and  of  others,  as  well  as 
to  the  tongues  of  foreign  invaders.  While 
some  words  have  many  significations,  as  for 
instance  cassa,  which  has  25  in  Milanese,  oth 
er  objects  have  very  many  names  devoid  of 
analogy  of  any  kind,  as  for  instance  turkey 
(meleagris  gallopavo),  which  has  about  20 
Italian  provincial  names.  Dante  (De  Vulgari 
Eloquio)  speaks  of  14  dialects,  one  class  on  the 
west,  the  other  on  the  east  of  the  Apennines. 
Those  on  the  north  approach  the  Provencal 
language.  K.  L.  Fernow  (Romische  Studien, 
Zurich,  1808)  distinguishes  in  the  Toscana 
alone,  though  considered  as  the  most  homo 
geneous,  8  sub-dialects.  Dante's  classification 
has  been  somewhat  modified.  In  the  "  North 
American  Review"  for  October,  1832, 17  prin 
cipal  dialects  are  noticed.  All  the  varieties 
of  idioms  amount  to  nearly  1,000.  There  are 
German-speaking  communities  in  the  north  of 
Italy,  viz.,  the  sette  and  the  tredici  comimi ; 
Greek-speaking  villages  in  Calabria;  and  Al 
banian  (Skipetar)  settlements  in  both  Sicilies. 
— The  Toscano  had  the  principal  part  in  form 
ing  the  volgare  nob-He,  all  great  writers  of  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries  having  been  Tuscans. 
Machiavelli'a  Discorso  asserts  that  the  idiom  of 
Dante,  Boccaccio,  and  Petrarch,  or  la  lingua 
forentina,  is  the  genuine  Italian.  Other  Ital 
ians  rebel  against  this  autocracy;  and  the  de 
crees  of  la  Crmca  have  often  been  unrecog 
nized.  The  Florentine  and  Sienese  emascu 
lated  utterance  of  the  c,  ch,  g,  and  git,  is  ex 
tremely  unpleasant  to  an  unspoiled  ear;  but 
this  is  in  part  compensated  by  a  great  regularity 
and  uniformity  in  the  pronunciation  of  the 


vowels,  for  which  there  are  fixed  and  acknowl 
edged  standards  in  Tuscany,  while  elsewhere 
there  seem  to  exist  no  authoritative  rules  for 
vowel  sounds.  In  the  suburbs  of  Rome  there 
are  at  least  three  patois.  In  Tuscany  the  sub- 
dialects  of  Siena,  Pisa,  Arezzo,  Leghorn,  Lucca, 
Fucecchio,  and  Volterra  are  worthy  of  men 
tion.  The  Bolognese  drops  many  medial  and 
final  vowels,  as  for  instance:  Acqsl  rd  stf  nostr 
mond  ;  o  prest  o  tard  al  l>so  murir  (for  Cosl  va 
questo  nostro  mondo,  al  bisogno,  &c.).  Those 
of  Norcia  and  Spoleto,  on  the  contrary,  have 
lost  many  consonants.  The  Perugino,  Loretano, 
and  Camerinese  are  among  the  most  noticeable 
in  the  old  papal  legations.  The  Venetian  softens 
consonants  effeminately,  thus :  Lassate  dar  un 
baso  a  boccoletto  (for  Lasciate  dar  un  bacio, 
&c.).  The  Paduan,  a  transition  from  this  to 
the  Lombard,  is  one  of  the  least  intelligible. 
The  high  Lombardic  and  the  Tanzi  Milanese 
drop  final  vowels,  and  often  medials ;  they 
share  with  the  Piedmontese  and  Genoese  in 
the  use  of  the  French  vowels  eu,  u,  the  nasals 
an,  in,  on,  and  also  of  French  j.  These,  how 
ever,  are  wanting  in  the  low  Lombardic,  the 
Mantuan,  and  Cremonese.  The  Bergamask  is 
the  rudest  of  all,  from  contractions,  thus :  Za 
Giove  Khiva  fatt  el  grand  decret  ;  Da  colocat 
o  gatt  la,  su  in  di  steli,  insem  col  cd  (for  Gid 
Gio-ve  aveva  fatto  il  gran  decrcto  ;  Di  colocar 
il  gatto  fra  le  stelle,  insieme  col  cane}.  The 
Piedmontese  also  contracts  much,  and  has  many 
almost  French  sounds,  thus:  Isogne,  mange 
(besoin,  manger),  &c.  The  Genoese  approaches 
the  Provencal,  but  has  some  rough  sounds;  it 
often  uses  r  for  I.  The  Neapolitan  transposes 
many  sounds,  and  rejects  many  syllables,  but  is 
very  rich  in  literature.  There  are  several 
forms  of  patois  in  the  city  of  Naples.  The 
dialects  of  the  Abruzzi,  Apulia,  Calabria,  &c., 
are  very  rude.  The  Sicilian  is  very  mild  and 
graceful,  has  many  Arabic  words  (from  the  9th 
century),  and  vestiges  of  Greek,  Punic,  Nor 
man,  French,  and  Spanish  domination.  In  the 
Sardinian  dialects  there  occur  many  Greek, 
Latin,  French,  and  Catalan  words  intact,  and 
many  roots  without  known  filiation.  (See  Nou 
dlzionariu  universali  sardu-italianu,  compilau 
de  su  sacerdotu  benefiziau  Vissentu  Porru,  &c., 
Casteggio,  1832.)  The  Corsican  is  more  akin 
to  the  Tuscan  than  to  the  idioms  of  the  isles 
of  the  gulf  of  Genon.  In  the  Friulic  there 
are  many  Slavic  and  old  French  words.  This 
and  the  Tyrolese  most  differ  from  the  farella 
illustre.  The  study  of  the  Italian  dialects  is 
now  receiving  much  attention,  and  the  recent 
labors  of  Ascoli  and  Caix,  as  well  as  various 
contributions  of  Mussafia,  and  the  earlier  essays 
of  Biondelli  and  others,  deserve  special  notice. 
The  linguistic  interest  of  these  dialects  is  great ; 
but  though  several  of  them  have  been  reduced 
to  writing,  and  many  lyrical,  satirical,  humor 
ous,  and  dramatic  compositions  of  merit  have 
been  published  in  them,  yet  in  no  case  are 
these  productions  sufficiently  numerous  and 
comprehensive  to  constitute  a  body  of  litera- 


458 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


ture;  they  are  rather  dilettantisms  than  seri 
ous  efforts. — Italian,  though  practically  wordy, 
is  not  necessarily  periphrastic  and  diffuse.  Da- 
vanzati  boasts  that  his  translation  of  Tacitus  is 
more  concise  than  the  original.  Nor  is  it  by 
any  means  so  deficient  in  the  power  of  self- 
development  as  is  generally  supposed.  Giuliani 
has  shown  that  the  unlettered  Tuscan  peasants 
are  very  happy  in  the  enrichment  of  their 
speech ;  the  use  of  the  privative  s  is  extending, 
and  it  is  often  employed  with  new  and  stri 
king  effect ;  and  new  words  are  not  merely  in 
troduced  from  abroad,  but  freshly  formed  from 
Latin  or  provincial  roots.  The  involution  of 
periods  is  by  no  means  an  inherent  defect  in 
the  language.  Villari,  in  his  life  of  Savonarola, 
employs  a  style  of  remarkable  clearness,  logi 
cal  exactness,  and  directness,  which,  if  not  Tus 
can,  is,  at  least  according  to  general  principles 
of  criticism,  something  better  than  Tuscan; 
and  the  Spagna  of  De  Amicis  is  a  specimen  of 
light,  lively,  fluent,  and  correct  composition,  of 
which  the  literature  of  our  day  cannot  boast 
many  examples.  One  of  the  points  which  first 
strike  a  foreigner  who  seeks  to  become  ac 
quainted,  through  the  native  medium,  with  the 
new  life  which  pulsates  in  united  Italy,  and  es 
pecially  with  the  physical  character  of  the  coun 
try  and  the  material  interests  of  the  people,  is 
the  poverty  of  the  language  of  common  speech 
in  descriptive  terms  and  epithets.  As  he  ad 
vances  in  a  knowledge  of  Italian  general  liter 
ature,  lie  will  find  the  written  dialect  almost 
equally  inadequate  to  express  sensations,  im 
ages,  and  thoughts  which  every  hour  brings  to 
the  lips  of  an  American.  For  the  absence  of 
a  descriptive  and  picturesque  nomenclature  in 
conversational  language,  and  in  poetry  and  other 
imaginative  compositions,  there  are  several  rea 
sons.  First,  the  culture  of  Italy  is  to  a  great 
extent  fashioned  after  classic  models,  and  of 
course  its  tongue  partakes  of  the  poverty  of  the 
Latin  in  the  material  vocabulary ;  in  the  next 
place,  the  Italian  literature  known  to  foreigners 
belongs  chiefly  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  de 
velopment  of  the  sense  of  landscape  beauty 
and  the  love  of  nature  in  modern  life ;  and 
finally,  in  England  and  America,  and  in  a  less 
degree  in  northern  continental  Europe,  the 
diffusion  and  importance  of  physical  science, 
of  foreign  commerce,  and  of  agricultural  and 
mechanical  art,  have  made  the  vocabularies 
of  all  industries  a  part  of  the  common  speech 
of  all  classes,  and  have  consequently  entered 
far  more  largely  into  the  diction  of  social  life, 
of  poetry,  and  of  all  belles-lettres  literature, 
than  they  have  done  in  Italy. — The  helps  to 
the  study  of  the  Italian  language  are  very  in 
sufficient.  Pesavento  has  lately  published  a 
valuable  comparative  view  of  the  structure  of 
Latin  and  Italian,  under  the  title  Metodo  com- 
parativo  ;  but  few  good  practical  Italian  gram 
mars,  and  only  one  or  two  tolerable  bilingual 
dictionaries  of  Italian  and  other  modern  lan 
guages,  exist;  and  many  hand  dictionaries  with 
Italian  explanations  are  very  deficient  in  ful 


ness  and  incorrect  in  definition,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  which  we  have  just  spoken.  These  de 
fects  are  beginning  to  be  felt  by  the  Italian  peo 
ple.  Careua's  Prontuario  and  Palma's  Voccibo- 
lario  dell"1  agricoltura  supply  many  a  term  not 
found  in  general  handbooks;  and  a  series  of 
technical  dictionaries  now  in  preparation  un 
der  the  patronage  of  the  government,  of  which 
Canevazzi's  excellent  Vocabolario  deW  agri- 
coltura  is  the  first,  will  soon  bring  Italian 
lexicography,  at  least  in  the  material  depart 
ment,  to  a  level  with  that  of  the  other  Euro 
pean  tongues. — LITERATUEE.  The  example  of 
the  emperor  Otho  I.  and  Pope  Gregory  V., 
before  mentioned,  while  it  attested  the  uni 
versal  prevalence  in  the  peninsula  of  the  Italian 
or  lingua  comune,  contributed  also  not  a  little 
to  its  being  further  used  and  cultivated  by  all 
classes  in  church  and  state.  Thenceforward  it 
became  the  language  of  the  palace  and  the 
pulpit,  of  deliberative  assemblies  and  law 
courts,  and  of  all  commercial  and  legal  trans 
actions.  The  Provencal  troubadours,  who 
were  to  be  found  everywhere  in  the  12th  cen 
tury  from  Sicily  to  the  Alps,  were  superseded 
by  sweeter  and  better  singers  in  the  native 
tongue  of  Italy ;  and  the  romantic  exploits  of 
chivalry  and  the  annals  of  the  courts  of.  love 
were  written  in  the  popular  idiom.  Thus  the 
growth  and  polish  of  the  Italian  language  were 
the  work  of  religion  and  patriotism.  Frederick 
II.  made  it  the  language  of  his  court  at  Paler 
mo  (1212),  of  the  schools  he  founded  in  that  and 
other  cities,  and  of  the  university  of  Naples 
(1224),  which  owed  to  him  its  existence.  He, 
his  sons  Enzio  and  Manf  red,  and  his  secretary 
Pietro  delle  Vigne,  wrote  verses  in  it.  A  son 
net  of  Pietro's  is  the  earliest  known  specimen 
of  the  kind,  but  several  written  by  the  Sicilian 
Giacopo  da  Lentino  (about  1250)  manifest  a 
much  greater  perfection.  Frederick's  literary 
tastes  excited  emulation  in  the  cities  of  central 
and  northern  Italy.  Guido  Guinicelli,  who 
died  in  1276  and  is  called  by  Dante  "  the  father 
of  me  and  of  my  betters,"  advanced  this  poetic 
form  to  still  higher  perfection,  as  is  evidenced 
by  his  canzone  styled  "  The  Gentle  Heart "  in 
Dante  Rossetti's  ""  Early  Italian  Poets  "  (now 
entitled  "Dante  and  his  Circle").  Contem 
porary  with  or  immediately  succeeding  him 
were  Guido  Ghislieri,  Fabricio,  and  Onesto  ; 
Guittone  d'Arezzo,  in  Tuscany  (died  1294), 
whose  forty  letters  to  a  friend  furnish  the 
earliest  specimens  of  the  epistolary  style  in 
Italian ;  other  Tuscans,  among  them  Bonagiunta 
da  Lucca,  Gallo  Pisano,  and  Brunette  Floren 
tine  ;  the  Neapolitan  chronicler  Matteo  Spinelli, 
who  wrote  the  earliest  Italian  prose  work  of 
importance,  a  history  of  events  from  1247  to 
1268;  and  the  Florentine  historian  Ricordano 
Malespini  (died  1281),  the  genuineness  of  whose 
works  has  been  questioned  by  recent  critics. 
Brunetto  Latini  (died  in  1294),  the  teacher 
of  Dante,  author  of  the  cyclopaedic  work  II 
Texoro  and  the  collection  of  didactic  rhymes 
called  the  Tesoretto,  also  belongs  to  this  time ; 


ITALY  (LANGUAGE  AXD  LITERATURE) 


459 


and  finally  Gnido  Cavalcanti  (died  1300),  the 
friend  of  Dante,  who  surpassed  all  his  prede 
cessors  in  the  learning  and  polish  of  his  phi 
losophic  poems,  and  did  much  in  preparing 
the  way  for  the  great  writers  who  followed 
him.  These  authors,  of  whom  little  but  the 
names  is  now  familiar  to  the  ordinary  student, 
brought  Italian  literature  to  the  beginning  of 
its  most  brilliant  and  most  glorious  period,  in 
which  Dante  (1265-1321)  was  the  great  master 
spirit.  Brought  up,  like  all  the  scholars  of  his 
age,  in  the  familiar  use  of  mediaeval  Latin, 
his  two  earlier  works  (De  Monarchia  and  De 
Vulgari  Eloquio)  were  written  in  that  tongue. 
But  he  soon  forsook  it  for  the  Italian,  which 
he  cherished  as  the  main  instrument  of  that 
national  unity  which  was  a  dream  of  his  life. 
His  earliest  poem,  the  Vita  nuona,  was  writ 
ten  about  1294;  the  rest  were  produced  in 
the  following  order :  the  De  Monarchic^  the 
Convito,  the  De  Vulgari  Eloquio,  and  finally 
his  crowning  masterpiece,  beside  which  all  his 
previous  works  become  insignificant,  the  Di- 
vina  Commedia  (probably  1300-'20),  compri 
sing  the  Inferno,  Purgatorio,  and  Paradiso. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  in 
fluence  of  Dante  upon  the  literature  of  Italy. 
Though  he  did  not  positively  re-create  the 
language  in  which  he  wrote,  he  displayed  for 
the  first  time,  and  with  a  power  that  has  not 
since  been  equalled,  all  its  capabilities,  and  its 
fitness  for  the  highest  form  of  epic  poetry  and 
the  expression  of  the  noblest  thought.  The 
Divina  Commedia,  one  of  the  greatest  poetical 
creations  of  any  age,  had  an  incalculable  effect 
on  the  scholarship,  the  taste,  and  the  literary 
products  not  only  of  Dante's  own  time,  but 
of  all  succeeding  periods.  It  was  as  much  the 
basis  and  foundation  as  the  master  work  of 
Italian  literature.  Chairs  for  the  exposition 
of  the  Divina  Commedia  were  established  in 
the  14th  century  in  manyltalian  universities, 
Boccaccio  being  appointed  to  the  first,  that  of 
Florence,  in  1373;  and  from  that  time  it  has 
never  ceased  to  exercise  a  paramount  influence 
over  Italian  writers.  Francesco  Stabile,  called 
Cecco  d'Ascoli,  a  contemporary  of  Dante,  was 
almost  the  only  writer  who  ever  endeavored  to 
detract  from  the  poet's  fame.  His  satire,  the 
Acerba,  a  witty  but  ill-grounded  attack,  had 
little  permanence.  Dante  had  barely  comple 
ted  his  great  work  when  Petrarch  and  Boccac 
cio  came  to  share  and  confirm  his  literary  su 
premacy,  and  to  form  with  him  that  great  tri 
umvirate  which  gave  to  the  14th  century  its 
glory  in  Italian  literary  history.  Petrarch 
(1304-74),  distinctively  the  poet  of  love,  was 
still  more,  like  Dante,  the  poet  of  a  united 
Italy.  His  chief  celebrity  consists  in  his  being 
the  father  of  Italian  lyric  poetry ;  in  this  he 
outstripped  all  his  predecessors,  and  has  been 
surpassed  by  no  poet  of  his  country.  He  sang 
all  the  passions,  hopes,  and  memories  of  love, 
and  lamented  all  the  divisions  and  miseries 
of  Italy.  He,  like  Dante,  preached  to  his 
countrymen  mutual  forgiveness,  peace,  and 


union.  His  compositions,  embracing  sonnets, 
songs,  and  "  triumphs,"  abound  in  favorite  quo 
tations.  And  yet  his  principal  philosophical 
treatises,  like  his  first  poem,  Africa,  are  in 
Latin,  and  afford  evidence  of  his  great  learn 
ing,  just  philosophical  thought,  and  perfect 
mastery  of  the  language.  But  great  as  is  the 
praise  due  to  Petrarch  for  the  intrinsic  excel 
lences  of  his  writings,  he  deserves  still  more 
for  his  lofty  patriotic  purpose,  and  the  great 
services  rendered  in  promoting  the  revival  of 
sound  learning.  Giovanni  Boccaccio  (1313-'75), 
the  third  in  this  great  literary  triumvirate, 
was  the  ardent  admirer  and  sentimental  biogra 
pher  of  Dante,  the  warm  friend  of  Petrarch, 
and  had  the  good  fortune  of  being  the  protege 
of  the  accomplished  and  luckless  queen  Jo 
anna  I.,  granddaughter  of  Robert  of  Anjon, 
king  of  Naples.  Like  Frederick  II.,  Robert 
had  been  the  munificent  protector  of  Italian 
art  and  literature,  and  like  him  cherished  the 
Tuscan  dialect,  in  which  he  left  several  com 
positions.  Boccaccio's  Teseide  was  written  in 
Ottawa  rima,  which  was  known  in  Sicily  before 
him,  and  which  he  perfected.  This  and  a 
prose  romance  were  his  earliest  compositions. 
Several  works  in  Latin  followed.  In  1352  ap 
peared  his  Decamerone,  or  "Ten  Days'  Enter 
tainment,"  so  called  because  each  of  the  seven 
ladies  and  three  young  men  introduced  into  it 
relates  a  story  each  day,  thus  producing  100 
stories  in  10  days.  This  work  is  regarded  as 
the  purest  specimen  of  prose  of  which  the  Ital 
ian  language  could  boast  until  that  day ;  but 
its  graces  of  composition  too  often  adorn  the 
most  licentious  descriptions.  Boccaccio's  sto 
ries  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Cento 
novelle  antiche,  "A  Hundred  Ancient  Tales," 
which  are  partly  written  from  the  Decamerone, 
and  partly  from  older  popular  stories,  but  all 
free  from  indelicacy,  and  narrated  with  great 
simplicity.  Franco  Sacchetti  of  Florence  (died 
about  1500)  emulated  the  style  of  Boccaccio, 
and  composed  in  a  pure  and  elegant  diction 
300  tales,  of  which  258  are  still  extant,  pub 
lished  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
Another  Florentine,  Ser  Giovanni,  left  the 
Pecorone,  a  collection  of  50  similar  stories. 
The  Storia  fiorentina  of  Dino  Compagni,  em 
bracing  the  annals  of  Florence  from  1280  to 
1312,  is  considered  by  modern  critics  as  of 
doubtful  authenticity.  Of  the  work  of  Gio 
vanni  Villani,  which  embodied  the  history  of 
Florence  from  its  foundation  till  a  few  years 
before  the  author's  death  in  1348,  only  that 
part  is  considered  trustworthy  which  treats  of 
the  author's  own  time.  This  work  was  con 
tinued  by  Giovanni's  brother,  Matteo,  down  to 
1363,  and  to  1365  by  Filippo,  Matteo's  son, 
Avho  also  wrote  biographies  of  illustrious  Flor 
entines.  Of  ascetic  works  in  the  Italian  lan 
guage,  the  first  known  example  is  the  Speech io 
delta  vera  penitenza  of  Giacopo  Passavanti 
(died  in  1357),  which  is  comparable  for  purity 
and  grace  of  diction  with  the  Decamerone. 
Passavanti's  was  followed  by  similar  treatises 


460 


ITALY  (LANGUAGE  AXD  LITERATURE) 


of  equal  excellence,  written  by  Domenico  Ca- 
valca^of  Pisa,  Bartolommeo  da  San  Concordio, 
and  Agnolo  Pandolfini. — Most  of  the  men  who 
flourished  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  were 
not  distinguished  like  Dante  and  Petrarch  for 
creative  genius,  but  delighted  rather  in  repro 
ducing  and  commenting  on  the  authors  of  an 
tiquity.  The  printing  press,  invented  in  Ger 
many,"  was  most  usefully  employed  in  Venice, 
Bologna,  and  Rome,  in  multiplying  copies  of 
the  ancient  authors,  corrected  by  learned 
scholars.  To  the  passion  for  discovering  and 
publishing  new  manuscripts  was  joined  that 
of  finding  and  interpreting  ancient  monuments, 
medals,  inscriptions,  and  sculptures.  Only  the 
first  steps  toward  a  new  civilization  had  been 
taken  by  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio.  The  in 
troduction  of  the  mariner's  needle  by  Flavio 
Gioja  had  opened  the  ocean  to  the  Europeans  ; 
the  travels  of  Marco  Polo  had  awakened  that 
curiosity  concerning  the  way  to  the  East  In 
dies  which  led  Columbus  to  the  discovery  of 
the  new  world  ;  the  Arabic  numerals  had  been 
substituted  in  Italy  for  the  Roman ;  academies 
were  established  to  nurture  the  love  of  letters, 
and  courts  became  an  asylum  for  the  most  dis 
tinguished  men ;  and  the  popes  in  Rome,  the 
Medici  in  Florence,  the  houses  of  the  Visconti 
and  the  Sforzas  in  Milan,  and  of  the  Gonzagas 
and  Estes  in  Mantua  and  Ferrara,  became  pro 
tectors  of  literature  and  the  arts.  Pope  Nicho 
las  V.  is  especially  distinguished  for  the  en 
couragement  which  he  gave  to  every  branch 
of  learning.  It  was  under  his  liberal  protec 
tion  that  Francesco  Filelfo  translated  the  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey  into  Latin  verse.  His  ex 
ample  was  followed  by  numerous  courts  in 
Italy ;  hundreds  of  authors  found  employment 
and  support ;  and  the  advantages  of  literature 
were  to  some  degree  extended  among  the  peo 
ple.  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  king  of  Naples,  is 
eminent  among  these  Mecsenas-like  patrons. 
Montefeltro  of  Urbino,  the  house  of  Bentlvo- 
glio  in  Bologna,  Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  and 
Francesco  Sforza  vied  with  the  Medici  and 
the  house  of  Este  in  protecting  letters  and 
giving  an  asylum  to  those  exiled  Greeks  who 
brought  to  Italy  their  learning  and  advanced 
culture.  Lodovico  Sforza,  surnained  il  Moro, 
invited  to  his  court  in  Lombardy  many  learned 
men,  painters,  and  architects,  among  whom 
were  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Bramante,  patron 
ized  the  university  of  Pavia,  granting  it  many 
privileges,  and  opened  schools  in  Milan,  to  which 
most  renowned  professors  gave  distinction. 
Gian  Francesco  Gonzaga,  marquis  of  Mantua, 
invited  Vittorino  da  Feltre  to  instruct  his  sons, 
and  the  school  which  he  opened  was  frequented 
by  young  men  from  Greece,  Germany,  and 
France.  The  example  of  the  houses  of  Este 
and  Gonzaga  was  imitated  by  the  dukes  of  Sa 
voy,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century 
founded  the  university  of  Turin.  But  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  patrons  of  letters  was 
Cosmo  de'  Medici,  who  rose  to  preeminence 
among  the  noble  families  of  Europe.  lie  found 


ed  one  library  in  Venice  (the  Laurentian)  and 
three  in  Florence,  and  established  the  first 
academy  for  the  study  and  promulgation  of 
the  Platonic  philosophy.  Pico  della  Mirandola 
and  Cristoforo  Landino  exercised  the  happiest 
influence  in  advancing  and  creating  a  popular 
esteem  for  knowledge,  and  especially  in  exci- 
ing  the  Florentine  youth  to  an  enthusiasm  for 
it.  The  former  was  almost  unrivalled  in  eru 
dition,  being  profoundly  versed  in  numerous 
languages,  in  metaphysics,  and  in  mathematics. 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (died  in  1492)  greatly  and 
variously  increased  the  glory  which  his  grand 
father  had  acquired  in  the  culture  of  learning. 
But  the  taste  for  Latin  composition  again  be 
came  predominant,  and  Italian  was  at  this  pe 
riod  hardly  used  at  all  in  writing ;  it  was  even 
disdained  for  legal  documents,  and  its  develop 
ment  was  arrested  by  a  boundless  reverence  for 
antiquity.  But  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  may 
be  considered  the  reviver  of  Italian  literature, 
and  was  even  called  its  father.  Most  esteem 
ed  for  his  virtues  and  manners,  he  enriched  li 
braries,  aided  in  founding  a  Platonic  academy 
in  Florence,  reopened  the  university  of  Pisa, 
collected  numerous  remains  of  antiquity,  pro 
moted  the  study  of  the  popular  poetry,  and 
wrote  himself  many  admired  pieces  for  the  im 
provement  of  the  public  taste.  His  Nencia  da 
Barlerino  is  the  first  example  of  Italian  rustic 
poetry,  and  his  Compagnia  del  Mantellaccio 
seems  to  have  given  the  first  idea  of  Italian 
satire  in  terza  rima.  Under  him  Florence  be 
came  a  new  Athens.  Angelo  Poliziano  (1454- 
'94)  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Lorenzo,  attained 
to  great  erudition,  and  was  an  elegant  writer 
both  in  Italian  and  Latin.  His  most  celebrated 
works  are  the  Giostra  and  the  Orfeo  (the  first 
regular  and  consistent  Italian  drama),  which 
were  imitated  even  by  Ariosto  and  Tasso.  Con 
temporary  poets  of  less  note  were  Burchiello, 
Girolamo  Benivieni,^and  Giusto  de'  Conti.  To 
the  various  kinds  of  composition  which  have 
thus  far  appeared  must  now  be  added  some 
epics.  Of  the  brothers  Bernardo,  Luca,  and 
Luigi  Pulci,  only  the  last  (1431-'87)  achieved 
lasting  eminence  in  poetry.  Ilis  Morgante 
Maggiore,  burlesque  and  fantastic,  opens  the 
brilliant  Italian  series  of  romantic  poems  of 
chivalry.  It  belongs  to  the  circle  of  legends 
concerning  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins,  but 
degrades  the  primitive  simple  faith  in  them  by 
persiflage.  The  Mambriano  of  Cieco  da  Fer 
rara  deserves  to  be  mentioned  and  compared 
with  the  Morgante.  The  best  of  the  romantic 
poems  of  the  15th  century  is  the  Orlando  in- 
namorato  of  Boiardo,  which  introduced  ma 
terials  so  beautiful  and  so  vast  as  to  induce 
Ariosto  to  follow  in  the  same  path.  To  sus 
tain  the  marvels  of  his  subject,  he  employed 
magicians  and  fairies  in  connection  with  the 
classic  divinities,  and  beneath  the  veil  of  poetry 
he  represented  the  most  useful  truths  of  phi 
losophy.  The  Orlando  innamorato  was  left 
incomplete,  and  the  original  has  become  rare 
even  in  Italy,  on  account  of  its  rude  and  an- 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


461 


tique  diction.  Its  tone  is  much  modified  in  the 
elegant  version  of  it  by  Francesco  Berni,  which 
has  enjoyed  the  most  general  favor.  The 
prose  literature  was  enriched  by  the  writings 
of  two  artists :  Leone  Battista  Albert!,  the 
author  of  a  dialogue  Delia  famiglia,  contain 
ing  philosophical  precepts  for  domestic  life  and 
the  education  of  children,  and  of  treatises  on 
painting  and  architecture  which  gained  him 
the  name  of  the  Italian  Vitruvius;  and  the 
renowned  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1519),  at 
once  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  mathemati 
cian,  musician,  the  best  extemporaneous  poet  j 
of  his  time,  and  the  author  of  a  Trattato  delta 
pittura,  which  reveals  both  his  scientific  and 
artistic  knowledge,  and  is  a  classical  authority 
on  the  use  of  terms  pertaining  to  the  arts  and 
sciences.  Numerous  historians  also  belong  to 
this  age.  Pandolfo  Oollenuccio  was  the  first 
to  write  an  esteemed  history  of  the  king 
dom  of  Naples,  revived  and  corrected  the  taste 
for  comedy,  founded  the  first  museum  of  nat 
ural  history  in  Europe,  and  wrote  dialogues 
after  the  manner  of  Lucian,  and  the  solemn 
Inno  alia  morte.  Historians  of  travels  were 
the  Genoese  Giorgio  Interiano  and  the  Ve 
netian  Oadamosto,  who  give  the  oldest  narra 
tives  of  the  Portuguese  discoveries,  and  the 
Florentine  Amerigo  Vespucci.  Aldo  Mannzio 
(Aldus  Manutius)  rendered  signal  services  to  let 
ters,  and  gained  a  European  repute  by  the  care 
and  taste  with  which  he  published  the  classics. 
— The  16th  century,  the  cinquccento  of  the 
Italians,  is  known  as  in  many  respects  the 
golden  age  of  Italian  literature  and  art.  Leo 
X.  was  on  the  papal  throne  what  his  father 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  had  been  in  Tuscany, 
the  munificent  patron  of  artists  and  men  of 
letters ;  and  the  other  sovereigns  of  Italy  vied 
with  the  popes  in  this  liberal  patronage.  But 
if  the  writers  patronized  by  them,  and  breath 
ing  the  atmosphere  of  their  courts,  gave  evi 
dence  of  improved  taste  and  more  exquisite 
perfection  of  form,  they  manifested  also  not  a 
little  of  servility.  The  native  literature  of  the 
two  preceding  centuries  had  sprung  up  and 
flourished  amid  free  institutions,  and  was  the 
expression  of  the  popular  mind  and  heart. 
Men  of  letters  in  the  IGth  century  were  for 
the  most  part  the  hirelings  of  princes,  and  lit 
erature  became  a  courtly  exercise.  In  poetry 
Ariosto  (1474-1533)  stands  preeminent.  The 
protege  of  the  dukes  of  Ferrara,  he  aims 
at  describing  in  his  romantic  epic,  Orlando 
j'urioso,  the  origin  of  the  house  of  Este. 
Tasso  praises  him  for  fertility  of  invention 
and  propriety  of  treatment.  Ariosto  wrote 
also  satires  on  the  rulers  and  politics  of  the 
age,  and  two  comedies,  for  the  performance  of 
which  a  theatre  was  constructed  by  the  poet's 
patrons.  A  number  of  other  writers,  carried 
away  by  his  success,  attempted  epic  composi 
tions,  among  which  are  Alamanni's  Girone  il 
cortcse  and  Avarchide,  Valvasone's  Angeleide, 
which  is  thought  to  have  suggested  to  Milton 
the  conception  of  the  "  Paradise  Lost,"  Tria- 


sino's  (1478-1550)  Italia  liberata  dai  Gotti, 
a  poor  imitation  of  Homer,  Brusantinrs  Ange 
lica  innamorata,  the  Guerino  meschino  of  Tul- 
lia  d'Arragona,  and  the  Amadigi  of  the  Berga- 
mese  Bernardo  Tasso.  But  nearest  in  excel 
lence  to  Ariosto  comes  Bernardo's  son,  Tor- 
quafco  Tasso  (1544-'95),  who  aimed  at  combi 
ning  in  his  Gerusalemme  liberata  the  epic  gran 
deur  of  Virgil  with  the  lighter  graces  of  the 
romantic  muse.  His  Rinaldo  and  Aminta  are 
also  full  of  poetic  beauty.  The  success  of  Ari 
osto  in  comedy  had  awakened  zeal  for  drama 
tic  composition.  Trissino  produced  Sofonisba, 
the  first  Italian  tragedy  of  high  merit,  and 
Rucellai  his  Rosmunda  and  Oreste,  represented 
at  the  expense  of  Leo  X.  Superior  in  merit 
to  these  are  the  tragedies  Tullia  by  Martelli, 
Canace  by  Sperone  Speroni,  Torrismondo  by 
Torquato  Tasso,  and  Edipo  by  Andrea  dell' 
Anguillara,  all  moulded  on  the  Greek  drama. 
In  comedy  the  Italian  authors  of  this  century 
were  the  servile  imitators  of  Plautus  and  Te 
rence.  In  high  comedy  (commedia  erudita)  the 
best  examples  are  the  Calandra  of  Cardinal 
Bibbiena,  the  Gassaria  and  Suppositi  of  Ari 
osto,  and  the  Madragola  and  Clizia  of  Machi- 
avelli.  To  the  Florentines  belongs  the  inven 
tion  of  the  opera,  Daphne,  the  first  ever  writ 
ten,  having  been  represented  in  1597 ;  the 
words  were  from  the  pen  of  Rinuccini,  and 
the  music  from  that  of  Peri.  The  melodramas 
of  the  Modenese  Orazio  Vecchio  are  considered 
by  Muratori  as  the  beginning  of  modern  opera. 
In  pastoral  poetry,  besides  the  Aminta  of  Tas 
so,  this  age  boasts  of  Guarini's  Pastor  fido 
and  Sannazzaro's  Arcadia.  The  chief  didactic 
poems  are  the  Api  of  Giovanni  Rucellai,  the 
Namgazione  of  Bernardino  Balbi,  the  Coltiva- 
zione  of  Alamanni,  and  the  Caccia  of  Valva- 
sone.  A  school  of  burlesque  poetry  arose  about 
1520,  named  genere  bernesco  after  Berni,  whose 
Orlando  innamorato  unites  grace,  elegance, 
and  originality.  In  satire  the  first  place  belongs 
to  Ariosto,  after  whom  may  be  mentioned  Er- 
cole  Bentivoglio  and  Filippo  Nerli.  Luigi  Ala 
manni,  like  Pietro  Aretino,  whose  versatile  tal 
ent  led  him  to  write  on  many  subjects,  is  chief 
ly  known  for  his  indelicacy.  Macaronic  poetry 
owed  its  invention  or  its  happiest  improvement 
to  Teofilo  Folengo  (died  in  1544),  known  as 
Merlino  Cocajo.  Angelo  di  Costanzo's  sonnets 
are  models  of  perfection,  which  Michel  Angelo 
nobly  emulated,  while  Bembo  aimed  like  them 
at  popularizing  the  language  of  Dante  among 
the  learned.  Annibale  Caro  gained  great  praise 
for  his  translation  of  Virgil  and  his  original 
compositions.  Bernardo  Davanzati's  version 
of  Tacitus  is  thought  to  surpass  the  original  in 
conciseness  and  energy ;  he  also  wrote  a  history 
of  the  reformation  in  England.  To  Vittoria 
Colonna  (1490-1547),  among  the  women  of  this 
century,  Ariosto  awarded  the  palm  of  poeti 
cal  excellence.  An  important  place  in  the  lit 
erature  is  held  by  political  writers,  foremost 
among  whom  was  Machiavelli  (1469-1527).  A 
dramatist  and  historian  of  Florence,  he  is 


462 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AXD  LITEEAITRE) 


chiefly  known  as  a  profound  and  philosophical 
statesman  by  his  discourses  on  Livy,  his  dia 
logues  on  the  art  of  war,  and  especially  by  his 
Principe,  a  manual  of  government,  which  was 
constantly  in  the  hands  of  such  sovereigns  as 
Charles  V.  and  Sixtus  V.,  and  the  real  intent 
and  character  of  which  has  been  long  in  dis 
pute.  His  style  is  marked  by  simplicity, 
strength,  thought,  and  a  rare  but  felicitous  use 
of  ornament.  Other  political  writings  were 
the  Eagione  di  stato  of  Botero,  and  the  Jtepiib- 
~blica  fiorentina  of  Giannotti.  Nearer  to  Ma- 
chiavelli  in  merit  was  Paruta  (1540-'98),  the 
author  of  Discorsi  pcilitici,  and  of  a  treatise 
Delia  perfezione  della  vita  civile.  The  most 
renowned  of  Italian  historians  is  Guicciardini 
(1482-1540),  whose  work,  embracing  the  pe 
riod  from  1490  to  1534,  is  esteemed  for  im 
partiality,  but  is  diffuse  and  tedious.  Paolo 
Giovio  wrote  in  Latin  a  partisan  history  of  his 
own  time.  Historians  of  Florence  were  Nar- 
di,  Yarchi,  Nerli,  Segni,  Capponi,  and  Scipione 
Ammirato ;  the  Storie  jftorentine  of  the  last  ex 
tends  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  1574. 
Historians  of  Venice  were  Bembo  (1470-1547), 
Paruta,  and  Contarini ;  of  Genoa,  Giustiniani, 
Bonfadio,  and  Foglietta;  of  Ferrara,  Cinzio 
and  Falletti ;  and  of  Naples,  Costanzo,  Porzio 
{La  congiurazione  dei  baroni,  &c.),  and  Sum- 
monte.  General  histories  were  written  by 
Giambullari  and  Adriani.  The  splendor  of  the 
fine  arts  in  this  century  gave  occasion  for  his 
torians  of  art,  the  principal  of  whom  was  Ya- 
sari  (1512-'74),  whose  lives  of  the  most  excel 
lent  painters,  sculptors,  and  architects  of  Italy 
are  written  with  naturalness  and  grace,  and 
contain  interesting  notices  of  prominent  Ital 
ian  works  of  art.  The  autobiography  of  the 
Florentine  goldsmith  Benvenuto  Cellini,  one 
of  the  liveliest  books  in  the  literature,  not  only 
recounts  his  own  fortunes,  but  gives  curious 
notices  of  the  courts  of  Rome,  Florence,  and 
France.  He  wrote  also  valuable  treatises  on 
jewelry  and  sculpture.  Works  on  painting 
were  written  by  Bernardino  Campi  of  Cremo 
na,  Lomazzo  of  Milan,  and  Armenino  of  Faen- 
za.  Yignola  and  Palladio  gained  distinction  as 
writers  on  architecture,  and  March!  by  a  trea 
tise  on  military  architecture.  Philosophy  now 
began  to  assume  an  independence  of  the  scholas 
tics,  and  Girolamo  Cardan  and  Giordano  Bruno 
ventured  upon  the  boldest  speculations.  Math 
ematics  were  cultivated  by  Tartaglia,  Cardan, 
and  others.  The  Tnstituzione  di  tutta  la  vita 
deW  iiomo  of  Alessandro  Piccolomini  treats  of 
education,  marriage,  the  government  of  a  fam 
ily,  and  the  chief  end  of  man.  The  Cortigia- 
no  of  Castiglione  (1478-1529)  has  rare  literary 
merits,  making  courtesy  the  theme  of  many 
learned  and  weighty  reflections.  Numerous 
novelists  now  flourished,  among  whom  Ban- 
dello  holds  the  first  rank,  his  Novelle  being 
chiefly  founded  on  real  and  common  events. 
The  novels  of  the  monk  Firenzuola  and  the 
Gene  of  Lasca  are  both  elegant  and  indelicate. 
Vettori  and  Salviati  commented  on  the  older 


I  poets,  and  the  latter  was  engaged  in  com- 
;  piling  the  Vocabolario  della  Crmca,  then  the 
i  most  important  philological  work  in  the  lan- 
•  guage.  All  words  not  used  by  the  great  Flor- 
!  entine  authors  were  excluded  from  it;  even 
|  Tasso  was  not  admitted  as  an  authority. — In 
I  the  17th  century  the  natural  sciences  especially 
j  flourished.  Under  able  patrons,  the  principal  of 
whom  was  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Tuscany, 
the  Italian  universities  attained  unprecedented 
celebrity.  Scientific  academies  were  founded 
in  Rome,  Florence,  Bologna,  and  Naples ;  the 
|  Florentine  accademia  del  Cimento  embraced  the 
most  illustrious  savants  of  the  time,  and  pub 
lished  important  accounts  of  its  researches. 
!  Preeminent  among  philosophers  was  Galileo 
(1564-1042),  who  was  denounced  as  an  inno 
vator,  and  maintained  the  Copernican  system 
only  at  his  peril.  His  DialogJii  and  other  works 
are  written  with  elegance,  his  style  and  taste 
having  been  formed  by  reading  Ariosto.  His 
most  noted  pupils  were  Yiviani,  Torricelli,  and 
Castelli;  and  contemporary  physicists  were 
Borelli,  Malpighi,  Bellini,  and  Francesco  Redi. 
The  learned  and  philosophical  jurisconsult  Yin- 
cenzo  Gravina  attracted  scholars  from  all  parts 
of  Europe  to  his  lectures  in  Rome  on  public 
law,  contained  in  his  Origine  del  diritto  civile 
and  other  publications.  The  greatest  histo 
rians  were  Sarpi,  Davila,  Bentivoglio,  and  Pal- 
lavicini.  Sarpi  (died  in  1623),  the  defender 
of  the  republic  of  Yenice  in  its  contest  with 
the  holy  see,  wrote  an  anti-papal  and  spirited 
history  of  the  council  of  Trent,  which  was  re 
plied  to  by  Pallavicini  in  a  work  on  the  same 
subject.  Davila,  after  16  years'  residence  in 
France,  narrated  the  civil  Avars  of  that  country 
in  a  work  esteemed  for  its  truthfulness,  and  in 
respect  of  style  one  of  the  best  Italian  histories. 
Bentivoglio,  the  papal  nuncio  in  Flanders, 
wrote  of  the  Flemish  wars  of  his  time,  many 
of  the  heroes  of  which  he  knew  personally. 
Baldinucci,  Dati,  and  Scamozzi  were  historians 
of  the  fine  arts,  and  Cinelli  and  Boccalini  of 
literature,  while  Bianchi  treated  important  his 
torical  problems  as  to  migrations,  colonies, 
voyages,  and  the  origin  of  monarchies  and  re 
publics.  Montecucculi,  the  military  antagonist 
of  Turenne,  acquired  distinction  as  an  author 
by  his  aphorisms  on  the  art  of  war.  The 
Jesuit  Bartoli  wrote  the  history  of  his  society, 
and  the  sermons  of  the  Jesuit  Segneri  were 
unrivalled  in  eloquence.  Pietro  della  Yalle 
(died  in  1652)  described  his  travels  (Viaggi)  in 
Turkey,  Persia,  and  India.  The  first  Italian 
literary  journal,  the  Giornale  de'1  letterati,  was 
established  in  Rome  in  1668.  A  want  of  natu 
ralness  and  truthfulness  marked  the  poetry  of 
the  age ;  external  delineations,  trifling  details, 
conceits,  and  plays  upon  words  were  the  lead 
ing  objects  of  the  poets.  At  their  head  was 
Marini  of  Naples  (died  in  1625),  who  was  ad 
mired  not  only  in  Italy  but  in  France  and 
Spain,  and  originated  the  poetical  school  of  the 
Marinists,  by  which  only  his  faults  were  imi 
tated.  Among  his  contemporaries  and  sue- 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


463 


cessors  were  Chiabrera,  Guidi,  Tassoni,  and 
Marchetti.  The  foundation  of  the  academy  of 
Arcadians  in  Rome  in  1690  by  Crescimbeni 
and  Gravina  introduced  an  affectation  of  pas 
toral  sentiments  and  habits  in  place  of  Mari- 
nism.  Menzini,  Zappi,  Maggi,  Lemene,  Salva- 
tor  Rosa,  and  Bracciolini  wrote  satirical,  ero 
tic,  and  facetious  verses.  Throughout  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries  the  opera  was  the  favorite 
Italian  exhibition.  It  had  long  been  produced 
with  theatrical  and  musical  splendor,  when 
Zeno  of  Venice  (died  in  1750),  and  especially 
Trapassi,  called  Metastasio  (died  in  1782),  wrote 
operatic  plays  having  remarkable  poetical  mer 
its. — When  early  in  the  18th  century  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  raged  in  Italy,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  fell  beneath  the  scep 
tre  of  the  infante  Don  Carlos,  and  afterward 
of  Ferdinand  III.,  literature  and  the  sciences 
were  cultivated  with  renewed  vigor.  Naples 
produced  Giannone,  distinguished  in  the  de 
partment  of  history,  Capasso  in  literature,  Ci- 
rillo  in  medicine,  Mazocchi  in  archeology,  Ge- 
novesi  in  political  economy,  one  Gagliani  in 
architecture,  and  another  in  domestic  economy 
and  philology.  Filangieri  rivalled  Montesquieu 
in  the  philosophy  of  legislation ;  Pagano  wrote 
on  the  criminal  law ;  Poli  distinguished  himself 
in  the  positive  sciences;  Maffei  both  in  his 
tory  and  poetry.  The  university  of  Bologna 
was  now  in  its  splendor,  its  academy  of  sci 
ences  taking  the  name  of  "The  Institute." 
Marsigli,  Stratico,  Cesarotti,  Foscarini,  the 
brothers  Gozzi,  Morelli,  Pompei,  Lorenzi,  Maz- 
zuchelli,  and  Serassi  made  the  city  of  Venice 
illustrious ;  but  political  jealousy  prevented  the 
culture  of  the  economical  and  legislative  sci 
ences  there,  which  under  Beccaria  and  others 
were  making  great  progress  in  other  parts  of 
Italy.  In  Tuscany,  the  famous  French  ency 
clopaedia  was  republished.  In  the  cities  of 
Lombardy  flourished  Scopoli,  Fontana,  Tissot, 
Spallanzani,  Bertola,  Villa,  Natali,  Volta,  Scar- 
pa,  Tamburini,  Parini,  Beccaria,  Verri,  Landri- 
ani,  Maria  Agnesi,  Carli,  and  others,  devoted 
to  literature,  art,  science,  and  the  development 
of  political  and  ethical  principles.  Bodoni 
raised  the  art  of  typography  to  an  admirable 
elegance.  Prominent  among  the  patrons  of 
literature  was  Victor  Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy. 
The  Italian  drama  had  as  yec  attained  to  excel 
lence  only  in  the  opera,  and  lacked  superior 
tragedies  and  comedies.  It  received  an  impulse 
in  the  17th  century  from  the  French  theatre, 
Martelli  of  Bologna  (died  in  1727)  being  the 
first  who  attempted  to  naturalize  not  only  the 
structure  of  French  tragedy  but  the  Alexan 
drine  verse.  The  Merope  of  Maffei  was  the  best 
tragedy  produced  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century.  A  greater  influence  was  exerted  upon 
his  age  and  upon  literature  by  Alfieri  (1749- 
1803),  the  head  of  an  important  school  of 
tragedy.  Hostile  alike  to  the  operatic  lightness 
of  the  Italian  drama  and  to  the  formal  and 
complicated  intrigues  of  the  French,  he  went 
to  an  opposite  extreme,  demanding  in  tragedy 
YOL.  ix. — 30 


both  the  utmost  intensity  of  passion  and  the 
utmost  simplicity  of  treatment.  He  was  the 
poet  of  energetic  action  and  profound  thought 
and  feeling,  as  Metastasio  was  of  love.  Aban 
doning  the  customs  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
he  revived  the  simple  sublimity  of  the  Greek 
stage,  which  had  been  the  object  of  his  favor 
ite  studies,  and  which  was  removed  alike  from 
French  effeminacy  and  Spanish  extravagance. 
A  reformation  in  the  Italian  comedy  was  mean 
time  effected  by  Goldoni  (1707-93),  the  only 
genuine  comic  poet  that  Italy  can  boast,  who 
sought  in  imitation  of  Moliere  to  substitute  for 
the  commedia  deW  arte  a  natural  comedy  of 
manners.  In  his  efforts  to  give  to  the  stage  a 
more  human  and  real  character  by  ridding  it 
of  the  traditional  masks  of  the  harlequin,  pan 
taloon,  and  other  stock  characters,  he  had  to 
contend  especially  against  Chiari  and  Carlo 
Gozzi.  The  example  of  Kotzebue  and  Iffland 
gave  rise  to  a  lachrymose  school  of  dramatic 
composition,  maintained  by  Avelloni,  Gualzet- 
ti,  Greppi,  and  especially  by  Federici.  The  most 
illustrious  historians  were  Muratori  (died  in 
1750),  Maffei,  Denina,  Mazzuchelli,  Tiraboschi, 
and  Lanzi  (died  in  1810).  The  Annali  d"1  Italia, 
Verona  illmtrata,  Reroluzioni  d "Italia,  Scrit- 
tori  d'ltalia,  Storia  della  lettcratura  d*  Italia, 
and  the  Storia  pittorica  d1  Italia  were  respec 
tively  their  best  works.  The  writings  of  Mu 
ratori  and  Tiraboschi  still  maintain  their  repu 
tation  both  for  erudition  and. criticism.  In 
archeology,  the  names  of  Fabretti,  Gori,  Maz- 
zocchi,  Martorelli,  Passeri,  and  Carli  were  dis 
tinguished.  Campanella  continued  the  philo 
sophical  movement  of  Bruno  in  opposition  to 
scholasticism,  and  Vico  (1668-1744)  founded 
the  new  science  of  the  philosophy  of  history ; 
his  Scienza  nuova  is  a  view  of  general  history, 
founded  on  the  idea  of  Divine  Providence  and 
the  essential  elements  of  the  common  nature 
of  man.  Gasparo  Gozzi,  Algarotti,  Buonafede, 
Vanetti,  Tartarotti,  and  Alessandro  Verri  also 
added  to  the  glory  of  the  literature  by  aban 
doning  the  pedantic  style  that  had  been  in 
vogue  and  introducing  an  acquaintance  with 
foreign  ideas  and  productions.  Baretti  con 
tributed  to  the  revival  of  good  taste  by  ridicu 
ling  the  Arcadians.  Parini  (1729-'99)  excelled 
in  satirical  poetry,  his  Giorno  being  as  remark 
able  for.  elegance  as  for  severity  upon  the 
effeminate  life  of  the  wealthy  Milanese  no 
bles.  Among  the  works  of  Cesarotti  was  a 
translation  of  Ossian,  esteemed  in  many  re 
spects  among  the  happiest  productions  in  the 
language,  and  which  Alfieri  confessed  to  have 
been  of  service  to  him  in  the  composition  of 
his  tragedies. — The  political  and  military  move 
ments  in  Europe  of  the  last  decade  of  the  18th 
century  occasioned  a  regeneration  not  only  of 
the  literature  but  of  the  national  spirit  of  the 
Italians.  The  early  part  of  the  19th  century 
rivals  the  age  of  Leo  X.,  presenting  Canova, 
Longhi,  Cicognara,  Appiani,  and  Beltrami  in 
the  fine  arts;  Monti,  Foscolo,  Pindemonte 
(partly  contemporary  with  whom  was  Alfie- 


464 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE) 


ri)  in  literature ;  and  Volta,  Melchiorre  Gioja, 
Romagnosi,  Scarpa,  Spallanzani,  and  Oriani  in 
the  sciences.  The  author  who  doubtless  exert 
ed  the  greatest  influence  on  the  regeneration 
of  poetry  was  Vincenzo  Monti  (1754-1828), 
who  in  the  contest  between  the  classic  and  the 
romantic  tendencies  favored  the  former,  and 
in  the  contest  between  the  Gallicists,  or  imita 
tors  of  the  French  literature  and  idioms,  and 
the  purists,  who  made  Petrarch,  Dante,  and 
the  other  old  Italian  masters  their  models, 
sided  with  the  latter.  His  poems,  as  Basvilli- 
ana  and  Feroniade,  his  tragedies,  as  Galeotto 
Manfredi,  his  elegy  Mascheroniana,  the  Pro- 
posta,  in  which  he  disputed  the  restrictions 
which  the  Delia  Cruscans  had  fastened  upon 
the  language,  and  his  translation  of  the  Iliad, 
alike  display  an  admirable  and  nervous  style. 
Two  works  of  Monti  deserve  special  mention, 
his  Bassvilliana  and  Prometeo.  The  former, 
in  which  the  spirit  of  Basseville,  a  French 
revolutionist,  is  condemned  to  travel  through 
France  under  the  guidance  of  an  angel,  wit 
nessing  the  suffering  resulting  from  the  adop 
tion  of  the  principles  he  advocated,  is  in  many 
respects  an  imitation  of  the  Divina  Commedia. 
It  is  filled  with  remarkable  poetical  descrip 
tions,  presented  with  intense  dramatic  vividness. 
The  Prometeo  (1797)  is  also  a  close  imitation 
of  Dante,  and  is  in  effect  an  apotheosis  of  Napo 
leon  as  the  impersonation  of  might  and  virtue. 
Pindemonte  also  made  a  light  and  graceful  ver 
sion  of  the  Odyssey,  and  in  his  original  poems  es 
pecially  lamented  the  desolation  of  his  country. 
Ugo  Foscolo  (1777-1827)  belongs  to  the  school 
of  Alfieri.  His  Ultime  lettere  di  Jacopo  Ortis, 
a  political  and  passionate  romance  in  imitation 
of  Goethe's  Wertlier,  is  supposed  to  describe 
his  own  troubled  life.  He  wrote  the  lyric  I 
sepolcri,  and  other  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
remarkable  both  for  power  and  beauty.  Mez- 
zanotte  celebrated  in  verse  the  struggle  of  the 
modern  Greeks  for  liberty,  regarding  it  not  only 
as  a  political  but  as  a  religious  contiict  between 
Christianity  and  Islamism.  The  lyrical  poems 
of  Leopard!  (died  in  1837)  are  highly  esteemed. 
Among  the  epic  and  didactic  poets  were  Botta, 
Ricci,  Bagnoli,  Arici,  Grossi,  Sestini,  Pananti, 
and  Lorenzi.  Antonio  Cesari  (died  in  1828) 
was  the  chief  of  the  Trecentists,  a  school  which 
carried  its  love  of  the  Italian  authors  of  the 
14th  century  to  affectation.  Stratico  published 
a  dictionary  containing  only  the  words  used  by 
the  Marinist  authors.  Prati,  Aleardi,  and  the 
versatile  priest,  dramatist,  and  journalist  DalP 
Ongaro  (died  in  1873),  are  among  the  best  Ital 
ian  lyric  poets  of  our  time.  The  conte  Giraud, 
a  Roman  by  birth  but  of  French  parentage,  re 
vived  Italian  comedy  at  the  beginning  of  the  cen 
tury,  and  aimed  at  imitating  both  Goldoni  and 
Moliere.  lie  did  not  try  however  to  reproduce 
anything  like  the  Tartufe  or  the  Misanthrope, 
but  took  as  his  model  the  Bourgeois  gentil- 
Jiomme  and  other  low  comedies  of  the  French 
master.  To  this  class  belong  the  numerous 
dramas  of  Giraud,  chief  among  which  is  l?Ajo 


nelV  iinbarazzo ;  this  and  TL  prognosticante 
fanatico,  La  capriciosa  confusa,  and  Don  J)e- 
siderio,  are  his  best  comedies ;  the  others  be 
long  to  the  low  amusing  type  introduced  by 
Eugene  Scribe.  Less  amusing  than  Giraud, 
but  superior  to  him  in  every  other  respect,  is 
Alberto  Nota,  Avho  has  equalled  Goldoni  in 
dramatic  excellence,  and  surpassed  him  as  a 
writer.  In  1808  his  I  primi  imssi  al  mal  cos 
tume  was  played  in  Turin,  and  in  1813  he 
brought  out  his  Filosofo  celibe,  which  greatly 
heightened  his  reputation.  Both  are  elegant 
in  their  diction  and  full  of  wit.  In  1820  he 
produced  La  fiera,  his  best  work.  From  1826 
to  1847  Italian  comedy  had  no  representatives. 
At  the  close  of  Charles  Albert's  reign  appeared 
Paolo  Ferrari,  Gherardi  del  Testa,  and  Giaco- 
metti.  Ferrari  obtained  a  great  reputation  by 
three  principal  comedies,  Goldoni  e  le  sue  se- 
deci  commedie,  La  Satira  e  Parini,  and  La 
Prosa.  Other  productions  of  Ferrari,  such  as 
La  bottega  del  cappellaio  and  II  Itallo  in  pro- 
vincia,  still  maintain  their  place  on  the  comic 
stage ;  but  since  1860  his  dramatic  composi 
tions  are  all  inferior  to  these.  Gherardi  del 
Testa  before  1859  had  written  farces  like  II 
leretto  bianco  and  II  sogno  di  un  brillante,  and 
graceful  comedies  like  //  sistema  di  Giorgio  and 

Un  avventura  ai  bagni,  which  had  shown  him 
the  equal  of  Giraud  for  invention,  and  his  su 
perior  for  style.  Since  1859  he  has  much  in 
creased  his  reputation  for  excellent  light  come 
dies.  Giacometti  remains  far  beneath  these 
two  authors.  Among  his  numerous  produc 
tions  three  have  been  favorably  mentioned  by 
critics,  La  donna,  La  donna  in  seconde  nozze, 
and  II  fisionomista,  this  last  being  a  poor  imi 
tation  of  Giraud's  Prognosticate  fanatico. 
Other  dramatic  compositions  of  the  ante-uni- 
tarian  period  are  Sabbatini's  Tassoni,  and  Teo- 
baldo  Cicconi's  Pecorelle  smarrite  ;  Cromwell, 
La  notte  di  San  Bartolommeo,  and  Luigia  della 

Valliera,  by  Pictro  Corelli ;  Cuore  ed  arte, 
by  Caterino  de1  Medici  Fortis ;  and  the  trage 
dies  Gaspara  Stampa  by  Casabianca,  Piccarda 
Donati  by  Marenco,  Gamma  and  Tentazione 
(1856)  by  Montanelli,  the  last  having  great  merit 
not  only  as  a  play  but  as  a  poem.  According  to 
some  critics,  Giovanni  Battista  Niccolini  is  the 
first  tragic  writer  of  Italy  in  this  century ;  he 
is  less  remarkable  for  regularity  of  plot  than 
for  simplicity  of  dramatic  action.  Fillppo 
Strozzi  and  Arnaldo  da  Brescia  are  his  mas 
terpieces.  Among  the  writers  of  historical  and 
national  dramas  is  also  to  be  mentioned  Re 
vere  ;  and  among  Italy's  eminent  actors  are 
Modena,  Salvini,  Rossi,  Marchioneri,  and  Si- 
gnora  Ristori. — Among  the  historical  writers 
of  the  earlier  part  of  the  present  century, 
two,  Vincenzo  Coco  (died  in  1823)  and  Carlo 
Botta  (died  in  1837),  deserve  a  special  men 
tion.  Coco  left  two  works,  La  rivoluzione  di 
Napoli  and  Platone  in  Italia,  which  prove 
him  to  be  a  profound  thinker  of  the  school  of 
Vico.  His  narrative  of  events  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  concludes  with  the  wholesale  exe- 


ITALY   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


465 


cutions  of  1799,  which  he  himself  had  wit 
nessed.  Carlo  Eotta,  whose  chief  work  is  a 
history  of  the  American  war  of  independence, 
is  inferior  to  Coco  for  deep  philosophical  insight, 
but  superior  for  artistic  literary  forms.  Ital 
ian  critics,  however,  reproach  him  with  stiff 
ness  and  pomposity  in  his  Storia  deW  indepen- 
denza  degli  Stati  Uniti ;  but  they  admit  that 
his  continuation  of  Guicciardini's  history  of 
Italy  is  written  with  more  simplicity  and  natu 
ralness,  though  lacking  proportion  in  some  of 
its  principal  parts,  as  well  as  accuracy  in  state 
ment  of  facts  and  political  impartiality.  Col- 
letta,  in  his  Storia  del  reame  di  Na-poli,  pro 
duced  a  classical  work  which  completes  Coco's. 
His  history  begins  with  the  inauguration  at 
Naples  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  1734,  and 
ends  with  the  year  1825.  His  work  is  con 
spicuous  for  its  powerful  grouping  of  facts, 
and  for  energy  of  thought  and  diction.  Vacani 
was  a  historian  of  the  Peninsular  war.  Amari 
wrote  the  history  of  the  Arabs  in  Sicily  and 
of  the  Sicilian  vespers,  illustrating  obscure 
periods  in  an  age  of  national  glory.  Cesare 
Cantu  began  his  career  as  a  historical  writer 
by  Ragionamenti  sulla  storia  Lombarda  del 
secolo  X  VII.  In  1837  appeared  his  great  work, 
Storia  unirersale,  which  has  passed  through 
several  editions  and  been  translated  into  Ger 
man  and  French.  His  reputation  was  still 
further  heightened  by  his  Storia  degli  Ita- 
liani,  II  tempo  de1  Francesi,  Gli  ereticid"1  Italia, 
La  storia  di  cento  anni,  and  his  latest  work, 
V  Independenza  italiana,  embracing  exclusive 
ly  Italian  independence  during  the  French, 
German,  and  national  periods  of  the  present 
century  (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  Turin,  1874).  Cantu 
is  also  the  author  of  histories  of  the  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Italian  literatures,  of  the  city  of 
Como,  and  of  Italian  contemporary  poetry  ;  of 
several  novels,  educational  works,  and  religious  I 
lyrics.  Cantu  is  a  firm  Catholic  in  his  religious  ! 
belief ;  but  the  Neapolitan  Ranieri  and  the 
journalist  and  historian  Bianchi  Bovini  are 
decidedly  adverse  to  Catholicism.  The  latter 
is  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  popes,  a  biog 
raphy  of  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  a  history  of  the  lie- 
brews,  and  a  monograph  on  Pope  Joan.  Ce 
sare  Balbo  wrote  historical  meditations,  a  life 
of  Dante,  and  a  summary  of  the  history  of 
Italy.  Balbo,  Gino  Capponi,  the  author  of  a 
history  of  Florence,  and  Carlo  Troja  belong 
like  Cantu  to  the  Guelphic  school  of  publicists, 
who  would  fain  see  the  popes  at  the  head 
of  Italy.  Franscini  wrote  an  accurate  and 
authoritative  statistical  work  on  Switzerland 
(1847-'51).  La  Farina  is  the  author  of  a  his 
tory  of  Italy  from  the  most  ancient  to  recent 
times  ;  Federico  Sclopis,  of  a  history  of  Italian 
legislation  (completed  in  1857)  ;  Luigi  Zeni,  of 
an  excellent  compendium  of  Italian  history; 
Romanin,  of  a  learned  history  of  Venice,  writ 
ten  in  opposition  to  that  of  Darn,  and  of  a 
work  on  the  Venetian  inquisitors ;  Carlo  Ge- 
melli,  of  a  history  of  the  Belgian  revolution  of 
1830 ;  Giuseppe  Rubini,  of  a  history  of  Russia 


from  8G2  to  1725;  Canette,  of  a  history  of 
Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy;  Canales,  of  a  history 
of  the  Crimean  war ;  Gallenga,  of  a  general 
history  of  Piedmont;  Angelo  Brofferio,  of  a 
history  of  Piedmont  from  1814  to  1849,  and 
of  other  works  interesting  from  their  patriotic 
spirit  as  well  as  literary  merit;  Anelli,  of  a 
history  of  Italy  from  1814  to  1850  ;  Carlo  Cat- 
taneo,  of  a  history  of  the  insurrection  at  Milan 
in  1848  (he  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
that  directed  the  operations  against  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  a  participant  in  the  struggle),  and 
of  the  Archwio  triennale,  an  elaborate  and 
most  careful  and  valuable  collection  of  authen 
tic  documents  relative  to  the  events  that  oc 
curred  in  Italy  from  1848  to  1850 ;  Federico 
Torre,  of  a  history  of  the  French  expedition  to 
Rome  in  1849.  Ferrari,  in  a  work  on  repub 
lican  federation,  treated  the  question  under 
what  form  of  government  Italy  ought  to  be 
reorganized.  L.  C.  Farini  wrote  a  history  of 
the  Papal  States  from  1814  to  1850;  Gualterio 
and  Vecchio  of  the  events  in  Italy  in  1848-'9. 
Among  the  latest  writers  on  mediaaval  Italian 
history  are  Atto  Vanucci  and  Pasquale  Villari. 
The  latter  is  known  as  the  biographer  of  Sa 
vonarola,  and  a  life  of  Machiavelli  by  him  is 
now  (1874)  in  the  press.  On  social  science  the 
most  recent  publications  are  Minghetti's  Econo- 
miapubWica  and  Opuscoli  letterarj  e  economic^ 
containing  a  series  of  letters  on  religious  liber 
ty  ;  Cibrario's  Economia  politica  del  media  evo 
and  Delia  schiavitu  e  del  servaggio  ;  Zamboni's 
Gli  Ezzcllini  and  Dante  e  gli  schiavi ;  and  Ce- 
lestino  Bianchi's  history  of  Italian  diplomacy. 
Among  ecclesiastical  writers  are  the  Benedic 
tine  Tosti,  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  church ; 
the  Jesuits  Luigi  Taparelli  d'Azeglio  (the  bro 
ther  of  Massimo),  author  of  remarkable  works 
on  natural  right  and  international  law,  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Civiltd  Cattolica ;  Pian- 
ciani,  distinguished  as  a  chemist  and  physicist ; 
Secchi,  as  an  astronomer  and  a  writer  on  solar 
physics ;  Passaglia  and  Perrone,  as  authors  of 
standard  works  on  theology ;  and  Abbate  Lam- 
bruschini,  as  a  writer  on  education ;  and  the 
Theatine  Ventura,  celebrated  alike  as  a  pulpit 
orator  and  philosophical  writer.  The  taste 
which  prevailed  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century  for  illustrating  the  national  antiquities 
has  even  increased  of  late  years.  In  the  for 
mer  period  were  produced  Inghirami's  Monu- 
menti  etrmchi,  Delfico's  Origini  italiclie,  Fa- 
nucci's  Storia  del  Veneziani,  Genovcsi  e  Pisani, 
Manno's  Storia  di  Sardegna,  Bras's  Malta  il- 
Instrata,  and  Pompeo  Littfl's  Famiglie  celebri 
tf  Italia.  Visconti  (1751-1818)  made  himself 
a  name  in  classical  archeology,  and  Sestini  in 
numismatics,  the  latter  making  his  medals  serve 
in  illustrating  geographical  questions.  Angelo 
Mai,  De'  Rossi,  Borghesi,  Gestaldi,  Canestrini, 
Foresi,  and  others  are  the  representative  ar 
chaeologists  of  the  latter  period.  De'  Rossi's 
chief  works  are  La  Roma  sotterranea  cristiana 
(1864)  and  Inscriptions  Christiana  Urlis  Ro 
ma  (1857-'61).  Toward  the  close  of  the  18th 


466 


ITALY  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


and  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century  the  I 
natural  sciences  were  advanced  by  four  illustri 
ous  savants,  who  were  nearly  contemporary, 
Yolta,  Galvani,  Scarpa,  and  Spallanzani.  The 
discussions  of  Galvani  and  Volta  concerning 
their  new  discoveries  in  electricity  divided  the 
scientific  men  of  Europe  into  two  factions,  and 
the  poets  followed  their  example.  Scarpa,  a 
learned  disciple  of  Morgagni,  reduced  anato 
my  to  a  positive  science.  Spallanzani  wrote  on 
physics  and  physiology  in  a  style  worthy  of  one 
who  declared  philosophy  itself  imperfect  unless 
its  principles  were  elegantly  expressed.  Astro 
nomical  science  was  represented  by  Piazzi,  Ori- 
ani,  Cagnoli,  and  Plana ;  medical  science  by  Ra- 
sori ;  natural  science  by  Gene ;  geography  by 
Balbi;  and  jurisprudence  by  Cannignani  and 
Nicolini  of  Naples.  Later  De  Yico  and  Donati 
obtained  a  reputation  as  astronomical  discov 
erers,  and  Pianciani  as  a  physicist.  Later  still 
Schiapparelli,  Cappocci,  and  De  Gasparis  ren 
dered  great  service  to  astronomy  ;  and  among 
living  scientists  Secchi  and.Respighi  occupy  an 
eminent  place.  With  them  must  be  mentioned 
the  geographers  Marmocchi  and  De  Luca,  the 
naturalists  Simonda  and  De  Filippi,  the  chem 
ist  Piria,  the  physicists  Melloni,  Marianini,  and 
Matteucci,  and  the  historian  of  science  Libri. 
Ranalli  has  also  published  a  history  of  the  fine 
arts ;  and  a  rich  source  of  information  in  ancient 
and  modern  political  arid  natural  history  and  ge 
ography  of  Italy  is  found  in  a  series  now  pub 
lishing  under  the  general  title  of  I? Italia,  of 
which  20  volumes  are  already  issued  (1874). — 
In  general  literature  during  the  first  half  of  the 
century  Gioja  and  Romagnosi  treated  philoso 
phical  questions  and  the  economical  and  politi 
cal  sciences,  the  Filosofia  della  statistica  being 
the  principal  work  of  the  former,  and  the  Ge- 
nesi  del  diritto  penale  of  the  latter.  Manzoni 
(1784-1873)  produced  new  models  of  lyric  verse, 
and  examples  of  historical  dramas  and  novels 
in  his  Adelchi,  II  conte  di  Carmagnola,  and  / 
promessi  sposi.  To  the  modified  classical  school 
of  Monti  belong  the  dramas  of  Silvio  Pellico 
(1789-1854),  chiefly  known  by  his  Francesca  da 
Rimini  and  Le  mie  prigioni,  and  those  of  Nic- 
colini,  often  founded  on  the  history  of  his  coun 
try,  and  strongly  marked  by  patriotic  feeling. 
The  example  of  Sir  "Walter  Scott  in  the  produc 
tion  of  historical  romances  had  many  followers 
in  Italy.  /  promessi  sposi  of  Manzoni  (1827) 
was  succeeded  by  the  Monaca  di  Nonza,  Luisa 
Strozzi^  and  II  conte  Ugolino  dell  a  Gherardesca 
of  Rosini ;  the  Margherita  Pusterla  of  Cesare 
Cantu;  the  Marco  Visconti  of  Grossi;  the  Et- 
tore  Fieramosca  and  Nicolo  de"*  Lapi  of  Massi 
mo  d'Azeglio  (1798-1860);  and  the  Battaglia 
di  Benevento,  Assedio  di  Firenze,  Isabella  Or- 
sini,  and  Beatrice  Cenci  of  Guerrazzi  (died  in 
1873).  Italy  received  with  enthusiasm  these 
romantic  delineations  from  her  ancient  history. 
The  romance  entitled  Famiglia  (1850),  by  Ber- 
sezio,  is  one  of  the  best  late  Italian  novels.  The 
Dr.  Antonio  of  Ruflini  is  esteemed  for  its  pic 
tures  of  Italian  scenery.  Accomplished  women 


have  taken  a  considerable  part  in  recent  Ital 
ian  literature.  The  Morte  di  Adonc  of  Teresa 
Bandellini  was  followed  by  the  learned  philo 
sophical  and  religious  poems  of  Diodata  Saluz- 
zo,  with  which  she  intermingled  slight  lyrical 
pieces.  Cecilia  de  Luna  Folliero  wrote  on  the 
education  of  girls  and  the  moral  influence  of 
music.  Giustina  Rinier  Michiel  celebrated  in 
song  the  festive  days  and  memorable  events 
of  Venice.  Isabella  Teotochi  Albrizzi  wrote 
a  graceful  and  truthful  biography  of  Canova. 
The  work  of  the  Signora  Ferucci  on  the  edu 
cation  of  girls  received  the  encomiums  of  Gio- 
berti  and  other  distinguished  thinkers.  Other 
female  authors  are  Lucrezia  Marinella,  Sabina 
Rasori,  Silvia  Curtoni  Verza,  Costanza  Mos- 
cheni,  and  Leonora  Fonseca  Pimentel. — In 
philosophy,  the  names  of  Gioja  and  Romagnosi 
were  succeeded  by  that  of  Pasquale  Borelli 
(Lallebasche),  the  author  of  an  introduction  to 
philosophy,  and  of  works  on  the  nature  and 
genesis  of  thought,  in  which  he  opposed  the 
empiricism  of  Romagnosi.  Cardinal  Gerdil 
(1718-1802)  was  the  author  of  numerous  re 
markable  works  on  philosophy,  theology,  and 
mathematical  and  physical  science.  Pasquale 
Galuppi  (1770-1846),  in  elaborate  works,  com 
bated  the  philosophical  tendencies  of  the  18th 
century  by  doctrines  founded  on  the  philoso 
phy  of  the  fathers  of  the  church.  He  was  a 
student  of  the  German  philosophers,  and  one 
of  his  most  interesting  works  was  on  the 
changes  of  modern  philosophy  from  Descartes 
to  Kant.  Contemporary  philosophy  has  had  a 
large  number  of  representatives  in  Italy.  Fore 
most  in  celebrity  was  Gioberti  (1801-'52), 
whose  philosophical  theory  was  so  constructed 
as  to  suit  itself  to  the  national  aspirations  of  It 
aly  ;  he  is  also  known  as  the  author  of  Del  pri- 
mato  morale  e  civile  dcgli  Italiani,  II  Gesuita 
modcrno,  and  Del  rinnovamento  civile  d' 'Italia. 
Next  to  Gioberti  were  Cardinal  Rosmini-Ser- 
bati  (died  in  1855),  whose  ontological  theory 
has  met  with  even  less  favor  than  Gioberti's, 
and  Mamiani,  the  author  of  fiinnovamento  ddV 
antica  filosqfia  italiana.  Ausonio  Franchi  is 
diametrically  opposed  to  all  these  philosophers. 
He  places  the  criterion  of  truth  in  the  individ 
ual  reason  and  feeling,  both  corresponding  to 
the  two  most  intellectual  spheres  of  the  mind, 
philosophy  and  religion.  According  to  him,  the 
philosophy  of  Italy  is  scholasticism,  which  is  the 
negation  of  reason,  and  its  religion  Catholicism, 
the  negation  of  liberty.  Thus  he  is  antagonistic 
to  Tommaseo,  the  representative  of  the  spirit 
ualist  and  religious  schools.  Greek  philosophy 
is  represented  by  Centofanti,  and  philosophical 
skepticism  by  Giuseppe  Ferrari,  the  author  of 
Filosofia  della  riwluzione  and  Corso  di  lezioni 
sugli  scrittori  politici  italiani  (1862-'3) ;  and 
Hegelianism  by  the  Neapolitan  Vera.  To  the 
school  of  Franchi  belong  Alfonso  Testa  and  Car 
lo  Cattaneo.  The  Calcolo  di probalnlita  dei  sen- 
timenti  umani  (1855)  of  Mastriani  is  an  attempt 
to  found  philosophy  on  a  physiological  basis. 
Giordani  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of 


ITALY  (WINES  OF) 


467 


the  school  of  sesthetical  criticism  in  modern 
Italy.  He  contributed  effectually  to  put  down 
the  literary  "Gallomania"  which  had  so  long 
prevailed  there.  The  articles  published  by  him 
in  the  BiUioteca  Italiana  of  Milan,  his  sestheti- 
cal  studies  on  sculptors,  painters,  and  authors, 
and  his  panegyrics  on  Napoleon,  Canova,  &c., 
together  with  a  vast  collection  of  letters,  are 
held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  his  country 
men.  Cicognara,  Pindemonte,  Foscolo,  Per- 
ticari,  Basilio  Puotti,  Mamiani,  Giudici,  Arcan- 
geli,  Ranalli,  and  Giuliani  have  also  distin 
guished  themselves  in  this  department  of  lit 
erature. — Besides  the  contemporary  authors 
whose  works  have  gained  such  permanence  as 
to  have  required  special  mention  in  this  article, 
many  others  are  gradually  taking  their  places 
in  the  lasting  literature  of  Italy,  or  rendering 
themselves  conspicuous  by  timely  and  popular 
works.  Such  are  most  of  those  named  in  the 
following  list  of  living  authors.  Leading  poets 
are  Giovanni  Prati  (one  of  the  most  prominent 
writers  of  Italian  political  lyrics),  Frullani,  Ti- 
gri,  Carducci,  and  Zanella;  De  Spuches,  Par- 
di,  and  other  Sicilians ;  Barattani,  Mercantini, 
Giotti,  and  De'  March).  Female  poets  are  Fran- 
cesca  Lutti,  Alinda  Brunamonte,  Emilia  Fua, 
Rosina  Musio-Salvo,  and  others.  Historians 
are  Ricotti  (Savoy),  La  Lumia  (Sicily),  Giudici 
(Storia  dei  comuni  italiani),  Celesia  (Genoa), 
and  Peluso  (Milan).  Novelists  are  Nievo,  Arri- 
ghi,  Donati,  Bezio,  De  Amicis,  and  Signora  Te 
resa  de  Gubernatis. — The  principal  historians 
of  Italian  literature  are  Tiraboschi  (1772-'83), 
Ginguene  (1811-'19),  Maffei  (2d  ed.,  1834), 
Cimorelli  (1845),  Emiliano  Giudici  (1851),  Mal- 
paga  (1855),  Lombardi  (of  the  18th  century, 
1827-'30),  Ugoni  (of  the  second  half  of  the 
18th  century,  new  edition,  1856-HJ),  and  Levati 
(of  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century,  1831). 
See  also  Sismondi's  Litterature  du  midl  de 
V Europe  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1813),  translated  by 
T.  Roscoe  (1823) ;  Hallam's  "  Literature  of  Eu 
rope;"  and  W.  Roscoe's  "Life  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici."  For  more  recent  literature,  see  espe 
cially  Amedee  Roux's  Ilixtoire  de  la  litterature 
contemporaine  en  Italic  (Paris,  1874) ;  and  for 
modern  philosophy,  Botta's  "Historical  Sketch" 
in  Ueberweg's  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  trans 
lated  by  G.  S.  Morris  (New  York,  1874). 

ITALY,  Wines  of.  Fron:  time  immemorial 
Italy  has  been  noted  as  a  wine-growing  coun 
try,  and  at  the  present  day,  next  to  the  cereals, 
wine  is  the  most  important  production  of  her 
soil.  The  amount  annually  made  has  been  va 
riously  estimated,  but  is  probably  as  much  as 
800,000,000  gallons,  of  which  but  a  small  pro 
portion  is  of  good  quality  or  fit  for  export.  The 
Falernian,  Massic,  Crecuban,  and  other  growths 
famous  in  ancient  times,  are  now  known  only 
by  the  descriptions  of  them  found  in  old  Latin 
writers,  no  means  of  identifying  them  with 
modern  wines  being  accessible.  For  many 
centuries  succeeding  the  overthrow  of  the  Ro 
man  empire  vinification  was  practised  after  the 
most  primitive  methods ;  and  although  vines  j 


were  grown  and  wine  was  made  in  every 
province  of  the  country,  it  was  exclusively  a 
local  product,  intended  for  home  consumption. 
This  state  of  things  may  be  said  to  have  prac 
tically  extended  into  the  present  century.  Forty 
years  ago  Italian  wines  of  high  grade  were 
scarcely  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun 
try,  and  still  less  to  foreigners.  Now  they 
have  an  established  reputation,  and  by  the 
close  of  the  century  are  not  unlikely  to  become 
formidable  rivals  of  the  best  growths  of  France 
and  Germany.  This  is  due  in  great  measure 
to  the  formation  of  cenological  societies,  which 
have  encouraged  the  practice  of  wine  making 
after  improved  methods,  and  to  the  general 
development  of  the  national  life  since  the  union 
of  the  Italian  people  under  one  government. 
Grape  culture  in  many  parts  of  Italy,  and  no 
tably  in  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  is  practised  on 
a  different  system  from  that  prevalent  in  the 
chief  wine-producing  countries.  The  vines, 
instead  of  being  closely  pruned  and  attached 
to  low  stakes  fastened  in  the  ground,  are  al 
lowed  to  run  up  the  trunks  of  trees,  planted  in 
rows  for  that  purpose.  The  maple,  trimmed 
to  the  form  of  a  pollard,  is  the  tree  most  com 
monly  employed,  and  its  branches,  stripped  of 
the  greater  part  of  their  foliage,  form  the  sup 
port  of  the  head  of  the  vine.  The  shoots  of 
the  latter,  when  they  have  attained  a  sufficient 
growth,  are  twisted  into  a  rope  and  then  tied 
to  a  similar  rope  from  an  adjoining  tree.  Rows 
of  trees  thus  festooned  with  vines,  loaded  in 
the  vintage  season  with  full  clusters  of  grapes, 
present  a  peculiarly  attractive  appearance,  and 
form  one  of  the  most  picturesque  features  of 
the  country ;  but  the  grapes  never  attain  that 
perfection,  even  in  the  climate  of  Italy,  which 
is  necessary  to  produce  wines  of  the  first  class. 
In  fact,  it  has  been  proved  from  experiments 
made  under  government  direction  during  the 
vintage  of  1873,  that  the  must  obtained  from 
vines  thus  trained  usually  contains  one  third 
less  saccharine  matter  than  that  from  vines 
trained  on  the  low  system,  as  practised  in  the 
best  wine-growing  countries.  The  result  is  a 
thin,  acid  wine,  which  cannot  be  kept  for  any 
considerable  period.  In  certain  parts  of  Italy 
this  method  of  cultivation  is  so  intimately  con 
nected  with  the  general  system  of  agriculture, 
that  no  immediate  change  is  probable  or  per 
haps  possible.  This  is  especially  the  case  in 
the  level  country,  and  it  is  consequently  in  the 
hilly  and  mountainous  districts  that  Italian  viti 
culture  will  be  the  soonest  developed. — Twen 
ty-five  years  ago  the  wines  of  Piedmont  first 
became  known  to  any  considerable  extent  out 
side  of  the  country  ;  but  their  name  had  scarce 
ly  been  established  in  the  London  market  when 
the  grape  disease,  which  for  a  time  almost  par 
alyzed  vinification  throughout  Europe,  attack 
ed  the  vines  of  northern  Italy.  The  district 
of  Asti,  long  celebrated  for  the  superior  qual 
ity  of  its  wines,  was  only  partially  affected  by 
the  disease,  and  continued  to  produce  abun 
dantly  while  the  rest  of  the  country  was  suf- 


468 


ITALY  (WINES  OF) 


fering  from  its  effects.  The  reputation  which 
the  Asti  wines  thus  acquired  has  continued  to 
the  present  day,  and  is  founded  in  no  small 
degree  upon  superior  skill  in  manipulation. 
Hence  it  is  customary  to  designate  the  Barbera, 
Barolo,  Nebbiolo,  Brachetto,  Grignolino,  and 
all  other  varieties  of  wines  which  are  the  com 
mon  produce  of  Piedmont,  as  wines  of  Asti, 
and  to  sell  them  as  such.  As  a  rule  these  wines 
are  full-bodied  and  somewhat  rough,  but  are 
capable  of  being  greatly  improved  by  increased 
carefulness  and  skill.  Attention  has  recently 
been  called  to  the  admirable  sites  presented  by 
the  valleys  and  mountain  slopes  bordering  on 
Switzerland,  and  no  portion  of  Piedmont  gives 
better  promise  of  viticultural  development. 
Upward  of  two  centuries  ago  the  Valtellina, 
then  a  dependency  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  the 
Orisons,  yielded  wine  which  found  a  ready 
market  both  in  Switzerland  and  Germany ; 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  Val  di  Sesia,  the 
Yal  d'Aosta,  and  in  fact  the  whole  adjoining 
Alpine  district  of  Piedmont,  can  in  a  few 
years  be  made  equally  productive. — The  plains 
of  Lombardy  and  Venetia  yield  an  immense 
amount  of  wine,  although,  owing  to  the  sys 
tem  of  culture  above  described,  which  prevails 
there,  the  quality  is  poor.  It  contains  very 
little  sugar  or  alcohol,  much  acid,  and  no  aro 
matic  properties.  But  here,  as  in  Piedmont, 
the  Alpine  district,  bordering  on  Switzerland 
and  Tyrol,  presents  unsurpassed  facilities  to 
the  intelligent  wine  grower.  "In  many  of 
these  valleys  viticulture  might  attain  the  high 
est  perfection  if  it  were  directed  to  quality, 
and  if  selected  vines  were  grown  in  closed 
vineyards  with  that  care  and  attention  which 
are  bestowed  upon  this  branch  of  production 
on  the  Rhine  and  in  France.  Here  wines 
might  be  produced  which  would  be  unsurpassed 
by  any  other  wines  in  the  wrorld.  Here  there 
is  an  equable  temperature,  and  a  sufficiency  of 
those  precipitations  of  moisture  during  nights 
of  calm  radiation  from  the  neighboring  hills. 
Here  is  rain  at  the  proper  time,  and  plenty  of 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  come  in  the  warmth 
of  August,  when  the  vine  is  most  in  need  of 
it.  Indeed,  here  are  all  the  conditions  for 
producing  not  only  a  sweet  wine  such  as  is 
common  in  climates  which  have  only  sun  and 
heat,  but  for  the  production  of  those  flavored 
wines  which  are  the  privilege  of  those  parts 
of  the  world  where  the  so-called  great  wines 
are  grown."  (Thudicum  and  Dupre,  "  Trea 
tise  on  Wine.")  The  indolence  characteristic 
of  the  Italian  race  has  hitherto  prevented  the 
development  of  this  favored  region ;  but  under 
the  present  improved  conditions  of  the  nation 
al  life,  and  in  view  of  the  increasing  demand 
for  wines  of  high  grade,  its  future  seems  full 
of  promise. — In  Tuscany  wine  making  may  be 
said  to  have  been  brought  to  a  higher  degree 
of  perfection  than  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  main 
ly  because  for  many  years  it  has  been  conduct 
ed  by  persons  of  means  and  superior  intelli 
gence.  The  former  grand-ducal  government 


encouraged  it,  and  the  nobles  made  their  vine 
yards  an  important  source  of  income,  selling 
their  wine  at  retail  from  their  cellars  by  the 
flask.  This  has  a  capacity  of  three  quarts,  and 
is  not  stoppered  in  the  usual  manner.  A  film 
of  oil  is  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  wine 
at  the  neck  of  the  flask,  and  answers  the  double 
purpose  of  keeping  off  the  air  and  of  allowing 
the  escape  of  any  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid 
that  may  arise  in  case  of  after  fermentation. 
The  oil  may  be  flung  out,  or  soaked  out  with 
tow,  previous  to  using  the  wine.  The  most  fa 
mous  wine  of  Tuscany  was  for  many  years  the 
Montepulciano,  once  designated  the  "king  of 
wines;"  but  latterly  the  product  of  the  vine 
yards  of  Chianti,  near  Siena,  made  from  a  pe 
culiar  grape,  has  obtained  the  supremacy,  and 
almost  every  good  flask  of  wine  sold  in  the 
country  now  goes  by  that  name.  It  is  full- 
flavored  and  astringent,  with  an  alcoholic 
strength  equal  to  about  20  per  cent,  of  proof 
spirit.  The  wines  of  Artimino,  a  former  grand- 
ducal  estate,  and  of  Carmignano,  are  also  of 
good  quality.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
verdea,  or  green  wine,  so  called  from  its  color, 
produced  at  Arcetri,  near  Florence,  and  the 
Trebbiano,  described  as  a  "  gold-colored  sirup, 
made  from  grapes  passulated  on  the  vine  by 
torsion  of  the  stalk." — The  best  known  wines 
of  the  former  Papal  States  are  those  of  Orvieto 
and  the  muscats  of  Albano  and  Montefiascone, 
all  of  good  repute.  The  southern  portion  of 
the  Italian  peninsula  yields  a  large  amount  of 
spirituous  wines,  many  of  which  reach  foreign 
markets  in  a  highly  fortified  condition.  Those 
of  Gallipoli  and  Taranto  have  been  known  to 
reach  the  ordinary  strength  of  cognac.  Lach- 
ryma3  Christi,  the  most  noted  growth  of  this 
part  of  Italy,  is  a  name  liberally  bestowed  on 
all  sweet  red  wines  made  there,  although  the 
genuine  is  grown  only  on  the  slopes  of  Mt. 
Vesuvius.  It  has  a  wide  reputation,  but  is 
rarely  met  with  in  perfect  condition.  The 
Capri  wine,  both  red  and  white,  is  also  cele 
brated,  but,  like  the  Lachrymra  Christi,  is  too 
often  a  spurious  or  factitious  product. — Sicily, 
once  fruitful  in  wine  and  oil,  now  produces 
but  a  single  variety  which  is  exported  in  large 
quantities ;  this  is  the  Marsala,  an  amber- 
colored  or  brown  wine,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  seaport  Marsala,  whence  it  is  shipped 
to  various  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  It 
is  generally  strongly  brandied  before  leaving 
the  island,  and  much  of  it  is  transformed  into 
imitation  sherry.  Red  wines  are  also  grown 
in  Sicily,  which,  owing  to  their  low  price,  are 
exported  to  various  parts  of  Italy  and  to  Ameri 
ca.  The  total  quantity  of  wine  produced  has 
been  estimated  as  high  as  200,000  pipes,  of 
which  less  than  a  fifth  part  is  believed  to  be 
fit  for  exportation.  The  island  of  Sardinia 
produces  a  considerable  amount  of  red  and 
white  wines  of  fair  quality;  but  the  art  of 
wine  making  is  very  imperfectly  understood 
there,  and  the  quantity  produced  is  far  below 
the  capacity  of  the  soil. 


HARD 


ITCH 


469 


IT1RD,  Jean  Marie  Gaspard,  a  French  surgeon, 
born  at  Oraison,  Provence,  in  1775,  died  in 
Paris,  July  5,  1838.  At  18  he  was  appointed 
by  the  revolutionary  committee  surgeon  of  the 
military  hospital  of  Toulon,  although  he  had 
never  read  a  medical  book  or  seen  a  surgical 
operation.  He  devoted  himself  to  study,  and 
two  years  later  was  made  a  surgeon  of  the 
second  class  at  the  hospital  of  Val  de  Grace. 
In  1799  he  was  appointed  physician  of  the 
institution  for  deaf  mutes,  where  he  became 
known  by  his  efforts  to  instruct  a  young  man 
found  wild  in  the  forests  of  Aveyron.  (See 
IDIOCY.)  In  1801  Itard  published  a  memoir 
giving  the  results  of  a  year's  effort  in  instruct 
ing  him,  and  in  1807  another  giving  the  final  re 
sults,  lie  next  gave  his  attention  to  the  train 
ing  of  deaf  mutes  in  articulation,  in  which  he 
succeeded  almost  as  well  as  Pereira.  In  1821 
he  published  an  elaborate  work,  in  2  vols.  8vo, 
on  the  diseases  of  the  ear  and  of  the  sense  of 
hearing.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  pneu- 
mothorax. 

ITASCA,  a  N".  county  of  Minnesota,  bounded 
N".  by  Rainy  lake  and  Rainy  Lake  river,  sepa 
rating  it  from  British  America,  and  drained  by 
several  tributaries  of  that  stream,  and  by  the 
Mississippi;  area,  about  9,600  sq.  in.;  pop.  in 
1870,  96.  Its  surface  is  uneven  and  diversified 
by  many  small  lakes. 

ITASCA,  Lake  of,  a  small  body  of  water  in 
Minnesota,  on  the  N.  W.  border  of  Cass  co., 
being  one  of  the  uppermost  of  the  multitude 
of  lakes  which  form  the  sources  of  the  Missis 
sippi  river.  It  lies  in  lat.  47°  10'  N.,  Ion.  95° 
"W.,  near  the  summit  of  the  Hauteurs  de  Terre, 
the  watershed  between  the  Red  river  of  the 
North  and  the  streams  flowing  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  1,575  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  surrounded  by 
hills,  and  its  shores  are  clad  with  pines.  It  was 
discovered  by  Schoolcraft,  July  13, 1832.  The 
remotest  source  of  the  Mississippi  is  a  small 
rivulet  rising  among  the  hills  a  few  miles  S.  of 
this  lake,  and  falling  into  it  after  forming  a 
number  of  little  basins.  The  stream  issues 
from  the  N.  end  of  the  lake  10  or  12  ft.  wide, 
and  12  or  18  in.  deep. 

ITAWAMBA,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Mississippi, 
bordering  on  Alabama,  and  drained  by  Tom- 
bigbee  river  ;  area,  about  GOO  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  7,812,  of  whom  986  were  colored.  It 
has  a  level  or  undulating  surface,  almost  with 
out  timber.  The  soil  is  a  dark,  rich  loam,  con 
taining  much  lime.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  7,053  bushels  of  wheat,  122,363  of 
Indian  corn,  24,942  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  1,865 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,420  horses,  2,235 
miloh  cows,  3,915  other  cattle,  6,130  sheep,  and 
9,734  swine.  Capital,  Fulton. 

ITCH,  or  Scabies,  a  parasitic  disease  of  the 
skin.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  true  charac 
ter  of  scabies  was  known  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  but  the  animal  was  sup 
posed  to  be  a  louse.  Avenzoar  in  the  12th  cen 
tury  alluded  to  its  parasitic  nature  ;  and  Aldro- 


vandus  about  1600  gives  a  good  description  of 
the  animal,  but  says  it  has  no  legs.  Moufet  at 
the  same  time  says  it  is  identical  with  the  mite 
inhabiting  cheese.  Occasionally  after  this  we 
find  mention  of  this  parasite  in  the  writings  of 
the  great  medical  fathers,  but  it  was  generally 
forgotten  when  the  grand  scientific  hoax  was 
played  in  1812  by  the  medical  student  Gales  in 
Paris,  who  was  cunning  enough  to  substitute  a 
cheese  acarus  concealed  beneath  his  nail,  and 
thus  deceived  the  judges  on  the  prize  offered  to 
the  discoverer  of  the  cause  of  this  disease.  The 
Corsican  Renucci  finally  established  its  reality, 
taught  by  the  old  women  of  his  birthplace,  and 
Raspail  gave  the  first  scientific  description  of 
the  animal  in  1839.  Since  then  the  best  ob 
servers  of  its  habits  have  been  Bourguignon, 
Eichstedt,  Schinzinger,  and  Hebra. — The"  sar- 
coptes  hominis,  or  acarus  scaliei,  presents  three 
forms.  The  mature  female  is  discernible  by 
the  unaided  eye,  as  a  white  speck  ^V  of  an  inch 
long  by  TV  of  an  inch  broad.  It  is  white,  and 
resembles  in  shape  a  tortoise  shell,  with  an 
arched  back  and  flat  belly.  On  the  back  are 
seen  bristles  or  hairs,  and  little  spines.  The 
skin  is  tough,  and 
shows  irregular  trans 
verse  parallel  rings. 
There  are  four  pairs 
of  legs,  two  of  which 
are  situated  in  front 
and  project  beyond 
the  anterior,  the  oth 
ers  toward  the  pos 
terior  end  of  the  body. 
The  two  anterior  pairs 
of  feet  are  provided 
with  sucking  disks, 
and  with  hairs  or  bris 
tles  armed  at  their  ex 
tremities  with  minute 
claws  ;  the  two  poste 
rior  pairs  of  feet  have  no  sucking  disks,  but 
only  long  bristles  and  small  claws.  The  head  is 
bluntly  conical,  somewhat  retractile,  and  situa 
ted  between  the  anterior  feet.  The  mouth  con 
sists  of  a  double  upper  and  under  lip,  between 
which  play  the  jaws  armed  with  teeth,  moving 
in  a  horizontal  direction  up  and  down,  like  the 
blades  of  scissors  over  each  other,  and  resem 
bling  the  claws  of  a  lobster.  Eyes  are  want 
ing.  The  male  is  only  half  the  size  of  the  fe 
male,  of  a  blackish  color  and  flattened  form.  It 
has  sucking  disks  instead  of  bristles  upon  the 
fourth  pair  of  feet.  In  other  respects  it  resem 
bles  the  female.  The  young,  when  first  hatch 
ed,  have  but  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  in  them  no 
distinction  of  sex  is  noticeable.  In  order  to 
become  mature  they  undergo  three  separate 
stages  of  torpidity,  before  each  of  which  the 
body  is  fat  and  large  in  comparison  with  the 
extremities.  During  these  they  burrow  into 
the  skin.  By  the  first  process  they  acquire  the 
wanting  pair  of  legs.  When  mature  the  female 
digs  a  shallow  burrow,  and  after  impregnation 
ceases  to  creep  over  the  outer  skin,  but  pene- 


Acarus  scabiei,  magnified. 


470 


ITCH 


trates  deeper  and  deeper,  forming  the  long  holes 
or  u galleries"  so  well  known.  The  male  nev 
er  enters  these  galleries  where  the  eggs  are 
found,  but  digs  himself  a  shallow  cell,  or  seeks 
new  fields  for  his  rambles.  The  female  as  she 
goes  on  her  oblique  and  downward  course  de 
posits  her  eggs  in  the  gallery,  one  after  the 
other.  The  young  acarus  is  hatched  about  the 
eighth  day,  and  then  emerges  from  its  birth 
place  to  go  through  the  process  above  described, 
leaving  behind  it  its  broken  shell.  All  stages 
of  development  may  be  seen  in  these  burrows, 
from  the  amorphous  form  in  which  the  eggs 
are  deposited  to  the  perfect  young  before  they 
break  their  prison  walls.  The  mother  never 
leaves  her  hole,  and  sometimes  wanders  along 
for  4  in.  beneath  the  surface ;  50  eggs  and 
broken  shells  are  sometimes  counted  in  such 
burrows.  The  whole  time  required  for  the 
young  to  reach  maturity  after  impregnation  is 
estimated  at  six  weeks. — Infection  is  produced 
by  the  transfer  of  males  and  young  from  one 
host  to  another.  The  mrcoptes  loves  warmth, 
and  on  this  account  has  been  called  a  nocturnal 
animal,  though  improperly,  for  its  wanderings 
are  caused  by  the  warmth  imparted  to  the  body 
of  its  host  by  lying  in  a  warm  bed,  by  sleeping 
with  another,  or  by  dancing  in  the  evening ; 
and  thus  it  is  that  they  are  conveyed  from  one 
person  to  another.  It  may  happen  that  the 
female  may  be  scratched  out  of  her  burrow, 
and  thus  be  transplanted  to  another  part  of 
the  same  host,  or  to  the  body  of  another. 
Scabies  is  seldom  if  ever  caught  by  handling 
patients,  however  freely  this  may  be  done, 
from  the  fact  that  such  examinations  take 
place  in  cool  rooms,  when  the  parasites  are 
quiet.  Their  favorite  lurking  places  are  the 
tender  skin  between  the  fingers,  and  folds  of 
the  axilla? ;  and  on  infants  we  find  them  dis 
tributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  body. 
They  have  been  cultivated  also  on  the  face 
and  scalp,  and  may  inhabit  any  part  of  the 
body.  In  persons  who  suffer  from  cold  hands 
and  feet  we  often  find  these  parts  entirely  free 
from  them,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  may  be 
covered  with  the  eruption  ;  and  the  same  love 
of  heat  is  exemplified  by  the  immediate  relief 
which  a  patient,  wrought  up  to  frenzy  by  the 
itching  of  a  general  scabies  at  night,  finds  by 
jumping  out  of  bed  into  the  cold  atmosphere 
of  winter.  In  order  to  bore  through  the  epi 
dermis,  beneath  which  it  seldom  penetrates, 
the  acarus  supports  itself  on  its  anterior  end 
by  means  of  its  hinder  legs,  and  works  away 
with  its  lobster-like  claws.  It  takes  generally 
20  or  30  minutes  to  penetrate  the  outer  layer, 
but  when  this  has  been  pierced  the  progress 
is  more  rapid.  The  poorer  in  nutriment  they 
find  the  epidermis  the  deeper  they  penetrate, 
and  the  greater  is  the  exudation,  which  lifts 
up  the  animal,  and  causes  the  white  color  of 
the  burrow.  The  young  brood  seems  to  re 
quire  the  tender  and  last  formed  epidermal 
layers  for  its  food,  and  therefore  bores  fur 
ther  and  causes  more  itching.  The  long  bur 


rows  of  the  females,  which  cause  the  real  dis 
ease,  run  an  irregular  course,  and  become 
smaller  by  age  as  the  exudation  is  absorbed. 
The  entrances  generally  remain  open  for  the 
exit  of  the  young  and  admission  of  air.  The 
third  or  fourth  week  after  inoculation  a  pap 
ular  eruption  appears;  subsequently  excoria 
tions,  vesicles,  pustules,  and  deposition  of  pig 
ment  show  themselves,  which  are  merely  the 
results  of  scratching,  and  have  no  other  con 
nection  with  the  parasite  than  that  they  are 
caused  by  the  itching  which  the  animal  excites. 
The  same  results  precisely  would  follow  the 
same  amount  of  scratching  from  any  other 
cause. — A  peculiar  form,  known  as  the  Nor 
way  itch,  consists  of  conical  crusts,  sometimes 
an  inch  thick,  raised  on  the  surface  of  the 
skin.  This  variety  affects  even  the  face  and 
nails.  Its  common  occurrence  in  Norway  and 
rarity  elsewhere,  only  half  a  dozen  cases  hav 
ing  been  observed  in  other  countries,  has  led 
to  the  supposition  that  the  disease  is  owing  to 
some  other  acarus  ;  but  Hebra  has  shown  that 
the  crusts  consist  of  dried  epithelium  and  dead 
acari,  and  in  the  few  cases  in  which  they  have 
been  found  present  the  live  animals  were  iden 
tical  with  the  ordinary  sarcoptes.  This  va 
riety  leads  often  to  serious  complications,  as 
immobility  and  great  swelling  of  the  limbs. 
Sometimes  a  circumscribed  part  of  the  body  is 
thus  affected,  while  elsewhere  it  presents  the 
usual  appearances  of  itch.  No  satisfactory  ex 
planation  has  yet  been  offered  of  its  cause,  but 
it  yields  to  treatment  as  well  as  the  simple 
sort. — Scabies  is  found  all  over  the  world.  In 
Germany,  where  the  old  system  of  apprentice 
ship  and  its  attendant  wanderings  through  the 
land  is  kept  up,  and  where  barracks  are  filled 
with  dirty  soldiery,  the  disease  is  borne  from 
one  part  of  the  land  to  another,  and  thus  never 
dies  out.  In  America  it  is  now  comparatively 
rare,  though  it  occasionally  runs  through  asy 
lums  and  schools,  and  thus  finds  its  way  into 
good  society.  As  to  treatment,  the  chief  in 
dication  is  of  course  to  destroy  the  parasite 
and  its  eggs.  Little  can  be  said  here  about 
the  many  plans  of  the  present  dermatologists ; 
and  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  the 
use  of  internal  remedies  is  absurd.  Several 
methods  have  been  advised,  called  "quick 
cures,"  which  require  but  a  few  hours  for  their 
application;  but  in  many  cases  they  fail,  and 
produce  an  artificial  inflammation  of  the  skin. 
Of  course,  if  any  animal  or  a  single  egg  re 
main,  the  disease  is  not  cured.  Hundreds  of 
remedies  are  advised,  but  the  essential  agent  in 
its  treatment  is  sulphur.  This,  in  the  form  of 
lotions  or  ointment,  and  combined  with  the 
proper  use  of  baths  and  potash  soaps  to  soften 
the  skin,  will  almost  always  cure  in  two  or 
three  days.  But  after  the  death  of  the  ani 
mals  and"  their  embryos,  much  may  still  remain 
to  be  done  to  remove  the  eczema,  papules,  and 
pustules  which  they  have  indirectly  caused,  and 
which  are  to  be  treated  as  simple  cases  of  the 
same  disease. 


ITHACA 


ITURBIDE 


471 


ITHACA,  a  village  in  the  town  of  the  same 
name,  capital  of  Tompkins  co.,  New  York, 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Cayuga  inlet,  1£  m. 
from  the  head  or  S.  end  of  Cayuga  lake,  and 
142  m.  TV.  by  S.  of  Albany;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,462;  of  the  town,  10,107.  The  village  is 
built  partly  on  a  fine  plain,  partly  on  the  slope 
of  a  range  of  hills  which  bound  it  on  all  sides 
except  the  north.  The  court  house,  jail,  and 
clerk's  office  are  good  brick  or  stone  buildings. 
There  are  10  or  12  beautiful  cascades  in  or  near 
the  village.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Cayuga 
division  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western  railroad,  and  of  the  Ithaca  and  Athens, 
the  Geneva  and  Ithaca,  the  Ithaca  and  Cort- 
land,  and  the  Cayuga  Lake  railroads ;  while  by 
means  of  a  daily  line  of  steamboats  on  the  lake 
between  Ithaca  and  Cayuga  bridge,  it  is  con 
nected  with  the  New  York  Central  railroad. 
It  is  a  place  of  commercial  activity,  and  an 
entrepot  for  the  transshipment  of  Scranton 
and  Lackawanna  and  Lehigh  Valley  coal.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  of  paper,  bent  work, 
agricultural  implements,  calendar  clocks,  glass, 
steam  engines,  and  boats.  There  are  two  na 
tional  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $500,- 
000.  The  village  is  the  seat  of  Cornell  uni 
versity.  (See  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY.)  Graded 
public  schools  are  in  process  of  organization, 
and  there  are  several  private  schools,  a  pre 
paratory  school,  a  public  library,  one  daily 
and  four  weekly  newspapers,  and  12  churches. 

ITHACA  (mod.  Gr.  Thiaki),  the  sixth  in  size 
of  the  Ionian  islands,  2  m.  E.  of  Cephalonia, 
of  which  it  forms  an  eparchy,  and  17  m.  TV. 
of  the  mainland  of  Greece;  length  15  m., 
greatest  breadth  4  m. ;  area,  38  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,873.  It  is  nearly  divided  by  the 
deep  harbor  of  Porto  Molo  on  the  E.  coast. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  a  limestone  range, 
with  many  craggy  peaks,  running  the  whole 
length  of  the  island.  The  soil  is  light  and  shal 
low,  but  nearly  one  third  of  the  surface  is  cul 
tivated,  and  yields  grain,  currants,  and  olives, 
which  with  good  wine  and  honey  are  the  prin 
cipal  agricultural  products.  The  people  are 
mainly  engaged  in  maritime  trade.  The  climate 
is  noted  for  its  salubrity.  The  capital  and  chief 
port  is  Vathy,  built  on  a  harbor  of  the  Porto 
Molo.  The  island  is  divided  into  four  districts : 
Vathy,  Aeto,  Anoge,  and  Exoge.  Ithaca  is 
commonly  believed  to  be  the  island  of  that 
name  celebrated  in  the  Homeric  poems  as  the 
kingdom  of  Ulysses.  On  the  sides  and  summit 
of  Mount  Aeto,  which  rises  1,200  ft.  above  the 
sea,  at  the  foot  of  Porto  Molo,  are  some  Cyclo 
pean  ruins  which  the  islanders  call  the  Castle 
of  Ulysses.  At  the  foot  of  a  white  cliff  on  the 
S.  E.  coast  there  is  a  perennial  spring,  tradi 
tionally  regarded  as  the  famous  fountain  of 
Arethusa ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  precipice 
is  the  one  to  which  the  poet  refers  when  he 
represents  Ulysses  as  challenging  Euma?us  "  to 
throw  him  over  the  great  rock "  if  he  lies. — 
See  Schliemann,  Itkaka,  der  Peloponnes  und 
•Troja  (Leipsic,  1809). 


ITTEXBACH,  Franz,  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Konigswinter,  near  Bonn,  in  1813.  He 
studied  in  Diisseldorf  under  Schadow,  and  in 
Italy,  and  became  known  as  one  of  the  best  re 
ligious  painters  of  the  Dusseldorf  school,  and  as 
a  successful  imitator  of  the  Italian  masters.  His 
"Holy  Family  in  Egypt"  was  purchased  in 
1808  for  the  national  gallery  at  Berlin. 

ITIKBIDE,  Agustiu  de,  emperor  of  Mexico, 
born  at  Valladolid  (now  Morelia),  Sept.  27, 
1783,  executed  near  Padilla,  July  19, 1824.  His 
parents  were  from  Pamplona,  Spain,  and  set 
tled  in  New  Spain  shortly  before  his  birth. 
He  studied  at  the  seminary  of  his  native  town 
until  the  death  of  his  father,  when  at  the  age 
of  15  years  he  assumed  the  direction  of  the 
patrimonial  estates.  In  the  same  year  (1798) 
he  became  lieutenant  in  a  militia  infantry  regi 
ment  of  Valladolid.  In  1805  he  joined  the 
army  at  Jalapa.  On  his  return  in  1809  he  aid 
ed  in  repressing  a  revolutionary  movement, 
which  was  followed  on  Sept.  16,  1810,  by  the 
revolution  planned  by  the  priest  Hidalgo,  who 
offered  to  make  Iturbide  lieutenant  general. 
He  declined  from  a  conviction  that  the  plan 
was  not  feasible,  and  Hidalgo  sought  to  se 
cure  his  neutrality,  granting  him  a  safe-con 
duct  for  himself  and  family,  and  promising 
that  his  hacienda  should  be  protected  from 
pillage  and  fire.  But  this  proposal  also  was 
rejected,  and  Iturbide  took  the  field  "in  the 
service  of  the  Mexicans,  the  king  of  Spain,  and 
the  Spaniards,"  vying  with  the  latter  in  rigor 
toward  the  insurgents.  He  gained  great  dis 
tinction  in  the  battle  of  Cruces,  and  was  made 
a  captain  in  the  southern  army ;  but  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  go  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  and 
he  was  sent  to  Michoacan  as  second  in  command 
under  Garcia  Conde.  Here  he  again  aided  in 
quenching  the  revolutionary  fire,  rekindled  by 
Albino  Garcia,  whom  he  captured ;  and  he  was 
soon  afterward  made  colonel.  From  that  time 
till  the  end  of  1815  he  took  part  in  all  the  en 
gagements  of  the  royal  troops,  directed  for  the 
most  part  against  Jose  Maria  Morelos,  who  af 
ter  the  execution  of  Hidalgo  succeeded  him  as 
leader  of  the  insurgent  forces.  The  year  1816 
found  him  in  command  of  the  provinces  of 
Guanajuato  and  Michoacan,  and  of  the  north 
ern  army,  by  which  they  were  then  occupied ; 
but  he  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  some 
leading  citizens,  and  grave  accusations  were 
preferred  against  him,  which  led  to  his  dismis 
sal,  although  he  was  acquitted  of  the  most  seri 
ous  charge,  that  of  complicity  with  the  revo 
lutionists.  On  returning  to  private  life,  Itur 
bide  set  seriously  to  maturing  his  long  cher 
ished  project  of  independence,  and  events  soon 
opened  a  way  to  the  accomplishment  of  his 
design.  The  news  of  the  Spanish  constitution, 
proclaimed  in  the  peninsula  in  1820,  tilled  Mex 
ican  soldiers  with  the  desire  of  freeing  their 
country.  The  movement  soon  became  general, 
and  Iturbide,  seeing  that  the  time  for  action 
had  come,  secured  the  command  of  the  south 
ern  army,  about  to  march  against  Guerrero, 


472 


ITURBIDE 


who  was  then  at  Acapulco  at  the  head  of  the 
remaining  rebel  forces.  On  Nov.  16,  1820,  lie 
set  out  from  the  capital,  and  to  lull  the  suspi 
cions  of  the  government  simulated  some  en 
counters  with  Guerrero,  to  whom  he  in  reality 
communicated  his  project;  and  having  con 
certed  with  him  relative  to  future  operations, 
he  informed  the  viceroy  that  the  rebellion  was 
entirely  at  an  end.  This  intelligence  restored 
confidence  among  merchants,  and  a  convoy  was 
despatched  to  Acapulco  with  $525,000,  which 
money  Iturbide  seized,  promising  to  refund  it 
to  its  owners.  With  these  resources  at  his 
disposal,  and  secret  agents  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  he  promulgated  on  Feb.  24,  1821,  his 
plan  of  independence,  known  in  history  as 
the  "plan  of  Iguala,"  from  the  name  of  the 
town  where  it  was  put  forth.  The  principal 
bases  of  the  plan  were  "  religion,  union  of 
Spaniards  and  Mexicans,  and  independence; 
Ferdinand  VII.,  or  in  case  of  his  refusal,  such 
other  member  of  a  reigning  family  as  the  con 
gress  soon  to  be  organized  might  choose,  to  be 
called  to  the  new  empire."  His  next  step  was 
to  inform  the  viceroy  of  what  had  taken  place ; 
and  the  latter  immediately  organized  an  army 
to  crush  the  revolution  in  its  infancy.  But 
this  measure  came  too  late  ;  public  opinion  was 
everywhere  in  favor  of  the  plan  of  Iguala,  and 
its  author  began  his  march  toward  the  capital 
with  comparatively  little  opposition,  his  forces 
increasing  daily.  Meantime  the  newly  ap 
pointed  viceroy,  Don  Juan  de  O'Donoju,  ar 
rived  from  Spain,  and  finding  the  suppression 
of  the  new  order  of  things  to  be  impossible,  he 
concluded  with  Iturbide,  at  Cordova,  Aug.  24, 
1821,  a  treaty  in  accordance  with  the  plan  of 
Iguala,  except  in  the  clause  relating  to  the  elec 
tion  of  emperor,  who,  in  case  of  the  refusal 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  and  of  some  other  princes 
enumerated,  should  be  "  any  one  designated  by 
the  cortes."  On  Sept.  27  Iturbide  made  his 
entry  into  the  capital  amid  the  acclamations  of 
the  people.  The  junta  gubernativa  prescribed 
in  the  plan  of  Iguala  was  at  once  organized, 
and  Iturbide,  who  at  Iguala  had  prudently  re 
fused  the  title  of  lieutenant  general,  and  ac 
cepted  that  of  first  chief  of  the  army,  was 
formally  installed  in  office.  Peace  was  soon 
established ;  the  few  Spanish  troops  in  garrison 
at  important  stations  became  discouraged ;  the 
only  stronghold  left  to  the  Spanish  government 
was  the  fortress  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua  off  Vera 
Cruz ;  and  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  with  the 
province  of  Chiapas,  and  several  towns  in  Gua 
temala,  declared  their  independence  and  were 
ultimately  united  to  the  Mexican  empire.  Such 
of  the  Spanish  residents  as  desired  to  leave  the 
country  were  permitted  to  do  so  without  re 
straint  ;  which  liberal  measure,  with  numerous 
others  emanating  from  the  new  government, 
served  to  increase  its  short-lived  popularity. 
But  Iturbide,  who  had  been  so  successful  in 
organizing  and  carrying  out  a  bloodless  revolu 
tion,  was  unable  to  establish  a  government  upon 
a  solid  basis.  A  regency,  composed  of  three 


members,  according  to  the  plan,  was  appointed ; 
Iturbide  was  proclaimed  generalissimo  of  the 
land  and  marine  forces,  and  president  of  the 
regency,  with  an  annual  salary  of  $120,000,  an 
immediate  donation  of  $1,000,000,  20  square 
leagues  of  land  in  Texas,  and  the  title  of  serene 
highness.  Before  long  signs  of  discord  be 
tween  Iturbide  and  the  junta  became  visible. 
The  treasury  was  depleted,  and  nearly  all 
sources  of  revenue  were  cut  off,  while  the  na 
tional  expenses  were  greatly  enhanced ;  the 
army  was  without  discipline ;  and  public  opinion 
was  divided  between  republicanism  and  the  new 
form  of  government.  Iturbide  hastened  the 
convocation  of  the  first  congress,  in  the  hope 
of  immediate  relief ;  but  that  body  obstinately 
refused  to  grant  him  money  for  the  troops,  and 
even  declared  the  command  of  the  army  to  be 
incompatible  with  the  executive  power.  But 
the  generalissimo  had  10,000  men  at  his  dis 
posal  in  the  capital ;  and  through  the  agency 
of  his  partisans,  who  knew  his  popularity  Avith 
the  military,  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  on 
the  night  of  May  18,  1822.  On  the  21st  the 
proclamation  was  confirmed  by  congress,  which 
declared  the  crown  hereditary  in  his  family, 
fixed  the  civil  list  at  $1,500,000  annually, 
created  an  order  of  knighthood  and  other  ac 
cessories  of  a  monarchy,  established  the  impe 
rial  household  with  the  customary  pomp,  and 
ordered  money  to  be  coined  with  his  effigy. 
He  was  crowned  on  July  21.  But  the  symp 
toms  of  anarchy  had  not  disappeared ;  the 
friends  of  liberal  institutions  either  fled  or 
temporized;  and  a  conspiracy  organized  in 
Valladolid  led  to  the  arrest  of  several  persons 
suspected  of  participating  therein,  and  among 
them  15  deputies.  This  act,  together  with  the 
arbitrary  seizure  by  the  government  of  $1,300,- 
000  deposited  at  Perote  and  Jalapa,  exaspera 
ted  the  people ;  and  the  emperor,  harassed  by 
the  continued  opposition  of  the  congress,  dis 
solved  that  body  by  decree  on  Oct.  31.  But 
Santa  Anna  proclaimed  the  republic  at  Vcra 
Cruz  on  Dec.  2;  the  junta  instituycnU,  which 
had  succeeded  the  congress,  was  unable  to  es  • 
tablish  order ;  defection  became  general  among 
the  army  officers,  and  the  republican  troops 
were  fast  advancing  to  the  capital.  Iturbide 
in  despair  hastily  reassembled  the  congress, 
and  tendered  his  abdication;  but  that  body, 
not  recognizing  the  abdication,  annulled  the 
election  of  the  emperor,  and  decreed  that  he 
should  at  once  leave  the  country  and  u  fix  his 
residence  in  Italy,"  granting  him  a  yearly  pen 
sion  of  $25,000,  and  declaring  null  the  plan 
of  Iguala  and  the  treaty  of  Cordova.  On  May 
11,  1823,  Iturbide  set  sail  for  Leghorn,  whither 
he  arrived  on  Aug.  2.  But,  impelled  by  an  in 
sane  desire  for  the  recovery  of  his  crown,  he 
proceeded  to  England,  and  on  May  11,  1824, 
embarked  for  Mexico.  During  the  year  a  new 
government  had  been  formed,  with  a  republi 
can  constitution,  and  Iturbide  had  no  influen 
tial  friends  left  in  the  country.  The  govern- 
|  ment,  apprised  of  his  movements,  declared  him 


ITZA 


IYES 


473 


"  a  traitor  and  an  outlaw,  in  case  he  should  at 
any  time,  and  under  any  title  whatsoever,  set 
his  foot  upon  Mexican  territory,  and  that  by 
that  act  alone  he  should  be  regarded  as  a  public 
enemy  of  the  state."  Iturbide  arrived  at  Soto 
la  Marina  on  July  14,  unaware  of  the  severe 
measures  taken  against  him,  and  landed  in  dis 
guise,  in  company  with  his  secretary  Beneski ; 
but  he  was  apprehended  by  the  military  com 
mandant,  who  retained  him  a  prisoner  at  Pa- 
dilla,  awaiting  the  decision  of  the  congress  of 
Tarnaulipas.  That  body,  in  spite  of  entreaties, 
remonstrances,  and  protestations  of  innocence, 
in  proof  of  which  he  referred  to  the  presence 
of  his  wife  and  children  on  board  the  vessel 
he  had  come  in,  sentenced  him  to  immediate 
execution.  He  was  shot  on  the  evening  of 
July  19,  after  assuring  the  multitude  that  his 
intentions  were  not  treasonable,  and  exhorting 
them  to  religion,  patriotism,  and  obedience  to 
the  government.  The  congress  of  Mexico  de 
creed  that  his  family  should  reside  in  Colom 
bia,  and  settled  upon  them  a  yearly  pension  of 
$8,000.  But  as  there  was  no  ship  for  a  Colom 
bian  port,  his  wife  was  permitted  to  go  to  the 
United  States.  She  lived  for  many  years  in 
Philadelphia,  and  then  went  to  Bayonne  in 
France.  Angel  de  Iturbide,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  emperor,  died  in  the  city  of  Mexico  in 
1872,  leaving  a  son  who  had  been  adopted  by 
Maximilian  as  heir  to  the  throne  ;  and  the  em 
peror  Iturbide's  younger  son  died  in  Paris  in 
May,  1873,  where  he  had  earned  a  precarious 
subsistence  as  keeper  of  a  public  house. 

ITZA,  Lake  of.     See  PETEX. 

ITZAES,  a  powerful  Indian  family  of  Central 
America,  who  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  in 
habited  the  islands  and  shores  of  Lake  Itza  or 
Peten  in  Guatemala.  They  spoke  a  dialect  of 
the  language  of  the  Mayas,  and  were  probably 
a  branch  of  that  nation  ;  for  tradition  reports 
that  on  a  disruption  of  the  feudal  monarchy  of 
Yucatan  in  1420,  one  of  the  powerful  caneJcs 
or  princes  migrated  southward  with  his  fol 
lowers,  and  after  many  wanderings  fixed  his 
seat  on  the  island  of  Tayasal,  in  the  lake  of  Chul- 
tuna,  now  Peten.  He  built  a  considerable  city, 
and  his  people  increased  so  rapidly  that,  ac 
cording  to  the  chroniclers,  they  numbered  25,- 
000  on  the  island,  besides  a  large  population 
in  the  adjacent  country.  Cortes  reached  the 
retreat  of  the  Itzaes  in  his  march  from  Mexico 
to  Honduras  in  1525,  and  has  left  us  an  account 
of  their  chief  and  his  insular  capital.  The 
cauek  received  the  Spaniards  kindly,  and  ele 
vated  to  the  rank  of  a  god  a  lamed  horse  which 
Cortes  left  with  him.  Its  image,  cut  in  stone, 
was  found  in  the  temple  of  Tayasal  when  it 
was  destroyed  in  1(598.  Their  country  being 
destitute  of  the  precious  metals,  and  remote 
from  the  sea,  the  Itzaes  Avere  suffered  to  re 
tain  their  independence  and  isolation  long  after 
the  subjugation  of  Yucatan  and  the  principal 
parts  of  Central  America.  Until  1G98  they 
had  successfully  defended  themselves  against 
numerous  invaders  ;  but  in  that  year  they  were 


finally  subdued  by  Manuel  de  Ursula,  governor 
of  Yucatan,  whose  troops  spent  a  whole  day, 
says  Villagutlerre,  in  destroying  the  temples 
of  the  city  alone.  Numbers  of  the  Itzaes  fled 
eastward  and  were  confounded  among  other 
tribes ;  the  descendants  of  those  who  remained, 
though  subject  to  Guatemala,  and  nominally 
Catholics,  have  made  little  change  from  the 
condition  of  their  forefathers. 

IVAN,  czars.     See  BUSSIA. 

IVAINOFF,  Alexander  Andreyeyitch,  a  Russian 
painter,  born  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1801,  died 
there,  July  15,  1858.  He  studied  in  that  city, 
and  became  known  in  1832  by  his  u  Christ  and 
Magdalen,"  and  subsequently  by  a  colossal 
painting  representing  "  Christ  appearing  be 
fore  the  People,"  executed  in  Rome,  where  he 
lived  for  about  20  years. 

IYES,  Leii  Silliman,  an  American  bishop,  born 
in  Meriden,  Conn.,  Sept.  16,  1797,  died  in 
New  York,  Oct.  13,  1867.  He  was  brought  up 
on  a  farm  in  Turin,  Lewis  co.,  N.  Y.,  to 
which  his  father  had  removed.  When  15  years 
old  he  was  sent  to  the  academy  at  Lowville, 
where  his  studies  were  interrupted  nearly  a 
year  by  his  service  in  the  war  with  England, 
under  Gen.  Pike.  He  entered  Hamilton  college 
in  the  summer  of  1816  to  prepare  for  the 
ministry  of  the  Presbyterian  church  ;  but  from 
impaired  health  he  left  college  before  the  close 
of  his  senior  year.  Having  changed  his  reli 
gious  views,  he  joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  in  1819,  studied  theology  in  New  York, 
and  received  deacon's  orders  in  August,  1822. 
His  first  services  were  rendered  at  Batavia, 
N.  Y.,  then  a  missionary  station.  Thence  he 
went  the  next  year  to  the  charge  of  Trinity 
church,  Philadelphia,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood.  In  1827  he  took  charge  of  Christ 
church,  Lancaster,  Pa. ;  at  the  end  of  the  year 
he  became  assistant  minister  of  Christ  church, 
New  York,  and  about  six  months  after  was 
made  rector  of  St.  Luke's  church  in  the  same 
city.  He  served  in  this  place  till  September, 
1831,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  North 
Carolina.  To  promote  the  cause  of  education 
in  the  church,  he  established  an  institution  at 
Valle  Crucis,  among  the  mountains  of  that 
state,  which  finally  exposed  him  to  great  pe 
cuniary  loss.  Soon  after  his  settlement  in  his 
diocese  he  prepared  a  catechism  for  slaves, 
which  was  successfully  introduced  under  his 
own  supervision  on  some  of  the  large  planta 
tions.  He  published  a  volume  of  discourses  on 
the  "Apostles'  Doctrine  and  Fellowship,"  and 
another  on  the  "  Obedience  of  Faith  "  (New 
York,  1849).  During  the  excitement  in  the 
Episcopal  church  caused  by  the  Oxford  tracts, 
he  sided  strongly  with  the  tractarian  move 
ment  ;  and  though  his  diocese  was  eminently 
high  church,  his  language  and  acts  touching 
this  movement  excited  distrust,  and  the  result 
was  alienation.  In  December,  1852,  he  visited 
Rome,  and  was  there  admitted  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  He  was  consequently  de 
posed  from  his  bishopric,  Oct.  14,  1853,  and 


474: 


IVORY 


published  "  The  Trials  of  a  Mind  in  its  Progress 
to  Catholicism"  (London  and  Boston,  1854). 
After  his  return  he  became  professor  of  rheto 
ric  in  St.  Joseph's  theological  seminary  at  Ford- 
ham,  and  lecturer  on  rhetoric  and  the  English 
language  in  the  convents  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
and  the  sisters  of  charity.  His  last  years  were 
devoted  to  establishing  the  protectories  for  des 
titute  Roman  Catholic  children  at  West  Chester, 
N.  Y.,  and  to  teaching  in  Manhattan ville  col 
lege,  New  York,  which  he  aided  in  founding. 

IVORY,  the  osseous  substance  which  composes 
the  tusk  of  the  elephant,  and  which  is  a  pecu 
liar  modification  of  dentine.  In  commerce  it  is 
customary  to  include  in  the  term  the  tusks  of 
the  hippopotamus,  the  walrus,  the  narwhal,  and 
some  other  animals;  but  according  to  Owen 
and  other  high  authorities  it  can  only  be  strictly 
applied  to  the  peculiar  reticulated  modification 
in  the  elephant's  tusk,  although  this  is  analo 
gous  to  the  substance  (dentine)  which  forms 
the  main  part  of  all  teeth.  The  appearance 
given  by  a  cross  section  of  any  portion  of  an 
elephant's  tusk,  of  circular  lines  intersecting 
each  other  so  as  to  form  lozenge-shaped  figures 
with  curved  boundaries,  distinguishes  true  ivo 
ry  from  all  other  bony  substances,  and  from  all 
other  tooth  substances,  whether  dentine  or  not. 
The  principal  supplies  of  ivory  are  derived  from 
the  W.  and  E.  coasts  of  Africa,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Ceylon,  India,  and  the  countries  east 
ward  of  the  straits  of  Malacca.  The  best  comes 
from  Africa,  and  is  of  a  finer  texture  and  less 
liable  to  turn  yellow  than  that  brought  from 
India.  Prof.  Owen  says:  "The  African  ele 
phant,  as  is  well  known,  is  a  distinct  species 
from  the  Asiatic  one ;  and  some  of  the  Asiatic 
elephants  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  as  those  of  Sumatra,  if  not  spe 
cifically  distinct  from  the  elephants  of  con 
tinental  Asia,  form  at  all  events  a  strongly 
marked  variety;"  and  he  remarks  that  in  the 
Asiatic  elephants  tusks  of  a  size  which  gives 
them  the  value  of  ivory  in  commerce  are  pecu 
liar  to  the  males,  while  in  the  African  ele 
phants  both  males  and  females  afford  good- 
sized  tusks,  although  the  males  have  the  largest. 
The  best  tusks  are  nearly  straight,  and  in  sec 
tion  nearly  circular.  One  of  the  largest  has 
been  found  to  measure  8J  in.  on  its  longer  and 
7  in.  on  its  shorter  diameter.  They  are  hollow 
for  about  half  their  length,  and  a  line  is  traced 
from  the  termination  of  the  cavity  to  the  tip 
of  the  tusk,  which  marks  in  the  solid  ivory 
the  former  extension  of  the  cavity.  Upon  the 
outside  they  are  coated  with  a  rind  one  tenth 
to  one  fifth  of  an  inch  thick,  the  color  of  which 
in  the  African  varieties  may  be  one  of  numer 
ous  transparent  tints  of  orange,  brown,  or  al 
most  black,  and  in  the  Asiatic  an  opaque  fawn 
or  stone  color.  It  conceals  the  quality  of  the 
ivory  within,  which  may  be  partially  exposed 
at  the  worn  tip,  but  is  finally  ascertained  only 
on  the  introduction  of  the  saw  by  which  the 
tusk  is  cut  up  for  use.  Even  in  the  interior 
it  is  often  found  to  be  of  variable  character, 


opaque  patches  appearing  in  the  transparent 
quality,  and  the  white  being  sometimes  marked 
in  rings  alternately  light  and  dark  colored.  In 
the  larger  teeth  the  grain  is  often  coarse  in  the 
outer  portion,  and  becomes  fine  within;  and 
some  varieties  are  of  chalky  consistency  like 
bone,  and  present  dark  brown  spots.  The 
qualities  are  so  variable,  that  when  exact 
matches  are  required  of  several  articles  it  is 
important  to  cut  them  from  the  same  tusk. 
The  chemical  composition  of  ivory  is  said  to 
differ  considerably  in  the  animals  of  different 
countries ;  but  this  probably  depends  upon  the 
age  of  the  animal  and  the  part  of  the  tusk  from 
which  the  specimen  is  taken,  although  the  kind 
of  food  will  exercise  an  influence.  The  follow 
ing  analysis,  taken  from  the  Dictionnaire  uni- 
versel,  may  be  assumed  as  its  average  compo 
sition  :  animal  matter,  dried,  24*00 ;  water, 
11-15;  phosphate  of  lime,  64*00;  carbonate  of 
lime,  O'lO.  By  very  long  exposure  under  fa 
voring  circumstances  the  animal  matter  be 
comes  dissipated,  rendering  the  texture  brit 
tle.  This  was  the  condition  of  some  ancient 
ivory  carvings  found  by  Layard  in  the  ruins 
of  Nineveh.  To  restore  their  tenacity  Prof. 
Owen  recommended  boiling  them  in  a  solution 
of  gelatine.  The  experiment  proved  perfect 
ly  successful,  and  the  ivory  thus  regained  its 
original  strength  and  solidity.  A  remarkable 
source  of  ivory,  which  has  long  supplied  the 
Russian  markets,  is  the  tusks  of  fossil  mam 
moths  found  in  the  banks  of  the  rivers  of 
northern  Siberia.  This  fossil  ivory  is  of  simi 
lar  quality  to  that  of  living  animals,  and  some 
of  the  tusks  are  of  immense  size.  Iloltzapffel 
says  he  has  seen  tusks  which  were  10  ft.  long 
and  weighed  18G  Ibs.  They  were  solid  from 
their  tips  to  within  6  in.  of  the  larger  end, 
and  the  ivory  was  of  fine  grain  and  sound  tex 
ture. — The  uses  of  ivory  are  very  numerous. 
It  is  exquisitely  smooth  in  working,  altogether 
devoid  of  the  harsh  meagre  character  of  bone, 
and  is  in  all  respects  the  most  suitable  material 
for  ornamental  turning,  as  it  is  capable  of  re 
ceiving  the  most  delicate  lines  and  cutting. 
The  artists  of  Greece  and  Rome  carved  from 
the  tusks  of  the  elephant  statues  and  various 
works  of  art,  among  which  those  of  Phidias 
are  especially  famous.  The  size  of  some  of  the 
statues  has  led  to  the  opinion  that  the  ancients 
obtained  larger  tusks  than  those  of  modern 
times,  or  that  they  had  a  method  of  softening 
and  flattening  out  the  material,  or  built  it  up 
in  plates  around  a  central  core.  (See  Quatre- 
mere  de  Quincy's  Le  Jupiter  olympien,  ou 
Fart  de  la  sculpture  antique,  Paris,  1815.) 
Ivory  was  a  favorite  material  for  sculpture 
also  in  the  middle  ages,  and  many  beautiful 
specimens  then  executed  are  preserved  in  mu 
seums  and  private  collections.  Dieppe  in  Nor 
mandy  has  been  for  two  centuries  the  chief 
seat  of  this  branch  of  art  in  modern  times. 
The  Chinese  possess  extraordinary  skill  in 
working  ivory,  carving  out  of  a  solid  block  a 
j  number  of  hollow  balls  one  within  another, 


IVORY 


IVORY  COAST 


475 


all  curiously  ornamented  with  various  devices. 
Their  chessmen  are  unequalled  in  ingenious 
workmanship.  Ivory  is  largely  used  for  the 
handles  of  knives,  and  for  the  keys  of  piano 
fortes  and  other  musical  instruments.  Its  fine 
texture  and  smooth  surface  recommend  it  for 
plates  for  miniatures ;  and  it  is  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  toys,  and  of  mathematical  and  other 
instruments.  For  drawing  scales  the  material 
is  not  found  so  suitable  as  box  or  lance  wood, 
for  its  dimensions  change  as  it  absorbs  and 
gives  out  atmospheric  moisture.  Billiard  balls 
are  liable  to  the  same  difficulty;  and  as  the 
shrinkage  or  expansion  is  greater  in  the  direc 
tion  of  the  width  of  the  tusks  than  in  that  of 
their  length,  the  two  diameters  of  the  balls  are 
sometimes  found  to  differ  materially  after  they 
have  been  made  a  short  time.  For  this  reason 
they  are  sometimes  roughly  shaped  and  then 
kept  for  months  in  the  room  in  which  they 
are  to  be  used,  to  acquire  the  form  due  to  its 
usual  condition  as  to  moisture,  when  they  are 
finished.  Veneers  are  cut  out  of  the  blocks 
either  in  straight  longitudinal  slips,  or,  by  the 
method  first  practised  by  the  Russians  upon 
cylindrical  blocks  of  wood,  in  a  spiral  sheet,  as 
if  this  were  unrolled  from  the  cylinder  sub 
mitted  to  the  operation.  In  the  London  exhi 
bition  of  1851  a  veneer  of  this  kind  was  ex 
hibited  in  the  United  States  department,  afoot 
wide  and  40  ft.  long.  In  Paris  they  have  been 
cut  in  strips  of  30  by  150  in. ;  and  a  pianoforte 
has  been  entirely  covered  with  this  material. 
Ivory  may  be  made  flexible  by  immersion  in  a 
solution  of  phosphoric  acid  of  specific  gravity 
1-13  till  it  becomes  translucent.  It  hardens  on 
exposure  to  dry  air,  but  assumes  its  flexibility 
when  placed  in  hot  water. — Ivory  may  be  dyed 
black  by  soaking  it  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver  and  exposing  it  to  the  sunlight,  or  better 
by  boiling  for  some  time  in  a  decoction  of  log 
wood  and  then  steeping  in  a  solution  of  red 
sulphate  or  red  acetate  of  iron;  blue  by  im 
mersion  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo  con 
taining  potash ;  green  by  dipping  the  blued 
ivory  in  a  solution  of  nitre-muriate  of  tin,  and 
then  in  a  hot  decoction  of  fustic ;  yellow  by 
first  soaking  the  ivory  in  a  mordant  of  nitro- 
muriate  of  tin  and  then  in  a  hot  decoction  of 
fustic,  or  better  by  steeping  it  for  24  hours 
in  a  solution  of  neutral  chromate  of  potash, 
and  then  immersing  it  in  a  boiling  hot  so 
lution  of  acetate  of  lead ;  red  by  first  satura 
ting  it  with  the  tin  mordant,  and  then  immers 
ing  it  in  a  decoction  of  Brazil  wood  or  cochi 
neal,  or  a  mixture  of  both.  Lac  dye  will  pro 
duce  a  scarlet,  and  this  immersed  in  a  solution 
of  potash  will  become  a  cherry  red.  Violet  is 
produced  by  mordanting  with  tin  and  then 
treating  with  a  decoction  of  logwood ;  if  this 
is  placed  a  short  time  in  a  weak  solution  of 
nitro-muriatic  acid,  it  will  be  changed  to  a 
beautiful  purple  red.  Ivory  may  also  be  dyed 
with  any  of  the  aniline  colors. — The  imports  of 
ivory,  hippopotamus  teeth,  and  narwhal  teeth 
into  Great  Britain  from  1861  to  1871  varied 


from  9,290  cwt.  to  14,599  cwt.  a  year. — Vari 
ous  substitutes  for  ivory  have  been  introduced. 
The  best  known  is  that  called  vegetable  ivory, 
an  albuminous  substance  formed  from  a  milky 
fluid  in  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  palm  common 
in  Peru  and  New  Granada,  the  phytelephas 
macrocarpa.  It  corresponds  to  the  meat  of 
the  cocoanut,  the  fruit  of  another  species  of 
palm.  When  the  nuts  are  perfectly  ripe  and 
dry,  the  kernels  are  hard  like  ivory  and  very 
white.  It  answers  very  well  for  many  small 
articles  instead  of  the  genuine  ivory,  but  is 
more  liable  to  tarnish,  and  does  not  wear  so 
well  when  exposed  to  friction.  The  French 
preparation  known  as  Pinson's  artificial  ivory 
is  a  compound  of  gelatine  and  alumina.  Slabs 
or  tablets  of  gelatine  or  glue  are  immersed  for 
some  time  in  a  solution  of  alumina  in  acetic 
or  sulphuric  acid.  The  alumina  separates  and 
becomes  incorporated  with  the  glue,  and  the 
plates  are  then  removed,  dried,  and  finally  pol 
ished.  Another  preparation  of  artificial  ivory 
is  made  by  working  together  bone  or  ivory 
dust  with  an  equal  portion  of  albumen  or  gela 
tine  to  form  a  paste,  and  then  rolling  this  into 
sheets,  and  hardening  them  by  drying.  Sul 
phate  of  barytes  finely  powdered  is  used  to  ad 
vantage  with  one  half  its  quantity  of  albumen. 
Tablets  thus  prepared  are  used  in  photography 
to  receive  positive  pictures. — IVOEY  BLACK, 
prepared  by  calcining  the  shavings  and  dust  of 
ivory,  is  ground  and  levigated  on  a  porphyry 
slab  to  produce  the  beautiful  velvety  material 
which  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  the  ink  used 
in  copperplate  printing.  (See  BOXE  BLACK.) 

IVORY,  James,  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born 
in  Dundee  in  1765,  died  near  London,  Sept  21, 
1842.  He  completed  his  professional  course  in 
theology  at  the  university  of  St.  Andrews  in 
1786,  after  which  he  was  a  teacher  in  the  acad 
emy  of  Dundee  for  three  years.  lie  was  after 
ward  for  15  years  superintendent  of  a  flax- 
spinning  factory  at  Douglastown.  Meantime 
he  pursued  his  mathematical  studies,  and  be 
came  known  by  remarkable  memoirs  read  be 
fore  the  royal  society  of  Edinburgh.  In  1804 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  royal  military  college,  then  at  Marlow, 
Buckinghamshire.  He  retired  with  a  pension 
in  1819,  and  from  that  time  prosecuted  his  fa 
vorite  studies  in  the  vicinity  of  London.  lie 
was  a  member  of  the  principal  learned  societies 
of  England  and  Germany,  and  in  1831  received 
an  annual  pension  of  £300.  His  principal 
writings  are  papers  in  the  "Transactions"  of 
the  royal  societies  of  Edinburgh  and  London. 
Three  of  these  were  on  the  attractions  of  the 
spheroids,  and  contained  a  process  of  analysis 
which  was  acknowledged  by  Laplace  to  be  su 
perior  to  his  own. 

IVORY  COAST,  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Upper 
Guinea,  W.  Africa,  between  the  Grain  coast 
and  the  Gold  coast,  extending  from  Cape  Pal- 
mas  to  the  Assinie  river.  The  coast  is  low, 
marshy,  and  unhealthy,  but  the  country  back 
of  it  rises  into  table  lands  of  vast  extent  and 


476 


IVREA 


IVY 


great  fertility.  It  is  drained  by  a  few  small 
rivers,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Lahu, 
Tabetah,  and  Cavally.  There  are  a  number  of 
small  native  towns  on  the  coast,  among  which 
are  Grand  Lahu,  Jack  Lahu,  Jack-Jack,  and 
Grand  Ivorytown,  which  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  gold  dust,  palm  oil,  and  ivory.  The 
French  trading  station  of  Grand  Bassam  has 
been  abandoned  since  1870. 

IVREA  (anc.  Eporedia),  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  and  30  m.  N.  N".  E.  of  the  city  of 
Turin ;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  walled  and  for 
tified,  and  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of 
the  Alps,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Val  d'Aosta, 
and  on  the  river  Dora  Baltea,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  which  is  one  of  the  two  suburbs.  The 
Gothic  cathedral  is  believed  to  occupy  the  site 
of  a  temple  of  Apollo,  and  several  of  the  par 
ish  churches  are  very  old.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  and  contains  an  episcopal  seminary  and 
various  schools.  Woollens,  cottons,  silks,  ver 
micelli,  and  other  articles  are  manufactured, 
and  there  are  dye  and  tile  works. — Eporedia 
was  a  considerable  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and 
the  strength  of  its  strategical  position,  com 
manding  two  great  passes  of  the  Alps,  gave  it 
importance.  Ivrea  was  a  marquisate  under 
Charlemagne,  which  in  the  13th  century  was 
united  with  Savoy. 

IVRY-LA-BATAILLE,  a  village  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Eure  and  on  the  river  Eure, 
about  40  m.  W.  of  Paris;  pop.  about  1,200. 
It  contains  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  and 
renowned  manufactories  of  wind  instruments. 
It  passed  through  many  vicissitudes  during  the 
wars  with  England,  and  Dunois  captured  it  in 
1449  and  destroyed  the  fortifications.  It  is 
most  celebrated  for  the  decisive  victory  gained 
on  the  adjoining  plain  by  Henry  IV.,  March 
14,  1590,  over  the  forces  of  the  league  under 
the  duke  of  Mayenne.  The  obelisk  on  the  site 
of  the  battle,  pulled  down  in  1793,  was  restored 
by  Napoleon  in  1809. 

*  IVRY-SUR-SEINE,  a  village  of  France,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Seine,  about  a  mile  from  the 
southern  enceinte  of  Paris ;  pop.  in  1866,  10,- 
199.  It  is  pleasantly  situated,  contains  a  fine 
parish  church,  a  terrace  of  an  old  palace,  a  re 
nowned  maison  de  smite  for  lunatics,  and  ex 
tensive  wine  vaults  in  natural  caves  cut  in  the 
rocks.  There  are  many  handsome  villas  around 
it.  Vast  quantities  of  wine  bottles  and  many 
other  articles  are  manufactured  here.  The  fort 
of  Ivry  figured  conspicuously  during  the  siege 
of  Paris  in  1870-'71. 

IVY,  a  common  name,  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  for  species  of  the  genus  hedera  (Celtic 
hedm,  a  cord)  of  the  araliacccp,  a  family  which 
is  closely  related  to  the  umbelliferm,  but  differ 
ent  in  the  structure  of  its  fruit,  which  has 
always  more  than  two  carpels.  The  genus 
Jiedera  consists  of  evergreen  climbing  shrubs, 
with  simple  leaves  and  the  flowers  in  umbels. 
Its  most  familiar  representative  is  the  com 
mon  or  English  ivy,  //.  helix,  a  plant  which  con 
tributes  largely  to  the  English  landscape,  and 


around  which  are  clustered  so  much  of  poetry 
and  legend.  This  is  found  all  over  Britain,  in 
western  and  southern  Europe,  western  Asia, 
and  northern  Africa,  but  scarcely  at  all  in 
central  Europe.  In  its  wild  state  the  slender 
lower  branches  spread  upon  the  ground,  while 


English  Ivy  (Ilodora  helix). 

the  main  stems  climb  upon  trees,  buildings, 
and  other  supports  to  a  great  height,  by  means 
of  aerial  rootlets.  The  leaves  are  three-  to  five- 
lobed,  and  of  a  pleasing  dark  green  color.  The 
plant  rarely  flowers  until  it  has  reached  the 
summit  of  the  support  upon  which  it  climbs ; 
it  then  throws  out  from  the  main  stem  short 
flowering  branches,  upon  which  the  leaves  are 
not  lobed,  like  those  upon  the  other  stems,  but 
nearly  oval ;  each  branch  terminates  in  a  sort 
of  panicle  of  numerous  small  umbels  of  yel 
lowish  green  flowers;  these  open  in  early 
autumn ;  they  are  fragrant,  and  very  attractive 
to  bees ;  the  berries,  which  are  black,  ripen 
the  following  spring.  The  ivy  climbs  to  the 
tops  of  the  tallest  trees  and  surmounts  the 
.highest  buildings ;  the  largest  specimens  in 
England  have  trunks  10  to  11£  in.  in  diameter; 
it  is  a  very  long-lived  plant.  Ivy  formerly 
enjoyed  some  medicinal  reputation,  but  it  is 
scarcely  used  at  present ;  the  berries,  which  to 
man  are  emetic  and  cathartic,  are  readily  eaten 
by  various  birds ;  in  warm  climates  it  exudes 
an  aromatic,  resinous  matter,  said  to  possess 
stimulant  properties.  In  England  the  ivy  nat 
urally  clothes  ruins,  old  trees,  and  rocky  places, 
and  thus  forms  a  prominent  feature  in  the 
landscape ;  but  besides  this  it  is  largely  used  in 
gardening,  it  being  employed  to  cover  build 
ings,  to  form  evergreen  walls,  and  to  make 
screens  to  hide  unsightly  objects.  In  this 
country  ivy  cannot  be  considered  as  certainly 
hardy  north  of  Philadelphia ;  in  the  sheltered 
streets  of  cities  like  New  York  it  has  some 
times  attained  a  large  size,  to  be  destroyed  by 
an  unusually  severe  winter ;  it  is  not  only  the 
severity  of  the  winters  at  its  northern  limit 


IVY 


IXTLILXOCHITL 


477 


that  makes  it  difficult  of  cultivation,  but  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  latter  part  of  win 
ter  have  an  injurious  effect  upon  it ;  hence  it 
succeeds  best  upon  the  northern  sides  of  build 
ings.  In  Virginia  the  plant  flourishes  luxuri 
antly,  and  some  tine  specimens  may  be  found 
growing  upon  the  old  mansions  of  that  state. 
In  modern  gardening  ivy  has  been  introduced 
as  a  bedding  plant ;  it  is  grown  with  its  stems 
prostrate,  and  as  these  take  root  at  every  joint 
a  dense  mat  of  its  peculiar  dark  green  foliage 
may  be  readily  produced;  it  is  used  in  the 
form  of  broad  edgings  to  flower  beds  cut  in  the 
lawn,  as  well  as  to  form  beds  by  itself;  its 
darker  green  contrasted  with  the  light  green 
of  the  grass  produces  a  fine  effect.  In  the 
northern  states,  however,  the  great  use  of  ivy 
is  for  indoor  decoration,  for  which  purpose  it 
is  unequalled.  It  is  made  to  run  over  window 
frames,  over  the  arch  of  folding  doors,  along 
cornices,  around  picture  frames,  or  wherever 
it  may  be  desired.  It  is  also  used  to  form 
screens,  either  for  windows  or  for  use  in  vari 
ous  parts  of  the  room ;  a  trellis  of  the  desired 
form  is  fixed  to  a  platform,  upon  which  the 
ivy  plants  stand  in  pots  or  in  a  suitable  box. 
It  is  of  the  easiest  propagation,  and  for  after 
success  only  care  and  patience  are  required. 
Cuttings  may  be  rooted  in  the  usual  way  in 
sand,  or  a  branch  several  feet  long  may  be 
made  to  strike  root  by  surrounding  its  lower 
end  for  several  inches  with  a  ball  of  sphagnum 
moss,  which  is  to  be  tied  on.  The  ball  is 
placed  in  a  jar  or  other  convenient  receptacle 
in  which  it  can  be  kept  constantly  moist; 
when  roots  have  formed,  it  may  then  be  set  in 
a  pot  of  earth.  Ivy  requires  a  rich  soil,  and 
while  it  is  growing  an  abundance  of  water. 
The  principal  care  it  needs,  besides  proper  wa 
tering*  is  the  washing  of  the  foliage ;  dust  ac 
cumulates  upon  the  leaves,  and  must  be  re 
moved  from  time  to  time  by  means  of  a  damp 
sponge.  It  is  sometimes  attacked  by  a  scale 
louse,  which  upon  its  first  appearance  should 
be  removed  by  a  blunt  knife  or  other  mechani 
cal  means.  In  summer  most  of  the  interior 
ivy  decorations  are  taken  outdoors  to  a  partly 
shaded  spot,  but  those  which  are  very  large 
must  remain  in  place  and  receive  proper  care 
as  to  light,  water,  and  cleanliness. — The  Eng 
lish  ivy  presents  many  varieties,  differing  in 
the  size  and  form  of  the  leaf,  depth  of  green, 
color  of  fruit,  &c.;  notable  among  these  are 
several  with  the  foliage  beautifully-  marked, 
margined,  or  veined  with  white  and  yellow, 
known  as  gold  and  silver  ivies,  all  of  which  are 
very  beautiful,  but  in  this  country  can  only  be 
enjoyed  under  glass.  What  is  known  as  the 
tree  ivy  is  propagated  from  the  flowering 
shoots;  it  ultimately  forms  climbing  stems. 
Irish  ivy,  so  called,  is  really  a  native  of  the 
Canaries  (H.  Canariense],  and  has  much  larger 
leaves  than  the  common.  These  two  are  all 
the  species  recognized  by  the  late  Berthold 
Seeman  in  an  elaborate  memoir  ("  Journal  of 
Botany,"  vol.  ii.)  on  the  genus;  and  while  the 


catalogues  and  works  on  gardening  enumerate 
scores  of  species,  they  are  believed  to  be  all 
reducible  to  these  two.  Mr.  Shirley  Hibbard 
in  1869,  in  a  communication  to  the  Linneaan 
society,  and  later  in  a  work  entitled  "  Ivy,  its 
History  and  Characteristics"  (London,  1873), 


Variegated-leaved  Ivies. 

ignoring  all  former  names,  has  attempted  to 
arrange  the  garden  forms  of  ivy,  and  impose  a 
nomenclature  which  is  not  likely  to  be  gen 
erally  adopted. — Among  other  plants  to  which 
the  name  ivy  has  been  applied  are  German 
ivy,  a  climbing  composite  (see  GERMAN  IVY)  ; 
Colosseum  ivy  (linaria  cynibalaria),  a  small 
creeping  toad  flax;  ground  ivy  (nepeta  gle- 
choma),  a  prostrate  European  labiate,  which  is 
not  rare  as  a  weed  in  the  older  portions  of  this 
country,  and  which  before  the  introduction  of 
hops  was  used  in  England  to  give  bitterness  to 
beer,  and  is  also  called  alehoof ;  American  ivy, 
more  generally  known  as  the  Virginia  creeper 
(ampelopsis  quinquefolia),  which,  though  a 
deciduous  plant,  occupies  much  the  same  place 
in  our  vegetation  that  the  ivy  does  in  Europe ; 
and  poison  ivy,  a  name  which  with  several 
others  is  applied  to  the  well  known  rhus  toxi- 
codendron,  for  which  see  SUMACH. 

IXION,  a  mythical  Thcssalian  prince,  king  of 
the  Lapitha3,  and  father  of  Pirithous.  When 
Dei'oneus,  whose  daughter  Dia  he  had  espoused, 
demanded  of  him  the  customary  bridal  gifts, 
Ixion  treacherously  invited  him  to  a  banquet, 
and  then  had  him  cast  into  a  fiery  pit.  None 
would  hold  intercourse  with  the  murderer,  or 
purify  him,  till  Jupiter  at  length  performed 
the  necessary  rite,  and  made  him  his  guest. 
But  Ixion  presumed  to  make  love  to  Juno, 
whereupon  Jupiter  made  a  phantom  resem 
bling  her,  by  which  Ixion  became  the  pro 
genitor  of  the  centaurs.  For  his  impiety  he 
was  chained  by  Mercury  to  a  wheel  which  re 
volved  perpetually  in  the  air. 

IXTLILXOCHITL,  Fernando  dc  Alva,  an  Indian 
historian,  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  the 
kings  of  Tezcuco  in  Mexico,  born  about  1508, 
died  about  1648.  lie  was  interpreter  of  the 
native  languages  to  the  viceroys  of  Mexico,  and 
assiduously  collected  the  ancient  MSS.  and  tra 
ditions  of  his  country,  which  he  embodied  in  a 


478 


IZABAL 


IZTACCIHUATL 


series  of  memoirs  or  "Relations."  His  most 
important  work  is  a  "  History  of  the  Chiche- 
inecas,"  which,  with  most  of  his  other  writings, 
was  first  printed  from  the  MSS.  in  Mexico  by 
Lord  Kingsborough  ("Mexican  Antiquities," 
vol.  ix.).  His  works  evince  a  disposition  to 
overestimate  the  power  and  policy  of  the  Tez- 
cucan  kings,  but  are  nevertheless  interesting, 
and  on  the  whole  trustworthy. 

IZABAL,  a  seaport  of  Guatemala,  in  the  de 
partment  and  123  in.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Gua 
temala,  on  the  S.  shore  of  Lake  Dulce ;  pop. 
about  GOO.  It  is  a  miserable  place  of  about 
150  houses,  and  owes  its  importance  to  its 
being  the  sole  Atlantic  port  for  the  trade  of 
the  capital.  The  water  being  very  shallow  on 
the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  leading  from 
the  gulf  to  the  sea,  only  vessels  of  light  draught 
can  go  up  to  the  town.  Large  vessels  go  to 
Balize,  and  the  merchandise  is  transmitted  by 
coasting  craft  to  Izabal. 

1/AM'O,  a  volcano  of  the  republic  and  36  m. 
K  W.  of  the  city  of  San  Salvador,  in  lat.  13° 
15'  K,  Ion.  89°  44'  W.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  volcanoes,  and  except  Jorullo  in  Mexico 
the  only  one  in  the  world  that  has  risen  from 
the  level  of  the  plain  within  the  memory  of 
man.  A  priest  of  Sonsonate,  an  eye-witness 
of  its  origin,  related  to  Mr.  Stephens  the  his 
tory  and  progress  of  its  formation.  In  1798, 
after  a  series  of  destructive  earthquakes,  dust 
and  pebbles  were  observed  rising  from  a  fissure 
in  the  plain ;  soon  after  lava  was  upheaved, 
and  this,  together  with  large  stones  and  other 
substances,  gradually  accumulated  around  the 
orifice  until  the  vast  isolated  cone  as  it  now 
stands  was  formed.  It  is  contiguous  to  another 
mountain  sufficiently  elevated  to  aiford  from  its 
crest  a  distinct  view  of  the  burning  crater  of 
the  volcano ;  and  the  lurid  flames  and  never- 
ending  shower  of  incandescent  stones  issuing 
from  it  are  clearly  visible  from  Sonsonate,  near 
by.  Izalco  is  supposed  to  have  had  its  origin 
from  a  deviation  of  the  subterranean  fire  which 
animated  the  neighboring  system  of  extinct 
volcanoes  clustered  around  the  great  peak  of 
Santa  Ana.  The  eruptions,  though  incessant, 
are  somewhat  intermittent  in  regard  to  vio 
lence,  and  have  often  been  disastrous  to  the 
adjacent  town  of  Izalco.  Dense  columns  of 
smoke  are  constantly  emitted,  and  detonations 
like  the  rumblings  of  distant  thunder  are  reg 
ularly  repeated  at  intervals  of  from  5  to  15 
minutes.  Vegetation  is  of  course  impossible 
on  the  brown  arid  flanks  of  the  mountain, 
down  which  streams  of  liquid  fire  are  occa 
sionally  seen  to  roll,  offering  a  spectacle  of  ter 
rific  grandeur,  especially  by  night.  Its  height 
at  present  is  estimated  at  about  0.000  ft. ;  and, 


though  some  40  m.  from  the  coast,  it  serves  as 
a  convenient  landmark  for  mariners,  among 
whom  it  is  sometimes  designated  el  faro  del 
Salvador. 

IZALCO,  a  town  of  San  Salvador,  Central 
America,  situated  near  the  base  of  the  prece 
ding  volcano,  36  m.  N.  "W.  of  the  city  of  San 
Salvador;  pop.  5,000,  chiefly  Indians.  It  was 
once  the  centre  of  the  most  important  cacao 
district  in  all  America,  and  still  preserves  many 
evidences  of  past  importance.  Its  fine  large 
church  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  earthquake 
of  Dec.  8,  1859.  The  country  around  it  is  re 
markably  fertile  and  well  watered. 

IZARD,  a  N.  county  of  Arkansas,  drained  by 
White  river,  which  is  here  navigable;  area, 
864  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  6,806,  of  whom  182 
were  colored.  It  has  an  uneven  surface  and  a 
fertile  soil.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  20,076  bushels  of  wheat,  303,242  of  In 
dian  corn,  17,358  of  oats,  11,107  of  Irish  pota 
toes,  13,435  of  sweet  potatoes,  24,975  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  92,686  of  butter,  10,496  gallons  of 
molasses,  and  1,568  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  2,293  horses,  2,501  milch  cows,  1,392 
working  oxen,  3,281  other  cattle,  4,413  sheep, 
and  17,276  swine.  Capital,  Mount  Olive. 

IZARD,  Ralph,  an  American  statesman,  born 
near  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1742,  died  at  South 
Bay,  May  30,  1804.  He  was  educated  at  Cam 
bridge,  England,  inherited  an  ample  fortune, 
and  in  1771  settled  in  London,  from  whence 
the  troubled  condition  of  American  politics 
induced  him  in  1774  to  retire  to  the  continent. 
He  subsequently  endeavored  to  impress  upon 
the  British  ministry  the  ill-advised  nature  of 
the  course  they  were  pursuing,  but  without 
effect.  In  1780  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  procuring 
the  appointment  of  Gen.  Greene  to  the  com 
mand  of  the  southern  army.  He  also  pledged 
his  whole  estate  as  security  for  funds  needed 
in  the  purchase  of  ships  of  war  in  Europe.  In 
1781  he  entered  the  continental  congress;  and 
upon  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution 
he  was  elected  a  United  States  senator  from 
South  Carolina.  The  "  Correspondence  of 
Ralph  Izard  from  1774  to  1804,  with  a  Short 
Memoir,"  was  published  by  his  daughter  (Bos 
ton,  1844). 

IZTACCIHUATL,  a  volcano  of  Mexico,  15,705 
ft.  above  the  sea,  not  far  from  that  of  Popo 
catepetl,  near  the  city  of  Puebla.  It  is  some 
times  called  the  Sierra  Nevada,  its  top  being 
almost  always  covered  with  snow.  Its  name 
is  aboriginal  Mexican,  from  iztac,  white,  and 
cilmatl,  woman,  suggested  by  its  fancied  re 
semblance  to  a  woman  in  a  white  dress.  It 
has  not  been  active  since  the  conquest. 


JACAMAR 


479 


JTIIE  10th  letter  of  most  European  alpha- 
«  bets,  is  a  spurious  counterpart  of  the  let 
ter  I.  It  is  also  called  the  consonant  of  that 
vowel,  fulfilling  that  function  of  the  original 
letter  when  it  precedes  another  vowel.  This, 
however,  is  the  case  only  where  it  sounds  like 
y  in  yet ;  for  in  some  European  languages  it 
is  either  a  superfetation  of  other  legitimate 
letters,  or  the  representative  of  sounds  which 
have  nothing  in  common  with  that  of  its  pro 
totype,  I.  It  is  in  German  miscalled  Jot  (pro 
nounced  yot),  in  Spanish  jota  (pronounced 
'hota),  from  lura.  The  following  are  the 
sounds  with  which  it  is  uttered  in  various  lan- 

giages:  1.  As  consonant  I  in  Italian,  German, 
anisli,  and  other  Teutonic  languages,  in  Lu- 
satian,  Polish,  Magfar,  &c.,  where  the  Czechs 
use  g,  and  the  Spaniards  and  English  y,  before 
vowels  ;  for  instance  :  Ital.  ajuto  or  aiuto,  aid; 
Ger.  Joe  h,  yoke,  ja,  yes  ;  Lusat.  and  Pol.  jeden 
(Czechic  yederi),  one ;  Magyar  jeg,  ice,  &c.  2. 
The  French  and  Portuguese  J,  a  lingui-dental 
sibilant,  the  weak  and  sonorous  counterpart  of 
ch  (Eng.  sh\  like  the  sound  of  8  and  z  in  the 
English  words  pleasure,  grazier,  and  rendered 
by  the  combination  zJi  in  English.  This  sound 
is  also  written  with  g  before  e  and  i  in  Portu 
guese  and  French.  It  exists  in  Russian,  Po 
lish,  and  other  Slavic  languages,  in  Persian, 
Turkish,  &c.,  but  not  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Lat 
in,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Ethiopian,  Irish,  German, 
and  many  other  languages.  3.  The  English 
sound  of  J  represents  the  preceding  intimate 
ly  combined  with  that  of  d,  equivalent  to  dzh ; 
it  is  written  dj  in  French  and  dscli  in  German 
transcriptions  of  oriental  names.  This  com 
pound  sound  is  also  written  in  English  with  g 
before  e,  i,  and  y,  in  Italian  with  g  before  e 
and  /.  It  exists  in  many  eastern  languages, 
and  in  Polish,  but  is  unknown  in  the  ancient 
Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew,  Ethiopia,  and  Irish,  as 
well  as  in  German,  French,  and  most  other  Eu 
ropean  languages.  4.  In  Spanish  it  is  sounded 
like  the  German  ch,  as  in  joven,  young,  and 
is  equivalent  to  g  before  e  and  i,  and  to  x  in 
some  cases,  so  that  Mexico  is  also  written  Me- 
jico  and  Megico. — The  use  of  the  tailed  or  elon 
gated  J  was  introduced  by  Dutch  printers,  and 
was  long  called  I  hollandais  by  French  print 
ers.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  I  that  the 
new  W  does  to  V.  (See  I.) 

JABIRU,  a  large  wading  bird  of  the  stork 
family,  found  in  South  America  and  Africa,  of 
the  genus  mycteria  (Linn.).  The  bill  is  about 
a  foot  and  a  half  long,  and  strong,  resembling 
that  of  the  stork  except  that  it  is  bent  a  little 
upward  at  the  point.  It  is  a  large  bird,  mea 
suring  between  5  and  0  ft.  in  length ;  the  wings 
are  long  and  ample,  with  the  second  and  third 
quills  longest ;  tail  moderate  and  broad ;  tarsi 
much  longer  than  the  middle  toe,  and  covered 

VOL.   IX. — 31 


with  reticulated  scales ;  the  toes  arc  long,  uni 
ted  at  their  bases,  with  most  of  the  hind  toe 
resting  on  the  ground.  Only  two  species  are 
described  by  Gray,  of  which  the  best  known 
is  the  American  jabiru  (M.  Americana,  Linn.)  ; 
j  in  this  the  bill  is  black,  the  head  and  about  two 
!  thirds  of  the  neck  bare  and  blackish,  and  the 
|  lower  part  of  the  neck  bright  red ;  there  are  a 
few  white  feathers  on  the  hind  head,  and  the 
rest  of  the  plumage  is  white.  It  inhabits  Bra 
zil  and  Guiana,  frequenting  swamps,  seeking 
for  fish  and  reptiles ;  it  rises  slowly  to  a  great 
height,  supporting  itself  for  a  ver}-  long  time. 
The  nest  is  made  on  lofty  trees,  and  the  eggs 
are  generally  two ;  the  young  are  fed  with  fish ; 
the  flesh  of  the  young  is  tender  and  tolerably 


Jabiru  (Mycteria  Scncgalensis). 

good  eating.  The  African  species  (M.  Senega- 
lensis,  Shaw)  is  an  equally  large  bird,  generally 
white,  with  head,  neck,  and  scapulars  black ;  it 
has  two  pendent  wattles  at  the  base  of  the  bill. 

JiBLONSKI,  Paul  Ernst,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1G93,  died  in  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder,  Sept.  13,  1757.  lie  was  professor  of 
theology  at  the  university  of  Frankfort,  and 
head  minister  of  the  Calvinistic  church  in  that 
city.  lie  published  at  least  50  different  works 
on  oriental  philology,  history,  divinity,  and 
antiquities,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
his  Pantheon  ^gyptiorum,  sue  de  Diis  eorum 
Commentaries,  citm  Prolegomenis  de  Jieligione 
et  TJieologia  sEgyptioriim  (3  vols.,  1750-'52). 

JACADIAR,  a  diurnal  fissi rostral  bird  of  the 
kingfisher  family,  and  subfamily  galbulince, 
comprising  the  two  genera  qallmla  (Mohr.)  and 
jacamerops  (Cuv.)  The  plumage  is  brilliant, 
green  predominating,  and  the  habitat  is  tropi 
cal  South  America  and  some  of  the  West  In 
dian  islands.  In  the  genus  gallula  the  bill  is 


480 


JACANA 


long,  slender,  straight,  pointed,  and  four-sided ; 
the  wings  are  moderate  and  rounded,  with  the 
fourth  quill  longest ;  tail  elongated  and  gradu 
ated  ;  tarsi  very  short,  slender,  and  nearly  cov 
ered  with  feathers;  the  toes  two  before  and 
two  behind,  the  inner  hind  one  very  small  (in 


Jacamar  (Galbula  viridis). 

some  species  wanting),  and  the  outer  anterior 
one  the  longest.  About  ten  species  are  de 
scribed,  inhabiting  the  moist  forests,  and  lead 
ing  a  solitary  life ;  they  perch  on  naked  branch 
es,  whence  they  dart  in  pursuit  of  insects,  in 
the  manner  of  the  bee-eaters  ;  some  species  are 
said  to  feed  on  fish  and  their  fry.  The  nest  is 
a  hole  in  a  tree  or  a  river  bank,  with  a  small 
entrance,  and  the  eggs  are  usually  three  in 
number.  The  green  jacamar  ( G.  mridis,  Lath.) 
is  about  the  size  of  a  lark,  of  a  brilliant  glossy 
green,  with  white  chin  and  rufous  abdomen ; 
the  paradise  jacamar  (G-.  paradisca,  Linn.), 
with  the  same  metallic  green  color,  has  a  vio 
let-brown  head,  and  white  throat,  front  neck, 
and  under  wing  coverts.  In  jacamerops  the 
bill  is  shorter,  broader,  and  more  curved,  more 
like  that  of  the  bee-eaters.  The  species  are 
few,  inhabiting  tropical  South  America,  with 
habits  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  genus. 
The  great  jacamar  («/.  grandis,  Gmel.)  is  about 
11  in.  long,  of  a  coppery  green  above,  and  be 
neath  ferruginous. 

JACAM,  a  wading  bird  of  the  family  palame- 
deidcB,  and  subfamily  parrinm,  of  which  the 
principal  genus  is  parra  (Linn.),  found  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
The  bill  is  long,  slender,  straight  at  the  base, 
and  vaulted  at  the  tip ;  the  base  of  the  bill  has 
a  large,  naked,  dilated  plate,  standing  up  in 
front  of  the  forehead;  wings  long,  the  third 
quill  the  longest;  tail  very  short,  partly  con 
cealed  by  the  coverts;  tarsi  long,  naked,  and 
slender,  with  transverse  scales.  The  most  re 
markable  peculiarity  is  the  great  length  of  the 
toes,  four  in  number,  entirely  separated,  and 
all  armed  with  long,  straight,  and  sharp  claws ; 
that  of  the  hind  toe  in  the  common  species  is 


so  acute  and  long  as  to  obtain  for  the  bird  the 
name  of  "  surgeon;"  in  some  the  naked  plates 
about  the  bill  descend  toward  the  neck.  These 
birds  frequent  marshes,  the  sides  of  rivers,  and 
ponds,  in  pairs  or  in  small  flocks;  they  are 
shy,  when  alarmed  diving  or  skulking  among 
the  reeds ;  by  the  length  of  their  toes  they  are 
enabled  to  walk  upon  the  floating  leaves  of  water 
plants,  in  search  of  aquatic  insects,  buds,  and 
seeds ;  they  are  quarrelsome  and  noisy,  striking 
each  other  with  their  spurred  wings ;  the  flight 
is  rapid,  straight,  and  not  very  elevated ;  they 
wade  into  the  water  as  far  as  the  knees',  but  do 
not  swim,  as  their  feet  are  not  webbed ;  they 
are  monogamous,  the  females  making  a  nest 
among  the  reeds,  and  depositing  four  or  five 
eggs.  More  than  a  dozen  species  are  described, 
of  which  the  best  known  are  the  chestnut  jaca- 
na  (P.  jacana,  Linn.),  black  with  a  red  mantle, 
with  the  primaries  green,  a  native  of  South 
America ;  the  Indian  jacana  (P.  Indie  n,  Lath.), 
blackish  with  blue  and  violet  reflections, 
bronzed  green  mantle,  rump  and  tail  sanguine 
red,  anterior  quills  green,  and  a  white  stripe 
behind  the  eye;  and  the  African  jacana  (P. 
Africana,  Gmel.),  with  wings  unarmed,  and 
forehead  not  carunculated  and  greenish  black. 
They  are  about  10  in.  long.  The  genus  hydro- 
pJiasianus  (Wagl.)  has  very  long  wings,  with  the 
shafts  of  the  first  three  quills  prolonged,  and 
the  ends  of  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  lengthen 
ed,  narrowed,  and  falcated ;  the  tail  narrowed, 
with  the  four  central  feathers  much  prolonged 
and  the  lateral  ones  short  and  graduated ;  the 
base  of  the  bill  and  head  entirely  covered  with 
feathers.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  Chinese 
jacana  (H.  Sinensis,  Gmel.),  which  is  the  only 


C 


Chestnut  Jacana  (Parra  jacana). 

species  described  by  Gray;  the  habits  are  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  genus.  The  general 
color  is  brown,  with  the  head,  throat,  front 
part  of  the  neck,  and  wing  coverts  white; 
hind  neck  with  golden  silky  plumes ;  the  long 
tail  feathers  black. 


JACHMANN 


JACKDAW 


481 


J1CHHANN,  Eduard  Karl  Emanuel,  a  German 
naval  officer,  born  in  Dantzic,  March  2,  1822. 
He  rose  from  the  most  inferior  station  to  be 
one  of  the  directors  in  1857-'9  of  the  newly 
established  Prussian  admiralty,  and  command 
er  of  an  expedition  to  China  in  1862.  In 
March,  1864,  he  defeated  the  Danes  at  Jas- 
mimd  on  the  island  of  Rflgen.  In  1867  he 
became  chief  of  the  ministry  of  marine,  and 
in  1868  vice  admiral,  and  contributed  greatly 
to  the  organization  and  efficiency  of  the  ser 
vice.  During  the  Franco-German  war  (1870- 
'71)  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Baltic 
fleet ;  and  on  Dec.  31,  1871,  he  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  imperial  navy. 

JACK,  a  N".  "W.  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  the  W.  fork  of  Trinity  river ;  area,  870  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  694,  of  whom  72  were 
colored.  It  lies  chiefly  in  the  "  cross  timbers," 
and  has  great  diversity  of  surface  and  soil. 
Stock  raising  is  the  chief  industry,  though 
there  is  some  excellent  farming  land.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  6,750  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  3,620  of  oats,  and  176  tons  of 
hay.  The  value  of  live  stock  was  $15,925. 
Capital,  Jacksboro. 

JACKAL,  a  species  of  wild  dog,  living  in  troops 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  gener- 
,  ally  placed  in  the  genus  canis  of  authors,  but 
raised  to  a  genus  of  its  own  (sacalius)  by 
Hamilton  Smith.  These  animals  live  under 
great  varieties  of  climate,  in  the  moist  jungles 
of  Asia,  the  dry  deserts  of  northern  Africa,  in 
forest  and  plain,  and  wherever  the  warmth  is 
sufficient ;  like  other  dogs,  they  are  voracious, 
feeding  with  avidity  even  on  decomposing  mat 
ter,  and  in  this  way,  with  the  hyrena  and  vul 
ture,  are  of  considerable  advantage  to  man  in 
hot  climates.  They  are  generally  harmless,  but 
make  night  hideous  by  their  dismal  bowlings ; 
they  dwell  in  burrows  which  they  excavate 
themselves,  and  in  caves ;  they  are  said  to  dis 
inter  dead  bodies,  and  occasionally  when  pressed 
by  hunger  to  attack  man.  Though  exceedingly 
timid,  they  are  easily  tamed,  and  rarely  snarl 
at  the  hand  which  caresses  them ;  this  character 
gives  great  probability  to  the  opinion  that  the 
jackal  has  mingled  its  blood  in  many  of  the 
races  of  our  domestic  dog,  though  perhaps  not 
to  the  assertion  of  Pallas  that  it  is  the  chief 
original  of  this  useful  animal.  The  organiza 
tion  of  the  jackal  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
the  dog,  and  the  habits  of  digging,  living  and 
hunting  in  troops,  and  feeding  on  carcasses  are 
th°s  same  in  both  in  the  wild  state  ;  the  former, 
at  least  in  some  of  the  species,  possesses  a  dis 
agreeable  odor  from  which  the  latter  is  free. 
The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  round,  as  in  the  diurnal 
canines ;  the  nostrils  open  on  the  end  of  the 
muzzle ;  the  ears  are  pointed,  with  a  tubercle 
on  the  external  edge ;  the  tongue  is  very  soft, 
and  the  upper  lip  and  sides  of  face  provided 
with  bristly  whiskers ;  the  feet  are  four-toed, 
with  a  rudiment  of  a  fifth  on  the  anterior  on 
the  inner  side,  and  the  nails  are  short  and 
thick ;  the  dentition,  habits,  movements,  and 


instincts  are  those  of  the  dog ;  the  hair  is  thick, 
the  tail  being  nearly  as  bushy  as  that  of  a  fox. 
The  jackal  is  often  seen  in  attendance  on  the 
lion,  and  has  been  supposed  to  run  down 
animals  for  him,  contented  wnth  a  small  share' 
for  itself;  but  it  follows  for  the  sake  of  the 


Common  Jackal  (Canis  aureus). 

pickings  and  stealings  in  the  train  of  the  lion, 
who  perhaps  is  often  led  to  his  prey  by  the 
bowlings  of  a  troop  of  jackals  hunting  for 
themselves.  The  common  jackal  or  jungle 
koola  of  India  (canis  aureus,  Linn.)  is  of  the 
size  of  a  small  dog,  reddish  gray  above,  darkest 
on  the  back,  and  lighter  beneath;  the  tail  is 
bushy  and  dark  at  the  end.  It  inhabits  the 
warmer  parts  of  S.  Asia,  1ST.  Africa,  and  S.  E. 
Europe.  The  African  jackal  or  dieb  (C.  anthus, 
F.  Cuv.)  is  of  a  yellowish  gray  above,  lighter 
beneath ;  the  tail  yellow,  with  a  longitudinal 
black  line  at  the  base,  and  some  bkick  hairs  at 
the  tip.  It  is  found  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  Senegal, 
and  other  parts  of  Africa.  The  average  height 
of  the  jackal  is  about  15  in.,  the  length  of  the 
body  14  in.,  and  of  the  tail  about  10  in.  The 
above  species  have  been  known  to  breed  to 
gether,  producing  five  young  after  a  gestation 
of  about  60  days ;  and  they  will  also  intermix 
with  domesticated  dogs  ;  in  fact,  the  agency  of 
the  jackal  in  the  production  of  the  southern 
dogs  can  no  more  be  doubted  than  that  of  the 
wolf  in  the  case  of  the  northern,  and  the  cross 
ings  of  these  jackal  dogs  and  wolf  dogs,  either 
by  accident  or  design,  would  explain  satisfac 
torily  a  great  number  of  our  domestic  varieties. 
(See  DOG.) 

JACKDAW,  a  European  conirostral  bird  of  the 
crow  family,  and  genus  corpus  (0.  monedula, 
Linn.).  The  form  is  more  compact  and  grace 
ful  than  that  of  any  other  British  corvine  bird ; 
of  about  the  size  of  the  domestic  pigeon,  with 
large  head,  short  neck,  ovate  body,  and  mod 
erate  wings,  tail,  and  feet ;  the  bill  is  shorter 
than  the  head,  stout  and  conionl,  slightly  arch 
ed,  and  sharp-edged;  the  gape  almost  straight; 


482 


JACKSOST 


the  plumage  full  and  soft ;  the  tail  straight,  of 
12  broad,  rounded  feathers;  claws  arched  and 
strong.  The  length  is  about  15  in.,  the  bill  1£, 
and  the  alar  extent  30  in. ;  the  female  is  slightly 
smaller.  The  bill  and  feet  are  black,  irides 
grayish  white,  upper  and  fore  part  of  the  head 


Jackdaw  (Corvus  monedula) 

black  with  bluish  purple  reflections  ;  grayish 
black  about  the  eyes  and  throat;  back  and 
sides  of  neck  bluish  gray ;  rest  of  plumage  gray 
ish  black,  approaching  leaden  gray  on  the  under 
parts ;  wings  and  tail  black,  the  latter  with  the 
primaries  glossed  with  green,  and  the  seconda 
ries  with  purple.  In  rare  instances,  individuals 
have  been  found  variegated  with  white.  It  is 
a  very  active,  impertinent,  playful,  and  loqua 
cious  bird,  altogether  the  most  agreeable  and 
sociable  of  the  crows.  The  flight  is  rapid, 
very  irregular,  and  generally  accompanied  with 
frequent  cries.  It  dwells  in  ruined  buildings, 
towers,  steeples,  and  retreats  in  high  rocks, 
and  is  often  found  in  the  heart  of  large  cities ; 
it  nestles  in  the  same  places,  and  occasionally 
in  chimneys,  making  a  large  nest,  and  laying 
about  five  bluish  white  eggs  with  brown  or 
pale  purple  spots  at  the  larger  end,  1$  by  1  in. ; 
the  eggs  are  laid  in  May,  and  the  young  are 
abroad  by  the  end  of  June.  Sallying  from  their 
retreats  at  early  dawn,  they  betake  themselves 
to  the  fields  in  search  of  worms,  larvae,  and  in 
sects,  walking  about  gracefully,  but  frequently 
quarrelling;  they  also  eat  mollusks,  Crustacea, 
fishes,  and  even  carrion;  when  feeding,  they 
are  very  vigilant ;  they  pick  up  food  from  the 
streets  with  the  rooks  and  pigeons,  and  possess 
the  corvine  propensity  to  carry  to  their  nests 
all  kinds  of  objects  which  can  serve  for  their 
structures,  and  to  steal  shining  articles  of  value ; 
they  may  be  taught  many  tricks,  and  to  pro 
nounce  words.  They  inhabit  Great  Britain 
and  most  parts  of  the  European  continent; 
species  in  Asia  are  very  nearly  allied  to  this,' 
both  in  appearance  and  habits. 

JACKSON,  the   name  of   20  counties  in  the 
United  States.     I.  A  TV.  county  of  West  Vir 


ginia,  separated  from  Ohio  by  the  Ohio  river, 
and  drained  by  Sandy  and  Big  Mill  creeks ; 
area,  480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,300,  of 'whom 
58  were  colored.  It  has  a  diversified  surface ; 
the  soil  near  the  rivers  is  fertile,  and  elsewhere 
well  adapted  to  grazing.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  Avere  59,845  bushels  of  wheat, 
272,044  of  Indian  corn,  48,524  of  oats,  50,397 
of  potatoes,  96,265  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  29,850  of 
wool,  87,052  of  butter,  and  2,934  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2,558  horses,  2,289  milch  cows, 
3,644  other  cattle,  13,610  sheep,  and  8,821 
swine ;  2  manufactories  of  woollen  goods,  1  of 
boats,  7  of  cooperage,  3  flour  mills,  and  7  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Eipley.  II.  A  S.  TV.  county 
of  North  Carolina,  bordering  on  South  Caro 
lina,  and  drained  by  head  waters  of  the  Tennes 
see  and  Savannah  rivers ;  area,  about  750  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,683,  of  whom  274  Avere 
colored.  The  Blue  Kidge  occupies  its  S.  E. 
frontier,  and  the  surface  is  generally  moun 
tainous.  Since  the  census  a  portion  has  been 
taken  to  form  Swain  co.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  13,560  bushels  of  wheat,  9,187 
of  rye,  156,050  of  Indian  corn,  10,668  of  oats, 
13,235  of  Irish  and  7,116  of  sweet  potatoes, 
11,697  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  10,634  of  wool,  64,032 
of  butter,  and  11,571  of  honey.  There  were 
1,022  horses,  2,136  milch  cows,  3,422  other 
cattle,  5,028  sheep,  and  8,152  swine.  Capital, 
TVebster.  III.  A  N.  county  of  Georgia,  drained 
by  the  head  waters  of  Oconee  river  ;  area,  432 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,181,  of  whom  3,710 
were  colored.  It  is  a  hilly  and  not  very  fertile 
district,  abounding  in  granite  and  quartz,  and 
containing  some  iron  ore.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  35,200  bushels  of  wheat, 
218,780  of  Indian  corn,  25,990  of  oats,  10,656 
of  sweet  potatoes,  56,115  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
1,825  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,143  horses, 
663  mules  and  asses,  1,904  milch  cows,  3,028 
other  cattle,  6,379  sheep,  and  8,141  swine. 
Capital,  Jefferson.  IV.  A  N.  TV.  county  of 
Florida,  bordering  on  Georgia,  and  separated 
from  Alabama  on  the  E.  by  the  Chattahoochee 
river,  which  unites  with  the  Flint  to  form  the 
Appalachicola  on  the  S.  E.  border ;  area,  1,040 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,528,  of  whom  5,598 
were  colored.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Chipola 
river,  and  has  a  level  surface,  partly  covered 
with  pine  forests.  The  soil  near  the  streams 
is  very  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  150,780  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  25,005 
of  sweet  potatoes,  27,972  gallons  of  molasses, 
39,280  Ibs.  of  rice,  and  3,391  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  440  horses,  516  mules  and  asses, 
1,974  milch  cows,  4,340  other  cattle,  1,439 
sheep,  and  6,097  swine.  Capital,  Marianna. 
V.  A  X.  E.  county  of  Alabama,  bordering  on 
Tennessee,  and  intersected  by  Tennessee  river ; 
area  estimated  at  975  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
19,410,  of  whom  3,060  were  colored.  It  is 
mountainous,  and  the  soil,  drained  by  numer 
ous  streams,  is  generally  fertile.  The  Xash- 
ville  and  Chattanooga  and  Jasper  branch,  and 
the  Memphis  and  Charleston  railroads  traverse 


JACKSON 


483 


it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  50,025 
bushels  of  wheat,  500,777  of  Indian  corn,  26,- 
952  of  oats,  11,107  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  16,809  of  ] 
wool,  121,075  of  butter,  24,547  of  honey,  and 
2,339  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  3,541  hor 
ses,  3,737  milch  cows,  2,062  working  oxen, 
6,146  other  cattle,  9,745  sheep,  and  25,837 
swine ;  3  flour  mills,  6  tanning  and  currying  es 
tablishments,  and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Bellc- 
fonte.  VI.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Mississippi,  bor 
dering  on  Alabama  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
intersected  by  Pascagoula  river;  area,  1,175 
sq.  m.;  pop/ in  1870,  4,362,  of  whom  1,194 
were  colored.  The  soil  is  sandy  and  not  fer 
tile,  and  pine  forests  cover  a  large  part  of  the 
surface.  The  Xew  Orleans,  Mobile,  and  Texas 
railroad  crosses  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  5,377  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  9,460 
of  sweet  potatoes,  11,058  Ibs.  of  wool,  and 
18,970  of  rice.  The  value  of  live  stock  was 
$57,790.  Capital,  Americns.  VII.  A  N.  par 
ish  of  Louisiana,  drained  by  branches  of  Wash- 
ita  and  Little  rivers  ;  area,  550  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  7,646,  of  whom  3,443  were  colored.  It 
has  a  moderately  uneven  surface,  and  a  soil 
generally  of  good  quality.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  132,224  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  29,603  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  4,097  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  912  horses,  729  mules 
and  asses,  1,955  milch  cows,  5,764  other  cat 
tle,  3,192  sheep,  and  12,370  swine.  Capital, 
Yernon.  VIII.  A  S.  county  of  Texas,  border 
ing  on  Lavaca  bay,  and  drained  by  Lavaca 
river  and  other  streams ;  area,  852  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  2,278,  of  whom  1,164  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level  and  occupied  chiefly  by 
prairies,  although  there  are  undulating  timber 
lands  near  the  rivers.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
suited  to  sugar  cane.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  36,125  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  6,770 
of  sweet  potatoes,  and  595  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  956  horses,  708  milch  cows,  13,846 
other  cattle,  977  sheep,  and  2,694  swine.  Cap 
ital,  Texana.  IX.  A  X.  E.  county  of  Arkansas, 
bounded  W.  by  Black  and  White  rivers ;  area, 
about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,268,  of  whom 
1,612  were  colored.  It  has  a  level  surface, 
covered  in  many  places  with  valuable  ash  and 
cypress  timber,  and  a  fertile  soil.  The  Cairo 
and  Fulton  railroad  passes  through  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  115,215  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  50,395  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  3,996 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  890  horses,  1,386 
milch  cows,  2,853  other  cattle,  and  7,042  swine. 
Capital,  Jacksonport.  X.  A  N.  county  of  Ten 
nessee,  bordering  on  Kentucky,  and  intersected 
by  Cumberland  river;  area,  666  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,583,  of  whom  767  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  much  diversified.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  83,046  bushels  of 
wheat,  530,276  of  Indian  corn,  54,314  of  oats, 
713,578  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  26,311  of  wool,  88,542 
of  butter,  and  4,213  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
2,984  horses,  2,780  milch  cows,  2,040  working 
oxen,  3,751  other  cattle,  15,323  sheep,  and  29,- 
120  swine.  Capital,  Gainesborough.  XI.  A 


S.  E.  central  county  of  Kentucky,  drained  by 
the  sources  of  Hock  Castle  river  and  by  an  af 
fluent  of  the  Kentucky;  area,  about 425  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,547,  of  whom  51  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hillv.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  4,537  bushels  of  wheat,  137,181  of 
Indian  corn,  14,361  of  oats,  11,141  of  potatoes, 
and  51,540  Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were  774 
horses,  1,124  milch  cows,  1,579  other  cattle, 
5,730  sheep,  and  6,748  swine.  Capital,  Mclvee. 
XII.  A  S.  county  of  Ohio,  drained  by  Little 
Scioto  river;  area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
21,759.  It  is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  marble,  and 
salt.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  fer 
tile.  The  Marietta  and  Cincinnati  railroad  and 
Portsmouth  branch  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  90,127  bushels  of 
wheat,  469,920  of  Indian  corn,  119,534  of  oats, 
53,637  of  potatoes,  69,162  Ibs.  of  wool,  390,898 
of  butter,  and  15,879  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
4,294  horses,  4,490  milch  cows,  9,698  other 
cattle,  24,439  sheep,  and  11,692  swine;  4  man 
ufactories  of  charcoal,  13  of  pig  iron,  1  of 
woollen  goods,  5  flour  millsj  and  7  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Jackson.  XIII.  A  S.  county  of  Indi 
ana,  drained  by  the  E.  fork  of  White  river ; 
area,  544  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,974.  It  has 
a  level  or  undulating  surface,  and  contains  beds 
of  iron  ore.  The  soils  are  of  various  qualities, 
some  parts  of  the  country  being  very  fertile. 
The  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  and  the  Jefferson- 
ville,  Madison,  and  Indianapolis  railroads  pass 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  191,477  bushels  of  wheat,  861,520  of  In 
dian  corn,  143,737  of  oats,  65,894  of  potatoes, 
47,648  Ibs.  of  wool,  259,131  of  butter,  and  8,307 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,842  horses,  944 
mules  and  asses,  4,821  milch  cows,  6,918  other 
cattle,  16,604  sheep,  and  34,733  swine  ;  13  car 
riage  factories,  2  woollen  factories,  9  tanneries, 
8  currying  establishments,  5  flour  mills,  2  planing 
mills,  and  24  saw  mills.  Capital,  Brownstown. 
XIV.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Illinois,  separated  from 
Missouri  by  the  Mississippi  river,  and  drained 
by  Big  Muddy  river ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  19,634.  It  contains  extensive  coal 
beds  and  several  salt  springs.  The  surface  is 
uneven,  and  diversified  by  prairies  and  timber 
lands.  The  Illinois  Central,  the  Grand  Tower 
and  Carbondale,  and  the  Carbondale  and  Shaw- 
neetown  railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  329,926  bushels  of  wheat, 
611,951  of  Indian  corn,  149,931  of  oats,  68,481 
of  potatoes,  61,717  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  20,326  of 
wool,  167,334  of  butter,  134  bales  of  cotton, 
and  4,353  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4.42',) 
horses,  1,034  mules  and  asses,  3,230  milch  cows, 
4.631  other  cattle,  9,011  sheep,  and  26,438 
swine  ;  2  manufactories  of  boxes,  3  of  brick, 
1  of  cars,  1  of  iron  castings,  3  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  patterns  and  models, 
1  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  1  woollen  factory, 
1  railroad  repair  shop,  4  flour  mills,  and  9  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Murphy sb or ough.  XV.  A  S. 
!  county  of  Michigan,  drained  by  the  head  waters 
j  of  Grand,  Kalainazoo,  and  Raisin  rivers ;  area, 


484 


JACKSON 


720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  36,047.  The  surface 
is  undulating1  and  diversified  by  many  small 
lakes.  The  soil  is  a  good  sandy  loam.  It  con 
tains  bituminous  coal,  iron,  limestone,  and  sand 
stone.  The  Michigan  Central  railroad  and  the 
Jackson,  Lansing,  and  Saginaw,  the  Grand  River 
Valley,  and  the  Air-Line  divisions  of  the  same, 
the  Jackson  branch  of  the  Michigan  Southern 
railroad,  the  Fort  Wayne,  Jackson,  and  Sagi 
naw,  and  the  Detroit,  Ilillsdale,  and  Indiana 
railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
•1870  were  825,505  bushels  of  wheat,  759,146 
of  Indian  corn,  239,021  of  oats,  62,546  of  bar 
ley,  401,558  of  potatoes,  616,238  Ibs.  of  wool, 
1,021,831  of  butter,  32,955  of  cheese,  and  62,- 
090  tons  of  hay.  There  were  10,201  horses, 
8,946  milch  cows,  10,623  other  cattle,  130,289 
sheep,  and  15,879  swine ;  6  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  4  of  boots  and  shoes, 

6  of  brick,  14  of  carriages,  13  of  clothing,  8  of 
cooperage,  1  of  drain  pipe,  1  of  drugs  and  chemi 
cals,  6  of  furniture,  5  of  iron  castings,  2  of  cur 
ried  leather,  1  of  morocco,  1  of  engines  and 
boilers,  9  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  2  of  stone  and  earthenware, 

7  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  3  planing 
mills,  4  saw  mills,  and  11  flour  mills.     Capital, 
Jackson.     XVI.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota, 
bordering   on   Iowa,   intersected   by   the   Des 
Moines  river,  and  drained  by  the  Changuska, 
an  affluent  of  the  Blue  Earth  ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,825.     It  contains  several  lakes, 
the  largest  of  which  is  Heron  lake.     The  sur 
face  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.     The 
Sioux  City  and  St.  Paul  railroad  crosses  the 
K  W.  part.     The  chief  productions  in   1870 
were  24,150  bushels  of  wheat,  6,405  of  In 
dian  corn,  24,366  of  oats,  7,637  of  potatoes, 
35,510  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,263  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  237  horses,  469  milch  cows,  740 
other  cattle,  413  sheep,  and  251  swine.     Capi 
tal,  Jackson.     XVII.  An  E.  county  of  Iowa, 
separated  from  Illinois  by  the  Mississippi  river ; 
area,  628  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,619.    It  con 
tains  valuable  mines  of  lead  and  iron,  is  well 
watered,  fertile,  and  well  timbered,  and  has  an 
uneven  surface.     The  Sabula,  Ackley,  and  Da 
kota  railroad  skirts  the  S.  border,  and  the  Ma- 
quoketa  branch  of  the  Davenport  and  St.  Paul 
line  terminates  in  it.     The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  429,515  bushels  of  wheat,  1,485,250 
of  Indian  corn,  807,511  of  oats,  168,701  of  po 
tatoes,  42,060  Ibs.  of  wool,  724,366  of  butter, 
77,750  of  cheese,  and  33,742  tons  of  hay.   There 
were  8,043  horses,  9,991  milch  cows,  16,554 
other  cattle,  10,672  sheep,  and  34,667  swine ; 
24  manufactories  of  carriages,  8  of  furniture, 
24  of  cooperage,  12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  4 
of  woollen  goods,  1  pork-packing  establishment, 
2  breweries,  14  saw  mills,  and  9  flour  mills. 
Capital,  Bellevue.    XVIII.  A  W.  county  of  Mis 
souri,  bordering  on  Kansas,  and  bounded  N. 
by  the  Missouri  river,  which  receives  the  Kan 
sas  at  its  N.  W.  extremity ;  area,  525  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1870,  55,041,  of  whom  5,223  were  col 
ored.   The  surface  is  moderately  uneven.  Lime 


stone  is  the  principal  rock.  The  soil  is  well 
watered  and  very  fertile.  The  Pacific  railroad 
of  Missouri  crosses  it,  and  several  other  lines 
terminate  at  Kansas  City  within  its  limits. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  312,084 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,504,439  of  Indian  corn, 
173,229  of  oats,  91,419  of  potatoes,  70,312  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  237,623  of  butter,  and  2,373  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  6,961  horses,  1,703  mules 
and  asses,  5,294  milch  cows,  9,162  other  cattle, 
11,016  sheep,  and  30,227  swine;  9  manufac 
tories  of  boots  and  shoes,  7  of  brick,  24  of  car 
riages,  23  of  clothing,  4  of  confectionery,  17 
of  furniture,  1  of  hosiery,  3  of  iron  castings, 

1  of  machinery,  9  of  marble  and  stone  work, 
17  of  saddlery  and  harness,  4  of  sash,  doors, 
and  blinds,  1  of  scales,  25  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  4  of  tobacco  and  snutf,  14  of 
cigars,  7  of  upholstery,  5  breweries,  14  flour 
mills,  4  saw  mills,  4  establishments  for  packing 
beef,  and  4  for  packing  pork.     Capital,  Inde 
pendence.     XIX.  A  1ST.  E.   county  of  Kansas, 
drained  by  Grasshopper  river,  Soldier  creek, 
and  other  affluents  of  the  Kansas  ;  area,  556  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,053.    The  surface  is  diver 
sified,  the  soil  fertile.     The  Central  branch  of 
the  Union  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in   1870  were  51,583 
bushels    of    wheat,    486,940   of    Indian    corn, 
137,894  of  oats,  52,497  of  potatoes,  145,698  Ibs. 
of  butter,  and  16,273  tons  of  hay.    There  were 
3,484  horses,  3,349   milch  cows,  5,826   other 
cattle,  2,857  sheep,  and  4,622  swine.     Capital, 
Holton.     XX.  A  S.  county  of  Oregon,  bounded 
S.  by  California,  and  traversed  by  the  Cascade 
mountains;  area,  11,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,778,    of  whom   634  were   Chinese.     Rogue 
river  drains  the  W.  portion  ;  E.  of  the  Cascade 
range  are  numerous  lakes,  containing  the  head 
waters  of  Klamath  river.    The  soil  in  the  west 
is  fertile ;    much  of  the  E.  portion  is  desert. 
The  surface  is  much  diversified,  and  there  is  a 
great  variety  of  climate.    Water  power  is  abun 
dant.     Gold  has  been  found  on  Jackson  creek. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  15,226  bush 
els  of  wheat,  6,000  of  Indian  corn,  47,800  of 
oats,  8,020  of  barley,  and  1,814  tons  of  hay. 
There  were   1,404   horses,  1,007  milch  cows, 
2,509  other  cattle,  2,108  sheep,  and  5,772  swine; 

2  flour  mills,  and  1  woollen  factory.     Capital, 
Jacksonville. 

JACKSON,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Jack 
son  co.,  Michigan,  on  both  banks  of  Grand 
river,  near  its  source,  74  m.  W.  of  Detroit  and 
36  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Lansing;  pop.  in  1850,  2,363  ; 
in  1860,  4,799  ;  in  1870,  11,447,  of  whom  2,448 
were  foreigners.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  and 
has  paved  streets,  Avater  works  on  the  Holly 
system,  and  an  efficient  police  force.  There  are 
two  fine  hotels  and  many  excellent  business 
structures.  Several  of  the  churches  are  hand 
some  edifices,  and  the  two  union  school  houses 
are  large  and  well  arranged.  An  iron  bridge 
has  recently  been  built  across  the  river.  The 
Michigan  state  penitentiary,  the  buildings  and 
walls  of  which  are  of  stone,  is  situated  here. 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


485 


It  occupies  an  enclosed  area  of  eight  acres. 
The  main  building  is  500  ft.  long,  57  broad, 
and  44  high.  The  city,  derives  its  chief  im 
portance  from  its  position  at  the  intersection 
of  six  railroads,  viz. :  the  Michigan  Central 
(main  line) ;  the  Jackson  branch  of  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern ;  the  Fort  Wayne, 
Jackson,  and  Saginaw ;  and  the  Jackson,  Lan 
sing,  and  Saginaw,  the  Grand  River  Valley, 
and  the  Air-Line  divisions  of  the  Michigan 
Central.  The  last  named  company  has  lately 
erected  here  the  finest  passenger  depot  in  the 
state ;  the  building  is  of  brick  and  stone,  294 
ft.  by  40,  and  is  finely  fitted  up.  The  company 
has  also  extensive  machine  shops  and  other 
structures  here.  In  the  N.  part  of  the  city 
are  two  mines  of  bituminous  coal,  and  a  third 
2  or  3  m.  beyond  the  city  limits,  which  yield  a 
valuable  product.  The  river  furnishes  good 
water  power,  and  there  are  manufactories  of 
chemicals,  bricks,  drain  pipe,  fire  bricks,  agri 
cultural  implements,  wagons,  and  furniture, 
founderies,  machine  shops,  a  large  rolling  mill 
and  nut,  bolt,  and  spike  factory,  breweries, 
flour  mills,  planing  mills,  potteries,  &c.  The 
value  of  manufactures  in  1872  was  about 
$3,000,000.  The  sales  of  merchandise  amount 
ed  to  $3,230,500.  There  are  four  banks  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $350,000.  Besides  the 
union  schools  there  are  eight  ward  school 
houses.  The  schools  are  graded,  and  in  1872 
included  two  high,  five  grammar,  and  seven 
primary  schools,  with  40  teachers  and  2,000 
pupils.  There  are  also  a  business  college,  a 
German  Lutheran  school,  a  young  men's  libra 
ry  of  2,500  volumes,  two  daily  and  two  week 
ly  newspapers,  and  13  churches.  Jackson  be 
came  a  city  in  1857. 

JACKSON.  I.  A  town  of  Hinds  co.,  Missis 
sippi,  capital  of  the  state,  on  the  W.  bank  of 
Pearl  river,  at  the  intersection  of  the  New  Or 
leans,  Jackson,  and  Great  Northern  and  the 
Vicksburg  arid  Meridian  railroads,  183  m.  by 
rail  N.  of  New  Orleans,  and  45  in.  E.  of  Vicks 
burg;  lat.  32°  23'  N.,  Ion.  90°  8'  W. ;  pop.  in 
1850,  1,881 ;  in  1860,  3,191 ;  in  1870,  4,234,  of 
whom  1,964  were  colored;  in  1874,  about 
6,000.  It  is  regularly  built  on  undulating 
ground.  The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  state  house,  executive  mansion,  state  lu 
natic  asylum,  the  state  institutions  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb  and  the  blind,  and  the  city  hall,  in 
which  the  United  States  courts  and  the  courts 
for  the  first  judicial  district  of  the  county  are 
held.  The  state  penitentiary,  a  large  and  hand 
some  edifice,  was  nearly  destroyed  during  the 
civil  war,  but  it  is  soon  to  be  rebuilt.  The 
state  house  is  an  elegant  building,  erected  at  a 
cost  of  $600,000,  and  in  it  the  sessions  of  the 
supreme  court  of  the  state  are  held.  Consid 
erable  quantities  of  cotton  are  shipped  from 
Jackson,  and  there  are  two  founderies,  a  sash 
and  blind  factory,  about  60  stores,  several  ho 
tels,  two  banks,  several  public  and  private 
schools,  three  weekly  newspapers  (one  of  which 
also  issues  a  daily  edition  during  the  session  of 


the  legislature),  and  ten  churches.  The  state 
library  contains  15,000  volumes.  Jackson  was 
occupied  by  the  federal  forces  on  May  14,  1863, 
when  the  railroad  depots,  bridges,  arsenals, 
workshops,  storehouses,  and  many  residences 
were  destroyed ;  and  on  two  subsequent  occa 
sions  during  the  Avar  it  was  in  the  possession 
of  the  Union  troops.  II.  A  town  of  East  Fe- 
liciana  parish,  Louisiana,  30  m.  N.  of  Baton 
Rouge;  pop.  in  1870,  934,  of  whom  218  were 
colored.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  state  asylum  for 
the  insane,  founded  in  1848,  and  of  Centenary 
college,  under  the  charge  of  the  Methodists, 
founded  in  1825,  and  having  in  1872  4  profes 
sors,  83  students,  and  a  library  of  2,000  vol 
umes.  A  Aveekly  newspaper  is  published.  III. 
A  city  and  the  capital  of  Madison  co.,  Tennes 
see,  on  the  Forked  Deer  river,  at  the  intersec 
tion  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  and  the  Mississip 
pi  Central  railroads,  117  m.  W.  S.  "W.  of  Nash 
ville  and  72  m.  N.  E.  of  Memphis ;  pop.  in  1850, 
1,006;  in  1860,  2,407;  in  1870  4,119,  of  whom 
1,500  were  colored  ;  in  1874  estimated  by  local 
authorities  at  10,000.  It  is  pleasantly  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  region,  and  has  a  large 
and  growing  trade,  more  than  20,000  bales  of 
cotton  having  been  shipped  from  this  point  in 
1873-'4.  The  city  contains  three  planing  mills, 
a  foundery,  two  soda  water  manufactories,  a 
brewery,  a  cooperage  establishment,  and  the 
machine  shops  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  rail 
road.  A  cotton  factory  is  to  be  erected,  and 
the  shops  of  the  Mississippi  Central  railroad 
are  soon  to  be  established  here.  There  are  a 
national  and  a  savings  bank,  a  daily  and  two 
weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly  periodical,  two 
public  and  several  other  schools,  including  a 
female  institute  under  the  management  of  the 
Memphis  Methodist  Episcopal  conference,  and 
11  churches.  Jackson  is  the  seat  of  West  Ten 
nessee  college,  which  in  1871-'2  had  4  profes 
sors  and  152  students. 

JACKSON,  Andrew,  seventh  president  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  the  Waxhaw  settlement, 
N.  C.,  March  15,  1767,  died  at  the  "Hermit 
age,"  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  June  8,  1845.  His 
parents,  who  were  Scotch-Irish,  emigrated  from 
Carrickfergus,  Ireland,  in  1765,  and  settled  on 
Twelve-mile  creek,  a  branch  of  the  Catawba 
river.  They  had  been  very  poor  at  home,  the 
father  tilling  a  few  acres,  while  his  wife,  Eliza 
beth  Hutchinson,  belonged  to  a  hard-working 
and  scantily  paid  family  of  linen  weavers.  Mr. 
Jackson  never  owned  any  land  in  America,  and 
after  his  death,  early  in  the  spring  of  1767,  his 
widow  removed  to  Waxhaw  creek,  where  her 
relatives  resided.  It  was  in  the  house  of  her 
brother-in-law,  George  McKcmey,  that  the  fu 
ture  president  was  born,  a  few  days  after  the 
death  of  his  father.  Shortly  afterward  Mrs. 
Jackson  removed  to  the  house  of  another 
brother-in-law,  Mr.  Crawford,  whose  house 
keeper  she  became,  because  of  the  illness  of  his 
wife.  Little  is  known  of  Andrew's  childhood. 
He  is  described  as  a  frolicsome,  mischievous 
generous,  brave,  and  resolute  boy,  passion- 


486 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


ately  fond  of  athletic  sports,  in  which  he  was 
excelled  by  no  one  of  his  years.  lie  was  not 
addicted  to  books,  and  his  education  was  lim 
ited,  though  it  is  said  his  mother  wished  to 
train  him  for  the  pulpit.  At  an  early  age  he 
took  up  arms,  and  was  a  witness  of  the  defeat 
of  Sumter  at  Hanging  Rock  in  1780.  He  had 
previously  seen  the  dead  and  wounded  of  the 
Waxhaw  militia,  after  the  massacre  by  Tarle- 
ton,  and  had  assisted  his  mother  and  his 
brother  Robert  in  ministering  to  the  wants 
of  the  disabled  Americans.  The  two  brothers 
were  active  whigs,  and  were  captured  by  the 
enemy  in  1781.  The  British  commander  or 
dered  Andrew  to  clean  his  boots,  and  on  the 
boy's  refusal  struck  him  on  the  head  and  arm 
with  his  sword,  inflicting  two  wounds.  Robert, 
who  displayed  equal  spirit,  was  knocked  down 
and  disabled.  Imprisoned  at  Camden,  Jackson 
was  an  eye-witness  of  the  defeat  of  Gen.  Greene 
at  Hobkirk's  Hill.  While  the  brothers  were 
suffering  from  the  smallpox,  in  prison,  their 
mother  effected  their  exchange,  and  took  them 
back  to  Waxhaw,  where  Robert  died;  and  it 
was  many  months  before  Andrew's  health 
was  restored.  His  mother  then  proceeded  to 
Charleston  to  aid  the  imprisoned  Americans, 
and  soon  died  of  ship  fever.  Left  utterly 
destitute,  Jackson  had  to  labor  hard  for  sub 
sistence,  lie  worked  for  a  time  in  a  saddler's 
shop  kept  by  one  of  his  relatives,  and  taught 
school.  Before  he  had  completed  his  18th 
year  he  commenced  the  study  of  law  at  Salis 
bury,  N.  C.,  in  the  office  of  Mr.  Spence  McKay. 
He  did  not  neglect  his  studies  altogether,  but 
paid  more  attention  to  horse  racing,  foot  ra 
cing,  cock  fighting,  and  similar  amusements 
common  at  that  time,  than  to  the  law.  Finish 
ing  his  studies  in  the  office  of  Col.  Stokes,  he 
was  licensed  to  practise  before  he  had  reached 
the  age  of  20.  In  1788  he  was  appointed  soli 
citor  or  public  prosecutor  of  the  western  dis 
trict  of  North  Carolina,  embracing  what  is 
now  the  state  of  Tennessee.  He  arrived  at 
Nashville  in  the  autumn,  and  entered  imme 
diately  upon  an  active  career.  His  practice 
was  large.  He  had  to  travel  much,  making  22 
journeys  in  seven  years  between  Nashville 
and  Jonesborough,  280  m.,  always  at  the  risk 
of  his  life,  owing  to  the  numbers  and  hostility 
of  the  Indians.  In  the  summer  of  1791  he 
married  Mrs.  Rachel  Robards,  a  daughter  of  Col. 
John  Donelson  of  Virginia,  one  of  the  foun 
ders  of  Tennessee.  Her  first  husband  was 
Mr.  Lewis  Robards  of  Kentucky.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Robards  were  boarding  with  Mrs.  Donelson, 
then  a  widow,  when  Jackson  arrived  at  Nash 
ville,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the  same 
family.  In  1790-'91  Mr.  Robards  applied  to 
the  legislature  of  Virginia  for  an  act  prelimi 
nary  to  a  divorce,  stating  that  his  wife  was  liv 
ing  in  adultery  with  Andrew  Jackson.  The 
act  was  passed,  under  it  a  jury  was  summoned 
late  in  1793,  and  the  court  of  Mercer  co.,  Ky., 
declared  the  marriage  between  Lewis  Robards 
and  Rachel  Robards  dissolved.  Jackson  and 


Mrs.  Robards  believed  the  act  passed  by  tlia 
legislature  was  itself  a  divorce,  and  they  were 
married  at  Natchez  two  years  before  the  action 
of  the  court.  At  the  suggestion  of  their  friend 
Judge  Overton,  who  also  was  surprised  to  learn 
that  the  act  of  the  legislature  had  not  divorced 
Capt.  Robards,  they  procured  a  license  in  Jan 
uary,  1794,  and  had  the  ceremony  performed 
again.  When  Gen.  Jackson  had  become  the 
chief  of  a  great  party,  the  circumstances  of  this 
marriage  led  to  very  serious  misrepresenta 
tions.  Mr.  Robards  was  prone  to  jealousy 
without  cause,  and  Jackson  was  not  the  first 
man  of  whom  he  was  jealous.  His  statement 
to  the  legislature  of  Virginia  is  believed  to  have 
been  wholly  unfounded.  His  relatives  all  sided 
with  his  wife,  and  never  supposed  her  to  be 
guilty  of  even  an  act  of  impropriety.  In  all 
his  relations  with  women  Jackson's  conduct 
was  singularly  pure.  Thomas  II.  Benton,  who 
knew  the  parties  intimately  many  years,  says : 
"  There  was  an  innate,  unvarying,  self-acting 
delicacy  in  his  intercourse  with  the  female  sex, 
including  all  womankind ;  and  on  that  point 
my  personal  observation  (and  my  opportunities 
for  observation  were  both  large  and  various) 
enables  me  to  join  in  the  declaration  of  the  be 
lief  expressed' by  his  earliest  friend  and  most 
intimate  associate,  the  late  Judge  Overton  of 
Tennessee.  The  Roman  general  won  an  im 
mortality  of  honor  by  one  act  of  continence ; 
what  praise  is  due  to  Jackson,  whose  whole  life 
was  continent  ?  I  repeat,  if  he  had  been  born 
in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  he  would  have  been 
a  Puritan.  Nothing  could  exceed  his  kindness 
and  affection  to  Mrs.  Jackson,  always  increas 
ing  in  proportion  as  his  elevation  and  culmina 
ting  fortunes  drew  cruel  attacks  upon  her." 
Jackson  became  district  attorney  of  Tennessee 
when  that  country  was  made  a  federal  terri 
tory  ;  and  when  the  territory  became  a  state, 
in  1796,  he  was  a  man  of  some  wealth,  owning 
much  land.  He  was  chosen  one  of  the  five 
members  from  Davidson  co.  of  the  convention 
which  met  at  Knoxville,  Jan.  11,  1796,  to  make 
a  constitution  for  the  new  state,  and  he  was 
appointed  on  the  committee  which  drafted' 
that  instrument.  In  the  autumn  of  1796  he 
was  elected  to  represent  the  state  in  the  popu 
lar  branch  of  congress.  He  entered  the  house 
Dec.  5,  1796,  when  Washington  was  on  the 
eve  of  retirement.  Jackson  belonged  to  the 
republican  (afterward  democratic)  party,  then 
forming  under  the  lead  of  Thomas  Jefferson, 
who  had  just  been  elected  vice  president.  He 
was  one  of  the  twelve  representatives  who 
voted  against  the  adoption  of  an  address  to 
President  Washington,  in  reply  to  his  last  an 
nual  address  to  congress,  as  he  could  not  con 
scientiously  approve  of  all  the  acts  of  the  ad 
ministration.  His  first  speech  was  made  on 
Dec.  29,  in  support  of  claims  for  services 
against  the  Indians.  He  pushed  the  question 
with  his  usual  earnestness,  speaking  more  than 
once,  and  succeeding  in  his  purpose.  During 
the  session  he  voted  in  favor  of  laying  taxes 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


487 


on  slaves,  of  completing  three  frigates,  against 
buying  peace  of  the  Algerines,  against  a  large 
appropriation  for  furnishing  the  president's 
house,  and  against  the  removal  of  the  restric 
tion  confining  the  expenditure  of  public  money 
to  the  specific  objects  for  which  each  sum  was 
appropriated.  His  course  was  highly  approved 
by  his  constituents  ;  and  he  was  made  a  mem 
ber  of  the  senate,  in  which  he  took  his  seat 
Nov.  22,  1797.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  sena 
torial  career.  So  far  as  appears,  he  never  made 
a  remark  or  cast  a  vote  as  a  senator.  In  April, 
1798,  he  returned  to  Tennessee  on  leave,  and 
resigned  his  seat.  He  was  elected  a  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee  by  the  legis 
lature,  at  a  salary  of  $600  a  year,  and  held 
courts  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  None  of 
his  decisions  remain.  While  he  was  on  the 
bench  he  was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Gov. 
Sevier,  which  came  to  a  crisis  in  1801,  when 
Jackson  was  elected  a  major  general  of  militia 
over  Sevier.  Jackson  suspected  Sevier  of  hav 
ing  been  engaged  in  certain  land  frauds.  An 
informal  duel  at  Knoxville,  in  1804,  was  pre 
vented  at  the  last  moment  by  the  interference 
of  friends.  In  1798  he  had  sold  lands  to  a 
Philadelphian,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  notes 
he  received  bought  goods  for  the  Tennessee 
market;  but  the  failure  of  the  Philadelphian 
threw  him  into  difficulties,  and  in  order  to 
clear  them  off  he  resigned  his  judgeship,  July 
24,  1804,  sold  a  large  amount  of  property,  and 
relieved  himself  from  debt.  He  removed  to 
what  subsequently  became  known  as  the  "  Her 
mitage,"  with  his  slaves,  and  dwelt  in  a  log 
house.  He  extended  his  business,  being  chief 
of  the  trading  firm  of  Jackson,  Coffee,  and 
Hatchings,  and  raised  cotton,  corn,  wheat, 
horses,  cows,  and  mules.  He  had  a  cotton  gin, 
then  a  rarity.  The  firm  traded  to  New  Or 
leans,  and  built  boats  for  other  traders  ;  but  it 
lost  much  money,  and  came  to  an  end.  Jack 
son  was  an  exact  and  judicious  business  man, 
and  succeeded  in  all  undertakings  managed  by 
himself.  His  commercial  failure  grew  out  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  firm  during  his  absence. 
In  the  opening  days  of  1806  commenced  a 
quarrel  which  led  to  a  duel  between  Gen.  Jack 
son  and  Charles  Dickinson,  and  to  the  latter's 
death.  Mr.  Dickinson  Jiad  previously  used 
disparaging  words  of  Mrs.  Tackson,  which  he 
had  explained  away;  but  he  repeated  them, 
whereupon  Jackson  remonstrated  with  his 
father-in-law,  Mr.  Ervin,  saying:  "I  wish  no 
quarrel  with  him ;  he  is  used  by  my  enemies  in 
Nashville,  who  are  urging  him  on  to  pick  a 
quarrel  with  me.  Advise  him  to  stop  in  time." 
Becoming  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  a  Mr. 
Swann  relative  to  the  terms  of  a  horse  race, 
Jackson  found  the  name  of  Dickinson  offensive 
ly  introduced  into  the  letters  written  by  Swann, 
which  drew  from  him  certain  characteristic 
comments,  and  these  were  carried  to  their  sub 
ject,  as  was  the  intention  of  their  writer. 
Dickinson,  on  Jan.  10,  just  before  starting  for 
New  Orleans  in  a  flat-boat,  wrote  to  Jackson, 


charging  him  with  equivocations,  falsehood, 
and  cowardice.  During  his  absence  the  con 
troversy  between  Jackson  and  Swann  was  con 
tinued,  and  led  to  a  tavern  fight,  begun  by  the 
former.  Dickinson  returned  to  Nashville  on 
May  20,  and  on  the  21st  he  published  a  severe 
attack  on  Jackson,  provoked  in  part  by  the 
language  of  the  latter  in  the  Swann  quarrel. 
Jackson  challenged  him,  and  the  parties  met 
on  the  banks  of  the  lied  river,  in  Logan  co., 
Ky.,  early  in  the  morning  of  May  30.  The 
place  is  a  long  day's  journey  from  Nashville, 
and  the  duellists  had  to  leave  their  homes  early 
on  the  29th.  Dickinson  was  accompanied  by  a 
number  of  his  associates,  as  he  was  very  popu 
lar,  and  stood  high  in  the  society  of  Nashville. 
His  second  was  Dr.  Catlet,  and  Jackson's  was 
Gen.  Overton.  The  distance  was  eight  paces, 
and  Overton  won  the  right  to  give  the  word. 
Dickinson  fired  at  the  word,  breaking  a  rib, 
and  raking  the  breast  bone ;  but  Jackson  gave 
no  sign  of  being  hit,  and  his  antagonist,  who 
had  made  sure  of  killing  him,  exclaimed: 
"Good  God!  have  I  missed  him?"  Jackson 
then  fired,  and  Dickinson  fell  mortally  wound 
ed.  He  died  that  night,  not  even  knowing 
that  his  ball  had  hit  Jackson,  with  whom  it 
was  a  point  of  pride  not  to  let  him  know  that 
his  aim  had  been  effectual.  His  reason  for 
concealing  his  wound,  as  he  once  said  to  a 
friend,  was,  "that  as  Dickinson  considered 
himself  the  best  shot  in  the  world,  and  was 
certain  of  killing  him  at  the  first  fire,  he  did 
not  want  him  to  have  the  gratification  even  of 
knowing  that  he  had  touched  him."  But,  ac 
cording  to  Mr.  Parton,  his  "wound  proved  to 
be  more  severe  and  troublesome  than  was  at 
first  anticipated.  It  was  nearly  a  month  be 
fore  he  could  move  about  without  inconve 
nience,  and  when  the  wound  healed,  it  healed 
falsely ;  that  is,  some  of  the  viscera  were  slight 
ly  displaced,  and  so  remained."  This  duel 
made  Jackson  unpopular  in  Tennessee,  until 
his  military  exploits  had  withdrawn  public  at 
tention  from  it.  In  1805,  when  Aaron  Burr 
made  his  first  visit  to  the  west,  he  twice  be 
came  the  guest  of  Jackson.  The  western  peo 
ple  were  anxious  for  a  war  with  Spain,  and 
Burr  was  popular  with  them,  because  he  was 
believed  to  represent  and  support  their  opin 
ions.  Jackson  was  of  the  war  party.  After 
Burr's  return  to  the  east  he  and  Jackson  cor- 
^responded,  the  latter  even  making  out  the  lists 
of  officers  for  two  regiments  which  the  former 
suggested  might  be  raised  in  Tennessee.  Burr 
arrived  at  the  Hermitage  in  September,  1806, 
and  was  warmly  received ;  and  at  the  instance 
of  his  host  a  public  ball  was  given  in  his  honor 
at  Nashville,  though  rumors  adverse  to  him 
and  his  doings  were  then  current.  Jackson,  in 
military  costume,  led  Burr  into  the  room,  and 
introduced  him.  In  November  Burr  sent  an 
order  to  Jackson  for  boats  and  provisions, 
which  was  fulfilled.  A  week  later  (Nov.  10) 
Jackson  received  intelligence  that  led  him  to 
doubt  Burr's  integrity;  he  directed  that  no 


488 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


farther  engagements  should  be  made  with 
Burr,  and  wrote  to  him,  demanding  to  know 
the  truth.  He  also  wrote  a  warning  letter  to 
Governor  Clalborne  of  Orleans  territory,  and 
another  to  President  Jefferson,  tendering  the 
services  of  his  militia  division  to  the  general 
government.  Burr  arrived  at  Nashville  Dec. 
14,  and  sought  Jackson,  whom  he  assured  of 
the  falsity  of  the  charges  against  him.  They 
had  a  pecuniary  settlement,  and  Burr  departed, 
taking  but  two  of  the  eight  boats  for  which  he 
had  contracted.  Shortly  after  his  departure 
the  president's  proclamation  denouncing  him 
arrived,  and  he  was  burned  in  effigy.  On 
Jan.  1,  1807,  Gen.  Jackson  received  orders 
from  the  government  at  Washington  to  hold 
his  command  in  readiness  to  act.  The  revolu 
tionary  veterans  in  Nashville  tendered  their 
services  to  Jackson,  who  accepted  them.  He 
exerted  himself  with  his  usual  energy;  but 
his  active  loyalty  did  not  save  him  from  the 
suspicion  that  he  was  leagued  with  Burr. 
Summoned  to  Richmond  as  a  witness  in  the 
trial  of  Burr,  he  acted  as  one  of  Burr's  most 
zealous  partisans.  "  There  he  harangued  the 
crowd  in  the  capitol  square,"  says  Mr.  Par- 
ton,  "  defending  Burr,  and  angrily  denoun 
cing  Jefferson  as  a  persecutor.  There  are 
those  living  (1859)  who  heard  him  do  this.  He 
made  himself  so  conspicuous  as  Burr's  cham 
pion  at  Richmond,  that  Mr.  Madison,  the  secre 
tary  of  state,  took  deep  offence  at  it,  and  re 
membered  it  to  Jackson's  disadvantage  five 
years  later  when  he  was  president  of  the  United 
States,  with  a  war  on  his  hands.  For  the  same 
reason,  I  presume,  it  was  that  Jackson  was  not 
called  upon  to  give  testimony  upon  the  trial." 
Jackson  at  this  time  belonged  to  that  portion 
of  the  democratic  party  which  sought  to  have 
Mr.  Monroe  nominated  as  President  Jefferson's 
successor,  the  president  himself  preferring  Mr. 
Madison.  For  some  years  he  held  no  office,  liv 
ing  at  the  Hermitage,  and  devoting  himself  to 
agriculture.  His  life  was  not  altogether  quiet, 
however,  as,  besides  lesser  disputes,  he  had  an  an 
imated  quarrel  with  Mr.  Dinsmore,  agent  of  the 
Choctaw  Indians. — When,  in  1812,  war  was  de 
clared  against  England,  Gen.  Jackson  promptly 
tendered  his  services,  and  those  of  2,500  men 
of  his  division  of  Tennessee  militia,  to  the  na 
tional  government,  and  the  offer  was  as  prompt 
ly  accepted ;  but  it  was  not  until  Oct.  21  that 
the  government  requested  Gov.  Blount  to  send  . 
1,500  men  to  New  Orleans.  Jackson  appoint- 
ed  Dec.  10  for  the  meeting  of  the  troops  at 
Nashville.  A  force  of  infantry  and  cavalry, 
2,070  strong,  was  organized,  and  on  Jan.  7, 
1813,  the  infantry  embarked,  while  the  cavalry 
marched  across  the  country.  On  Feb.  15  the 
little  army  assembled  at  Natchez,  where  it  re 
mained  by  direction  of  Gen.  Wilkinson.  At 
the  close  of  March  Jackson  received  an  order 
from  the  secretary  of  war  to  dismiss  his  corps, 
but  he  conducted  his  force  back  to  Tennessee 
before  disbanding  it.  It  was  on  this  march 
that  the  soldiers  gave  him  the  name  of  "  Hick 


ory,"  because  of  his  toughness,  and  in  time 
this  was  changed  into  "Old  Hickory."  He 
tendered  his  corps  for  an  invasion  of  Canada, 
but  no  answer  came  from  Washington,  and  on 
May  22,  at  Nashville,  the  men  were  dismissed. 
Government  allowed  his  transportation  drafts 
to  be  protested,  and  his  private  fortune  would 
have  been  irretrievably  ruined  had  not  his 
friend  Col.  Benton  made  "  an  appeal  from  the 
justice  to  the  fears  of  the  administration." 
When  the  administration  found  that  the  state 
of  Tennessee  would  be  lost  to  it  if  this  scanda 
lous  act  were  persisted  in,  justice  was  done. 
In  1813  Jackson's  friend  William  (afterward 
Gen.)  Carroll  became  involved  in  a  quarrel  with 
Mr.  Jesse  Benton,  a  brother  of  Col.  T.  II.  Ben- 
ton,  and  challenged  him.  Carroll  asked  Jackson 
to  be  his  second,  which  he  declined,  until  Carroll 
told  him  there  was  a  conspiracy  u  to  run  him 
(Carroll)  out  of  the  country,"  when  he  resolved 
to  interfere.  At  first  he  was  successful  in  his 
remonstrances  with  Benton,  but  the  latter 
finally  resolved  that  the  duel  should  go  on. 
Jackson  acted  as  Carroll's  second.  Benton  sent 
an  offensive  account  of  the  affair  to  his  brother, 
who  was  then  serving  Jackson  so  well  at  Wash 
ington.  Other  enemies  of  Jackson  sent  him 
similar  accounts.  This  led  to  an  angry  corre 
spondence  between  Gen.  Jackson  and  Col. 
Benton,  and  the  latter  made  use  of  the  harsh 
est  language  in  speaking  of  the  former,  all  of 
which  was  reported  to  the  general,  who  threat 
ened  to  horsewhip  the  colonel  the  first  time 
they  should  meet.  On  Sept.  4  Jackson,  accom 
panied  by  Col.  Coffee,  met  the  Bentons  in  the 
streets  of  Nashville.  Bidding  him  defend  him 
self,  and  avowing  his  purpose,  Jackson  ad 
vanced  upon  Col.  Benton,  who  sought  to  draw 
a  pistol,  but  was  anticipated  by  his  antagonist, 
who  drew  one  and  aimed  at  him.  Benton  re 
treated,  and  Jackson  followed  him,  until  they 
reached  the  back  door  of  the  city  hotel,  when 
Jesse  Benton  fired  at  Jackson,  shattering  his 
left  shoulder,  the  pistol  being  charged  with 
two  balls  and  a  slug.  Jackson  fell ;  and  Cof 
fee,  who  entered  on  hearing  the  report,  fired 
at  Col.  Benton,  but  missed  his  aim.  He  was 
then  about  to  strike  down  the  colonel,  when 
the  latter  stumbled  down  a  staircase.  Meantime 
Mr.  S.  Hays,  a  nephe,w  of  Mrs.  Jackson,  who 
knew  that  it  was  Jesse  Benton  that  fired  at 
the  general,  volunteered  in  his  relative's  aid, 
and  a  fierce  conflict  ensued  between  him  and 
Jesse,  he  making  use  of  a  sword  cane  first, 
and  then  of  a  dirk,  and  throwing  him  down. 
Benton  was  wounded  in  several  places,  and 
would  have  been  killed  had  not  a  bystander 
caught  Hays's  hand.  Nothing  but  Jackson's 
own  resolution  prevented  the  loss  of  his  left 
arm,  as  all  the  doctors  but  one  recommended 
amputation. — The  massacre  of  Fort  Mimms  by 
the  Creek  Indians,  Aug.  30,  1813,  created 
an  extraordinary  excitement  throughout  the 
southwest.  Jackson  addressed  the  volunteers, 
and  appointed  Fort  St.  Stephen  as  the  rendez 
vous  for  all  who  would  arm  themselves  to 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


489 


take  part  in  a  war  of  Indian  extermination,  j 
On  Sept.  25  the  legislature  of  Tennessee  called 
3.500  volunteers  into  the  field,  besides  the 
1^500  that  were  in  the  national  service.  Jack 
son,  though  too  feeble  to  leave  his  bed,  issued 
addresses,  and  aided  in  the  organization  of  the 
troops.  Still  suffering  from  his  wounds,  he 
was  at  Fayetteville  with  his  division  on  Oct.  7. 
On  the  llth  his  force  moved,  and  is  said  to  have 
marched  32  m.  in  six  hours,  in  the  hope  of 
meeting  the  Indians.  Operations  were  delay 
ed  by  a  defective  commissariat.  On  Nov.  3 
Col.  Coffee,  who  had  been  sent  out  with  a 
cavalry  force,  defeated  the  Creeks  at  the  town 
of  Tallushatchee,  inflicting  heavy  loss,  and 
destroying  the  place.  On  Nov.  9  Jackson  de 
feated  the  Creeks  at  Talladega,  where  hun 
dreds  of  them  were  killed  or  wounded.  The 
want  of  food  prevented  these  victories  from 
being  very  useful.  The  troops  were  starving 
and  mutinous.  A  misunderstanding  as  to  the 
term  of  service  of  the  volunteers  occurred  be 
tween  them  and  their  commander.  With  few 
er  than  1,000  newly  raised  men,  besides  Indi 
ans,  he  entered  the  enemy's  country  in  January, 
1814.  He  defeated  the  Indians  at  Emuckfau 
and  Enotochopco,  Jan.  22  and  24,  and  these 
were  among  the  severest  reverses  they  ever 
experienced.  The  details  of  the  battle  showed 
much  skill  on  the  side  of  the  victors,  Jack 
son's  energy  and  bravery  being  very  conspic 
uous.  The  troops  were  then  dismissed,  but  a 
new  force  was  speedily  formed,  composed  in 
part  of  regulars.  In  February  Jackson  was  at 
the  head  of  5,000  men.  The  Creeks  made  a 
final  stand  at  Tohopeka,  or  the  Horseshoe,  a 
peninsula  in  the  Tallapoosa  river ;  and  their 
position  was  very  strong,  though  defended  by 
inadequate  numbers.  Jackson  arrived  before 
this  post,  March  27,  1814,  with  2,000  troops, 
and  attacked  it  the  same  day.  It  was  taken, 
and  of  its  900  defenders  750  were  killed  or 
drowned,  the  victors  losing  201  men.  This 
victory  ended  not  merely  the  Creek  war,  but 
the  power  of  the  Indian  race  in  North  Amer 
ica.  Jackson's  victories  settled  for  ever  the 
long  quarrel  between  the  white  man  and  the 
red  man.  Weathersford,  the  principal  Creek 
chief,  surrendered  to  him,  and  was  protected. 
Some  of  the  Indians  fled  to  Florida,  but  most 
of  them  obeyed  Jackson  s  order  to  retire  to 
the  north.  In  the  summer  of  1814  Gen.  Jack 
son  and  Col.  Hawkins  made  with  them  the 
treaty  of  Fort  Jackson,  the  terms  of  which 
were  as  moderate  as  regard  for  the  peace  and 
safety  of  the  white  settlers  allowed.  The 
chiefs  gave  Jackson  three  miles  square  of  land, 
and  President  Madison  was  desirous  that  he 
should  be  allowed  to  accept  the  gift,  in  which 
view  congress  could  never  be  brought  to  con 
cur. — Gen.  Jackson  had  now  obtained  a  na 
tional  reputation,  and  on  May  31  his  appoint 
ment  as  a  major  general  in  the  United  States 
army  was  officially  announced.  Thus  in  the  : 
national  service,  he  became  the  acknowledged  j 
military  leader  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the  j 


Union,  various  circumstances  having  placed 
him  in  a  position  to  which  six  other  generals 
had  claims.  The  English  were  preparing  a 
grand  attack  on  the  southwest,  and  in  July, 
1814,  Jackson  left  his  home  for  Mobile,  against 
which  the  first  blow  of  the  enemy  was  to  be 
delivered.  Florida  was  then  a  Spanish  prov 
ince,  but  the  English  used  it  as  if  it  were  their 
own ;  and  from  Pensacola,  the  best  harbor  on 
the  gulf,  they  organized  expeditions  against  the 
United  States,  and  aided  the  Indians.  It  was 
now  the  rendezvous  of  their  forces,  and  the 
Spaniards  had  neither  the  power  nor  the  dis 
position  to  prevent  this  abuse  of  neutral  terri 
tory.  The  headquarters  of  the  British  com 
mander  were  in  the  house  of  the  Spanish  gov 
ernor,  Manrequez.  When  Jackson  arrived  at 
Mobile,  he  found  but  a  small  force  at  his  com 
mand,  yet  he  resolved  to  seize  Pensacola.  He 
wrote  to  the  secretary  of  war,  asking  permis 
sion  to  attack  that  place,  but  the  secretary's  re 
ply  reached  him  only  at  the  end  of  six  months. 
He  opened  a  correspondence  with  Manrequez, 
which  led  to  no  change  of  conduct  on  the  part 
of  the  Spaniards,  Col.  Nichols,  the  English  com 
mander,  continuing  his  preparations  at  Pensa 
cola  for  an  attack  on  Mobile.  Assuming  the  re 
sponsibility,  as  was  his  custom  both  in  politics 
and  in  war,  Jackson  determined  to  act  without 
orders.  He  gave  direction  that  the  Tennessee 
levies  should  march  upon  Mobile.  The  call  he 
made  upon  his  old  comrades  was  so  well  obey 
ed,  that  men  paid  large  sums  for  the  privilege 
of  filling  vacancies  in  the  corps  that  had  been 
mustered  into  the  service.  Meantime  he  threw 
a  small  force  into  Fort  Bowyer,  on  Mobile 
point,  commanded  by  Major  Lawrence.  This 
fort,  which  was  incomplete,  was  assailed,  Sept. 
15,  by  a  British  fleet,  aided  by  a  combined  force 
of  Indians  and  marines.  The  enemy  were  re 
pulsed,  losing  one  of  their  ships  and  72  men. 
A  mutiny  in  the  ranks  of  the  Tennessee  troops 
delayed  the  arrival  of  the  force  under  Gen. 
Coffee,  and  it  was  not  till  Oct.  20  that  Jackson 
found  himself  at  their  head,  his  entire  force 
consisting  of  4,000  men,  1,000  of  whom  were 
regulars  and  1,500  mounted  volunteers.  He 
hung  six  of  the  mutineers,  and  his  conduct 
was  the  subject  of  much  hostile  discussion  at 
a  later  period.  He  marched  immediately  upon 
Pensacola,  at  the  head  of  3,000  men.  Nego 
tiations  failing,  he  seized  the  town  by  force, 
Nov.  6 ;  and  the  British  blew  up  the  fort  that 
commanded  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  their 
seven  vessels  leaving  the  bay.  On  Nov.  11 
Jackson  was  again  at  Mobile,  where  he  re 
mained  till  the  22d  to  meet  an  expected  at 
tack,  and  whence  he  sent  a  force  that  expelled 
Nichols  and  his  Indians  from  Florida.  lie 
sent  the  mass  of  his  troops  to  New  Orleans, 
and  reached  that  place  himself  Dec.  2,  1814. 
The  city  was  miserably  defended,  and  had  the 
English  moved  with  ordinary  rapidity  it  must 
have  fallen  into  their  hands.  Jackson  imme 
diately  prepared  to  meet  the  enemy.  On  Dec. 
14  a  powerful  British  naval  force  captured  five 


490 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


American  gunboats  and  a  schooner,  which  gave 
the  enemy  command  of  the  route  to  New  Or 
leans,  had  they  known  how  to  use  it.  The 
next  day  Jackson  declared  martial  law,  having 
already  called  out  the  whole  of  the  state  mili 
tia.  The  forces  under  his  orders  consisted  of 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  and  Missis 
sippi  militia,  a  few  regulars,  Baratarian  pri- 
vateersinen,  and  a  battalion  of  colored  men. 
The  vanguard  of  the  British  army,  under  Gen. 
Keane,  was  landed  on  Dec.  16,  and  marched  to 
within  9  in.  of  New  Orleans  on  the  morning 
of  the  23d.  Jackson  heard  of  their  arrival  be 
fore  2  P.  M.,  assembled  a  motley  force  2,131 
strong,  of  whom  only  about  1,800  were  en 
gaged,  and,  aided  by  Lieut.  Henley  in  the 
schooner  Carolina,  attacked  the  enemy.  A 
very  hot  action  was  fought,  with  decided  ad 
vantage  to  the  Americans,  as  it  prevented 
the  enemy's  advance  upon  the  city;  and  the 
victory  might  have  been  made  complete  had 
not  large  British  reinforcements  arrived  du 
ring  the  night.  New  Orleans  was  really  saved 
on  the  night  of  Dec.  23,  as  the  enemy  were 
made  over-cautious  by  the  result  of  that  bat 
tle.  Jackson  fell  back  to  a  canal  4  m.  from 
the  city,  where  his  famous  line  was  construct 
ed,  and  provided  against  attacks  from  other 
directions.  Sir  E.  Pakenham  arrived  on  the 
25th,  and  made  new  arrangements  in  the  Brit 
ish  army.  The  Carolina  was  destroyed  by  his 
batteries  that  evening.  He  attacked  Jackson 
on  the  28th,  and  was  repulsed.  On  Jan.  1, 
1815,  another  attack  was  made,  principally  with 
artillery,  and  again  the  enemy  were  signally 
beaten.  These  results  were  owing  to  the  skil 
ful  manner  in  which  Jackson  managed  the  re 
sources  at  his  command,  and  to  the  enthusiasm 
with  which  he  had  inspired  his  inexperienced 
troops.  He  caused  the  invaders  to  be  con 
stantly  harassed  by  night  attacks.  On  Jan.  1 
he  was  reenforced  by  the  arrival  of  2,250  Ken 
tucky  militia,  mostly  unarmed,  the  arms  that 
had  been  ordered  from  Pittsburgh  to  New  Or 
leans  having  failed  to  reach  that  place.  Keen- 
forced  on  Jan.  6,  the  entire  British  army,  in 
cluding  seamen  and  marines,  probably  consist 
ed  of  14,000  effective  men ;  but  British  authori 
ties  place  it  as  low  as  8,000,  and  greatly  ex 
aggerate  Jackson's  numbers,  placing  them  as 
high  as  25,000.  His  line  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Mississippi  was  about  a  mile  long,  with  12 
guns,  and  was  defended  by  only  3,200  men, 
while  800  more  were  distributed  in  positions 
hard  by.  It  was  a  strong  position ;  the  can 
non  were  well  served  by  Lieut,  (afterward 
Gen.)  Armstrong,  and  by  the  Baratarians ; 
and  so  slippery  was  the  soil  that,  according  to 
Major  Latour,  an  eye-witness,  a  man  unincuni- 
bered  and  unopposed  would  have  found  it  dif 
ficult  to  mount  the  breastwork  at  leisure  and 
carefully.  Its  weakness  was,  that  it  was  com 
manded  from  the  right  bank,  where  were 
American  batteries,  manned  by  seamen,  and 
supported  by  Kentucky  militia.  The  English 
enlarged  the  Villere  canal,  and  prepared  to 


throw  a  force  upon  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  to  storm  the  American  position  there 
before  commencing  their  attack  on  Jackson's 
line.  Col.  Thornton  was  despatched,  at  the 
head  of  two  regiments  and  600  marines  and 
seamen,  across  the  river,  on  the  night  of  the 
7th;  but  delays  were  experienced,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  event  of  the  campaign  had  been 
decided  on  the  left  bank  that  he  was  able  to 
advance.  Meantime,  on  the  left  bank  the  Brit 
ish  columns  were  directed  against  the  Ameri 
can  line ;  but  they  were  received  with  a  severe 
fire  and  beaten  back,  Gen.  Pakenham  being 
killed,  Gen.  Gibbs  mortally  wounded,  and  Gen. 
Keane  severely  wounded.  The  attack  was  re 
peated,  but  with  no  success.  The  weight  and 
precision  of  the  American  fire  were  irresistible. 
A  small  British  force  succeeded  in  carrying 
a  battery  near  the  river,  after  losing  three 
fourths  of  its  number,  but  abandoned  it.  One 
regiment,  the  93d  Highlanders,  distinguished 
for  its  services  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
lost  more  than  half  its  men,  having  been 
brought  to  a  point  where  it  could  do  no  good, 
but  where  it  could  be  most  effectually  ope 
rated  upon  by  the  Americans.  The  British 
troops  never  behaved  better,  but  they  were 
badly  handled;  and  it  is  the  evidence  of  one 
of  their  own  officers  that  Sir  E.  Pakenham's 
impatience  in  giving  the  signal  of  attack  too 
soon,  instead  of  waiting  for  the  development 
of  Thornton's  movement,  was  the  cause  of  his 
severe  loss.  The  merit  of  Jackson  consisted 
mainly  in  the  fact  that  he  adapted  his  means 
of  defence  most  shrewdly  to  the  character  of 
his  own  forces  no  less  than  to  that  of  the  ene 
my.  His  opponents  have  never  hesitated  to 
admit  his  merits  in  the  strongest  language. 
The  number  of  the  British  engaged  on  the 
left  bank  is  variously  stated,  the  lowest  figure 
on  the  British  side  being  5,195.  On  the  right 
bank  Col.  Thornton's  attack  was  entirely  suc 
cessful,  owing  to  one  of  Gen.  Morgan's  aids 
having  directed  a  retreat  that  was  rapidly  con 
verted  into  a  flight.  The  seamen,  under  Capt. 
Patterson  and  Lieut.  Henley,  who  served  a 
heavy  battery  on  the  right  bank,  though  com 
pelled  to  abandon  it,  spiked  their  guns  and 
threw  their  ammunition  into  the  river.  Their 
success  on  that  side  gave  the  British  virtual 
command  of  the  left  bank  and  of  New  Or 
leans  ;  but  they  had  been  so  roughly  handled 
before  Jackson's  line  that  they  had  no  heart 
to  pursue  the  signal  advantage  they  had  gain 
ed  over  his  lieutenant.  Gen.  Lambert,  who 
had  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  British 
army,  proposed  an  armistice.  Jackson  con 
sented,  on  condition  that  while  hostilities 
should  be  suspended  on  the  left  bank,  they 
should  not  be  so  on  the  right  bank,  and 
that  neither  party  should  send  reinforcements 
there.  Gen.  Lambert  ordered  Col.  Thornton 
to  return  to  the  left  bank,  and  the  British 
gave  up  their  solitary  advantage.  The  ene 
my's  loss  on  the  left  bank  was  about  2,000  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners;  the  American 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


491 


loss,  7  killed  and  G  wounded.  On  the  right  ! 
bank  neither  party  suffered  much,  but  even 
there  the  loss  was  mostly  on  the  side  of  the 
enemy.  Jackson  watched  the  enemy  until  the 
18th,  when  they  retreated,  abandoning  their 
guns,  and  leaving  80  wounded  men  to  the  care 
of  the  Americans.  Jackson  was  involved  in 
much  trouble  by  the  conduct  of  many  civil 
ians  during  the  campaign,  who  forgot  that  a 
dictatorship  alone  could  save  the  state,  which  | 
the  enemy,  had  they  been  victorious,  would 
possibly  have  tried  to  retain,  in  spite  of  the 
treaty  of  Ghent,  on  the  ground  that  the  treaty 
of  1803,  by  which  France  had  ceded  Louisiana 
to  the  United  States,  was  void,  because  she  had 
no  claim  to  the  territory.  A  Frenchman,  M. 
Louaillier,  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Lou 
isiana,  was  conspicuous  among  the  general's  ene 
mies,  and  Jackson  had  him  arrested  on  March 
5.  Judge  Hall,  of  the  United  States  district 
court,  granted  Louaillier's  petition  for  a  writ 
of  habeas  corpus,  and  was  himself  arrested  and 
imprisoned,  and  then  banished  from  the  city. 
On  March  13  martial  law  was  abrogated  by 
Jackson's  order,  and  Hall  returned.  Jackson 
was  then  arrested  on  a  charge  of  contempt  of 
court,  and  fined  $1,000.  He  refused  the  offers 
that  were  made  from  all  sides  to  pay  the  fine, 
and  paid  it  himself,  protecting  the  court,  which 
could  not  have  stood  a  moment  against  his  op 
position.  After  his  retirement  from  public  life 
some  of  his  friends  requested  congress  to  re 
fund  the  amount.  After  considerable  opposi 
tion,  the  bill  refunding  the  money,  principal 
and  interest,  was  passed  in  February,  1844. — 
The  brilliant  successes  of  the  Louisiana  cam 
paign  made  Jackson  very  popular  throughout 
the  country.  He  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  southern  division  of  the  United 
States  in  April,  1815,  and  received  the  thanks  ' 
of  congress.  Even  at  that  early  day  he  was  ! 
thought  of  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency,  j 
and  his  political  prospects  were  not  injured  i 
when  it  was  known  that  he  advised  President 
Monroe  to  pursue  a  liberal  course  toward  the 
federalists,  whose  political  importance  had  van 
ished,  and  to  select  his  cabinet  without  regard 
to  party.  Toward  the  close  of  1817  a  war 
with  the  Seminoles  was  commenced,  and  Jack 
son  was  ordered  to  take  the  field  in  person. 
He  formed  a  large  force,  consisting  of  regular 
troops,  militia  from  Tennessee  and  Georgia, 
and  Creek  Indians.  He  was  successful,  and 
without  much  fighting.  He  seized  the  Spanish 
fort  of  St.  Mark's,  where  he  found  a  Scotch 
man  named  Arbuthnot;  and  at  the  Indian 
town  of  Suwanee  he  captured  one  Ambrister, 
a  native  of  the  Bahamas.  These  British  sub 
jects  were  tried  before  courts  martial,  and  con 
demned  on  the  charges  of  having  stirred  up 
the  Indians  against  the  United  States,  and  of 
supplying  them  with  the  means  of  war;  and 
they  were  executed.  The  court  softened  Am- 
brister's  sentence  to  whipping  and  imprison 
ment,  but  Gen.  Jackson  hung  him  nevertheless. 
Two  Indian  chiefs,  one  of  them  the  prophet 


Francis,  were  promptly  hanged  by  his  orders, 
lie  then  marched  upon  Pensacola,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Spaniards,  seized  it. 
These  proceedings  created  great  sensation. 
The  execution  of  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister 
was  the  cause  of  much  irritation  in  England, 
and  Lord  Castlereagh,  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs,  told  Mr.  Rush,  the  American 
minister,  that  he  could  have  had  war  with 
the  United  States  merely  by  holding  up  his 
hand.  The  administration  of  President  Mon 
roe  was  divided  on  the  subject.  J.  Q.  Adams, 
secretary  of  state,  ably  defended  the  course  of 
Jackson  in  his  correspondence  with  the  Span 
ish  minister,  who  had  demanded  an  apology 
and  an  indemnity  for  the  seizure  of  the  two 
places  in  Florida,  and  in  the  cabinet  against 
Mr.  Calhoun,  secretary  of  war,  who  was  in 
favor  of  putting  him  on  his  trial;  which  last 
fact  was  unknown  to  Jackson,  who  believed 
that  Calhoun  had  acted  with  Adams,  and  that 
Mr.  Crawford,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  was 
his  enemy.  In  congress  his  conduct  was  the 
subject  of  vehement  debates,  but  resolutions 
of  censure  and  condemnation  were  rejected 
by  the  house  of  representatives,  and  the  sen 
ate  did  not  come  to  any  decision  on  the  ques 
tion.  The  report  made  to  the  senate,  by  Mr. 
Lacock  of  Pennsylvania,  was  very  full  and 
very  severe,  but  was  never  acted  upon.  So 
offensive  was  it  to  Jackson  that  it  is  said,  he 
threatened  to  cut  off  the  ears  of  certain  sen 
ators.  His  anger  was  caused  by  his  belief  that 
he  had  acted  in  strict  conformity  to  the  wishes 
of  the  administration ;  and  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  he  did  not.  In  1819  he  made  a 
visit  to  the  north,  proceeding  as  far  as  New 
York,  and  was  everywhere  well  received.  The 
government  of  New  York  city  employed  Van- 
derlyn  to  paint  his  portrait.  When  Spain  ce 
ded  Florida  to  the  United  States,  Jackson  was 
appointed  governor  of  that  territory,  March  10, 
1821,  and  took  possession  of  it  July  18.  He 
held  the  office  only  a  few  months,  but  during 
that  time  he  had  a  dispute  with  Col.  Callava, 
late  Spanish  governor  of  Florida,  relative  to 
certain  judicial  papers  which  the  latter  was  en 
deavoring  to  carry  out  of  the  country.  Callava 
was  imprisoned,  but  released  on  the  seizure  of 
the  papers.  Judge  Fremontin  granted  him  a 
J\aJ>ea»  corpus,  which  Gov.  Jackson  disregard 
ed,  and  summoned  the  judge  before  him.  The 
judge  did  not  obey  the  summons,  and  the  gov 
ernor's  course  was  condemned  by  some  mem 
bers  of  congress,  in  debate  ;  but  they  failed  to 
obtain  a  formal  censure.  President  Monroe 
offered  the  post  of  minister  to  Mexico  to  Gen. 
Jackson,  which  he  would  not  accept. — In  1823 
the  Tennessee  legislature  elected  him  a  United 
States  senator,  and  nominated  him  for  the 
presidency.  "At  first,"  says  Mr.  Tucker,  "  this 
nomination  afforded  matter  of  jest  and  merri 
ment  rather  than  of  serious  animadversion  in 
other  states,  since,  unquestionable  as  were  Gen. 
Jackson's  military  qualifications,  he  was  not 
thought  to  possess  the  information,  or  respect 


492 


ANDKEW  JACKSON 


fortlie  civil  authority,  or  temper,  deemed  requi 
site  in  the  office  of  president ;  and  very  few  be 
lieved  that  the  favor  which  his  military  successes 
had  produced  for  him  in  his  own  state  would 
find  much  support  in  other  parts  of  the  Union." 
But  in  the  ensuing  presidential  election  of  1824 
Jackson  received  99  electoral  votes,  84  being 
cast  for  John  Quincy  Adams,  41  for  William 
II.  Crawford,  and  37  for  Henry  Clay.  No 
candidate  having  received  a  majority,  the 
choice  devolved  upon  the  house  of  representa 
tives,  and  Adams  was  elected.  Jackson  then 
apparently  retired  from  public  life ;  but  the 
entire  opposition  to  the  administration  of 
Adams  supported  him  for  the  presidency  in 
1828,  and  he  was  elected,  receiving  178  elec 
toral  votes,  while  only  83  were  cast  for  Adams. 
The  contest  which  thus  resulted  was  among 
the  most  bitter  in  American  history.  Jack 
son's  whole  public  career  was  severely  assailed, 
and  his  private  life  was  not  spared.  The  cir 
cumstances  of  his  marriage  were  grossly  mis 
represented,  and  it  is  said  with  fatal  effect 
on  Mrs.  Jackson,  who  died  only  a  few  days 
after  it  was  known  that  her  husband  had  been 
chosen  president.  Assuming  the  presidential 
office,  March  4,  1829,  he  commenced  a  course 
of  vigorous  government,  which  he  maintained 
for  eight  years.  Mr.  Calhoun,  who  had  been 
vice  president  under  Adams,  and  reflected 
when  Jackson  was  chosen  president,  headed  an 
influential  section  of  the  democratic  party,  and 
expected  to  succeed  his  chief,  who  had  avowed 
his  intention  not  to  be  a  candidate  for  re 
election.  The  president  was  personally  alien 
ated  from  Calhoun  on  being  informed  that  he 
had  been  his  enemy  in  the  Monroe  cabinet  at 
the  time  of  the  Seminole  war,  and  became  po 
litically  hostile  in  consequence  of  Calhoun's 
assertion  of  the  doctrine  of  nullification.  The 
democratic  party,  outside  of  South  Carolina, 
supported  the  president;  and  in  1831  a  new 
cabinet  was  appointed.  Mr.  Ingham,  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  and  a  friend  of  Calhoun,  made 
way  for  Mr.  McLane;  Mr.  Branch,  another 
friend  of  Calhoun,  left  the  navy  department, 
which  was  taken  by  Mr.  Woodbury;  and  Mr. 
Berrien,  attorney  general,  was  succeeded  by 
Mr.  Taney.  Mr.  Van  Buren  gave  up  the  state 
department  to  Mr.  Livingston,  and  was  appoint 
ed  minister  to  England  ;  and  Mr.  Eaton  retired 
from  the  war  department,  which  was  taken  by 
Gen.  Cass.  Scandal  attributed  these  changes, 
and  the  rupture  that  had  preceded  them,  to  the 
influence  of  Mrs.  Eaton,  wife  of  the  secretary 
of  war,  with  whom  the  wives  of  the  Calhoun 
leaders,  as  well  as  many  other  ladies,  refused 
to  associate.  Her  husband  was  an  old  and  in 
timate  friend  of  the  president,  who  zealously 
espoused  Mrs.  Eaton's  side  of  the  quarrel. 
When  the  question  of  Mr.  Van  Buren's  confir 
mation  came  before  the  senate,  in  1832,  it  was 
decided  in  the  negative  by  the  casting  vote  of 
Calhoun.  When  congress  in  1832  rechartered 
the  bank  of  the  United  States,  President  Jackson 
vetoed  the  bill,  July  10.  His  course  relative 


to  appointments  gave  much  offence,  as  numer 
ous  removals  were  made  on  political  grounds 
alone,  and  the  vacancies  were  filled  by  the  selec 
tion  of  ardent  partisans;  and  this  proceeding 
was  the  more  censured,  because  the  president 
had  advised  Monroe  to  disregard  party  in  ma 
king  appointments  to  office.  The  followers 
of  Calhoun  had  now  become  "nullifiers,"  and 
threatened  open  resistance  to  the  government. 
They  demanded  the  reduction  of  duties  to  the 
extent  of  the  disavowal  of  the  protective  prin 
ciple,  threatening  that  South  Carolina  would 
nullify  the  revenue  laws  if  they  should  not  be 
repealed.  A  state  convention  of  South  Caroli 
na  was  held  at  Columbia  in  1832,  which  took 
measures  for  resisting  the  tariff  laws.  Jackson 
was  opposed  to  a  high  tariff,  and  was  ready  to 
continue  his  constitutional  exertions  in  behalf 
of  such  modifications  of  existing  laws  as  would 
leave  no  reasonable  ground  for  complaint  on 
the  part  of  South  Carolina ;  but  while  the  tariff 
laws  endured,  he  was  determined  that  they 
should  be  rigidly  enforced ;  and  he  early  let  it 
be  understood  that  he  would  show  no  quarter 
to  active  disunionists.  The  presidential  elec 
tion  of  1832  came  on  while  the  troubles  con 
cerning  the  United  States  bank,  nullification, 
and  removals  from  office  were  at  their  height. 
Jackson  had  reconsidered  his  intention  not  to 
be  a  candidate,  and  was  formally  nominated, 
Van  Buren  being  the  democratic  candidate  for 
vice  president.  His  chief  opponent  was  Mr. 
Clay,  who  represented  the  interests  of  the 
friends  of  the  national  bank  and  of  protec 
tion.  Mr.  Wirt  was  nominated  for  the  presi 
dency  by  the  anti-masonic  party.  The  con 
test,  though  vigorous,  was  less  personal  than 
that  of  1828.  When  the  election  was  over, 
it  was  found  that  Jackson  had  been  support 
ed  by  every  state  but  seven,  Clay  receiving 
the  votes  of  six  states,  and  Wirt  those  of  Ver 
mont  only.  The  nullification  crisis  occurred 
in  the  interval  between  the  decision  of  the  con 
test  of  1832  and  Jackson's  second  inauguration. 
The  president  issued  his  proclamation  against 
the  nullifiers  on  Dec.  10,  1832;  and  the  ""force 
bill,"  to  enable  him -to  maintain  the  supremacy 
of  the  laws,  was  passed.  Fortunately,  a  com 
promise  was  effected,  under  the  lead  and  influ 
ence  of  Clay,  by  which  the  tariff  was  essen 
tially  modified,  and  an  excuse  for  not  proceed 
ing  to  extremities  was  afforded  to  South  Caro 
lina.  Jackson's  second  term  of  service  was 
even  a  more  exciting  period  than  his  first.  The 
"  bank  war "  was  renewed  with  vigor.  He 
recommended  in  his  annual  message  of  1832 
that  the  stock  in  the  bank  owned  by  the  gov 
ernment  should  be  sold ;  and  though  the  house 
of  representatives  had  declared  in  favor  of 
continuing  the  deposits  of  the  public  money  in 
the  bank,  the  president  resolved  upon  their  re 
moval.  This  was  effected  on  Sept.  22,  1833, 
when  an  order  was  issued  by  Mr.  Taney,  secre 
tary  of  the  treasury,  directing  the  collectors  to 
cease  making  deposits  in  the  bank,  as  no  re 
moval  of  money  actually  on  deposit  was  con- 


JACKSON 


493 


templated  by  the  president.  The  measure  was 
the  president's  own.  He  called  a  cabinet  coun 
cil  on  Sept.  10,  at  which  he  read  a  paper  in  sup 
port  of  it,  but  found  few  of  his  advisers  ready 
to  agree  with  him.  Mr.  McLane  having  been 
appointed  to  the  state  department,  Mr.  Duane 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  for  the 
purpose  of  executing  the  intention  of  the  pres 
ident  ;  but  as  he  refused  to  act,  he  was  sum 
marily  dismissed,  and  Mr.  Taney,  who  succeed 
ed  him,  carried  out  the  measure,  whereupon 
the  senate  refused  to  confirm  his  appointment. 
The  senate  also  rejected  four  of  the  persons 
appointed  government  directors,  and  insisted 
upon  its  rejection  when  they  were  a  second 
time  nominated.  That  body  made  a  call 
upon  the  president  for  a  copy  of  the  paper 
read  to  the  cabinet  on  Sept.  10,  1833 ;  but  he 
refused  to  furnish  it.  A  formidable  combina 
tion  against  the  president  was  effected  in  the 
senate,  headed  by  Calhoun,  Clay,  and  Webster, 
and  a  resolution  condemning  his  course  was 
adopted  by  a  vote  of  26  to  20.  The  president 
sent  in  a  protest,  which  the  senate  voted  a 
breach  of  its  privileges.  The  house  of  repre 
sentatives  sustained  the  president.  A  panic 
existed  for  some  time,  and  the  opposition  was 
supported  by  a  powerful  popular  party.  The 
gold  currency  was  revived,  and  gradually  con 
fidence  was  restored;  and  in  1837,  just  before 
the  expiration  of  his  public  life,  the  censure 
passed  upon  President  Jackson  was  expunged 
by  the  senate,  24  to  19.  The  foreign  diplo 
macy  of  President  Jackson  was  very  success 
ful.  Useful  commercial  treaties  were  made 
with  several  countries,  and  were  renewed  with 
others.  Indemnities  for  spoliations  on  Ameri 
can  commerce  were  obtained*  from  France, 
Spain,  Naples,  and  Portugal,  and  the  most 
amicable  relations  w,ere  sustained  with  Eng 
land.  During  his  second  term  the  national 
debt  was  extinguished,  the  Cherokees  were  re 
moved  from  Georgia  and  the  Creeks  from 
Florida,  the  original  number  of  the  states  was 
doubled  by  the  admission  of  Arkansas  and 
Michigan  into  the  Union,  and  the  gold  cur 
rency  was  greatly  increased.  On  the  other 
side,  the  agitation  of  the  slavery  question  was 
then  renewed  with  more  vigor  than  ever  be 
fore,  and  the  Seminole  war  was  recommenced. 
He  issued  a  farewell  address  to  his  country 
men,  and  on  March  4,  1837,  retired  from  pub 
lic  life.  Leaving  Washington  on  the  Gth,  he 
returned  to  the  Hermitage,  where  he  resided 
until  his  death,  ever  taking  a  lively  interest  in 
politics,  and  especially  in  the  welfare  of  his 
party.  The  immediate  occasion  of  his  death 
was  dropsy,  but  throughout  most  of  his  life  he 
had  suffered  severely  from  various  diseases; 
and  some  of  those  actions  of  his  which  have 
been  most  warmly  condemned  were  largely 
owing  to  the  irritation  of  illness.  He  was  a 
thoroughly  honest  man,  as  straightforward  in 
action  as  his  thoughts  were  unsophisticated. 
His  charities  were  frequent  and  unostentatious ; 
and  in  his  last  days  he  made  an  open  profes 


sion  of  those  religious  sentiments  which  he  had 
always  entertained.  His  chief  intellectual  gifts 
were  energy  and  intuitive  judgment.  In  pri 
vate  life  at  the  Hermitage  he  is  described  by 
Benton  as  a  careful  farmer,  overlooking  every 
thing  himself,  seeing  that  the  fields  and  fences 
were  in  good  order,  the  stock  well  attended, 
and  the  servants  comfortably  provided  for. 
"  But  he  needed  some  excitement  beyond  that 
which  a  farming  life  can  afford,  and  found  it 
for  some  years  in  the  animating  sports  of  the 
turf.  .  .  .  His  temper  was  placable  as  well  as 
irascible,  and  his  reconciliations  were  cordial 
and  sincere." — The  following  are  the  most 
noted  biographies  of  Andrew  Jackson,  and 
works  relating  to  his  career :  "  Life  of  Andrew 
Jackson,  Major  General  in  the  Service  of  the 
United  States,"  by  John  Henry  Eaton  (Philadel 
phia,  1824;  1st  ed.  about  1818);  "Life  of  An 
drew  Jackson,  President  of  the  United  States 
of  America,"  by  William  Cobbett,  M.  P.  (New 
York,  1834) ;  "A  Narrative  of  Events  in  the 
South  of  France,  and  of  the  Attack  on  New  Or 
leans,  in  1814  and  1815,"  by  Capt.  John  Henry 
Cooke  (London,  1835)  ;  "  The  Campaign  of  the 
British  Army  at  Washington  and  New  Orleans, 
in  the  years  1814  and  1815,"  by  the  author  of 
"The  Subaltern"  (London,  1837);  "Life  of 
Andrew  Jackson,  Private,  Military,  and  Civil," 
by  Amos  Kendall  (New  York,  1844)  ;  "  Thirty 
Years'  A7iew,  or  a  History  of  the  Workings  of 
the  LTnited  States  Government  for  30  Years, 
from  1820  to  1850,"  by  Thomas  II.  Benton 
(2  vols.,  New  York,  1854-'6);  "Jackson  and 
New  Orleans,"  by  Alexander  Walker  (New 
York,  1850) ;  and  "Life  of  Andrew  Jackson," 
by  James  Parton  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1860). 

JACRSOX.  L  Charles,  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  May  31,  1775, 
died  in  Boston,  Dec.  13,  1855.  He  was  the 
son  of  Jonathan  Jackson,  a  merchant  greatly 
respected  for  his  virtues  and  intelligence.  lie 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1793,  studied 
law  three  years  with  Theophilus  Parsons,  then 
of  Newburyport,  established  himself  there  as 
a  lawyer,  and  rose  rapidly  into  practice.  In 
1803  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  for  ten  years 
was  a  leading  member  of  the  Suffolk  bar.  He 
entered  into  partnership  with  Judge  Samuel 
Ilubbard,  and  the  business  of  their  office  be 
came  more  lucrative  probably  than  that  of  any 
other  in  New  England  had  been  up  to  that 
time.  In  1813  he  was  chosen  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Massachusetts,  which  office 
he  resigned  at  the  end  of  ten  years  on  account 
of  ill  health.  He  was  an  influential  member 
of  the  convention  of  1820  for  amending  the 
state  constitution.  In  1832  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  revise  the  general 
statutes  of  the  state,  and  drew  up  the  second 
part  of  the  "  Pie  vised  Statutes."  In  1828  he 
published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Pleadings  and 
Practice  in  Pieal  Actions."  II.  James,  an  Amer 
ican  physician,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Newburyport,  Oct.  3,  1777,  died  in  Boston, 
Aug.  27,  1867.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  col- 


494 


JACKSON 


lege  in  1796,  and  in  December,  1707,  became  a 
pupil  of  Dr.  Edward  Augustus  Holyoke  of  Sa 
lem,  with  whom  he  studied  nearly  two  years. 
He  then  went  to  London,  where  he  was  a 
"  dresser "  in  St.  Thomas's  hospital,  and  at 
tended  lectures  at  that  and  at  Guy's  hospital. 
After  his  return  he  practised  in  Boston.  In 
1810,  in  connection  with  Dr.  John  0.  Warren, 
he  brought  before  the  community  a  proposition 
for  establishing  a  hospital  in  Boston.  The  re 
sult  was  the  organization  of  the  asylum  for 
the  insane  at  Somerville,  and  afterward  of  the 
Massachusetts  general  hospital  in  Boston,  of 
which  Dr.  Jackson  was  the  first  physician. 
In  1810  he  was  chosen  professor  of  clinical 
medicine  in  Harvard  college,  and  two  years  af 
terward  professor  of  theory  and  practice.  In 
1835  he  resigned  his  place  as  physician  to  the 
hospital  and  his  office  in  the  medical  school. 
He  was  several  times  chosen  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  medical  society.  His  principal 
publications  are  :  "  On  the  Brunonian  System  " 
(1809) ;  "  Remarks  on  the  Medical  Effects  of 
Dentition,"  in  the  "New  England  Medical  and 
Surgical  Journal"  (1812);  various  articles  in 
the  "Transactions  of  the  Massachusetts  Med 
ical  Society,"  including  some  reports  drawn  up 
principally  or  entirely  by  him,  viz. :  "  On  Cow 
Pox  and  Small  Pox,"  "  On  Spotted  Fever," 
and  "On  Spasmodic  Cholera;"  "Eulogy  on 
Dr.  John  Warren"  (1815);  "Syllabus  of  Lec 
tures"  (1816),  and  "Text  Book  of  Lectures" 
(1825-'7),  for  the  use  of  the  medical  class;  a 
memoir  of  his  son  James  Jackson,  jr.  (1835) ; 
"Letters  to  a  Young  Physician"  (1855);  and 
"  Another  Letter  to  a  Young  Physician  "  (1861). 
III.  Patrick  Tracy,  an  American  merchant,  broth 
er  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Newburyport,  Aug. 
14, 1780,  died  in  Beverly,  Sept.  12, 1847.  At  the 
age  of  15  he  was  apprenticed  to  William  Bartlett, 
a  merchant  of  Newburyport,  and  subsequently 
established  himself  in  Boston  in  the  India  trade, 
in  which  he  acquired  a  handsome  fortune.  In 
1812,  at  the  invitation  of  his  brother-in-law, 
Francis  C.  Lowell  of  Boston,  who  had  recently 
examined  the  process  of  the  cotton  manufac 
ture  in  England,  he  engaged  in  a  project  to  in 
troduce  the  power  loom,  then  newly  invented, 
and  the  mode  of  constructing  which  was  kept 
secret,  into  the  United  States.  As  the  war  be 
tween  the  LTnited  States  and  England  prevent 
ed  communication  with  the  latter  country, 
they  were  forced  to  invent  a  power  loom  them 
selves,  and,  after  repeated  failures,  succeeded 
in  the  latter  part  of  1812  in  producing  a  model 
from  which  a  machine  was  constructed  by  Paul 
Moody.  In  1813  they  built  their  first  mill  at 
Waltham,  near  Boston,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  in  the  world  that  combined  all 
the  operations  for  converting  the  raw  cotton 
into  finished  cloth.  In  1821  Mr.  Jackson  made 
large  purchases  of  land  on  the  Merrimack 
river  near  the  Pawtucket  canal,  on  which  a 
number  of  mills  were  constructed  by  the  Mer 
rimack  manufacturing  company,  organized  un 
der  his  auspices.  This  settlement  formed  the 


germ  of  the  city  of  Lowell.  After  superin 
tending  the  formation  of  another  company  in 
the  same  place,  he  procured  in  1830  a  charter 
for  a  railroad  between  Lowell  and  Boston,  the 
construction  of  which  he  directed  until  its 
completion  in  1835.  It  was  then  probably  the 
finest  work  of  the  kind  in  the  country.  Pecu 
niary  reverses  having  overtaken  him  in  1837, 
he  assumed  the  charge  of  the  locks  and  canals 
company  of  Lowell,  and  subsequently  of  the 
Great  Falls  manufacturing  company  at  Somers- 
worth,  N.  H.,  managing  both  with  complete 
success.  lie  labored  zealously  to  promote  the 
moral  and  intellectual  improvement  of  the 
operatives  in  his  mills. — See  memoir  of  P.  T. 
Jackson,  by  John  A.  Lowell,  in  Hunt's  "  Lives 
of  American  Merchants  "  (New  York,  1856-'8). 
JACKSON,  Charles  Thomas,  an  American  phys 
icist,  born  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  June  21,  1805. 
He  devoted  much  attention  to  science  in  his 
youth,  studied  medicine  under  Drs.  James 
Jackson  and  Walter  Channing,  and  received 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  from  Harvard  university 
in  1829.  In  1827  and  1829  he  made,  in  com 
pany  with  Francis  Alger  of  Boston,  a  miner- 
alogical  and  geological  survey  of  Nova  Scotia, 
an  account  of  which  was  published  by  them, 
together  with  a  geological  map  of  the  province, 
in  the  "Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences."  In  the  autumn  of  1829 
he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  three 
years,  studying  in  Paris.  In  1831  he  made 
a  pedestrian  tour  through  Switzerland,  Pied 
mont,  Lombardy,  Tyrol,  Bavaria,  and  Austria. 
He  afterward  visited  the  principal  cities  of 
Italy,  and  made  a  geological  tour  of  Sicily  and 
of  Auvergne  in  France.  In  October,  1832,  he 
embarked  for  New  York  in  the  packet  ship 
Sully,  taking  with  him  an  electro-magnet,  two 
galvanic  batteries,  and  other  philosophical  ap 
paratus.  During  the  voyage  a  discussion  arose 
among  the  passengers,  of  whom  Prof.  S.  F.  B. 
Morse  was  one,  on  the  subject  of  electro-mag 
netic  experiments,  and  their  applicability  to 
telegraphic  use.  Dr.  Jackson  asserts  that  du 
ring  this  discussion  he  pointed  out  the  possibil 
ity  of  correspondence  by  means  of  electricity, 
and  suggested  several  ways  of  accomplishing  it. 
His  plan  as  then  developed  in  conversation,  he 
declares,  embraced  the  essential  and  peculiar 
features  of  the  American  telegraph  patented  in 
1840  by  Prof.  Morse.  Dr.  Jackson  also  asserts 
that  in  the  spring  of  1834  he  constructed  and 
successfully  Avorked,  and  exhibited  to  Francis 
Alger  and  other  friends,  a  telegraph  combining 
the  peculiar  features  of  that  which  he  had  in 
vented  on  board  the  Sully,  though  he  did  not 
think  it  could  be  profitably  brought  into  public 
use  till  the  invention  of  the  sustaining  battery 
by  Daniell  in  1837  furnished  the  means  of  ob 
taining  a  long  continued  voltaic  current  of  uni 
form  strength.  A  controversy  arose  in  1837 
between  Morse  and  Jackson  upon  their  respec 
tive  claims,  the  evidence  in  regard  to  which 
was  printed  for  the  use  of  the  court  and  coun 
sel  in  subsequent  trials  of  telegraph  causes.  In 


JACKSON 


495 


1833  Dr.  Jackson  settled  in  Boston,  and  entered 
upon  the  practice  of  medicine,  but  in  a  few 
years  he  abandoned  it  to  devote  himself  to 
chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology.  In  1836 
he  was  appointed  geologist  of  Maine,  and  di 
rected  to  survey  that  state ;  and  at  the  same 
time  he  was  commissioned  by  Massachusetts 
surveyor  of  her  public  lands  in  Maine.  In  1830 
he  was  appointed  geologist  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  in  1840  of  New  Hampshire.  His  surveys 
of  these  three  states  occupied  respectively 
three,  one,  and  three  years,  and  his  reports  to 
the  legislatures  were  published  by  them,  with 
plates.  Meanwhile  he  drew  up  a  plan  for  a 
geological  survey  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
which  was  adopted.  In  1844  he  explored  the 
then  unbroken  wilderness  on  the  southern 
shore  of  Lake  Superior,  and  made  known  its 
mineral  resources.  In  1845  he  again  visited 
Lake  Superior  and  opened  mines  of  copper  and 
discovered  mountains  of  iron  ore,  which  were 
explored  by  his  assistants,  and  are  now  ex 
tensively  wrought.  In  1847  Dr.  Jackson  was 
appointed  to  superintend  a  geological  survey 
of  the  mineral  lands  of  the  United  States  in 
Michigan,  and  he  was  thus  engaged  for  two 
years,  when,  on  a  change  of  administration  at 
Washington,  the  superintendence  was  trans 
ferred  to  another.  His  report  of  these  labors 
was  published  in  1850,  in  1  vol.  Svo.  Dr. 
Jackson  is  one  of  the  claimants  of  the  discov 
ery  of  anaesthetics.  His  claims  are  substantial 
ly  as  follows :  In  1834  he  discovered  that  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  chloroform,  when  made 
to  act  locally  on  a  nerve,  renders  it  insensible 
to  pain ;  and  that  if  a  piece  of  lint  saturated 
with  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  chloroform  and 
three  parts  of  alcohol  is  inserted  into  the  cav 
ity  of  a  painful  tooth,  it  allays  the  pain  at  once, 
and  by  repeated  applications  completely  de 
stroys  the  sensibility  of  the  nerves.  Having 
long  before  experimented  with  exhilarating  gas 
or  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  he  resumed  in  1837 
his  experiments  with  that  gas  in  order  to  test 
the  comparative  effects  of  different  modes  of 
administering  it ;  but  the  only  new  result  he 
obtained  was  to  satisfy  himself  that  the  tempo 
rary  insensibility  which  it  sometimes  produces 
is  due  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  partial  as 
phyxia.  Subsequently,  but  previous  to  the  win 
ter  of  1841-'2,  having  recei"ed  some  perfectly 
pure  sulphuric  ether,  he  tried  its  effects  upon 
himself,  administering  it  with  a  mixture  of  at 
mospheric  air,  and  inhaled  it  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  lose  all  consciousness,  without  suffering 
any  of  the  dangerous  or  disagreeable  conse 
quences  that  had  hitherto  attended  the  inhala 
tion  of  impure  sulphuric  ether  unmingled  with 
atmospheric  air.  In  the  winter  of  1841-'2  he 
inhaled  ether  vapor  for  relief  from  the  very  se 
vere  pain  occasioned  by  the  accidental  inhala 
tion  of  chlorine.  The  relief  he  experienced  led 
him  to  infer  "  that  a  surgical  operation  could 
be  performed  on  a  patient  under  the  full  influ 
ence  of  sulphuric  ether,  without  giving  him  any 
pain."  Dr.  Jackson's  claims  to  the  discovery 
VOL.  ix. — 32 


J  of  anaesthetics,  disputed  by  Dr.  TV.  T.  G.  Mor- 
I  ton  and  Dr.  Horace  TVells,  gave  rise  to  a  long 
controversy.  In  1852  a  memorial  was  present 
ed  to  congress,  signed  by  143  physicians  of 
Boston  arid  its  vicinity,  ascribing  the  discovery 
exclusively  to  Dr.  Jackson.  About  the  same 
time  the  question  was  investigated  by  a  com 
mittee  of  the  French  academy  of  sciences,  and 
on  their  report  the  academy  decreed  a  prize  of 
2,500  francs  to  Dr.  Jackson,  and  another  of 
2,500  francs  to  Dr.  Morton.  M.  filio  de  Beau 
mont  remarked  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Jackson, 
dated  May  17,  1852:  "In  point  of  fact,  the 
academy  of  sciences  decreed  one  of  the  Mon- 
tyon  prizes  of  2,500  francs  to  you  for  the  dis 
covery  of  etherization,  and  it  has  decreed  a 
prize  of  2,500  francs  to  M.  Morton  for  the  ap 
plication  of  this  discovery  to  surgical  opera 
tions."  Dr.  Jackson  has  received  orders  and 
decorations  from  the  governments  of  France, 
Sweden,  Prussia,  Turkey,  and  Sardinia,  His 
scientific  discoveries  have  been  very  numerous. 
Besides  the  geological  reports  above  mentioned, 
he  has  furnished  many  scientific  communica 
tions  to  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science  and 
Arts,"  to  the  French  Comptes  rendus,  and  to 
the  Bulletin  de  la  societe  gcologicale  de  France. 
He  has  also  published  the  results  of  chemical 
researches  on  the  cotton  plant,  the  tobacco 
plant,  on  Indian  corn,  and  on  38  varieties  of 
American  grapes  in  the  United  States  patent 
office  reports,  and  a  "Manual  of  Etherization, 
with  a  History  of  the  Discovery  "  (1863). 

JACKSON,  John,  an  English  painter,  born  at 
Lastingham,  Yorkshire,  in  1778,  died  in  Lon 
don,  June  1,  1831.  He  was  assisted  in  his 
youth  by  Sir  George  Beaumont,  and  acquired 
reputation  as  a  portrait  painter.  He  was  re 
markable  for  rapidity,  having  on  one  occasion 
for  a  wager  painted  the  portraits  of  five  gen 
tlemen  in  a  single  day,  for  each  of  which  he 
received  25  guineas.  He  was  a  royal  academi 
cian,  and  painted  many  of  his  associates. 

JACKSON,  Samuel,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1787,  died  there,  April 
5,  1872.  .He  was  for  28  years  professor  of  the 
institutes  of  medicine  in  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  occupied  for  a  long  time  a 
leading  position  as  a  physician  and  surgeon. 
He  was  also  popular  as  a  lecturer,  and  distin 
guished  as  a  writer.  His  most  important 
work  is  "  The  Principles  of  Medicine  "  (Phil 
adelphia,  1832). 

JACKSON,  Thomas,  an  English  clergyman, born 
at  Sancton,  Yorkshire,  Dec.  12,  1783,  died  in 
liichmond,  March  11,  1873.  He  was  early  ap 
prenticed  to  a  carpenter,  but  entered  the  itine 
rant  ministry  of  the  TVesleyan  connection  in 
1804.  After  20  years  of  labor  in  this  profes 
sion  in  Lincolnshire,  Lancashire,  Yorkshire, 
and  London,  in  1824  he  was  chosen  by  the 
British  conference  " connectional  editor"  of 
the  TVesleyan  church.  He  continued  his  edito 
rial  service  for  19  years,  when  he  was  appoint 
ed  tutor  in  the  Richmond  theological  institu 
tion.  This  post  he  held  till  1861,  when  he  re- 


49G 


JACKSON 


JACKSONVILLE 


tired  on  account  of  age.  Among  his  chief  lit 
erary  labors  are :  "  Centenary  of  Methodism  " 
(1839)  ;  "  Library  of  Christian  Biography  "  (12 
vols.,  1837-'50);  "Life  of  Charles  Wesley  and 
Contemporary  Events"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1841); 
"Journal  of  Rev.  Charles  Wesley"  (2  vols., 
1849);  "Lives  of  Early  Methodists"  (3  vols. 
12mo,  1849) ;  "  Duties  of  Christianity  "  (1857) ; 
"  Providence  of  God  viewed  in  the  Light  of 
Scripture  "  (1862) ;  and  "  Curiosities  of  Pulpit 
Literature  "  (1868).  He  also  wrote  the  preface 
to  the  llth  edition  of  the  complete  works  of 
John  Wesley  (15  vols.  12mo,  1856-7). 

JACKSON,  Thomas  Jonathan,  an  American  sol 
dier,  born  at  Clarksburg,  Va.,  Jan.  21, 1824,  died 
at  Guinea's  station,  near  Fredericksburg,  May 
10, 1803.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846, 
and  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  which 
he  was  successively  brevetted  as  captain  and 
major  for  gallant  and  meritorious  conduct  at 
Contreras,  Churubusco,  and  Chapultepec.  He 
subsequently  served  on  garrison  duty  in  the 
fortifications  in  New  York  harbor,  and  in 
Florida  during  the  Seminole  war.  In  Februa 
ry,  1852,  he  resigned  his  commission  in  the 
army,  and  was  chosen  professor  of  natural  and 
experimental  philosophy  and  instructor  in  artil 
lery  tactics  in  the  Virginia  military  academy  at 
Lexington.  He  also  became  a  deacon  in  the 
Presbyterian  church,  and  was  somewhat  noted 
for  his  extreme  shyness  and  eccentricities  of 
habit ;  he  was  indeed  rather  a  laughing-stock 
for  the  students  of  the  academy.  On  the  open 
ing  of  the  civil  war  he  entered  the  confeder 
ate  service  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  was 
placed  in  command  at  Harper's  Ferry.  From 
this  moment  his  demeanor  underwent  a  sud 
den  change.  He  had  before  hesitated  to  lead 
in  prayer  at  the  meetings  of  his  church,  and 
was  wont  to  take  his  food  only  in  measured 
quantities.  He  now  seemed  inspired  with  the 
genius  of  command,  and  bore  without  a  thought 
the  extremest  hardships  of  a  soldier's  life.  He 
was  soon  made  a  brigadier  general,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run 
(July  21,  1861).  Here,  at  a  moment  when  the 
day  was  apparently  lost,  his  brigade  made  so 
firm  a  stand  that  some  one  cried  out,  "  Here 
is  Jackson,  standing  like  a  stone  wall;"  and 
thenceforth  "Stonewall  Jackson"  became  his 
sobriquet.  In  the  spring  of  1862  Jackson  was 
in  command  in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  where 
by  his  celerity  and  skill  he  foiled  greatly  superi 
or  Union  forces  under  Banks,  Fremont,  Shields, 
and  McDowell.  (See  CKOSS  KEYS.)  At  the 
commencement  of  the  seven  days'  battles  on 
the  peninsula  he  joined  the  army  of  Lee,  and 
his  command  took  a  leading  part  in  the  bat 
tle  of  Cold  Harbor  (June  27),  and  a  less  im 
portant  one  in  that  of  Malvern  Hill  (July  1). 
In  the  ensuing  operations  against  Gen.  Pope, 
Jackson's  corps  was  first  sent  northward,  and 
fought  the  indecisive  action  at  Cedar  Mountain 
(Aug.  9).  Not  long  after,  having  been  made  a 
major  general,  he  was  placed  in  immediate 
command  of  nearly  half  of  Lee's  army,  with 


which  he  made  a  rapid  march  and  gained 
Pope's  rear,  whence  resulted  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run  (Aug.  29,  30),  fought  almost  on 
the  same  ground  as  the  former  one.  In  the 
Antietam  campaign,  which  immediately  fol 
lowed,  Jackson,  by  a  rapid  movement,  captured 
a  Union  force  of  about  11,000  men  at  Harper's 
Ferry  (Sept.  15),  and  then  by  a  forced  march 
rejoined  Lee,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
battle  of  Antietam  (Sept.  17).  His  corps  was 
actively  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg  (Dec.  13),  and  he  was  made  lieutenant 
general.  At  Chancellorsville  (May  2,  1863), 
at  the  head  of  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  con 
federate  force,  he  made  a  march  of  15  miles, 
mostly  by  forest  roads,  and  turned  Hooker's 
right,  upon  which  he  fell  by  surprise,  driving 
it  in  rout  upon  the  main  body.  The  engage 
ment  being  apparently  over,  he  rode  into  the 
woods  to  reconnoitre,  having  with  him  only  a 
small  escort.  Returning,  his  companions  were 
mistaken  for  Union  scouts  and  fired  upon  by 
his  own  men.  Several  of  the  escort  were 
killed,  and  Jackson  received  three  balls,  one 
through  each  hand,  and  another  which  shat 
tered  his  left  shoulder.  He  was  placed  upon  a 
litter ;  but  one  of  the  bearers  stumbled,  and  he 
fell  to  the  ground,  striking  upon  his  broken 
shoulder.  He  was  at  length  carried  to  the 
rear,  where  his  arm  was  amputated.  But 
pneumonia  soon  set  in,  which  was  the  imme 
diate  cause  of  his  death.  Stonewall  Jackson  is 
considered  by  the  confederates  to  have  been 
their  most  brilliant  commander,  at  least  of 
forces  actually  engaged  in  the  field.  His  life 
has  been  written  by  M.  Adday  (New  York, 
1863)  and  John  Esten  Cooke  (New  York,  1866). 

JACKSON,  William,  an  English  composer,  born 
in  Exeter  in  1730,  died  in  1803.  He  pursued 
his  musical  studies  in  London,  under  Travers, 
and  in  1777  became  organist  of  Exeter  cathe 
dral.  He  is  celebrated  in  England  for  his 
songs,  canzonets,  and  trios,  which  display  re 
markable  tenderness  and  grace.  As  a  compo 
ser  of  instrumental  music  he  was  less  success 
ful.  He  wrote  "Thirty  Letters  on  Various 
Subjects, "  and  "  Four  Ages,  together  with 
Essays."  He  was  also  a  painter. 

JACKSONVILLE.  I.  The  county  seat  of  Duval 
co.,  Florida,  port  of  entry  of  the  district  of  St. 
John's,  and  the  largest  city  of  the  state,  situ 
ated  on  the  right  bank  of  St.  John's  river,  25 
m.  from  its  mouth,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the 
Jacksonville,  Pensacola,  and  Mobile  railroad, 
155  m.  E.  of  Tallahassee,  and  125  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Savannah;  pop.  in  1850,  1,045;  in  1860, 
2,118;  in  1870,  6,912,  of  whom  3,989  were 
colored.  The  population  in  1874,  including 
the  suburbs,  was  estimated  by  local  authorities 
at  12,000.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  with 
streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles  and 
shaded  with  trees.  On  the  N.  W.  side  is  a 
picturesque  bluff,  covered  with  fine  residences, 
and  commanding  a  beautiful  view  of  the  river. 
There  are  several  suburban  villages,  which  are 
connected  with  the  city  by  ferry.  The  com- 


JACKSONVILLE 


JACOB 


49  T 


merce  of  Jacksonville  is  important.  The  chief 
business  is  the  cutting  and  shipping  of  lumber. 
There  are  several  large  saw  mills,  and  the  ship 
ments  amount  to  about  50,000,000  feet  an 
nually;  cotton,  sugar,  fruit,  fish,  and  early 
vegetables  are  also  shipped  to  northern  and 
foreign  ports.  The  value  of  the  foreign  com 
merce  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873,  was 
$91,162,  chiefly  exports.  The  entrances  were 
26  vessels  of  3,456  tons,  and  the  clearances  40 
vessels  of  6,455  tons.  In  the  coastwise  trade 
the  entrances  were  100  steamers  of  69,123 
tons,  and  345  sailing  vessels  of  66,962  tons; 
clearances,  101  steamers  of  69,439  tons,  and 
383  sailing  vessels  of  76,089  tons.  There  were 
12  steamers  of  1,442  tons  and  20  sailing  vessels 
of  2,212  tons  belonging  to  the  port.  A  semi- 
weekly  line  of  steamers  runs  to  Savannah  and 
Charleston,  and  the  river  steamers  furnish  daily 
communication  with  St.  Augustine  ma  Tocoi 
and  the  St.  John's  railroad  and  with  Palatka, 
and  tri-weekly  with  Enterprise,  205  m.  above 
Jacksonville.  The  city  is  much  resorted  to  by 
invalids  on  account  of  its  mild  and  salubrious 
climate.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a 
board  of  eight  aldermen,  and  contains  a  branch 
of  the  Freedmen's  savings  bank  and  trust 
company,  9  hotels,  2  public  schools  (one  white 
and  one  colored),  a  Catholic  female  seminary, 
several  private  schools,  2  tri-weekly  and  4 
weekly  newspapers,  and  10  churches,  viz. :  3 
Baptist  (2  colored),  1  Episcopal,  4  Methodist 
(2  colored),  and  2  Presbyterian.  Of  the  Meth 
odist  (white)  and  Presbyterian  churches,  one 
each  belongs  to  the  northern  and  one  to  the 
southern  branch.  The  Roman  Catholic  church, 
which  was  burned  during  the  civil  war,  is 
now  nearly  rebuilt.  A  session  of  the  United 
States  circuit  and  district  courts  for  the  1ST. 
district  of  Florida  is  held  here  annually.  II. 
A  city  and  the  capital  of  Morgan  co.,  Illinois, 
situated  near  Mauvaiseterre  creek,  an  affluent 
of  the  Illinois  river,  30  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Spring 
field,  and  200  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Chicago ;  pop.  in 
1850,  2,745;  in  1860,  5,528;  in  1870,  9,203,  of 
whom  2,098  were  foreigners.  It  is  pleasantly 
built  in  the  midst  of  an  undulating  and  fertile 
prairie,  at  the  intersection  of  the  Jacksonville 
division  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton  railroad 
with  the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western,  the 
Peoria,  Pekin,  and  Jacksonville,  and  the  Jack 
sonville,  Northwestern,  and  Southeastern  rail 
roads.  The  streets  are  wide  and  adorned  with 
shade  trees ;  the  houses  are  partly  of  wood 
and  partly  of  brick,  and  surrounded  with  flower 
gardens  and  shrubbery.  The  principal  manu 
factories  are  a  woollen  mill,  a  machine  shop, 
four  flour  mills,  two  planing  mills,  two  soap 
factories,  an  iron  foundery,  gas  works,  and  a 
car  shop.  There  are  two  national  banks,  with 
$400,000  capital,  and  a  savings  bank.  Jack 
sonville  is  the  seat  of  the  state  institution  for 
the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb ;  of  the 
state  institution  for  the  blind  ;  of  a  state  hos 
pital  for  the  insane ;  of  the  state  institution 
for  the  education  of  feeble-minded  children ; 


j  and  of  a  private  insane  asylum.  Illinois  col 
lege  (Congregational),  organized  in  1830,  in 
1874  had  13  professors  and  instructors,  150 
students  (50  collegiate),  and  a  library  of  10,000 
volumes.  Illinois  female  college  (Methodist), 
organized  in  1847,  had  10  instructors,  172 
students  (81  collegiate),  and  a  library  of  2,000 
volumes.  Jacksonville  female  academy  had 
11  instructors  and  218  students  (128  colle 
giate).  There  are  another  female  college,  an 
academy  and  commercial  college  combined,  an 
orphan  asylum,  seven  public  school  houses 
with  a  system  of  graded  schools,  including  a 
high  school,  a  daily  and  three  weekly  news 
papers,  a  free  reading  room,  a  free  public  li 
brary  of  1,600  volumes,  and  20  churches. 

JACMEL,  a  seaport  town  of  Hayti,  at  the 
head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  on  the  S. 
coast,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Port-au-Prince;  pop. 
about  6,000.  It  is  divided  into  the  upper  and 
lower  town,  the  former  being  commonly  called 
Belair ;  the  streets  are  very  narrow  in  the  lower 
town,  and  the  houses  in  both  are  chiefly  of 
wood.  The  harbor  is  commodious,  and  has 
good  anchoring  ground  for  vessels  of  any  size, 
but  is  exposed  to  the  S.  winds  and  to  a  heavy 
sea  setting  in  toward  the  shore.  It  is  well 
frequented  by  shipping,  mostly  from  the  United 
States,  and  is  a  station  for  the  West  India  mail 
steamers.  The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthy. 

JACOB,  the  third  and  last  of  the  Hebrew 
patriarchs,  son  of  Isaac  and  Eebekah,  and 
younger  twin  brother  of  Esau.  Even  in  his 
mother's  womb  he  and  Esau  struggled  together, 
and  he  was  called  Jacob  (YcSakob,  heel-hold 
er)  because  his  hand  took  hold  on  his  brother's 
heel  at  their  birth.  Esau  was  a  hunter  and 
the  favorite  of  Isaac,  but  Rebekah  loved  the 
gentler  Jacob.  In  his  youth  Jacob  purchased 
his  elder  brother's  birthright  for  some  bread 
and  pottage  of  lentiles,  which  he  gave  to 
Esau  when  he  was  famishing.  At  the  instiga 
tion  of  his  mother  he  obtained  by  fraud  from 
his  blind  father  the  blessing  of  the  first  born. 
Obliged  to  flee  from  his  brother's  wrath,  he 
went  at  the  command  of  his  father  to  take  a 
wife  from  the  daughters  of  Laban,  his  mother's 
brother.  On  his  way  he  saw  in  a  dream  the 
vision  of  a  ladder  reaching  to  heaven,  which 
established  him  in  the  belief  that  he  was  the 
heir  of  the  promise  made  to  Abraham.  He 
served  seven  years  for  the  love  of  Laban's 
daughter  Rachel,  and  was  then  disappointed 
by  finding  in  his  veiled  bride  her  elder  sister 
Leah.  He  served  another  seven  years  for  Ra 
chel,  and  six  years  longer  for  a  herd,  which  he 
greatly  increased  by  an  artifice,  and  then  de 
parted  with  his  wives,  children,  and  possessions 
for  the  land  of  Canaan.  On  his  way  he  met 
and  was  reconciled  with  Esau,  immediately 
preceding  which  "  there  wrestled  a  man  with 
him  until  the  breaking  of  the  day.  And  when 
he  saw  that  he  prevailed  not  against  him,  he 
touched  the  hollow  of  his  thigh,  and  the  hollow 
of  Jacob's  thigh  was  out  of  joint,  as  he  wrestled 
with  him.  .  .  .  And  he  said,  Thy  name  shall 


498 


JACOBEAN  LILY 


JACOBI 


no  more  be  called  Jacob,  but  Israel ;  for  as  a 
prince  hast  thou  power  with  God  and  with 
men,  and  hast  prevailed."  He  tarried  suc 
cessively  at  Succoth,  Shechem,  and  Bethel, 
where  the  Abrahamic  covenant  was  renewed 
to  him.  "While  journeying  toward  the  resi 
dence  of  his  father  at  Mainre,  Rachel  died  in 
giving  birth  to  Benjamin.  Among  his  domes 
tic  troubles  was  the  loss  of  his  favorite  son 
Joseph,  sold  by  his  brethren  and  carried  to 
Egypt,  where  he  became  the  highest  officer  at 
court.  In  a  famine  which  followed,  Joseph 
established  his  father  and  brethren  in  Egypt 
under  his  protection,  and  Israel  lived  17  years 
in  the  land  of  Goshen,  w^here  he  died  at  the 
age  of  147.  At  his  own  command  he  was 
buried  with  Abraham  and  Isaac  near  Mamre. 
He  was  the  father  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi, 
Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun  by  Leah ;  of 
Joseph  and  Benjamin  by  Rachel ;  of  Dan  and 
Napnthali  by  Bilhah,  Rachel's  handmaid ;  and 
of  Gad  and  Asher  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  handmaid ; 
also  of  a  daughter,  Dinah,  by  Leah.  These  12 
sons  became  the  heads  of  the  12  tribes  of  Israel, 
and  before  his  death  he  assembled  them  and 
gave  them  his  parting  words. 

JACOBEAN  LILY  (amaryllis  formosissima),  a 
bulbous-rooted  plant  from  tropical  America. 
Its  large  bulb  is  covered  with  a  dark  skin  and 
has  a  long  flattened  neck ;  planted  out  in  the 
flower  border  in  May,  it  throws  up  its  flower 
stalks  before  the  leaves  appear  ;  a  bulb  usually 
produces  but  one,  sometimes  two  flower  stalks, 
each  of  which  produces  a  large  irregular  flow 
er,  of  a  most  brilliant  dark  crimson  color,  which 
appears  two-lipped  from  the  bending  down  of 
three  of  the  divisions  of  the  perianth  (petals), 


Jacobsean  Lily  (Amaryllis  formosissima). 

which  at  the  base  are  involute  around  the  low 
er  part  of  the  deflexed  stamens  and  style.  Af 
ter  the  flowers  open  the  leaves  appear,  which 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  until  the  approach 
of  frost,  when  the  bulbs  are  to  be  taken  up, 
and  kept  in  a  dry  place,  secure  from  frost,  un 


til  the  following  spring.  The  plant  may  also 
be  cultivated  in  pots  in  the  manner  given  for 
the  hyacinth. — The  original  genus  amaryllis 
has  been  much  subdivided  by  botanists,  some 
of  whom  place  the  plant  in  question  in  the  ge 
nus  Sprekelia. 

JACOB,  Bibliophile.     See  LACROIX,  PAUL. 

JACOBI,  Abraham,  an  American  physician, 
born  at  Hartum,  Westphalia,  May  6,  1830. 
He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Bonn  in 
1851,  and  was  a  political  prisoner  for  nearly 
two  years,  after  which  he  went  to  London, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1853  to  New  York. 
Here  he  acquired  reputation  in  obstetrics  and 
diseases  of  women  and  children,  and  was  pro 
fessor  at  the  New  York  medical  college  from 
1860  to  1869,  and  subsequently  at  the  college 
of  physicians  and  surgeons,  lie  has  published 
"Dentition  and  its  Derangements"  (New  York, 
1862),  "The  Raising  and  Education  of  Aban 
doned  Children  in  Europe"  (1870),  &c. ;  and  he 
was  one  of  the  authors  of  "  Contributions  to 
Midwifery,"  &c.  (1859),  and  from  1868  to  1871 
an  editor  of  the  "  American  Journal  of  Obstet 
rics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children." 

JACOBI.  I.  Friedrieh  Heinrich,  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Diisseldorf,  Jan.  25,  1743, 
died  in  Munich,  March  10,  1819.  In  his  18th 
year  he  was  sent  to  Geneva  to  complete  his 
mercantile  apprenticeship,  and  during  a  resi 
dence  there  of  three  years  studied  mathematics, 
medicine,  and  philosophy.  On  his  return  to 
Diisseldorf  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  his 
father's  mercantile  establishment,  and  soon 
after  married ;  but  in  1770  he  renounced  com 
merce,  being  appointed  councillor  of  finance 
for  the  duchies  of  Berg  and  Jiilich.  This  office 
allowed  him  to  indulge  his  tastes  for  literature 
and  philosophy,  and  he  was  soon  associated  or 
in  correspondence  with  Wieland,  Goethe,  Her 
der,  Lessing,  Hamann,  Lavater,  Richter,  Kant, 
Fichte,  Reinhold,  and  other  leading  thinkers. 
His  country  seat  at  Pempelfort,  near  Diissel 
dorf,  was  after  Weimar  and  the  university 
towns  the  most  remarkable  literary  centre  in 
Germany.  On  the  French  invasion  in  1794  he 
took  refuge  in  the  north  of  Germany,  and 
passed  ten  years  in  Wandsbeck,  Hamburg,  and 
Eutin,  engaged  in  literary  and  philosophical 
studies,  till  in  1804  he  was  called  to  Munich  as 
a  member  of  the  newly  formed  academy  of 
sciences,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1807. 
He  resigned  in  1813,  but  the  title  and  salary 
were  continued  to  him  till  his  death.  In  youth 
Jacobi  had  been  led  to  singularly  intense  re 
ligious  and  philosophical  meditations.  At  the 
age  of  eight  the  idea  of  eternity  struck  him  so 
clearly  and  forcibly  that  he  fell  fainting  with  a 
shriek.  The  thought  of  annihilation  and  the 
perspective  of  an  infinite  duration  long  weighed 
equally  upon  his  mind  as  terrible  and  insup 
portable  conceptions.  The  perusal  of  Kant's 
tractate  on  the  proofs  for  the  being  of  a  God 
produced  on  him  the  most  violent  palpitation 
of  the  heart.  He  at  length  was  able  to  check 
this  susceptibility,  but  even  in  1787  he  affirmed 


JACOBI 


JACOBINS 


499 


his  belief  that,  if  he  should  yield  to  it,  a  few 
successive  shocks  would  kill  him.  His  first 
works  were  the  philosophical  romances  Wolde- 
mar  (Flensburg,  1779)  and  Eduard  AllwilVs 
Briefsammlung  (Konigsberg,  1781),  the  former 
of  which  reveals  his  ethical  system,  making 
morality  a  matter  of  instinctive  sentiment, 
rational  intuition,  or  divine  impulse.  It  was 
never  his  purpose  to  develop  any  connected 
system,  and  his  philosophical  writings  are  all 
brief.  The  first  was  Ueber  die  Lelire  des  Spi 
noza,  in  Brief  en  an  Mendelssohn  (Breslau, 
1785),  in  which  he  assails  Spinozism  as  a  type 
of  all  formal,  rationalistic,  demonstration-seek 
ing  systems.  His  doctrine  is  more  fully  devel 
oped  in  his  dialogue  entitled  David  Hume  uber 
den  Glauben,  oder  Idealismus  und  Realismm 
(Breslau,  1787).  His  relation  to  the  Kantian 
critical  philosophy  appeared  in  his  essay  Ueber 
das  UnternelimendesKriticismus,die  Vernunft 
zu  Verstande  zu  bringen  (1802).  His  principal 
works,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are 
SendscJireiben  an  Flchte  (Hamburg,  1799),  and 
Von  den  gottlichen  Dingen  und  Hirer  Offen- 
"barung  (Leipsic,  1811),  which  occasioned  a 
controversy  with  Schelling.  His  collected 
works  were  published  at  Leipsic  (6  vols., 
1812-'24),  to  which  his  letters  were  added  (2 
vols.,  1825-'7).  II.  Johann  Georg,  a  German 

Soet,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Diissel- 
orf,  Dec.  2,  1740,  died  in  Freiburg,  Baden, 
Jan.  4,  1814.  After  studying  theology  and 
literature  at  Gottingen,  he  was  appointed  in 
1765  professor  of  philosophy  and  eloquence  at 
Halle,  became  soon  after  intimately  associated 
with  Gleim,  in  1769  received  a  canonry  at 
Halberstadt,  and  devoted  himself  to  poetry 
till  in  1784  he  became  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  at  Freiburg.  His  poems  are  marked 
especially  by  grace  and  purity  of  diction.  His 
complete  works  were  published  at  Zurich  (7 
vols.,  1807-^2).  III.  Maximilian,  a  German 
physician,  son  of  F.  II.  Jacobi,  born  in  Diissel- 
dorf,  April  10,  1775,  died  at  Siegburg,  near 
Bonn,  May  18,  1858.  He  studied  at  Jena, 
Gottingen,  Edinburgh,  and  Erfurt,  was  for  a 
time  assistant  in  a  London  hospital,  and  after 
ward  director  of  an  insane  asylum  at  Salz 
burg.  He  early  embraced  the  views  of  Pinel 
and  Tuke  on  the  subject  of  non-restraint,  and 
sought  to  introduce  them  throughout  Ger 
many.  About  1820  he  was  selected  to  take 
charge  of  the  insane  hospital  at  Siegburg.  He 
published  several  essays  on  the  treatment  of 
th»,  insane,  and  a  work  on  "  Construction  and 
Management  of  Lunatic  Hospitals"  (1834),  and 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Allgcmeine 
ZeiUchrift  fur  Psychiatric.  On  the  50th  an 
niversary  of  his  doctorate  (1857)  a  festival  was 
held  in  his  honor,  attended  by  distinguished 
men  from  England  and  France  as  well  as  from 
every  part  of  Germany.  At  this  festival  an 
association  was  organized  called  the  Jacobi 
foundation,  for  the  improvement  of  physicians, 
officers,  nurses,  and  attendants  in  the  care  of 
the  insane. 


JACOBI.  I.  Karl  Gnstav  Jakob,  a  German 
mathematician,  born  in  Potsdam,  Dec.  10,  1804, 
died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  18,  1851.  In  1825,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Hegel,  he  was  sent  to  Ko 
nigsberg  as  instructor  in  mathematics,  and  in 
1827  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics 
there.  In  1842  he  made  a  journey  to  England, 
but  on  his  return  was  obliged  by  ill  health  to 
resign  his  professorship,  and  after  visiting  Italy 
resided  in  Berlin.  His  importance  in  the  his 
tory  of  mathematics  is  chiefly  due  to  his  dis 
coveries  in  the  theory  of  elliptic  functions,  and 
his  principal  work  is  the  Fundamenta  Nova 
Theorice  Functionum  Ellipticarum  (Konigs 
berg,  1829),  besides  which  he  wrote  many  spe 
cial  memoirs.  Under  him,  Bessel,  and  Neu 
mann,  the  university  of  Konigsberg  enjoy 
ed  a  reputation  as  a  school  of  mathematics 
surpassed  by  none  in  Europe.  II.  Moritz  Her 
mann,  a  German  savant  resident  in  Russia, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Potsdam, 
Sept.  21,  1801,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  March 
10,  1874.  At  the  age  of  28  he  went  to  Eussia 
to  seek  his  fortune,  and  soon  attracted  atten 
tion  by  his  researches  in  physics.  In  1830  he 
constructed  a  short  electric  telegraph  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  in  1832  one  of  18  miles  be 
tween  two  of  the  imperial  residences,  on  which 
he  made  many  experiments,  and  the  important 
discovery  that  the  earth  could  be  used  to  com 
plete  the  electric  circuit.  In  1837,  simultane 
ously  with  Thomas  Spencer  of  Liverpool,  he 
invented  the  process  of  electrotyping ;  and  in 
1840  he  published  Die  Galvanoplastik,  which 
gained  him  admittance  into  the  imperial  acad 
emy  of  St.  Petersburg.  He  soon  after  pro 
posed  to  the  czar  the  formation  of  a  regiment 
of  galvanic  sappers,  to  be  trained  in  the  man 
agement  of  electricity.  An  immense  battery 
was  constructed  for  him,  and  he  received  the 
title  of  colonel  in  the  galvanic  regiment.  He 
published  many  memoirs  on  the  applications 
of  electro-magnetism  in  the  collections  of  the 
academy  of  St.  Petersburg. 

JACOBINS,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  clubs 
of  the  first  French  revolution.  Its  origin  is 
traced  to  a  society  established  a  few  clays  after 
the  opening  of  the  states  general  at  Versailles, 
in  May,  1789,  by  the  deputies  from  Brittany, 
called  the  club  Breton.  On  the  removal  of 
the  constituent  assembly  from  Versailles  to 
Paris,  this  club  established  itself  there  in  the 
old  convent  of  Dominican  friars  of  St.  James, 
or  Jacobins,  in  the  rue  St.  Honore,  admitted 
any  citizen  who  was  presented  by  four  mem 
bers,  and  assumed  the  name  of  societe  des  amis 
de  la  constitution,  but  was  also,  from  its  place 
of  meeting,  styled  Jacobins.  It  soon  became 
very  numerous,  not  only  deputies,  but  all  who 
aspired  to  political  influence,  seeking  admission 
to  it.  Every  political  question  and  every  mo 
tion  was  here  debated  before  being  presented 
to  the  national  assembly ;  the  most  popular 
orators  participated  in  the  debates,  and  were 
anxious  to  secure  the  favor  of  the  majority; 
the  club  became  the  controlling  power  of  tho 


500 


JACOBITES 


JACOBSON 


revolution.  Extreme  opinions  gaining  the  as 
cendancy  in  it,  its  original  founders  abandoned 
it,  and  established  the  societe  de  1789  or  des 
Feuillants,  where  more  moderate  notions  were 
entertained.  The  only  result  was  to  make  the 
Jacobins  more  radical  and  boisterous.  They 
extended  their  influence  all  over  France,  1,200 
branch  societies  being  established  previous  to 
1791,  and  this  number  increasing  in  the  follow 
ing  years.  All  the  affiliated  societies  obeyed 
orders  from  the  headquarters  in  Paris.  The 
Journal  de  la  societe  des  amis  de  la  consti 
tution  was  added  to  the  ordinary  means  of 
correspondence  in  May,  1791,  and  conveyed 
revolutionary  principles  to  every  corner  of 
the  kingdom.  The  Jacobins  were  foremost  in 
the  insurrectionary  movements  of  June  20  and 
Aug.  10,  1792;  they  originated  the  revolution 
ary  commune  de  Paris,  which  became  a  formida 
ble  power,  and  changed  their  former  name  to 
les  amis  de  la  liberte  et  de  Vegalite.  From  this 
time  they  ruled  supreme,  and  for  a  while  the 
convention  itself  was  but  their  tool.  Robes 
pierre  was  indebted  for  his  political  supremacy 
to  the  popularity  he  had  secured  among  them. 
The  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermidor,  wThich 
overthrew  him,  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the  Jaco 
bins;  the  terror  they  had  inspired  gradually 
vanished;  the  reactionary  affiliation  styled  la 
jeunesse  doree  went  in  force  to  attack  their 
headquarters,  and  the  convention  issued  de 
crees  for  the  suspension  of  their  meetings  and 
the  closing  of  their  hall  (November,  1794). 
The  scattered  remains  of  the  party  attempted 
to  regain  influence  by  establishing  the  club  du 
manege,  and  then  the  club  de  la  rue  du  Bac, 
but  in  vain. 

JACOBITES.  I.  A  Christian  sect  in  the  East, 
particularly  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  They 
derive  their  name  from  Jacobus  Baradasus, 
bishop  of  Edessa,  who  in  the  6th  century  es 
tablished  a  permanent  ecclesiastical  organiza 
tion  among  the  Monophysites,  or  those  who 
maintained  that  the  divine  and  human  natures 
in  Jesus  Christ  were  so  united  as  to  form  only 
one  nature.  At  the  death  of  Baradseus  in  578, 
this  sect  was  very  numerous  in  Syria,  Mesopo 
tamia,  Armenia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia. 
The  Egyptian  Jacobites  in  the  course  of  ages 
separated  from  their  Asiatic  brethren,  and 
formed  the  Coptic  church.  (See  COPTS.)  At 
the  head  of  the  Jacobites  is  a  patriarch,  who 
now  resides  in  a  monastery  near  Mardin.  Next 
to  the  patriarch  is  the  maplirian,  who  was  for 
merly  the  head  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
Jacobites  and  had  power  equal  to  that  of  the 
patriarch.  At  present  he  has  the  jurisdiction 
of  a  bishop,  retaining  of  his  former  preroga 
tives  only  the  title.  He  resides  in  a  monastery 
near  Mosul.  Formerly  there  were  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  20  metropolitans 
and  103  bishops;  but  this  number  has  been  re 
duced  to  8  metropolitans  and  3  bishops.  The 
Jacobites  are  reported  to  number  about  34,000 
families.  In  their  church  service  they  use  the 
Syriac  language,  which  is  no  longer  understood 


by  the  people.  Those  Jacobites  who  have 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  communion  are 
called  United  Syrians.  They  have  a  patriarch, 
who  has  the  title  of  patriarch  of  Antioch,  4 
archbishops,  and  8  bishops.  The  entire  popu 
lation  connected  with  the  church  is  estimated 
at  30,000.  II.  A  party  in  Great  Britain  (so 
called  from  Lat.  Jacobus,  James)  who  after  the 
revolution  of  1688  adhered  to  the  cause  of  the 
dethroned  King  James  II.  and  his  descendants. 
They  were  numerous  and  powerful  in  Scot 
land,  and  for  more  than  half  a  century  contin 
ued  to  conspire  for  the  restoration  of  the  ex 
iled  house  of  Stuart.  They  rose  in  unsuccess 
ful  revolt  in  1715,  and  again  in  1745.  Their 
final  extinction  as  a  party  may  be  dated  from 
the  death  of  the  pretender  Charles  Edward  in 
1788,  though  they  had  long  before  ceased  to 
be  formidable  to  the  established  government. 

JACOBS.  I.  Christian  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a  Ger 
man  author,  born  in  Gotha,  Oct.  6,  1764,  died 
there,  March  30, 1847.  He  was  for  many  years 
in  charge  of  the  library  and  numismatic  cabi 
net  at  Gotha,  and  from  1831  to  1842  of  all  the 
art  collections  in  that  town.  He  published 
over  50  volumes,  the  principal  of  which  are 
his  editions  and  translations  of  the  classics  and 
his  Elementarbuch  der  griecJiischen  SpracJie 
(4  vols.,  Jena,  1805).  II.  Paul  Emil,  a  German 
painter,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Gotha 
in  1802,  died  Jan.  6, 1866.  From  1818  to  1825 
he  studied  in  the  academy  at  Munich,  where  he 
acquired  reputation  by  his  paintings  of  "  The 
Flight  into  the  Wilderness  "  and  "  Adam  and 
Eve  finding  the  Dead  Body  of  Abel."  He 
went  to  Rome  in  1825,  where  he  produced 
several  pictures  in  the  manner  of  Raphael, 
among  which  are  the  "Resurrection  of  Laza 
rus"  and  the  "Rape  of  Proserpine."  In  1828 
he  returned  to  Germany,  and  in  1830  went  to 
St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  till  1834, 
painting  "  General  Diebitsch  in  the  Camp  at 
Adrianople,"  and  an  altarpiece.  Returning  to 
Germany,  he  decorated  in  fresco  a  hall  in  the 
royal  castle  at  Hanover.  In  1840  he  went  to 
Gotha,  where  he  became  court  painter  to  the 
grand  duke,  and  produced  several  successful 
paintings,  among  the  best  of  which  is  "  The 
Sultan  and  Scheherazade."  His  "Judith  and 
Holofernes"  and  "Samson  and  Delilah"  re 
ceived  prizes  in  Philadelphia  in  1850. 

JACOBS,  Jacques  Albert  Michel,  known  also  as 
JACOBS  JACOBS,  a  Belgian  painter,  born  in  Ant 
werp  in  1812.  He  studied  in  Antwerp,  trav 
elled  in  the  East,  and  produced  many  marine 
pieces,  landscapes,  and  views  of  towns.  His 
"Shipwreck  of  the  Florida"  and  "View  of 
Constantinople  "  are  at  Munich. 

JACOBS,  Pierre  Francois,  a  Belgian  painter, 
born  in  Brussels  about  1780,  died  in  Rome  in 
1808.  He  repeatedly  won  prizes  while  a  stu 
dent  at  the  academy  of  Brussels,  and  became 
famous  by  his  picture  of  "  The  Head  of  Pom- 
pey  presented  to  Cresar,"  executed  in  Rome. 

JACOBSON,  William,  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Norfolk  in  1803.  He  graduated  at  Lincoln 


JACOBY 


JACQUAXD 


501 


college,  Oxford,  in  1827.  In  1829  he  was 
elected  fellow  of  Exeter  college,  and  in  1832 
was  chosen  vice  principal  of  Magdalen  hall, 
which  post  he  occupied  till  1848,  when  he  was 
appointed  regius  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
university.  At  the  same  time  he  became  canon 
of  Christ  church  and  rector  of  Ewelme,  and  re 
ceived  the  degree  of  D.  D.  He  was  also  select 
preacher  and  public  orator  for  several  years, 
and  edited  a  number  of  valuable  works  for  the 
university  press.  In  1805  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Chester.  He  has  edited  Patres  Apostolici 
(2  vols.  with  notes,  apparatus,  &c.,  1840;  3d 
cd.,  1847),  "Novell's  Catechism"  (1844),  the 
''Collected  Works  of  Bishop  Sanderson"  (6 
vols.,  1854),  &c.,  and  published  two  volumes 
of  sermons  (1840,  1846). 

JACOBY,  Johaun,  a  German  publicist  of  Jew 
ish  descent,  born  in  Konigsberg,  May  1,  1805. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Konigsberg,  Berlin, 
and  Heidelberg,  and  became  a  distinguished 
physician  in  his  native  city.  At  the  same  time 
he  came  forward  as  a  politician,  and  was  un 
der  arrest  in  1841-'3  for  having  keenly  criti 
cised  the  government  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Vier  Fragen  ;  and  other  publications  resulted 
in  his  being  sentenced  in  1845  to  a  long  term 
of  imprisonment,  but  he  was  acquitted  on  ap 
peal  to  a  superior  court.  In  1848  he  was 
prominent  in  the  provisional  parliament  of 
Frankfort,  and  subsequently  in  the  Prussian 
.national  assembly  as  the  chief  leader  of  the 
democratic  party.  After  sitting  in  the  second 
Prussian  chamber  during  its  brief  existence  in 
the  early  part  of  1849,  he  succeeded  the  his 
torian  Raumer  in  the  German  parliament  at 
Frankfort,  soon  retiring  with  that  assembly  to 
Stuttgart.  Once  more  accused  of  treason,  he 
surrendered  himself  to  the  authorities  at  Ko 
nigsberg,  but  was  acquitted,  Dec.  8,  1849.  In 
the  same  year  he  declined  a  seat  in  the  Prussian 
first  chamber,  and  in  1862  one  in  the  chamber 
of  deputies,  but  occupied  one  in  the  latter  in 
1864-'5.  His  sympathy  with  democracy  and 
socialism,  and  his  opposition  to  monarchy  as 
the  promoter  of  German  nationality,  caused 
him  to  be  arrested  in  1866  for  obnoxious  pas 
sages  in  one  of  his  electoral  addresses,  and  for 
allusions  in  the  biography  of  Ileinrich  Simon 
which  he  had  published  in  1865  ;  and  as  he 
continued  his  agitations  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  with  France,  he  was  again  placed  for 
some  time  under  arrest  in  1870.  The  next 
year  he  declined  a  reelection  by  the  radicals. 
Elected  a  member  of  the  imperial  Reichstag  in 
1874,  he  renounced  his  seat,  declaring  in  a  let 
ter  to  his  constituents  his  conviction  of  the 
impossibility  of  transforming  a  military  state 
into  a  popular  state  in  a  parliamentary  way. 
His  writings,  some  of  which  are  medical,  in 
clude  Die  Grunrisatze  der  premsischen  Demo 
cratic  (Berlin,  1859). 

JACOBY,  Lndwi£  Siirisumnd,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  in  Alt  Strelitz,  Mecklenburg,  Oct. 
21,  1811.  His  parents  were  Jews,  but  he  was 
baptized  when  21  years  old,  and  joined  the  Lu 


theran  church.  A  few  years  later  he  emigrated 
to  America,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Metho 
dist  Episcopal  church.  About  1840  he  entered 
the  ministry,  and  in  1841  was  stationed  at  St. 
Louis.  In  1844  he  was  presiding  elder  of  the 
first  German  district  of  the  far  west.  In  1849 
|  he  returned  to  Germany  to  establish  a  mission 
of  the  Methodist  church  there.  Chiefly  through 
his  instrumentality,  missions  were  founded  in 
Germany  and  in  Switzerland,  and  a  publishing- 
house  and  a  theological  seminary  were  estab 
lished  at  Bremen.  For  many  years  he  edited 
and  published  religious  and  educational  works, 
and  acted  as  a  professor  in  the  theological  semi 
nary.  To  him  was  intrusted  the  superinten 
dence  of  all  the  missions  of  his  church  in  Ger 
many  and  Switzerland,  until  his  return  to  Amer 
ica  in  1872.  In  1874  he  was  pastor  of  a  church 
in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  He  has  prepared  a  "  Con 
cordance  of  the  Bible,"  and  a  "  History  of 
Methodism  in  the  Whole  World  down  to  1869." 

JACOTOT,  Joseph,  a  French  educator,  born  in 
Dijon,  March  4,  1770,  died  in  Paris,  July  30, 
1840.  When  scarcely  19  he  became  professor 
of  Latin  and  Greek  literature  at  Dijon.  He 
enlisted  in  1792,  was  elected  captain  of  artil 
lery,  participated  in  the  campaign  of  Belgium, 
and  was  called  to  Paris  to  assist  in  the  central 
board  for  the  manufacture  and  improvement 
of  gunpowder.  He  afterward  returned  to  Di 
jon,  where  he  was  successively  professor  of 
mathematics  and  of  Roman  law.  During  the 
hundred  days  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies,  favored  the  cause  of  Napoleon,  and 
was  consequently  compelled  to  leave  France. 
He  took  refuge  in  Belgium,  where  he  first  made 
a  living  by  private  teaching ;  in  1818  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  the  French  language  and 
literature  in  the  university  of  Louvain,  and  a 
little  later  director  of  the  military  school  of 
Belgium.  He  now  brought  forward  his  new 
system  of  intellectual  emancipation,  designed 
to  enable  every  one  to  learn  without  a  teacher. 
In  1830  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  lived 
seven  years  in  Valenciennes,  and  then  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  spent  his  last  years  in  com 
parative  obscurity.  He  published  Enseigne- 
ment  universel :  Langue  matcrnelle  (Louvain, 
1822);  Langue  etrangere  (1823) ;  Musiqiie,  des- 
sin  et  peinture  (1824)  ;  Mathcmatiques  (1828)  ; 
Droitet  philosophic  panccastiques  (Paris,  1837) ; 
and  numerous  articles  in  the  Journal  de  V eman 
cipation  intcllectuelle,  which  he  had  established 
for  the  diffusion  of  his  doctrine. 

JACQUAND,  Claudius,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Lyons  in  1805.  He  early  became  known  by 
historical  and  genre  pictures,  and  settled  in 
Paris  in  1838,  where  he  married  a  daughter  cf 
Count  de  Forbin-Janson.  Among  his  princi 
pal  works  are  u  Charlemagne  crowned  as 
King  of  Italy,"  "  The  Chapter  of  Rhodes,"  and 
others  in  the  museum  of  Versailles.  His  fine 
picture  of  "The  Mayor  of  Boulogne  refusing 
the  Capitulation  of  Henry  VIII."  is  in  the  town 
hall  of  that  city ;  and  another  of  his  most  re 
markable  works,  representing  "  St.  Bonaven- 


JACQUARD 


JACQUELINE  OF  BAVARIA 


tnra  declining  a  Cardinal's  Hat,"  is  in  the 
Luxembourg.  His  latest  productions  include 
"Dante  at  Rome"  and  "Guy  of  Arezzo  and 
his  Pupils  "(1868). 

JACQUARD,  Joseph  Marie,  a  French  mechani 
cian,  born  in  Lyons,  July  7,  1752,  died  at 
Oullins,  Aug.  7,  1834.  His  parents  were 
weavers,  and  his  father,  having  become  the 
proprietor  of  a  loom,  was  enabled  to  give  him 
a  few  months'  schooling,  the  only  education  he 
ever  received.  When  12  years  old  he  was  ap 
prenticed  to  a  bookbinder,  and  subsequently  in 
succession  to  a  cutler  and  a  type-founder,  in 
which  occupations  he  produced  a  variety  of 
models  and  inventions.  At  about  the  age  of 
20  he  succeeded,  upon  the  death  of  his  father, 
to  a  small  workshop  containing  two  looms, 
and  commenced  business  as  a  weaver.  Ab 
sorbed  in  plans  for  improving  looms,  and  in  a 
variety  of  other  mechanical  schemes,  he  neg 
lected  his  business,  and  not  only  exhausted  his 
father's  savings,  but  was  obliged  to  sell  his 
workshop  and  fixtures  to  pay  his  debts.  He 
married  the  daughter  of  an  armorer,  hoping 
with  the  aid  of  her  dowry  to  retrieve  his 
fortunes;  but  was  disappointed,  and  finally 
obliged  to  seek  employment  with  a  lime  burner 
in  Bresse,  while  his  wife  gained  a  scanty  living 
for  herself  and  her  son  in  Lyons  by  making 
straw  bonnets.  From  about  1777  to  1792 
there  is  no  account  of  his  life.  In  the  latter 
year  he  embraced  the  cause  of  the  revolution, 
but  in  1793  was  one  of  the  defenders  of  Lyons 
against  the  army  of  the  convention.  After 
the  reduction  of  the  city  he  fled  with  his  son, 
a  boy  of  15 ;  and  both  were  soon  after  enrolled 
in  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  They  fought  side 
by  side  in  several  engagements ;  but  after  the 
death  of  his  son  in  battle  Jacquard  returned 
to  Lyons,  and  joined  his  wife  in  straw  weaving. 
When  Lyons  began  to  recover  from  the  effects 
of  the  siege,  he  found  employment  with  a 
wealthy  and  intelligent  silk  manufacturer,  who 
encouraged  his  schemes  for  the  improvement 
of  pattern-weaving  machinery.  With  a  view 
of  substituting  mechanical  action  for  that  of  a 
numerous  class  of  workmen,  who  by  the  very 
nature  of  their  employment  were  doomed  to  a 
premature  death,  he  produced  in  1800  the  first 
model  of  his  apparatus  for  superseding  the  use 
of  draw-boys  in  weaving  figured  goods,  the 
idea  of  which  had  occurred  to  him,  it  is  said, 
as  early  as  171)0.  In  addition  to  economy  of 
labor,  the  apparatus  greatly  simplified  the 
weaving  of  rich  designs,  and  could  be  readily 
applied  at  slight  expense  to  any  loom.  He  ex 
hibited  his  invention  in  the  exposition  of  na 
tional  industry  in  1801,  and  obtained  a  bronze 
medal.  Not  long  after  he  produced  a  machine 
for  weaving  nets  without  the  use  of  a  shuttle, 
which  came  under  the  notice  of  the  prefect  of 
police,  before  whom  the  inventor  was  sum 
moned  to  appear.  Subsequently  he  and  his 
machine  were  conveyed  to  Paris  and  under 
went  an  examination  by  Napoleon  and  Carnot, 
the  latter  of  whom  asked  Jacquard  if  he  was 


the  man  who  pretended  to  do  the  impossible, 
i.  e.,  to  tie  a  knot  in  a  stretched  string.     So 
satisfactory  did  the  explanation  prove  that  Jac 
quard  received  a  gold  medal,  and  was  commis 
sioned  to  examine  and  repair  the  machines  and 
|  models  in  the  conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers, 
|  among  which  was  a  loom  invented  by  Vaucan- 
I  son,  which  is  said  to  have  suggested  to  him 
I  the  principal  improvements  embraced  in  his 
j  own.     This,  however,  is  believed  to  be  erro 
neous.     In  1804  he  returned  to  Lyons  to  find 
himself  assailed  with  abuse  and  open  violence 
by  those  whom  the  introduction  of  his  appa 
ratus  had  temporarily  thrown  out  of  employ 
ment.      He  was  denounced  as  the  man  who 
was  reducing  families  to  ruin  and  starvation ; 
his  house  was  entered  by  a  mob,  who  broke 
one  of  his  looms  in  pieces ;    and  on   several 
occasions  he  barely  escaped  from  their  rage 
with  his  life.     These   scenes,  however,   soon 
gave  place  to  a  general  acquiescence  in  the  in 
vention,  which  was  purchased  by  government 
i  in  accordance  with  an  imperial  decree,  dated 
Berlin,  Oct.  27, 1806,  and  made  public  property. 
Such  was  the  increased  production  of  woven 
fabrics  in  Lyons,    and  its  consequent    rapid 
growth,  that  Jacquard  came  to  be  as  highly 
esteemed  as  he  had  formerly  been  detested. 
Although  strongl}7"  urged  to  settle  in  England, 
j  he  preferred  to  devote  himself  to  perfecting 
his  invention  in  his  native  city,  where  he  lived 
I  until  the  death  of   his  wife.     He  passed  his 
latter  years  in  the  neighboring  village  of  Oul 
lins.     During  his  life  he  received  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honor,  and  in  1840  a  statue  of 
him  was  erected  in  Lyons.     (See  WEAVING.) 

JACQUELINE  OF  BAVARIA,  countess  of  Hai- 
naut,  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Friesland,  born  in 
1400,  died  in  1436.  She  was  the  only  daughter 
and  heir  of  William  VI.  of  Bavaria,  count  of 
Holland  and  Hainaut,  and  of  Margaret  of  Bur 
gundy.  At  the  age  of  five  years  she  was,  by 
a  treaty  between  her  father  and  Charles  VI. 
|  of  France,  betrothed  to  Prince  John,  brother 
of  the  dauphin,  himself  a  child.  In  1415, 
upon  the  death  of  his  brother,  John  became 
dauphin,  but  continued  to  reside  with  his 
father-in-law.  In  1417  he  returned  to  France, 
but  three  days  after  his  arrival  there  was  killed 
by  poison.  The  same  year  Jacqueline  succeeded 
to  her  father's  estates  and  dignities.  Henry 
V.  of  England  solicited  her  hand  for  his  broth 
er  the  duke  of  Bedford,  but  she  married  her 
cousin  german  John  IV.,  duke  of  Brabant,  a 
boy  in  his  16th  year.  She  soon  left  him,  and 
lived  at  first  at  Valenciennes  with  her  mother. 
In  1420  she  went  to  England,  where  Henry  V. 
welcomed  her  and  gave  her  a  pension  of  £100 
a  month,  and  Humphrey  duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  king's  brother,  sought  to  marry  her,  treat 
ing  her  marriage  with  the  duke  of  Brabant  as 
invalid.  Their  marriage  was  delayed  by  King 
Henry,  lest  it  should  interrupt  his  friendly  re 
lations  with  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  sup 
ported  the  cause  of  his  cousin  John  of  Brabant. 
i  After  the  death  of  Henry  V.  the  antipope  Bene- 


JACQUEMART 


JACQUIER 


503 


diet  XIII.  annulled  her  former  marriage,  and  in 
1423  she  married  Gloucester,  who  at  once  de 
manded  her  estates,  and  entered  Ilainaut  with 
her  with  5,000  troops  to  reclaim  them.  A 
challenge  passed  between  the  dukes  of  Glou 
cester  and  Burgundy,  and  they  agreed  to  settle 
the  dispute  by  single  combat.  Both  withdrew 
their  troops,  and  Gloucester  returned  to  Eng 
land,  leaving  Jacqueline,  at  the  entreaty  of  the 
citizens,  in  Mons.  The  duel  was  forbidden  by 
the  pope,  and  the  duke  of  Brabant  resuming 
the  war,  Jacqueline  was  treacherously  given 
up  by  the  citizens  to  her  enemies.  She  was 
imprisoned  in  Ghent,  but  escaped  in  male  attire 
on  horseback  by  night,  and  fled  to  Holland, 
where  she  was  welcomed,  and  sustained  against 
the  Burgundians  in  a  war  of  two  years.  In  1426 
the  duke  of  Brabant  died,  and  she  resumed 
the  title  of  duchess  of  Gloucester;  but  Glou 
cester  helped  her  little,  and  at  length  she  made 
a  treaty  with  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  making 
him  her  heir  and  guardian  of  her  fortresses,  • 
and  agreed  not  to  marry  without  his  consent, 
thus  virtually  disavowing  her  marriage  with 
Gloucester,  who  soon  publicly  married  Eleanor 
Cobham.  In  disregard  of  this  treaty  Jacque 
line  married  in  1432  a  private  gentleman  named 
Francis  of  Borselen,  governor  of  Zealand.  The 
duke  of  Burgundy  arrested  and  imprisoned 
Borselen,  and  Jacqueline  purchased  his  libera 
tion  by  surrendering  to  Burgundy  all  her  es 
tates,  reserving  to  herself  only  a  small  annuity. 
She  died  three  vears  later  without  issue. 

JACQtEMART;  Albert,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris  in  1808.  At  an  early  age  he  became 
a  clerk  in  the  ministry  of  finance,  and  in  1865 
was  made  chief  of  bureau  in  the  custom-house 
department.  He  was  prominently  connected 
with  the  universal  exposition  of  1867.  His 
works  include  Histoire  antique,  industriclle  et 
commerciale  de  la  porcelaine  (Lyons,  1861-'2), 
and  Histoire  de  la  ceramique  (Paris,  1872; 
English  translation  by  Mrs.  Bury  Palliser, 
"The  History  of  Ceramic  Art,"  with  1,000 
illustrations,  London,  1873). — His  son  JULES 
FERDIXAXD,  born  in  1837,  excels  as  an  engi 
neer,  and  has  prepared  many  designs  for  some 
of  his  father's  works. 

JAC QIEMOM,  Victor,  a  French  traveller  and 
naturalist,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  8,  1801,  died  in 
Bombay,  Dec.  7,  1832.  After  studying  botany 
under  Adrien  de  Jussieu,  he  visited  North 
America  and  Ilayti.  Vrhile  in  Hayti  he 
planned  a  scientific  voyage  to  the  East  Indies, 
and,  laying  his  project  before  the  directors  of 
the  museum  of  natural  history,  received  the 
appointment  of  naturalist  and  traveller  to  that 
institution.  Returning  to  France,  and  after 
ward  visiting  England,  he  was  elected  fellow 
of  the  Asiatic  society,  and  finally  sailed  from 
Brest  in  August,  1828.  He  arrived  at  Calcutta 
May  5,  1820,  and,  having  acquired  some  knowl 
edge  of  Indian  languages,  started  on  his  trav 
els  by  land,  Nov.  20.  After  visiting  some  of 
the  English  provinces,  he  explored  the  Ilirna-  j 
lava  mountains  toward  Thibet,  and  penetrated  | 


as  far  as  Chinese  Tartary.  Returning,  he  was 
invited  by  Gen.  Allard  to  the  kingdom  of  La 
hore,  where  Runjeet  Singh  received  him  with 
marked  favor,  and  offered  him  the  viceroyalty 
of  Cashmere,  but  Jacquemont  preferred  to  con 
tinue  his  travels.  He  died  of  a  disease  con 
tracted  in  his  ramblings  through  the  pestilen 
tial  forests  of  Salsette  island.  His  Correspon- 
dance  with  his  friends  and  relatives  (2  vols.  8vo, 
Paris,  1834)  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  and 
original  books  of  travel  ever  published ;  and 
the  diary  of  his  Voyage  dans  VInde  pendant 
les  annexes  1828  d  1832  (6  vols.  4to),  published 
at  the  expense  of  the  French  government,  em 
bodies  a  large  amount  of  valuable  zoological 
and  botanical  observations. 

JACQUERIE,  a  French  servile  insurrection  of 
the  14th  century,  called  after  its  leader,  Guil- 
laume  Caillet,  or  Charlet,  of  Clermont,  who 
assumed  the  name  Jacques  Bonhomme,  which 
the  barons  had  long  derisively  applied  to  the 
peasants  on  account  of  their  meek  submission 
to  oppression.  Smarting  under  the  insolence 
and  rapacity  of  the  nobles  and  driven  to  de 
spair  by  the  burdens  and  vicissitudes  of  the  war 
with  England,  and  particularly  by  the  disas 
trous  battle  of  Poitiers,  the  peasants  rose  in 
the  vicinity  of  Beauvais,  May  21,  1358,  and 
the  insurgents  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
speedily  numbered  more  than  100,000,  com 
prising  besides  the  poor  peasantry  some  of  the 
well-to-do  middle  classes.  They  destroyed 
over  200  castles  and  mansions,  and  spread  ter 
ror  far  and  wide.  The  duchess  of  Orleans  and 
300  other  ladies  sought  refuge  in  Meaux.  Here 
the  insurgents  were  overwhelmed  early  in 
June  by  the  troops  of  the  nobles,  who  massa 
cred  their  force  of  9,000  men,  and  put  to  death 
the  mayor  of  Meaux,  who  had  enabled  them 
to  enter  the  town.  The  peasants  never  recov 
ered  from  this  disaster.  Many  of  them  surren 
dered,  and  Jacques  Bonhomme  and  his  com 
panions  were  treacherously  tortured  and  slain 
by  Charles  the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre,  who 
routed  the  rest  of  their  followers.  The  insur 
rection,  though  lasting  barely  three  weeks, 
was  attended  with  great  horrors,  upward  of 
20,000  peasants  being  killed,  and  for  a  long 
time  they  continued  to  be  persecuted. — See 
L 'Ifistoire  veritable  de  Jacques  Bonlwmme,  by 
A.  Thierry  (published  in  the  Ccnseur  europeen, 
Paris,  1820) ;  La  Jacquerie,  scenes  feodales,  by 
Prosper  M6rim6e  (1828);  and  Histoire  de  la, 
Jacquerie,  by  Simeon  Luce  (1860). 

JACQUES  ('"ARTIER,  a  county  of  Quebec,  Can 
ada,  occupying  the  AV.  portion  of  Montreal 
island;  area,  87^  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  11,179, 
of  whom  9,766  were  of  French  descent.  It  is 
mostly  level,  with  a  fertile  and  \vell  cultivated 
soil.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk  rail 
way.  Capital,  Pointe  Claire. 

JACQIIER,  Nicolas,  a  French  orthopedist,  born 
at  Troves  in  1790,  died  at  Ervy.  department  of 
Aube,  Oct.  13,  1859.  He  graduated  at  Paris 
in  1813,  and  became  military  surgeon  in  the 
campaigns  of  1814.  Subsequently  he  resided 


501 


JACQUIN 


JAFFA 


at  Ervy,  and  acquired  fame  in  orthopedics  by 
his  work  De  Vemploi  des  moyens  mecaniques  et 
gyjnnastiques  dans  le  traitement  des  dijformi- 
tes  du  sysleme  osseux  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1831-'5), 
substituting  pressure  for  extension,  and  by 
other  kindred  writings. 

JACQllN,  Nicolas  Joseph  TOD,  baron,  an  Aus 
trian  botanist,  born  in  Leyden,  Feb.  10,  1727, 
died  in  Vienna,  Oct.  24,  1817.  He  was  de 
scended  from  a  French  family  who  had  emi 
grated  to  Holland,  was  a  friend  of  Gronovius, 
and  completed  his  studies  in  Paris  under  Jus- 
sieu,  and  in  Vienna,  where  he  settled.  In 

1753  the  emperor  Francis  I.  commissioned  him 
to  lay  out  the  garden  at  Sclionbrunn ;  and  from 

1754  to  1759  he  travelled  in  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America  to  collect  new  plants  for 
it  and  for  the  imperial  garden  at  Vienna.    After 
his  return  he  became  professor  in  a  provincial 
town,  and  subsequently  he  was  professor  of 
botany  and  chemistry  at  the  university  of  Vien 
na,  and  was  raised  to  the  nobility  in  1806.    He 
discovered  about  50  new  genera  of  plants, 
some  of  which  bear  his  name.     His  principal 
works  are :  Selectarum  Stirpium  Americana- 
rum  Historia  (fol.,  with  183  colored  plates, 
Vienna,  1763  and  1781,  and  Mannheim,  1788); 
Hortus  Botanicus    Vindobonensis  (fol.,   1771, 
with  300  plates) ;  Floras  Austriacce  (fol.,  1773- 
'7,    with  500  plates) ;    Plantarum  rariorum 
Ilorti  Ccesarei  ScTio&nbrunnensis  Descriptiones 
et  Icones  (9  vols.  fol.,  1797-1804);  and  Geni- 
talia  Asclepiadearum  Controversy  published  in 
1811  in  his  84th  year. — His  son  JOSEPH  FRANZ 
(1767-1839)  was  professor  of  botany  and  chem 
istry,  and  director  of  the  botanical  garden  at 
Vienna,  and  the  author  of  a  manual  of  medi 
cal  chemistry  which  had  several  editions. 

JADE,  or  Jalide,  a  small  navigable  river  of 
Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg, 
which  falls  into  Jade  bay  S.  W.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  AVeser.  This  bay,  which  covers  an  area 
of  74  sq.  m.,  was  formed  in  1511  by  a  tempest 
which  inundated  five  parishes.  A  tract  of  land 
adjacent  to  the  mouth  of  the  Jade  was  pur 
chased  by  Prussia  from  Oldenburg  in  1853  for 
the  purpose  of  constructing  a  war  port,  which 
in  1869  was  opened  in  the  presence  of  the 
king  of  Prussia.  (See  WILHELMSHAVEX.)  The 
"  Territory  of  Jade,"  which  had  an  area  of  1-31 
sq.  m.  and  in  1871  a  population  of  3,789,  was 
administered  by  the  Prussian  admiralty  till 
March  23,  1873,  when  it  was  incorporated  with 
the  Aurich  district  of  the  province  of  Hanover. 

JADE  NEPHRITE,  a  mineral  of  variable  com 
position,  chiefly  consisting  of  silica,  magnesia, 
and  lime,  used  as  an  ornamental  stone,  for 
which  it  is  adapted  by  its  close  texture  and 
susceptibility  of  taking  a  fine  polish.  It  is 
tough,  translucent,  of  about  the  hardness  of 
quartz,  specific  gravity  3,  and  of  bluish,  light 
green,  or  flesh  color.  It  fuses  with  great  diffi 
culty  into  a  white  enamel.  It  is  found  with 
the  mctamorphic  slates  and  limestones. 

JADIN,  Louis  Emmanuel,  a  French  composer, 
born  at  Versailles,  Sept.  21,  1768,  died  in  Paris 


in  July,  1853.  He  received  instruction  in  mu 
sic  from  his  father  and  brother,  and  in  1802 
became  a  professor  at  the  Paris  conservatory, 
and  in  1814  governor  of  the  king's  musical 
pages.  His  compositions  are  very  numerous, 
including  39  operas  and  operettas,  many  pieces 
for  military  orchestra,  a  great  variety  of  cham 
ber  music  for  reed  and  stringed  instruments, 
and  compositions  for  piano  alone.  The  whole 
number  of  his  works  was  74.  Though  popular 
in  their  day,  they  have  fallen  into  oblivion. 

JADIN,  Lonis  Godefroy,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1805.  He  first  produced  genre  and 
historical  pictures,  but  his  reputation  rests  on 
his  hunting  pieces.  His  numerous  representa 
tions  of  packs  of  hounds  are  celebrated. 

JAELL,  Alfred,  a  German  pianist,  born  in  Tri 
este,  March  5, 1832.  His  father  was  a  violinist, 
and  gave  him  his  first  instruction.  At  11  years 
of  age  he  was  able  to  undertake  a  concert  tour, 
appearing  first  in  Italy  and  afterward  in  France. 
.In  1848  he  came  to  America,  and  during  a  resi 
dence  of  several  years  in  the  United  States  ob 
tained  much  reputation.  Returning  to  Europe, 
he  passed  his  time  in  concert  giving  in  Ger 
many,  Russia,  France,  and  Holland,  and  was 
appointed  pianist  to  the  king  of  Hanover.  His 
compositions  for  piano  number  about  140,  and 
are  of  considerable  merit,  consisting  mainly  of 
operatic  transcriptions.  Although  he  possesses 
great  executive  power  and  brilliancy,  he  is  es 
teemed  a  player  of  the  second  order. 

JAEN.  I.  A  province  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia, 
bordering  on  New  Castile,  Murcia,  Granada, 
and  Cordova ;  area,  5,184  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
392,100.  The  N.  part  is  entirely  filled  with  the 
ridges  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  the  central  is  an 
irregular  valley,  in  which  several  streams  unite 
to  form  the  Guadalquivir.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
but  little  cultivated.  The  province  produces 
grain,  wine,  fruits,  oil,  honey,  and  various  min 
erals,  and  abounds  in  cattle  and  fine  horses ; 
silkworms  are  bred  there.  The  trade,  how 
ever,  is  not  extensive.  Among  the  principal 
towns  are  Andujar,  Alcala  la  Real,  Baylen, 
and  Ubeda.  II.  A  fortified  city,  capital  of 
the  province,  on  the  river  Jaen,  40  m.  N".  of 
Granada  ;  pop.  about  23,000.  The  new  town 
stretches  beyond  the  walls  into  the  plain  along 
the  river.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  the  principal 
of  which  occupies  the  site  of  a  Moorish  mosque 
which  was  demolished  in  1492.  A  new  plaza 
de  toros  was  built  in  1847.  Jaen  has  been  a 
bishopric  since  the  13th  century,  when  the 
Moors  were  expelled  from  the  city.  The  place 
is  poor  notwithstanding  its  fertile  environs. 
In  1808  it  was  sacked  by  the  French. 

JAFFA,  or  Yafa  (anc.  Joppa;  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  Japho\  a  town  and  port  of  Pales 
tine,  35  m.  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem ;  pop.  about 
10,000,  of  whom  4,500  are'  Moslems,  5,000 
Christians,  and  about  500  foreigners  and  Jews. 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  little  rounded 
hill,  dipping  on  the  west  into  the  Mediterranean, 
and  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by  orchards ; 
the  oranges  are  the  finest  of  Syria.  The  town, 


JAFFA 


JAFFNAPATAM 


505 


•which  looks  well  from  a  distance,  is  a  labyrinth 
of  blind  alleys  and  dilapidated  lanes  and  streets. 
Regular  lines  of  Austrian,  French,  and  Russian 
steamers  ply  between  Jaffa  and  European  and 
Turkish  ports.  English  and  Egyptian  steamers 
and  a  considerable  number  of  sailing  vessels 
also  call  occasionally.  The  present  harbor  con 
sists  of  a  strip  of  water  nearly  100  yards  wide, 
enclosed  by  a  reef  of  rocks  forming  a  kind  of 
natural  breakwater,  which  affords  shelter  to 
boats  and  small  vessels.  Jaffa,  being  the  port 
of  Nablus  and  Jerusalem,  and  of  the  whole 
country  south  as  far  as  Gaza,  is  a  place  of 
commercial  importance.  The  chief  exports 
are  grain,  oils,  soap,  raisins,  cotton,  wool,  colo- 
cynth,  oranges,  and  lemons ;  imports,  manu 
factured  goods,  rice,  coffee,  tea,  and  sugar. 
There  are  several  insignificant  mosques  and 
three  large  convents,  and  the  town  still  retains 


some  of  its  ancient  fortifications  ;  but  it  is  now 
chiefly  celebrated  as  a  landing  place  of  Euro 
pean  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Jerusalem. — 
Tradition  gives  to  Jaffa  an  antediluvian  exist 
ence.  Among  the  maritime  towns  allotted  to 
the  tribe  of  Dan  we  find  the  name  of  Japho. 
It  was  the  port  at  which  the  cedar  and  pine 
from  Lebanon  for  the  building  of  the  temple 
of  Solomon  were  landed.  Jonah  embarked 
thence  for  Tarshish.  Peter  the  apostle  resided 
in  the  house  of  "  Simon  the  tanner."  A  house 
reputed  to  be  the  place  where  he  had  the  vision 
is  still  pointed  out  to  pilgrims.  The  town  suf 
fered  much  in  the  wars  of  the  Asmoneans, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  the  Ro 
mans  it  was  burned  by  Cestius  Gallus  and 
8,000  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain.  It  was 
an  important  station  during  the  crusades,  and 
was  finally  taken  by  the  Mohammedans  from 


Jaffa. 


the  Christians  at  the  end  of  the  12th  century. 
Captured  by  Napoleon  in  1799,  when  a  large 
part  of  the  garrison  were  massacred  at  his  com 
mand,  the  French  suffered  terribly  there  from 
an  attack  of  the  plague.  Tt  was  taken  by  Me- 
hemet  Ali  in  1832,  and  retaken  by  the  Turks 
in  1840.  In  1866  a  small  colony  of  Americans 
attempted  to  establish  a  settlement  there,  but 
failed  on  account  of  internal  discord,  and  most 
of  them  returned  home.  They  were  succeeded 
by  a  German  colony,  which  is  yearly  increasing. 
JAFFNAPATAM,  or  Jaffna,  I.  A  peninsular 
district  of  Ceylon,  on  the  X.  W.  coast,  of 
irregular  shape ;  area,  TOO  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
220,000.  It  is  traversed  by  two  long  and 
narrow  lagoons,  and  the  surface  of  the  penin 
sula  is  unbroken  by  a  single  hill.  Large  fields 
of  madrepore  and  breccia  have  been  elevated 
near  the  shore  in  consequence  of  the  gradual 
upheaval  of  the  W.  coast,  and  have  formed 


shallow  estuaries  which  contain  large  deposits 
of  excellent  salt.  A  still  more  abundant  pro 
duction  is  the  palmyra,  200  trees  to  an  acre 
being  below  the  ordinary  rate,  and  the  number 
of  palms  is  estimated  at  nearly  7,000,000,  sup 
plying  food  for  nearly  one  fourth  of  the  popu 
lation.  Water  is  scarce,  but  skilful  irrigation 
favors  the  rice  crops,  and  many  fruits  are 
raised  in  gardens  formed  of  artificial  mould. 
The  sheep  reared  on  the  dry  plains  of  the  dis 
trict  are  the  finest  of  Ceylon,  and  cattle  abound. 
The  staple  product  is  tobacco.  The  first  crop 
of  it  needs  high  preparation,  but  three  subse 
quent  crops  are  obtained  without  additional 
manuring.  It  is  chiefly  sent  to  Travancore  for 
account  of  the  rajah  of  that  place.  II.  A  town, 
capital  of  the  district,  on  the  "W.  shore  of  the 
peninsula,  in  lat.  9°  47'  N".  and  Ion.  80°  9'  E., 
about  200  m.  N.  of  Colombo ;  pop.  about  8,000. 
It  is  protected  by  a  fort,  the  best  in  Ceylon, 


506 


JAGELLON 


JAGUAR 


consisting  of  a  pentagon  built  of  blocks  of 
white  coral  and  surrounded  by  a  moat.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  shaded  by  surca  trees  ;  the 
houses  are  of  only  one  story,  but  are  spacious 
and  have  fine  verandas,  and  most  of  them 
stand  detached  in  enclosed  gardens.  There 
are  many  fine  buildings,  including  a  church  in 
the  shape  of  a  Greek  cross  and  a  mansion  for 
the  English  commanding  officer.  The  whole 
place  resembles  a  Dutch  town  in  its  apparent 
cleanliness,  and  is  singularly  rich  in  flowers. 
Tamils  and  Moors  reside  in  the  native  part 
of  the  town,  and  are  intelligent  and  laborious 
tradesmen.  Cotton  cloth,  jewelry,  and  cocoa- 
nut  oil  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  much 
trade  carried  on  in  the  bazaars. 

JAGELLON,  a  Polish  royal  family,  founded 
by  Jagello  or  Jagiello,  a  pagan  grand  duke  of 
Lithuania,  who  embraced  Christianity  and  be 
came  king  of  Poland  under  the  name  of  Ladis- 
las  II.,  consequent  upon  his  marriage  in  1386 
with  the  Polish  queen  Hedvig,  a  daughter  of 
Louis  the  Great,  king  of  Hungary  and  Poland. 
lie  reigned  till  his  death  in  1434,  and  his  dy 
nasty,  one  of  the  best  Poland  ever  had,  expired 
with  Sigismund  Augustus  in  1572  ;  but  the  fe 
male  line  was  perpetuated,  through  the  mar 
riage  of  the  sister  of  Sigismund  Augustus  with 
Sigismund  III.,  until  the  abdication  of  John  II. 
Casimir,  son  of  the  latter  (1668).  Jagello's  son 
Ladislas  III.  became  king  of  Hungary  under 
the  name  of  Uladislas  I.,  and  a  few  other  mem 
bers  of  the  family  subsequently  ruled  over  that 
country  and  over  Bohemia,  while  intermarriage 
with  the  houses  of  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  and 
Brunswick  established  an  extensive  relation 
ship  between  the  Jagellons  and  many  other  dy 
nasties.  (See  HUNGARY,  LADISLAS  II.,  LITHU 
ANIA,  and  POLAND.) 

JAGE3IANN,  Karoline,  a  German  actress,  born 
in  Weimar  in  1778,  died  in  Dresden  in  1847. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  Christian  Joseph  Jage- 
mann  (1735-1804),  a  translator  of  Italian 
works  into  German,  and  brother  of  the  painter 
Ferdinand  Jagemann  (1780-1820).  Her  father 
having  become  librarian  to  the  duchess  Amalie 
of  Weimar,  the  latter  had  her  carefully  edu 
cated.  Her  great  beauty  and  histrionic  and 
vocal  talents  secured  her  success  in  opera  as 
well  as  in  the  drama,  and  made  her  a  favorite 
of  Goethe,  and  particularly  of  the  grand  duke 
Charles  Augustus,  who  presented  her  with  the 
domain  of  Ileigendorf  and  raised  her  to  the 
nobUity  under  that  name. 

JAGER,  Gustav,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Leipsic,  July  12,  1808,  died  there,  April  29, 
1871.  He  studied  in  Dresden,  Munich,  and 
Rome,  assisted  his  former  master  Sdmorr  in 
fresco  paintings  in  Munich,  and  executed  many 
works  of  the  kind  in  that  city  and  in  Weimar. 
In  1847  he  became  director  of  the  Leipsic  acad 
emy  of  fine  arts.  His  productions  include  "  The 
Death  of  Moses,"  "  The  Interment  of  Christ," 
and  an  altarpiece  for  the  new  church  in  Len- 
genfeld. 

JAGIELLO.     See  JAGELLON. 


JAGUAR  (felis  onca,  Linn.),  the  largest  of  the 
American  carnivora;  from  its  size,  strength, 
and  ferocity  it  is  often  called  the  South  Ameri 
can  tiger.  It  inhabits  the  warmer  parts  of 
America,  from  Paraguay  as  far  north  as  Red 
river  in  Louisiana ;  it  is  considerably  larger  than 
the  couguar,  and  but  little  inferior  to  the  tiger. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  size  and 
markings,  the  height  at  the  shoulder  ranging 
from  2|  to  2£  ft.,  and  the  ground  color  from 
brownish  to  ashy  yellow ;  the  sides  are  marked 
with  open  circles  of  black,  enclosing  a  light 
area  with  one  or  more  dark  spots  ;  these  mark 
ings,  however,  vary  much  in  different  animals, 
and  even  on  the  two  sides  of  the  same  animal ; 
there  are  no  distinct  stripes,  and  the  lower  parts 


Jaguar  (Felis  onca). 

are  white ;  the  tail  reaches  the  ground,  being 
shorter  than  in  the  leopard  and  panther.  The 
jaguar  lives  solitary  in  thick  forests,  especially 
in  the  neighborhood  of  large  rivers,  but  is  oc 
casionally  driven  by  hunger  into  the  cultivated 
districts  ;  it  is  an  excellent  climber  and  swim 
mer,  preying  upon  living  animals  and  fish  ;  its 
strength  is  such  that  it  kills  and  drags  off  an 
ox  or  a  horse  with  ease ;  its  favorite  mode  of 
attack  is  to  leap  upon  the  victim's  back,  and  by 
placing  one  paw  on  the  head  and  the  other  on 
the  muzzle  to  break  the  neck  by  a  single  effort; 
it  is  said  to  stand  in  shallow  water  and  throw 
out  fish  on  the  shore  with  its  paws ;  according 
to  Humboldt,  it  is  very  fond  of  turtles,  digging 
up  the  eggs,  devouring  the  young,  and  clearing 
out  the  flesh  of  the  larger  ones  with  great 
skill ;  it  rarely  attacks  man  unless  pursued  ex 
pressed  by  hunger,  and  then  is  very  formidable. 
Jaguars  are  now  comparatively  rare,  but  Hum 
boldt  states  in  his  "  Personal  Narrative  "  that 
2,000  skins  were  exported  annually  from  Buenos 
Ayres  alone,  in  which  vicinity  their  depreda 
tions  were  formerly  very  extensive  ;  their  skins 
are  handsome,  and  are  esteemed  for  robes.  It 
is  occasionally  seen  in  menageries,  and,  when 
taken  young,  is  susceptible  of  partial  subjec- 


JAIIDE 


JAINS 


507 


tion.  It  is  sometimes  called  ounce  (Port.  onca\ 
a  name  properly  pertaining  to  an  Asiatic  spe 
cies.  (See  OUXCE.) 

JAIIDE.     See  JADE. 

JAHN,  Frlcdrifh  Lndwig,  a  German  patriot, 
born  at  Lanz,  Prussia,  Aug.  11,  1TT8,  died  in 
Freiburg-,  Baden,  Oct.  15,  1852.  In  1809  he 
went  to  Berlin,  became  a  teacher  at  the  Kol- 
nisches  gymnasium,  and  published  Deutsches 
Volksthum,  in  the  style  of  his  friend  Fichte's 
appeal  An  die  deutsche  Nation.  From  patri 
otic  motives  he  established  gymnasia  where 
young  men  were  fitted  to  endure  the  fatigues 
of  war.  From  these  gymnasia,  which  spread 
over  Germany,  is  derived  the  TurnJcunst  or 
system  of  physical  culture.  In  1813  Jahn  re 
ceived  the  command  of  a  battalion  of  volun 
teers,  with  which  he  entered  Paris.  After  the 
peace  he  returned  to  Berlin,  where  he  deliv 
ered  a  series  of  lectures  distinguished  for  bold 
originality,  and  continued  to  labor  for  his 
gymnasia,  which  for  a  time  were  encouraged 
by  government.  But  when  it  was  found  that 
he  aimed  at  establishing  a  united  Germany, 
and  that  his  Turner  schools  were  political 
and  liberal  clubs,  they  were  all  closed  in  1819, 
and  he  was  imprisoned  successively  in  Span- 
dau,  Kiistrin,  and  Colberg.  Liberated  after 
five  years'  confinement,  he  went  to  Freiburg, 
where  he  was  a  professor  for  many  years. 
While  there  he  received  an  invitation  to  be 
come  professor  of  German  literature  at  Cam 
bridge,  Mass.,  which  he  declined,  saying  that 
"  deer  and  hares  love  to  live  where  they  are 
most  hunted."  In  1848  he  was  a  member  of 
the  national  assembly  at  Frankfort.  A  monu 
ment  to  him,  on  the  Haasenheide,  near  Berlin, 
was  formally  unveiled  Aug.  2,  1872. 

JAILX,  Johann,  a  German  orientalist,  born  at 
Taswitz,  Moravia,  June  18,  1750,  died  in  Vi 
enna,  Aug.  16,  1816.  From  his  youth  he  was 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  eastern  languages. 
Having  removed  to  Vienna,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  dogmatic  theology  and  of  oriental 
literature  in  the  imperial  university;  but  in 
1806  he  was  compelled  to  resign  on  account  of 
his  heterodox  opinions,  and  was  appointed  can 
on  of  the  metropolitan  church  of  St.  Stephen. 
He  was  the  author  of  various  philological  and 
theological  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  his  Chaldean,  Arabic,  Syrian,  and 
Hebrew  grammars ;  his  Introductio  in  Lilros 
Macros  Veteris  Testamenti  (1804;  3d  ed.,  1825; 
translated  into  English  by  Drs.  Turner  and 
"Whittingham,  New  York,  1827) ;  and  his  Bi- 
blische  Archaologie  (2  vols.,  1797-1800;  trans 
lated  by  Prof.  Upham,  Andover,  1839). 

JAII\,  Otto,  a  German  philologist,  born  in 
Kiel,  June  16,  1813,  died  in  GOttingen,  Sept. 
9,  1869.  lie  studied  in  Kiel,  Leipsic,  Berlin, 
Paris,  and  Rome,  and  was  successively  profes 
sor  at  Kiel,  Greifswald,  and  Leipsic  till  1851, 
when  he  was  suspended  on  account  of  his 
liberalism  in  1848-'9.  In  1855  he  was  trans 
ferred  to  Bonn.  He  was  eminent  as  an  ex 
pounder  of  classical  archaeology  and  philology. 


Among  his  numerous  works  are  valuable  edi 
tions  of  Latin  classics,  instructive  works  re 
lating  to  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  art,  and 
a  celebrated  biography  of  Mozart  (4  vols.,  Leip 
sic,  1856-'9;  2d  revised  ed.,  1867).  He  wrote 
an  essay  on  Goethe's  IpTiigenia,  edited  Goethe's 
letters  to  his  Leipsic  friends,  and  published 
Ludicig  Uhland  (1863),  Gesammelte  Avfscitze 
iiber  MuBik  (1866),  BiograpJiische  Aufscitze 
(1867),  and  Aus  der  Alterthumswissenschoft 
(Bonn,  1868). 

JAHR,  Georges  Henri  Gottlieb,  a  French  physi 
cian,  born  in  Gotha,  Germany,  Jan.  30,  1801. 
After  studying  under  Ilahnemann,  he  took  his 
degree  of  M.  I),  in  Paris  in  1840,  and  became  a 
permanent  resident  of  that  city.  Many  of  his 
numerous  works  have  been  published  both  in 
French  and  German,  and  translated  into  Eng 
lish  by  Ilempel  and  others.  Among  them 
are  treatises  on  the  homoeopathic  treatment 
of  cholera,  of  nervous  and  mental  diseases, 
diseases  of  the  skin,  &c.,  and  a  "Homoeopathic 
Pharmacopoeia." 

JAINS,  or  Jainas,  a  religious  sect  of  India, 
once  dominant  in  the  Deccan,  now  scattered 
over  the  whole  peninsula.  Their  faith  is  a  mix 
ture  of  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism,  and  vari 
ous  accounts  are  given  of  its  origin.  Some 
suppose  that  it  preceded  the  rise  of  Buddhism, 
but  its  history  can  hardly  be  traced  to  the  2d 
century  A.  D.  On  the  Coromandel  coast  it 
was  introduced  in  the  8th  or  9th  century,  in 
the  reign  of  Amoghversha,  king  of  Tonda 
Mundalam.  The  compiler  of  the  Jain  Puranas 
of  the  Deccan  is  said  to  have  written  at  the 
end  of  the  9th  century.  Hema  Chandra,  one  of 
the  greatest  scribes  of  the  Jains,  flourished  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century,  to  which 
time  also  the  composition  of  the  Kalpa  Sutra 
must  be  assigned.  About  1174  the  Jain  faith 
became  that  of  the  ruling  dynasty  of  western 
Marwar  and  the  territory  subject  to  the  princes 
of  Guzerat.  Numerous  temples,  caves,  and  in 
scriptions  of  ancient  date  are  ascribed  to  the 
Jains,  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  determine 
their  age  and  nature.  True  Jaina  caves  occur 
at  Khandagiri  in  Cuttack,  and  especially  in 
the  southern  parts  of  India.  A  number  of 
colossal  figures,  30  to  40  ft.  high,  cut  in  the 
rocks  of  Gwalior  Fort,  are  by  some  supposed 
to  date  from  about  the  10th  or  12th  century 
B.  C.,  which  is  of  course  a  matter  of  great 
doubt.  Five  Jain  images  in  marble  have  been 
dug  up  at  Ajmecr,  with  a  Prakrit  inscription 
and  a  date  corresponding  to  A.  D.  1182  on  one 
of  them.  The  principal  seats  of  the  Jains  at 
present  are  the  mountains  Aboo  and  Girnar 
in  Guzerat.  At  the  latter  place  are  the  most 
ancient  of  their  temples,  some  of  them  mag 
nificent  in  structure;  and  at  Mount  Aboo  is 
their  most  sacred  shrine  in  Guzerat.  The  li 
braries  of  Jessulmeer,  Annul \varra,  Cambay, 
and  other  places  contain  thousands  of  volumes 
of  Jain  literature.  The  Oswal  tribe,  so  called 
from  Ossi,  their  first  settlement,  professing  the 
Jain  tenets,  are  one  of  the  most  influential 


508 


JAIXS 


JALABERT 


mercantile  classes  of  India.  The  sect  is  said  to 
be  very  numerous,  and  most  of  the  officers  of 
state  and  revenue  are  from  the  Jain  laity. — The 
points  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  Jains  differ 
from  Brahmanism  are,  according  to  Wurm :  1, 
the  rejection  of  the  Vedas  as  an  infallible  guide 
of  faith,  and  the  substitution  of  their  own 
religious  literature,  consisting  of  four  Yogas, 
several  Siddhantas,  a  number  of  Agamas,  a 
few  Angas  and  Upangas,  and  24  Puranas,  le 
gends  of  the  saints;  2,  the  adoration  of  24 
mortal  saints,  Tirthankaras,  whose  ascetic  life 
raised  them  above  the  gods ;  and  3,  the  ahinse, 
or  prohibition  against  killing  living  beings. 
While  in  these  respects  there  is  an  approach 
to  Buddhism,  there  are  others  which  remove 
the  Jain  religion  from  it.  Atheism  is  not 
its  starting  point,  but  rather  an  attempt  at 
monotheism.  There  is  a  god  called  Arugan  or 
Jinan,  from  whom  it  is  supposed  that  the  Jains 
derive  their  name,  and  to  whom  1,008  various 
appellations  are  given.  His  worship  is  believed 
to  be  that  of  the  earth,  the  air,  and  the  heavens. 
(See  INDIA,  RELIGIONS  AXD  RELIGIOUS  LITEEA- 
TUEE  OF.)  He  is  omniscient,  and  in  his  grace 
he  communicates  his  thoughts  to  all  creatures 
without  the  aid  of  their  mind,  word,  or  body. 
Nevertheless  he  is  no  creator,  though  himself 
uncreated  and  immortal.  He  says  there  is  no 
god  besides  him  ;  blessed  are  those  who  adore 
him ;  and  all  are  rewarded  according  to  their 
deeds.  There  is  a  hell,  and  there  is  a  place 
where  the  gods  dwell.  Whoever  is  good  and 
bad  in  an  equal  measure  will  be  reborn  as  a 
human  being ;  he  who  is  rather  bad  than  good 
will  be  an  unreasoning  animal ;  and  he  who  is 
either  predominantly  bad  or  good  will  go  ac 
cordingly  either  to  the  infernal  or  divine  abode. 
Arugan  has  24  attributes,  which  are  ascribed 
to  the  24  Tirthankaras  as  incarnations  of  divine 
apprehensions,  and  who  are  worshipped  in  im 
ages  and  at  temples  and  feasts.  There  is  no 
destruction  and  no  renewing  of  the  world  ;  it 
is  eternal  and  uncreated.  Time  is  divided  into 
yugas,  each  of  which  has  an  ascending  or  utsar- 
pini  and  a  descending  or  avasarpini  period. 
There  are  also  manvantaras,  and  the  present 
Manu,  Xabi  Makraja,  is  sometimes  called  Brah 
ma.  It  was  in  his  reign  that  the  24  Tirthanka 
ras  were  born,  and  Vrishabha  was  the  first. 
They  attained  unto  knowledge  and  blessedness 
without  the  aid  of  a  guru,  and  they  are  the 
true  swdmis  or  equals  of  Arugan.  Jain  priests 
are  either  sadhus,  pious,  or  yatis,  self -restrain 
ed,  and  digambaras,  naked,  or  svetambaras,  clad 
in  white.  The  Jains  are  opposed  to  the  ancient 
system  of  castes,  and  allow  it  only  as  a  distinc 
tion  of  occupations.  It  is  said  that  there  are 
about  50  families  of  Jain-Brahmans  in  Mysore, 
but  on  the  whole  it  seems  that  the  sect  has 
found  the  largest  number  of  votaries  among 
the  ancient  Vaisyas.  Jain  priests  never  marry, 
but  lead  a  sadJiu  or  pure  ascetic  life.  Widows 
never  remarry.  The  men  are  generally  well 
educated,  but  the  women  are  kept  in  igno 
rance.  Young  widows,  however,  commonly  de 


vote  themselves  to  the  priests,  with  whom  they 
live,  and  from  whom  they  learn  to  read  the  sa 
cred  books  of  their  religion,  whereby  they  be 
come  in  fact  like  priestesses.  The  priests  and 
strict  Jains  are  scrupulously  careful  to  avoid 
destruction  of  animal  life.  They  move  about 
with  a  cloth  over  their  mouths  to  prevent  in 
sects  from  entering ;  they  use  constantly  a 
small  brush  or  broom  to  sweep  aside  all  living 
creatures ;  and  they  never  partake  of  stale 
food,  lest  in  the  interval  since  its  cooking  ani 
malcules  may  have  formed  in  it. — See  Elliot, 
"  On  the  Characteristics  of  the  Population  of 
India"  (London,  1869),  and  Wurm,  Die  Ge- 
scnichte  der  IndiscJien  Religion  (Basel,  1874). 

JAKOB,  Ludwig  Ilcinrich  von,  a  German  au 
thor,  born  at  Wettin,  near  Halle,  Feb.  26,  1759, 
died  at  Lauchstadt,  July  22,  1827.  In  1780  he 
was  appointed  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Halle,  and  in  1791  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  university.  He  was  very  popular  as  a 
lecturer  on  metaphysics,  but  after  1800  turned 
his  attention  especially  to  political  economy. 
When  the  university  of  Halle  was  broken  up 
by  Napoleon,  he  went  to  Kharkov  in  Russia 
as  professor  of  political  sciences.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  as  member  of  a  committee 
appointed  to  suggest  reforms  in  the  finances 
of  the  empire,  and  received  various  tokens  of 
regard  from  Alexander  I.  He  was  soon  after 
appointed  chief  reviser  of  the  criminal  laws, 
and  received  a  place  in  the  department  of 
finance.  In  1816  he  returned  to  Halle  as  pro 
fessor  of  political  science.  A  fourth  edition 
of  his  Grundriss  der  allgemeinen  Logik  ap 
peared  in  1800 ;  of  his  Grundriss  der  Erfahr- 
ungsscclenlelire  in  1810 ;  and  a  third  edition 
of  his  Lehrbuch  der  Nationaldlconomie'm  1825. 
Prof.  Jakob  was  the  father  of  "Talvj,"  the 
wife  of  the  late  Prof.  Edward  Robinson. 

JAL,  Anguste,  a  French  author,  born  in  Ly 
ons,  April  12,  1795.  He  became  known  as  the 
author  of  numerous  works  on  art,  and  especial 
ly  on  maritime  archaeology,  including  Scenes  de 
la  vie  maritime  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1832) ;  Arche- 
ologie  navale  (2  vols.,  1839) ;  Glossaire  nau- 
tique,  which  obtained  the  second  Gobert  prize 
(1848) ;  and  La  flotte  de  Cesar  (1861).  He 
published  in  1864  Dictionnaire  critique  de  liio- 
grapMe  et  d'Mstoire,  with  the  view  of  revising 
errors  and  of  filling  up  gaps  in  cyclopedias. 

JALABERT,  Charles  Frau^ois,  a  French  paint 
er,  born  in  Nimes  in  1819.  He  studied  under 
Paul  Delaroche  and  in  Italy,  executing  there 
his  famous  picture  of  "Virgil  reading  his 
Georgics  to  Mrecenas  in  presence  of  Horace 
and  Yarns,"  which  he  exhibited  in  1847,  and 
which  is  in  the  Luxembourg.  His  "  St.  Luke  " 

(1852)  is  at  Sevres,  and  his  "Annunciation" 

(1853)  is  in  the  ministry  of  state.     He  excels 
both  as  a  religious  and  as  a  genre  and  land 
scape  painter.     His  works  include  "The  Fare 
well  of  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  "Raphael  at  work 
on  the  Madonna  di  San  Sisto,"  "  Christ  walk 
ing  on  the  Sea,"  "Villanella"  (a  Roman  land 
scape),  and  many  female  portraits. 


JALAP 


509 


JALAP,  a  well  known  purgative  drug,  first 
introduced  into  England  from  Mexico  in  1609. 
The  plant  grows  wild  near  the  city  of  Jalapa, 
and  was  known  to  the  Mexicans  as  purga  de 
Jalapa ;  that  city  being  the  point  of  export, 
the  drug  retains  its  name,  being  known  in  the 
pharmacopoeias  as  Jalapa,  and  in  commerce  and 
popularly  as  jalap.  The  drug  was  in  use  for 
over  two  centuries  before  the  plant  which  fur 
nishes  it  was  known ;  at  one  time  it  was  sup 
posed  to  be  the  root  of  a  species  of  mirdbilia, 
now  common  in  our  gardens  as  the  four-o'clock, 
and  this  was  called  M.  Jatapa,  a  name  which 
it  yet  retains.  The  true  jalap  plant  was  first 
described  by  Nuttall  in  the  "American  Jour 
nal  of  Medical  Sciences  "  for  February,  1830  ; 
he  determined  it  to  belong  to  the  convolvulus 
family,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  ipomma  Jalapa. 
As  botanists  have  taken  different  views  of  the 
genera  of  convolvulacece,  this  plant  has  been 
alternately  called  ipomcca  and  convolvulus,  but 


Jalap  (Exogonium  purga). 

has  apparently  found  a  resting  place  in  exogo- 
nium,  a  genus  closely  related  to  both  of  these, 
and  is  the  E.  purga  of  Bentham.  The  habit 
of  the  plant,  with  long  twining  stems,  is  much 
like  that  of  some  of  our  garden  species  of  ipo- 
mcea  or  morning  glory ;  but,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  engraving,  it  differs  in  its  salver- 
shaped  corolla  and  protruding  stamens ;  the 
flowers  are  purplish  and  ornamental ;  the  root 
is  perennial,  and,  according  to  the  age  of  the 
plrnt,  differs  in  size  from  that  of  a  nut  to  that 
of  an  orange ;  it  is  somewhat  pear-shaped  or 
oval,  externally  brownish  and  white  within. 
The  plant  is  found  in  the  elevated  portions  of 
Mexico,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Jalapa,  at 
an  altitude  of  about  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea ; 
it  is  quite  hardy  in  England  and  on  the  conti 
nent  of  Europe,  and  might  without  doubt  be 
cultivated  in  the  southern  portions  of  the  Uni 
ted  States ;  but  as  medicinal  plants  are  affect 
ed  in  a  marked  degree  by  locality,  experiment 
only  could  decide  if  the  drug  would  be  equally 


valuable  with  that  grown  in  its  native  habitat. 
The  dried  root  is  the  drug  of  commerce,  and  it 
undergoes  no  other  preparation  than  digging 
and  drying ;  the  smaller  roots  are  dried  entire  ; 
the  largest  are  divided  longitudinally  or  trans 
versely,  sometimes  cut  in  slices,  while  those  of 
intermediate  size  are  gashed  with  vertical  or 
crosswire  incisions,  evidently  for  the  purpose 
of  accelerating  the  drying.  The  dried  roots 
are  hard  and  heavy,  and,  if  of  good  quality, 
show  when  broken  an  undulated  resinous  frac 
ture,  with  concentric  circles  of  yellowish  gray 
and  dark  brown  portions.  A  whitish,  mealy 
fracture  may  indicate  that  the  root  was  collect 
ed  at  an  improper  season,  or  that  a  spurious 
root  has  been  substituted.  Jalap  has  a  heavy, 
rather  sweetish  odor,  and^an  acrid  disagreeable 
taste ;  it  forms  a  yellowish  gray  powder,  which 
is  irritating  when  inhaled  and  produces  sneez 
ing  and  coughing.  The  roots  are  often  worm- 
eaten,  but  as  their  activity  depends  upon  a  res 
in  which  the  worms  leave  untouched,  their 
value  for  making  extract  is  not  impaired, 
though  if  such  roots  w^ere  used  for  powdering 
the  activity  of  the  drug  might  be  unduly  in 
creased. — Jalap  when  treated  with  alcohol 
yields  about  17  per  cent,  of  resin,  which  is 
found  to  consist  of  two  distinct  resins ;  one  of 
these,  to  which  the  name  of  jalapine  has  been 
given,  is  hard  and  insoluble  in  ether ;  the  oth 
er,  jalapic  acid,  is  soluble  in  ether,  is  soft,  and 
has  the  peculiar  odor  of  jalap.  Besides  these 
resins,  the  drug  contains  sugar,  a  brown  ex 
tractive  soluble  in  water,  gum,  starch,  and 
other  inert  matters.  In  the  powdering  of  this, 
as  of  other  drugs,  there  is  an  abundant  oppor 
tunity  for  adulteration,  and  those  who  purchase 
the  ordinary  powdered  jalap  of  commerce  get 
a  large  proportion  of  sawdust,  old  ship  bread, 
and  the  like  ;  and  what  is  known  as  "  over 
grown  jalap"  or  "male  jalap,"  the  root  of 
ipomcea  Orizabcnsis,  a  very  feebly  active  purge, 
is  often  sold  for  grinding.  Hassall  found  that 
nearly  half  the  samples  sold  in  London  were 
thus  adulterated.  The  extract  of  jalap  is  pre 
pared  by  first  exhausting  the  root  with  alco 
hol,  and  then  with  water ;  after  distilling  off 
the  alcohol  from  the  tincture,  and  evaporating 
the  watery  infusion,  the  two  are  mixed  and 
evaporated  to  form  an  extract ;  this  has  all  the 
medicinal  properties  of  the  root,  and  is  em 
ployed  in  half  the  dose.  The  resin  of  jalap  is 
obtained  by  exhausting  the  root  with  alcohol 
by  percolation,  distilling  off  the  greater  part 
of  the  alcohol,  and  dropping  the  concentrated 
tincture  thus  obtained  into  water,  to  precipi 
tate  the  resin,  which  is  afterward  dried  and 
powdered.  This  preparation  is  very  active, 
and  its  dose  is  one  fifth  or  less  of  that  of  the 
powdered  drug.  From  its  action  as  a  hydro- 
gogue  the  drug  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
treatment  of  dropsy,  and  is  commonly  com 
bined,  when  thus  exhibited,  with  bitartrate  of 
potassa.  In  the  form  of  a  powder  and  mixed 
with  calomel,  it  has  been  a  popular  prescrip 
tion  in  the  United  States  in  bilious  fever  and 


510 


JALAPA 


JAMAICA 


congestion  of  the  liver,  the  usual  dose  being 
about  10  grains  of  each,  though  in  the  southern 
states  4ouble  this  quantity  is  often  given. 

JALAPA,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of 
Vera  Cruz,  140  m.  E.  of  the  city  of  Mexico  ; 
pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  slope 
of  the  CeiTO  Macuiltepec,  4,500  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  many  of  the  streets  are  very  steep. 
The  houses  are  substantially  built,  frequently 
of  two  stories.  There  are  several  churches 
and  convents,  one  of  the  latter  dating  from 
the  time  of  Cortes.  The  hospital  of  San  Juan 
de  Dios  is  one  of  the  oldest  Spanish  structures 
in  the  country.  There  is  a  home  for  indigent 
females,  and  a  number  of  public  and  private 
schools.  Among  the  productions  of  the  sur 
rounding  country  is  the  exogonium  Jalapa  or 
jalap  plant.  The  great  staples  are  honey  and 
wax,  the  latter  being  here  elaborated  to  great 
perfection.  The  silkworm  has  been  intro- 


Jalapa. 

duced  with  much  success ;  and  tobacco  little 
inferior  to  the  finest  Cuban  is  extensively 
grown.  There  are  numerous  potteries,  and 
several  tanneries  and  cigar  factories.  Jalapa, 
with  a  mild  and  salubrious  climate,  far  above 
the  yellow  fever  region,  is  the  favorite  resort 
of  the  wealthy  inhabitants  of  the  coast. 

JALEY,  Jean  Louis  Nicolas,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris,  Jan.  27,  1802,  died  there  in 
18GG.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Pierre  Cartillier,  and 
obtained  in  1827  the  highest  academical  prize 
for  his  bust  of  Mucius  Scsevola,  enabling  him 
to  study  six  years  in  Italy.  After  his  return 
to  Paris  he  executed  many  works  for  the  Ver 
sailles  museum  and  the  Luxembourg.  Among 
his  best  statues  are  those  representing  uPu- 
dor "  and  "Prayer."  lie  succeeded  David 
d' Angers  in  185G  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts, 
and  shortly  before  his  death  he  was  employed 
upon  statuary  for  the  new  palace  of  justice. 

JALISCO,  a  maritime  state  of  Mexico,  border 
ing  on  Sinaloa,  Durango,  Zacatecas,  Guanajua 


to,  Michoacan,  Colima,  and  the  Pacific ;  area, 
48,967  sq.  m. ;  pop,  in  18G9,  924,580.  This 
state,  which  in  colonial  times  was  known  as 
the  kingdom  of  Nueva  Galicia,  is  divided  into 
the  nine  cantons  of  Guadalajara,  Lagos,  La 
Barca,  Sayula,  Etzatlan,  Autlan,  Tuscacuesco, 
Colotlan,  and  Tepic.  Capital,  Guadalajara. 
The  face  of  the  country  is  irregular,  being 
traversed  from  S.  to  N.  by  the  chain  of  the 
Sierra  Madre,  the  principal  mountains  being 
those  of  Tapalpa  and  Tigre  in  Sayula,  and  in 
the  south  the  Nevado  and  the  Volcan  de  Colima, 
which  last  has  an  elevation  of  about  12,000  ft. 
above  the  sea.  Deep  and  vast  ravines  abound 
in  the  mountainous  portions.  On  either  side 
of  the  Sierra  Madre  are  beautiful  valleys 
watered  by  numerous  rivers,  the  largest  of 
which,  the  Lerma  or  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago, 
flows  N".  W.  from  Lake  Chapala  to  the  sea; 
but  it  rises  in  Lake  Lerma  in  the  state  of  Mex 
ico,  and  has  a  length  of 
600  m.  There  are  nu 
merous  cascades  in  its 
course,  many  of  which 
are  very  picturesque. 
Other  rivers  are  the 
Verde,  Lagos,  Ameca, 
Ayuguila,  San  Pedro, 
Tepic,  Acaponeta,  Je 
rez,  and  Cafias.  Of  the 
lakes,  that  of  Chapala, 
90  m.  long  and  10  to  35 
m.  wide,  is  the  largest ; 
Sayula  and  Magdalena, 
though  smaller,  arc  no 
table  for  the  quantity 
of  delicious  fish  which 
they  contain ;  Mescalti- 
tan,  little  inferior  in  size 
to  Chapala,  is  rather  an 
arm  of  the  sea  than  a 
lake.  The  climate  is  in 
general  cold  in  Lagos, 
La  Barca,  and  Colotlan, 
mild  in  Guadalajara  and  Etzatlan,  and  extreme 
ly  hot  and  unhealthy  in  the  coast  region.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  the  arboreal  vegetation  luxuriant, 
and  the  varieties  of  useful  and  precious  timbers 
very  great.  Wheat  and  barley  are  abundantly 
produced,  as  are  also  maize,  the  beans  called 
f  rijoles,  capsicum,  and  garbanzos  ;  and  cotton, 
the  sugar  cane,  cacao,  and  tobacco  thrive  well. 
The  fruits  include  those  of  the  torrid  and  tem 
perate  zones.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  mercury,  and 
copper  are  found.  Many  of  the  gold  and  silver 
mines  are  now  abandoned.  Education  is  in  a 
prosperous  condition  ;  there  is  a  university  in 
the  capital,  and  schools  in  all  the  other  towns. 
JAMAICA  (Indian  Xaimaca,  island  of  springs), 
one  of  the  Greater  Antilles,  and  the  largest  and 
richest  of  the  British  West  India  islands,  in 
the  Caribbean  sea,  89  m.  S.  of  Cuba,  118  W. 
S.  W.  of  Ilayti,  and  570  N.  by  E.  of  the  isth 
mus  of  Panama,  between  lat.  17°  45'  and  18° 
30'  K,  and  Ion.  76°  12'  and  78°  30'  W.  Its 
maximum  length,  from  Morant  Point  E.  to 


JAMAICA 


511 


South  Negril  "W.,  is  145  m. ;  and  its  maximum 
breadth,  from  Riobueno  N.  to  Portland  Point 
S.,  53  m.  It  has  an  area  of  4,250  sq.  m.,  or 
with  the  Caicos  and  Turks  islands  (annexed 
to  Jamaica  by  act  of  parliament  in  1873), 
4,47-)  sq.  in.  The  population  in  1871  was 
500,154,  of  whom  18,101  were  white,  101,346 
colored,  and  391,707  black,  the  last  being 
mostly  liberated  slaves  and  their  descendants. 
Some  thousands  of  coolies  have  been  imported 
from  Calcutta.  The  coast  is  deeply  indented 
in  many  parts,  especially  at  the  eastern  end, 
forming  from  50  to  60  bays  and  creeks,  which 
afford  more  or  less  shelter  to  shipping,  and 
about  30  harbors.  The  principal  ports  are 
Kingston  (the  largest),  at  the  head  of  a  fine  and 
narrow  bay,  defended  by  two  forts,  but  the 
entrance  to  which  is  considerably  narrowed 
by  sand  banks ;  Morant,  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name,  also  a  good  port,  but  having  a  still  nar 
rower  channel  than  Kingston,  and  being  ex 
posed  to  the  S.  and  TV.  winds,  here  sometimes 
very  violent ;  Port  Royal,  on  the  extremity  of 
a  tongue  of  land  bordering  Kingston  bay,  with 
a  naval  arsenal  and  hospital,  and  being  the 
station  for  British  ships  of  war ;  Black  River 
and  Savana-lif-Mar,  on  Bluefields  bay,  all  of 
which  are  on  the  S.  coast ;  and  Montego  bay, 
Falmouth,  St.  Ann,  Port  Maria,  and  Annotto 
bay,  and  Port  Antonio,  on  the  N.  coast.  All 
the  ports  here  mentioned  are  free.  S.  E.'  of 
Jamaica  are  the  Morant  keys,  and  due  S.,  at 
a  distance  of  some  40  m.,  are  other  keys,  and 
Pedro  bank,  little  inferior  in  length  and  area, 
and  parallel  to  the  island. — Although  the  sur 
face  is  extremely  irregular,  only  the  E.  por 
tion  of  the  island  can  be  called  mountainous. 
Three  small  ridges  of  mountains  from  a  com 
mon  knot  in  the  west  trend  divergently  east 
ward  to  about  the  middle  of  the  island,  beyond 
which  point  the  middle  ridge  alone  extends  to 
the  extreme  east,  rising  to  an  average  eleva 
tion  of  6,000  ft.,  and  ramifying  to  such  an  ex 
tent  as  to  cover  almost  the  whole  of  this  end, 
being  collectively  designated  as  the  Blue  moun 
tains  ;  the  culminating  point  attains  a  height 
of  nearly  8,000  ft.  The  middle  range  is  re 
markable  for  the  edge-like  form  of  its  crest, 
rarely  exceeding  three  to  four  yards  in  width, 
and  the  sections  of  country  it  separates  present 
very  different  aspects.  That  to  the  north,  with  i 
a  surface  gradually  rising  from  the  coast,  is  i 
intersected  by  low  hills  clothed  with  pimento 
groves,  and  beautiful  valleys  watered  by  num 
berless  streams  ;  while  to  the  south  the  moun 
tains  in  many  places  reach  down  to  the  very 
coast  in  frowning  and  inaccessible  cliffs,  by 
which  shipping  is  more  thoroughly  sheltered 
here  than  in  the  ports  on  the  N.  coast.  The 
valleys,  though  numerous,  are  of  inconsiderable 
extent,  and  occupy  little  more  than  one  tenth 
of  the  area  of  the  island.  The  largest  is  the 
plain  of  Liguanea,  30  m.  long  by  5  m.  wide, 
extending  on  the  S.  side  from  a  few  miles  E. 
of  Kingston  to  some  distance  "W.  of  Old  Har 
bor.  Other  plains  are  those  of  Vere  and  Mile  ! 
YOL.  ix. — 33 


Gully  on  the  same  side,  mostly  devoted  to  pas 
ture  grounds.  To  the  north  and  east  are  the 
fertile  plains  of  Thomas  in  the  Vale  and  the 
Vale  of  Bath,  both  covered  with  sugar  planta 
tions.  In  the  west  are  the  plains  of  Savana- 
la-Mar,  Pedro,  and  others,  chiefly  swampy; 
but  those  of  the  northwest  are  dry  and  fertile, 
and  bordered  by  low  hills  clothed  with  a  luxu 
riant  forest  vegetation.  Large  caverns  occur 
in  various  localities.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Black  and  the  Minho,  both  on  the  S.  side ;  the 
former  is  navigable  by  small  flat-bottomed 
craft  and  canoes  some  30  m.  from  its  mouth. 
Numerous  other  streams  descend  from  the 
mountains  to  the  sea  on  all  sides,  many  of 
which  form  fine  cascades ;  and  not  a  few  are 
utilized  for  irrigation  and  to  furnish  motive 
power  for  a  large  number  of  mills. — Limestone, 
containing  numerous  shells,  is  the  predominant 
geological  formation  of  the  island,  although 
quartz,  rock  spar,  and  micaceous  schist  occur 
in  several  directions.  There  are  records  of  the 
Spaniards  having  in  early  times  worked  silver 
and  copper  mines;  but  mining  is  at  present 
entirely  neglected,  although  lead  is  known  to 
exist  in  large  quantities,  with  perhaps  some 
iron  and  antimony  ores. — The  climate  in  the 
low  regions  is  essentially  tropical,  the  average 
temperature  being  72°  F.,  and  the  maximum 
100°  ;  but  the  sea  breeze  (called  "the  doctor  ") 
during  the  day,  and  the  land  breeze  at  night, 
temper  to  a  considerable  degree  the  excessive 
heat.  In  the  elevated  districts  the  thermome 
ter  ranges  from  45°  to  70°,  and  the  atmosphere 
is  mild  and  agreeable.  In  few  parts  of  the 
world  does  so  slight  an  elevation  produce  so 
great  a  modifying  effect  upon  the  heat  as  in 
Jamaica ;  at  about  2,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  the 
fevers,  dysenteries,  and  other  maladies  which 
usually  prevail  along  the  coast  are  unknown. 
The  rainy  seasons,  comprising  the  months  of 
April,  May,  September,  October,  and  Novem 
ber,  are  usually  preceded  by  the  cessation  of  the 
day  and  night  breezes,  when  the  atmosphere 
becomes  oppressive,  and  almost  insupportable 
for  Europeans.  Heavy  rain  falls  every  day 
during  these  seasons,  and  is  often  accompanied 
by  terrific  thunder  and  lightning,  and  violent 
gusts  of  wind  from  the  north.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  about  50  inches,  though  the  aver 
age  is  becoming  gradually  less  as  the  work 
of  felling  the  forests  advances.  Yellow  fever, 
smallpox,  cholera,  and  typhus  fever  are  par 
ticularly  fatal  on  the  coasts,  and  in  the  low 
grounds  generally,  the  first  returning  every 
year.  Hurricanes,  in  the  summer  months,  be 
tween  the  rainy  seasons,  are  of  frequent  occur 
rence,  and  commonly  of  great  violence.  Not 
withstanding  the  absence  of  volcanoes,  although 
there  are  some  signs  of  their  former  existence, 
Jamaica  has  been  visited  several  times  by  tre 
mendous  earthquakes,  one  of  which,  in  1692, 
extended  over  the  whole  island,  rending  the 
surface  and  swallowing  up  large  numbers  of 
people,  and  engulfing  many  of  the  houses  of 
Port  Royal  with  their  inmates  to  a  depth  of  50 


512 


JAMAICA 


ft.  in  the  sea.  The  buildings,  still  standing  as 
they  had  sunk,  were  visible  in  clear  weather 
as  late  as  1835.  The  town  of  Savana-la-Mar 
was  also  completely  destroyed  in  1780  by  a 
hurricane,  which  swept  most  of  the  houses 
with  their  occupants  into  the  sea. — The  soil  is 
not  so  fertile  as  that  of  most  of  the  other  West 
India  islands.  In  the  north  a  chalky  marl  is 
the  prevailing  character ;  while  to  the  west  and 
south  the  so-called  Jamaica  brick  mould  pre 
dominates,  analogous  to  the  warm  yellow 
mould  of  Cuba,  so  favorable  to  the  production 
of  the  sugar  cane.  Wherever  this  soil  exists 
sugar  plantations  abound,  but  both  labor  and 
manure  are  essential  to  their  productiveness. 
Next  in  importance  to  sugar  culture  is  that 
of  pimento,  to  which  extensive  tracts  are  de 
voted  ;  the  coffee  yield  is  on  the  increase  ;  ca 
cao,  arrowroot,  indigo,  ginger,  and  turmeric 
are  likewise  cultivated,  but  the  last  only  in 
small  quantities  by  the  negroes  for  their  own 
use.  Maize  yields  abundant  harvests  twice  and 
even  thrice  a  year  in  all  parts  of  the  island ; 
and  Guinea  corn  is  grown  in  several  districts. 
Yams,  cassava,  batatas  or  sweet  potatoes,  and 
x)ther  articles  designated  as  "ground  fruit,"  are 
plentiful.  In  the  higher  districts  grow  cala- 
vances  (a  species  of  pea  used  by  the  negroes), 
and  several  species  of  European  garden  vege 
tables.  The  fruits  include  nearly  all  the  tropi 
cal  varieties,  especially  the  plantain,  which 
forms  an  important  element  of  food  for  the 
colored  classes.  Of  European  fruits,  the  orange, 
lime,  lemon,  and  vine  were  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards ;  but  only  the  last  thrives  here.  Re 
peated  attempts  to  introduce  cotton  culture 
have  proved  unsuccessful,  owing  in  part  to  the 
uncertainty  of  the  seasons,  but  chiefly  to  the 
scarcity  and  the  enhanced  price  of  labor, 
which  two  circumstances  render  abortive  all 
undertakings  requiring  the  immediate  applica 
tion  of  a  large  number  of  hands.  The  cinchona 
tree,  acclimated  of  late  years,  is  now  cultivated 
with  much  profit ;  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  cinnamon.  Among  the  most  precious  forest 
productions  are  the  breadfruit  tree,  mahogany, 
cedar,  ironwood,  greenheart,  and  other  cabinet 
woods;  the  principal  palms  are  the  cabbage 
palm  and  the  cocoanut  tree ;  the  lignum vitso  or 
guaiacum  abounds ;  the  cotton  tree  attains  im 
mense  proportions,  and  is  used  for  making  ca 
noes  ;  the  bamboo  grows  wild  and  is  cultiva 
ted;  fustic,  Brazil  wood,  logwood,  and  some 
kindred  species  are  likewise  plentiful.  Guinea 
grass  here  grows  with  great  luxuriance,  and 
most  of  the  grazing  farms  are  covered  with  it. 
Numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  droves  of  mules 
are  reared ;  the  latter  and  oxen  are  exclusively 
devoted  to  labor  on  the  farms,  for  the  horses, 
resembling  the  other  hardy  breeds  of  the  West 
Indies,  are  mostly  kept  for  saddle  and  harness 
use.  Sheep  and  swine  are  numerous ;  and  the 
various  barnyard  fowls  and  pigeons  are  very 
common.  Of  the  many  wild  animals  which 
once  peopled  the  Jamaica  forests,  the  agouti 
and  some  species  of  monkey  alone  remain,  with 


one  or  two  varieties  of  rats,  which  are  ex 
tremely  numerous  in  every  part  of  the  island, 
and  destructive  of  the  sugar  cane.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  lizards,  the  largest  of  which, 
the  iguana,  is  commonly  eaten  by  the  lower 
classes.  Alligators  abound  in  every  stream. 
The  land  crab,  here  very  common,  coming 
down  in  myriads  from  the  mountains  to  the 
seacoast  in  the  autumn  months,  is  esteemed  as 
a  delicacy.  The  wild  birds  include  ringdoves, 
parrots,  and  others  of  brilliant  plumage ;  and 
the  rice  bird  visits  the  island  every  year  in  pro 
digious  numbers. — The  chief  industries  are  ag 
riculture  and  the  manufacture  of  rum,  cotton 
fabrics,  candles,  and  other  commodities.  The 
chief  trade  of  the  island  is  with  England.  The 
staples  of  export  are  sugar,  rum,  coffee,  spices, 
and  dyestuffs.  The  total  value  of  the  imports 
in  1871  amounted  to  $6,655,000,  and  that  of  the 
exports  to  $6,245,000.  The  sugar  exported  in 
1870  was  30,747  hogsheads,  valued  at  $2,461,- 
040;  rum,  260  puncheons,  $1,182,790;  coffee, 
7,671,564  Ibs.,  $1,189,950;  pimento,  5,243,- 
109  Ibs.,  $145,420.  Next  in  order  of  impor 
tance  among  the  exports  stand  ginger,  rice, 
cotton  manufactures,  cocoanuts,  cacao,  and 
beeswax.  Honey  to  the  value  df  over  $30,000 
was  exported  in  1870  to  the  United  States  and 
England.  The  number  of  vessels  entered  at  all 
the  ports  *of  the  island  in  1870  was  509  (of 
which  353  were  British),  of  213,283  tons;  the 
number  of  vessels  cleared  in  the  same  year  was 
580  (386  being  British),  of  215,759  tons.— Ja 
maica  is  divided  into  three  counties :  Surrey 
on  the  east,  Cornwall  on  the  west,  and  Mid 
dlesex,  occupying  the  central  and  by  far  the 
largest  portion.  The  capital  is  now  Kingston, 
having  replaced  as  such  the  neighboring  Span 
ish  Town,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail. 
The  government  is  administered  by  a  cap 
tain  general  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  the 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  house  of  as 
sembly  composed  of  47  members.  The  revenue 
of  the  island  in  1871  amounted  to  $2,175,000, 
and  the  expenditures  to  $2,110,000.  The  cost 
of  the  colony  to  the  mother  country  in  1867- 
'8  was  $724,750,  an  expense  which,  however, 
appears  to  diminish  from  year  to  year.  The 
cost  of  the  military  station  in  1872-'3  amount 
ed  to  $339,355,  the  number  of  troops  being 
usually  2,000,  exclusive  of  the  insular  militia, 
which  latter  is  at  present  not  very  numerous. 
The  public  debt  of  the  island  in  1871  was 
$388,000.  Education  has  ever  been  a  subject 
of  interest  in  Jamaica,  and  the  number  of  pub 
lic  schools  is  increased  almost  every  year,  the 
expenditure  for  this  object  falling  little  short 
of  $100,000  annually.  The  number  of  churches 
is  approximately  as  f  olloAvs :  Church  of  England, 
95 ;  Wesleyan  Methodist,  80  ;  United  Methodist 
free  church,  18;  Jamaica  Baptist  union,  60; 
Jamaica  Wesleyan  Methodist  association,  12; 
London  mission  society,  17;  Moravian  mission, 
15  ;  Roman  Catholic,  8  ;  United  Presbyterian, 
30;  American  mission,  5;  Jewish,  1.  The 
number  of  Episcopalians  is  about  40,000  ;  Wes- 


JAMAICA 


JAMES  I. 


513 


leyans,  35,000  ;  Jamaica  Baptists,  30,000  ;  the 
other  sects  being  much  inferior  in  numbers. — 
Jamaica  was  discovered  on  May  3,  1494,  by. 
Columbus,  who  named  it  St.  Jago  or  Santiago, 
in  honor  of  the  patron  saint  of  Spain.  The 
first  Spanish  settlement  was  made  by  Juan  de 
Esquibal  in  1509 ;  but  the  colony  was  captured 
Jan.  29,  1597,  by  an  English  squadron  under 
Sir  Anthony  Shirley.  After  having  been  re 
gained  by  the  Spaniards,  it  was  again  wrested 
from  them  by  the  English  under  Admiral  Penn 
and  Gen.  Venables,  May  3,  1G55;  since  which 
time  it  has  belonged  to  England.  The  island 
was  placed  in  1661  under  a  governor  and  a 
council  of  12  appointed  by  the  crown;  and 
Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  July  18,  1670, 
recognized  the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  Ja 
maica,  Four  years  later  the  population  was 
augmented  by  the  advent  of  1,200  colonists 
from  Surinam.  In  1728  the  constitution  of 
Jamaica  was  passed.  In  1745  a  conspiracy  of 
900  slaves  for  the  total  destruction  of  the  white 
inhabitants  was  discovered  in  time  to  prevent 
slaughter,  and  the  conspirators  were  punished 
with  much  severity.  A  tribe  of  the  Maroons 
(fugitive  slaves),  having  been  permitted  to  es 
tablish  themselves  in  the  northern  part,  rose 
in  revolt  in  1795,  but  were  finally  brought  un 
der  subjection  in  the  following  year.  In  1807 
the  slave  trade  was  abolished,  and  the  act  for 
the  emancipation  of  slaves  was  passed  in  1833. 
After  the  latter  event,  the  blacks,  who  had 
formerly  been  provided  with  lodgings  and  a 
piece  of  ground  rent  free,  were  compelled  to 
pay  rent,  the  enhanced  rate  of  which  as  well  as 
the  means  used  for  its  collection  caused  great 
dissatisfaction  among  the  African  population, 
who  now  grew  inattentive  and  unwilling  to 
cultivate  the  land  of  the  proprietors.  Revolts 
were  of  frequent  occurrence  ;  and  it  is  estima 
ted  that  no  fewer  than  653  sugar  and  456 
coffee  estates  were  abandoned  and  the  works 
entirely  suspended  from  1833  to  1841.  Affairs 
continued  in  this  disturbed  and  unsettled  state 
till  October,  1865,  when  a  general  uprising  of 
the  natives  occurred,  in  which  the  most  fear 
ful  atrocities  were  perpetrated.  The  rebellion 
was  suppressed  with  much  bloodshed.  A 
wealthy  mulatto  and  Baptist  preacher  named 
Gordon  was  tried  by  court  martial  for  com 
plicity  in  the  revolution,  and  promptly  execu 
ted  ;  and  numbers  were  taken  in  flight,  sum 
marily  tried  and  hanged,  or  shot  by  the  pur 
suing  troops.  Governor  Eyre  was  recalled, 
Dec.  11 ;  and  a  commission  was  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  cause  of  the  disturbance.  A 
charge  of  murder  was  brought  by  an  associa 
tion  against  the  ex-governor  and  two  military 
officers  who  had  been  stationed  under  him  at 
the  time  of  the  outbreak ;  but  the  bill  of  in 
dictment  was  immediately  thrown  out  by  the 
grand  jury. — See  "  History  of  Jamaica,  from 
its  Discovery  to  the  Present  Time,"  by  W.  J. 
Gardner  (London,  1873). 

JAMAICA,  a  town  of  Queens  co.,  New  York, 
on  Jamaica  bay,  an  inlet  on  the  S.  side  of  Long 


Island,  including  the  village  and  county  seat  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  South  Side  and  Long 
Island  railroads,  about  10  m.  E.  of  Brooklyn 
city  hall;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1870,  7,745  ;  of 
the  village, '3,791.  The  village  was  incorpora 
ted  in  1814.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  has  a  fire 
department,  and  is  the  residence  of  many  per 
sons  doing  business  in  New  York.  It  contains 
a  large  town  hall,  several  hotels,  two  academies, 
four  weekly  newspapers  (one  German),  and  six 
churches. 

JAMALTICA,  a  collection  of  ruins  in  Hondu 
ras,  20  m.  N".  of  Comayagua.  They  consist  of 
a  series  of  rectangular  tumuli  faced  with  stones, 
and  ascended  by  flights  of  steps,  supporting  the 
remains  of  what  appear  to  have  been  ancient 
edifices.  The  principal  tumulus  stands  on  a 
broad  terrace  paved  with  stones,  and  is  sur 
rounded  by  smaller  mounds  regularly  placed. 
The  adjacent  valley  is  full  of  remains,  and  many 
vases  skilfully  wrought  and  beautifully  painted, 
besides  various  articles  of  sculpture  well  execu 
ted,  are  found  in  making  excavations.  Both 
ruins  and  vases  resemble  those  found  at  Copan. 

JAMES,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  border 
ing  on  Georgia,  and  bounded  N.  "W.  by  the 
Tennessee  river,  formed  since  the  census  of 
1870;  area,  about  200  sq.  m.  The  surface  is 
somewhat  mountainous ;  the  soil  is  generally 
fertile.  Coal  and  iron  are  found.  The  East 
Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia  railroad 
crosses  it.  The  assessed  value  of  property  in 
1871  was  $801,093.  Capital,  Ooltewah. 

JAMES  I.)  king  of  Scotland,  and  third  mon 
arch  of  the  Stuart  dynasty,  born  in  Dunferm- 
line  about  1394,  assassinated  in  Perth,  Feb.  21, 
1437.  He  was  the  son  of  Robert  III.  and  An- 
nabella  Drummond.  He  became  heir  to  the 
crown  on  the  murder  of  his  brother,  the  duke 
of  Rothsay.  His  education  was  intrusted  to 
the  bishop  of  St.  Andrews ;  but  in  1405  it  was 
determined  to  send  him  to  France,  and  on  his 
way  there  the  ship  was  taken  by  an  English 
man-of-war.  He  was  detained  in  captivity  19 
years,  chiefly  in  Windsor  castle,  but  both  Henry 
IV.  and  Henry  V.  treated  him  well.  The  for 
mer  attended  liberally  to  his  education,  and 
the  latter  took  him  with  him  in  his  French 
campaigns.  In  a  political  sense  James's  edu 
cation  was  the  consequence  of  circumstances, 
and  he  could  not  have  passed  his  youth  in  a 
better  school  for  a  monarch ;  but  he  was  de 
tained  too  long  from  his  kingdom  to  allow  of 
his  abilities  and  knowledge  proving  greatly  use 
ful  to  his  subjects.  He  showed  poetical  powers 
of  no  mean  order,  and  his  writings  are  yet 
admired.  "The  King's  Qiilmir,"  or  "Book," 
was  written  while  he  resided  in  England ;  after 
his  return  to  Scotland  he  was  too  actively  en 
gaged  to  devote  much  time  to  poetry.  Robert 
III.  dying  in  1406,  his  captive  son  was  pro 
claimed  king,  and  his  uncle  the  duke  of  Albany 
was  made  regent,  holding  the  office  until  his 
death  in  1419.  But  for  Albany's  intrigues 
James  would  have  been  sooner  restored  to  his 
throne.  Albany  was  succeeded  by  his  son 


5U 


JAMES   II. 


Murdoch,  who  might  have  transferred  the 
crown  to  his  branch  of  the  Stuart  line  had  he 
possessed  his  father's  talents  and  unscrupulous- 
ness.  The  Scotch  were  then  the  allies  of  the 
French,  and  Henry  V.  took  James  to  France 
in  1417,  agreeing  to  restore  him  to  freedom  if 
he  should  prevail  upon  those  of  his  subjects 
who  were  in  France  to  abstain  from  hostilities  ; 
but  the  Scotch  refused  to  obey  a  king  who  was 
in  durance.  On  the  death  of  Henry  V.  the 
new  government  of  England  resolved  to  give 
James  his  freedom,  on  condition  of  his  paying 
£40,000  as  the  cost  of  his  maintenance  in  Eng 
land.  He  married  Joanna  Beaufort,  grand 
daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt  through  Catharine 
Swynford,  and  niece  of  Cardinal  Beaufort, 
who,  seen  from  his  window  during  his  captivi 
ty,  had  inspired  the  "  Quhair."  He  reached 
Edinburgh  in  the  spring  of  1424,  and  immedi 
ately  commenced  that  vigorous  administration 
which  had  become  necessary  through  the  bad 
government  of  his  predecessors.  Many  impor 
tant  legislative  acts  were  adopted.  He  perse 
cuted  the  Lollards,  and  proceeded  with  energy 
against  the  nobles,  whose  lawless  conduct  de 
manded  punishment.  Albany  and  two  of  his 
sons,  and  the  earl  of  Lennox,  were  executed; 
and  soon  after  other  executions  took  place,  of 
the  most  cruel  nature,  the  victims  being  mere 
ly  retainers,  who  believed  they  were  bound  to 
obey  their  feudal  superiors.  The  family  of 
Albany  was  popular,  and  their  deaths  made 
the  king  unpopular.  James  I.  revived  the 
connection  of  his  kingdom  with  France,  en 
couraged  the  clergy  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 
nobility,  legislated  in  favor  of  trade,  labored 
for  the  restoration  of  order,  provided  for  the 
administration  of  justice,  and  maintained  the 
dignity  of  Scotland  against  the  designs  of  Eng 
land.  An  expedition  against  the  islemen  proved 
successful,  and  300  robbers  were  executed.  He 
stripped  the  earl  of  March  of  his  earldom  and 
property,  which  alarmed  the  nobility.  A  con 
spiracy  was  formed  against  him,  the  head  of 
which  was  Sir  Robert  Graham,  Avho  was  ac 
tuated  partly  by  personal  and  partly  by  political 
motives.  Not  being  well  supported  by  his  as 
sociates,  he  was  baffled,  imprisoned,  and  ban 
ished,  and  his  estates  were  seized.  In  the  high 
lands,  whither  he  had  fled,  he  formed  his  plans. 
His  only  associates  of  eminence  Avere  the  earl 
of  Athol  and  his  grandson,  Sir  Robert  Stew 
art,  the  latter  being  the  king's  chamberlain. 
Through  the  assistance  of  Ste\vart,  Graham  ob 
tained  access  to  the  king's  apartments,  in  the 
monastery  of  the  Dominicans  at  Perth,  and 
slew  him  with  his  own  hands,  but  not  until 
James  had  made  a  heroic  resistance,  though 
at  last  he  begged  his  life  of  the  assassin. 

JAMES  II.,  king  of  Scotland,  only  son  of  the 
preceding  and  of  Joanna  Beaufort,  born  in 
1430,  killed  in  1460.  Being  but  a  child  when 
he  became  king,  his  mother  was  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  his  person  during  his  minority, 
and  the  earl  of  Douglas  lieutenant  general  of 
the  kingdom.  The  government  was  really  in 


the  hands  of  Sir  William  Crichton,  who  had 
been  made  chancellor  by  James  I. ;  and  next 
to  him  was  Sir  Alexander  Livingston,  another 
of  the  late  king's  statesmen.  These  two  were 
rivals,  and  their  quarrels  added  to  the  troubles 
of  the  country.  Archibald  of  Douglas  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Earl  William, 
an  arrogant  youth,  who  allowed  his  followers 
great  license;  and  he  and  his  brother  David 
were  put  to  death  by  Crichton's  orders.  The 
power  of  Crichton  and  Livingston  was  final 
ly  ended  through  the  successes  of  another  earl 
of  Douglas  in  1446,  the  king  having  assumed 
supreme  power  in  1444.  The  internal  condi 
tion  of  the  country  was  very  bad,  through  the 
feuds  of  the  nobles ;  but  Douglas  upheld  its 
dignity  in  the  wars  with  England.  A  truce 
for  nine  years  had  been  made  with  England, 
but  in  1448  the  English  entered  Scotland,  and 
were  defeated  by  Douglas,  whose  brother  Or- 
mond  soon  after  won  the  battle  of  Sark.  The 
truce  was  then  renewed.  The  power  of  Doug 
las  was  now  on  the  decline.  The  king,  whose 
intellect  matured  early,  was  jealous  of  him, 
and,  aided  by  Crichton  and  by  Kennedy,  arch 
bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  he  asserted  his  authori 
ty  with  extraordinary  vigor,  punishing  many 
of  the  nobles  and  their  adherents.  In  1449 
James  married  Mary,  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Gueldres.  Douglas  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
and  during  his  absence  the  king  took  measures 
for  the  curtailment  of  his  power,  but  on  his 
return  he  received  marks  of  royal  favor.  He 
SQon  left  the  court,  and  lived  as  an  independent 
sovereign  in  his  own  territories,  perpetrating 
many  acts  of  lawless  cruelty,  and  setting  the 
royal  authority  at  defiance.  Too  powerful  to 
be  encountered  openly,  Douglas  now  became 
the  object  of  conspiracy.  A  reconciliation 
was  effected,  and  the  earl  visited  Stirling  cas 
tle,  where,  in  spite  of  his  safe-conduct,  he  was 
stabbed  by  James,  and  then  slain  by  the  royal 
attendants.  In  the  wars  that  followed  the 
king  triumphed,  though  not  without  encoun 
tering  great  resistance,  and  the  main  branch 
of  the  Douglas  family  was  destroyed.  The 
king  sought  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
people,  and  the  legislative  measures  of  his  reign 
were  often  as  liberal  as  the  character  of  the 
age  would  allow.  The  disputes  between  the 
houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  in  England, 
which  had  now  openly  commenced,  affected 
Scotland.  In  1459,  in  a  treaty  between  James 
II.  and  Henry  VI.,  the  former  agreed  to  sup 
port  the  Lancastrians,  in  consideration  of  re 
ceiving  in  return  portions  of  the  north  of  Eng 
land,  including  Durham  and  Northumberland. 
James  entered  England  at  the  head  of  60,000 
men,  but  his  army  committed  such  ravages 
that  Henry  prevailed  upon  him  to  withdraw. 
In  1460  he  renewed  the  war,  not  with  Eng 
land,  but  with  the  Yorkists,  and  laid  siege  to 
the  frontier  fortress  of  Roxburgh,  which  the 
English  had  held  since  the  defeat  of  David 
Bruce  at  Durham.  While  the  king  was  ex 
amining  a  battery,  one  of  the  guns  burst,  and 


JAMES  III. 


JAMES  IV. 


515 


a  fragment  struck  him  in  the  groin,  causing  I 
immediate  death.  This  event  occasioned  great  j 
grief,  and  the  soldiers,  listening  to  the-  appeal  j 
of  his  widow,  persevered  in  the  siege,  carried  i 
Roxburgh  by  assault,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground. 
JAMES  III.,  king  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding  and  of  Mary  of  Gueldres,  born  in  1453,  ! 
murdered  in  1488.  He  was  crowned  at  Kelso  j 
monastery,  and  as  his  mother  was  a  woman  of 
vigorous  capacity,  it  was  hoped  that  his  minor 
ity  would  not  prove  so  disastrous  as  that  of  his 
father  had  been  ;  but  a  variety  of  circumstances 
overclouded  the  fair  beginning  of  this  reign, 
and  rendered  it  one  of  the  most  unfortunate 
in  Scotch  history.  The  triumph  of  the  York 
ists  in  England  was  adverse  to  Scotch  interests, 
as  they  were  identified  with  those  of  the  house 
of  Lancaster.  Henry  VI.  and  his  family  took 
refuge  in  Scotland  after  the  battle  of  Towton 
had  confirmed  Edward  IV.  in  possession  of  the 
English  crown.  Edward  showed  a  desire  to 
be  on  friendly  terms  with  Scotland,  but  the 
Scotch  adhered  to  the  Lancastrians.  In  1462 
the  English  king  made  a  treaty  with  the  earl 
of  Ross  and  the  lord  of  the  isles,  and  the  ban 
ished  Douglases,  for  the  conquest  and  partition 
of  Scotland.  All  of  it  north  of  the  Forth  was 
to  be  divided  between  Douglas,  Ross,  and  the 
lord  of  the  isles ;  and  Douglas  was  to  receive 
the  old  estates  of  his  house  in  the  south.  The 
lord  of  the  isles  was  to  become  Edward's  vas 
sal.  This  formidable  treaty  led  to  nothing. 
Ross  alone  acted  under  it.  He  called  himself 
king  of  the  Hebrides,  and  committed  some 
depredations,  but  was  soon  assassinated.  The 
Scotch  nobility  were  now  divided  into  two 
parties,  the  old  lords  and  the  young  lords,  the 
former  favoring  the  house  of  Lancaster,  while 
the  other  was  desirous  of  peace  with  England, 
which  implied  abandonment  of  Henry  VI.  The 
peace  party  triumphed,  the  Scotch  covenanting 
to  give  no  assistance  to  Henry  or  his  party. 
The  queen  mother  died  in  1463.  The  family 
of  Boyd  then  rose  to  power,  and  the  aristo- 
cratical  struggles  were  renewed.  Bishop  Ken 
nedy,  the  ablest  Scotch  statesman  of  that  age, 
who  had  long  been  in  the  service  of  the  crown, 
died  in  1406.  In  1469  James  married  the  prin 
cess  Margaret  of  Denmark,  through  which  al 
liance  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands  became 
permanent  possessions  of  Scotland.  The  Boyds 
fell  the  same  year,  their  estates  were  annexed 
to  the  crown,  and  the  Hamilton  family  rose. 
James  III.  has  been  represented  as  weak  and 
vicious;  but  his  foreign  policy  and  internal 
legislation  show  that  he  had  high  capacity  and 
sound  views.  Domestic  peace  and  an  alliance 
with  England,  the  two  things  most  desirable 
for  Scotland,  were  his  aims.  For  some  time 
after  he  assumed  power  he  was  successful,  but 
the  warlike  and  illiterate  aristocracy  hated  him 
for  his  love  of  peace  and  fondness  for  letters  j 
and  art.  The  king's  brothers,  Albany  and  Mar, 
headed  the  aristocracy,  but  at  first  were  not 
hostile  to  the  monarch ;  but  Cochrane,  an  ar 
chitect,  one  of  the  king's  favorites,  caused  a  j 


breach  between  him  and  his  brothers.  Albany 
fled  to  France,  and  Mar  lost  his  life,  in  what 
manner  is  not  known.  Troubles  occurred  with 
England,  and  Albany  joined  the  enemies  of  his 
country,  who  promised  to  make  him  king  of 
Scotland,  for  which  he  was  to  render  homage. 
The  Scotch  aristocracy  took  advantage  of  the 
assemblage  of  a  great  feudal  army  against  the 
English,  seized  the  king  and  his  favorites,  and 
hung  the  latter,  including  Cochrane,  who  had 
been  made  earl  of  Mar,  without  trial.  The 
king  was  placed  in  Edinburgh  castle.  Albany 
was  reconciled  to  the  king,  and  became  lieu 
tenant  general.  The  struggle  was  repeatedly 
renewed,  the  king  being  often  successful.  Tlio 
aristocracy,  fearful  of  the  result  of  the  contest, 
prevailed  upon  the  heir  apparent,  Prince  James, 
then  but  15  years  old,  to  join  them.  In  1488 
the  royal  party  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Sauchie-burn,  near  Bannockburn,  and  the  king 
was  killed  in  his  flight  by  an  unknown  hand. 

JAMES  IV.,  king  of  Scotland,  son  of  the 
preceding  and  of  Margaret  of  Denmark,  born 
March  it,  1472,  slain  at  the  battle  of  Flodden, 
Sept.  9,  1513.  He  was  crowned  at  Scone,  June 
26,  1488.  His  government  was  one  of  the 
most  vigorous  that  Scotland  ever  knew.  Un 
like  his  predecessors,  he  determined  to  rule  by 
the  aid  of  the  nobility,  and  not  to  seek  their 
humiliation.  Attempts  at  insurrection  were 
put  down.  Aided  by  parliament,  the  king  car 
ried  many  measures  for  the  improvement  of 
the  country,  concerning  trade  and  manufac 
tures.  "When  he  found  his  power  firmly  es 
tablished  he  withdrew  his  favor  from  the  men 
who  had  acted  with  him  against  his  father. 
Peace  was  made  with  England.  The  encroach 
ments  of  Rome  were  restrained.  Justice  was 
regularly  administered  in  the  lowlands ;  and 
the  king  determined  that  the  highlands  should 
be  made  subject  to  law.  He  made  several  jour 
neys  thither  and  to  the  isles,  successfully  as 
serting  the  royal  authority.  The  lord  of  the 
isles  endeavored  to  resist,  but  was  stripped  of 
power  and  possessions.  When  Perkin  Warbeck 
appeared,  claiming  to  be  the  second  son  of  Ed 
ward  IV.  of  England,  James  supported  him, 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  been  an  original 
party  to  the  plot  that  brought  him  upon  the 
stage.  Warbeck  visited  Scotland  in  1495,  and 
was  royally  received. '  James  gave  him  for  a 
wife  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Huntly,  a  near 
relative  of  his  own.  He  invaded  England,  but 
this  was  injurious  to  Warbeck's  plans,  because 
of  the  hatred  felt  by  the  English  for  the  Scotch. 
The  latter  returned  home,  but  the  war  con 
tinued.  Henry  VII.  renewed  his  offer  to  give 
the  hand  of  his  daughter  Margaret  to  James, 
and  in  1497  Warbeck  left  Scotland,  when  a 
seven  years'  truce  was  agreed  upon.  James 
now  proceeded  to  complete  his  plans  for  the 
improvement  of  Scotland.  Commerce  and  a 
navy  received  much  of  his  attention,  and  pros 
pered.  He  again  visited  the  north,  and  en 
forced  the  law  in  the  highlands.  Learning  was 
favored  by  him,  and  literature  flourished.  In 


516 


JAMES  V. 


JAMES  I.  (ENGLAND),  VI.  (SCOTLAND) 


deference  to  the  nobility,  he  married  the  prin 
cess  Margaret  of  England,  Aug.  8,  1503.  The 
relations  between  France  and  Scotland  became 
very  close,  which  offended  Henry  VII.  Print 
ing  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  1507,  by 
Walter  Chapman,  one  of  the  king's  servants. 
After  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  Eng 
lish  throne  troubles  began,  which  ended  in  war 
in  1513,  when  James  invaded  England,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Surrey  at  Flodden. 
The  loss  of  the  battle  was  due  to  the  conduct 
of  the  king,  who,  from  exaggerated  notions  of 
chivalry,  gave  up  great  advantages  of  position, 
for  which  he  paid  with  his  life.  He  showed 
eminent  valor,  but  no  generalship. 

JAMES  V.,  king  of  Scotland,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding  and  of  Margaret  Tudor,  born  in  Lin- 
lithgow,  April  10,  1512,  died  in  Falkland,  Dec. 
13,  1542.  He  was  crowned  at  Scone,  and  his 
mother  became  regent.  His  minority  was  a 
period  of  great  trouble,  owing  to  the  weak 
ness  of  his  mother,  the  rivalry  of  parties,  the 
venality  and  violence  of  the  aristocracy,  and 
the  attempts  of  the  English  to  obtain  ascen 
dancy.  In  his  17th  year  he  escaped  from  the 
Douglases,  who  then  had  possession  of  his  per 
son,  and  became  king  in  fact.  He  showed 
much  energy  in  repressing  the  troubles  on  the 
borders,  where  he  sent  several  chiefs  to  the 
gallows,  among  them  the  famous  John  Arm-, 
strong.  A  rebellion  in  the  Orkneys  was 
promptly  quelled ;  and  the  chiefs  of  the  West 
ern  isles  were  induced  to  submit  to  the  king's 
authority  by  his  firm  but  conciliatory  action. 
Other  measures  to  promote  tranquillity  were 
adopted ;  but  the  nobles  had  become  lawless 
and  licentious  during  the  regency,  so  that 
James  met  with  great  difficulties  in  his  en 
deavors  to  restore  peace  at  home,  and  some  of 
their  leaders  were  treated  with  severity.  The 
clergy  were  much  esteemed  by  him,  and  held 
the  principal  offices  of  state ;  facts  of  not  a  little 
consequence,  as  the  reformation  was  then  go 
ing  forward,  and  Scotland  was  affected  by  it. 
The  college  of  justice  was  established  in  1532, 
supposed  to  have  been  modelled  on  the  parlia 
ment  of  Paris,  and  suggested  by  the  advice  of 
Gavin  Dunbar,  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  who 
had  been  the  king's  preceptor,  and  was  now 
chancellor ;  its  object  was  to  remove  the  means 
of  oppression  from  the  hands  of  the  nobles. 
James  was  courted  by  foreign  powers.  Henry 
VIII.  wished  him  to  marry  his  daughter  Mary. 
Charles  V.  offered  him  his  sister,  the  late  queen 
of  Hungary,  or  his  niece,  a  princess  of  Denmark. 
Francis  I.  favored  the  English  alliance,  as  he 
and  Henry  were  at  that  time  friends.  Border 
hostilities  made  it  difficult  for  England  and 
Scotland  to  be  allies.  Henry  encouraged  Scotch 
rebels,  and  James  aided  the  disaffected  Irish. 
In  1533,  under  French  mediation,  a  truce  was 
made,  which  was  converted  into  a  treaty  of 
peace  the  next  year.  Henry  made  James  a 
knight  of  the  garter,  Francis  conferred  upon 
him  the  order  of  St.  Michael,  and  the  emperor 
that  of  the  golden  fleece.  Charles  made 


another  futile  effort  to  marry  him  to  one  of 
his  nieces,  though  James  avowed  his  attach 
ment  to  the  cause  of  which  the  emperor  was 
chief.  He  persecuted  the  reformers,  burning 
some,  while  others  were  compelled  to  fly. 
Henry  VIII.  urged  his  nephew  to  side  with 
him  in  his  contest  with  Rome,  and  again  offered 
him  the  hand  of  the  princess  Mary ;  but  he  failed, 
and  the  pope's  attentions  and  exertions  bound 
James  to  the  papal  cause.  Paul  III.  addressed 
him  as  "defender  of  the  faith,"  against  which 
Henry  remonstrated.  James  visited  France  in 
1536,  where  he  married  Madeleine,  only  daugh 
ter  of  Francis  I.  She  died  soon  after,  where 
upon  James  married  the  duchess  of  Longue- 
ville,  a  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Guise,  who  had 
been  sought  by  Henry  VIII.  These  marriages 
caused  the  king  to  become  still  more  attached 
to  the  party  in  Europe  that  was  hostile  to  the 
reformation,  and  under  the  influence  of  Car 
dinal  Beaton  persecution  raged,  while  Henry 
VIII.  exerted  himself  to  change  the  policy  of 
Scotland.  In  1540  James  led  a  successful  ex 
pedition  to  the  Western  isles.  The  Hebrides, 
the  Orkney  and  Shetland  isles,  and  portions  of 
territory  in  Scotland  that  had  belonged  to  re 
bellious  barons,  were  annexed  to  the  crown. 
The  king  paid  much  attention  to  industrial 
development,  inviting  skilful  foreign  artisans 
to  settle  in  Scotland.  Henry  VIII.  sought  an 
interview  with  his  nephew  in  1541,  going  for 
that  purpose  to  York ;  but  James  would  not 
visit  him.  War  followed,  and  James  made 
great  preparations  to  meet  the  English;  but 
his  feudal  array  could  not  be  relied  upon,  the 
nobility  being  thoroughly  discontented.  At 
Fala  Muir  and  Solway  Moss  they  openly  defied 
his  commands,  and  would  not  resist  the  ene 
my.  James  fell  into  despair,  and  died  in  a  few 
days.  When  the  birth  of  his  daughter  Mary 
was  announced  to  him,  he  said :  "It  [the 
crown]  came  with  a  lass,  and  it  will  go  with  a 
lass."  These  were  among  his  last  words. 

JAMES  I.  of  England,  and  VI.  of  Scotland, 
son  of  Henry,  Lord  Darnley,  and  Mary,  queen 
of  Scots,  born  in  Edinburgh  castle,  June  19, 
1566,  died  in  the  palace  of  Theobalds,  March 
27,  1625.  His  reign  began  in  July,  1567, 
when  his  mother,  queen  regnant  of  Scotland, 
was  dethroned,  and  power  passed  finally  into 
the  hands  of  the  Protestant  party.  He  resided 
at  Stirling  castle,  under  the  guardianship  of 
the  earl  of  Mar,  and  his  preceptor  was  the 
learned  George  Buchanan,  who,  on  being  re 
proached  with  having  made  the  king  a  pedant, 
declared  that  it  was  the  best  he  could  make  of 
him.  During  his  minority  the  contest  between 
kingsmen  and  queensmen  was  bitterly  waged, 
and  the  earls  of  Murray,  Lennox,  Mar,  and 
Morton  were  successively  regents.  In  1577, 
on  the  overthrow  of  Morton,  James  assumed 
power,  and  the  next  year  this  assumption  was 
confirmed  by  parliament.  lie  early  exhibited 
that  fondness  for  masculine  favorites  which 
has  left  a  cloud  on  his  name.  He  was  seized 
by  some  of  the  nobility  in  1582,  but  recovered 


JAMES  I.  (ENGLAND),  VI.  (SCOTLAND)          JAMES  II.  (ENGLAND),  VII.  (SCOTLAND)    517 


his  liberty  and  power,  and  banished  his  ene 
mies.  The  latter  returned  in  1585,  and  forced 
the  king  to  capitulate.  He  formed  an  alliance  ' 
with  Elizabeth  in  behalf  of  Protestantism,  then 
threatened  by  the  great  Catholic  powers,  and 
wrote  a  book  to  prove  that  the  pope  was  Anti 
christ,  lie  sought,  but  ineffectually,  to  save 
his  mother's  life,  when  she  had  been  sentenced 
to  death  in  England.  He  adhered  to  England 
during  the  expedition  of  the  armada,  knowing 
that  Philip  II.  would  not  conquer  it  for  him. 
In  1589  he  made  a  voyage  to  Denmark,  and 
married  Anne,  second  daughter  of  Frederick  II. 
His  reign  was  much  disturbed  by  internal  trou 
bles  caused  by  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the 
citizens  of  Edinburgh.  His  Basilicon  Doron, 
intended  for  the  instruction  of  his  son  Henry, 
was  published  in  1599.  He  endeavored  to  re 
store  episcopacy,  but  with  no  success.  On 
the  death  of  Elizabeth,  March  24,  1603,  James 
was  proclaimed  king  of  England  by  the  queen's 
council,  in  violation  of  the  will  of  Henry  VIII. 
His  right,  however,  had  been  recognized  by 
Elizabeth,  and  rested  upon  his  descent  from 
Henry  VII.  through  his  great-grandmother 
Margaret.  He  left  Edinburgh  April  5,  and 
journeyed  to  London,  his  clumsy  person  and 
gross  manners  making  a  most  unfavorable  im 
pression  on  his  new  subjects.  Cecil  monopo 
lized  power.  Raleigh  was  tried  and  condemned 
for  treason,  and  was  kept  for  13  years  in  prison. 
A  disgraceful  peace  was  made  with  Spain  in 
1004.  Arbitrary  sentiments  prevailed  at  court, 
and  the  king  had  trouble  with  his  parliaments. 
The  gunpowder  plot,  in  1605,  was  caused  by 
the  disappointment  of  some  Catholics,  whom 
he  had  encouraged  to  hope  for  the  mitigation 
of  the  penal  laws  under  which  they  suffered. 
In  1612  two  heretics  were  burned  at  Smith- 
field,  the  last  executions  of  the  kind  in  England. 
Henry,  prince  of  Wales,  died  the  same  year, 
under  suspicious  circumstances.  The  princess 
Elizabeth,  ancestress  of  the  present  English 
dynasty,  was  married  to  the  elector  palatine, 
Feb.  14,  1613.  The  "grand  oyer  of  poison 
ing"  took  place  in  1615-'16  (see  OVERBURY, 
SIR  THOMAS),  ending  in  the  disgrace  of  the  earl 
of  Somerset,  who  had  been  a  royal  favorite, 
though  now  superseded  by  George  Villiers,  first 
duke  of  Buckingham  of  that  name.  Raleigh 
was  released,  and  allowed  to  make  his  voyage 
to  Guiana,  but  was,  put  to  death  on  his  return, 
to  gratify  the  Spanish  government.  James's 
foreign  policy  was  shameful,  and  the  English 
felt  the  disgrace  all  the  more  because  of  the 
contrast  it  made  with  that  of  Elizabeth.  When 
the  thirty  years'  war  broke  out,  though  it 
involved  the  fate  of  his  daughter  and  son-in- 
law,  and  they  lost  their  dominions  and  became 
exiles  and  beggars,  he  would  do  nothing  for 
them.  A  leading  object  with  him  was  to  con 
ciliate  Spain,  and  obtain  the  hand  of  a  Spanish 
princess  for  his  eldest  son.  Other  means  hav 
ing  failed,  Buckingham,  who  now  ruled  both 
king  and  prince,  persuaded  Charles  to  go  to 
Spain,  to  urge  his  suit  for  the  infanta.  This 


journey  led  only  to  disappointment,  Bucking 
ham  taking  offence,  and,  it  is  said,  causing  the 
marriage  to  be  broken  off.  Bacon,  who  was 
lord  chancellor  and  a  peer,  wras  disgraced  in 
1621,  on  account  of  his  corrupt  acts.  War 
was  declared  against  Spain  in  1624,  and  parlia 
ment  was  dissolved  the  same  year.  The  hand 
of  the  princess  Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  was  now  sought  for 
Charles,  and  an  alliance  with  that  country 
against  the  house  of  Austria  was  contemplated. 
A  small  force  was  sent  to  the  continent,  to 
help  the  Protestant  cause,  and  this  was  fol 
lowed  by  a  larger  one;  but  the  first  accom 
plished  nothing,  and  of  the  second  one  half  the 
men  perished  on  board  their  ships,  France  and 
Holland  not  allowing  them  to  land.  Bucking 
ham's  favor  with  the  king  was  now  lost,  but 
he  had  great  influence  over  the  prince  of 
Wales ;  and  the  king  falling  sick,  the  duke  and 
his  mother  were  suspected  of  having  poisoned 
him.  His  death  was  really  caused  by  a  tertian 
ague,  acting  on  a  constitution  undermined  by 
intemperance,  chagrin,  and  mortification.  The 
most  remarkable  event  of  James's  reign  was 
the  authorized  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
English,  which  was  done  under  his  patronage 
and  by  his  direction.  James  was  a  man  of 
considerable  learning,  but  his  scholarship  was 
deformed  by  the  most  offensive  pedantry,  as 
his  writings  were  by  the  grossest  superstition, 
witches  being  the  especial  objects  of  his  fear, 
hatred,  and  persecution. 

JAMES  II.  of  England,  and  VII.  of  Scotland, 
second  surviving  son  of  Charles  I.  and  Henri 
etta  Maria,  born  at  the  palace  of  St.  James, 
Oct.  15,  1633,  died  at  St.  Germain,  France, 
Sept.  16,  1701.  He  was  called  duke  of  York 
at  once,  but  not  by  patent  until  1643.  He  was 
about  nine  years  old  when  the  civil  war  broke 
out,  and  was  an  eye-witness  of  the  battle  of 
Edgehill,  where  he  came  near  losing  his  life. 
He  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Bristol  in  1643. 
When  Oxford  was  captured  in  1646,  James  be 
came  prisoner  to  Fairfax.  At  a  ceremonious 
visit  of  the  chiefs  of  the  parliamentary  army, 
Cromwell  was  the  only  man  who  knelt  to  him. 
The  prince  was  well  treated,  and  allowed  fre 
quent  interviews  with  his  father,  living  most 
of  the  time  in  company  with  his  brother  Glou 
cester  and  sister  Elizabeth,  at  St.  James's,  under 
the  guardianship  of  the  earl  of  Northumber 
land.  He  escaped  in  1648,  and  fled  to  the 
Netherlands,  whence,  after  a  residence  in  Flan 
ders,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1649.  The  same  year 
he  accompanied  his  brother  Charles  to  the 
island  of  Jersey,  residing  there  four  months. 
Returning  to  the  continent,  he  visited  Brussels, 
Rheenen,  the  Hague,  and  Breda.  After  the 
triumph  of  the  enemies  of  the  Stuarts  in  1651, 
he  entered  the  French  service,  distinguishing 
himself  under  Turenne.  When,  in  1655,  the 
relations  between  England  and  France  became 
close,  James  was  forced  to  depart,  and  he  en 
tered  the  Spanish  army,  where  he  fought 
against  the  English  and  French.  He  was  treat- 


518 


JAMES  II. 


ed  with  much  consideration  by  the  Spaniards. 
He  shared  in  the  benefits  of  the  restoration  of 
his  family  to  the  British  throne  in  1G60  ;  and 
on  Sept.  3  of  that  year  he  was  married  to  Anne 
Hyde,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  to 
whom  he  had  contracted  himself  the  preceding 
November.  She  died  in  1671,  and  James  mar 
ried  in  1673  Maria  Beatrice  Eleonora,  a  prin 
cess  of  the  house  of  Este  of  Modena,  his  junior 
by  25  years.  He  had  become  a  Catholic  while 
in  exile,  but  did  not  avow  his  religion  until 
some  years  after  the  restoration  (1671).  In  the 
wars  with  Holland  he  distinguished  himself  in 
command  of  the  English  fleet.  The  passage  of 
the  test  act  in  1673  caused  him  to  relinquish 
all  his  employments.  lie  incurred  great  dan 
ger  during  the  time  of  the  popish  plot,  and 
when  the  parliamentary  test  was  adopted  in 
1678,  it  was  with  difficulty  that  he  maintained 
an  exceptional  privilege  to  retain  his  seat  in  the 
house  of  peers.  An  effort  was  made  to  ex 
clude  him  from  the  succession,  and  Shaftes- 
bury  endeavored  to  prevail  upon  the  grand 
jury  of  Middlesex  to  indict  him.  The  com 
mons  passed  the  exclusion  bill,  but  it  was  re 
jected  by  the  peers ;  it  had  passed  the  com 
mons  in  the  preceding  parliament,  but  through 
a  dissolution  failed  to  reach  the  upper  house. 
James  retired  to  Brussels  in  1679,  but  returned 
when  the  king  was  attacked  by  illness.  He 
was  sent  to  Scotland,  as  head  of  the  admin 
istration  there,  and  treated  the  Covenanters 
with  great  cruelty.  The  Oxford  parliament, 
which  would  have  passed  the  exclusion  bill,  was 
dissolved  at  the  commencement  of  1681.  A 
reaction  now  began.  James  soon  returned  to 
England,  had  much  influence  at  court  and 
in  the  country,  and  upheld  all  those  severe 
measures  by  which  the  tory  party  sought  to 
exterminate  the  whigs.  When  Charles  II.  died, 
Feb.  6,  1685,  James  succeeded  him.  His  con 
duct  was  arbitrary  from  the  beginning,  and 
the  parliament  he  called  was  the  most  servile 
in  English  history.  Argyll's  invasion  of  Scot 
land  and  Monmouth's  invasion  of  England 
were  subdued  with  little  difficulty,  and  were 
followed  by  unparalleled  punishments.  He 
soon  broke  with  his  obsequious  parliament,  as 
he  required  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  habeas 
corpus  acts,  which  were  as  dear  to  the  tories 
as  to  all  other  of  his  subjects  except  the  Catho 
lics^  He  prorogued  the  parliament  from  time 
to  time,  and  ultimately  it  was  dissolved.  He 
set  himself  systematically  to  work  to  effect 
t\vo  ends :  the  overthrow  of  the  constitutional 
system  of  England,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
Catholic  religion.  At  first  he  attempted  to 
use  the  established  church  against  the  dis- 
ssnters;  but  finding  the  Episcopalians  would 
not  give  him  their  aid,  he  sought  to  gain  the 
dissenters.  A  great  number  of  illegal  measures 
were  adopted.  A  new  court  of  ecclesiastical 
commission  was  erected ;  a  great  standing  army 
was  created ;  the  privileges  of  the  universities 
were  violated ;  the  test  act  became  a  dead  let 
ter;  corporations  were  modelled  and  remod 


elled,  in  the  hope  that  a  parliament  might  be 
packed  that  would  give  to  the  king's  doings 
the  forms  of  law.  In  less  than  three  years  the 
king  had  arrayed  all  his  subjects  against  him, 
except  the  Catholics  and  a  few  of  the  dis 
senters,  the  greater  part  of  the  dissenting  in 
terest  siding  with  the  established  church,  and 
whigs  and  tories  coalescing.  All  offices  were 
in  the  hands  of  Catholics,  or  of  Protestants 
ready  to  do  the  work  of  Catholics.  The  foreign 
policy  of  the  country  was  made  subservient  to 
that  of  France,  because  the  support  of  that 
country  was  necessary  for  the  success  of  James's 
home  policy.  The  pope  and  the  governments 
of  Spain  and  Germany  were  hostile  to  James's 
course,  because  they  were  alarmed  at  the  en 
croachments  of  Louis  XIV.  Matters  were 
brought  to  a  crisis  in  June,  1688,  by  the  oppo 
sition  which  the  declaration  of  indulgence  en 
countered.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and 
six  bishops  were  sent  to  the  tower,  and  tried 
on  the  charge  of  libel,  for  petitioning  the  king 
against  the  order  that  the  declaration  should 
be  read  in  the  churches.  They  were  acquitted, 
but  the  excitement  was  without  a  parallel  in 
English  history  of  that  century.  On  June  10 
Queen  Mary  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  af 
terward  known  as  the  pretender  (see  JAMES 
FEANCIS  EDWARD  STUAET),  the  popular  opinion 
being  that  the  queen's  pregnancy  was  a  sham, 
and  that  the  child  was  spurious.  This  event 
hastened  the  revolution.  Men  had  been  re 
strained  from  action  by  the  belief  that,  as  James 
had  no  male  children,  the  throne  must  soon 
pass  to  his  eldest  daughter,  Mary,  wife  of  Wil 
liam,  prince  of  Orange,  who  was  a  Protestant ; 
but  the  birth  of  his  son  dispelled  their  hopes, 
and  on  June  30,  1688,  William  was  invited  to 
invade  England,  the  invitation  being  signed  by 
the  earls  of  Shrewsbury,  Devonshire,  and  Dan- 
by,  Lord  Lumley,  Henry  Sidney,  Edward  Rus 
sell,  and  Henry  Compton,  the  suspended  bishop 
of  London.  Though  James  was  warned  of  what 
was  going  on,  both  by  Louis  XIV.  and  by 
others,  he  was  taken  entirely  by  surprise  when 
William  sailed  from  Holland  with  an  army  of 
15,000  men.  The  invaders  landed  at  Torbay, 
ISTov.  5,  and  James  was  soon  abandoned  by 
nearly  every  one,  including  his  daughter  Anne. 
He  fled  from  England,  having  previously  sent 
away  his  wife  and  son,  but  was  detained,  and 
returned  to  London,  much  to  the  regret  of  his 
enemres.  Every  facility  for  flight  being  placed 
in  his  way,  he  fled  a  second  time,  and  reached 
France.  lie  was  magnificently  received  by 
Louis  XIV.,  who  assigned  him  a  large  pension, 
and  the  palace  of  St.  Germain  as  a  residence. 
He  went  to  Ireland  in  1689,  in  which  country 
the  native  population  were  attached  to  his 
cause.  There  he  underwent  many  humilia 
tions,  and  was  defeated  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  July  1,  1690.  Returning  to 
France,  he  resided  there  until  his  death.  The 
battle  of  La  Hogue,  in  1692,  proved  fatal  to 
his  hope  of  a  successful  descent  on  England, 
though  the  idea  was  not  abandoned.  He  was 


JAMES 


519 


offered  the  candidature  for  the  crown  of  Po 
land  in  1690,  but  would  not  accept  it.     The 
treaty  of  Ryswick  in  109f,  by  giving  peace  to 
France  and  England,  removed  all  prospect  of  ! 
restoration ;    but  the  ex-king  and  his  family  j 
continued  to  be  the  guests  of  Louis  XIV.     His 
health  declined,  and  on  Sept.  2,  1701,  he  was 
struck  with  apoplexy,  and  died  in  two  weeks. 

JAMES,  Epistle  of,  one  of  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  canon,  which  has  been  ascribed 
to  James  the  son  of  Zebedee,  to  a  pseudo- 
James  who  assumed  the  name  to  gain  author 
ity,  to  James  the  son  of  Alpheus,  and  to  James 
the  brother  of  the  Lord.  Luther  doubted  its 
apostolic  origin,  and  called  it  an  "epistle  of 
straw;"  but  recent  Protestant  theologians  are 
generally  in  favor  of  its  canonicity,  without 
being  able  to  agree  as  to  its  author.  The  en 
tire  recent  literature  on  the  epistle  is  reviewed 
in  the  Studien  und  Kritiken,  January,  1874,  by 
Prof.  Berschlag,  who  believes  that  it  was  writ 
ten  by  James  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  whom 
he  distinguishes  from  both  the  apostles  of  that 
name.  He  regards  it  as  the  oldest  book  of  the 
New  Testament,  reflecting  the  sentiments  of 
the  most  religious  portion  of  the  Jewish  people, 
in  which  Jesus  himself  and  his  brothers  were 
reared.  It  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Chris 
tians  of  Asia  Minor.  In  his  doctrine,  James 
lays  the  greatest  stress  upon  the  necessity  of 
works,  in  distinction  from  Paul  and  John,  re 
spectively  the  preachers  of  faith  and  love. 
That  his  doctrine  is  consistent  with  theirs,  ex 
hibiting  it  from  another  point  of  view,  has 
been  shown  by  Neander,  in  his  practical  expo 
sition  of  the  epistle.  Its  style  is  highly  elo 
quent  and  poetical. 

JAMES,  George  Payne  Rainsford,  an  English 
novelist,  born  in  London  in  1801,  died  in  Ven 
ice,  June  9,  1800.  He  was  educated  at  Green 
wich,  and  at  the  age  of  15  was  sent  to  France, 
where  he  passed  several  years.  While  a  boy 
he  was  in  the  habit  of  writing  small  pieces  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  became  an  anonymous 
contributor  to  the  magazines.  Strongly  en 
couraged  by  Washington  Irving,  he  produced 
in  1822  a  life  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  the  j 
first  book  bearing  his  name.  When  but  17  ' 
years  old  he  had  written  a  collection  of  eastern 
stories,  which  were  published  in  1832  under 
the  title  of  the  "  String  oi  Pearls."  His  first 
essay  as  a  novelist,  "Richelieu,"  written  in 
1825  and  published  in  1829,  met  with  consid 
erable  success,  and  was  followed  by  "Darnley  " 
and  "DeTOrme"  (1830),  "  Philip  Augustus  " 
(1831),  "  Henry  Masterton  "  (1832),  and  "Mary 
of  Burgundy"  (1834).  The  list  of  original 
works  of  all  descriptions  published  under  his 
name  amounts  to  more  than  80,  the  latest  being 
"The  Cavalier"  (1859).  Among  these  are 
several  volumes  of  poetry,  and  many  of  history 
and  biography,  including  the  "  History  of  Chiv 
alry,"  and  lives  of  Charlemagne,  Richard  Coeur 
de  Lion,  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  Louis  XIV. 
For  a  short  time  he  held  the  post  of  histori 
ographer  of  England  by  the  appointment  of  , 


William  IV.  About  1850  he  removed  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  1852  was  appointed  Brit 
ish  consul  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  where  he  remained 
until  his  appointment  in  1858  as  consul  at 
Venice.  Among  the  novels  suggested  by  his 
experiences  of  American  life  and  history  arc 
" Ticonderoga "  (1854)  and  "The  Old  Do 
minion"  (1850).  "Adrian,  or  the  Clouds  of 
the  Mind"  (New  York,  1852),  he  wrote  joint 
ly  with  Maunsell  B.  Field.  A  collected  edition 
of  his  works  has  been  published  in  London. 

JAMES.  I.  Henry,  an  American  philosopher, 
born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  June  3,  1811.  He 
studied  for  some  time  in  Union  college  and  in 
the  Presbyterian  theological  seminary  at  Prince 
ton.  During  a  tour  in  Europe  he  became  in 
terested  in  the  views  of  Robert  Sandeman,  of 
whose  "  Letters  on  Theron  and  Aspasio  "  he 
prepared  an  edition  with  an  original  preface 
(New  York,  1839).  In  1840  he  published  a 
pamphlet  entitled  "  Remarks  on  the  Apostolic 
Gospels,"  in  which  he  maintained  the  absolute 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  while  denying  the  doc 
trine  of  the  trinity.  In  another  visit  to  Eu 
rope  in  1843  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
works  of  Swedenborg,  which  have  ever  since 
exercised  a  marked  influence  upon  his  opin 
ions  and  writings.  In  1840  he  published 
"What  is  the  State?  "a  lecture  delivered  in 
Albany,  and  in  1847  "A  Letter  to  a  Sweden- 
borgian,"  in  which,  while  asserting  the  doc 
trines  promulgated  by  Swedenborg,  he  argues 
against  the  ecclesiastical  organization  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  church.  In  the  winter  of 
1849-'50  he  delivered  in  New  York  a  course 
of  public  lectures,  which  were  collected  into 
a  volume  under  the  title  of  "Moralism  and 
Christianity  "  (1852),  and  excited  much  atten 
tion.  The  leading  idea  of  this  volume  is  that 
there  is  a  radical  distinction  between  the  moral 
and  religious  life  of  man  ;  the  former  being 
mere  obedience  to  the  laws  of  human  society, 
while  the  latter  is  the  product  of  divine  life 
and  love  flowing  into  the  soul ;  consequently 
the  one  is  outward,  formal,  and  temporary, 
while  the  other  is  inward,  spontaneous,  and 
permanent.  A  second  course  of  lectures  de 
livered  in  1851-?2,  enforcing  the  same  general 
views,  was  published,  together  with  several 
articles  written  for  magazines  and  reviews,  in 
a  volume  entitled  "Lectures  and  Miscellanies," 
in  1852.  This  was  followed  by  "The  Church 
of  Christ  not  an  Ecclesiasticism  "  (1854),  "  The 
Nature  of  Evil"  (1855),  "Christianity  the 
Logic  of  Creation"  (1857),  "Substance  and 
Shadow"  (1800),  and  "The  Secret  of  Sweden 
borg  "  (1 809).  In  these  works  Mr.  James  advo 
cates  a  body  of  religious  philosophy  and  social 
doctrine  which  in  its  theological  affinities  is 
related  to  the  teachings  of  Swedenborg,  while 
its  humanitary  tendencies  accord  with  the  aims 
of  modern  socialism.  II.  Henry,  jr.,  an  Ameri 
can  author,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New 
York,  April  15,  1843.  He  was  educated  part 
ly  in  New  York  and  partly  in  Europe,  where 
he  has  lived  for  several  years,  mostly  in  Franco 


520 


JAMES 


and  Italy.  He  has  become  favorably  known 
as  a  contributor  of  stories,  sketches  of  travel, 
and  literary  and  artistic  criticisms  to  various 
reviews  and  other  periodicals. 

JAMES,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  engineer,  born 
at  Rose-in- Vale,  near  St.  Agnes,  Cornwall,  in 
1803.  He  studied  at  Woolwich,  and  became 
lieutenant  of  engineers  in  1825,  director  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Ireland  in  1 844,  and  of  the 
admiralty  engineering  works  at  Portsmouth  in 
1846,  chief  of  the  ordnance  survey  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1852,  and  of  the  topographical  and 
statistical  departments  of  the  ministry  in  1857, 
which  last  two  offices  he  still  holds  (1874).  He 
was  knighted  in  1860,  and  made  major  general 
in  1868.  He  invented  a  new  photographic  pro 
cess  to  which  he  applied  the  name  of  photo 
zincography,  and  by  means  of  which  he  made 
facsimiles  of  the  "Domesday  Book"  in  32 
volumes,  and  of  "  National  Manuscripts  from 
William  I.  to  Queen  Anne  "  (2  vols.  fol.,  1865). 
His  other  works  comprise  "  Ordnance  Survey 
in  Ireland"  (1855),  uin  Scotland"  (2  vols., 
1861),  and  "in  England  and  Wales"  (2  vols., 
1861) ;  u  On  Photozincography  and  other  Pho 
tographic  Processes  "  (1862) ;  "  Account  of  the 
principal  Triangulation  of  the  United  King 
dom  "  (1864)  ;  and  "  Record  of  the  Expedition 
to  Abyssinia"  (1870). 

JAMES,  John  Angell,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Blandford,  June  6,  1785,  died  in  Bir 
mingham,  Oct.  1, 1859.  He  was  apprenticed  to 
a  draper,  but  was  subsequently  placed  in  the 
dissenting  college  at  Gosport  to  be  educated  for 
the  ministry.  In  1804,  while  still  a  student,  he 
temporarily  supplied  the  pulpit  of  Carr's  lane 
chapel,  Birmingham,  and  was  unanimously  re 
quested  to  become  the  pastor,  which  post  he 
held  till  the  end  of  his  life.  Soon  after  he 
was  ordained  he  issued  the  "  Sunday  School 
Teacher's  Guide,"  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions ;  and  volumes,  tracts,  addresses, 
and  sermons  followed  each  other  in  rapid  suc 
cession.  A  series  of  his  works,  including 
'•  The  Anxious  Inquirer,"  "The  Church  Mem 
ber's  Guide,"  "  The  Christian  Father's  Present 
to  his  Children,"  and  "  The  Christian  Profes 
sor  addressed  in  a  Series  of  Counsels,"  have 
been  circulated  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
copies,  and  translated  into  10  or  12  languages. 
Among  his  numerous  other  writings  may  be 
mentioned  "The  Course  of  Faith,"  "  Christian 
Hope,"  "The  Family  Monitor,"  and  "The 
Church  in  Earnest."  He  possessed  the  love 
and  respect  of  persons  of  all  denominations,  and 
his  funeral  was  said  to  have  been  the  largest 
ever  known  in  Birmingham. — See  "John  An- 
gell  James :  a  Review  of  his  History,  Charac 
ter,  Eloquence,  and  Literary  Labors,"  by  John 
Campbell,  D.  D.  (8vo,  London,  1860),  and  his 
"  Life  and  Letters,"  by  Pv.  W.  Dale  (1861). 

JAMES,  Robert,  an  English  physician,  born  at 
Kinverston,  Staffordshire,  in  1703,  died  in 
1776.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  college, 
Oxford,  studied  medicine,  and  after  practising 
in  Sheffield,  Lichfield,  and  Birmingham,  re 


moved  to  London.  He  is  principally  known 
as  the  inventor  of  the  fever  powder  called 
" James's  powder."  He  is  the  author  of  "A 
Medicinal  Dictionary "  (3  vols.  fol.,  London, 
1743-'o),  in  the  preparation  of  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  ;  of  a  posthu 
mous  publication  entitled  "  Vindication  of  the 
Fever  Powder  ;"  and  of  treatises  on  the  prac 
tice  of  physic,  canine  madness,  &c.  The  prep 
aration  of  his  powder  was  kept  a  secret  for 
many  years,  but  it  is  now  known  to  be  com 
posed  of  oxide  of  antimony  and  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  is  called  antimonial  powder. 

JAMES,  Saint.  I.  The  Elder,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  son  of  the  fisherman  Zebedee  and  Sa 
lome,  and  brother  of  the  evangelist  John,  died 
about  A.  D.  44.  With  his  brother  John  he 
followed  his  father's  occupation,  and  they  seem 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  Jesus,  and  to 
have  recognized  him  as  the  Messiah,  some  time 
before  their  call  to  attend  him.  It  was  prob 
ably  their  zeal  and  boldness  that  gained  them 
the  appellation  of  Boanerges,  or  sons  of  thun 
der.  They  witnessed  the  transfiguration,  the 
restoration  to  life  of  Jairus's  daughter,  the 
agony  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  the 
ascension.  James  preached  as  an  apostle  chiefly 
in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem.  Under  Herod 
Agrippa  he  suffered  martyrdom  by  the  sword, 
and,  according  to  Clement  of  Alexandria,  his 
accuser  was  so  much  affected  by  the  boldness 
of  his  confession  of  faith  that  he  at  once  pro 
fessed  himself  a  Christian,  and  was  beheaded 
immediately  after  him.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  he  went  to  Spain,  of  which  country  he  is 
the  patron  saint,  and  Santiago  de  Compostela 
claims  the  possession  of  his  bones.  The  Gospel 
of  St.  James  which  was  discovered  in  151)5  on 
a  mountain  in  Granada,  written  upon  lead, 
was  declared  by  Pope  Innocent  XI.  in  1682  to 
be  spurious.  II.  The  Less,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  son  of  Cleophas  (or  Alpheus)  and 
Mary,  a  sister  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  died  about 
A.  D.  62.  He  was  the  cousin  of  Jesus,  and 
was  sometimes  called  his  brother.  The  son  of 
Alpheus  and  the  brother  of  the  Lord  are  sup 
posed  by  some  critics  to  be  two  persons,  and 
Neander  pronounces  the  question  the  most  dif 
ficult  in  the  apostolic  history.  According  to 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  he  was  a  priest  and  a 
Nazarite  before  he  was  an  apostle.  After  the 
ascension  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Jerusa 
lem,  and  there,  in  the  first  apostolic  council, 
he  spoke  against  those  who  wished  to  make 
the  law  of  Moses  binding  upon  Christians. 
The  progress  of  Christianity  under  him  alarmed 
the  Jews,  and  Ananus,  a  son  of  the  high  priest 
Annas,  accomplished  his  death.  The  apocry 
phal  "  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews  "  states 
that  he  was  first  precipitated  from  a  pinnacle 
of  the  temple,  and  afterward  stoned.  He  was 
noted  for  the  purity  and  holiness  of  his  life, 
and  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  Jewish  pro 
fessors  of  the  Christian  faith. 

JAMES,  Thopias,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1571,  died  in 


JAMES  CITY 


JAMES  FEANCIS  EDWARD  STUART  521 


Oxford  in  August,  1629.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  school  and  at  New  college,  Oxford, 
of  which  he  became  fellow  in  1593.  In  1602 
he  was  appointed  the  first  librarian  of  the  Bod 
leian  library,  a  post  which  he  occupied  for 
nearly  20  years.  In  1614  he  became  sub-dean 
of  Wells,  and  not  long  after  rector  of  Mon- 
geham,  Kent.  He  was  author  of  a  number 
of  learned  works,  mostly  controversial,  the 
principal  of  which  are :  Bellum  Papale  (4to, 
1600,  1678),  and  "A  Treatise  of  the  Corrup 
tion  of  Scriptures,  Councils,  and  Fathers,  by 
the  Prelates,  Pastors,  and  Pillars  of  the  Church 
of  Rome  for  the  Maintenance  of  Popery" 
(4to,  1612,  1688;  new  ed.  by  the  Rev.  J.  E. 
Cox,  1843).  His  "  Catalogue  of  the  Bodleian 
Library"  (4to,  1605,  1620),  and  other  writings, 
are  highly  esteemed  by  scholars. 

JAMES  CITY,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  York  river,  S.  by  James 
river,  and  W.  by  the  Chickahominy ;  area,  184 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,425,  of  whom  2,440 
were  colored.  It  has  a  rolling  surface,  well 
timbered  with  oak  and  pine.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  10,350  bushels  of  wheat,  64,- 
128  of  Indian  corn,  8,238  of  oats,  6,804  of  Irish 
and  5,071  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  11,809  Ibs.  of 
butter.  There  were  298  horses,  497  milch  cows, 
912  other  cattle,  and  2,485  swine;  1  flour  mill, 
and  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Williamsburg. 

JAMES  FRANCIS  EDWARD  STUART,  called  the 
chevalier  of  St.  George,  a  pretender  to  the 
throne  of  England,  son  of  James  II.,  born  in 
London,  June  10,  1688,  died  in  Rome,  Jan.  2, 
1766.  His  legitimacy  was  suspected  even  be 
fore  his  birth,  many  believing  that  his  mother, 
Queen  Mary  of  Modena,  was  not  really  preg 
nant,  but  that  it  was  intended  to  introduce 
fraudulently  a  pretended  Roman  Catholic  heir. 
Though  this  charge  has  been  disproved,  it  was 
one  of  the  reasons  why  the  infant  prince  was 
not  proclaimed  king  immediately  after  the  de 
thronement  of  his  father  in  1688.  His  childhood 
was  passed  at  St.  Germain,  where  Louis  XIV. 
gave  an  asylum  to  the  exiled  family.  On  his 
father's  death  he  was  immediately  acknowl 
edged  king  of  Great  Britain  by  Louis  XIV. 
under  the  title  of  James  III.  He  was  recog 
nized  also  by  the  king  of  Spain,  the  pope,  and 
the  duke  of  Savoy.  But  no  active  measures 
were  taken  in  his  behalf  till  March,  1708,  when 
he  sailed  from  Dunkirk  with  a  French  fleet  for 
the  invasion  of  Scotland.  The  expedition  re 
turned  without  having  effected  a  landing,  and 
the  prince  now  assumed  the  name  of  the  cheva 
lier  of  St.  George  and  joined  the  French  army 
in  Flanders.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Oudenarde  in  July,  1708;  and  in  that  of  Mal- 
plaquet  in  September,  1709,  he  charged  the  Eng 
lish  at  the  head  of  the  French  cavalry.  Mean 
time  the  English  parliament  set  a  price  of  100,- 
000  crowns  upon  his  head.  In  1713  he  was  se 
cretly  favored  by  Bolingbroke  and  other  min 
isters  of  Anne,  and  the  queen  herself  regarded 
him  with  predilection ;  but  he  rejected  their 
advice  to  renounce,  or  pretend  to  renounce,  the 


Roman  Catholic  faith.  The  sudden  death  of 
Anne  arrested  the  designs  of  Bolingbroke  and 
the  Jacobites;  and  Bishop  Atterbury,  who 
vainly  offered  to  head  a  procession  to  proclaim 
James  at. Charing  Cross,  is  said  to  have  ex 
claimed  with  indignation,  "There  is  the  best 
cause  in  Europe  lost  for  want  of  a  little  spirit." 
The  chevalier  hastened  to  the  court  of  Ver 
sailles,  but  Louis,  unwilling  to  give  England 
any  pretext  for  rupture,  ordered  him  to  leave 
France,  and  he  retired  to  Plombieres,  where 
he  issued  a  manifesto  which  was  published  in 
England,  asserting  his  right  to  the  crown.  At 
Commercy  in  Lorraine  he  was  joined  by  Bo 
lingbroke,  who  sought  in  his  interest  to  incite 
the  French  government  to  war  with  England. 
This  was  prevented  by  the  death  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  the  hopes  of  the  chevalier  were  languish 
ing  when,  on  Aug.  27,  1715,  the  earl  of  Mar 
invited  the  principal  Jacobite  gentlemen  of 
Scotland  to  a  great  hunting  match,  took  with 
them  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  James  III.,  and 
raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  in  the  high 
lands.  Encouraged  by  vessels  from  France 
with  arms  and  officers,  Mar  was  soon  at  the 
head  of  10,000  well  equipped  men,  made  him 
self  master  of  Fifeshire,  and  marched  to  Dun 
blane.  He  at  first  fell  back  before  the  duke 
of  Argyll,  commander-in-chief  of  the  English 
forces  in  Scotland,  but  being  reenf orced  fought 
with  him  the  doubtful  battle  of  Dunblane 
(Nov.  13,  1715).  On  the  same  day  in  Eng 
land  the  Jacobites  were  obliged  to  surrender 
Preston,  with  many  prisoners,  and  news  was 
received  that  Lord.  Lovat  had  delivered  up 
the  castle  of  Inverness,  though  hitherto  pro 
fessing  to  act  in  the  interest  of  the  chevalier. 
The  clans  soon  began  to  forsake  the  standard 
of  Mar,  whose  army  dwindled  to  half  its  origi 
nal  number.  Though  the  chevalier  had  been 
proclaimed  in  numerous  places  in  England  and 
Scotland,  his  partisans  had  gained  no  formida 
ble  successes.  While  his  cause  bore  this  gloomy 
aspect,  he  himself  arrived  at  Peterhead,  Dec. 
22,  1715,  passed  incognito  through  Aberdeen, 
received  Mar  most  cordially  at  Fetteresso,  made 
his  public  entry  into  Dundee,  and  continued 
his  progress  to  the  royal  palace  of  Scone. 
Though  everywhere  received  with  acclamation, 
he  was  disappointed  to  find,  instead  of  a  large 
and  victorious  army,  only  a  discordant  multi 
tude,  without  money,  arms,  or  ammunition. 
He  had  not  the  energy  and  courage  to  struggle 
with  the  difficulties  of  his  position.  The  reso 
lution  to  retreat  was  taken  at  a  council  on 
Jan.  29,  and  at  Montrose  he  reembarked  for 
the  continent  with  every  appearance  of  deser 
tion  and  deceit.  It  has  been  asserted,  how 
ever,  that  he  yielded  only  to  the  argument  that 
his  followers  would  obtain  better  terms  from 
the  government  in  his  absence  than  if  he  re 
mained.  After  a  voyage  of  seven  clays  he 
landed  at  Gravelines,  whence  he  proceeded  to 
St.  Germain.  The  triple  alliance  (1 717)  obliged 
him  to  leave  France,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  received  with  regal  honors  at  Madrid, 


522 


JAMESON 


JAMES  RIVER 


and  was  one  of  the  pretexts  for  Alberoni's 
preparations  for  an  invasion  of  England.  In 
1719  he  married  the  princess  Sobieski  of  Po 
land ;  and  in  1720  his  eldest  son,  Charles  Ed 
ward,  the  hero  of  the  enterprise  of  1745,  was 
born  at  Rome.  In  1722  he  issued  from  Lucca 
a  strange  manifesto,  proposing  that  if  George 
would  deliver  to  him  the  throne  of  his  fathers, 
he  would  bestow  upon  George  the  title  of  king 
in  his  native  dominions  and  invite  all  other 
states  to  confirm  it.  In  1725  his  wife,  with 
whom  he  had  lived  unhappily,  retired  to  a  con 
vent,  and  during  his  latter  years  he  led  a  quiet 
and  pious  life  in  Rome. — See  J.  II.  Jesse,  "  Me 
moirs  of  the  Pretenders  and  their  Adherents." 
JAMESON,  Anna,  a  British  authoress,  born  in 
Dublin,  May  19,  1797,  died  in  London,  March 
17,  1860.  Her  father,  Mr.  Murphy,  was  paint 
er  in  ordinary  to  the  princess  Charlotte,  and 
from  him  she  derived  her  enthusiasm  for  art 
and  intimate  acquaintance  with  its  technicali 
ties.  At  the  age  of  27  she  married  Mr.  Jame 
son,  a  barrister,  who  soon  after  received  a  gov 
ernment  appointment  in  Canada.  The  mar 
riage  proved  unhappy,  and  was  soon  practical 
ly  if  not  legally  dissolved.  She  then  made  a 
tour  through  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  and 
in  1826  published  anonymously  her  "Diary  of 
an  Ennuyee,"  a  work  recording  her  experi 
ences  of  travel.  She  published  in  1829  "  Loves 
of  the  Poets  "  (2  vols.  8vo),  a  series  of  sketches 
showing  the  influence  which  women  have  ex 
ercised  on  poetic  minds ;  in  1831,  "  Lives  of 
Celebrated  Female  Sovereigns  "  (2  vols.)  ;  and 
in  1832,  "  Characteristics  of  Women  "  (2  vols.), 
containing  disquisitions  on  the  female  charac 
ters  in  Shakespeare's  plays.  Her  next  work 
was  "  Beauties  of  the  Court  of  Charles  II.," 
consisting  of  letterpress  illustrations  of  engra 
vings  from  copies  of  the  original  pictures  by  Sir 
Peter  Lely,  made  by  her  father  at  the  desire 
of  the  princess  Charlotte.  It  was  followed  by 
"Visits  and  Sketches  at  Home  and  Abroad,"  a 
collection  of  miscellanies,  including  a  new  edi 
tion  of  her  "  Diary  of  an  Ennuyee."  She  sub 
sequently  visited  Canada  and  a  portion  of  the 
United  States,  recording  her  experiences  in 
"  Winter  Studies  and  Summer  Rambles  in 
Canada  "  (3  vols.,  1838),  and  in  1840  published 
a  translation  entitled  "  Pictures  of  the  Social 
Life  of  Germany  "  (2  vols.),  as  represented  in 
ths  dramas  of  her  friend  the  duchess  Arnalie 
of  Saxony.  In  1840  the  series  of  works  on 
art,  by  which  she  gained  her  chief  literary 
honors,  properly  commences  with  a  translation 
of  a  work  on  the  life  and  genius  of  Rubens 
by  Dr.  Waagen.  It  was  followed  by  a  "  Hand 
book  to  the  Public  Galleries  of  Art  in  and  near 
London  "  (2  vols.,  1842),  and  a  "  Companion 
to  the  Private  Galleries  of  Art  in  London  " 
(1844).  In  1845  appeared  her  "Memoirs  of 
the  Early  Italian  Painters,  and  of  the  Progress 
of  Painting  in  Italy  from  Cimabue  to  Bas- 
sano "  (2  vols.  18mo),  containing  30  biog 
raphies,  which  cover  a  period  of  about  three 
centuries.  A  new  edition  containing  addition 


al  biographies  and  other  matter  appeared  in 
London  in  1859.  Her  next  publication,  "Me 
moirs  and  Essays  on  Art,  Literature,  and  So 
cial  Morals  "  (1846),  contains  a  paper  on  the 
works  and  genius  of  Washington  Allston.  A 
more  elaborate  work  than  any  of  the  preceding 
was  her  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1848),  which,  with  the  "  Legends  of  the 
Monastic  Orders  "  (1850),  and  "Legends  of  the 
Madonna"  (1852),  had  employed  her  for  many 
years.  In  this  series  she  sought  to  trace  the 
progress  of  sacred  art,  to  explain  the  symboli 
cal  form  in  which  the  old  masters  clothed 
their  ideas,  and  to  indicate  the  purity  and 
beauty  of  their  conceptions.  Her  numerous 
skilful  etchings  from  original  pictures,  illustra 
ting  her  subject,  combine  to  render  the  series 
a  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of 
art.  Her  remaining  works  are  :  a  "  Common 
place  Book  of  Thoughts,  Memories,  Fancies," 
&c.  (1854);  "Sisters  of  Charity  Abroad  and 
at  Home"  (1855),  the  substance  of  a  lecture; 
and  "  The  History  of  our  Lord  as  exemplified 
in  Works  of  Art"  (vol.  i.,  1860  ;  vol.  ii.,  chief 
ly  by  Lady  Eastlake,  1864). 

JAMESON,  Robert,  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born 
in  Leith,  July  11,  1774,  died  April  17,  1854. 
He  studied  medicine  in  the  university  of  Edin 
burgh,  and  after  some  mineralogical  explora 
tions  in  Scotland  went  in  1800  to  Freiberg, 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Werner,  whose  geologi 
cal  dogmas  he  adopted  with  enthusiasm.  Re- 
.turning  to  Edinburgh  in  1804,  he  was  soon 
after  appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in 
the  university  of  that  city,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  For  many  years  he  was 
an  active  advocate  of  the  Wernerian  theory, 
but  finally  adopted  and  taught  that  of  Hutton. 
His  publications  are  purely  scientific,  and  in 
clude  manuals  of  instruction,  and  many  con 
tributions  to  scientific  journals.  His  most 
elaborate  works  are  his  "  System  of  Mineralo 
gy"  (3  vols.,  1804-'8),  and  "External  Char 
acters  of  Minerals  "  (1805).  In  1819  he  estab 
lished  the  "Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal," 
of  which  for  many  years  he  was  the  sole  edi 
tor.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  articles  on 
"  Geology,"  "Mineralogy,"  and  "  Organic  Re 
mains  "  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

JAMESONE,  George,  a  Scottish  painter,  born 
in  Aberdeen  in  1586,  died  in  Edinburgh  in 
1644.  He  was  a  fellow  pupil  with  Vandyke  in 
the  studio  of  Rubens,  and  is  called  by  Walpole 
"  the  Vandyke  of  Scotland."  Little  is  known 
of  his  career,  save  that  it  was  prosperous.  His 
pictures  are  found  in  many  old  family  mansions 
in  Scotland,  and  among  his  sitters  was  Charles 
I.  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  Edinburgh  in 
1633.  He  occasionally  painted  history  and 
landscape,  and  is  said  to  have  illuminated  a 
manuscript  on  the  life  of  Christ. 

JAMES  RIVER,  the  largest  stream  which  has 
its  whole  course  in  the  state  of  Virginia.  It  is 
formed  near  the  W.  border  of  the  state,  on  the 
border  of  Alleghany  and  Botetourt  cos.,  by  the 
union  of  Jackson  and  Cowpasture  rivers,  and 


JAMESTOWX 


JAMIESOX 


thence  flows  S.  E.  and  E.  to  the  Blue  Ridge,  at 
the  foot  of  which  it  receives  Calfpasture  river 
on  the  left.  Breaking  through  the  Blue  Ridge 
about  15  in.  N.  E.  of  the  Peaks  of  Otter,  it  re 
sumes  its  S.  E.  course  to  Lynchburg,  near 
which  town  it  bends  sharply  to  the  X.  E.  On 
reaching  the  boundary  between  Albemarle  and 
Buckingham  cos.,  it  takes  an  E.  S.  E.  direc 
tion,  which  it  retains  with  little  variation  until 
it  reaches  Richmond,  where  it  turns  nearly  S. 
It  is  here  obstructed  by  rapids,  and  embraces 
a  number  of  small  islands.  Near  the  S.  E.  ex 
tremity  of  Henrico  co.  it  again  takes  a  S.  E. 
course,  after  some  tortuous  deviations,  and 
finally  flows  into  the  S.  part  of  Chesapeake  bay, 
through  a  broad  estuary,  at  the  mouth  of  which 
are  Hampton  roads.  Willoughby  point  and 
Old  Point  Comfort  are  on  either  side  of  its 
embouchure.  The  river  is  450  m.  long,  and 
navigable  by  vessels  of  130  tons  to  Richmond, 
at  the  head  of  tide  water,  150  m.  from  the  sea, 
whence  the  James  River  and  Kanawha  canal, 
completed  to  Buchanan  in  Botetourt  co.,  passes 
along  its  upper  course.  The  principal  tribu 
taries  of  James  river  are  the  Appomattox  on 
the  right  and  the  Chickahominy  on  the  left. 
The  most  important  towns  on  its  banks  are 
Richmond  and  Lynchburg. 

JAMESTOWN,  a  village  of  Chautauqua  co., 
New  York,  at  the  outlet  of  Chautauqua  lake 
and  on  the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western,  and 
the  Dunkirk,  Alleghany  Valley,  and  Pittsburgh 
railroads,  55  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Buffalo;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,336.  It  is  connected  by  a  daily  line  of 
steamers  with  Mayville,  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  lake,  and  contains  a  piano  factory,  several 
sash  and  blind  factories,  two  machine  shops 
and  founderies,  an  edge-tool  factory,  a  large 
alpaca  factory,  woollen  mills,  three,  large  chair 
factories,  &c.  There  are  three  national  banks, 
four  hotels,  a  collegiate  institute,  two  daily 
and  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  eight  church 
es.  The  lake  is  becoming  a  favorite  summer 
resort.  Eight  hotels  and  many  cottages  have 
been  erected  on  its  shores,  and  four  steamers 
and  numerous  yachts  ply  upon  it. 

JAMESTOWN,  the  first'  English  settlement  in 
the  United  States,  situated  within  the  present 
limits  of  James  City  co.,  Virginia,  on  a  point 
of  land  projecting  from  the  X.  bank  of  James 
river,  32  m.  above  its  month.  The  encroach 
ments  of  the  river  have  converted  the  promon 
tory  into  an  island,  and  a  portion  of  the  site  of 
the  settlement  has  been  entirely  swept  away. 
A  part  of  the  old  church  tower,  with  some 
tombstones  standing  around  it,  is  now  the 
only  relic  of  the  ancient  town.  There  is  a 
private  residence  on  the  island.  Jamestown 
was  founded  in  1607  by  105  colonists  sent  out 
by  the  London  company  under  command  of 
Christopher  Newport.  Capt.  John  Smith  and 
Bartholomew  Gosnold  were  prominent  mem 
bers  of  the  expedition.  Their  fleet,  consisting 
of  three  vessels,  entered  the  Chesapeake  April 
26,  and  sailing  up  the  James  river,  which  they 
named  in  honor  of  the  reigning  king  of  Eng-  | 


land,  anchored  off  a  beautiful  promontory, 
where  in  May  they  began  to  build  a  town. 
During  the  first  season  of  their  arrival  the 
colony  was  exposed  to  extreme  want  and  dan 
ger,  and  it  was  only  saved  from  speedy  de 
struction  by  the  energy  of  Capt.  Smith  and 
the  good  offices  of  Pocahontas.  The  first  colo 
nial  assembly  ever  convened  in  America  was 
held  at  Jamestown,  June  29,  1619.  On  March 
22,  1622,  several  hundred  colonists  were  mas 
sacred  by  the  Indians.  (See  VIRGINIA.)  Xa- 
thaniel  Bacon,  during  the  rebellion  which  took 
its  name  from  him,  burned  the  town  in  1676. 

.1  AMI  (ABDERRAIIMAX  BEX  AHMED),  a  Persian 
poet,  born  A.  D.  1414,  died  in  1492.  He  de 
rived  his  surname  Jami  from  Jam,  the  place  of 
his  birth  in  Khorasan.  After  excelling  in  other 
studies,  he  applied  himself  to  the  mystical  doc 
trine  of  the  Sufis  under  the  celebrated  sheik 
Saad  ed-Din  of  Kashgar,  and  was  judged  wor 
thy  to  succeed  that  master  in  his  school.  His 
eloquence  and  amiable  character,  and  the  beau 
ty  of  his  poems,  made  him  a  favorite  of  the 
vizier  All  Shir,  the  sultans  of  Herat,  Abu  Said 
and  Hussein  Mirza,  and  also  of  the  Ottoman 
sultans  Mohammed  II.  and  Bajazet  II.  He 
was  equally  esteemed  by  the  common  people, 
whom  he  instructed  beneath  the  portico  of  the 
mosque  of  Herat  in  the  principles  of  morals 
and  religion.  He  is  one  of  the  best,  most 
learned,  and  most  voluminous  of  the  Persian 
poets,  and  composed  about  50  works  in  prose 
and  verse,  in  Arabic  and  Persian.  Among  the 
more  important  of  them  are  "  Yusuf  and  Zu- 
leika,"  translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Law 
in  the  "Asiatic  Miscellanies,"  and  published  in 
German  with  the  original  text  by  Rosenzweig 
(Vienna,  1824) ;  the  "Golden  Chain,"  a  satiri 
cal  poem  against  two  heretical  sects,  edited  by 
F.  Falconer  (London,  1848)  ;  "  Selman  and  Ab- 
sal,"  edited  by  Falconer  (London,  1850)  ;  the 
"Book  of  the  Wisdom  of  Alexander;"  Behar- 
istan  (the  "Abode  of  Spring");  and  the  prose 
work,  Nasahat  ul-ins  ("Breath  of  Man"),  a 
history  of  mysticism. 

JAMIESON,  John,  a  Scottish  clergyman,  born 
in  Glasgow,  March  3,  1759,  died  in  Edinburgh, 
July  12,  1838.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Secession 
minister  settled  in  Glasgow,  and  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  that  city.  At  the  age  of 
20  he  was  licensed  as  a  preacher,  and  in  17^1 
was  ordained  pastor  of  a  small  congregation  in 
Forfar,  where  he  remained  16  years  on  a  salary 
of  £50.  During  this  time  he  published  "So- 
cinianism  Unmasked"  (1788),  "The  Sorrows 
of  Slavery,  a  Poem"  (1789),  "Sermons  on  the 
Heart"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1789-'90),  and  "A  Vindi 
cation  of  the  Doctrine  of  Scripture  and  of  the 
Primitive  Faith  concerning  the  Deity  of  Christ " 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1794),  in  which  the  arguments  of 
Priestley  in  his  "History  of  Early  Opinions" 
are  ably  combated.  In  1797  he  was  settled 
over  a  congregation  in  Edinburgh,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  1802  ap 
peared  his  "Use  of  Sacred  History"  (2  vols. 
8vo),  and  in  1808-'9  his  most  important  work, 


524 


JANAUSCHEK 


JANIN 


"Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish  Lan 
guage  "  (2  vols.  4to),  of  which  he  published  in 
1818  an  8vo  abridgment,  followed  in  1825  by 
a  supplement  to  the  large  edition  in  2  vols.  4to. 
Among  his  remaining  works  are :  "  Hermes 
Scythicus,  or  Radical  Affinities  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Languages  to  the  Gothic"  (8vo, 
1814);  ''Historical  Account  of  the  Ancient 
Culdeesof  lona"  (4to,  1811);  "Grammar  of 
Rhetoric  and  Polite  Literature"  (12mo,  1818); 
editions  of  Barbour's  "  Bruce  "  and  Harry  the 
Minstrel's  "  Sir  William  Wallace;"  and  a  num 
ber  of  occasional  sermons  and  poems.  He  re 
ceived  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Princeton  col 
lege,  N.  J.,  and  during  the  last  five  years  of  his 
life  enjoyed  a  literary  pension  of  £100. 

JANAISCIIEK,  Fanny,  a  Bohemian  tragic  ac 
tress,  born  in  Prague,  July  20,  1830.  Her  tal 
ent  was  developed  under  the  direction  of  Ben- 
edix  at  Cologne,  and  from  1848  to  1860  she 
was  a  favorjte  at  the  Frankfort  theatre.  Sub 
sequently  she  appeared  in  Dresden  and  in  other 
German  cities.  From  1867  to  1871  she  per 
formed  in  the  United  States  in  German,  and 
after  a  visit  to  Germany  reappeared  here  in 
1873,  performing  successfully  in  English,  and 
winning  great  applause  by  her  tragic  genius. 
In  1874  she  went  again  to  Germany,  intending 
soon  to  return  for  a  farewell  tour. 

JANES,  Ednmnd  Stoner,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  April  27,  1807. 
His  early  life  was  mostly  spent  in  Salisbury, 
Conn.  From  1824  to  1830  he  was  employed 
in  teaching,  and  occupied  his  leisure  in  the 
study  of  the  law,  intending  to  follow  that 
profession ;  but  he  entered  the  ministry  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  in  1830 
joined  the  Philadelphia  conference.  From  this 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theol 
ogy,  and  during  the  intervals  of  immediate  pas 
toral  labor  he  also  read  extensively  in  medi 
cine.  In  May,  1840,  he  was  appointed  financial 
secretary  of  the  American  Bible  society,  and 
remained  in  this  office  till  1844,  when  he  was 
elected  bishop.  During  the  30  years  of  his 
episcopal  labors  Bishop  Janes  has  been  in 
trusted  with  some  of  the  most  grave  and  deli 
cate  duties  connected  with  the  affairs  of  the 
Methodist  church,  among  which  may  be  men 
tioned  his  appointment  as  delegate  to  the 
British  Wesleyan  conference  in  1864,  and  the 
supervision  and  inspection  of  the  Scandinavian, 
German,  and  Swiss  missions  in  Europe  from 
1864  to  1868.  In  1865  he  visited  England  as 
delegate  of  the  American  Bible  society  to  the 
British  and  foreign  Bible  society ;  and  he  also 
attended  the  French  Wesleyan  conference  at 
Paris  and  the  Irish  conference  at  Cork.  At 
Bremen  he  delivered  before  a  large  meeting 
an  address  on  the  death  of  President  Lincoln, 
which  was  widely  circulated  in  northern  Eu 
rope,  and  had  an  important  effect  on  public 
sentiment  there  at  a  critical  period.  His  resi 
dence  has  long  been  in  New  York  city. 

JANESYILLE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Rock  co.,  Wisconsin,  in  the  S.  part  of  the  state, 


situated  on  both  sides  of  Rock  river,  and  at  the 
intersection  of  the  Wisconsin  division  of  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad  with  the 
Prairie  du  Chien  division  of  the  Chicago,  Mil 
waukee,  and  St.  Paul  line,  35  m.  S.  E.  of 
Madison  and  71  m.  AV.  S.  W.  of  Milwaukee ; 
pop.  in  1860,  7,703;  in  1870,  8,789.  The 
ground  on  which  the  city  is  built  rises  gradu 
ally  on  either  side  to  an  elevation  of  nearly 
100  ft.  at  the  summit.  The  court  house  occu 
pies  a  commanding  position  on  the  E.  side  of 
the  river.  An  active  trade  is  carried  on  by 
the  railroads,  and  a  large  amount  of  capital  is 
invested  in  manufactures,  Rock  river  affording 
valuable  water  power.  The  principal  estab 
lishments  are  flour  mills,  saw  mills,  machine 
shops,  founderies,  woollen  factories,  carriage 
factories,  breweries,  &c.  There  are  two  na 
tional  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $-225,000,  and 
a  savings  bank.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  state 
institution  for  the  education  of  the  blind,  sup 
ported  by  legislative  appropriations,  and  open 
to  pupils  from  Wisconsin  free  of  charge  except 
for  clothing.  This  institution  was  founded  in 
1850,  and  in  1873  had  77  pupils.  There  are  14 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  which 
in  1872  had  28  teachers  and  1,150  pupils;  a 
daily,  a  semi-weekly,  and  three  weekly  news 
papers,  and  11  churches.  Janesville  was  found 
ed  about  1836,  made  the  county  seat  in  1839, 
and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1853. 

JANET,  Paul,  a  French  author,  born  in  Paris 
in  April,  1823.  He  is  a  follower  of  Cousin,  and 
has  been  professor  at  Bourges  and  Strasburg, 
and  at  the  lyceum  of  Louis-le-Grand,  Paris. 
In  1864  he  became  professor  of  the  history  of 
philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  a  member  of 
the  academy  of  moral  and  political  sciences, 
which  institution  awarded  prizes  to  his  La 
famille  (Paris,  1855)  and  Histoire  de  la  phi 
losophic  dans  Tantiquite  et  dans  les  temps  mo- 
dernes  (2  vols.,  1858).  Among  his  more  re 
cent  works  are  Histoire  de.  la  science  politique 
(1871),  and  ProlUmes  du  XIXs  siecle  (1872). 

JANET-LANGE,  Antoine  Louis,  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris  about  1818,  died  there  in  1872.  He 
studied  under  Collin,  Ingres,  and  Horace  Ver- 
net,  adopted  the  style  of  the  latter,  and  became 
distinguished  f  or  liistorical  and  military  pieces. 
Conjointly  with  Vernet  he  executed  in  1843 
designs  illustrating  the  history  of  Napoleon  I. 
One  of  his  finest  works  represents  "  Nero  con 
testing  the  Prize  at  the  Chariot  Race  "  (1855), 
and  his  subsequent  productions  include  illustra 
tions  of  Solferino  (1861-'3)  and  ';An  Episode 
of  the  Siege  of  Puebla"  (1868). 

JANIN,  Jnles  Gabriel,  a  French  author,  born  of 
Jewish  parents  at  St.  fitienne,  Dec.  11,  1804, 
died  at  Passy,  June  20,  1874.  He  completed 
his  classical  studies  at  the  college  of  Louis-le- 
Grand  in  Paris,  studied  law,  and  made  a  liv 
ing  as  a  private  tutor;  but  he  soon  became 
one  of  the  contributors  to  the  Figaro,  a 
sprightly  opposition  paper,  and  was  also  a 
regular  writer  for  the  royalist  journal,  the 
Quotidienne,  until  the  accession  of  the  Po- 


JANINA 


525 


lignac  cabinet  in  August,  1829.  A  few  weeks 
later  he  became  a  regular  contributor  to  the 
Journal  des  Debats;  and  after  writing  polit 
ical  and  miscellaneous  articles,  he  took  charge 
of  the  theatrical  notices.  His  articles  were  less 
criticisms  than  short  essays,  written  in  a  col 
loquial  and  gossiping  style.  Besides  numerous 
prefaces,  introductions,  and  articles  in  nearly 
every  Parisian  periodical  which  existed  du 
ring  his  career,  Janin  published  several  nov 
els,  the  first  of  which  was  I? Ane  mort  et  la 
femme  guillotinee  (1829).  Among  his  subse 
quent  writings  of  the  same  class  are  La  confes 
sion  (1830),  Harnave  (1831),  Le  chemin  de  tra 
verse  (1836),  Un  cceurpour  deux  amours  (1837), 
La  religieuse  de  Toulouse  (1850),  and  Lesgaites 
champetres  (1851).  He  prepared  an  abridg 
ment  of  Richardson's  "  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  with 
an  Essai  sur  la  me  et  les  outrages  de  Samuel 
Richardson  (1846).  Among  his  miscellaneous 


works,  exclusive  of  several  illustrated  publica 
tions  to  which  he  did  little  more  than  lend  his 
name,  are:  Contes  fantastiques  et  contes  litte- 
raires  (1832)  ;  Contes  nouxeaux  (1833)  ;  Les 
catacombes  (1839);  Le  voyage  (Tun  homme 
heureux  (1840) ;  Les  petits  bonheurs  (1856) ; 
Les  symphonies  de  Vhiver  (1857),  with  draw 
ings  by  Gavarni ;  and  fiachel  et  la  tragedie,  a 
biographical  and  critical  work,  with  photo 
graphic  illustrations  (1859).  His  Histoire  de 
la  litterature  dramatique  en  France  (4  vols., 
1851-'6)  is  a  selection  of  his  weekly  feuilletons, 
remodelled  so  as  to  present  a  sketch  of  the  his 
tory  of  the  French  stage  and  dramatic  artists 
during  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century.  In  1870 
he  succeeded  Sainte-Beuve  in  the  French  acad 
emy.  His  latest  work  was  Paris  et  Versailles 
il  y  a  cent  ans  (1874). 

JANINA,  or  Yanina,  a  city  of  Albania,  Euro 
pean  Turkey,  capital  of  a  vilayet  of  the  same 


m 


Janin  a. 


name  (pop.  400,000,  chiefly  Greeks),  on  a  small 
peninsula  on  the  bank  of  the  lake  of  Janina, 
85  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Larissa  •  pop.  about  16,000, 
of  whom  9,500  are  Christians,  4,000  Mussul 
mans,  and  2,500  Jews.  The  population  has 
decreased  about  10,000  since  1861,  chiefly  in 
consequence  of  emigration  and  military  con 
scription.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked, 
and  most  of  the  houses  are  poor.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  contains  7 
churches,  18  mosques,  2  synagogues,  a  Greek 
college,  a  library,  and  a  hospital.  Among  the 
manufactures  are  gold  lace  and  brocade,  moroc 
co  leather,  colored  linen,  and  silk  goods.  The 
adjoining  country  yields  grain,  fruits,  wine,  to 
bacco,  and  timber  in  abundance,  and  is  rich  in 
pasture  lands,  sheep  and  goats  constituting  a 
principal  source  of  wealth. — The  site  of  Janina 


and  its  lake  answers  to  that  of  the  city  and  lake 
of  Eurcea  in  Epirus  mentioned  by  Procopius. 
Justinian  built  a  fortress  at  Euroea,  probably  on 
the  site  now  occupied  by  the  citadel  of  Janina. 
In  the  later  period  of  the  Byzantine  empire  its 
territory  was  a  field  of  contention  between  the 
Greeks  and  Wallach  and  Slavic  settlers.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  llth  century  it  was  taken  by 
the  Normans,  who  defeated  Alexis  Comnenus 
under  its  walls.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  Janina 
enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  number 
ing  about  40,000  inhabitants,  possessing  an  ex 
tensive  trade  and  a  large  annual  fair,  and  rank 
ing  among  the  most  accomplished  and  indus 
trious  of  modern  Greeks.  But  the  despotic 
j  rule  of  Ali  Pasha,  governor  of  the  city,  led  to 


526 


JANIZARIES 


its  ruin.  When  no  longer  able  to  defend  the 
city,  he  set  it  on  fire.  (See  ALI  PASHA.)  The 
mosques,  the  palaces,  and  the  two  academies 
for  which  Janina  was  celebrated,  were  all  de 
stroyed.  Opposite  the  city  is  a  small  island 
with  a  fishing  village  and  a  church  and  monas 
tery. — The  lake  of  Janina  is  about  6  m.  in  length, 
and  almost  3  m.  in  its  greatest  breadth,  bound 
ed  N.  E.  by  the  Mitzikeli  mountains  (2,500  ft. 
high),  and  S.  "W.  by  a  rocky  mountain  crowned 
with  the  ruins  of  an  Epirote  city,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  ancient  Dodona.  The  N.  "W. 
part  of  the  lake  is  commonly  called  the  lake  of 
Lapsista,  and  the  S.  E.  that  of  Janina.  The 
middle  resembles  a  marsh  rather  than  a  lake, 
and  is  traversed  by  two  long  channels  which 
connect  the  two  portions.  The  waters  of  both 
lakes  are  absorbed  by  subterranean  channels  ; 
that  which  communicates  with  the  river  Ka- 
lama  (the  Thyamis  of  the  ancient  Greeks)  is 
in  the  lake  of  Lapsista.  The  lake  of  Janina 
abounds  with  pike,  perch,  carp,  tench,  eels,  and 
other  fish.  Immense  numbers  of  wild  fowl 
breed  in  the  covert  of  the  lofty  reeds  upon  its 
shores.  It  has  been  proposed  to  drain  the  lake 
by  boring  a  tunnel  6  m.  long  through  a  lime 
stone  mountain. 

JANIZARIES,  a  body  of  Turkish  infantry  now  j 
extinct.  The  name  is  derived  from  yeniakeri,  \ 
or  yeni  and  asltari,  "  new  troops."  They  were 
first  assembled  in  1329  by  Sultan  Orkhan,  but 
were  not  regularly  organized  until  1362,  when 
Amurath  I.,  after  conquering  the  southern 
Slavic  kingdoms,  claimed  one  fifth  of  the  cap 
tives,  including  the  able-bodied  youth,  to  be 
converted  to  Islamism  and  educated  as  sol 
diers.  This  was  done  with  extraordinary  care, 
the  recruits  being  distributed  at  first  among 
the  peasantry  of  Asia  Minor,  that  they  might 
become  hardened  by  rural  life  and  familiar  with 
Mohammedanism.  They  manifested  all  the 
enthusiasm  of  proselytes ;  and  as  this  spirit 
was  warmly  encouraged,  and  as  privileges  were 
granted  them,  they  soon  became  a  formidable 
means  of  defence.  They  were  divided  at  first 
into  80,  afterward  into  162,  and  finally  into 
196  ort«s,  each  numbering  in  Constantinople 
nominally  100  men,  and  elsewhere  200  or  300, 
in  time  of  peace,  but  500  in  time  of  war.  Be 
sides  the  (iga,  or  commander-in-chief  of  the 
whole  body,  six  officers  were  attached  to  each 
orta,  the  chief  being  called  the  orta-bashi. 
The  lowest  officer  was  the  cook,  who  also  per 
formed  various  other  duties,  and  for  whom 
the  soldiers  manifested  great  reverence.  They 
never  appeared  without  a  wooden  spoon  in 
their  turbans,  and  on  extraordinary  occasions 
always  assembled  around  their  soup  kettles; 
their  revolts  were  proclaimed  by  reversing 
these  kettles,  and  to  lose  one  of  them  in  bat 
tle  was  looked  upon  as  a  disgrace  equivalent 
to  the  loss  of  colors  in  other  armies.  Under 
Solyman  the  Magnificent  they  formed  the  best 
disciplined  force  in  Europe.  After  his  death, 
when  the  sultans  ceased  to  lead  their  armies 
in  person,  the  organization  fell  into  decay.  It 


was  no  longer  recruited  exclusively  from  young 
Christian  prisoners  of  war,  or  from  levies  on 
the  Slavic  provinces,  but  from  any  persons 
who  could  obtain  appointments  in  it  by  in 
trigue,  until  finally  it  consisted  in  a  great  mea 
sure  of  menials  and  vagabonds,  many  of  whom 


Superior.  Inferior. 

Janizaries— Officers. 

followed  no  military  exercises  and  were  per 
mitted  to  engage  in  trade  or  mechanical  and 
other  occupations.  But  they  still  supplied 
something  like  an  organization  to  the  turbulent 
mob  of  the  Turkish  cities,  and  were  long  really 
formidable  to  society  and  government  itself. 
They  mutinied  repeatedly  against  the  sultans, 
and  in  some  cases  deposed  them  or  put  them 
to  death.  They  frequently  pillaged  the  cities 
which  it  was  their  duty  to  guard.  In  1798 
Selim  III.  attempted  to  form  a  better  army 
by  instituting  the  nizam-jadid  or  disciplined 
troops.  This  caused  a  revolt,  the  abdication 
and  death  of  Selim  (July  28,  1808),  and  terri 
ble  outrages  in  Constantinople  (Nov.  14).  Mah- 
moud  II.  was  obliged  on  reaching  the  throne 
to  pardon  the  janizaries ;  but,  impressed  with 
the  danger  of  such  troops,  he  quietly  matured 
during  several  years  a  plan  for  ridding  himself 
of  them.  -Having  gained  over  some  of  their 
officers  and  the  Mohammedan  priesthood,  he 
resolved  to  exterminate  them,  and  on  May  29, 
1826,  published  a  decree  ordering  that  150 
janizaries  of  every  regiment  should  be  formed 
into  a  regularly  disciplined  militia.  This,  as  was 
expected,  led  "to  a  revolt  (June  15,  1826),  the 
janizaries  committing  horrible  excesses.  The 
next  day  they  assembled  and  reversed  their 
kettles.  But  the  mufti  displaying  the  sacred 
standard  of  Mohammed,  all  the  better  class  of 
the  population  joined  the  regular  troops.  Ar 
tillery  had  been  long  prepared  in  anticipation 
of  this  event,  and  great  numbers  of  galiongis 


JAN  MzYYEN 


JANSENIUS 


527 


or  sailors,  and  fiostangis  or  imperial  private 
guards,  were  also  ready  for  attacking  the  jani 
zaries.  "  Burned  alive  in  their  barracks,  can 
nonaded  in  the  At  Meidan,  where  they  made 
their  most  desperate  defence,  massacred  singly 
in  the  streets  during  three  months,  the  re 
mainder  were  condemned  to  exile."  About 
25,000  janizaries  were  thus  killed,  and  they 
have  never  been  reorganized. — See  Macfar- 
lane's  "  Constantinople  in  1828,"  and  Precis 
historique  de  la  destruction  du  corps  des  ja- 
nizaires,  translated  from  the  Turkish  by  Caus- 
sin  de  Perceval  (Paris,  1833). 

JAN  MA1EN,  a  volcanic  island  in  the  Arctic 
ocean,  situated  between  Iceland  and  Spitzber- 
gen,  about  200  m.  from  the  E.  coast  of  Green 
land.  It  contains  the  snow-clad  volcano  Bee- 
renberg,  nearly  7,000  ft.  high,  covered  by  large 
glaciers  and  frozen  waterfalls.  Another  active 
volcano,  the  Esk  (1,500  ft.  high),  was  discov 
ered  by  Scoresby  in  1817.  The  island  was  dis 
covered  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Jan  Mayen  in 
1611.  It  is  not  habitable,  abounds  in  bears, 
foxes,  and  sea  fowl,  and  is  described  by  Lord 
Dufferin  in  his  "  Letters  from  High  Latitudes." 

JANNEQUIN,  Clement,  a  French  musician  of 
the  IGth  century,  popularly  known  as  Clemens 
non  Papa.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death 
are  uncertain  ;  he  lived  in  the  reign  of  Francis 
I.  His  earlier  compositions  were  for  the  Cath 
olic  and  his  later  ones  for  the  Reformed 
church.  Most  of  them  were  for  four  voices. 
They  were  full  of  originality  and  invention, 
and  many  of  them  of  great  difficulty. 

JAN  SAHIB,  a  Hindoo  poetess,  born  at  Fur- 
ruckabad  in  1820.  She  received  a  superior 
education,  and  became  proficient  in  letters,  in 
music,  and  in  the  Persian  language.  She  pub 
lished  in  1846  at  Lucknow,  where  she  resides, 
a  collection  of  poems  (Divan),  which  are  great 
ly  admired  by  her  countrymen. 

JANSEiMtS  (JANSEN),  Cornelius,  a  Dutch  theo 
logian,  born  at  Akoi,  near  Leerdam,  Oct.  28, 
1585,  died  in  Ypres,  May  6,  1638.  He  studied 
theology  at  the  university  of  Louvain,  which 
unwaveringly  adhered  to  the  Augustinian 
system  of  Baius  (died  1589),  though  76  prop 
ositions  of  it  had  been  condemned  in  1567  by 
the  see  of  Koine.  After  studying  and  teach 
ing  at  Paris  and  Bayonne,  he  became  in 
1617  president  of  the  Pulcheria  college  at 
Louvain,  where  he  lectured  on  theology,  and 
in  1630  professor  of  theology  at  the  univer 
sity.  In  1635  he  was  made  bishop  of  Ypres. 
The  writings  of  Augustine  against  the  Pela 
gians  he  read  30  times,  and  his  other  writings 
10  times.  Like  Baius  he  adopted  the  Augus 
tinian  doctrine  of  grace  in  its  strictest  sense, 
and  was  therefore  opposed  to  the  theological 
views  of  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  prevented  from 
lecturing  at  Louvain  on  philosophy.  He  be 
lieved  that  the  Catholic  church  of  his  time 
had  in  this  and  in  other  points  departed  from 
the  doctrines  of  the  old  church,  and  therefore 
in  1621  projected,  with  his  friend  Duvergier 
de  Hauranne,  abbot  of  St.  Cyran,  the  plan  of  a 
VOL.  ix. — 34 


reformation,  Jansenius  taking  the  doctrine  and 
St.  Cyran  the  constitution  and  the  religious  life 
as  their  respective  fields  of  labor.  Irish  clergy 
men  of  high  standing  and  the  heads  of  the 
French  Oratorians  favored  this  plan.  In  spite 
of  the  violent  opposition  of  the  Jesuits  and 

|  the  inquisition,  he  was  sustained  throughout 
his  controversies  by  the  Spanish  government ; 
and  he  confirmed  his  influence  at  Madrid  by 
twice  visiting  that  city  (1624-'5).  Jansenius 
commenced  his  work  on  the  doctrine  of  Augus 
tine  in  1627,  and  had  hardly  finished  it  when 
he  died.  On  his  deathbed  he  recommended 
to  his  friends  its  publication,  which  the  Jes 
uits  and  the  papal  nuncio  at  Cologne,  antici 
pating  the  renewal  of  a  violent  controversy, 
strove  to  prevent.  It  appeared  (3  vols.  fol.), 
under  the  auspices  of  the  university,  and  the 
editorial  care  of  Liberus  Froidmont  and  Ka- 
len,  in  1640,  with  the  title  Augustinus,  sen 
Doctrina  Augustini  de  Humance  Naturce  Sani 
tate,  ^jEgritudine  et  Medicina,  adversus  Pela- 
gianos  et  Massilienses,  and  was  soon  reprinted 
at  Paris  (1641)  and  Rouen  (1643).  The  work 
sets  forth  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  irre 
sistible  grace  and  absolute  election  or  rejection, 
mostly  in  the  words  of  Augustine ;  it  rejects 
the  use  of  reason  in  religious  questions,  desig 
nates  philosophy  as  the  mother  of  all  heresy, 
defends  Baius,  and  accuses  the  Jesuits  in  gen 
eral,  and  in  particular  Fonseca,  Lessius,  Molina, 
and  others,  of  semi-Pelagianism.  The  Jesuits 
attacked  the  work  as  repeating  the  condemned 
propositions  of  Baius,  and  Urban  VIII.  in 
1642  condemned  it  as  heretical  by  the  bull  In 
eminenti^  and  placed  it  on  the  prohibitory  in 
dex. — The  name  JAXSEXISTS  is  commonly  ap 
plied  to  those  Christians  who,  in  France  par 
ticularly,  considered  the  opinions  of  Jansenius 
the  true  doctrine  of  the  Catholic  church,  not 
withstanding  their  condemnation  by  all  the 
popes  since  1642.  In  Holland,  where  they  al 
ways  maintained  their  hierarchical  organiza 
tion  in  spite  of  the  censures  of  the  Roman  see, 
they  called  themselves  the  Old  Episcopal  or 
Old  Catholic  church,  a  designation  which  has 
recently  been  adopted  also  in  some  parts  of 
Germany.  The  friends  of  Jansenius  in  the 
Netherlands,  among  whom  were  several  bish 
ops  and  nearly  all  the  professors  of  the  univer 
sities,  submitted  after  some  hesitation  to  the 
bull  In  eminenti  in  1647.  A  greater  resistance 
was  made  in  France,  where  St.  Cyran,  An- 
toine  Arnauld,  his  sister  Angelique,  the  abbess 
of  the  Cistercian  convent  of  Port  Royal,  Pas 
cal,  and  a  community  of  scholars  who  lived  in 
the  manner  of  the  ancient  anchorets  in  the 
vicinity  of  Port  Royal  des  Champs  (messieurs 
de  Port  Royal  des  Champs),  took  their  stand 
in  favor  of  Jansenius.  "When  Innocent  X.  in 
1653  denounced  five  propositions  in  the  works 

|  of  Jansenius  as  heretical,   a  majority   of  the 

j  Jansenists  denied  that  these  propositions  had 
been  understood  by  the  author  in  the  sense  in 
which  they  were  condemned.  Alexander  VII., 

I  however,  in  1656  demanded  of  the  French  clergy 


528 


JANSENIUS 


JANUARIUS 


a  declaration  by  which  they  should  reject  the 
condemned  propositions  as  propositions  of 
Jansenius.  This  raised  the  question,  whether 
the  pope's  admitted  infallibility  in  matters  of 
faith  extended  also  to  historical  facts.  Louis 
XIV.  lent  his  support  to  the  execution  of 
this  as  well  as  other  measures  of  the  popes 
against  Jansenism,  declaring  at  a  national  as 
sembly  of  the  French  clergy  in  1660  that  he 
regarded  it  as  his  religious  duty  to  exter 
minate  Jansenism:  Clement  IX.  in  1668  en 
deavored  to  put  a  stop  to  the  controversy  by 
a  decree  (Pax  Clementina),  which  demanded 
merely  a  rejection  of  the  five  propositions, 
without  ascribing  them  to  Jansenius.  (La 
paix  de  Clement  IX.,  Brussels,  1701.  The  au 
thor,  who  is  not  named  on  the  title  page,  was 
Quesnel,  who  died  in  1719.)  But  Clement 
XI.  and  Louis  XIV.  soon  had  recourse  to  se 
verer  measures ;  many  Jansenists  lied  to  the 
Netherlands,  and  Port  Royal  was  suppressed  in 
1709.  The  controversy  had  broken  out  Avith 
new  violence  on  the  publication  of  Quesnel's 
celebrated  work  on  the  New  Testament  (Le 
Nouveau  Testament  en  fran$ais,  avec  des  re 
flexions  morales).  Clement  XL,  by  the  consti 
tution  Unigenitus  (1713),  condemned  101  prop 
ositions  of  this  book  as  heretical,  dangerous, 
or  offensive  to  pious  ears.  A  large  portion  of 
the  French  clergy  and  people,  with  the  arch 
bishop  of  Paris,  the  cardinal  de  Noailles,  at 
their  head,  publicly  resisted  the  constitution, 
and  were  therefore  called  Anticonstitutionalists. 
A  papal  decree  of  Sept.  2,  1718,  threatened 
with  excommunication  all  who  would  not  sub 
mit  unconditionally.  Many  yielded,  among 
them  Cardinal  Noailles,  but  four  bishops  (those 
of  Mirepoix,  Montpellier,  Boulogne,  and  Senez) 
appealed  to  an  oecumenical  council.  Those  who 
sustained  this  appeal,  among  whom  were  many 
opposed  to  Jansenism,  were  called  Appellants. 
The  parliament  perseveringly  resisted  the  de 
crees  against  Jansenism ;  the  Sorbonne  wa 
vered,  and  when  pressed  generally  submitted 
to  the  papal  decrees.  Some  of  the  bishops 
continued  to  patronize  it,  and  the  general  chap 
ter  of  the  Oratorians  resolved  in  1727  not  to 
accept  the  bull  Unigenitus.  A  popular  saint, 
Francis  of  Paris,  died  with  the  appeal  in  his 
hand  (1727),  and  the  miracles  and  wild  convul 
sions  which  were  reported  to  have  taken  place 
at  his  grave  made  a  deep  impression  on  large 
classes  of  the  people.  But  when  the  constitu 
tion  by  an  act  of  royal  sovereignty  had  been 
enforced  as  a  law  of  the  kingdom  (1730),  the 
resistance  of  the  Jansenists  was  gradually  over 
come,  and  the  Oratorians  accepted  the  bull  in 
1746.  New  difficulties  arose  for  a  while  when 
Beaumont,  archbishop  of  Paris,  in  1752,  or 
dered  the  sacraments  to  be  refused  to  all  who 
had  not  accepted  the  constitution  ;  but  in  1756 
peace  was  restored  by  means  of  a  mild  pastoral 
letter  from  Benedict  XIV.  The  Jansenist  party 
remained  very  strong  among  the  French  clergy, 
and  most  of  the  clerical  deputies  in  the  states 
general  of  1789  belonged  to  it.  After  the  res 


toration  also  it  found  many  advocates  among 
the  clergy  and  laity,  and  since  1854  has  had  an 
organ  in  the  religious  press  (L?  Observateur  Ca- 
tholique).  In  Italy  several  bishops  who  were 
in  favor  of  the  reforms  of  Leopold  I.  of  Tus 
cany  and  of  Napoleon,  as  Ricci,  bishop  of  Pis- 
toja,  and  Capece-Latro,  archbishop  of  Taranto, 
were  regarded  as  Jansenists. — While  Jansenism 
remained  in  France  a  theological  school,  it  be 
came  in  the  Netherlands  an  independent  church. 
In  1704  Codde,  the  vicar  apostolic  of  the  arch 
bishopric  of  Utrecht,  was  deposed  by  the  pope 
for  holding  Jansenistic  views,  but  the  chapter 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  this  de 
position.  In  1723  the  chapter  chose  an  arch 
bishop  of  Utrecht,  who  was  consecrated  by  the 
bishop  of  Babylon,  a  French  bishop  inpartilms, 
who  lived  as  a  fugitive  at  Amsterdam.  The 
pope  was  informed  of  the  election,  but  an 
swered  by  a  condemnatory  brief.  The  arch 
bishop  appealed  from  the  condemnation  of  the 
pope  to  the  next  general  council,  a  step  which 
has  since  been  taken  by  each  of  his  successors. 
The  next  archbishop,  Barchman  Wuytiers,  re 
ceived  letters  of  communion  from  many  bish 
ops,  more  than  100  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  archives  of  the  church  of  Utrecht.  After 
the  death  of  the  bishop  of  Babylon,  Archbishop 
Meindaarts  (elected  in  1739)  restored  the  suf 
fragan  see  of  Haarlem  in  1742,  and  that  of  De- 
venter  in  1758,  in  order  to  secure  a  succession 
of  prelates.  In  1856  the  bishops  of  the  Jan 
senist  church  jointly  protested  against  the  doc 
trine  of  the  immaculate  conception.  They  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  rise  and  progress  of 
the  Old  Catholic  movement  in  Germany.  By 
invitation  the  archbishop  of  Utrecht  in  1872  ad 
ministered  the  sacrament  of  confirmation  in  a 
number  of  Old  Catholic  congregations  of  Ger 
many,  and  in  1873  the  bishop  of  Deventer,  then 
the  only  surviving  bishop  of  the  Jansenists, 
consecrated  the  first  Old  Catholic  bishop  for 
Germany.  The  Jansenist  church  in  1873  had 
25  congregations  and  25  pastors,  all  in  the 
dioceses  of  Utrecht  and  Haarlem,  the  diocese 
of  Deventer  having  no  congregation.  In  1874 
the  Jansenist  church  of  Utrecht,  numbering 
about  5,000  members,  formally  joined  the  Old 
Catholics. — See  Leydecker,  Historia  Jansen  ismi 
(Utrecht,  1695) ;  Lucchesini,  Historia  Polemica 
Jansenismi  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1711);  Tregelles, 
"The  Jansenists"  (London,  1851);  and  the 
Rev.  J.  M.  Neale,  "  History  of  the  so-called 
Jansenist  Church  of  Holland"  (Oxford,  1S58). 

JANSSENS,  Abraham,  a  Flemish  painter,  born 
in  Antwerp  in  1569,  died  about  1631.  He  en 
joyed  the  highest  reputation  in  Antwerp  until 
Rubens  established  himself  there  after  his  resi 
dence  in  Italy.  In  vigor  of  coloring  he  is  scarce 
ly  inferior  to  Rubens. 

JANIIARIUS,  Saint  (Ital.  San  Gcnnaro),  a 
Christian  martyr,  patron  saint  of  Naples,  born 
in  Naples,  or  according  to  some  accounts  in 
Benevento,  April  21,  272,  beheaded  at  Pozzuoli, 
Sept.  19,  305.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Bene 
vento  about  303,  just  as  the  persecution  under 


L5r>"  Luugitiuk?     West      ISO*   "from.    Washington 

~r     ~~r    "17  ^P^~ 


JANUARY 


JAPAN 


529 


Diocletian  began.  During  a  visit  which  lie 
made  to  the  imprisoned  confessors  of  the  faith 
at  Nola,  he  was  arrested  and  taken  before 
Timotheus,  the  governer  of  the  province.  This 
officer  is  said  to  have  condemned  him  and  his 
companions  to  be  cast  to  the  wild  beasts  in  the 
amphitheatre  at  Pozzuoli ;  but  as  the  animals 
refused  to  harm  them,  they  were  all  beheaded. 
It  is  further  related  that  Januarius  was  buried 
at  Pozzuoli,  but  two  small  phials  filled  with  his 
blood  on  the  place  of  execution  were  after 
ward  presented  to  Severus,  bishop  of  Naples. 
To  this  latter  city  the  remains  of  the  martyr 
were  transferred  about  the  year  400;  but  in 
817  they  were  carried  off  to  Benevento  by 
Sicon,  prince  of  that  city,  and  from  Benevento 
they  were  conveyed  in  1159  to  Monte  Vergine. 
On  Jan.  13,  1497,  they  were  once  more  brought 
back  to  Naples  with  great  pomp.  Many  mira 
cles  are  attributed  by  the  early  annalists  to  the 
exhibition  of  his  relics  on  various  occasions, 
as  the  staying  of  the  plague  and  of  eruptions 
of  Vesuvius.  It  has  long  been  customary  in 
Naples  to  expose  these  relics  to  the  public 
veneration  on  the  saint's  festival,  Sept.  19,  and 
also  on  the  first  Sunday  in  May  and  Dec.  1 6, 
as  well  as  in  seasons  of  national  calamity.  The 
relics  are  exposed  amid  great  solemnity  on  the 
high  altar  of  the  cathedral,  or  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Chiara.  Then  takes  place  the  celebrated 
liquefaction  of  the  saint's  blood.  The  two  phials, 
containing  what  appears  as  a  hard  substance, 
and  a  glass  case  enclosing  the  head,  are  brought 
separately  from  the  chapel  in  which  they  are 
preserved,  the  body  itself  reposing  in  the 
shrine  beneath  the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral. 
As  soon  as  the  head  is  brought  near  the  phials 
the  blood  is  seen  to  become  liquid,  to  bubble, 
rise  in  the  bottles,  and  fall  again;  the  alleged 
miracle  lasting  sometimes  eight  days.  On  such 
occasions  popular  enthusiasm  is  raised  to  its 
height.  The  nature  of  this  phenomenon  has 
been  investigated  by  scientific  men  of  various 
creeds  and  nations,  and  several  hypotheses  have 
been  suggested  to  account  for  if.  Roman  Ca 
tholics  regard  it  as  a  miracle,  but  it  has  never 
received  the  sanction  of  the  church,  such  as  is 
granted  to  miracles  in  the  solemn  processes  of 
beatification  and  canonization. 

JANUARY  (Lat.  Januarius),  the  first  month 
of  the  year,  consisting  of  31  days.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  added  with  February  by  Numa 
to  the  Roman  year,  which  previously  had  but 
ten  months.  It  was  named  from  the  double- 
faced  god  Janus,  to  whom  its  first  day,  which 
looks  hack  upon  the  past  year  and  forward 
upon  that  to  come,  was  sacred.  It  had  origi 
nally  but  29  days,  but  two  additional  days  were 
given  to  it  by  Julius  Csesar  when  he  reformed 
the  calendar.  It  was  symbolized  in  Rome  by  a 
consul  in  consular  robes,  because  those  magis 
trates  were  installed  in  office  on  its  first  day. 
It  corresponded  in  the  Athenian  calendar  with 
the  latter  half  of  Poseideon  and  the  first  half 
of  Gamelion.  Among  the  Scandinavians  it  was 
called  primitively  month  of  Thor,  and  later 


Ice  month.  The  French  revolutionary  calen 
dar  merged  it  in  parts  of  Nivose  and  of  Plu- 
viose.  It  was  not  uniformly  the  beginning  of 
the  year  among  Latin  Christian  nations  until 
the  18th  century. 

JAM'S  and  JANA,  two  divinities  of  ancient 
Rome.  Their  names  are  believed  to  be  corrup 
tions  or  abbreviations  of  Dianus  and  Diana,  des 
ignating  the  sun  and  moon.  Janus  presided 
over  the  beginning  of  everything,  and  was  there 
fore  invoked  on  every  occasion  before  all  other 
deities.  He  opened  the  year  and  the  seasons  ; 
he  was  the  janitor  of  heaven,  and  on  earth  the 
guardian  god  of  gates  and  doors;  in  time  of 
war  he  went  out  to  battle  with  the  armies  of 
Rome  and  aided  them,  while  in  time  of  peace 
he  abode  in  his  temple  and  watched  over  the 
city.  At  th,e  dawn  of  every  day  the  people 
addressed  their  supplications  to  him,  and  on 
the  first  day  of  every  year  sacrifices  of  cakes, 
barley,  incense,  and  wine  were  offered  in  his 
honor  on  12  altars.  The  worship  of  Janus  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Rome  by 
Romulus.  Numa  called  the  first  month  of  the 
Roman  year  after  him,  and  dedicated  a  covered 
passage  near  the  Forum  to  him.  This  passage, 
frequently  termed  a  temple,  contained  a  statue 
of  the  god,  and  had  two  entrances,  which  were 
always  kept  open  in  time  of  war  and  closed  in 
time  of  peace.  They  were  closed  only  once 
during  the  republic,  at  the  end  of  the  first  Punic 
Avar,  and  twice  by  Augustus.  Janus  was  some 
times  represented  with  two,  and  sometimes 
with  four  faces,  and  was  accordingly  styled 
IJifrons  and  Quadrifrons.  In  works  of  art  he 
frequently  has  a  staff  or  sceptre  in  his  right 
hand  and  a  key  in  his  left. 

JAPAN  (called  by  the  natives  Dai  Ni2~>pon  or 
Dai  Nilwn\  an  empire  consisting  of  a  group  of 
islands  lying  off  the  E.  coast  of  Asia,  between 
lat.  23°  and  50°  N,  and  Ion.  122°  and  153°  E. 
The  name  Japan  is  a  corruption  of  Marco  Po 
lo's  term  Zipangu,  which  represents  the  Chi 
nese  Shi-pen-kue,  meaning  "  root  of  day "  or 
"  sunrise  kingdom."  The  Japanese  empire  com 
prises  the  three  most  southerly  islands  of  the 
Kuriles  chain ;  Karafto  or  Saghalien  S.  of 
the  50th  parallel,  Yezo  (Yesso),  the  main  isl 
and,  incorrectly  called  Niphon  by  Europeans ; 
Shikoku  (Sikok),  Kiushiu  (Kiusiu),  and  the 
Riu  Kiu  or  Liu  Kin  (Loo  Choo)  islands.  Ka 
rafto  is  claimed  by  both  Japan  and  Russia, 
and  is  jointly  occupied  by  them.  The  entire 
number  of  islands  composing  Dai  Nippon  is 
officially  stated  to  be  nearly  4,000,  though 
many  of  these  are  so  small  as  to  be  hardly 
worthy  of  the  name.  The  Japanese  have  no 
special  name  for  the  main  island,  and  the  for 
eign  name  Niphon  is  unwarrantable  and  con 
fusing.  It  is  about  800  m.  long,  and  its  area  is 
about  80,000  sq.  rn.  Yezo  contains  about  30,- 
000,  Shikoku  about  7,000,  and  Kiushiu  about 
15,000  sq.  m.  Japan  has  been  from  ancient 
times  divided  into  circuits  similar  to  our  terms 
I  eastern,  middle,  southern,  and  western  states, 
and  territories,  a  system  of  division  still  kept 


530 


JAPAN" 


up  by  the  government,  and  taught  in  native 
geographies.  Kioto  (formerly  Heian  or  Heian- 
jo,  Kioto  being  a  Chinese  word  signifying  capi 
tal,  of  which  the  synonyme  miako  is  used  by 
the  Japanese  chiefly  in  poetry  for  Kioto  or 
any  great  city,  and  not  as  a  proper  noun)  was 
formerly  the  capital,  and  the  divisions  were 
named  in  reference  to  their  direction  from  it. 
They  were  :  the  Gokinai,  "  five  home  prov 
inces,  "surrounding  Kioto  ;  theTokaido,  "east 
ern-sea  circuit,"  15  provinces;  the  Tozando, 
"eastern  mountain  circuit,"  8  provinces;  the 
Hokurokudo,  "northern  land  circuit,"  7  prov 
inces;  the  Sanindo,  "mountain-back  circuit," 
15  provinces;  the  Sanyodo,  "mountain-front 
circuit,"  8  provinces;  the  Nankaido,  "south 
ern-sea  circuit,"  6  provinces;  the  Saikaido, 
"western-sea  circuit,"  9  provinces;  the  Hok 
kaido,  "northern-sea  circuit,"  11  provinces;  in 
all,  84  provinces,  subdivided  into  717  districts 
or  shires.  All  these  provinces,  except  the 
eleven  of  the  Hokkaido  (Yezo,  Kuriles,  Karaf- 
to,  &c.),  and  the  seven  into  which  Oshiu  and 
Dewa  have  been  divided  since  the  late  civil 
war,  have  each  two  names,  one  of  purely  na 
tive  derivation,  and  the  other  composed  of  the 
Chinese  word  shiu  added  to  the  Chinese  pro 
nunciation  of  the  character  with  which  the 
native  name  is  written ;  thus,  Nagato  is  also 
called  Choshiu,  and  Satsuma,  Sasshiu.  In 
many  places  the  pedantic  Chinese  name  has 
completely  superseded  the  original  Japanese  in 
the  mouths  of  the  people ;  in  a  few  both  are 
used  concurrently  ;  while  in  some  the  original 
name  is  retained.  Almost  every  Japanese  word 
and  name  has  also  a  Chinese  synonyme  or 
counterpart,  which  leads  to  endless  confusion, 
and  this  is  made  greater  by  the  names  which 
foreigners  continually  misapply  to  mountains, 
rivers,  and  things  in  common  use.  For  gov 
ernmental  purposes  the  empire  is  further  divi 
ded  into  three  fu  or  imperial  cities,  and  62  ken 
or  prefectures.  The  most  noted  cities  of  Japan 
are  Tokio,  the  capital  (formerly  called  Yedo), 
Kioto,  Ozaka  (or  Osaka),  Nagoya,  Hiroshima, 
Saga,  Kagoshima,  Kanagawa,  and  Fukuoka. 
These  are  cities  of  the  first  class,  each  reckoned 
to  contain  at  least  100,000  inhabitants.  Naga 
saki,  Kumamoto,  Fukui,  Kurume,  Yokohama, 
Gifu,  and  Yonezawa  rank  in  the  second  class, 
having  more  than  50,000.  Hakodate  (Hakodadi), 
Matsumae,Niigata,  and  Iliogo  have  from  20,000 
to  50,000  each.  There  are  probably  50  cities 
more,  containing  on  an  average  more  than  20,- 
000.  The  population  of  Japan  has  never  been 
properly  ascertained,  the  Japanese  method  being 
merely  to  count  the  houses  and  average  five  per 
sons  to  one  house.  Such  a  "  census  "  was  taken 
in  1804,  and  gave  a  population  of  30,000,000.  A 
hasty  estimate  was  made  by  the  department  of 
education  in  1872,  and  about  33,000,000  souls 
were  reported.  Foreign  travellers  and  those 
who  have  long  resided  in  Japan  assign  20,000,- 
000  as  the  highest  and  15,000,000  as  the  low 
est  figures.  Shikoku,  Kiushiu,  and  the  central 
provinces  are  thickly  populated,  especially  along 


the  great  roads.  In  the  N.  part  of  the  main 
island  the  population  is  thin,  and  in  the  whole 
of  Yezo,  Karafto,  and  the  Japanese  Kuriles, 
according  to  the  native  estimate,  there  are  few 
er  than  60,000.  In  the  Kiu  Kiu  (Loo  Choo) 
islands  a  population  of  124,000  is  claimed. 
Tokio  (Yedo)  contains  800,000,  Kioto  567,334, 
and  Ozaka  530,885  souls. — The  coasts  of  Japan 
abound  with  promontories,  and  are  much  broken 
by  bays  and  inlets ;  but  there  are  many  good 
harbors,  of  which  the  Japanese  number  56  large 
and  290  smaller  ones.  There  are  many  rocks 
along  the  coast,  but  the  Japanese  have  excel 
lent  charts  for  the  use  of  their  junks  and 
steamers,  and  the  long  continued  work  of  for 
eign  survey  parties  has  reduced  the  danger  of 
shipwreck  by  daylight  to  a  minimum,  while  at 
night  every  great  promontory  on  the  coast  is 
indicated  by  lighthouses  or  beacons  of  the  most 
approved  construction  and  equipment,  which 
have  been  erected  since  1869.  The  Japanese 
never  give  names  to  their  straits  or  bays ;  all 
such  names  have  been  given  by  foreigners. 
Owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  main  island, 
and  the  smallness  of  the  others,  there  are  no 
very  large  rivers  in  Japan ;  most  of  them  are 
mountain  torrents,  with  short  and  rapid  courses. 
Kawa  or  gawa  is  the  native  word  for  river. 
The  Tonegawa  is  the  longest  and  widest,  being 
172  m.  long.  The  Yodogawa,  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Biwa,  flows  past  Ozaka.  The  Kisogawa 
flows  into  the  bay  of  Owari.  The  Tenriugawa 
is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Suwa  in  Shinano.  The 
current  of  the  Oigawa  is  very  swift,  and  that 
of  the  Fujikawa  is  still  more  rapid.  The  Su- 
midagawa  floAvs  past  Tokio.  The  river  called 
Logo  by  foreigners  is  properly  named  liokugo. 
The  chief  lakes  are  Biwa,  Inawashiro,  Suwa, 
Hakone,  and  Chiuzenji.  The  three  latter  lie 
far  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Lake  Biwa,  or 
Otsu,  is  more  than  60  m.  long,  and  about  20 
m.  wide. — The  most  extensive  plains  are  those 
of  the  Kuanto  or  plain  of  Yedo,  Echigo,  and 
the  north  of  Oshiu.  The  provinces  of  Mino, 
Mikawa,  and  Owari  are  also  very  flat.  The 
table  land  of  Shinano  lies  about  2,500  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  general  trend  of  the  mountain 
ranges  is  from  N.  to  S.,  usually  presenting  a 
steep  face  to  the  E.  and  sloping  on  their  "W. 
side.  The  most  noted  peak  is  the  volcanic 
cone  Fusiyama  (properly  Fujisan,  or  Fujino- 
yama,  "Eich  Scholar  peak"),  14,000  ft.  high, 
in  the  province  of  Suruga,  70  m.  S.  "W.  of  To 
kio.  Thousands  of  pilgrims  ascend  it  annually. 
Its  craters  and  hollows  only  are  snow-covered 
in  summer.  Hakuzan  or  Shiroyama,  in  Kaga, 
is  9,000  ft.  high.  Gassan,  Mitake  in  Shinano, 
the  Nikko  range,  Omine  in  Yamato,  and  Ta- 
teyama  in  Etchiu,  are  also  well  known.  There 
are  some  active  volcanoes,  such  as  Asamayama, 
Asoyarna,  Kirishima,  and  Yakeyama  in  Nambu. 
A  perpetual  pillar  of  steam  rises  from  Asama 
yama  ;  and  in  past  times  great  destruction  of 
life  and  property  has  been  caused  by  eruptions 
of  this  and  other  volcanoes  in  Japan.  The  en 
tire  group  of  islands  is  volcanic,  and  earthquakes 


JAPAN 


531 


are  common,  as  many  as  87  in  one  day  having 
been  counted.  Scarcely  a  month  passes  with 
out  greater  or  less  vibrations,  and  in  some 
cases  whole  towns  are  destroyed  by  them. 
They  are  the  frequent  causes  of  tire  in  cities  by 
overturning  lights  and  braziers.  An  earth 
quake  in  Yedo  in  1854  killed  several  thousand 
people,  and  threw  down  hundreds  of  houses. 
In  general,  however,  the  shocks  are  light,  and 
the  natives  and  resident  foreigners  care  little 
about  them.  The  houses  are  built  with  refer 
ence  to  resisting  or  neutralizing  the  shocks, 
mostly  of  timber,  and  their  chief  supports  are 
set  into  sockets  cut  in  round  or  waterworn 
stones.  The  roof  is  constructed  of  massive 
logs  and  beams  covered  with  heavy  tiles.  The 
inertia  of  this  mass  secures  stability,  while  the 
force  of  the  shock  is  interrupted  in  its  conti 
nuity,  and  greatly  lessened  by  being  broken  at 
the  sockets.  Many  temples,  pagodas,  and  cas 
tles  have  thus  withstood  the  shocks  for  centu 
ries.  The  eastern  half  of  the  main  island  is 
most  subject  to  earthquakes,  and  Shikoku  and 
Kiushiu  are  far  less  so.  Superstition  attributes 
the  cause  of  earthquakes  to  a  huge  catfish, 
whose  head  is  under  Oshiu  and  his  tail  under 
Kioto.  His  anger  and  struggles  cause  the  seis 
mic  throes. — The  surface  of  the  whole  empire  is 
almost  entirely  a  succession  of  hills  and  valleys. 
The  soil  is  mainly  diluvium  and  disintegrated 
lava,  though  every  kind  is  known.  It  is  in 
general  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  but  large 
tracts  on  the  mainland  and  in  Yezo  lie  uncul 
tivated,  being  either  not  urgently  needed,  or, 
as  in  many  cases,  being  useless  from  lack  of 
scientific  methods  of  improvement  and  fertili 
zation.  Japan  could  easily  maintain  double 
its  present  population.  Rice  land  is  made 
wherever  possible,  and  after  centuries  of  pa 
tient  toil  the  largest  part  of  the  fertile  land  is 
laid  out  in  the  form  of  irrigated  rice  fields.  In 
many  places  the  mountain  sides  are  terraced 
and  tilled.  The  area  under  cultivation  is  not 
known,  but  is  assessed  at  31,620,000  Icolcu.  A 
koku  is  5*13  bushels.  Rice  has  hitherto  been 
the  standard  of  value.  The  amount  which  a 
given  piece  of  land  will  produce  is  determined 
by  threshing  the  rice  grown  on  it  and  measur 
ing  the  grain.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  varies 
greatly  in  different  places,  but  rice  land  is 
worth  five  times  more  than  arable  land.  Al 
most  all  agricultural  labor  is  done  by  hand, 
and  with  the  rudest  tools. — The  climate  resem 
bles  that  of  our  Atlantic  seacoast  states,  though 
not  so  changeable  as  the  latter.  The  meteoro 
logical  records  of  one  year  (1804)  in  Yoko 
hama  were  as  follows,  in  monthly  averages: 
January,  36-50°;  February,  38-12°;  March, 
43-28°;  April,  57'36° ;  May,  64-04°;  June, 
69-14° ;  July,  76'49° ;  August,  79-55°  ;  Sep 
tember,  70-44°  ;  October,  62 '55°  ;  November, 
52-09°  ;  December,  44*30°.  Annual  mean 
range  of  temperature,  58-02°.  First  frost, 
Nov.  26  ;  first  ice,  Dec.  14.  There  were  205 
fair,  61  cloudy,  92  rainy,  and  8  snowy  days. 
In  1864  71-44  inches  of  rain  fell.  The  general 


direction  of  the  wind  was  N.  in  winter  and 
autumn,  and  S.  in  summer.  Rain  and  snow 
are  rather  more  common  on  the  TV.  coast  than 
on  the  E.  Rain  falls  abundantly  in  the  spring 
and  summer ;  June  is  considered  the  rainy 
month.  In  some  years  it  rains  constantly 
through  September  and  October.  Snow  rare 
ly  remains  on  the  ground  longer  than  24  hours 
in  Tokio  or  S.  of  it.  In  the  provinces  N.  of 
Kioto,  on  the  TV.  coast,  the  snow  lies  for  weeks 
at  the  depth  of  from  6  to  10  ft.  Storms  with 
thunder  and  lightning  are  much  more  rare 
than  in  the  United  States,  but  floods  of  rain 
and  high  winds  are  common.  At  least  once  if 
not  oftener  in  the  summer  or  early  fall  a  cy 
clone  or  tai-fun  (typhoon)  visits  the  country, 
destroying  life  and  property  to  an  appalling 
extent.  One  which  passed  over  Kobe  July  4, 
1871,  dashed  scores  of  junks  and  ships  far  up 
on  land,  demolishing  houses,  and  killing  more 
than  200  persons.  In  Fukui  it  blew  down 
houses  and  damaged  nearly  every  fence  and 
roof  in  the  city,  tidal  waves  after  earthquakes 
are  also  to  be  looked  for,  and  one  on  Dec.  22, 
1855,  destroyed  part  of  the  town  of  Shimoda, 
swept  scores  of  the  people  into  the  sea,  ruined 
the  harbor  by  sweeping  all  the  mud  from  the 
rocks,  so  that  anchors  were  useless,  and  de 
stroyed  the  Russian  frigate  Diana  and  a  fleet 
of  native  junks. — Japan  is  rich  in  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  mercury,  tin,  coal,  sulphur,  and 
salt.  Iron  is  also  found  in  many  of  the  prov 
inces,  but  as  it  is  in  the  form  of  magnetic 
oxide,  the  cost  of  smelting  it  is  very  great; 
hence  Japan  will  not  be  able  to  produce  enough 
native  iron  to  supply  her  wants.  The  quality 
of  Japanese  iron,  however,  is  very  good,  and 
often  equal  to  the  best  Swedish.  Tin  is  now  more 
extensively  mined  than  formerly,  owing  to  the 
increasing  use  of  tinned  iron.  Copper  is  so  abun 
dant  that  it  was  formerly  of  the  same  value  as 
iron.  Large  quantities  are  still  exported  in  the 
form  of  bars  and  blocks,  old  bells,  idols,  &c. 
Gold  is  obtained  in  many  places,  both  by  wash 
ing  the  earth  and  sands  of  rivers,  and  from  the 
ore.  Silver  is  extracted  from  its  ores,  but 
chiefly  from  argentiferous  galena.  Sado  island, 
where  most  of  the  precious  metals  are  mined, 
has  a  population  of  3,000  native  miners.  The 
mines  arc  worked  under  the  supervision  of 
two  English  miners,  who  have  the  most  ap 
proved  modern  machinery.  Many  of  the  old 
mines  throughout  the  country  have  been  aban 
doned,  but  under  an  approved  system  of  mi 
ning  the  mineral  wealth  of  Japan  will  be  in 
creased.  Blasting,  introduced  by  Prof.  Pum- 
pelly,  is  now  generally  practised,  and  pump 
ing,  crushing,  and  washing  are  done  by  ma 
chinery.  Graphite  of  excellent  quality  is  mined 
in  Satsuma,  and  used  for  pencils  made  by  the 
natives.  Bituminous  coal  of  an  inferior  quality 
is  dug  in  many  places,  but  coal  is  largely  mined 
in  Yezo,  Amakusa,  Karatsu,  and  near  Nagasaki, 
and  sold  for  the  use  of  steamers.  Sulphur  is 
abundant  and  of  excellent  quality.  Petroleum 
is  obtained  in  Echigo,  Suruga,  Yezo,  and  other 


532 


JAPAN 


places,  and  used  in  the  "Yankee  lamps"  now 
everywhere  prevalent.  Alum  and  green  and 
blue  vitriol  are  made  by  the  natives.  Granite, 
porphyry,  obsidian,  syenite,  gneiss,  freestone, 
and  a  great  variety  of  the  softer  building  stones 
are  obtained  in  almost  every  province.  Agates, 
carnelians,  and  jasper  of  great  size  and  beauty 
are  found.  Small  garnets  are  plentiful.  Pearls 
are  fished  up  along  the  coast,  and  the  pearl 
fisheries  may  yet  become  a  very  important 
branch  of  industry.  The  rock  crystals  of 
Japan  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  great 
size  and  clearness.  One  at  the  Vienna  expo 
sition  was  a  sphere,  perfectly  clear,  and  seven 
inches  in  diameter.  The  Japanese  cut  them 
into  balls,  and  the  native  lapidaries  are  very 
skilful  in  their  craft.  Salt  is  produced  by  re 
peatedly  saturating  sand  with  salt  water,  dry 
ing  it,  and  dissolving  out  the  salt.  Malachite 
and  cinnabar  are  well  known.  Petrifactions 
and  fossils  are  often  seen.  Sulphurous,  chalyb 
eate,  and  mineral  springs,  the  waters  of  which 
are  variously  impregnated,  are  very  numerous 
throughout  the  empire. — There  is  perhaps  no 
other  country  in  the  world  of  the  same  area 
that  produces  such  a  variety  of  conifers.  They 
are  everywhere  abundant,  the  main  roads  are 
lined  with  them,  and  clipped  hedges  of  cryp- 
tomeria,  retinospora,  biota,  &c.,  are  very  gen 
eral.  Around  the  temples,  where  they  are 
never  cut  down,  they  attain  the  greatest  size 
and  grandeur.  They  are  often  trained  to  spread 
out  over  bamboo  frames,  and  particular  limbs 
are  propped  up  and  grow  to  a  great  length. 
Timber  is  very  plentiful,  cheap,  and  of  great 
variety.  The  mulberry  tree  grows  wild,  but 
the  young  trees  that  are  reared  for  the  food  of 
the  silkworm  are  not  allowed  to  grow  more 
than  6  ft.  high.  The  varnish  tree  (rhus  verni- 
cifeni),  from  which  the  famed  lacquer  is  made, 
also  produces  oil  and  vegetable  tallow,  like  its 
near  ally  the  rJms  succedanea.  Large  quantities 
of  camphor  are  exported,  being  obtained  from 
the  camphor  trees  which  attain  great  age  and 
size  in  Japan.  The  chief  fruit  trees  are  the 
apple,  pear,  plum,  apricot,  peach,  chestnut, 
walnut,  persimmon,  pomegranate,  fig,  orange, 
lemon,  and  citron.  The  grape  is  the  best  fruit 
in  Japan.  Strawberries  grow  wild,  but  are 
nearly  tasteless.  Loquats  and  kumquats,  as  in 
China,  are  common.  The  persimmons  are  often 
as  large  as  apples,  and  very  sweet.  The  cherry 
tree  blossoms,  but  bears  no  eatable  fruit.  The 
bamboo  is  found  almost  everywhere  from  Ka- 
rafto  to  Riu  Kiu,  and  is  put  to  an  astonishing 
number  of  uses.  The  box  tree,  juniper,  ivy, 
palm,  elm,  and  a  black  wood  like  ebony  are 
also  found.  The  camellia  grows  wild,  often 
40  ft.  high,  and  is  cultivated  everywhere  for 
the  beauty  of  its  blossoms,  an  immense  num 
ber  of  varieties  being  produced.  Beans,  peas, 
white  and  sweet  potatoes,  carrots,  lettuce, 
beets,  yams,  tomatoes,  ginger,  egg  plant,  gourds, 
cucumbers,  mushroom,  lilies  (the  bulbs  of  which 
are  eaten),  bamboo  (the  young  sprouts  are 
eaten),  spinach,  leeks,  radishes,  garlic,  capsicum, 


endive,  fennel,  pumpkins,  squashes,  beets,  tur 
nips,  and  asparagus  are  the  principal  vegetables 
for  the  table.  Many  of  these  were  introduced 
by  the  Dutch,  and  some  by  Com.  Perry.  The 
daikon,  an  enormous  radish,  often  30  in.  long 
and  4  thick,  is  a  staple  article  of  food  in  both 
the  fresh  and  pickled  state.  The  food  of  the 
people  is  mainly  vegetables  and  fish.  Rice, 
millet,  and  buckwheat  are  eaten  in  great  quanti 
ties  ;  maize  and  barley  are  also  raised.  Rape 
for  oil,  hemp  for  cordage  and  cloth,  cotton  for 
clothing,  indigo,  and  tobacco  which  is  very 
mild,  are  cultivated.  Many  specimens  of  the 
American  flora  are  now  common  in  Japan. — 
The  poverty  of  the  Japanese  fauna  is  well 
known,  but,  like  the  flora,  it  corresponds  more 
closely  to  that  of  the  American  than  to  that  of 
the  Asiatic  continent.  In  the  woods  and  wilds 
are  bears,  wild  boars,  wolves,  deer,  badgers, 
foxes,  ground  squirrels,  and  hares.  The  mon 
keys  are  so  numerous  as  to  be  troublesome  at 
times.  Weasels,  martens,  and  moles  are  very 
common.  Wild  ducks  and  geese,  pigeons, 
woodcocks,  snipes,  pheasants,  teal,  herons,  and 
storks  are  among  the  birds  used  for  food.  The 
hawrk,  buzzard,  crow,  eagle,  cormorant,  gull, 
sparrow,  red-billed  magpie,  and  ortolan  are 
numerous.  The  canary  is  now  well  domesti 
cated  in  Japan,  and  the  wiguisu  or  Japanese 
nightingale  is  noted  for  its  music.  Tame  ani 
mals  are  now  more  numerous  than  former 
ly,  owing  to  the  increasing  habit  of  eating 
meat.  Venison,  wild  boar,  and  monkey  meat 
have  been  eaten  from  ancient  times ;  and  beef, 
pork,  and  mutton,  especially  the  first,  are  now 
eaten  in  all  the  large  cities.  Goats  are  found 
around  Nagasaki,  cows  and  bulls  in  every  prov 
ince,  hogs  in  many  places,  and  sheep  in  a  few. 
The  native  horses  are  small  and  active.  In 
Satsuma  they  are  woolly,  and  in  Tosa  as  small 
as  Shetland  ponies.  Dogs  are  very  numerous, 
but  of  gentle  dispositions;  and  the  highly 
prized  variety  of  spaniel  called  chin,  having  a 
snub  nose  and  silky  fur,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
original  of  the  English  variety  called  Prince 
Charles's  spaniel.  The  cats  are  generally  short- 
tailed;  on  the  "W.  coast  long-tailed  cats  are 
found,  but  most  Japanese  cats  have  tails  from 
1  to  3  in.  long.  Rabbits  and  guinea  pigs  are 
common  pets.  Among  the  domestic  fowls, 
the  turkey,  peacock,  goose,  and  swan  are  less 
common;  but  the  bantam  fowls,  ordinary 
chickens,  ducks,  and  pigeons  are  reared  ex 
tensively  for  food.  Fish  is  the  staple  animal 
food,  and  the  great  variety  displayed  in  the 
markets,  from  river,  lake,  and  sea,  astonishes 
foreigners.  The  Japanese  are  especially  fond 
of  raw  fish.  A  large  proportion  of  the  popu 
lation  are  fishers.  Many  of  the  women  are 
expert  divers,  often  remaining  for  hours  in  the 
water ;  they  can  swim  with  bags  full  of  heavy 
shell  fish  on  their  shoulders.  Fishing  is  carried 
on  with  nets,  hooks  and  lines,  spears,  bows  and 
arrows,  and  with  cormorants.  Whales  are 
pursued  and  killed  whenever  met  with.  Enor 
mous  squids  with  arms  25  ft.  long,  and  crabs 


JAPAN 


533 


whose  outspread  claws  measure  14  ft.  from 
tip  to  tip,  are  occasionally  caught  in  the  bay 
of  Yedo.  Sea  otters  and  seals  are  shot  in 
great  numbers  in  Karafto  and  the  Kuriles. 
The  salamander  is  sometimes  seen  in  the 
lakes  and  rivers.  The  reptiles  and  insects  of 
Japan  are  varied  and  interesting. — The  Jap 
anese  people  are  of  middling  size,  in  general 
active  and  vigorous ;  and  in  their  mental  char 
acteristics  they  resemble  Europeans  more  than 
the  average  Asiatic  peoples.  Their  skins  range 
through  all  colors  from  white  to  light  brown, 
yellow  copper  color,  dirty  red,  and  almost 
black.  The  average  hue  is  a  pale  copper 
on  the  body,  and  shades  of  yellowish  brown 
in  the  face.  The  color  depends  greatly  upon 
the  degree  of  exposure ;  the  ladies  of  the 
upper  class,  who  rarely  go  out  of  the  house,  are 
often  perfectly  white  and  fair,  while  some  of 
the  coolies  are  almost  as  black  as  negroes. 
Their  eyes  are  oblong,  of  a  very  dark  brown, 
often  deeply  sunk  in  the  head,  and  not  so 
oblique  as  those  of  the  Chinese.  The  upper  lid 
toward  the  nose  is  folded  so  as  to  prevent  the 
eyes  from  opening  as  widely  as  those  of  Cau 
casians.  Their  noses  are  flat,  thick,  short,  de 
pressed  at  the  bridge,  and  round  and  open  in 
front,  instead  of  beneath.  Their  hair  is  not  a 
true  black,  but  of  a  very  dark  brown,  some 
times  distinctly  red.  Its  blackness  and  coarse 
ness  are  promoted  by  the  universal  practice  of 
shaving  the  heads  of  the  children  from  their 
birth.  Usually  it  is  made  to  appear  very  black 
and  glossy  with  unguents  and  bandoline  made 
from  a  mucilaginous  plant.  Some  of  the 
mountaineers,  boatmen,  and  coolies  are  tall  and 
muscular,  but  the  average  Japanese  is  flat- 
breasted,  undersized,  and  weak  in  physique, 
compared  with  Caucasians.  Both  sexes  have 
small  hands  and  feet.  The  women  are  usually 
small  and  dumpy,  though  often  very  beautiful, 
and  exceedingly  neat  in  dress  and  coiffure. 
People  of  every  age  and  sex  bathe  daily  in  hot 
water.  In  the  public  bath  houses,  so  numerous 
in  every  street,  the  water  is  often  intensely  hot, 
which  the  bathers  delight  in,  at  the  cost  of 
half  a  cent.  The  heat  of  the  water  and  the 
price  of  a  bath  are  now  regulated  by  govern 
ment,  which  has  also  of  late  years  prohibited 
the  practice  of  promiscuous  bathing.  The 
married  women,  and  those  above  20  years  of 
age,  blacken  their  teeth  with  a  mixture  of  galls 
and  powdered  iron,  which  forms  a  jet-like 
black,  but  is  not  more  corrosive  than  common 
writing  ink.  The  origin  of  this  custom  is  now 
lost  in  obscurity.  Formerly  the  emperor  and 
court  nobles  blackened  their  teeth  ;  they  ceased 
to  do  so  in  1868.  The  practice  is  now  dis 
couraged,  and  many  women  are  forsaking  it, 
following  the  example  of  the  empress.  Mar 
ried  women  formerly  shaved  off  their  eye 
brows,  a  custom  now  also  falling  into  disuse. 
The  Japanese  maiden,  wife,  or  widow  may  be 
distinguished  by  her  coiffure.  Among  the 
men,  the  old  percussion  gun-hammer  style  of 
topknot  or  shaven  scalp  is  rapidly  giving  way 


to  the  foreign  style  of  hair  dressing.  In  char 
acter,  the  people  are  lively  and  volatile,  quick 
of  apprehension,  frank,  liberal,  and  hospitable. 
They  are  peculiarly  fond  of  military  life,  and 
make  excellent  soldiers  and  sailors.  They  learn 
rapidly,  and  show  much  aptitude  for  the  ac 
quisition  of  European  knowledge.  In  the 
schools  of  America  arid  Europe  they  have  won 
the  highest  praise,  and  in  some  cases  honors, 
which  have  not  tended  to  decrease  their  natu 
ral  vanity.  Regard  for  truth  and  chastity,  or 
reverence  for  human  life,  cannot  be  said  to 
characterize  the  Japanese.  The  youth  seems 
to  be  a  model  of  all  that  is  frank,  noble,  im 
pulsive,  obedient,  grateful,  and  polite.  The 
same  individual  as  an  official  often  appears  the 
incarnation  of  deceit,  meanness,  ingratitude, 
and  untruth,  though  always  outwardly  polite. 
The  people  are  very  industrious,  but  social  and 
pleasure-loving,  fond  of  feasts  and  frolics,  and 
have  frequent  national  and  religious  holidays. 
Music,  dancing,  and  the  theatre  are  the  favor 
ite  amusements  of  all  classes.  Mountebanks, 
conjurers,  jugglers,  tumblers,  and  strolling 
players  and  musicians  were  formerly  often  seen 
in  the  streets,  and  were  highly  popular,  but  are 
now  much  less  so.  Japanese  jugglers  and  ac 
robats  have  appeared  in  America  and  Europe, 
and  have  fully  sustained  the  reputation  of  the 
people  in  these  matters.  Dancing  consists 
almost  entirely  in  posturing  and  quick  move 
ments  of  the  body,  our  idea  of  moving  about 
while  dancing  not  being  understood.  Educa 
tion,  consisting  in  the  arts  of  reading  and  wri 
ting  the  native  syllabary,  perusing  the  popular 
story  books,  and  reckoning  on  the  abacus,  is  very 
general,  but  not  so  much  so  as  former  accounts 
would  lead  one  to  suppose.  The  higher  classes 
can  read  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  classics, 
which  are  now  giving  place  to  the  study  of 
foreign  languages  and  books.  The  women  are 
carefully  educated  in  household  duties,  but  in 
the  lower  classes  receive  very  little  instruction 
in  book  learning.  In  the  higher  classes  the 
young  ladies  spend  much  time  in  making  fancy 
work,  and  in  being  taught  the  various  books 
relating  to  the  duties  of  a  wife,  mother,  and 
housekeeper.  The  "  Woman's  Great  Study  " 
is  a  large  book  containing  minute  details  of 
woman's  duty  and  culture.  The  three  great 
duties  of  a  woman  are :  1,  obedience  to  her  pa 
rents  when  a  child;  2,  obedience  to  her  hus 
band,  when  a  wife ;  3,  obedience  to  her  eldest 
son,  when  a  widow.  Politeness  is  a  national 
characteristic.  A  vast  and  minute  system  of 
etiquette  is  the  life  study  of  the  higher  classes, 
and  among  the  lowest  class  mutual  courtesy 
is  strictly  observed.  The  foreigner  in  Japan  is 
surprised  to  hear  the  politest  phrases  and  to 
see  mutual  forbearance  among  the  commonest 
coolies.  The  Japanese  make  no  distinction  be 
tween  politeness  and  morals.  They  say  that 
cheating,  lying,  &c.,  are  not  polite.  Politeness 
is  goodness  and  virtue  in  their  eyes.  The  rules 
that  govern  social  intercourse  are  formed  into 
a  regular  system,  which  is  taught  in  schools. 


534 


JAPAN 


Formerly  the  education  of  a  Japanese  was  one 
half  in  books  of  etiquette,  and  one  half  reading 
and  writing.  In  the  school  at  Fukui  in  Echi- 
zen,  over  the  foreign  department  of  which  the 
writer  presided,  the  course  of  native  studies  re 
quired  seven  years.  Five  of  these  were  devo 
ted  entirely  to  theoretical  and  practical  study 
of  etiquette,  the  reading  of  the  lives  of  illus 
trious  men  and  women,  exhortations  to  duty, 
the  classics  of  Confucius,  the  histories  of  Japan 
and  China,  and  the  composition  of  private  and 
official  letters.  Such  schools  however  existed 
only  for  the  higher  classes.  Lower  schools  for 
teaching  the  rudiments  of  reading,  writing,  and 
reckoning  also  existed.  Even  the  language  is 
unique  in  its  courtliness  of  expression,  which  is 
shown  in  its  very  structure.  The  people  are  in 
general  neat  and  clean  in  their  houses,  persons, 
and  dress.  Tea  is  a  universal  heverage,  and  is 
served  on  all  occasions  in  cups  holding  about 
half  a  gill,  which  are  drained  many  times  du 
ring  the  day.  Every  man  and  boy  carries  in 
his  girdle  a  pipe  with  a  tube  of  bamboo,  and 
mouthpiece  and  tiny  bowl  of  brass.  The  mild 
fine-cut  tobacco  is  used,  and  smoking  is  general 
among  men  and  women.  The  visitor  is  always 
served  with  tea,  sweetmeats  laid  on  white 
paper  on  a  tray,  and  a  little  bowl  with  a  live 
coal  in  it  to  light  his  pipe  with.  It  is  etiquette 
to  carry  away  the  remnants  of  the  cake  or  candy 
folded  up  in  the  paper  and  put  in  the  wide 
sleeve.  Chop  sticks  take  the  place  of  the  knife 
and  fork.  Meat,  venison,  poultry,  game,  and 
large  vegetables  are  cut  or  sliced  before  being 
brought  on  the  table.  Food  is  eaten  out  of 
lacquered  wooden  bowls  and  porcelain  cups. 
A  feast  is  accompanied  by  music  and  dancing, 
and  the  last  of  the  many  courses  is  rice  and 
tea.  Sake,  or  rice  beer,  is  served  throughout 
the  feast ;  it  is  kept  in  tall  bottles,  which  are 
first  set  in  boiling  water  to  heat  the  sake,  which 
is  always  drunk  hot.  The  cups  used  at  a  feast 
are  very  small,  and  are  passed  around  or  thrown 
across  to  each  other  by  the  guests,  and  filled  by 
pretty  damsels  in  waiting.  At  a  banquet  any 
one  can  introduce  himself  to  another  person  by 
offering  the  cup ;  if  he  drinks  and  returns  the 
cup,  the  introduction  is  made  and  acquaintance 
begins.  The  ordinary  dress  of  both  sexes  and 
all  ranks  is  somewhat  similar  in  form,  differing 
chiefly  in  the  colors,  fineness,  and  value  of  the 
materials,  those  of  the  higher  orders  being  of 
silk,  and  of  the  lower  orders  of  hemp  and  cot 
ton  cloth ;  it  consists  of  a  number  of  loose  wide 
gowns  worn  over  each  other,  and  fastened  by 
a  girdle.  Every  class  of  the  people  is  distin 
guished  by  certain  peculiarities  of  dress.  On 
the  back  and  breast  of  the  outer  garment  of 
the  higher  classes  a  family  or  clan  crest  is 
woven  or  worked.  The  sleeves  are  very  long 
and  wide,  and  serve  for  pockets.  The  Japanese 
display  very  good  taste  in  their  dress,  but  the 
women  wear  brighter  colors  than  the  men,  and 
border  their  robes  with  gay  embroidery  and 
gold.  On  occasions  of  ceremony,  a  hempen 
jacket,  open  at  the  sides  and  projecting  in 


wings  at  the  shoulder,  and  wide  trousers  of  the 
same  material,  together  forming  the  kamishi- 
mo,  are  worn.  The  hakama  or  loose  trousers, 
like  a  long  kilt,  are  the  distinguishing  mark  of 
the  dress  of  a  samurai.  "Within  doors  socks 
or  foot  mittens,  having  a  special  compartment 
for  the  great  toe,  are  worn.  For  outdoor  use, 
clogs,  heavy  blocks  of  wood,  or  straw  soles, 
having  a  double  thong  which  fits  between  the 
great  and  second  toe  and  binds  over  the  top 
and  side  of  the  foot,  are  worn.  Straw  sandals 
are  used  by  farmers,  coolies,  and  travellers. 
Usually  neither  men  nor  women  wear  head 
coverings,  except  broad  screens  to  shed  the 
rain  and  to  keep  off  the  sun.  In  cold  weather 
a  cloth  cap,  covering  all  but  the  eyes  and  nose, 
is  worn.  Rain  coats  made  of  oiled  paper,  and 
cloaks  made  of  straw  or  pieces  of  matting,  are 
common  in  rainy  weather.  Their  umbrellas 
are  very  large,  the  frames  of  bamboo,  and  the 
covering  of  oiled  paper.  The  fan  is  carried  by 
both  sexes.  Hitherto  the  custom  of  wearing 
two  swords,  one  above  the  other  on  the  same 
side  of  the  body,  was  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  the  samurai ;  the  lower  classes  were  allowed 
to  carry  one  sword.  These  customs  are  now 
nearly  obsolete.  European  dress  is  becom 
ing  common  among  all  classes,  and  the  gov 
ernment  officials  are  required  by  law  to  wear 
it.  Even  the  court  costume  has  been  laid  aside 
for  black  coats,  white  neckties  and  gloves, 
black  pantaloons,  and  boots.  The  houses  of 
the  Japanese  are  low,  and  built  of  a  frame  of 
wTood,  with  wattling  of  reeds  or  bamboo,  the 
interstices  filled  with  mud  and  covered  with 
white  plaster.  The  eaves  are  very  broad,  and 
a  veranda  extends  around  the  house.  The 
windows  and  doors  are  frames  of  wood,  cov 
ered  with  paper,  and  sliding  in  grooves.  Most 
of  the  partitions  consist  of  sliding  paper  doors, 
which  can  be  removed  in  a  moment  and  a 
great  hall  extemporized.  Outer  shutters  or 
"  rain  doors  "  protect  the  paper  doors  at  night 
and  in  stormy  weather.  Almost  every  house, 
rich  or  poor,  has  a  garden  attached,  which  is 
usually  a  miniature  landscape.  Fire-proof 
warehouses  are  made  by  coating  a  strong  frame 
of  timber  and  bamboo  with  layers  of  mud 
amounting  to  a  foot  in  thickness.  The  walls, 
doors,  and  windows  are  all  of  the  same  thick 
ness  and  material.  The  merchant  stores  his 
goods  and  families  put  their  valuables  in  these. 
Should  a  fire  occur  near  by,  a  mud  paste  is 
quickly  made,  and  several  candles  are  lighted 
within  the  warehouse  to  convert  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  into  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  doors  and 
windows  are  then  closed,  and  the  mud  smeared 
over  the  cracks,  to  prevent  any  draft.  After 
a  fire  these  warehouses  stand  unharmed,  like 
islands  in  a  sea  of  ashes.  Fires  are  frequent 
and  terribly  destructive.  One  in  Tokio,  April 
3,  1872,  destroyed  5,117  houses  and  made  over 
20,000  people  homeless.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  entire  space  of  the  city  is  burned  over 
every  seven  years. — Polygamy  is  not  allowed 
i  in  Japan,  but  concubinage  is  very  prevalent. 


JAPAN 


535 


The  emperor  is  allowed  12  concubines,  though 
he  rarely  has  so  many.  Usually  a  man  does 
not  take  a  concubine  unless  his  wife  is  un 
fruitful  ;  if  the  former  bears  a  child,  it  is 
treated  as  legitimate,  and  becomes  the  father's 
heir,  unless  a  child  is  born  to  the  true  wife. 
Divorces  are  common.  Seven  causes  for  di 
vorce  are  enumerated  in  the  "  Woman's  Great 
Study,"  viz. :  barrenness,  disobedience  to  hus 
band  or  mother-in-law,  gossiping,  lewdness, 
leprosy,  jealousy,  theft.  Prostitution  is  legal 
ized,  and  is  not  specially  disreputable.  In  the 
large  cities  the  yujomachi  or  prostitutes'  quar 
ter  is  the  most  beautiful  part  of  the  city.  Chil 
dren  are  no  longer  bred  to  the  trade  from 
their  infancy,  as  formerly,  but  young  girls 
may  voluntarily  choose  to  be  courtesans,  and 
bind  themselves  to  the  brothel-keepers  for  a 
term  of  years.  They  are  taught  music  and 
several  other  accomplishments,  and  often  mar 
ry  well,  being  better  educated  than  the  mass 
of  the  women.  In  the  afternoon,  at  the  broth 
el,  they  dress,  paint,  and  powder  themselves, 
put  on  splendid  robes,  and  toward  evening  sit 
in  a  semicircle,  motionless  and  waiting  for  the 
choice  of  some  passer-by.  The  front  of  the 
raised  room  in  which  they  sit  is  open  to  the 
street,  or  separated  only  by  latticework  for 
visitors  to  look  through.  Prostitution  is  in 
the  cities  confined  to  particular  quarters,  and 
is  under  strict  governmental  inspection.  Pros 
titutes  must  wear  a  certain  kind  of  dress,  and 
tie  their  girdles  in  front  instead  of  behind. 
Suicide  is  very  common  in  Japan,  and  the  an 
cient  style  of  committing  hara-kiri  (belly-cut) 
is  still  in  vogue,  though  evidently  becoming 
obsolete.  During  the  year  18V2  at  least  20 
public  instances  of  ripping  up  the  belly  took 
place.  A  proposition  made  in  the  supreme 
council  to  abolish  the  custom  was  not  adopted. 
— The  agriculture  of  the  Japanese  is  conducted 
with  diligence  and  skill.  Irrigation  is  judi 
ciously  applied,  and  manure  of  all  kinds,  espe 
cially  human,  is  carefully  collected,  and  used 
in  the  production  of  generally  good  harvests. 
The  grain  principally  raised  is  rice,  which  is  of 
a  superior  quality,  and  is  now  an  article  of  ex 
port.  Next  to  rice  tea  is  the  great  object  of 
cultivation.  Since  the  opening  of  the  country 
an  immense  number  of  new  tea  plantations 
have  been  set  out.  The  teas  of  Uji  and  Suruga 
are  considered  the  best.  Coarse  sugar  is  ob 
tained  from  Satsuma  and  universally  used  by 
the  people,  but  the  process  of  sugar  refining  is 
not  yet  fully  understood.  The  gardeners  of 
Japan  have  attained  the  art  of  dwarfing  as  well 
as  enlarging  vegetable  productions.  In  the 
miniature  gardens  and  at  the  flower  shows 
they  exhibit  full-grown  trees  of  various  kinds  2 
and  3  ft.  high.  Pine  trees  3  in.,  bamboo  2  in., 
and  blossoming  plum  trees  G  in.  high  are  com 
mon.  The  pine,  bamboo,  and  plum  are  usually 
planted  together  in  pots,  and  called  sJiochiknlai, 
a  word  compounded  of  the  three  names.  Trees 
and  plants  are  also  trained  to  grow  so  as  to  re 
semble  birds,  tortoises,  quadrupeds,  men,  ships, 


mountains,  &c.  In  ornamental  gardening  the 
Japanese  possess  wonderful  skill,  and  every  kind 
of  landscape  is  represented  in  their  gardens. — 
The  Japanese  are  admirable  workers  in  metals. 
Iron,  copper,  and  brass  are  wrought  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  and  the  swords  of  Japan 
have  long  been  famous.  They  are  made  of  the 
finest  iron,  with  an  edge  of  steel.  The  orna 
ments  upon  their  hilts  and  handles,  made  of 
copper,  silver,  or  gold,  with  inlaid  work  of 
various  metals,  are  not  only  curiosities,  but 
works  of  high  art,  often  representing  national 
heroes,  mythology,  &c.  In  alloying  and  color 
ing  metals  they  are  famous  experts.  They  are 
skilful  in  carving  wood  and  metal,  in  die-sink 
ing,  and  in  the  casting  of  metal  statues  used  for 
idols,  lanterns,  cannon,  &c.  A  copper  statue 
of  Buddha  (Jap.  Dai  Butsii)  at  Kamakura  is 
nearly  50  ft.  in  height,  and  is  a  fine  work  of 
art.  Their  bronzes,  which  embody  the  na 
tional  art,  and  express  in  metal  their  legendary 
lore  and  symbolism,  have  won  admirers  in 
every  land,  being  sought  after  for  their  chaste 
proportions,  exquisite  beauty,  excellence  of 
mechanism,  and  fineness  of  metal.  Their  lac 
quering  in  wood  excels  that  of  all  other  na 
tions.  At  the  Vienna  exhibition  in  1873,  not 
only  their  bronze  and  lacquer  work,  but  their 
wood  and  stone  carvings,  mosaics,  basket  work, 
tortoise  shell,  inlaid  and  ivory  work,  fans,  silk 
flowers,  toys,  cut  crystal,  and  leather,  were 
greatly  admired  and  highly  praised.  The  manu 
facture  of  glass  is  still  in  its  infancy  in  Japan, 
and  only  the  simplest  articles  are  made,  and 
these  of  inferior  glass.  They  make  a  great 
variety  of  cotton  goods;  in  crapes,  camlets, 
brocade,  and  figured  silk  for  girdles,  they  ex 
cel.  Paper,  which  is  applied  to  manifold  uses, 
even  for  napkins  and  handkerchiefs,  is  made 
from  the  paper  mulberry  (JBroussonetia  papyri- 
fera},  and  is  noted  for  its  silkiness,  lustre, 
toughness,  and  softness.  It  is  very  abundant, 
and  of  all  qualities.  Paper  shops  are  exceed 
ingly  numerous.  Kioto,  Tokio,  and  Ozaka  are 
the  chief  seats  of  manufactures.  Kioto  is 
noted  for  its  damasks,  satins,  camlets,  crapes, 
silk  fabrics  of  every  sort,  lacquered  articles, 
screens,  fans,  paints,  grindstones,  porcelain,  and 
earthenware.  At  Tokio  nearly  every  kind  of 
manufacture  is  carried  on.  The  people  show 
the  greatest  eagerness  and  aptitude  for  imita 
ting  all  kinds  of  European  manufactures.  In 
nearly  every  house  of  the  samurai  class  is  seen 
a  map  or  globe,  thermometer,  barometer,  Yan 
kee  clock,  or  lamp.  Most  of  the  intelligent 
natives  who  can  afford  them  wear  watches. 
Telescopes,  microscopes,  knives,  and  spoons 
are  made  by  the  natives  from  European  models, 
at  a  cheap  rate.  In  all  the  cities  and  large 
towns  shops  filled  with  foreign  articles  are 
found,  where  looking  glasses,  clocks,  watches, 
spoons,  notions,  boots  and  shoes,  condensed 
milk,  beer,  colored  engravings,  fancy  soap, 
canned  fruit,  pickles,  brushes  and  combs,  panes 
of  glass,  wine  and  brandy,  rugs,  carpets,  un 
derclothing,  &c.,  are  sold.  All  these  things 


536 


JAP  AX 


are  rapidly  changing  the  manners,  customs, 
and  household  habits  of  the  Japanese  people. 
Very  good  iron  and  brass  cannon,  shot  and 
shell,  breech-  and  muzzle-loading  rilies,  gun 
powder,  percussion  caps,  and  many  other 
articles  of  war  material,  are  now  made  by 
unassisted  native  workmen.  —  The  internal 
trade  of  Japan  is  brisk  and  constant.  The 
roads  are  good  and  kept  in  excellent  order, 
and  hotels,  warehouses,  and  stables  for  the 
accommodation  of  man,  beast,  and  baggage 
are  abundant,  and  their  terms  reasonable. 
Many  of  the  merchants  become  rich,  but  there 
are  not  as  yet  five  millionaires  of  any  class  in 
Japan.  In  the  open  ports  there  are  probably 
a  few  score  merchants  who  may  each  be  worth 
$50,000,  but  this  is  a  large  sum  in  Japan. 
Goods  are  conveyed  on  land  by  pack  horses, 
oxen,  and  coolies.  The  principal  carriage  of 
merchandise  is  by  water ;  for  although  the 
Japanese  junks  cannot  make  long  sea  voyages, 
they  are  well  fitted  to  navigate  the  rivers,  to 
coast  from  port  to  port,  and  to  cross  from  isl 
and  to  island.  The  shores  of  the  Japanese 
group  afford  great  facilities  for  a  coasting 
trade,  from  the  abundance  of  harbors  and  shel 
ters  for  vessels  of  small  size,  and  these  facilities 
are  energetically  used  by  the  people,  who  keep 
afloat  a  vast  number  of  vessels,  from  fishing 
boats  to  junks  of  300  tons.  At  present  the 
great  bulk  of  the  coasting  trade  is  done  by  the 
steamers  of  the  Pacific  mail  steamship  com 
pany.  Japanese  trading  companies  also  own 
steamers,  which  ply  regularly  between  the 
large  ports.  Scores  of  small  river  and  lake 
steamers,  owned  and  manned  by  Japanese,  now 

£ly  on  the  inland  waters  and   seacoast.      On 
ake   Biwa  alone  there  are   seven  steamers. 
Commerce  is   comparatively  free  from   tolls 
and    duties,    though    the    government    seems 
to  have  a  chronic  tendency  to   meddle  with 
the    merchants,    and    privileged   corporations 
help  to  fetter  and  restrict  commerce.     The  in 
land  trade  is  assisted  by  great  fairs  held  at 
Kioto  and  other  cities.     Until  the  summer  of 
1859,  for  more  than  two  centuries,  the  foreign 
commerce  had  been  limited  to  the  Dutch  and 
Chinese  at  Nagasaki.     The  Dutch  had  a  small 
factory  at  Deshima,  on  which  12  or  13  mer 
chants  lived,  closely  watched  by  the  Japanese, 
and  allowed  very  little  liberty.      Two  ships 
were  annually  sent  from  Batavia,  with  cargoes  •, 
consisting   chiefly  of   sugar,   ivory,   bar   iron,  j 
tinned  iron,   fine  chintzes,   broadcloths,   shal-  i 
loons,  cloves,  tortoise  shell,  drugs,  spectacles, 
looking   glasses,    watches,   various   herbs   and  ! 
roots,  and  Dutch  medicines.     The  writer  in  his  | 
travels  through  Japan  has  found  two  or  three 
popular  Dutch  medicines  advertised  in  Roman  > 
letters  in  nearly  all  the  large  towns  and  cities. 
The  words  in  use  among  the  natives  for  glass, 
tinned  iron,  table,  Sunday,  electricity,  lauda 
num,  and  many  other  things,  are  corruptions 
of  the  Dutch  names  for  the  same.     The  chief 
articles  of  export  by  the  Dutch  were  copper, 
camphor,  lacquer  ware,  porcelain,  and  rice. 


In  1854  American  diplomacy  succeeded  in  re 
moving  the  barriers  against  foreign  commerce, 
and  many  ports  have  since  been  opened  to 
foreign  residence  and  trade.  The  articles  most 
in  demand  by  the  Japanese  are  tissues  of  all 
kinds,  cotton  prints,  calicoes,  flannels,  cotton 
and  woollen  yarn,  knit  goods,  chintz,  velvet, 
woollens,  blankets,  glass  ware,  mirrors,  drugs, 
ivory,  cheap  clocks,  watches,  petroleum  and 
lamps,  flour,  rod  iron,  machinery,  sugar,  boots 
and  shoes,  hats,  wine,  spirits  and  beer,  zinc, 
sail  cloth,  soap,  leather,  and  tea  lead.  The 
most  profitable  exports  are  rice,  silk,  tea,  cam 
phor,  vegetable  oil  and  tallow,  wax,  lacquered 
ware,  porcelain,  sulphur,  silkworms'  eggs,  and 
a  variety  of  sundries  that  find  a  market  in 
China.  The  value  of  the  imports  into  Japan  du 
ring  the  year  1872  amounted  to  $26,188,441: 
of  exports,  $24,294,532  ;  total  value  of  exports 
and  imports,  $50,482,973.  The  local  trade, 
imports  and  exports,  between  the  open  ports 
of  Japan  during  1871,  was  to  the  value  of 
$4,436,539;  for  1872  it  was  valued  at  $4,263,- 
232.  The  declared  value  of  imports  in  1873 
was  29,000,000  yens,  or  dollars,  and  the  de 
clared  value  of  the  exports,  $21,000,000.  The 
total  amount  of  duties  collected,  including  for 
exports,  imports,  rent  of  warehouse,  entrance 
and  clearance  fees,  fines  and  penalties,  and  mis 
cellaneous,  was  $1,735,000.  The  value  of  cot 
ton  manufactures  imported  into  Japan  in  1871 
was  $8,011,478,  and  in  1872  $10,065,155.  Of 
woollen  manufactures,  the  value  in  1871  was 
$2,056,789,  and  in  1872  $6,335,014.  The  ex 
port  of  raw  silk  in  1871  was  $8,416,712,  in 
1872  $7,355,623  ;  silkworms'  eggs  in  1871 
$2,184,688,  in  1872  $1,963,159;  tea  in  1871 
$4,651,292,  in  1872  $5,445,438;  rice  in  1873 
$2,988,548;  copper  in  1873  $1,353,545.  In 
1872  the  shipping  returned  at  all  the  open 
ports  was  :  British,  31  mail  steamers,  351  ships, 
tonnage  204,077 ;  American,  293  mail  steam 
ers,  69  ships,  tonnage  683,401 ;  other  nations, 
118  ships,  tonnage  73,024.  On  the  first  open 
ing  of  the  ports  to  foreign  commerce,  the  chief 
obstacle  to  profitable  trade  was  the  peculiar 
ideas  of  the  Japanese  government  relating  to 
currency.  Little  trouble  is  now  experienced 
on  this  score,  as  the  mint  at  Ozaka  turns  out 
gold  and  silver  coins  of  satisfactory  weight  and 
fineness,  which  are  graded  in  value  according 
to  the  decimal  system. — In  science,  the  Japa 
nese  have  particularly  cultivated  medicine,  as 
tronomy,  and  mathematics.  The  European 
system  of  medicine  is  now  followed  by  nearly 
all  the  doctors  of  Japan,  and  dissection  is  open 
ly  practised  in  the  great  cities,  and  secretly  in 
the  smaller  by  private  individuals.  A  great 
many  Dutch  books  on  therapeutics,  medicine, 
and  surgery  have  been  translated  of  late  years 
and  diligently  studied.  The  native  doctors 
are  highly  respected  by  the  foreign  practition 
ers,  and  while  they  are  very  successful  with 
local  diseases,  they  do  not  hesitate  to  attempt 
very  difficult  cases,  with  average  good  success. 
Among  their  many  inventions  are  acupuncture 


JAPAN 


537 


and  moxa  (Jap.  mogusa,  burning  grass),  both  of 
which,  though  now  generally  superseded,  were 
long  practised  in  Europe,  into  which  they  had 
been  introduced  from  Japan.  The  Japanese 
people  are  troubled  with  a  disease  which  is  not 
known  in  other  countries,  called  kakke  (leg  hu 
mor),  which  baffles  the  skill  of  both  native  and  | 
foreign  physicians.  Its  diagnosis  is  as  yet  very 
obscure.  It  is  especially  prevalent  in  Tokio, 
and  the  summer  of  1873  was  noted  for  the 
mortality  caused  there  by  this  disease.  It  be 
gins  in  the  feet;  the  legs  swell,  the  patient 
has  great  difficulty  in  walking,  and  has  to  re 
main  quiet;  the  legs  continue  to  swell,  and 
after  headache,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and 
excruciating  pains  in  the  small  intestines,  death 
ensues.  Their  so-called  "  remarkable  medical 
discovery,"  the  dosha  powder,  which  Titsingh 
asserted  could  restore  flexibility  to  a  stiffened 
human  corpse,  and  cure  disease  in  the  living 
body,  refresh  the  spirits,  &c.,  is  and  always 
was  a  pious  fraud.  It  is  made  of  common 
quartz  sand,  drawn  from  certain  bubbling 
springs  in  the  provinces  of  Kii  and  Hitachi,  by 
priests  of  the  Buddhist  Shin  Gon  sect,  with 
long  prayers  to  Buddha  to  give  it  efficacy.  With 
this  a  few  grains  of  mica  are  mixed.  It  is  not 
now  believed  in  except  by  the  lowest  and  most 
ignorant  people.  In  chemistry,  botany,  and 
astronomy,  the  Japanese  have  gained  con 
siderable  knowledge  by  means  of  translations 
from  the  Dutch  and  English.  In  the  fine  arts 
they  have  made  but  little  progress.  Their  mu 
sic  is  very "  disagreeable  to  European  ears, 
though  the  people  take  a  passionate  delight  in 
it.  The  Japanese  gamut  is  very  rude,  and 
most  of  the  music  is  in  the  minor  key.  They 
have  a  considerable  body  of  printed  music, 
among  which  is  a  collection  of  very  ancient 
classical  pieces  performed  on  public  occasions. 
The  bands  for  the  army  and  navy  are  now  j 
trained  by  European  instructors,  in  European 
style.  The  use  of  the  samiscn  or  three-stringed 
banjo  is  always  a  part  of  female  education. 
The  koto  and  the  bitca  are  the  principal  other 
stringed  instruments.  They  have  a  large  va 
riety  of  wind  instruments,  and  several  kinds 
of  drums  and  cymbals.  In  the  arts  of  design 
and  painting  they  show  great  taste,  but  only  a 
resident  in  the  country  itself  can  fully  appre 
ciate  their  delineations.  There  are  several  dis 
tinct  styles  or  schools  of  drawing  and  painting, 
easily  recognized  by  a  connoisseur.  The  style 
used  on  fans,  battledoors,  story  books,  broad 
sides,  caricatures,  &c.,  is  most  popular  and 
pleases  the  vulgar  eye.  Another  style  is  used  j 
on  the  kakemono  or  hanging  pictures  and  scrolls  | 
seen  in  every  house  ;  and  still  another  on  fold 
ing  screens  and  pictorial  scroll  books.  In  this 
last  style  the  coloring  is  very  rich,  and  the  details 
are  minutely  portrayed.  In  the  second,  the  sa 
lient  points  are  emphasized,  but  the  pictures, 
while  very  suggestive,  leave  much  to  the  ima 
gination.  The  first  named  style  combines  the 
qualities  of  the  second  and  third.  Cultivated 
Japanese  do  not  like  foreign  pictures,  on  ac 


count  of  their  intense  realism.  Their  delinea 
tions  of  birds,  flowers,  and  fruits  are  exquisite 
ly  beautiful.  Not  only  does  their  lacquered, 
porcelain,  and  inlaid  work  of  all  kinds  show 
this,  but  the  walls  of  the  palaces  in  Kioto  and 
Tokio,  and  the  tombs  at  Nikko  and  Shiba,  are 
renowned  for  the  remarkable  beauty  and  cor 
rectness  of  their  carvings  and  paintings.  They 
are  not  very  successful  in  portraying  the  hu 
man  form.  They  know  little  of  the  higher 
plastic  art,  and  have  scarcely  a  conception  of 
that  ideal  human  form  which  is  such  a  passion 
with  Europeans.  Their  best  sculptured  repre 
sentations  of  sacred  animals  are  fair  specimens 
of  clever  chisel  work  rather  than  of  ideals.  Prin 
ters  and  booksellers  are  numerous,  and  keep  the 
market  well  supplied  with  cheap  books,  many 
of  them  profusely  illustrated  with  woodcuts. 
They  print  only  on  one  side  of  the  paper,  using 
cut  wooden  blocks  for  type.  Kioto  was  for 
merly  the  chief  seat  of  the  book  trade,  and  was 
eminently  the  centre  of  literature,  the  fine  arts, 
and  religion.  Tokio  is  now  fast  robbing  it 
of  all  its  glories,  and  becoming  the  manufac 
turing,  fine-art,  literary,  and  religious,  as  well 
as  the  political  capital  of  the  empire.  All 
the  people  are  fond  of  reading,  and  circulating 
libraries,  carried  on  men's  backs  from  house  to 
house,  are  very  common.  Their  dramas,  of 
which  the  people  are  passionately  fond,  are 
nearly  always  founded  on  national  history  or 
tradition,  or  the  exploits,  lives,  or  adventures 
of  Japanese  heroes  and  gods.  Many  of  them 
are  designed  to  enforce  and  illustrate  moral 
precepts.  Their  general  tendency  is  elevating, 
patriotic,  and  decorous,  though  some  of  them 
are  strongly  tainted  Avith  the  old  national  pas 
sion  for  revenge,  and  have  horrible  exhibitions 
of  cruel  punishments.  The  actor  is  most  es 
teemed  who  can  most  frequently  change  parts 
in  the  same  play.  The  female  parts  are  usually 
taken  by  men  or  boys,  though  women  are  now 
becoming  actresses.  The  best  actors  receive 
$1,000  a  season,  which  is  a  high  salary  in 
Japan.  The  theatrical  stage  is  a  turn-table, 
which  can  be  turned  and  made  to  present  a 
new  scene  in  a  moment.  The  scenes  are  per 
fectly  true  to  Japanese  life  and  fact,  the  actual 
scene  of  the  play  being  always  laid  in  Japan. 
The  theatres  as  yet  are  very  rude  structures. 
The  playing  begins  in  the  morning  and  lasts  all 
day,  the  spectators  bringing  their  food  with 
them.  The  actors  are  looked  upon  as  a  very 
low  class. — The  two  great  religions  of  Japan 
are  Shinto  and  Buppo,  or  Shintoism  and  Buddh 
ism.  Shinto  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
religion  of  Japan.  Buddhism  was  brought 
from  Corea.  The  word  shinto  is  Chinese.  The 
Japanese  name  for  the  same  is  kami  no  michi, 
"the  way  of  the  gods.'1  Shin  means  god;  to, 
way,  doctrine,  cult.  The  essence  of  Shinto  is 
ancestral  worship  and  sacrifice  to  departed  he 
roes.  Mori  says:  "The  Shintos  believe  in  a 
past  life,  and  they  live  in  fear  or  reverence  of 
the  spirits  of  the  dead."  The  number  of  Shinto 
deities  is  enormous,  and  variously  estimated,  but 


538 


JAPAN 


the  reputed  divine  ancestress  of  the  mikado  Ten 
Sho  Dai  Jin,  or  Ama  Terasu  o  Migami,  "great 
goddess  of  the  celestial  effulgence,"  or  "the 
heavenly  illuminating  spirit,"  is  the  chief  and 
supreme.  The  first  name  is  Chinese,  the  sec 
ond  pure  Japanese.  The  Shintoists  have  very 
obscure  notions  about  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  a  supreme  creator,  or  a  future  state  of  re 
wards  and  punishments.  Their  chief  end,  in 
opposition  to  the  Buddhists,  is  happiness  in 
this  life.  In  its  precepts  Shinto  lays  great 
stress  upon  keeping  the  body  pure  with  water 
and  the  heart  by  prayer  to  the  Icami  or  gods. 
Pilgrimages  to  sacred  places  and  attendance 
upon  the  religious  festivals  are  enjoined  as  du 
ties.  The  Mecca  of  the  Shintoists  is  the  collec 
tion  of  temples  in  Ise,  about  200  m.  S.  W.  of 
Tokio,  which  are  visited  by  the  mikado,  the 
recognized  spiritual  head  of  the  Shinto  system, 
hence  called  tenno,  which  means  "heavenly 
king."  The  eating  of  flesh  was  formerly  an 
abomination,  but  modern  civilization,  a  knowl 
edge  of  physiology,  and  experience  of  the  taste 
of  well  cooked  steaks,  have  overcome  this 
prejudice,  and  the  most  devoted  Shintoists  now 
eat  beef  habitually.  The  great  end  and  aim  of 
Shintoism  is  obedience  to  the  edicts  of  the 
government,  as  shown  in  the  sermons  of  the 
lecturers  and  priests.  The  three  great  com 
mandments,  issued  by  the  department  of  reli 
gion  in  1872,  intended  to  be  the  basis  of  a  re 
formed  Shinto  and  national  religion,  are  as 
follows :  "  1.  Thou  shalt  honor  the  gods  and  love 
thy  country.  2.  Thou  shalt  clearly  understand 
the  principles  of  heaven  and  the  duty  of  man. 
3.  Thou  shalt  revere  the  emperor  as  thy  sov 
ereign,  and  obey  the  will  of  his  court."  In  its 
higher  forms  Shinto  is  a  cultured  and  intellec 
tual  deism;  in  its  lower  forms  it  consists  in 
blind  obedience  to  governmental  and  priestly 
dictates.  The  Shinto  temples  are  called  miyas^ 
and  are  made  of  the  pure  wood  called  hi  no  M, 
"  sun  wood."  In  a  perfectly  pure  Shinto  tem 
ple  there  is  neither  altar,  image,  nor  picture.  A 
mirror,  the  emblem  of  self-examination,  and 
strips  of  white  paper,  symbols  of  purity  of  life, 
are  always  seen,  but  nothing  else.  Around  or 
outside  of  the  temple  often  hang  votive  tablets, 
pictures  of  horses  and  of  ancient  heroes,  a 
stone  lavatory,  often  a  sculptured  cow,  or  "  two 
heavenly  dogs."  The  sun  is  worshipped  under 
the  name  of  O  Tento  Sama,  "  lord  of  the  hea 
venly  path  ;"  and  the  moon  under  the  title  of 
O  Tsuki  Sama.  The  Shinto  belief  supposes  the 
existence  of  an  infinite  number  of  spirits  who 
exercise  an  influence  over  the  affairs  of  the 
world,  who  are  to  be  propitiated  by  prayers 
and  the  observance  of  certain  rules  of  conduct, 
cleanliness  of  person,  and  purity  and  cheerful- 
Bess  of  heart.  The  inferior  spirits,  who  are 
very  numerous,  are  chiefly  heroes  canonized 
for  their  worthy  deeds  or  illustrious  qualities. 
The  most  prominent  and  popular  of  these  mi 
nor  deities  is  Hachiman,  the  god  of  war,  who 
is  an  apotheosis  of  the  16th  emperor  of  Ja 
pan.  The  worship  paid  to  the  spirits  resi 


ding  in  the  miyas  is  of  a  very  simple  charac 
ter.  The  devotee  approaches  under  the  sa 
cred  gateways  until  within  a  short  distance 
of  the  door.  He  then  stops,  flings  a  few  coins 
in  the  box  or  on  the  floor,  folds  his  hands  in  a 
posture  of  reverence,  mutters  his  prayers,  and 
departs.  The  Shinto  priests  are  called  Icarinushi, 
spiritual  teachers.  They  form  a  high  class  of 
society,  but  have  no  ordination  or  special  privi 
leges.  They  marry  and  have  families.  They 
wear  a  peculiar  costume  when  officiating.  It 
is  highly  probable  that  Shinto  never  became  a 
definite  system  of  religion  until  after  the  intro 
duction  of  Buddhism.  Many  of  its  legends  and 
even  titles  are  Chinese.  Buddhism  accepted  its 
deities  and  caused  them  to  be  worshipped  as 
Buddhist  deities  ;  and  the  two  religions  became 
gradually  so  mixed  together,  to  the  advantage 
of  Buddhism  and  the  loss  of  Shinto,  that  the 
existence  of  the  latter  has  been  little  more 
than  nominal  during  the  past  five  or  six  centu 
ries.  On  the  accession  of  the  mikado  to  his 
ancient  supreme  power,  in  1868,  a  "purifica 
tion"  was  begun,  and  all  the  Shinto  temples 
throughout  the  empire  were  purged  of  Buddh 
ist  symbols,  images,  writings,  &c. ;  the  use  of 
Chinese  religious  names,  titles,  and  terms  was 
discouraged,  and  that  of  pure  Japanese  en 
couraged,  in  the  language  of  religion.  But  the 
attempts  made  by  the  government  to  proselyte 
all  the  people  to  the  Shinto  faith  and  to  abol 
ish  Buddhism  failed,  and  Buddhism  is  still,  as 
it  has  been  for  more  than  ten  centuries,  the 
popular  religion  of  Japan.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  introduced  from  Corea  in  the  first  cen 
tury  of  the  Christian  era,  but  was  not  propa 
gated  extensively  until  the  year  552,  when 
the  king  of  Hakkusai,  a  district  of  Corea,  sent 
an  embassy  with  a  present  of  an  image  of 
Shaka  (Buddha)  and  a  set  of  Buddhist  books 
of  the  sacred  canon.  Though  at  first  violently 
opposed,  it  gradually  made  converts,  until  the 
son  of  the  emperor,  afterward  regent  of  the 
empire,  became  a  convert,  after  which  the  suc 
cess  of  Buddhism  in  Japan  was  assured.  Bands 
of  zealous  priests  continued  to  pour  into  the 
empire,  and,  not  content  with  their  success  in 
southern  Japan,  accompanied  or  followed  in 
the  wake  of  the  conquering  armies  north 
ward,  who  drove  the  aboriginal  Ainos  before 
them,  or  tranquillized  and  governed  them. 
Long  before  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
Buddhism  was  thoroughly  established  wher 
ever  the  Japanese  language  was  spoken,  even  in 
the  Liu  Kiu  islands.  In  1869  there  were  168,- 
000  Buddhist  priests  and  460,244  temples  and 
monasteries.  There  were  originally  six  sects 
which  entered  Japan.  Now  there  are  seven 
large  and  "  orthodox  "  sects,  with  30  subdivi 
sions  or  offshoots,  and  12  "irregular,"  "eclec 
tic,"  or  very  small  sects.  Probably  in  no  other 
country  has  there  been  a  richer  development 
of  Buddhism  than  in  Japan.  Here  the  latest 
phases  and  developments  of  the  wonderful 
doctrines  of  the  Indian  sage  are  found.  Its 
effects  on  the  civilization  of  Japan  have  been 


JAPAN 


539 


as  marked  as  those  of  Mohammedanism  upon 
Turkey,  or  Christianity  upon  England.  The 
chief  deity  in  the  Buddhist  pantheon  in  Japan 
is  Amida  (Sanskrit  Amitabha),  and  the  essen 
tial  part  of  the  worship  offered  to  Amida  is 
the  repetition  of  the  prayer  Namu  Amida 
Butsu,  "Save  us,  eternal  Buddha."  Next  to 
the  worship  of  Amida  is  that  of  Kuanon,  the 
goddess  of  mercy.  She  is  always  addressed 
by  those  who  are  in  sorrow  or  affliction  of  any 
kind.  The  most  astonishing  answers  to  prayers 
made  to  her  are  on  record,  and  form  the  sub 
ject  of  a  series  of  remarkable  tableaux  of  life- 
size  figures  at  the  great  temple  of  Asakusa  in 
Tokio.  There  are  33  celebrated  shrines  to  her 
honor,  and  pious  pilgrims  often  make  the 
tour  of  the  empire,  visiting  and  praying  at 
every  one  of  them.  Yemma  is  the  god  of  hell 
and  the  chief  judge  of  the  infernal  regions. 
Jizo  are  six  deities  whose  images  are  placed 
along  the  highways  of  the  empire,  and  who 
are  besought  by  those  who  suffer  from  the 
consequences  of  sin  and  lust.  The  Go-hiaku- 
rakan,  or  500  original  disciples  of  Shaka,  are 
found  in  many  temples  devoted  to  their  honor. 
Japan  is  a  country  of  wayside  shrines  and 
images,  and  of  temples  without  number.  Some 
of  the  great  temples  in  Kioto  are  enormous 
structures,  capable  of  seating  5,000  persons, 
and  some  contain  as  many  as  3,000  life-sized 
gilt  images  of  sages,  saints,  and  deities.  Mon 
asteries  and  nunneries  are  numerous,  and  were 
formerly  well  filled;  but  Buddhism  has  been 
so  weakened  by  governmental  fines  and  confis 
cations,  and  by  the  decay  of  belief  incident 
to  the  study  of  foreign  science,  that  it  is  slowly 
but  surely  decaying,  and  the  number  of  its 
priests  and  nuns  has  greatly  decreased.  The 
Japanese  Buddhist  priests  are  called  lozu,  cor 
rupted  into  the  English  word  bonze,  and  are 
often  very  learned  men.  Sanskrit  is  their  sa 
cred  language,  but  is  little  studied  in  Japan. 
A  large  body  of  Japanese,  especially  the  higher 
classes,  reject  idol  worship  entirely,  and  found 
their  rule  of  life  on  merely  philosophical  and 
abstract  notions.  They  are  followers  of  Con 
fucius,  and  are  called  Ju-sha,  or  the  school  of 
philosophers.  'There  is  very  little  hostility  be 
tween  the  various  forms  of  religion  in  Japan, 
and  many  profess  them  all.  The  Ju-sha  have 
no  shrine  or  ritual,  but  they  pay  supreme 
homage  to  Confucius,  to  whose  honor  there  is 
a  temple  built  in  Tokio,  but  they  cannot  be 
said  to  worship  him.  They  religiously  vene 
rate  their  own  ancestors.  Indeed,  the  venera 
tion,  if  not  worship,  of  ancestors  is  common  to 
all  the  religions  of  Japan.  The  Yamabushi  sect 
of  mountebank  priests,  once  numerous,  have 
been  suppressed  by  the  government  since  1871. 
The  authorities  of  the  state  are  indifferent  to 
mere  doctrines,  so  long  as  the  public  peace  is 
not  disturbed.  One  reason  why  the  several 
religions  are  tolerated  by  the  government,  and 
by  each  other,  is  because  the  divinity  of  the 
mikado  (whom  the  officials  call  tenno,  or 
heavenly  king)  is  dogmatically  taught  and  po 


litically  insisted  upon,  and  all  people  are  com 
manded  to  obey  and  reverence  him,  as  the  de 
scendant,  representative,  and  vicegerent  of  the 
gods.  The  cause  alleged  before  the  foreign 
ministers  of  the  persecution  and  punishment 
of  the  Christians  of  Urakami  in  1868  and 
1869  was,  that  they  acknowledged  Christ  as 
the  Lord  of  heaven,  and  that  such  a  doctrine 
was  a  subversion  of  the  dogma  of  the  mikado's 
divinity,  on  which  the  government  of  Japan 
rests.  In  addition  to  those  which  have  been 
described,  the  worship  of  Inari,  the  deified 
introducer  of  rice  into  Japan,  and  the  pat 
ron  of  foxes,  is  common  throughout  the  em 
pire.  Inari  shrines  and  images  of  foxes,  which 
are  worshipped,  are  numerous  everywhere, 
often  alone,  but  usually  attached  to  Shinto 
temples.  Many  superstitions  in  regard  to  the 
fox  are  popularly  held.  He  deceives  people, 
injures  them,  transforms  himself  into  a  beau 
tiful  woman,  and  lures  men  away  by  bewitch 
ing  them  or  promising  them  sensual  pleasure. 
He  is  also  believed  to  enter  the  hearts  of  people 
and  make  them  wicked  and  devilish.  Some 
times  he  acts  benevolently.  Hence  the  people 
propitiate  him,  and  worship  Inari,  who  rules 
over  the  foxes,  and  whom  they  obey.  The 
worship  of  the  phallus,  which  must  once  have 
been  very  prevalent,  judging  from  the  immense 
number  of  phallic  symbols  and  even  shrines 
until  lately  seen  in  Japan,  has  now  faded  almost 
entirely  away  in  the  parts  visited  by  foreigners, 
though  it  still  lingers  in  the  rural  districts.  The 
public  sale  of  the  phallic  emblems,  so  very  com 
mon  in  Yedo,  Ozaka,  Kioto,  and  other  cities, 
prior  to  1868,  has  been  prohibited  and  entirely 
suppressed  by  the  government. — The  govern 
ment  of  Japan  consists  of:  1,  the  emperor; 
2,  the  dai  jo  kuan  or  supreme  executive,  con 
sisting  of  the  dai  jo  dai  jin,  or  premier,  and 
the  u  dai  jin  and  sa  dai  jin,  right  and  left  ju 
nior  prime  ministers ;  3,  the  sa  in,  or  left 
chamber  of  the  council  of  state,  consisting  of 
seven  sangior  high  counsellors,  and  the  u  in  or 
right  chamber  of  the  council  of  state,  consist 
ing  of  all  the  ministers  and  vice  ministers  who 
are  heads  of  departments,  nine  in  number. 
There  are  also  the  prefectures  of  the/w.  or  im 
perial  cities,  the  ken  or  districts,  formerly  prov 
inces,  and  the  emigration  department  having 
control  of  the  Hokkaido,  or  territory  north 
of  the  main  island,  which  are  under  the  dai  jo 
kuan,  or  supreme  government  of  Japan.  The 
departments  are  as  follows :  1,  guai  mu  sho, 
foreign  office ;  2,  o  kura  sho,  treasury  depart 
ment,  having  nine  bureaus  or  subdivisions ;  3, 
riku  gun  sho^  war  department,  with  four  bu 
reaus  ;  4,  kai  gun  sho,  navy  department,  with 
ten  bureaus;  5,  mom  bu  sho,  education  depart 
ment  ;  6,  ko  bu  sho,  public  works  department, 
with  nine  bureaus;  7,  kio  bu  sho,  department 
of  religion ;  8,  shi  ho  sho,  department  of  jus 
tice,  two  bureaus;  9,  ku  nai  sho,  department 
of  the  imperial  household,  three  bureaus.  At 
the  present  time  (1874)  Japan  has  legations 
and  ministers  resident  in  the  United  States, 


540 


JAPAN 


England,  France,  Russia,  Austria,  Italy,  and  ' 
Prussia,  and  consuls  in  China  and  several  j 
other  countries.  It  has  a  foreign  debt  of  over  j 
$30,000,000,  a  system  of  national  banks  based 
upon  that  of  the  national  banks  of  the  United 
States,  custom  houses  with  American  inspec 
tors,  and  paper  money  consisting  of  both  gov 
ernment  and  national  bank  notes.  There  is  a 
mint  at  Ozaka,  built  and  equipped  in  modern 
style  under  English  supervision.  It  coined  in  j 
the  year  ending  July  31,  1873,  $25,162,614,  and  | 
in  1872  $14,488,981  in  gold,  and  from  1871  to 
1873  $10,213,598  in  silver.  All  the  old  gold  | 
and  silver  coinage  of  the  empire  has  been  called 
in,  and  the  new  round  milled  coins  substituted. 
The  new  copper  coinage  appeared  in  1874.  The 
money  system  of  the  Japanese  is  decimal,  the 
units  being  the  yen,  equal  to  the  American  dol 
lar,  and  the  sen,  equal  to  the  cent.  The  na 
tional  postal  service  is  under  the  control  of  the 
treasury  department,  and  is  based  mainly  on 
the  American  system,  and  Japan  now  has  pos 
tal  treaties  with  the  chief  countries  of  the  I 
world.  The  national  revenue  in  1872  was  | 
$65,831,362,  of  which  $59,363,625  was  from  | 
land  taxes.  The  disbursements  for  the  same 
year  were  $62,371,574.  The  customs  duties 
amounted  to  $1,191,171.  The  expenses  for 
feudal  commutations  amounted  to  nearly  $24,- 
000,000.  The  army  is  organized  on  the  French 
model.  The  country  is  divided  into  six  military 
districts,  in  which  are  camps  and  garrisons  as 
follows:  Tokio,  7,140;  Sendai,  4,460;  Nagoya, 
4,260;  Ozaka,  6,700;  Hiroshima,  4,340;  Ku- 
mamoto,  4,780;  total,  31,680  soldiers,  consti 
tuting  the  army  on  a  peace  footing.  Of  these 
troops,  8  regiments  of  infantry  (6,456  men),  1 
squadron  of  cavalry  (96  men),  and  2  regi 
ments  of  artillery  (1,444  men)  constitute  the 
Jconoye,  or  imperial  guard.  The  main  army  is 
divided  into  14  regiments  of  infantry,  3  regi 
ments  of  cavalry,  18  companies  of  artillery, 
and  10  companies  of  engineers.  The  estimates 
for  the  army  on  a  war  footing  are  not  yet  (May, 
1874)  made,  but  90,000  is  usually  regarded 
as  the  number  of  soldiers  that  could  easily  be 
sent  into  the  field  in  an  emergency.  The  navy 
is  organized  on  the  English  model,  and  consists 
of  2  ironclads,  10  men-of-war,  8  gunboats,  and 
4  transports.  On  these  are  1,514  sailors  and 
officers;  298  boys  are  on  school  ships,  training 
to  be  officers,  and  there  are  nine  companies 
of  marines.  The  education  department  has  in 
Tokio  a  medical  college  with  8  German  pro 
fessors  and  300  students.  The  imperial  uni 
versity,  consisting  of  the  three  departments 
English,  French,  and  German,  has  25  foreign 
professors  and  600  students.  The  national 
scheme  of  education  provides  for  8  universi 
ties,  32  high  schools  or  academies,  256  gram 
mar  schools,  and  55,000  primary  schools.  For 
eign  languages  and  learning  are  to  be  pursued 
only  in  the  two  higher  schools,  but  the  method 
of  study  in  all  is  to  be  closely  modelled  on  the 
foreign  system.  In  1874  this  scheme  was  about 
one  sixth  fulfilled.  Chinese  learning  is  neg 


lected,  and  foreign  science  and  languages  take 
precedence.  An  immense  number  of  foreign 
books,  many  of  them  of  a  high  character,  have 
been  translated.  The  department  of  religion 
takes  charge  of  the  Shinto  shrines,  and  propa 
gates  the  dogmas  of  Shinto  and  the  three  com 
mands  of  the  government,  the  chief  of  which 
is,  "Thou  shalt  revere  the  mikado,  and  obey 
the  will  of  his  court."  There  is  a  railway  18  in. 
long  from  Yokohama  to  Tokio,  completed  in 
October,  1872 ;  the  average  traffic  receipts  per 
week  in  1874  were  nearly  $10,000.  The  road 
between  Kobe  and  Ozaka  was  finished  May  11, 
1874.  The  route  for  a  trunk  line  from  Kioto 
to  Tokio,  and  from  Ozaka,  via  Kioto,  to  Tsuru- 
ga  in  Echizen,  has  been  surveyed.  A  system 
of  18  lighthouses  of  the  finest  kind,  with  buoys, 
beacons,  &c.,  under  the  care  of  trained  Euro 
peans,  with  native  assistants,  and  costing  over 
$1,000,000,  has  robbed  the  coast  of  Japan  of 
its  former  terrors  to  mariners.  There  is  a 
telegraph  line  from  Nagasaki  to  Tokio,  with 
branches,  and  the  capital  of  Japan  communi 
cates  directly  with  San  Francisco,  via  Asia  and 
Europe.  The  railway,  lighthouse,  telegraph, 
and  mining  bureaus  follow  the  English  system, 
and  have  British  assistants.  In  1872  there  were 
224  foreigners  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
government,  on  salaries  ranging  from  $480  to 
$16,000,  and  one  at  $36,000  per  annum.  Of 
these,  119  were  English,  50  French,  and  2(3 
American.  In  1874  Americans  held  the  high 
est  offices  given  to  foreigners,  in  the  treasury, 
emigration,  education,  and  state  departments. 
While  American  and  British  citizens  hold  the 
paramount  foreign  influence  in  Japan,  they 
are  all,  except  one  American  in  the  state  de 
partment,  who  holds  a  commission  as  officer 
of  the  second  rank,  and  one  English  officer,  in 
the  strictest  sense  of  the  w7ord  employees,  and 
have  neither  title,  rank,  nor  commission,  but 
render  service  by  contract.  The  emigration 
department  has  engaged  a  staff  of  American 
officials,  who  have  surveyed  and  explored  a 
great  part  of  Yezo,  built  roads,  and  introduced 
scientific  agriculture,  American  stock,  &c.  In 
1874  there  were  about  2,500  foreign  residents 
in  Japan,  exclusive  of  soldiers  and  sailors,  of 
whom  300  were  in  Tokio.  Yokohama,  once  a 
wretched  fishing  village,  is  now  a  splendid  city, 
with  most  of  the  institutions  of  civilized  cities 
in  Europe,  having  a  foreign  population  of  about 
1,500,  and  a  native  population  of  50,000.  Kobe 
is  a  similar  instance  of  rapid  growth  and  trans 
formation.  The  British  residents  in  Japan  are 
mainly  commercial  and  diplomatic,  the  Ameri 
cans  mostly  professional.  In  May,  1874,  there 
were  31  male  and  10  female  American  Prot 
estant,  12  British,  3  Russian,  and  about  30 
French  Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  the  New  Testament  has  been  trans 
lated  into  Japanese,  and  several  native  Chris 
tian  churches  have  been  established.  Since 
1864  Japanese  have  been  visiting  foreign  coun 
tries,  and  while  several  thousand  have  passed 
through  Europe  or  America,  about  400  have 


JAPAN 


remained,  chiefly  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  as  students,  during  periods  varying  from 
one  to  six  years.  Among  the  reforms  carried 
out  by  the  mikado  and  his  government  are  the 
abandonment  of  the  old  life  of  seclusion,  and 
his  conformance  to  the  dress  and  public  man 
ner  of  life  of  European  sovereigns  ;  the  eleva 
tion  of  the  Eta  or  pariah  class  to  citizenship  ; 
the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system  ;  the  en 
couragement  of  a  native  press ;  the  establish 
ment  of  a  national  post ;  the  reorganization  of 
the  army  and  navy  on  European  models ;  the 
suppression  of  the  sale  of  obscene  pictures  and 
phallic  symbols ;  the  adoption  of  foreign  dress 
by  Japanese  officials ;  the  abolition  of  the  cus 
tom  of  wearing  two  swords ;  reform  in  the 
marriage  laws;  the  reformation  of  the  penal 
code;  the  adoption  of  railways,  telegraphs, 
lighthouses,  steam  lines  of  transports,  arsenals, 
and  dockyards  ;  a  civil  service  of  foreign  em 
ployees  ;  the  abolition  of  the  lunar  and  adop 
tion  of  the  solar  calendar ;  the  establishment 
of  legations  in  foreign  countries ;  the  coloniza 
tion  of  Yezo ;  the  annexation  of  the  Riu  Kin 
or  Loo  Choo  islands ;  and  the  planning  of  an 
educational  system  on  the  foreign  model,  in 
which  science  has  a  high  place. — The  history 
of  Japan,  like  that  of  other  ancient  nations, 
begins  with  a  mythological  period.  According 
to  the  holy  books  of  Shinto :  "  In  the  begin 
ning  the  world  had  no  form,  but  was  like  unto 
an  egg.  The  clear  portion  (the  white)  became 
heaven,  and  the  heavy  portion  (the  yolk)  be 
came  earth."  Something  like  a  reed  then  ap 
peared  and  became  a  god,  or  Teami ;  he  was 
the  father  of  a  line  of  spiritual  beings,  who 
ruled  the  universe  as  it  then  was  for  millions 
of  years,  ending  in  a  god  and  goddess  Izanagi 
and  Izanami  (evidently  the  equivalents  for  the 
Chinese  ying  and  yang,  the  male  and  female 
principles  that  pervade  all  creation).  From 
their  union  sprang  the  islands  of  Japan,  the 
mountains,  seas,  and  other  natural  objects 
therein.  Another  legend  is  that  Izanagi,  ta 
king  his  heavenly  jewelled  spear,  stirred  up  the 
sea,  and  the  drops  which  fell  from  the  point 
of  it  congealed  and  became  an  island,  upon 
which  the  two  gods  descended  and  took  up 
their  abode.  Subsequently  a  daughter  was 
born,  whose  body  was  so  bright^that  she  as 
cended  to  heaven  and  became  the  sun,  and  was 
called  Ten  Sho  Dai  Jin.  Another  daughter 
became  the  moon,  O  Tsuki  Sama.  These  di 
vinities  are  of  no  further  importance  in  his 
tory  than  as  serving  to  make  a  line  of  ances 
try  for  the  reigning  family.  At  the  time  when, 
according  to  tradition,  the  genealogy  merged 
into  mortal  men,  the  country  was  found  to'  be 
peopled,  and  there  is  no  attempt  to  show 
whence  these  people  came,  though  described 
as  hairy,  uncivilized,  and  living  in  the  open 
air.  What  seem  to  be  the  authentic  annals  of 
the  country  begin  about  600  B.  C.,  though 
there  is  no  native  documentary  proof  of  this, 
and  the  Japanese  have  no  writings  that  ante 
date  the  7th  century.  At  the  time  when  Jimmu 


Tenno,  who  is  called  the  first  emperor,  set  out 
upon  his  career,  the  people  of  the  country  are 
said  to  have  been  hairy  and  uncivilized,  living 
under  the  rule  of  a  head  man  in  each  village. 
The  Japanese  have  to  this  day  a  great  contempt 
for  the  people  of  Yezo,  who  may  be  thus  de 
scribed,  and  they  allege  that  similar  tribes  oc 
cupied  the  whole  of  the  islands,  and  that  they 
were  gradually  driven  back  by  the  armies  of 
Jimmu.  It  is  more  likely  that  they  were  con 
quered  and  gradually  amalgamated  with  their 
conquerors,  by  the  intermarriage  of  these  with 
native  females,  and  that  in  this  way,  and  by 
the  effects  of  the  warm  climate  of  the  south, 
they  lost  that  hirsute  appearance  which  is  so 
characteristic  of  the  people  of  Yezo,  who  are 
called  Ainos.  There  are  two  strongly  marked 
varieties  of  feature  in  Japan,  which  are  stri 
kingly  portrayed  in  their  own  pictures ;  these 
are  the  broad  flat  face  of  the  lower  classes,  and 
the  high  nose  and  oval  face  of  the  higher.  The 
difference  is  so  marked  as  to  be  some  argu 
ment  in  favor  of  a  previous  mixing  of  two 
different  races,  the  one  of  which  had  extended 
southward  from  the  Kurile  islands  and  Si 
beria,  hairy  and  broad-featured,  while  the  oth 
er  had  originated  from  the  south,  with  Indian 
features  and  smooth  skins.  Jimmu,  setting  out 
from  Hiuga,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island  of 
Kiushiu,  gradually  overran  that  island,  the  ad 
joining  one  of  Shikoku,  and  the  west  half  of 
the  main  island,  as  far  as  Mino.  His  capital  was 
a  place  near  Kioto,  which  was  finally  selected 
after  several  changes.  He  began  the  civiliza 
tion  of  the  people,  and  established  laws  and  a 
settled  government.  For  many  centuries  his 
posterity  reigned  on  the  throne  he  had  founded, 
bearing  the  title  of  mikado,  and  claiming  to 
rule  by  divine  right  and  inheritance.  They 
exercised  the  most  absolute  power.  Women 
were  not  excluded  from  the  succession,  and  in 
ancient  Japanese  history  there  were  many  fa 
mous  empresses.  Jingo  Kogo,  the  empress 
regent,  conquered  Corea  and  gave  birth  to  a 
son,  who  succeeded  her.  At  his  death  he  was 
deified,  and  is  now  the  Japanese  god  of  war. 
A  social  revolution  in  Japan  followed  the  con 
quest  of  Corea.  Learned  Coreans  brought 
over  to  Japan  the  works  of  Confucius  and  oth 
er  Chinese  books,  and  the  language  and  litera 
ture  of  China  became  the  study  of  the  higher 
classes.  In  A.  D.  552  a  Corean  prince  pre 
sented  the  emperor  with  Buddhist  idols  and 
books.  The  doctrines  of  Buddhism  won  their 
way  in  spite  of  all  opposition.  On  the  acces 
sion  to  the  throne  of  the  empress  Suiko,  the 
first  female  sovereign,  in  503,  full  toleration 
was  declared  to  the  Buddhist  faith.  Written 
codes  and  official  grades  were  now  formed ; 
the  empire  was  resurveyed,  and  the  provincial 
boundaries  were  fixed  more  exactly.  The  in 
vention  of  native  syllabaries  or  alphabets  (the 
hiragana,  the  script  or  running  hand,  and  kata- 
Icana,  or  square  letters)  to  facilitate  the  read 
ing,  understanding,  and  pronunciation  of  Chi 
nese,  was  the  work  of  the  famous  priest  Kobo, 


542 


JAPAN 


who  died  in  835.  The  abdication  of  the  ern- 
perors  after  short  reigns  began  at  this  time  or 
a  little  earlier  to  be  a  regular  custom ;  after 
abdication  they  would  become  priests.  Among 
other  notable  events  in  Japan,  Yezo  was  in- 
Taded  and  completely  subdued  about  the  year 
658,  the  art  of  brewing  sake  was  invented  in 
693,  and  gold  was  discovered  in  749,  after  which 
money  was  coined  and  came  into  general  use. 
In  788  a  people  from  the  west,  supposed  to  be 
Mongols,  attempted  the  invasion  of  Japan,  but 
were  driven  away,  and  their  army  and  fleets 
nearly  annihilated  by  the  valor  of  the  natives 
and  the  fury  of  the  elements.  For  three  or 
four  centuries  the  history  of  the  empire  may 
be  written  in  the  successive  rise  to  power  of 
individuals  of  the  great  families  of  the  nobles, 
whose  names,  such  as  Fujiwara,  Taira,  Mina- 
moto,  and  Tachibana,  fill  the  pages  of  the  Jap 
anese  annals,  and  are  venerated  at  the  pres 
ent  day.  The  imperial  power  began  to  decay, 
and  the  throne  finally  became  the  toy  of  lead 
ers  and  the  prey  of  contending  factions.  The 
real  origin  of  the  decline  of  imperial  power  is 
found  in  the  basis  of  the  system  of  succession. 
The  looseness  of  the  marriage  tie  produced 
weakness  in  the  social  structure  and  in  the  gov 
ernment.  The  mikado  was  allowed  12  concu 
bines  and  one  wife,  so  as  to  insure  offspring ; 
but  no  law  existed  defining  the  constitution  of 
a  legal  heirship,  or  the  rights  of  an  heir  to  the 
throne.  The  succession  did  not  depend  upon 
birth,  but  wholly  upon  the  arbitrary  will  of  the 
sovereign.  Every  member  of  the  imperial 
family  was,  under  these  circumstances,  left 
free  to  promote  his  ambitious  designs  upon  the 
throne  as  best  he  could.  The  natural  conse 
quences  of  such  a  rude  system  of  inheritance 
are  obvious,  and  the  pages  of  Japanese  history 
for  nearly  four  centuries  reflect  the  story  of 
turbulence,  intrigue,  and  bloody  strife,  as  the 
different  clans  in  turn  got  possession  of  the 
throne ;  and  at  one  time  there  were  two  em 
perors.  From  the  civil  custody  of  the  cour 
tiers,  the  throne  finally  became  the  bauble  of 
the  military  class,  like  the  throne  of  imperial 
Rome.  Meanwhile  the  vassal  princes  took 
advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  imperial 
government  to  strengthen  their  own  power, 
adding  to  the  national  confusion.  To  remedy 
these  evils,  the  court  of  the  mikado  created 
the  office  of  shogun,  or  governor  generalissimo, 
and  appointed  Yoritomo  to  it.  This  man, 
one  of  the  most  renowned  heroes  in  Japanese 
history,  was  the  son  of  a  court  noble  of  the 
Minamoto  family  by  a  peasant  woman.  After 
quelling  the  turbulence  of  the  great  vassals, 
and  restoring  the  authority  of  the  throne,  he 
gradually  concentrated  in  his  own  hands  the 
real  power  of  the  government,  without  how 
ever  depriving  the  mikado  of  his  nominal  rank, 
dignity,  and  religious  supremacy.  The  office 
of  shogun  was  made  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Yoritomo,  but  did  not  finally  remain  so. 
Abnegating  official  titles  and  rank,  he  never 
theless  held  the  fulness  of  sovereignty.  lie 


chose  Kamakura,  about  35  m.  from  Yedo,  for 
his  capital,  and  made  the  court  of  the  first 
shogunate  one  of  great  magnificence  and  dig 
nity.  From  this  date,  1195,  the  shogun  was 
regarded  as  the  lord  of  the  land,  and  the  in 
fluence  and  power  of  the  emperor  became 
nominal.  The  Mongols  having  invaded  China 
in  1260,  and  conquered  the  greater  part  of  it, 
their  leader  Kublai  Khan  sent  envoys  to  Japan 
in  1268,  and  again  in  1271  and  1273.  On  their 
arrival  at  Kamakura  the  first  envoys  were  in 
sulted,  and  those  who  came  later  were  arrested 
and  put  to  death.  In  1274  an  expedition  was 
sent  by  the  Mongol  conqueror,  which  was  de 
feated.  In  1281  an  immense  fleet  and  army 
were  despatched  to  Japan,  which  when  off 
the  coast  of  Chikuzen,  were  destroyed  in  a 
storm  and  by  Japanese  valor.  From  that  time 
Japan  has  not  been  molested  by  invaders. 
From  1331  to  1392  occurred  the  civil  wars  be 
tween  the  factions  of  the  northern  emperor 
and  the  southern  emperor,  both  of  whom 
claimed  the  throne.  The  period  from  1336 
to  1573  is  known  as  the  "epoch  of  war,"  and 
the  country  was  ruled  by  13  shoguns  of  the 
Ashikaga  family.  About  this  time  there  rose 
into  notice  three  of  the  greatest  names  that 
adorn  the  pages  of  Japanese  history  ;  they  are 
Nobunaga,  Hideyoshi,  and  lyeyasu.  Nobunaga 
conceived  the  idea  of  bringing  the  whole  em 
pire  under  his  sway;  and  reducing  first  the 
weak  clans,  he  gradually  overawed  the  great 
clans,  but  was  killed  by  a  traitor  before  he 
finished  his  work.  Hideyoshi  hastened  to  com 
plete  it,  and  succeeded  in  bringing  the  whole 
empire  under  his  absolute  rule.  Nobunaga 
hated  the  Buddhist  priesthood,  and  persecuted 
them  with  sword  and  fire.  Hideyoshi  likewise 
hated  them,  and  both  pretended  to  welcome 
the  Jesuit  missionaries,  in  order  to  offset  them 
against  the  Buddhists  and  diminish  their  power. 
Hideyoshi  is  usually  called  by  the  Jesuit  fathers 
Faxiba  (correctly  Ilashiba),  a  name  chosen 
by  himself  in  a  trivial  mood,  and  made  up  of 
the  first  and  last  halves  of  two  different  men's 
names.  He  is  also  called  Taiko  Sama  by 
foreigners,  but  this  was  merely  the  title  of  his 
office,  and  there  have  been  many  taikos. 
Hideyoshi  was  not  only  a  great  warrior,  but  a 
consummate  statesman  and  legislator,  and  the 
k'  laws  of  Taiko"  have  been  venerated  for  cen 
turies.  Aspiring  to  conquer  the  vast  empire 
of  China,  he  sent  by  the  way  of  Corea  in  1592 
an  army  160,000  strong.  Corea  submitted, 
being  entirely  unprepared,  but  further  advance 
was  stopped  by  the  death  of  Hideyoshi,  and 
the  expedition  returned.  The  country  was 
now  distracted  by  two  parties,  one  led  by  the 
adherents  of  the  infant  son  of  Hideyoshi,  the 
other  by  Tokugawa  lyeyasu.  The  latter  tri 
umphed,  and  founded  the  shogunate  of  Toku 
gawa,  the  family  which  ruled  over  Japan  from 
1603  till  1867,  during  which  period  the  country 
enjoyed  profound  peace.  He  made  Yedo,  then 
a  small  town,  his  capital,  and  in  a  few  years  it 
became  a  great  city.  lyeyasu  is  regarded  as 


JAPAN 


543 


the  greatest  character  in  Japanese  history. 
His  system  of  government  was  that  under 
•which  Japan  continued  during  the  period  of 
her  seclusion  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  which 
has  been  so  well  described  by  Karnpfer,  Tit- 
singh,  and  Klaproth,  and  which  so  long  excited 
the  wonder  of  other  nations.  It  was  a  normal 
outgrowth  of  peculiar  circumstances.  Having 
no  foreign  enemies,  the  feudal  condition  of  the 
country  necessitated  a  dual  government  and 
two  capitals:  a  divine  emperor,  the  fountain 
of  honors  and  titles,  to  be  venerated;  and  a 
strong  hand  of  power,  the  shogun,  with  castles, 
wealth,  and  armies  to  be  feared.  The  one  dwelt 
amid  a  semi-sacred  nobility  and  a  host  of  learned 
priests,  in  a  quiet  capital  filled  with  temples  and 
colleges ;  and  the  other,  from  his  moated  castle 
ruling  the  turbulent  vassals  and  enforcing  mili 
tary  authority  in  every  part  of  the  land,  resided 
in  a  bustling  capital  filled  with  wealth,  luxury, 
and  all  the  circumstance  of  actual  power. 
Though  the  shogun  was  the  de  facto  ruler  of 
Japan,  the  mikado  was  by  no  means  the  empty 
shadow  that  Kampfer  and  his  copyists  make 
him  to  be.  Title  and  rank  in  Japan  have  a 
significance  even  greater  than  in  Europe,  and 
all  high  ranks  and  titles  had  to  be  obtained 
from  the  mikado.  He  was  the  true  sovereign 
of  Japan,  and  the  shogun  was  a  usurper,  and 
in  no  sense  of  the  word  a  king  or  emperor. 
He  was  but  a  military  governor,  a  commander- 
in-chief .  Properly  he  was  a  senior  baron,  pri 
mus  inter  pares.  His  family  was  but  a  clan 
like  the  others,  which  had  obtained  its  su 
premacy  by  the  genius  and  labors  of  lyeyasu, 
and  which  held  it  by  force  and  superior  re 
sources.  Probably  no  greater  diplomatic  mis 
take  was  ever  made  in  the  history  of  the  world 
than  that  of  the  foreign  nations  who  made 
treaties  with  Japan,  and  accepted  the  seal  of 
the  shogun  as  surety,  without  having  them 
ratified  by  the  mikado.  In  fact,  the  foreign 
nations  were  content  to  make  treaties  with  the 
lieutenant,  or  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  through 
their  ignorance  of  the  facts,  while  the  em 
peror's  consent  was  actually  withheld.  The 
term  taikun  (or  tycoon)  means  "great  sov 
ereign,"  and  was  an  absurd  title,  to  which  the 
shogun  had  no  right  whatever,  and  which  was 
invented  to  deceive  foreigners.  When  the 
foreign  ministers  in  Japan  found  out  the  true 
state  of  affairs,  and  that  the  mikado  was  and 
had  always  been  de  jure  the  true  sovereign, 
they  insisted  upon  and  obtained  his  ratification 
of  the  treaties.  The  assumption  of  this  title 
by  the  shogun  helped  to  bring  on  the  civil  war 
of  186  6-' 9  which  reduced  his  power  to  that 
of  a  daimio,  and  restored  the  emperor  to  his 
ancient  power  and  rights.  There  never  were 
two  emperors  in  Japan,  and  the  loose  state 
ments  about  a  "secular"  and  an  "ecclesiasti 
cal"  emperor  originated  in  deception. — The 
first  European  known  to  have  written  of 
Japan  is  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian  traveller, 
who  visited  China,  and  in  his  narrative  speaks 
of  Zipangu,  a  modification  of  the  Chinese  name. 
VOL.  ix. — 35 


He  gave  such  glowing  accounts  of  the  people 
and  the  wealth  of  the  land,  that  Columbus 
seems  evidently  to  have  had  the  quest  of  that 
country  in  mind  when  he  sailed  westward,  and 
on  first  landing  in  the  Bahamas  believed  him 
self  to  be  in  Zipangu.  After  the  circumnavi 
gation  of  Africa  by  Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497, 
the  Portuguese  rapidly  extended  their  discov 
eries  and  conquests  in  southern  Asia.  In  1542 
three  Portuguese  sailors  arrived  at  Tane- 
shima,  and  "breathed  into  the  Japanese  at 
mosphere  the  first  breath  of  Christianity." 
About  three  years  later  a  Portuguese  adven 
turer,  Fernam  Mendez  Pinto  (whose  name  for 
a  long  time  was  a  synonymc  for  liar,  but  whose 
veracity  has  been  reestablished  by  modern 
criticism),  while  cruising  with  some  compan 
ions  of  his  own  nation  in  the  vessel  of  a  Chi 
nese  pirate,  was  driven  by  foul  weather  into  a 
harbor  in  one  of  the  smaller  Japan  islands.  He 
was  well  received,  and  carried  back  to  the 
Portuguese  settlements  in  China  such  reports 
of  the  riches  and  magnificence  of  Japan,  that 
great  numbers  of  traders  and  adventurers 
fiocked  thither,  and  an  active  commerce  sprang 
up.  Missionaries  speedily  followed  the  mer 
chants,  and  in  1549  Japan  was  visited  by  the 
celebrated  "apostle  of  the  Indies,"  St.  Francis 
Xavier.  Both  merchants  and  missionaries 
were  favorably  received,  and  while  the  one 
class  found  a  ready  and  most  profitable  market 
for  their  goods,  the  other  rapidly  converted 
vast  numbers  of  the  natives  to  Christianity. 
Three  of  the  most  powerful  nobles,  the  princes 
of  Bungo,  Harima,  and  Omura,  were  among 
the  converts.  In  1582  the  Japanese  Christians 
sent  an  embassy  with  letters  and  presents  to 
Rome  to  do  honor  to  the  pope,  and  assure  him 
of  their  submission  to  the  church.  In  the  two 
years  which  followed  their  return  (1591-'2),  it 
is  said  that  12,000  Japanese  were  converted 
and  baptized.  Tempted  by  the  success  of  the 
Portuguese,  the  Dutch  East  India  company  in 
1598  despatched  five  merchant  vessels  to  Japan, 
one  of  which  reached  it  in  1600.  In  1009 
other  Dutch  ships  arrived,  and  were  well  re 
ceived  by  the  Japanese,  who  conceded  to 
,  them  a  port  on  the  island  of  Hirado  (called  by 
them  Firando)  for  a  factory  or  settlement, 
with  considerable  privileges.  Before  the  ar 
rival  of  the  Dutch,  who  were  then  at  war  with 
Portugal,  the  Japanese  government  had  be 
come  distrustful  of  the  Portuguese,  whose  as 
tonishing  success  made  them. haughty  and  dis 
dainful  of  the  feelings  and  prejudices  of  the 
natives.  The  effects  of  the  missionaries1  labors 
had  scarcely  been  perceived  during  the  an 
archy  into  which  the  country  was  plunged,  and 
Nobunaga  had  utilized  the  enthusiastic  energy 
of  the  new  converts  in  the  suppression  of  their 
common  enemy,  the  Buddhist  priesthood.  His 
successor  Hideyoshi  found  the  native  Chris 
tians  disobedient  and  unyielding  under  his  rude 
and  arbitrary  orders.  lie  is  said  to  have  asked 
a  subject  of  the  double  kingdom  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  how  his  king  had  managed  to  possess 


544 


JAPAN 


himself  of  half  the  world.  The  Spaniard's  re 
ply,  "  He  sends  priests  to  win  the  people;  his 
troops  are  then  sent  to  join  the  native  Chris 
tians,  and  the  conquest  is  easy,"  made  a  deep 
impression  upon  Hideyoshi.  The  vicious  hab 
its  and  inconsistent  conduct  of  the  Portuguese 
Christians,  mostly  sailors  and  traders,  the  wild 
and  offensive  behavior  of  the  converts  toward 
the  sacred  temples  of  the  Shinto  deities  and  of 
the  popular  religion  of  Buddha,  and  the  per 
formance  of  pretended  miracles  by  the  mission 
aries,  added  to  his  political  jealousy,  excited  the 
displeasure  of  Hideyoshi,  who  issued  an  edict 
for  the  banishment  of  the  missionaries.  The 
edict  was  renewed  by  his  successor  in  1596, 
and  in  1597  23  priests  were  put  to  death  in 
one  day  in  Nagasaki.  The  Christians  on  their 
part  took  no  measures  to  pacify  the  government, 
but  defied  it  and  began  to  overthrow  idols  and 
pull  down  heathen  temples.  This  led  to  dread 
ful  persecutions  in  1612  and  1614,  when  many 
of  the  Japanese  converts  were  put  to  death, 
their  churches  and  schools  were  destroyed,  and 
their  faith  was  declared  infamous  and  rebel 
lious.  The  Portuguese  traders  were  no  longer 
allowed  free  access  to  the  country,  but  were 
confined  to  the  island  of  Deshima,  at  Nagasaki. 
In  1622  a  frightful  massacre  of  Christians  took 
place  near  Nagasaki,  and  horrible  tortures,  en 
dured  with  heroic  constancy,  were  inflicted  on 
multitudes  in  the  vain  effort  to  make  them  re 
cant.  In  1637  it  was  discovered  by  the  Japa 
nese  government  that  the  native  Christians, 
driven  to  despair  by  their  persecution,  had  en 
tered  into  a  conspiracy  with  the  Portuguese 
to  overthrow  the  imperial  throne.  The  perse 
cutions  were  renewed  with  increased  rigor. 
Edicts  were  issued  banishing  the  Portuguese 
for  ever  from  Japan,  and  prohibiting  any 
Japanese  or  Japanese  ship  or  boat  from  leav 
ing  the  country,  under  the  severest  penalties. 
By  the  close  of  1639  the  Portuguese  were  en 
tirely  expelled,  and  their  trade  was  transferred 
to  the  Dutch,  who,  as  enemies  to  the  Portuguese 
and  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  were  not  in 
volved  by  the  Japanese  in  their  condemnation. 
In  1640  the  oppressed  Christians  rose  in  open 
rebellion  in  the  island  of  Amakusa,  crossed 
over  to  the  mainland,  seized  the  castle  of 
Shimabara,  and  made  a  long  and  gallant  stand 
against  the  shoguiTs  army.  The  Christians 
were  at  length  subdued  by  the  superior  mili 
tary  skill  of  their  opponents,  who  brought  to 
their  aid  artillery,  which  the  Dutch  lent  them. 
The  Christian  stronghold  was  finally  carried 
by  storm,  and  all  within  its  walls,  to  the  num 
ber  of  31,000,  were  put  to  the  sword.  In  the 
next  year  the  Dutch  were  ordered  to  quit  their 
factory  at  Hirado,  and  take  up  their  residence 
under  very  strict  inspection  on  the  island  of  De 
shima.  There  they  remained  for  more  than  two 
centuries  in  undisturbed  monopoly  of  the  entire 
European  trade  of  Japan.  The  occasional  ef 
forts  of  the  Russians  and  English  to  obtain  in 
tercourse  with  the  secluded  empire  were  reso 
lutely  repulsed,  and  led  in  one  case  to  the  im 


prisonment  for  two  years  in  Japan  of  the  Rus 
sian  Capt.  Golovnin  and  several  of  his  compan 
ions.  During  all  this  time  the  governmental 
system  inaugurated  by  lyeyasu,  and  perfected 
by  his  grandson  lyemitsu,  worked  smoothly 
and  gave  the  country  peace  and  prosperity. 
Under  this  dual  system,  the  emperor,  called 
the  mikado  (illustrious  gate,  or  sublime 
porte),  lived  in  Kioto,  surrounded  by  the  huge 
or  imperial  nobles  related  to  him.  He  was 
the  centre  and  fountain  of  titles,  honor,  and 
power.  The  shogun  never  aspired  to  be  mi 
kado,  but  from  his  capital  Yedo  ruled  the 
country  as  lieutenant  of  the  emperor.  The 
word  shogun  means  commander-in-chief,  and 
when  the  "barbarians"  (foreigners)  entered 
Japan,  after  Com.  Perry's  treaty,  the  mikado 
commanded  the  shogun  to  expel  them.  The 
foolish  stories  told  about  the  mikado,  who  was 
also  called  dairi,  by  Kampfer  and  others, 
were  mainly  the  superstitious  beliefs  of  the 
vulgar  lower  classes,  though  all  Japanese  be 
lieved  him  to  be  of  divine  descent.  The  dai- 
mios,  or  territorial  nobles,  resided  in  Yedo, 
and  were  divided  into  four  classes:  1,  the 
kokushiu,  lords  of  provinces,  princes;  2,  the 
kamon,  family  doors,  i.  e.,  relatives  of  the  sho- 
gun's  family ;  3,  the  tozama,  landed  noblemen 
descended  from  those  who  assisted  lyeyasu; 
4,  the  fudai)  the  vassals  of  original  retainers 
of  lyeyasu.  In  1865  there  were  21  kokushiu, 
10  kamon,  30  tozama,  and  about  200  fudai. 
To  be  a  daimio  ("great  name  "),  one  must  be 
long  to  one  of  these  four  classes,  and  have  a 
revenue  of  not  less  than  58,000  bushels  of  rice. 
The  annual  revenue  of  the  richest  daimio  was 
more  than  5,400,000  bushels  of  rice.  The 
shogun's  revenue  was  over  40,000,000  bush 
els.  Only  the  fudai  daimios  were  eligible  to 
office,  or  could  take  part  in  official  business ; 
and  their  power  over  the  large  daimios  thus 
grew  to  be  almost  absolute.  The  source  of 
the  de  facto  power  in  Japan  until  1866  lay 
in  the  two  councils  of  state  in  Yedo,  the  mem 
bers  of  which  were  called  respectively  toshi 
yori  and  waka  doshi  yori,  senior  senators  or 
elders  and  younger  senators.  The  daimios 
were  allowed  to  visit  their  palaces  only  at  cer 
tain  periods,  and  never  permitted  to  take  their 
wives  and  children  out  of  the  capital,  they  be 
ing  kept  as  hostages.  The  daimios  were  al 
ways  closely  watched  by  the  councils  of  state, 
by  means  of  spies  and  informers,  and  were  al 
ways  kept  poor  by  heavy  contributions  levied 
upon  them,  and  by  their  luxurious  habits  fos 
tered  by  the  system  under  which  they  lived. 
They  were  so  harassed  by  surveillance  and  re 
straint  that  they  generally  sought  relief  in  ab 
dication  of  their  troublesome  dignities  as  soon 
as  they  had  sons  of  proper  age  to  succeed  them. 
To  prevent  opportunity  for  conspiracy,  they 
were  kept  in  constant  motion,  and  the  great 
princes  rarely  met  alone  with  each  other.  A 
most  cunningly  devised  and  rigidly  executed 
system  of  espionage  held  every  one  in  dread 
and  suspicion,  from  the  most  powerful  daimio 


JAPAN 


545 


to  the  meanest  retainer.  The  ignoble  quality 
of  deception  became  to  a  large  extent  a  national 
characteristic,  which  still  clings  to  Japanese 
officials.  Every  Japanese  head  of  a  family  was 
personally  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  his 
wife,  children,  servants,  and  guests.  The  whole 
population  was  divided  into  groups  of  five  fam 
ilies,  every  member  of  which  was  responsible 
for  the  conduct  of  the  others.  No  one  of  the 
common  people  could  change  his  residence 
without  obtaining  a  certificate  of  good  conduct 
from  the  neighbors  he  was  about  to  leave. 
Every  one  of  the  lower  classes  must  also  be 
registered  at  some  temple,  and  have  a  wood 
en  tablet  or  card  officially  certifying  his  name, 
occupation,  residence,  and  temple.  The  result 
of  this  organization,  which  in  a  great  measure 
still  continues,  is  that  a  criminal  has  almost  no 
hiding  place,  and  robberies  and  other  heinous 
crimes  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  Japa 
nese  people  were  formerly  divided  into  eight 
classes :  1,  the  huge,  or  Kioto  nobility ;  2,  the 
daimios,  or  Yedo  nobility;  3,  the  hatamoto,  or 
lower  dahnio  class,  including  the  military  liter 
ati,  under  the  general 'name  of  samurai;  4, 
the  priests,  inferior  officials,  physicians,  &c. ; 
5,  the  farmers  and  untitled  landholders  ;  6,  ar 
tisans  ;  7,  merchants ;  8,  actors,  beggars,  &c. 
Beneath  these  were  the  eta,  or  tanners,  skin 
ners,  and  all  workers  in  leather,  who  were  the 
pariahs  of  Japan,  and  were  obliged  to  live  in 
quarters  separate  from  the  towns  or  villages ; 
they  were  never  allowed  to  touch  any  citizen,  and 
had  to  execute  and  bury  criminals.  No  samu 
rai  could  be  prosecuted  or  punished  for  killing 
one,  nor  would  any  help  be  offered  to  a  drown 
ing  or  starving  eta.  By  a  decree  of  the  present 
emperor,  published  in  1871,  all  the  social  dis 
abilities  of  these  people  were  removed,  and 
they  are  now  citizens  of  the  empire.  Prosti 
tutes  and  brothel-keepers  were  considered  to 
be  on  the  same  social  level  as  beggars.  The 
first  four  classes  had  the  privilege  of  wearing 
two  swords,  the  others  but  one.  About  nine 
tenths  of  the  population  of  Japan  are  included 
within  the  four  lower  classes.  The  chief 
causes  for  the  recent  changes  in  the  govern 
ment  of  Japan,  and  the  social  revolution 
among  the  whole  peopie,  are,  first,  the  rever 
ence  of  the  people  for  the  imperial  throne  and 
the  true  sovereign  authority  of  the  mikado ; 
and  second,  the  influence  of  western  civiliza 
tion. — In  1852  the  United  States  government, 
in  consequence  of  complaints  made  to  it  that 
American  sailors  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Ja 
pan  had  been  harshly  treated  by  the  authorities 
of  that  country,  despatched  an  expedition  un 
der  the  command  of  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry, 
who  was  instructed  to  demand  protection  for 
American  seamen  wrecked  on  the  coast,  and  if 
possible  to  effect  a  treaty  by  which  American 
vessels  should  be  allowed  to  enter  one  or  more 
ports  to  obtain  supplies  and  for  purposes  of 
trade.  In  February,  1854,  Com.  Perry,  with 
a  squadron  of  seven  ships  of  war,  entered  the 
bay  of  Yedo,  and  anchored  within  a  few  miles 


of  the  city.  During  the  previous  year  he  had 
entered  the  same  bay,  and  delivered  to  the  Jap 
anese  a  letter  to  the  shogun  from  the  presi 
dent  of  the  United  States.  The  proceedings 
of  Com.  Perry  were  characterized,  throughout 
the  difficult  task  of  dealing  properly  with  the 
Japanese,  by  consummate  tact  and  diplomatic 
skill,  and  were  finally  crowned  with  success. 
By  a  treaty  dated  at  Kanagawa,  the  nearest 
large  town,  though  really  signed  at  Yokoha 
ma,  then  a  mere  fishing  village,  March  31,  1854, 
the  ports  of  Shimoda  and  Hakodate  (usually 
written  Hakodadi)  were  opened  as  harbors  of 
refuge,  supply,  trade,  and  consular  residence. 
In  September  a  British  squadron,  under  the 
command  of  Rear  Admiral  Sir  James  Stirling, 
entered  the  harbor  of  Nagasaki,  and  concluded 
a  treaty  with  Japan,  by  which  Hakodate  and 
Nagasaki  wrere  opened  to  foreign  commerce. 
The  Russians  made  a  similar  treaty  and  ob 
tained  similar  privileges,  and  were  followed  by 
the  Dutch.  On  June  17,  1857,  a  new  treaty 
was  negotiated  at  Shimoda  with  the  Japanese 
government  by  Mr.  Townsend  Harris,  United 
States  consul  general  to  Japan,  by  which  the 
port  of  Nagasaki  was  also  opened  to  American 
trade.  In  1858,  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  Mr. 
Harris  succeeded  in  reaching  Yedo,  where  he 
concluded  a  still  more  favorable  treaty.  Du 
ring  the  same  year  a  British  squadron  conveyed 
Lord  Elgin  to  Yedo,  where  on  Aug.  26  a  new 
treaty  was  concluded  between  Great  Britain 
and  Japan,  by  which  the  ports  of  Hakodate, 
Kanagawa,  and  Nagasaki  were  to  be  opened 
to  British  subjects  after  July  1,  1859  ;  Niigata, 
or  some  other  convenient  port  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  main  island,  after  Jan.  1,  1800 ;  and 
Hiogo  after  Jan.  1,  1863  ;  and  various  other 
commercial  privileges  were  granted  to  British 
merchants.  At  the  present  date,  1874,  Japan 
has  treaties  with  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  Russia,  Holland,  Prussia,  Portugal, 
France,  Spain,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Austria, 
Greece,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Ha 
waii,  Peru,  and  China,  which  are  similar  in 
most  respects.  In  1860  a  Japanese  embassy, 
the  first  ever  sent  from  the  country,  visited 
the  United  States,  and  another  embassy  visited 
Europe  in  1861.  The  signing  of  the  treaties 
by  the  shogun,  who  was  wholly  unprepared 
for  the  advent  of  the  American  commodore, 
caused  an  intense  excitement  throughout  the 
country,  general  dissatisfaction,  and  deep  in 
dignation  at  the  imperial  court  in  Kioto.  The 
sympathy  of  many  daimios  was  excited  and  de 
veloped  in  behalf  of  the  emperor,  and  the  tide 
of  powrer  and  influence  began  to  set  toward 
Kioto  and  away  from  Yedo.  The  shogun 
having  died  in  1858,  the  premier  and  regent  at 
this  time,  an  insolent  and  haughty  man,  disre 
garding  the  popular  choice,  selected  the  infant 
daimio  of  the  province  of  Kii,  and  by  execu 
tion  and  imprisonment  suppressed  all  the  lead 
ers  of  the  party  who  opposed  his  will.  On 
March  23,  1860,  the  regent,  who  had  des 
patched  the  embassy  to  the  United  States,  was 


546 


JAPAN 


assassinated  in  the  public  streets  of  Yedo  in 
broad  daylight.  After  his  death  the  custom  of 
the  shogun  making  personal  visits  to  the  sov 
ereign  at  Kioto  was  revived,  thus  showing 
where  the  supreme  power  lay.  Influences 
from  Kioto  now  became  so  strong  that  the 
families  of  the  daimios,  long  held  as  hostages, 
were  withdrawn,  and  the  custom  of  the  dai 
mios  visiting  Yedo  was  abolished.  From  this 
period  Kioto  became  superior  to  Yedo,  and 
while  the  power  of  the  mikado  daily  increased, 
that  of  the  shogun  decreased,  until  the  Yedo 
government  was  despised  and  openly  defied. 
The  cry  of  all  the  conservative  and  "  patriotic  " 
Japanese  now  was,  "  Honor  the  mikado,  and 
expel  the  barbarians."  In  July,  1863,  while 
the  shogun's  government  was  engaged  in  try 
ing  to  persuade  the  foreigners  to  close  the 
ports  and  leave  Japan,  the  forces  of  the  daimio 
of  Choshiu  (Nagato),  acting  upon  orders  from 
the  imperial  court  of  Kioto,  fired  on  the  ships 
of  the  United  States,  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  Netherlands.  These  treaty  powers  after 
ward  sent  their  ships  of  war  to  Shimonoseki, 
the  port  at  which  the  batteries  were  erected. 
A  complete  victory  of  the  foreigners  was  the 
result,  and  an  indemnity  of  3,000,000  Mexican 
dollars  was  demanded  and  obtained.  This 
victory  opened  the  eyes  of  the  anti-foreign 
party  to  the  power  and  resources  of  the  "  out 
side  barbarians."  Choshiu  had  acted  in  dis 
obedience  to  the  express  command  of  the  sho 
gun,  who  had  obtained  a  rescission  of  the  order 
of  the  imperial  court  to  "  expel  the  barbarians." 
The  shogun  made  an  expedition  against  Cho 
shiu  to  punish  him  for  his  disobedience,  and 
to  suppress  his  province.  He  set  out  with  a 
large  but  motley  force,  equipped  in  the  old 
style  of  armor,  and  armed  with  bows  and 
arrows,  spears,  and  swords.  The  forces  of 
Choshiu  were  well  drilled  in  foreign  style, 
armed  with  rifies,  and  lightly  and  tightly 
clothed.  A  most  decided  and  disastrous  de 
feat  of  the  shogun's  army  was  the  result.  De 
feat,  mortification,  and  disease  together  carried 
off  the  shogun,  Sept.  19,  1866,  and  he  was  suc 
ceeded  by  the  new  shogun,  the  last  of  his  line, 
Hitotsubashi.  Seven  of  the  most  influential 
daimios  were  summoned  to  Kioto,  and  one, 
the  prince  of  Tosa,  boldly  proposed  the  aboli 
tion  of  the  shognnate,  and  suggested  the  uni 
fication  of  the  power  of  the  nation  in  the 
hands  of  the  emperor.  The  shogun  accepted 
the  situation,  and  tendered  his  resignation. 
This  however  did  not  seriously  alter  the  form 
of  government,  and  left  the  machinery  of 
power  in  very  much  the  same  order  as  before, 
the  mikado  merely  taking  the  authority  of  the 
shogunate  to  himself.  In  the  winter  of  1867- '8 
the  party  in  favor  of  an  utter  abolition  of  the 
shogunate,  and  a  return  to  the  ancient  imperial 
system  of  government,  formed  a  conspiraov 
and  resolved  on  a  bold  cnvp  cTetat.  Iwakura, 
now  junior  minister  and  chief  of  the  embassy 
to  the  United  States  and  Europe  in  1872,  was 
a  prominent  leader  as  well  as  instrument  of 


the  conspiracy.  They  created  a  government, 
under  which  the  highest  offices  were  filled  by 
the  Ituge,  or  court  nobles  of  the  imperial  family, 
those  next  in  order  by  daimios  and  courtiers, 
and  those  of  the  third  grade  by  able  men 
selected  from  the  samurai  or  gentry.  All  the 
power  was  thus  thrown  into  the  hands  of  a 
clique,  composed  almost  entirely,  of  the  men 
of  the  four  clans  of  Satsuma,  Choshiu,  Tosa, 
and  llizen.  These  proceedings  aroused  the  in 
dignation  of  the  ex-shogun,  and  he  withdrew 
from  Kioto  to  Ozaka  with  his  followers.  Under 
their  influence,  and  by  their  persuasion,  he 
undertook  to  reenter  Kioto,  with  the  view  of 
driving  out  his  opponents  and  of  punishing  the 
conspirators.  At  Fushimi,  near  Kioto,  his 
vanguard  was  fired  on,  and  his  army,  number 
ing  nearly  30,000  men,  after  three  days'  fight 
ing,  were  defeated  by  the  opposing  forces, 
chiefly  from  Satsuma  and  Choshiu,  and  num 
bering  but  6,500  men.  The  ex-shogun  escaped 
to  Yedo  in  an  American  steamer,  and  on  his 
arrival,  although  surrounded  by  a  large  army 
and  possessed  of  a  splendid  navy,  he  declared 
his  intention  never  to  oppose  the  mikado's 
will.  A  small  party  supported  him  in  this 
resolve,  but  the  daimios  of  the  northeast  enter 
ed  the  field  against  the  imperial  forces,  and 
gallantly  maintained  the  desperate  struggle  for 
six  months.  The  commander  of  the  ex-sho- 
gun's  navy  took  the  island  of  Yezo,  and  setting 
up  an  aristocratic  republic  held  out  against  the 
imperial  forces  for  many  months,  when,  the 
greater  part  of  the  fleet  being  sunk  and  the 
forts  silenced  by  the  ram  Stonewall,  supported 
by  a  large  land  force,  the  imperialists  obtained 
a  complete  victory  and  the  submission  of  the 
enemy.  The  whole  country  was  now  at  peace. 
A  complete  and  marvellous  change  took  place 
in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  mikado's  party. 
Hitherto  the  court  at  Kioto  had  been  the 
centre  of  the  anti-foreign  spirit,  and  the  motive 
and  grand  object  of  the  coalition  that  over 
threw  the  power  of  the  shogun  was  to  central 
ize  all  power  in  the  imperial  throne,  strength 
en  the  empire,  and  then  to  sweep  away  the 
foreigners  from  the  country.  The  immense 
superiority  of  foreign  arms,  war  material,  and 
discipline  first  opened  their  eyes,  and  since  all 
the  treaties  bore  the  signature  of  the  shoguu 
they  were  afraid  Jest  the  foreigners  should  aid 
him,  and,  regarding  them  as  rebels,  should 
seriously  endanger  their  future  course.  In 
their  extremity  they  invited  the  foreign  repre 
sentatives,  then  temporarily  at  Hiogo,  to  a  con 
ference  and  an  imperial  audience  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  old  anti-foreign  Kioto.  The  con 
version  of  the  court  nobles  was  thorough  and 
instantaneous.  Many  of  them  had  never  seen  a 
foreigner.  The  men  from  the  western  nations 
were  found  to  be  neither  wild  beasts  nor  demons. 
From  this  point  the  mikado's  government  was 
known  and  recognized  by  all  foreigners  as  the 
only  and  supreme  government  in  Japan.  In 
the  spring  of  1869  the  four  clans,  Satsuma, 
Choshiu,  Tosa,  and  Hizen,  addressed  a  memo- 


JAPAN 


JAPAN"  (LANGUAGE,  &c.)          54.7 


rial  to  the  throne,  in  which  it  was  argued  that 
the  fiefs  of  the  daimios  ought  not  to  he  looked 
on  as  private  property.  Other  clans  supported 
the  memorial.  The  imperial  court,  after  con 
sulting  the  general  opinion,  abolished  the  titles 
of  court  and  territorial  noble  (huge  and  dainid), 
and  replaced  them  by  that  of  "noble  families  " 
(kuazoku).  In  the  summer  of  1871  the  entire 
power  of  the  empire  was  centred  directly  in 
Tokio  (Yedo),  which  had  received  its  new 
name  in  1868.  All  public  property  through 
out  the  empire  came  into  possession  of  the 
imperial  government,  and  the  former  daimios 
were  given  the  alternative  of  travelling  abroad 
or  living  in  Tokio,  one  tenth  of  their  former 
revenue  being  allowed  them  for  support.  In 
December,  1871,  an  embassy  consisting  of  the 
ambassador  and  junior  prime  minister  Iwa- 
kura,  and  the  vice  ambassador  Kido,  three 
ministers  of  the  cabinet,  and  inferior  officers 
and  secretaries,  numbering  49  persons  in  all, 
sailed  from  Yokohama  to  visit  all  the  nations 
having  treaties  with  Japan.  They  spent  seven 
months  in  the  United  States,  and  about  a  year 
in  Europe,  reaching  Japan  on  their  return,  by 
way  of  Suez,  Sept.  13,  1873. — The  principal 
writers  on  Japan  are:  Kampfer,  "History  of 
Japan"  (2  vols.  fol.,  London,  1727);  Golov- 
nin,  "Memoirs  of  Captivity  in  Japan,"  trans 
lated  from  the  Russian  (2d  ed.,  3  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1824) ;  Meylan,  Japan  voorgesteld  in 
schetsen  (Amsterdam,  1830) ;  Doeff,  Herin- 
nerungen  uit  Japan  (Haarlem,  1833) ;  Titsingh, 
Annalcs  des  empereurs  de  Japon  (Paris,  1834) ; 
Siebold,  Nippon  (20  vols.,  Leyden,  1832-'57)  ; 
Mrs.  Busk,  "Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Jap 
anese,"  compiled  and  translated  from  Siebold 
and  other  Dutch  authorities  (London,  1841) ; 
Charles  Macfarlane,  "Japan"  (London,  1852); 
Richard  Hildreth,  "  Japan  as  It  Was  and  Is  " 
(Boston,  1855);  Francis  L.  Hawks,  "Narrative 
of  the  Japan  Expedition"  (3  vols.  4to,  Wash 
ington,  1850);  Laurence  Oliphant,  "Narrative 
of  Lord  Elgin's  Mission  to  China  and  Japan  " 
(2  vols.,  London,  1859);  Capt,  Sherard  Os- 
borne,  "  A  Cruise  in  Japanese  Waters"  (Edin 
burgh,  1859),  and  "  Japanese  Fragments " 
(London,  1801);  Robert  Fortune,  "Visits  to 
Japan  and  China"  (London,  1803);  Sir  Ruth 
erford  Alcock,  "  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon  " 
(2  vols.,  London,  1863);  Walter  Dickson,  "Ja 
pan,  a  Sketch  of  the  History,  Government, 
and  Officers  of  the  Empire  "  (Edinburgh,  1809) ; 
A.  Berg,  Lie  preimiwlie  Expedition  nach  Ost- 
Asien  (  4  vols.,  Berlin,  1854-73,  the  first  two 
volumes  being  devoted  to  Japan) ;  Le"on  Pages, 
Ilistoire  de  la  religion  cliretienne  au  Japan  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  1869) ;  Aime  Humbert,  Le  Japon 
illustre  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1870  ;  English  transla 
tion,  London,  1873);  Charles  Lanman,  "The 
Japanese  in  America"  (New  York,  1872); 
Bayard  Taylor,  "Japan,"  &c.,  compiled  from 
Humbert,  Alcock,  and  others  (New  York, 
1872) ;  Das  alte  und  das  neue  Japan,  by  Steyer 
and  Wagner,  brought  down  to  the  present  time 
by  Ed.  Hintze  (Leipsic,  1873);  A.Mori,  "Edu 


cation  in  Japan  "  (New  York,  1873) ;  Mossman, 
"New  Japan"  (London,  1873);  Adams,  "His 
tory  of  Japan"  (London,  1874  et  seq.). 

JAPAA,  Language  aiid  Literature  of.  The  Japa 
nese  language  belongs  to  the  polysyllabic  branch 
of  the  Mongolian  division.  In  a  narrower  sense, 
it  has  neither  common  descent  with  nor  family 
relationship  to  the  Chinese,  and  it  is  entirely  dif 
ferent  in  its  grammatical  structure.  Like  other 
languages,  it  has  undergone  important  changes, 
as  may  be  seen  upon  comparison  of  the  lan 
guage  as  now  spoken  with  that  in  the  ancient 
books,  which  is  only  intelligible  to  those  who 
make  these  books  a  special  study.  The  native 
language  is  the  same  whether  written  or  spoken, 
though  the  colloquial  differs  in  several  respects 
from  the  best  literary  style  ;  the  latter  is  more 
concise,  and  still  retains  some  of  the  archaic 
forms  of  the  verb  and  auxiliary  words.  The 
common  colloquial  abounds  in  interjectional 
and  onomatopoetic  words  and  particles,  uses  a 
more  simple  inflection  of  the  verb,  and  makes  a 
greater  use  of  honorific  and  polite  terms.  The 
dialectical  variations  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  consist  mainly  in  the  different  pronun 
ciation  of  some  of  the  syllables,  and  in  the  use 
of  provincialisms.  The  dialects  of  some  of  the 
more  remote  regions,  as  Satsuma,  are  not  easily 
understood  by  the  people  of  Tokio  (Yedo) ;  but 
these  differences  are  not  greater  than  are  com 
mon  in  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  are  by 
no  means  so  great  as  in  China. — The  Japanese 
vocabulary  has  been  greatly  enlarged  and  en 
riched  by  the  introduction  of  Chinese  words, 
all  taken  from  the  Chinese  written  language, 
and  not  from  the  colloquial,  which  has  never 
been  spoken  in  Japan  except  by  a  few  inter 
preters  at  Nagasaki.  So  extensively  have  these 
words  been  introduced,  that  for  almost  every 
native  word  the  Japanese  have  an  equivalent 
Chinese  word.  But  in  common  usage  the  names 
of  things,  family  relationships,  and  the  words 
which  express  the  wants,  feelings,  and  concerns 
of  e very-day  life,  are  for  the  most  part  native 
words;  while  the  technical,  philosophical,  and 
scientific  terms  are  Chinese.  The  Chinese  words 
abound  most  in  the  higher  class  of  literary  com 
position,  in  letters,  governniental  documents, 
and  philosophical  works,  as  well  as  in  the  con 
versation  of  the  higher  and  educated  classes ; 
while  native  words  are  more  current  in  the  lit 
erature  intended  for  the  common  people,  by 
whom,  and  especially  by  the  women,  the  native 
tongue  is  spoken  in  its  greatest  purity.  The 
grammatical  structure  of  the  language  has  not 
been  affected  by  the  introduction  of  Chinese 
words.  The  latter  retain  their  integrity,  un 
dergoing  no  change  or  inflection  of  any  kind, 
but  are  woven  into  a  sentence  by  means  of  na 
tive  words,  or  auxiliary  words  and  particles, 
which  indicate  the  cases  of  the  nouns,  form  of 
the  adjective,  and  moods  and  tenses  of  the 
verb.  The  Japanese  have  endeavored  to  pre 
serve  the  Chinese  sounds  of  the  characters ; 
but,  as  in  transliterating  these  sounds  they  of 
necessity  used  their  own  syllables,  the  pronun- 


548 


JAPAN"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


ciation  has  in  many  cases  been  altered,  but 
with  no  greater  variation  from  the  mandarin 
sounds  of  the  characters  than  in  many  of  the 
dialects  of  China.  Unfortunately  for  the  learn 
er,  three  systems  of  pronunciation  are  used. 
One,  called  the  Go-on  (from  that  state  in  China 
which  had  the  highest  political  influence  at  the 
time),  was  introduced  when  the  Chinese  lan 
guage  first  became  a  subject  of  study  by  the 
Japanese,  about  A.  D.  286.  Another,  called 
the  Kan-on,  was  introduced  in  the  7th  century  ; 
and  another,  called  the  To-on,  in  more  recent 
times.  The  Go-on  pronunciation  is  most  cur 
rent  among  the  Buddhists  and  the  common 
people,  while  the  Kan-on  is  used  mainly  by  the 
Confucianists,  the  government,  and  the  literary 
classes.  The  Japanese  have  formed  or  invent 
ed  many  ideographs,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Chinese,  to  designate  things  or  words  in  their 
own  language  for  which  there  were  no  equiv 
alent  characters  in  the  Chinese.  They  also  at 
tach  meanings  to  many  of  the  characters  differ 
ent  from  the  Chinese,  and  use  them  in  a  differ 
ent  way  to  suit  the  grammatical  requirements 
of  their  native  tongue.  There  are  three  gene 
ral  styles  of  literary  composition  in  use.  One  is 
pure  Chinese,  in  which  none  but  Chinese  char 
acters  are  employed,  and  the  grammatical  con 
struction  is  in  accordance  with  the  Chinese  id 
iom.  Frequently  in  this  style  marks  or  signs 
are  used  along  the  line  of  the  characters  to  des 
ignate  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  read  in 
translating  the  sentences  into  the  Japanese  lan 
guage,  or  to  suit  the  native  idiom.  Another, 
and  the  most  common,  is  that  in  which  the 
Chinese  characters  are  used  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  mixed  with  native  words  written  with 
their  own  letters,  and  where  the  structure  and 
idiom  are  purely  Japanese.  Most  of  the  liter 
ature  intended  for  the  unlearned  and  common 
reader  is  in  this  form.  There  is  still  another, 
written  almost  entirely  in  the  native  character, 
with  little  or  no  admixture  of  Chinese,  intend 
ed  for  the  use  of  women  and  children  and  un 
educated  persons.  There  is  no  reason  to  be 
lieve  that  the  Japanese  possessed  letters  or 
characters  with  which  to  write  their  own  lan 
guage  previous  to  the  time  of  the  introduction 
of  the  study  of  Chinese  into  their  country. 
The  weight  of  evidence  as  well  as  of  author 
ities  is  against  the  statement  of  some  authors 
who  advocate  this  opinion,  and  even  produce 
an  ancient  alphabet,  which  however  is  too  ar 
tificial  in  its  form  and  structure  to  warrant  the 
belief  that  it  is  anything  more  than  the  inven 
tion  of  some  person  of  modern  times.  If  they 
ever  had  an  alphabet  or  syllabary  more  ancient 
than  the  present  one,  it  has  certainly  not  been 
used  for  many  centuries,  and  there  are  no 
books  now  extant  written  in  this  character.  It 
was  after  the  Japanese  had  begun  to  study  and 
read  Chinese  books  that  the  syllabary  now  in 
use  was  formed,  and  when  we  may  also  be 
lieve  they  began  to  reduce  their  native  lan 
guage  to  writing.  This  syllabary  was  of  grad 
ual  growth,  and  not  the  invention  of  any  one 


person.  In  their  earliest  writings  the  Chinese 
characters  were  used,  in  the  same  composition, 
in  a  double  capacity  :  phonetically,  to  express 
merely  Japanese  syllabic  sounds ;  and  signifi- 
catively,  to  express  in  the  native  language  the 
idea  contained  in  the  character.  As  phonetics 
they  were  first  used  especially  to  write  the 
names  of  persons,  places,  postpositions,  and 
auxiliary  words  and  particles.  The  characters 
were  also  first  used  in  their  entire  form,  un 
abridged  ;  but  being  found  too  cumbrous  and 
inconvenient,  they  were  simplified  in  form, 
and  rendered  more  easy  to  read  and  more  ex 
peditious  in  writing,  in  two  ways :  one,  called 
liira-kana,  by  writing  the  whole  character  in 
a  very  abridged  or  contracted  form  and  in  a 
cursive  style ;  the  other,  called  ~kata-l'ana,  by 
taking  a  part  only  of  the  character,  consisting 
generally  of  two  or  three  strokes,  to  express 
the  sound  of  the  whole.  These  two  forms 
have  no  resemblance  to  each  other.  The  hira- 
kana  is  the  kind  of  letter  commonly  used,  es 
pecially  in  books  intended  for  the  common 
people  and  the  uneducated  classes.  The  kata- 
kana  has  been  little  used,  except  in  dictionaries 
to  define  the  meaning  of  Chinese  characters, 
or  in  scientific  and  philosophical  works.  In 
the  hira-kana  there  are  also  several  ways  of 
writing  the  same  letter,  differing  in  being  more 
or  less  contracted,  as  well  as  several  different 
letters  to  express  the  same  syllabic  sound, 
making  the  acquisition  of  the  written  lan 
guage  extremely  troublesome. — The  Japanese 
letters  are  48  in  number.  Each  letter  repre 
sents  a  syllabic  sound,  excepting  the  last  or  n 
sound,  which  is  only  used  as  a  final  consonant, 
and  is  not  included  by  the  Japanese  in  their 
syllabary,  which  they  always  speak  of  as  con 
taining  47  syllables.  The  syllabary  or  alpha 
bet  is  called  iron  a,  from  the  first  three  letters; 
and  this  is  also  the  first  word  of  a  series  form 
ing  three  sentences  in  which  the  letters  have 
been  arranged  to  facilitate  their  acquisition. 
The  kata-kana  signs  of  the  iroha  are  derived 
from  Chinese  characters,  the  latter,  which  are 
prefixed  in  the  following  table,  being  also  used 
as  capitals : 


K 
± 

flt 


•i  i 

P  ro 

A  ha,  fa 

~  ni 

^>  ho,  fo 

^  he,  fe 

>  to 

+  ti,  tsi,  chi 

l)  ri 

X  nu 

^  ru 

^  wo 


*   3 
ii  I/ 

»  y 


5? 
*£ 


wa 

ka 

ta 

re 

so 

tu,  tsu 

ne 

na 

ra 

mu,  in 

n 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


549 


7*) 


n 

i,  wi,  yi 

no 

o 

ku 

ya 

ma 

ke 

f  u 

ko 

ye 

te 


i&>T  T 


a 

sa 

ki 

yu 

me 

mi 

si,  shi 

e,  we,  ye 

hi,  fi 

mo 

se 

su 


The  following  is  the  iroha  in  hira-kana,  with 
the  Chinese  characters  from,  which  the  Japa 
nese  are  derived  prefixed  : 


$£  Jjt  ha,  fa 

£  II  ni 

*  II  lio,fo 

K  ^  he,  fe 

It    2  to 

#fl  £>  ti,  tsi,  chi 

a  9  ri 

$t  -t  nu 


ft 


f? 


wa 


if) 


no 

o 

ku 

ya 

ma 

ke 


ye 

te 

a 

sa 


*  ft  ta 
E  Jfa,  re 

*  }  so 

PJ  -9  tu,  tsn 

M  43  ne 

*  5  na 

H  f>  ra 

mu 


#  9>  yn 

*  Jfr  me 
£  £  mi 

£  L  si>  shi' 

3§  e,  we,  ye 


tft 


mo 


su 


In  the  transcription  the  sounds  of  the  conso 
nants  are  the  same  as  in  English,  and  the  vowel 
sounds  as  in  Italian  (a  as  in  father,  e  like  a  in 
fate,  i  as  in  machine,  u  like  oo  in  moon),  ex 
cept  in  the  syllables  tsii,  su,  and  dzu,  where  the 
u  is  a  close  sound,  like  the  Trench  u.  The 


syllabary  consists  in  full  of  72  syllabic  sounds, 
including  the  final  n ;  but  excluding  this,  and 
several  others  which,  though  having  different 
letters  to  represent  them,  are  really  the  same 
sound,  and  are  constantly  interchanged  with 
each  other  by  the  natives,  the  number  of  dis 
tinct  syllabic  sounds  is  reduced  to  68.  These 
are  divided  by"  the  Japanese  into  44  pure 
(sei-on),  and  24  impure  (daku-on)  syllables. 
The  latter  are  not  included  in  the  syllabary, 
and  are  as  follows :  ha,  pa,  euphonic  changes 
of.  ha;  ho,  po,  from  ho;  he,  pe,  from  Tie;  do, 
from  to;  ji,  from  chi  or  shi ;  ga,  from  ka;  da, 
from  ta  ;  zo,  from  so  ;  dzu,  from  tsu  or  su  ;  gu, 
from  ku;  ge,  from  ke  ;  hu,  pu,  from  fu ;  go, 
from  ko  ;  de,  from  te ;  za,  from  sa  ;  gi,  from 
ki  ;  hi,  pi,  from  hi ;  ze,  from  se.  The  impure 
syllables  are  represented  by  the  characters  for 
the  corresponding  pure  ones,  with  diacritical 
marks  added  ;  thus  ha  is  written  by  the  letter 
ha  with  two  dots  over  the  right  shoulder,  and 
pa  by  the  same  letter  with  a  small  circle  in 
the  same  place.  In  analyzing  the  Japanese 
syllables,  we  find  they  have  5  vowel,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u, 
and  19  consonantal  sounds,  I,  ch,  d,f,  g,  h,j, 
k,  m,  n,  p,  T,  s,  sh,  t,  ts,  w,  y,  and  z.  They 
have  not  the  sounds  of  I,  qu,  v,  th,  or  x,  and  the 
people  find  it  very  difficult  to  make  them.  All 
the  syllables  of  the  native  words  end  in  a 
vowel,  except  the  future  tense  of  the  verb, 
which  now  ends  in  a  final  n,  though  anciently 
it  was  written  with  the  character  for  mu,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  it  was  so  pronounced. 
In  all  other  cases  the  final  n  is  only  used  in 
spelling  Chinese  words.  The  syllables  com 
mencing  with  the  weak  aspirates  h  and  /',  or 
with  y,  when  preceded  by  another  syllable,  for 
the  most  part  lose  their  consonants,  and  their 
vowels  combine  with  the  vowel  of  the  prece 
ding  syllable,  sometimes  forming  a  diphthong ; 
thus  a-hi  becomes  ai,  pronounced  like  the  long 
English  i;  a-fu  becomes  an,  pronounced  like 
ow  in  cow.  Sometimes  the  sound  of  the  first 
vowel  is  reduplicated  or  lengthened  ;  thus  nu- 
fu  becomes  nuu,  written  nil ;  i-hi  becomes  ii ; 
yo-fu  becomes  yd.  In  Chinese  words,  the 
vowel  of  the  first  syllable  and  the  consonant  of 
the  second  are  often  both  elided  in  pronuncia 
tion;  thus  chi-ya  is  pronounced  cha ;  shi-yo, 
sho.  The  syllable  tsu,  when  preceding  the  con 
sonants  k,  s,  p,  and  t,  is  elided,  and  the  conso 
nant  of  the  syllable  following  is  doubled ;  thus 
~batsu-kun  is  pronounced  bakkun ;  matxusugu, 
massugu.  Ku,  when  followed  by  a  syllable  be 
ginning  with  k,  loses  its  vowel;  thus  laku-ka 
is  pronounced  bakka  ;  koku-ka,  kokka. — The 
Japanese  language  has  no  article.  The  noun 
has  no  inflections;  case,  gender,  and  number 
are  designated  by  words  or  particles  either  pre 
fixed  or  afiixed  to  the  noun.  The  case  is  desig 
nated  by  postpositions,  as  follows :  nomina 
tive,  ica  or  ffa,  as  neko  tea,  a  cat;  genitive,  no 
or  ga,  as  neko  no,  of.  a  cat;  dative,  ni,  ye,  ni 
oite,  as  neko  ni,  to  a  cat;  accusative,  iro,  as 
neko  ico,  a  cat;  vocative,  yo,  ya,  kana-,  as  neko 
yo,  0  Cat;  ablative,  kara,  yori,  de,  nite,  wo 


550 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


mo  tie  ;  as  neko  de,  by  a  cat.  The  number  is 
not  designated  except  when  it  is  emphatic. 
When  the  noun  is  used  without  any  words  to 
mark  its  number,  it  is  to  be  taken  in  a  generic 
or  abstract  sense ;  thus  kami  may  mean  one 
god  or  all  the  gods ;  tsuki,^  one  month  or  many 
months.  If  the  number  is  very  great  and  in 
definite,  it  is  expressed  by  sen,  1,000,  or  ban, 
10,000;  thus,  ban-koku,  all  countries;  ban- 
motsu,  everything.  The  plural  is  also  designa 
ted  by  su,  several,  and  slio,  many  or  all.  All 
these  are  Chinese.  The  plural  is  formed  by 
duplicating  the  word,  as  ware-ware,  we ;  Jiito- 
lito,  people;  tokoro-dokoro,  places;  also  by 
the  words  domo,  tachi,  ra,  nado,  nazo,  and 
for  Chinese  words  sliu  and  to,  following  the 
noun.  Gender  is  designated,  when  it  must 
be  expressed,  by  the  words  otoko,  male,  and 
onna,  female;  as  otoko  no  ko,  a  male  child, 
boy ;  onna-gami,  a  female  divinity,  goddess ; 
also  in  Chinese  -words  by  nan,  niyo  ;  as  nan- 
sTii,  a  boy,  niyo-shi,  a  girl.  In  the  case  of 
animals  and  birds  the  gender  is  designated  by 
prefixing  me  and  o  (contractions  of  mesu,  fe 
male,  and  osu,  male),  as  me-usM,  a  cow,  o-ushi, 
a  bull ;  men-dori,  a  hen,  o-tori,  a  cock.  By 
prefixing  ko  (a  child),  a  class  of  diminutive 
nouns  is  formed ;  as  ko-bune,  a  little  boat ;  ko- 
ushi,  a  calf ;  ko-ishi,  a  pebble.  Also  o  (a  con 
traction  of  okii,  great,  big)  is  used  as  an  ampli 
fying  prefix;  as  o-fiune,  a  large  boat,  o-kaze,  a 
tornado ;  o-ame,  a  storm  of  rain.  Nouns  ex 
pressing  abstract  qualities  are  formed  by  suffix 
ing  the  particle  sa  (a  contraction  of  sama,  state, 
condition)  to  the  root  form  of  the  adjective ; 
as  shiro,  white,  shirosa,  the  whiteness;  taka, 
high,  takasa,  the  height. — The  root  forms  of 
verbs  are  also  nouns;  as  yorokobi,  joy;  urami, 
hatred.  The  word  te,  hand,  added  to  the  roots 
of  verbs,  denotes  the  agent  of  the  action  ex 
pressed  by  the  verb  ;  as  kai-te,  the  buyer,  uri- 
te,  the  seller.  Nouns  are  also  formed  by  add 
ing  the  word  kata,  side,  mode,  to  the  root 
form  of  verbs;  as  sUi-kata,  way  of  doing, 
koxhi-kata,  the  past.  The  attributive  form  of 
the  adjective  is  often  treated  as  a  noun.  Many 
compound  nouns  are  formed:  1,  by  joining  to 
gether  two  nouns,  as  karasu-hebi,  a  black  snake 
(literally,  crow-snake) ;  2,  by  an  adjective  and 
noun,  as  shiro-gane,  white  metal,  silver ;  3,  by  a 
noun  and  verb,  as  asa-ne,  morning  sleep ;  and  4, 
by  a  verb  and  a  noun,  as  hiki-ami,  a  seine.  The 
Chinese  nouns  are  declined  or  take  the  post 
positions  in  the  same  way  as  the  native  words. 
— The  words  classed  or  used  as  pronouns  are 
numerous,  and  may  be  divided  into  personal, 
demonstrative,  interrogative,  reflexive^  indefi 
nite,  and  distributive.  There  are  no  relative 
pronouns ;  where  in  English  a  relative  pronoun 
is  used,  in  Japanese  the  person  or  thing  is  put 
in  direct  subjection  to  the  verb,  which  acts  as 
an  attributive  adjective ;  as  tegami  wo  kaku 
Jiito,  a  man  who  writes  letters  (literally,  letter- 
writing-man).  In  conversation  as  well  as  in 
books  personal  pronouns  seem  to  be  carefully 
avoided,  in  this  respect  agreeing  with  the  cus 


tom  of  the  Chinese.  In  books  especially  it  is 
often  difficult  to  distinguish  the  speaker,  the 
person  spoken  of,  and  the  person  spoken  to. 
This  is  indicated  mainly  by  the  style  of  lan 
guage  employed,  which  varies  with  the  rank  or 
social  position  of  the  person  addressed  or  spo 
ken  of.  Most  of  the  words  used  as  personal  pro 
nouns  are  such  as  express  humility  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker,  and  honor  the  person  addressed. 
—The  ancient  Japanese  cardinal  numbers  are  : 
*J/?»/'to,  A' to,  one;  7#,  /'to,  two;  £,  mi, 
three ;  27,  yo,  four ;  "f  $>,  itsu,  five ;  •<,  mu, 
muyu,  six;  -)-**,  nana,  seven;  ^ ,  ya,  eight; 
3  \  jy,  kokonotsu,  nine;  \+^7,  too,  once  ten; 
y,  so,  termination  of  tens;  ^N,  momo,  hun 
dred  ;  ft,  fo,  termination  of  hundreds  ;  *f-,  tsi, 
thousand ;  3  tf  ^  yorodzu,  ten  thousand.  With 
the  exception  of  these,  the  Japanese  use  the 
Chinese  numerals,  as  well  as  the  Chinese  sys 
tems  of  weights,  measures,  and  notation  of 
time.  The  adjective  is  not  inflected  to  indicate 
either  case,  gender,  number,  or  comparison. 
But  in  order  to  express  its  relation  to  other 
words  as  an  attributive,  predicative,  or  adverb, 
it  takes  as  suffixes  to  its  root  form  the  syllables 
i  or  ki,  shi,  and  ku ;  thus,  the  form  samu, 
cold,  as  an  attributive  is  samui  or  samuki ;  as 
a  predicative,  samushi;  and  as  an  adverb,  sa- 
muku.  In  the  colloquial  the  terminal  syllable 
i  is  used  also  to  express  the  predicative  form ; 
as  fuyu  ga  samui,  the  winter  is  cold.  The 
comparative  degree  is  denoted  by  means  of  the 
words  yori,  from,  and  nao,  more,  yet ;  as  yuki 
wa  kami  yori  shirosJii,  snow  is  whiter  than 
paper,  or  nao  yoi,  better.  The  superlative  is 
expressed  by  the  aid  of  certain  adverbs:  mot-, 
tomo,  indeed;  itatte,  exceedingly;  goku  orshi- 
goku,  superlatively;  Jianahada,  ito,  very;  dai- 
ichi-no,  or  ichi-ban,  number  one.  Chinese 
words  take  the  attributive  adjective  form  by 
means  of  the  auxiliary  words  naru  and  na,  as 
kon-kiu  naru  Jiito,  a  poor  man ;  or  when  quali 
fying  another  Chinese  word,  merely  by  prece 
ding  it,  as  guwai  koku,  a  foreign  country.  Ad 
jectives  are  formed  from  nouns  by  the  use  of 
the  postposition  no  ;  as  uso  no  JianasJii,  a  false 
story ;  isJii  no  iye,  a  stone  house ;  also  by  suf 
fixing  to  them  the  word  rasliii  or  rasliiki,  like, 
orgamashii;  as  onna-rashii,  womanlike ;  oto- 
ko-rasjiii,  manlike.  They  are  formed  from 
verbs  by  means  of  sJiii  (a  contraction  of  shiki, 
to  spread) ;  thus  from  osore,  to  fear,  is  formed 
osoroshii,  fearful.  Several  forms  of  the  verb 
act  also  as  attributive  adjectives,  viz.,  the  in 
dicative  present  in  u  or  ru,  the  preterite  in  ta, 
taru,  and  shi,  and  the  negative  indicative  in 
nu,  earu,  and  negative  preterite  in  ji.  Many 
adjectives  take  the  substantive  verb  ari  as  a 
suffix  to  the  adverbial  form,  and  are  conjugated 
like  a  verb ;  thus  samuku,  the  adverbial  form 
of  samu,  and  ari,  to  be,  becomes  samukaru,  to 
be  cold;  preterite  samukatta,  was  cold;  future 
or  dubitative,  samukaro ;  negative  present, 
samukaradzu,  is  not  cold;  negative  preterite, 
samukunakatta,  was  not  cold.  In  construction 
the  attributive  adjective,  and  also  the  adver- 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


551 


bial  form,  always  precede  the  noun  and  the 
verb  which  they  qualify. — The  verb  has  no  in 
flection  to  express  either  number  or  person; 
but  in  polite  language,  by  the  use  of  certain 
particles  or  auxiliary  words  prefixed  or  joined 
to  the  root  form,  the  personal  relations  of  the 
verb  may  be  distinguished,  as  well  as  by  the 
form  and  kind  of  verb  used.  The  verb  has 
transitive,  intransitive,  causative,  passive,  po 
tential,  negative,  and  desiderative  forms;  for 
example :  transitive,  age,  to  raise  or  lift  up ; 
intransitive,  agari,  to  rise  of  itself  or  go  up 
(contraction  of  the  root  age  and  substantive 
verb  ari)  ;  causative,  agesaseru,  to  cause  an 
other  to  raise  (by  joining  saseru,  the  causative 
form  of  sum,  to  do,  to  the  root  age) ;  passive 
or  potential,  agerareru,  to  be  raised,  or  can  be 
raised  (from  root  age  and  passive  of  substan 
tive  verb  areru,  which  is  also  a  contraction  of 
ari,  to  be,  and  yeru,  to  get,  thus  literally 
meaning,  get-to  be- raised) ;  negative,  agenu, 
not  raise  (from  age  and  mi,  a  contraction  of 
naku,  not  to  be) ;  desiderative,  agetai,  wish  to 
raise  (from  age  and  tai,  desirous).  The  verbs 
are  divided  into  three  conjugations,  have  past, 
present,  and  future  tenses,  and  indicative,  im 
perative,  conditional,  conjunctive,  and  conces 
sive  moods,  and  present  participles.  The  ac 
tion  of  the  verb  becomes  reciprocal  by  joining 
the  verb  au,  to  meet,  join,  to  the  root;  asuchi, 
to  strike,  uchi-au,  to  strike  each  other.  In 
compound  verbs,  which  are  numerous,  the 
first  element  takes  the  root  form  and  is  sub 
ordinate  to  the  last,  expressing  the  manner  in 
which  its  action  is  performed ;  as  nusumi-toru, 
to  take  by  stealth ;  tobi-odsuro,  to  jump  down. 
In  a  sentence  the  subject  as  well  as  the  object 
of  the  verb  always  precedes  it. — Besides  the 
adverbial  form  of  the  adjective,  there  is  a  large 
class  of  adverbs  formed  from  nouns  by  the  use 
of  the  postpositions  ni  and  de,  or  by  duplica 
ting  the  word ;  as  nichi,  day,  nichi-nichi,  daily ; 
toki,  hour,  toki-doki,  hourly  or  often.  The 
present  participle  is  frequently  used  adverbial 
ly;  as  hajimete,  at  first;  kesshite,  positively. 
The  adverb  and  an  adverbial  clause  precede  the 
verb  which  they  qualify.  AVhat  are  called 
prepositions  in  English  should  in  the  Japanese 
be  classed  as  postpositions,  since  they  always 
follow  the  word  to  which  they  are  related ;  as 
Yedo  ye  yukita,  has  gone  to  Yedo.  This  rela 
tion  is  also  frequently  expressed  in  Japanese 
by  a  compound  verb ;  as  ido  ni  tobi-komu,  to 
jump  into  a  well.  Copulative  and  disjunctive 
conjunctions  are  numerous,  but  they  are  most 
ly  expressed  by  the  conjunctive,  conditional,  or 
concessive  moods  of  the  verb.  There  are  a  few 
verbs,  such  as  soro,  keri,  shiku,  and  sari,  the 
moods  and  tenses  of  which  are  used  only  as 
conjunctions.  The  colloquial  especially  abounds 
with  interjectional,  emotional,  and  onomato- 
poetic  words,  which,  though  impossible  to  de 
fine  or  translate,  are  very  expressive  and  add 
grace  and  life  to  the  language. — The  most  ac 
cessible  Japanese  grammar  is  that  of  J.  J. 
Hoffmann  (English  ed.,  Leyden,  1868),— LIT 


ERATURE.  No  means  exist  for  determining 
the  precise  age  of  the  most  ancient  monu 
ments  of  Japanese  literature,  but  there  is  little 
doubt  that  both  prose  and  poetical  composi 
tions  existed  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
the  Chinese  method  of  writing.  This  is  as 
serted  to  have  taken  place  in  the  15th  year  of 
the  mikado  Ojin  (A.  D.  284)  through  the  me 
dium  of  a  Corean  named  Ajiki,  who  gave 
some  instruction  to  the  heir  apparent.  The 
statement  occurs  in  the  Nihongi,  one  of  the 
earliest  historical  works  extant,  which  was 
composed  about  the  year  720.  The  Nihongi 
contains  so  much  that  is  evidently  fabulous, 
especially  in  relation  to  the  ages  of  the  per 
sonages  mentioned  in  it,  that  it  cannot  be  re 
lied  on  for  the  accuracy  of  its  dates ;  and  there 
is  very  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  intro 
duction  of  the  Chinese  language  took  place 
considerably  later  than  is  usually  supposed.  It 
is  stated,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Japanese 
possessed  from  ancient  times  an  alphabet  of 
their  own,  which  they  abandoned  for  the  Chi 
nese  ideographic  writing;  but 'this  assertion, 
absurd  enough  by  itself,  is  denied  by  the  best 
authorities.  It  follows  therefore  that  the  most 
ancient  compositions,  namely,  the  verses  of 
poetry  given  in  the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  and 
the  norito  or  liturgies  read  at  the  festivals 
of  the  native  Shinto  gods,  were  handed  down 
orally.  It  happens  unfortunately  that  at  the 
period  when  they  came  to  be  written  down  the 
Chinese  character  was  preferred  to  the  kana, 
only  recently  introduced,  and  the  real  text 
is  often  difficult  to  ascertain.  I.  STANDARD 
HISTORIES.  Japanese  bibliographers  make  his 
tory  the  first  division  of  their  literature. 
The  most  ancient  historical  work,  which  is  at 
the  same  time  the  earliest  written  document 
extant,  is  the  Eojiki,  in  three  volumes,  com 
posed  at  the  command  of  the  mikado  in  A.  D. 
711-'12,  by  Yasmnaro.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  preceded  by  two  similar  works  which 
were  composed  respectively  in  G20  and  681, 
but  neither  of  these  has  been  preserved. 
The  book  called  Kvjiki,  which  purports  to  be 
the  former  of  these,  and  the  work  therefore 
of  the  celebrated  Shotoku  Taishi  and  Soga  no 
Umako,  is  a  forgery  of  later  date,  as  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  it  contains  passages  from  the 
Kogoshiui,  a  book  composed  in  808,  and  men 
tions  the  mikado  Saga  (809-842).  The  Kojiki 
begins  by  relating  the  foundation  of  the  heavens 
and  earth,  and  the  first  volume  is  entirely  oc 
cupied  by  the  events  of  the  mythological  pe 
riod.  The  second  and  third  volumes  contain 
the  history  of  the  mikados  from  Jimnm  Tenno 
down  to  the  empress  Suiko  Tenno,  whose 
reign  ended  in  628.  It  is  written  with  Chinese 
characters,  some  of  which  represent  whole 
Japanese  words  (mana),  and  others  merely 
separate  sounds  of  the  syllabary  (kana},  and 
in  general  conformity  with  Japanese  idiom. 
Old  manuscripts  of  this  work  are  extremely 
rare,  and  the  earliest  printed  copy  is  dated 
Kuanyei  (1624-'42).  A  most  valuable  com- 


552 


JAPAN"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


mentary  on  it  was  compiled  by  the  learned 
Motoori  Norinaga  toward  the  end  of  the  18th 
century,  under  the  title  of  KojiTciden.  The 
next  most  ancient  work  of  the  kind  is  the 
Nihongi  or  NihonthoTci,  which  was  also  com 
posed  at  the  command  of  the  reigning  mikado, 
and  completed  in  720,  by  a  commission  pre 
sided  over  by  the  prince  Toneri  Shinno.  It 
differs  very  much  from  the  Kojiki  in  being 
composed  in  a  purely  Chinese  idiom,  and  the 
poetry  which  occurs  here  and  there  is  all  that 
it  contains  of  Japanese.  This  fact  explains 
the  abundance  of  Chinese  philosophical  notions 
which  are  found  in  it  throughout,  but  notably 
at  the  very  commencement,  where  the  pure 
Japanese  tradition  of  the  creation  is  preceded 
by  one  of  Chinese  origin.  Still  this  book  has 
always  been  much  more  read  than  the  KojiM, 
and  all  the  ordinary  histories  are  founded  on 
it.  The  first  two  volumes  contain  the  mytholo 
gical  period ;  the  remaining  bring  the  annals  of 
the  mikados  down  to  the  llth  year  of  the  em 
press  Jido  Tenno  (699).  It  is  somewhat  cu 
rious  that,  although  the  mythological  part  con 
tains  numerous  references  to  "  other  docu 
ments,"  the  remainder  is  a  simple  unsupported 
narration.  The  ShoJeu  Nihongi,  in  20  volumes, 
contains  the  history  of  the  mikados  from  the 
first  year  of  the  reign  of  Mommu  Tenno 
(672-086)  down  to  the  end  of  the  10th  year  of 
Kuammu  Tenno  (782-806),  a  period  of  120 
years.  It  was  composed  at  the  command  of 
the  mikado  Kuammu,  about  the  year  797,  by 
Sugano  no  Mamichi,  Fujiwara  no  Tsugunawa, 
and  others.  The  Nikon  Koki,  in  1 0  volumes,  was 
composed  in  841  by  Fujiwara  no  Fuyutsugu, 
at  the  command  of  the  mikado  Nimmio  (833- 
850),  and  contains  an  account  of  the  events 
between  the  years  792  and  823.  About  one  ! 
half  of  it  has  been  lost.  The  Stolen  Nikon 
Kolci  was  composed  about  869  by  Fujiwara  no 
Yoshifusa,  Harusumi,  and  Yoshinawa,  at  the 
command  of  the  mikado  Seiwa  Tenno ;  it  is 
in  20  books,  and  contains  the  history  of  Nim- 
mio  Tenno's  reign.  The  Montoku  Jitsuroku 
was  composed  about  879  by  Fujiwara  no  Mo- 
totsune,  Urabe  no  Yoshika,  and  Sugawara  no 
Michizane,  and  contains  the  history  of  the 
reign  of  Montoku  Tenno  (850-858).  The 
Sanded  Jitsnroku  was  compiled  about  901  by 
a  number  of  persons,  among  whom  was  Michi 
zane,  by  command  of  the  reigning  mikado 
Daigo  Tenno;  it  consists  of  20  volumes,  and 
narrates  the  history  of  the  reigns  of  Seiwa 
Tenno,  Yozei  Tenno,  and  Koko  Tenno  (858- 
876,  876-884,  and  884-887).  The  above  men 
tioned  six  works  are  called  by  the  general 
name  of  the  Riklcokuahi,  or  "  Six  National 
Records."  They  are  all  written  in  the  Chi 
nese  idiom,  and  contain  no  passages  in  Jap 
anese,  with  the  exception  of  the  speeches  as 
cribed  to  the  mikados,  some  of  which  are,  how 


ever,  evidently  corrupt.  Sugawara  Michizane 
compiled  a  work  based  on  these  original  histo 
ries  called  Rmjiu  Kolcushi,  in  200  books,  which 
has  never  been  printed,  and  the  greater  part  of  |  in  1851.  The  Nikon 


which  has  been  lost.  Of  the  Honcho  8eilci, 
another  history  which  contained  the  latter  part 
of  the  reign  of  TJda  Tenno  (887-897),  composed 
by  the  priest  Shinsai  Hoshi,  all  but  one  book 
has  been  lost.  This  author  lived  about  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century.  The  Fmo  RiaMi 
is  a  history  commencing  with  the  reign  of 
Daigo  Tenno  (897-930)  and  concluding  with 
that  of  Go-Toba  Tenno  (1184-'98);  but  of  the 
whole  14  books  about  one  third  lias  been  lost. 
The  Nikon  Kirialcu  is  a  history  of  the  mikados 
from  884  to  1028,  but  the  reigns  of  Koko  Ten- 
no  and  TJda  Tenno  are  wanting.  It  is  more 
over  uncertain  who  were  the  authors  of  these 
last  two  works,  and  to  what  period  they  be 
long.  Hayashi  Kazan  (1583-1657),  in  conjunc 
tion  with  his  son  Gaho  or  Shunsai,  compiled 
a  general  history  of  Japan  in  273  books  en 
titled  Iloncho  Tsugan,  beginning  with  Jimmu 
Tenno  and  ending  with  the  34th  year  of  Goyo- 
zei  Tenno.  A  supplement  to  this  work  was 
completed  in  1703  by  the  great-grandson  of  Ka 
zan;  it  is  entitled  Jfokuski  Jitsuroku,  and 
forms  79  books.  Both  of  these  works  exist 
only  in  manuscript.  The  next  historical  work 
was  the  Dai-Nikonski,  in  243  books,  which  are 
bound  up  in  100  volumes.  The  first  73  books 
contain  the  history  of  the  mikados  from  Jim 
mu  Tenno  to  Go-Komatsu  Tenno  (1393-1413); 
12  are  devoted  to  notices  of  their  wives  and 
concubines,  14  to  the  princes  of  the  imperial 
blood,  6  to  the  princesses,  73  to  biographies 
of  high  officials  of  the  government  under  dif 
ferent  reigns,  8  to  the  shoguns  from  Yoritomo 
to  Ashikaga  Yoshimitsu,  5  to  the  relatives  of 
the  shoguns,  22  to  retainers  of  the  shoguns,  5 
to  notices  of  scholars,  4  to  poets,  1  to  exam 
ples  of  filial  piety,  1  to  the  samurai  noted  for 
their  loyalty  and  courage,  1  to  celebrated  wo 
men,  1  to  men  who  retired  from  the  world,  1 
to  artists,  3  to  rebels,  1  to  traitors,  and  the  last 
12  to  the  relations  of  Japan  with  other  Asiatic 
states,  such  as  various  Chinese  kingdoms,  down 
to  the  time  of  the  Mongol  and  Ming  dynasties, 
Corea,  Mantchooria,  southern  India,  and  Loo 
Choo.  It  is  written  entirely  in  classical  Chi 
nese,  and  the  composition  is  said  to  have  been 
corrected  by  Chinese  scholars  who  fled  to  Ja 
pan  during  the  troubles  in  their  own  coun 
try  in  the  17th  century.  The  list  of  works 
made  use  of  in  compiling  it  contains  663  titles. 
It  was  composed  by  a  number  of  Japanese 
scholars  engaged  for  that  purpose  by  the  sec 
ond  prince  of  Mito  (1622-1700),  who  was  in 
reality  the  founder  of  the  movement  which 
culminated  in  the  revolution  of  1868.  By  his 
express  wish  the  empress  Jingo  Kogo  was 
transferred  from  the  list  of  sovereigns  to  that 
of  the  mikados'  wives,  and  Prince  Otomo  was 
placed  among  the  sovereigns.  He  further  vin 
dicated  the  cause  of  legitimacy  by  treating  the 
mikados  of  the  nancko  or  "  southern  court  "  as 
the  genuine  sovereigns,  and  those  of  the  JtoJcu- 
cko  or  "northern  court"  as  usurpers.  It  was 
completed  about  1715,  but  was  first  printed 

in  1KK1        Tlio    Wi'hr><n  ffh/n.n.MM  fin  ClnnpssoV  in 


(in  Chinese),  in 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


553 


50  books,  by  the  Buddhist  priest  Nissho,  is  a 
work  compiled  on  the  same  principles,  but  in 
somewhat  different  form,  the  same  materials 
as  those  which  were  used  for  the  Dai-Nihon- 
shi  having  been  worked  up  into  a  continuous 
narrative.  It  only  exists  in  manuscript,  and 
copies  are  extremely  rare.  Aral  llakuseki 
(1657-1725)  was  the  author  of  two  valuable 
historical  works.  One  of  these  is  the  KosMUu, 
in  5  volumes,  published  in  1716;  it  seeks  to 
explain  in  a  rationalistic  manner  the  legends 
contained  in  the  Kojiki,  Nihongi,  and  Kujiki. 
The  other  is  the  Tokushi  Yoron,  in  12  volumes, 
completed  in  1724;  a  most  valuable  philosophi 
cal  view  of  the  different  changes  which  have 
taken  place  at  various  times  in  the  distribution 
of  the  governing  power  in  Japan.  The  latest 
historical  works  of  importance  are  those  of 
Rai  Sanyo  (1780-1833).  The  Nihon-guaish  i,  in 
22  volumes,  was  published  by  him  in  1827, 
after  20  years  of  continuous  labor.  It  com 
mences  with  the  rise  of  the  Taira  (Heike)  and 
Minamoto  (Genji)  families  in  the  12th  century, 
and  ends  with  the  establishment  of  the  Toku- 
gawa  shogunate  in  the  17th  century.  The  plan 
adopted  is  to  narrate  the  history  of  each  of  the 
families  which  held  the  reins  of  power  in  suc 
cession  after  the  decay  of  the  authority  of  the 
mikados,  a  period  which  may  be  called  that  of 
the  domination  of  the  military  class.  Some  of 
these  families  possessed  not  more  than  a  fifth 
of  the  country  at  once,  but  others  extended 
their  sway  over  the  whole.  In  the  Seiki,  pub 
lished  after  his  death,  Rai  depicts  the  history 
of  Japan  from  the  commencement  of  Jimmu 
Tenno's  conquest  in  B.  C.  667  (an  uncertain 
date)  down  to  the  abdication  of  Goyozei  Tenno 
in  1596,  and  discusses  the  character  and  con 
duct  of  each  sovereign  in  turn.  Both  works 
are  written  in  classical  Chinese.  A  pupil  of 
Rai's  has  also  published  a  supplement  to  the 
Nilion-guaishi,  in  which  the  annals  of  various 
prominent  military  families  are  presented.  All 
three  of  these  are  extremely  useful  works,  and 
have  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  formation 
of  the  political  opinions  which  were  current 
in  Japan  until  the  year  1868.  II.  MISCELLA 
NEOUS  HISTORICAL  WORKS.  Most  of  these  are 
by  private  authors,  and  are  written  either  in 
hiragana,  or  in  a  mixture  of  Chinese  charac 
ters  and  katakana  or  hirngana,  and  therefore 
in  the  Japanese  idiom.  The  earliest  of  these 
is  the  Okagami,  in  8  books,  by  Fujiwara  no 
Tamchira,  a  court  noble  (knge)  who  flourished 
in  the  middle  of  the  llth  century.  It  contains 
notices  of  occurrences  at  the  court  between 
the  years  850  and  1035.  The  Midzu-kagami, 
in  3  books,  by  Nakayama  Tadachika  (1131- 
'95),  deals  with  the  period  between  the  acces 
sion  of  the  semi-mythical  Jimmu  Tenno  and 
the  reign  of  Kimmio  Tenno  (833-850).  The 
Masu-kagami,  in  10  books,  by  Ichijo  Fuyuyo- 
shi  (1464-1514),  narrates  events  which  occurred 
at  the  court  between  1184  and  1338.  These 
three  works  are  called  by  the  general  title  of 
Mitsu-kagami,  or  the  "Three  Mirrors."  The 


Yeigua  Monogatari,  in  41  books,  is  a  more  de 
tailed  work  of  the  same  kind,  extending  over 
the  period  from  889  to  1092.  The  name  of  its 
author  and  the  date  of  its  composition  are  both 
unknown,  but  it  probably  belongs  to  the  12th 
century.  It  is  an  excellent  specimen  of  the 
classical  form  of  the  Japanese  language.  The 
subjects  treated  are  chiefly  detached  incidents 
in  the  lives  of  the  mikados  and  members  of  the 
families  allied  to  them,  and  the  only  reason 
given  for  not  placing  the  collection  among  the 
monogatari  properly  so  called  is  that  the  stories 
related  are  true.  The  Shoku  Yotsugi,  in  10  vol 
umes,  is  a  history  of  the  doings  of  the  court 
between  the  years  1025  and  1170,  written  in 
pure  classical  Japanese.  Like  the  Yeigna  Mo 
nogatari,  it  contains  a  large  number  of  Japa 
nese  songs.  Another  name  for  it  is  the  Ima- 
kagami,  or  "Mirror  of  the  Present."  Tlie/70- 
gen  Monogatari  and  Ileiji  Monogatari,  each  in 
3  books,  relate  the  strife  between  the  Taira  and 
Minamoto  families  in  the  years  1157  and  1159, 
in  which  the  latter  were  entirely  defeated  and 
crushed  for  a  while.  The  authorship  of  these 
two  works  is  attributed  to  Hamuro  Tokinaga, 
who  must  have  lived  about  the  end  of  the  12th 
century.  They  were  originally  printed  in 
hiragana,  but  in  the  variorum  editions,  called 
Sanko  Ilogen  Monogatari  and  Sanko  Heiji 
Monogatari,  the  Chinese  characters  with  kata 
kana  have  been  used.  The  Hoken  7flr //•?',  in  2 
books,  is  a  narrative  of  the  wars  of  the  Taira 
and  Minamoto  families  between  1156  and  1192, 
by  Kuriyama  Gen  (1671-1736);  it  was  com 
posed  in  the  Chinese  classical  style,  about  the 
year  1689.  The  Gempei  Seisuiki,  in  48  books, 
is  a  work  of  great  literary  merit,  besides  being 
of  considerable  value  as  a  history  of  the  times. 
As  the  title,  "  Glory  and  Fall  of  the  Minamoto 
and  Taira,"  indicates,  it  is  a  narrative  of  the 
struggle  between  these  two  families.  It  ex 
tends  over  the  period  between  1161  and  1182. 
The  authorship  is  ascribed  to  Hamuro  Tokinaga. 
The  Heike  Monogatari,  in  12  books,  is  based 
on  the  Gempei  Seimiiki  with  some  additions. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  composed  by  a  certain 
Yukinaga  in  the  reign  of  the  mikado  Go-Toba 
(1184-'98),  and  therefore  not  long  after  the 
events  narrated  in  it.  It  is  written  chiefly  in 
the  hiragana,  with  a  small  proportion  of  Chi 
nese  characters;  but  the  style  is  rather  diffi 
cult,  as  the  rules  of  grammar  are  disregarded 
in  order  to  adapt  the  composition  to  music. 
Several  different  texts  exist.  The  only  anno 
tated  edition  is  the  Ileike  Monogatari  SJw,  in 
12  volumes,  without  date;  from  the  appear 
ance  of  the  print  it  must  be  about  two  centu 
ries  old.  The  Adzuma-kngami,  in  52  volumes, 
'  is  a  valuable  mine  of  historical  information 
;  about  the  period  between  1180  and  1266.  It 
1  relates  the  history  of  Yoritomo  and  his  two 
|  sons  and  the  three  succeeding  shoguns,  and  of 
;  their  prime  ministers  the  Hojo.  the  author's 
!  name  is  unknown,  and  the  probability  is  that 
i  it  is  a  mere  compilation  from  the  records  of 
1  the  Kamakura  shoguns,  which  after  the  end  of 


551 


JAPAN   (LANGUAGE   AND  LITERATURE) 


the  Hojo  dynasty  of  ministers  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Uyesugi,  who  were  ministers  un 
der  the  Ashikaga.  It  is  written  in  very  bad 
Chinese,  but  contains  a  number  of  official  doc 
uments  which  are  useful  examples  of  the  cur 
rent  style  of  writing.  The  first  printed  edition 
appeared  in  1005,  and  a  second  in  1(524,  with 
an  interlinear  Japanese  translation.  A  valua 
ble  work  for  comparison  with  the  Adzama- 
kagami  is  the  Gukuan  Sho,  in  7  books,  by  the 
Buddhist  priest  Jichin  Osho.  It  contains  no 
tices  of  the  mikados  from  Jimmu  to  Juntoku 
Tenno  (1211-'20),  and  much  information  with 
regard  to  the  existing  Buddhist  monasteries 
and  the  affairs  of  the  Kamakura  shogunate. 
It  appears  to  have  been  written  about  the  mid 
dle  of  the  first  half  of  the  13th  century.  The 
Shokiuki  is  a  record  of  the  rebellion  of  Hojo 
Yoshitoki,  in  1221,  against  the  ex-mikado  Go- 
Toba,  whom,  with  his  son  Tsuchi-mikado  and 
the  reigning  mikado  Juntoku,  he  banished  to 
various  parts  of  Japan.  The  Horeki  Kanki,  in 
3  books,  is  an  account  of  events  which  took 
place  between  the  years  1156  and  1341,  by  an 
anonymous  author.  The  Jinko-shoto-ki,  in  6 
books,  by  Kitabatake  Chikafusa  (1293-1359), 
contains  the  history  of  the  mikados  from  the 
commencement  of  the  mythological  period 
down  to  the  accession  of  Go-Murakami  Tenno 
in  1339,  which  is  the  date  also  of  its  composi 
tion.  It  was  written  to  prove  that  the  "  south 
ern  emperor  "  was  the  legitimate  -descendant 
of  Tensho  Daizin,  and  his  rival,  the  nominee 
of  the  Ashikaga  family,  a  mere  usurper.  On 
this  account  it  is  very  highly  thought  of  by  Jap 
anese,  but  in  point  of  literary  execution  it  is 
very  inferior,  and  shows  the  extent  to  which 
the  language  had  then  been  corrupted.  It  was 
first  printed  in  1649.  There  is  a  supplement 
to  it  in  one  book,  which  continues  the  history 
down  to  the  reign  of  Go-IIanazono  (1429- 
'64).  Many  other  narratives  of  the  same  pe 
riod  exist,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the 
Taiheiki,  in  41  books,  containing  a  minute  ac 
count  of  the  events  between  1318  and  136 7. 
Various  authors  were  engaged  upon  it,  and  it 
was  composed  at  different  times  between  the 
years  13:54  and  1382.  About  the  end  of  the 
14th  century  a  clean  copy  was  made  by  the  or 
der  of  the  shogun  Yoshimochi  for  some  Chi 
nese  officials  on  a  visit  to  Japan.  There  is  a 
variorum  edition  called  Sanko  Taiheiki,  by 
two  Mito  scholars,  Imai  Kosai  and  Naito  Tei- 
gen,  in  64  books.  The  most  complete  edition 
is  that  known  as  the  Taiheiki  Komoku,  pub 
lished  in  1668  in  60  volumes,  with  many  notes. 
It  contains  besides  the  usual  text  a  list  of  the 
mikados  and  their  chief  ministers  from  Jimmu 
Tenno  to  Ogimachi  Tenno  (1558-'87),  a  treatise 
on  the  ancient  court  dress,  notes  on  the  division 
of  the  provinces  at  various  periods,  treatises  on 
the  duties  of  civilians  and  military  men  by 
Fugifusa,  a  servant  of  Godaigo  Tenno  (1319- 
'38),  a  treatise  on  war  by  Kusunoki  Masashige, 
and  a  volume  of  legends  relating  to  celebrated 
swords.  The  literary  style  of  the  Taiheiki  is 


no  better  than  that  of  the  Jinko-shoto-ki ;  it 
is  wanting  in  unity  of  design,  and  is  overloaded 
with  references  to  Chinese  and  Indian  history. 
The  Meitokki,  in  3  books,  relates  the  history 
of  the  rebellion  of  Yamana  Ugikiyo  and  Ya- 
mana  Mitsuyoshi  in  1390;  and  the  Oyeiki,  of 
the  rebellion  and  destruction  of  Ouchi  Yoshihiro 
in  1399.  The  Chinyoki  is  an  account  of  the 
raising  to  the  throne  of  Go-IIanazono  Tenno 
in  1429,  written  by  his  father,  the  prince  Dokin 
Shinno.  The  Onin-ki  is  an  account  of  the 
civil  war  waged  by  Hosokawa  Katsumoto  and 
Yamana  Sozen  for  the  position  of  chief  minis 
ter  to  the  shogun  Ashikaga  Yoshimasa;  it 
raged  for  six  or  seven  years  (1467-'73),  and  only 
came  to  an  end  through  the  death  of  both  chiefs. 
The  Kamakura  Ozoshi  is  a  collection  of  his 
torical  papers  on  events  which  occurred  at 
Kamakura  between  1379  and  1479.  The  style 
marks  the  transition  from  the  pure  Japanese 
of  the  monogatari  to  the  modern  language. 
The  author  is  unknown.  The  Odai  Ichiram, 
in  7  volumes,  is  the  work  of  Hayashi  Shunsai 
(1618-'80),  and  contains  the  history  of  the 
mikados  from  Jimmu  Tenno  down  to  Ogimachi 
Tenno  (1558-'87).  It  was  written  about  1652 
and  printed  in  1664.  The  style  of  composi 
tion  is  decidedly  inferior,  and  it  is  scarcely 
worthy  of  notice  but  for  the  fact  that  a  trans 
lation  of  it  into  French  was  published  in  1840 
by  Klaproth.  The  best  history  of  the  life  and 
achievements  of  Toyotomi  Hideyoshi  (Taiko- 
sama)  is  the  Taiko-ki,  in  21  books  (11  volumes), 
composed  about  1625  by  an  unknown  author  ; 
it  contains  a  number  of  contemporary  docu 
ments  of  high  value  for  philology.  III.  LAWS. 
Closely  connected  with  history  is  the  depart 
ment  of  laws  of  all  kinds.  These  are  divided 
by  Japanese  writers  into  four  branches,  for 
which  exact  equivalents  cannot  easily  be  found 
in  the  English  language.  The  preface  to  the 
Konin  Kaku  says  :  "  The  object  of  ritsu  is  to 
warn  and  correct ;  that  of  rio,  to  induce  and 
persuade  ;  the  kaku  are  rules  made  for  special 
emergencies  ;  the  sJiiki  supplement  the  whole.1' 
Of  these,  ritsu  seems  to  correspond  to  penal 
law,  rio  to  administrative  law ;  kaku  are  de 
crees  and  notifications  explanatory  of  the  ritsu 
and  rio,  and  the  shiki  are  supplementary  di 
rections  for  fulfilling  the  objects  of  the  rio. 
According  to  native  writers,  the  earliest  at 
tempt  at  framing  a  code  was  that  made  by 
Shotoku  Taishi  in  the  year  604  (12th  of  Suiko 
Tenno),  who  composed  17  chapters  of  laws, 
which  are  preserved  in  the  5th  book  of  the 
Shiugai  Sho  ;  they  are  rather  a  collection  of 
moral  precepts  than  laws.  In  668  (1st  year  of 
Tenji  Tenno)  22  chapters  of  rio  were  compiled. 
In  701  Fujiwara  Fubito  and  others  drew  up 
6  books  of  ritsu  and  11  of  rio,  which  were 
again  superseded  in  718  by  a  new  code  of  both 
in  10  books  each.  Of  the  former  but  a  small 
portion  has  been  preserved,  and  the  fragments 
have  been  published  by  Ilanawa  Hokiichi  in 
his  great  collection  entitled  Gunslio  Ruijiu. 
The  supplement  to  the  ritsu,  with  a  conmieii- 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATURE) 


555 


tary  by  Nakahara  Akito,  has  also  been  pre 
served  under  the  title  of  Kingioku  Shochiusho 
(date  of  compilation,  1207).  It  may  here  be 
remarked  that  the  Japanese  codes  were  from 
the  earliest  times  based  on  those  of  the  Chi 
nese,  and  it  was  on  the  laws  of  the  Tang  dy 
nasty  (619-907)  that  the  above  mentioned 
Yoro  Ritsu  were  modelled.  The  Ling  (pro 
nounced  Rio  in  Japanese)  of  the  chronological 
period  called  Kaiyuen  (713-'41)  are  supposed 
to  have  been  the  source  of  the  Yoro  Rio,  This 
code  consists  of  30  chapters  divided  into  10 
books,  and  has  been  preserved  complete  in  the 
commentary  prepared  in  833  called  the  Rio  no 
Gige.  An  excellent  annotated  edition  of  the 
first  eight  chapters  was  published  in  1864  by 
Kondo  Yoshiki,  under  the  title  of  Hiochiu  Rio 
no  Gige  Kohon  ;  it  is  stated  that  the  remainder 
is  in  existence  in  a  manuscript  form.  A  work 
of  equal  interest  is  the  Ruijiu  Sandai  Kakii, 
containing  collections  of  decrees  issued  be 
tween  the  years  701  and  907,  with  commen 
taries  thereon.  The  first,  called  Konin  Kaku, 
in  10  books,  dates  from  819 ;  the  second,  or 
Joguan  Kaku,  was  formed  in  868,  in  12  books ; 
and  the  third  in  907,  with  the  title  of  Yengi 
Kaku,  in  10  books  and  a  supplement.  Of  the 
whole  32  books  fragments  of  only  6  have  sur 
vived,  which  were  rescued  from  oblivion  in 
the  year  1266.  Besides  the  kaku,  compila 
tions  of  the  shiki  were  made  at  each  of  these 
periods.  The  first  two,  named  Konin  Shiki 
and  Joguan  Shiki,  have  not  come  down  to  us, 
all  that  was  of  any  value  in  them  having  been 
preserved  in  the  Yengi  ShiTci.  This  compila 
tion  occupied  ten  years  in  formation,  and  was 
completed  in  927.  Of  its  50  books,  the  first  10 
are  devoted  to  matters  coming  under  the  cog 
nizance  of  the  Jingikuan,  or  "  office  of  the 
gods,"  and  contain  directions  as  to  the  cere 
monies  to  be  observed  at  certain  festivals,  the 
whole  of  the  Norito  or  liturgies,  and  a  com 
plete  list  of  the  Shinto  temples  then  existing 
in  different  parts  of  Japan.  The  remaining  40 
books  treat  of  the  miscellaneous  duties  of  the 
other  departments  of  the  government.  It  ap 
pears  to  have  been  first  printed  in  1648.  The 
Gishiki,  in  10  books,  defines  the  rites  performed 
at  certain  festivals,  the  coronation  ceremony, 
and  the  general  observances  of  the  court 
throughout  the  year.  The  date  and  author 
are  unknown.  The  Dairi  Shiki,  or  "  Court 
Ceremonies,"  is  the  title  of  a  work  in  3  books 
compiled  by  Fujiwara  no  Ftiyutsugu  early  in 
the  9th  century.  Of  the  Hoso  Ruiriu,  in  230 
books,  only  two  have  survived ;  while  nine 
remain  of  the  Seiji  Yoridku,  an  equally  volu 
minous  work  on  administrative  law.  The 
Saiban  Shiyosho,  in  one  book,  is  a  manual 
of  the  laws  of  Tempio  (729-'48)  and  Konin 
(810-'23),  by  Sakanoye  Akimoto  (1138-1210). 
The  Hokuzan  Sho,  in  11  books,  by  the  Dainagon 
Kinto  (966-1041),  is  said  to  be  the  best  au 
thority  on  the  court  ceremonies  since  the  reign 
of  Ichijo  Tenno  (986-1011)  ;  but  it  is  surpassed 
in  comprehensiveness  by  the  Goka  no  Shidai, 


in  21  books,  by  Oye  no  Masafusa  (1041-1111). 
The  first  11  books  treat  of  the  court  business 
during  the  whole  year;  the  12th  and  13th  of 
Shinto  and  Buddhist  religious  festivals  ;  the 
14th  and  15th  of  the  coronation;  the  16th  of 
imperial  progresses;  the  17th  of  the  mikado's 
coming  of  age,  his  beginning  to  learn  to  write, 
his  marriage,  the  inauguration  of  the  heir  ap 
parent  and  his  education,  and  the  selection  of 
princes  of  the  blood;  the  18th  of  proclama 
tions,  the  alteration  of  the  chronological  pe 
riod  (nengo},  and  other  similar  matters ;  the 
19th  of  archery,  horse  racing,  &c. ;  the  20th 
of  certain  festivals,  the  appointments  of  minis 
ters  of  state,  the  education  of  the  mikado's 
sons,  &c. ;  and  the  21st  of  miscellaneous  pro 
ceedings  of  the  court.  This,  as  well  as  the 
Shingai  Sho  (1439),  in  6  books,  by  the  Sadai- 
jin  Sanehiro,  are  continually  quoted  by  the 
historian  Arai  Ilakuseki  in  his  Tokushi  Yoron, 
which  is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  their  value. 
The  Giogi  Shikimoku,  in  one  book,  by  the  priest 
Giogi,  who  died  in  749,  contains  land  regula 
tions,  sumptuary  laws,  an  estimate  of  the  popu 
lation,  and  of  the  amount  of  rice  and  other  cere 
als  produced  annually  at  that  period.  The  Joyei 
Shikimoku,  also  called  Go  Seilai  Shikimolcu, 
in  one  book,  was  composed  under  the  direction 
of  Hojo  Yasutoki,  prime  minister  of  the  Kama- 
kura  shoguns,  and  is  the  code  of  that  period. 
In  later  times  it  has  been  much  used  as  a  copy 
book  for  children,  but  it  is  of  great  assistance  to 
the  historian  as  a  means  of  understanding  the 
system  of  administration  which  was  establish 
ed  by  the  military  power  after  the  decadence 
of  the  mikados.  A  good  edition,  with  a  com 
mentary,  was  prepared  in  1534  by  Sei  Soyu. 
A  very  interesting  book  is  the  Kitchiu  Gioji, 
by  the  mikado  Go-Daigo  (1319-'39),  which  de 
tails  the  sovereign's  manner  of  daily  life  and 
the  duties  of  the  palace  attendants.  There  is 
also  a  large  class  of  books  called  Nenjiu  Gioji, 
which  describe  the  festivals  and  ceremonies  of 
the  court  for  the  whole  year.  The  Seito-tsu, 
in  13  books,  by  Ito  Nagatane,  explains  the  an 
cient  institutions  of  Japan  by  copious  refer 
ence  to  those  of  China,  on  which  they  were 
for  the  most  part  based.  Its  preface  is  dated 
1724.  One  of  the  works  on  offices  most  wide 
ly  known  is  the  Shokugen  Sho  of  Kitabatake 
Chikafusa  (1293-1359).  It  was  composed  in 
1341,  without  reference  to  any  other  work,  in 
bad  Chinese,  and  has  been  illustrated  again  and 
again  by  various  commentators.  The  best  edi 
tion  is  that  of  Kondo  Yoshiki,  a  Choshiu  sa 
murai,  entitled  Hiochiu  Shokiigen  Sho  Kohon, 
in  6  volumes;  the  preface  is  dated  1854. 
The  Kuanshoku  Biko,  in  8  volumes  (1(!95),  is 
the  most  complete  account  of  the  constitution 
of  the  court  and  government  yet  produced, 
and  is  one  of  the  few  works  of  the  kind  not 
written  in  Chinese.  The  Reigi  Ruiten,  in  510 
books,  is  a  work  compiled  by  order  of  the  sec 
ond  prince  of  Mito,  from  about  200  private 
records  of  noble  families,  and  is  concerned 
with  the  ceremonies  and  etiquette  of  the  mi- 


556 


JAPA^"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUEE) 


kado's  court.  There  are  214  books  devoted  to 
the  ordinary  transactions  of  the  year,  the  re 
mainder  to  the  kagura,  or  ancient  pantomimic 
plays  performed  in  honor  of  the  "  three  divine 
emblems,"  praying  for  rain  and  fine  weather, 
the  accession  and  abdication  of  the  sovereign, 
the  harvest  festival,  imperial  journeys,  the 
ceremony  called  genibuku  (coming  of  age)  of 
the  mikado,  the  commencement  of  his  stud 
ies,  his  nuptials,  births  in  the  imperial  family, 
the  mikado's  concubines,  the  change  of  style 
(kaigeii),  the  forms  used  in  imperial  decrees 
and  proclamations,  appointment  of  ministers 
of  state,  memorials  to  the  throne,  and  other 
kindred  subjects.  Probably  the  only  copy  in 
existence  is  that  in  the  public  library  at  Tokio. 
One  president,  15  compilers,  28  scribes,  10 
readers,  4  accountants,  and  3  overseers  were 
engaged  upon  it  for  six  hours  every  other  day 
during  24  years,  from  1686  to  1710.  Nearly 
all  the  works  called  Kirolcu,  or  (family)  rec 
ords,  are  in  manuscript.  That  of  the  five 
noble  families  called  Seklce  begins  with  the 
reign  of  Murakami  Tenno  (946-'67),  and  occu 
pies  210  volumes.  It  is  called  the  Huiami  no 
KL  There  are  many  more,  some  of  even  older 
date,  which  would  be  valuable  materials  for  the 
historian.  The  Japanese  attach  great  impor 
tance  to  lineage,  and  there  are  several  large 
works  on  genealogy,  the  earliest  of  which  is 
the  Shinscn  Shoji  Itoku,  prepared  in  815  ;  the 
best  edition  is  that  published  at  Kioto  in  1807, 
in  4  volumes.  IV.  -BIOGRAPHY.  The  earliest 
specimen  of  this  kind  of  writing  is  the  Sho- 
toku  Taishi  Denriaku,  in  2  books,  by  Taira 
no  Motochika,  written  in  992.  It  is  the  life 
of  M'mayado  no  Oji,  eldest  son  of  Yomei 
Tenno  (573-621),  who  was  the  main  instru 
ment  in  the  spread  of  Buddhism  in  Japan. 
An  annotated  edition,  called  Taislii  Denriaku 
Biko,  in  15  volumes,  was  published  in  1678 
by  the  priest  Rioi.  Of  the  famous  statesman 
and  historian  Sugawara  no  Michizane  (845- 
903),  afterward  deified  under  the  name  of 
Temman-Gu,  many  biographies  have  been 
written.  The  earliest  is  the  Kuanke  Godenki, 
a  Chinese  work  in  one  volume,  by  his  relative 
IsTobutsune,  which  is  certainly  of  not  later  date 
than  1118.  The  Dazaifu  Temma-gu  Kojitsu, 
in  2  volumes,  by  Kaibara  Tokushin  (1630- 
1714),  relates  his  life,  deification,  and  subse 
quent  history ;  it  seems  to  have  been  written 
about  1685.  The  Kuanke  Jitsuroku,  in  Japa 
nese,  by  Matsumoto  Guzan  (3  vols.,  1798),  con 
tains  much  introductory  matter  about  his  an 
cestry,  with  his  life,  exile,  death,  burial,  and 
deification.  But  the  most  complete  of  all  his 
biographies  is  the  Kitano  Koso,  by  Ishida  Jihei 
(1840),  containing  4  volumes  of  engravings 
from  ancient  drawings  illustrative  of  events  in 
his  life,  and  10  volumes  of  extracts  from  origi 
nal  documents.  The  Saigio  Monogatari  is  a 
life  of  the  poet  Saigio  Hoshi  (died  1198),  in 
Japanese,  by  an  unknown  author,  and  contains 
a  large  quantity  of  the  verses  made  by  him  on 
various  occasions.  It  was  first  printed  in  1562. 


The  Huso  Koku  (3  vols.)  is  the  life  of  the 
Buddhist  priest  Muso  Kokushi  (1275-1351), 
founder  of  the  monastery  of  Tenriuji  at  Saga, 
near  Kioto.  Eight  or  nine  priests  seem  to 
have  shared  its  authorship,  one  of  whom  was 
the  third  abbot  of  Tenriuji,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  of  later  date  than  the  end  of  the  14th  cen 
tury.  The  Genkio  Shakusho,  in  15  volumes,  is 
a  work  in  Chinese,  containing  short  biogra 
phies  of  over  400  priests,  emperors,  nobles, 
and  other  persons  famous  for  their  devotion  to 
Buddhism,  and  embraces  a  period  of  more  than 
700  years,  beginning  with  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism  in  the  6th  century.  It  was  compiled 
by  the  priest  Koguan,  and  presented  by  him  to 
the  mikado  in  1322.  The  Fvso  Zenrin  Soho- 
den,  in  10  volumes  (1675),  by  the  priest  Kosen, 
contains  the  lives  of  117  priests  of  the  Zen  sect. 
Other  works  of  a  similarly  comprehensive  na 
ture  are :  the  Hiakushoden  (2  vols.),  contain 
ing  accounts  of  famous  warriors  and  chieftains 
from  the  mythological  age  down  to  Shibata 
Katsuiye  and  Toyotomi  Hideyoshi,  by  Hayashi 
Doshun  and  his  sons,  Shunsai  and  Shuntoku ; 
Utsunomiya  Yuteki's  Nihon  Kokin  Jwibutsu- 
shi  (7  vols.,  1668),  containing  notices  of  gen 
erals,  famous  families,  faithful  retainers,  trai 
tors,  virtuous  and  intrepid  samurai,  Chinese 
scholars,  physicians,  women,  and  artists ;  the 
Fuso  Ifiitsuden  (3  vols.,  1664),  in  Chinese,  by 
the  priest  Gensho  (1623-'68),  consisting  of 
notices  of  75  persons  noted  for  strange  and 
solitary  habits ;  such  as  Yen  no  Shokaku,  who 
lived  in  a  cave  for  30  years,  and  made  spirits 
do  his  bidding ;  Fushimi  no  Okina,  who  lay  on 
the  ground  for  three  years  with  his  eyes  di 
rected  eastward,  during  the  whole  of  which 
time  he  never  uttered  a  word;  Kachio  no 
Shonio,  who  became  a  monk  at  the  age  of 
seven,  and  lived  for  many  years  tasting  food 
only  once  in  five  days,  and  never  spoke ;  and 
the  Shiradashi  no  Okina,  an  old  man  who 
was  always  70  years  of  age,  and  had  been 
so  ever  since  the  memory  of  the  living ;  the 
Honclio  Retsujiden  (10  vols.,  1655),  by  Ku- 
rozawa  Hirotoda,  in  10  sections,  devoted  to 
famous  women  since  the  reign  of  Korei  Tenno 
(290-215  B.  C.);  the  Iloncho  Hime-kagami,  in 
20  vols.,  by  the  priest  Rioi  (1661),  a  collection 
of  lives  of  famous  women,  written  for  his 
daughter  in  Japanese;  the  Sentetsu  Sedan  (9 
vols.,  1816),  by  Tojo  Tagayasu,  notices  of  72 
native  Chinese  scholars  and  authors  of  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries,  in  Chinese;  Kinse  Kijin- 
den,  lives  of  about  80  poets  and  Japanese  au 
thors  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  (5  vols., 
1790),  by  Banno  Kokei  (1733-1806);  SJioku 
Kinse  Kijinden  (5  vols.,  1795),  a  supplement 
to  the  last  named  work,  containing  notices 
of  nearly  100  writers,  by  Mikumi  Shiko ;  and 
Sentetsu  Sodan  (4  vols.,  1844),  by  Tokusai 
Gengi,  in  Japanese,  containing  the  lives  of  20 
modern  native  Chinese  scholars  and  authors. 
Besides  these,  the  9th  volume  of  TamadasuM, 
by  Hirata  Atsutane  (1780-1843),  is  occupied  by 
biographies  of  the  famous  Shinto  revivalists 


JAPAiN"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


557 


Kada  no  Adzumamaro,  Mabuchi,  and  Motoori 
Norinaga,  written  in  excellent  classical  Japa 
nese,  and  conceived  on  a  proper  method.  The 
Sanjiurokka-shiu  Riakuden,  in  2  small  vol 
umes,  by  Kawogita  Mahiko  (1848),  is  a  hand 
book  of  reference  for  the  lives  and  productions 
of  30  native  authors  of  the  same  period.  V. 
POETRY.  In  poetry  the  Japanese  do  not  seem 
to  have  advanced  much  beyond  the  most  ele 
mentary  forms.  With  few  exceptions  their 
so-called  poetry  consists  of  songs  in  five  lines 
of  31  syllables  called  uta.  These  songs  seem 
in  early  times  to  have  been  spontaneous  com 
positions,  but  about  the  middle  of  the  8th  cen 
tury  they  had  hardened  into  a  conventional 
form,  and  verse  making  became  a  mechanical 
accomplishment,  of  which  dexterity  in  punning 
was  the  most  important  part.  Assemblies  were 
held  by  the  amateurs  of  versification,  at  which 
lots  were  drawn  for  a  certain  number  of  sub 
jects,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  uta  which 
are  contained  in  the  numerous  selections  ori 
ginated  in  this  manner.  The  most  ancient 
songs  are  no  doubt  those  which  are  given  in 
the  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  and  next  to  them  in 
point  of  time  must  probably  be  ranked  the 
naga-uta  in  the  Manyoshiu.  A  naga-uta  (or 
"long  song")  ought  to  consist  of  unrhymed 
lines  of  5  and  7  syllables  alternately,  termina 
ting  in  two  lines  of  7  syllables  each ;  but  this 
rule  is  by  no  means  inflexibly  adhered  to.  The 
first  naga-uta  in  this  collection  will  serve  as  a 
specimen ;  the  numbers  of  the  syllables  are 
5,  6,  5,  6,  5,  5,  5,  5,  4,  7,  5,  7,  5,  6,  5,  6,  7.  In 
'the  shorter  songs,  ordinarily  31  syllables  in 
length,  an  extra  syllable  is  sometimes  admitted ; 
and  if  we  are  to  believe  the  native  commenta 
tors,  it  is  also  permissible  to  insert  here  and 
there,  to  make  up  the  measure,  odd  syllables 
without  any  meaning.  Another  kind  of  short 
song,  called  sedolca,  consists  of  six  lines  of  5 
and  7  syllables,  arranged  in  the  following  or 
der  :  5,  7,  7 ;  5,  7,  7.  This,  however,  admits  of 
certain  modifications.  The  actual  date  of  the 
compilation  called  the  Manyoshiu  is  disputed; 
the  usual  account  is  that  it  was  commenced  in 
the  middle  of  the  8th  and  completed  early  in 
the  beginning  of  the  9th  century.  It  contains 
4,315  of  the  31-syllable  songs  and  sedoha,  and 
250  naga-uta,  arranged  in  20  books.  The  crit 
ics  classify  them  as  follows:'  various  songs; 
songs  of  the  affections,  chiefly  amatory;  pa- 
ihetic  songs ;  songs  involving  a  simile ;  and 
songs  of  the  four  seasons.  Great  difficulties 
exist  with  regard  to  the  proper  reading  of  the 
Manyoshiu,  on  account  of  its  being  written 
with  Chinese  characters,  which  sometimes 
stand  for  whole  words  and  at  others  for  single 
syllables.  The  first  approach  to  a  correct  in 
terpretation  is  believed  to  have  been  made  by 
the  priest  Keichiu  (1640-1701).  He  was  fol 
lowed  by  Kaino  no  Mabuchi  (1698-1769),  whose 
edition,  entitled  Manyoko  (9  vols.),  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  by  Kato  Chikage  (1734-1808), 
whose  edition  in  30  volumes,  called  Manyosh  iu 
Riakuge,  is  perhaps  the  best,  though  by  no 


means  perfect.  The  earliest  of  all  the  songs 
in  the  Manyoshiu  is  that  ascribed  to  Yuriaku 
Tenno  (457-'59) ;  the  best  are  contained  in  the 
1st,  2d,  and  13th  books;  then  come  those  in 
the  llth,  12th,  and  14th.  The  Kokin  Waka- 
shiu,  the  second  of  the  compilations  made  by 
order  of  the  mikado,  was  commenced  in  905 
and  finished  about  922.  The  preface  is  one  of 
the  oldest  specimens  of  Japanese  compositions 
in  hiragana,  the  Chinese  character  having  been 
exclusively  employed  up  to  that  time.  The 
object  of  this  collection  was  to  preserve  for 
posterity  those  verses  which  had  not  been  con 
sidered  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  Manyoshiu, 
but  it  also  contains  many  of  later  date.  The 
whole  number  of  songs  is  estimated  at  1,099, 
classified  as  follows :  spring,  summer,  autumn, 
winter,  felicitations,  parting,  journeys,  names 
of  things,  love,  pathetic,  miscellaneous,  naga- 
uta  (5),  sedoJca  (4),  haikai,  and  o-naobi  no  uta. 
The  best  commentary  on  this  collection  is  the 
Kokin  Walcashiu  Uchigiki  (20  vols.),  by  Kamo 
no  Mabuchi ;  the  Tokagami  (6  vols.),  by  Moto 
ori  Norinaga,  is  an  explanation  of  the  songs  in 
the  common  colloquial  dialect  of  Kioto.  The 
Gosen  Wakashiu,  in  20  books,  was  compiled 
about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century  ;  it  con 
tains  1,356  songs,  classified  much  in  the  same 
way  as  those  in  the  Kokinshiu.  The  Shiu 
Wakashiu  dates  half  a  century  later,  and  con 
tains  1,351  songs,  among  which  are  a  few  naga- 
uta  and  kagura-uta.  These  three  together 
are  known  as  the  Sandaishiu.  There  are  in 
numerable  other  collections  made  at  the  mika 
do's  command  and  by  private  persons,  besides 
selections  of  100  songs,  each  called  Hidkushiu 
Kui.  The  best  known  of  the  latter  works  is 
the  Hiakuninshiu,  which  is  the  most  popular 
classic  of  the  Japanese ;  it  was  formed  about 
the  year  1235  by  a  court  noble,  commonly 
called  Teika  Kio.  The  commentaries  on  it  are 
very  numerous,  but  the  best  are  the  Uima- 
nabi,  by  Mabuchi,  the  Ilitoyogatari  (1833), 
and  the  Mine  no  Kakehashi  (1805).  A  trans 
lation  of  the  Hiakuninshiu,  with  notes,  has 
been  made  by  F.  V.  Dickins  (London,  1866). 
A  better  work  on  Japanese  poetry  is  the  An- 
thologie  japonnaise  of  Leon  de  Rosny  (Paris, 
1870),  to  which  is  prefixed  an  excellent  trea 
tise  on  the  different  kinds  of  Japanese  poetry. 
VI.  ROMANCES.  "The  term  monogatari  is 
used  to  denote  a  class  of  composition  which 
differs  from  history  in  that  the  author  makes 
no  attempt  to  sift  the  true  from  the  fictitious, 
but  simply  records  the  current  tradition  re 
specting  the  hero  or  heroine."  This  defini 
tion,  which  is  that  of  Mabuchi,  is  not  ap 
plicable  to  all  monogatari.  In  some  cases  in 
dividuals  who  actually  existed  at  some  time  or 
other  have  been  made  the  heroes  of  fictitious 
adventures,  while  others  have  not  even  that 
slight  basis  of  fact.  Certain  of  the  monogatari 
are  collections  of  verses,  with  short  stories  at 
tached,  which  profess  to  give  the  circumstan 
ces  under  which  they  were  composed ;  while 
others  which  bear  the  title  are  in  reality  his- 


558 


JAPAN"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


torical.  But  the  monogatari,  properly  so 
called,  is  essentially  a  fiction,  and  the  word 
"romance"  is  the  closest  English  equivalent. 
The  earliest  of  these  is  the  Taketori  Mono 
gatari,  the  authorship  of  which  is  sometimes 
ascrihed  to  Minamoto  no  Shitagau  (911-'83), 
but  some  writers  think  it  belongs  to  the  first 
half  of  the  9th  century.  An  old  man  finds  a 
little  girl  only  three  inches  high  in  a  joint  of 
bamboo,  whom  he  adopts  and  educates.  She 
grows  up  into  a  beautiful  young  woman,  and 
is  solicited  in  marriage  by  five  noble  suitors, 
upon  whom  she  imposes  various  labors,  in 
which  they  all  fail  to  satisfy  her.  The  mikado 
also  falls  in  love  with  her,  and  offers  to  make 
her  his  concubine,  but  she  refuses.  Shortly 
afterward  she  makes  known  to  her  protector 
that  she  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  moon,  banished 
to  earth  for  some  offence,  and  that  the  period 
of  her  penance  being  about  to  expire,  she 
must  soon  return  thither.  The  old  man's  pro 
testations  are  of  no  avail,  and  she  is  finally 
carried  off  by  her  father's  messengers  in  a  fly 
ing  chariot,  much  against  her  own  will,  and  in 
spite  of  2,000  guards  placed  around  the  cottage 
and  on  its  roof  by  the  mikado.  The  parting 
is  described  in  a  most  pathetic  manner.  She 
leaves  behind  her  farewell  letters  to  the  old 
man  and  to  the  mikado,  and  the  elixir  of  im 
mortality.  The  mikado  causes  the  elixir  to  be 
burnt  on  the  top  of  a  lofty  mountain  in  Suruga, 
which  thenceforward  is  called  Fuji  no  Yama, 
"the  immortal  mountain."  The  Utsubo  Mono- 
gatari  is  a  collection  of  14  stories  which  fill  20 
volumes.  It  is  also  ascribed  to  the  author  of 
the  previous  work,  and  is  evidently  one  of  the 
earliest  extant.  In  the  Toshikage  no  Malci, 
one  of  these  stories,  are  related  the  adventures 
of  a  young  man  who  is  shipwrecked  in  a  strange 
country,  where  he  falls  in  with  animals  who 
speak,  giants,  and  the  like,  and  he  finally  re 
turns  home  with  some  magic  harps.  Two  of 
these  he  bequeaths  to  his  daughter  when  he 
dies.  A  young  nobleman,  attracted  by  the 
strange  music  which  proceeds  from  her  dwell 
ing,  passes  a  night  there,  and  never  returns. 
She  bears  a  son  who  performs  wonders  of  filial 
piety,  and  feeds  her  with  roots  which  he  digs 
in  the  mountains.  On  the  approach  of  winter 
he  removes  her  to  a  cave  vacated  for  them  by 
a  family  of  bears,  and  the  apes  who  inhabit 
the  surrounding  hills  bring  them  food  and 
water.  At  last  she  is  rediscovered  by  the 
young  nobleman,  who  is  now  grown  up  to  ripe 
manhood,  as  he  is  hunting  in  the  mikado's 
train,  and  they  live  together  happily  for  ever 
after.  The  Hamamatsu  Chiunagon  Monogatari 
is  the  story  of  a  nobleman  who  goes  to  China, 
has  a  child  by  the  empress,  and  then  returns 
to  Japan.  The  Sumiyoshi  Monogatari  is  the 
story  of  a  young  girl,  the  illegitimate  daughter 
of  a  nobleman,  who  has  two  other  daughters 
by  his  own  wife.  When  the  heroine  is'about 
eight  years  of  age  her  mother  dies,  after  ear 
nestly  praying  her  lover  to  send  her  child  to 
the  palace  to  become  one  of  the  mikado's  wait 


ing  women.  He  takes  her  to  live  in  his  own 
house,  in  separate  apartments,  and  the  affec 
tion  he  displays  for  her  excites  the  hatred  of 
her  stepmother.  After  a  while  the  heroine's 
foster  mother  also  dies,  and  she  is  left  alone 
with  her  foster  sister,  a  girl  two  years  older 
than  herself,  through  whom  she  enters  into  a 
secret  correspondence  with  a  young  nobleman 
who  has  fallen  in  love  with  her  from  report  of 
her  beauty.  The  father  constantly  speaks  of 
sending  her  to  the  palace,  which  excites  the 
jealousy  of  the  stepmother,  and  her  ruin  is  de 
termined  on.  With  a  hypocritical  affectation 
of  concern  the  stepmother  tells  her  husband 
that  she  has  seen  a  priest  get  out  of  his  daugh 
ter's  window  at  dawn ;  and  when  he  refuses  to 
believe  this,  she  conspires  with  a  wicked  maid 
servant  and  bribes  a  priest  to  come  to  the  house 
and  play  the  part  of  detected  lover.  Upon- this 
he  is  convinced,  upbraids  his  daughter,  and 
orders  her  to  marry  a  man  of  rank  whom  she 
does  not  know;  but  rather  than  disobey,  she 
is  ready  to  consent.  When  the  stepmother 
finds  that  she  has  been  so  far  unsuccessful,  she 
plots  again  to  have  the  object  of  her  hatred 
stolen  away  by  a  horrid  old  man,  whose  lust  is 
infiamed  by  the  promise  of  a  beautiful  girl  for 
his  mistress;  but  the  plan  being  divulged  to 
the  young  girl  and  her  foster  sister  by  a  friend 
ly  female  servant,  they  make  up  their  minds 
to  flee  to  Sumiyoshi,  where  the  late  nurse  of 
the  dead  foster  mother  is  living  as  a  nun.  This 
they  accomplish  successfully,  and  the  author 
takes  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  intro 
duce  some  very  effective  description  of  seaside 
scenery.  The  lover  is  desperate,  and  resolves 
to  become  a  hermit,  but  the  hiding  place  of 
the  young  lady  is  revealed  to  him  in  a  dream 
and  he  proceeds  in  search  of  her.  Having 
found  her  out,  he  disguises  her  as  a  peasant 
girl  and  brings  her  back  to  Kioto,  where  they 
are  secretly  married  and  have  two  children. 
The  father  is  disconsolate  at  the  flight  of  his 
daughter,  but  after  seven  years  is  invited  to  a 
feast  by  the  young  noble,  and  discovers  in  his 
wife  his  long  lost  favorite.  Upon  this  the 
wickedness  of  the  stepmother  is  revealed,  and 
she  suffers  the  penalty  of  her  misdeeds  by 
dying  in  misery  and  want.  All  the  partners 
of  her  guilt  are  duly  punished  by  avenging 
fate,  and  the  father  retires  from  the  world, 
while  all  the  good  people  in  the  story  have  their 
reward.  The  Ise  Monogatari  is  the  history 
of  the  love  adventures  of  a  noble  celebrated 
for  his  beauty,  named  Ariwara  Narihira  (825- 
'80),  and  contains  a  large  number  of  verses 
written  by  himself  and  his  numerous  sweet 
hearts.  It  is  considered  to  be  a  model  of  good 
Japanese  prose.  The  precise  date  of  its  com 
position  and  the  name  of  its  author  are  un 
known,  but  Mabuchi  thinks  it  belongs  to  the 
middle  of  the  10th  century.  A  similar  work 
is  the  Yamato  Monogatari,  in  two  books,  the 
authorship  of  which  is  ascribed  by  some  to 
Shigeharu,  the  son  of  Narihira,  and  by  others 
to  the  mikado  Kuazan-In  (968-1008)  ;  but  the 


JAPAN   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


559 


probability  is  that  while  both  of  them  had  a 
hand  in  it,  it  was  brought  into  its  present  form 
by  a  third  person.  The  Oclii-kubo Monogatari 
is  the  story  of  a  young  lady  of  rank  who  is 
persecuted  by  her  stepmother,  and  kept  out  of 
sight  in  a  sunken  room,  but  is  rescued  by  a 
nobleman,  who  marries  her,  and  has  by  her  a 
daughter  who  becomes  empress.  Minamoto 
no  Shitagau  is  said  to  have  been  the  author ; 
Mabuchi  is  of  opinion  that  even  if  this  be  not  the 
fact,  it  must  have  been  written  about  the  reign 
of  Reizei-In  (967-'9).  It  is  inferior  to  the  Su- 
miyoshi  in  interest.  Of  all  these  romances  the 
most  celebrated  is  the  Genji  Monogatari,  in  54 
books,  by  the  poetess  Murasaki  Shikibu,  who 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  llth  century, 
the  composition  of  the  work  being  referred 
usually  to  the  year  1004.  It  relates  the  amor 
ous  adventures  of  Hikaru  Genji,  the  son  of  the 
mikado's  favorite  concubine.  The  titles  of  the 
various  books  into  which  it  is  divided  are 
chieliy  taken  from  the  names  of  the  women 
whom  he  loved.  In  point  of  style  it  is  con 
sidered  to  be  far  superior  to  all  the  other 
monogatari,  being  far  more  ornate;  but  the 
plot  is  devoid  of  interest,  and  it  is  only  of 
value  as  marking  a  stage  in  the  development 
of  the  language.  The  best  edition  is  that  en 
titled  Kogetsusho,  by  Kitamura  Kigin,  a  scholar 
of  the  17th  century.  The  Sagoromo,  in  8  books, 
is  a  love  story  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
hero.  The  author  was  Daini  no  Sarnmi,  daugh 
ter  of  Murasaki  Shikibu,  and  nurse  to  Ichijo-In 
(born  986),  and  it  is  thought  to  have  been  com 
posed  about  40  years  later  than  the  Genji 
Monogatari.  The  Idzumi  Shikibu  Monogatari 
is  a  diary  of  the  amours  of  Idzumi  Shikibu  and 
the  fourth  son  of  Reizei-In,  and  contains  all 
the  verses  which  they  sent  to  each  other.  Its 
date  is  about  the  end  of  the  10th  century.  The 
Torikaibaya  is  of  later  date  than  the  Sagoromo, 
but  the  name  of  its  author  is  unknown.  A 
somewhat  involved  plot  is  founded  upon 
the  following  incidents.  A  noble  has  two 
children,  a  girl  and  a  boy,  each  of  whom  from 
a  very  early  age  displays  the  characteristics  of 
the  opposite  sex,  the  boy  being  fond  o£  playing 
with  dolls  and  painted  shells,  averse  to  women, 
and  of  a  retiring  modest  disposition,  while  the 
girl  constantly  seeks  the  society  of  young  men, 
with  whom  she  plays  at  foot  ball,  practises 
archery,  blows  the  flute,  and  sings  songs.  The 
father  is  much  troubled  by  the  double  perverse- 
ness  of  his  children,  and  exclaims,  "  If  I  were 
to  change  them,"  which  is  the  title  of  the  ro 
mance.  He  puts  this  idea  into  execution,  and 
brings  up  his  daughter  as  a  boy  and  his  son  as  a 
girl.  The  consequences  are  of  the  same  kind  as 
those  which  follow  upon  Don  Juan's  introduc 
tion  into  the  seraglio  as  a  female  slave.  Of  the 
Ima  Monogatari,  which  was  originally  a  large 
work,  only  one  book  now  remains.  It  contains 
a  number  of  uninteresting  stories,  invented  no 
doubt  to  serve  as  settings  to  certain  songs  of 
no  great  value.  The  authorship  is  ascribed  to 
Nobuzane,  who  flourished  at  the  end  of  the 
VOL.  ix.— 36 


12th  and  beginning  of  the  13th  century.  The 
Konjdku  Monogatari  is  a  collection  of  Japanese, 
Chinese,  and  Indian  stories  by  Minamoto  no 
Takakuni  (died  in  1077),  in  60  volumes,  divided 
into  customs,  wonders,  crimes,  retributions, 
Buddhism,  and  miscellaneous.  The  Uji  Shiui 
Monogatari,  in  15  volumes,  is  a  supplement 
to  the  above.  The  Tsutsumi  Chiunagon  Mo 
nogatari,  in  one  volume,  is  a  collection  of  ten 
short  tales,  ascribed  to  Fujiwara  no  Kane- 
suke  (877-933)  ;  and  if  this  be  correct,  it  is  one 
of  the  earliest  specimens  of  purely  Japanese 
composition.  The  Aki  no  Yonaga  Monogatari 
recounts  the  loves  of  a  priest  named  Keikai 
and  a  young  prince,  the  consequence  of  which 
was  a  war  between  the  monasteries  of  Miidera 
and  Hiyeizan,  in  the  reign  of  Go-Horikawa 
(1222-'33).  The  boy  drowned  himself  and  the 
priest  became  a  hermit.  The  style  is  over 
loaded  with  Buddhist  terms,  and  it  is  evident 
ly  the  composition  of  a  priest.  The  Matsuho 
Monogatari  is  a  similar  love  tale  with  a  tragic 
ending.  Among  these  romances  are  many 
which  still  remain  in  manuscript,  and  of  those 
which  have  been  printed  no  copies  older  than 
the  17th  century  exist.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  text  of  many  is  extremely  corrupt,  or 
at  least  doubtful ;  but  in  spite  of  this  defect 
they  are  of  great  value  for  philological  as  well 
as  for  other  purposes.  VII.  MISCELLANIES. 
There  is  a  small  class  of  books  called  soshi  or 
miscellanies,  which  belong  to  the  classical  pe 
riod.  The  earliest  of  these  is  the  Makura  no 
Soshi,  by  Sei  Shonagon,  a  daughter  of  Kiyo- 
wara  Motosuke,  and  waiting  woman  to  Joto- 
Monin  (988-1077).  It  is  a  medley  of  auto 
biographical  fragments,  observations  on  socie 
ty,  descriptions  of  natural  objects,  court  cere 
monies,  and  scattered  notes  of  all  kinds,  im 
pregnated  with  wit  of  the  highest  order.  The 
Boroloro  no  Soshi,  in  one  book,  by  Mioye  Sho- 
nin  (1174-1233),  who  is  said  to  have  first  in 
troduced  tea  into  Japan,  is  the  history  of  the 
two  sons  of  a  Kioto  woman  who  was  never 
seen  except  at  night ;  after  her  death  they 
become  mendicant  priests.  This  composition 
ought  no  doubt  to  be  classed  with  the  mono 
gatari.  The  most  famous  of  the  miscellanies 
is  the  Tsuredzure-gusa  of  Kenko  Hoshi  (1282- 
1350).  It  contains  244  short  chapters  on  morals, 
offices,  ancient  customs,  the  seasons,  the  proper 
use  of  words,  society,  and  anecdotes.  In  form 
it  is  an  imitation  of  the  MaJcura  no  Soshi, 
and  its  style  is  modelled  on  that  of  the  Genji 
Monogatari,  which  in  the  14th  century  was 
becoming  obsolete.  The  commentaries  on  it 
are  numerous,  but  that  of  Kitamura  Kigin, 
entitled  Mondansho,  is  the  best.  The  Shosho 
Daisei  is  a  variorum  edition,  and  clumsily  ar 
ranged.  The  Otogi  Zoshi,  in  23  volumes,  is  a 
collection  of  stories  which  belong  to  different 
periods,  the  latest  being  of  the  17th  century, 
and  it  ought  properly  to  be  classed  with  the 
monogatari.  The  Oriorigma,  by  Tate  Riotai, 
a  pupil  of  Mabuchi,  is  a  collection  of  notes 
made  by  the  author  on  his  travels.  VIII. 


560 


JAPAN"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


JOURNALS.  The  earliest  of  these  is  the  Mura- 
salci  Shikilu  Niki,  composed  by  her  after  she 
was  left  a  widow.  It  contains  descriptions  of 
various  events  at  the  court,  written  in  a  highly 
ornate  style,  and  the  title  is  scarcely  appro 
priate.  The  Kagero  Niki,  by  the  mother  of 
Michiami,  is  a  record  of  her  connection  with 
Michikane,  beginning  with  the  year  954,  and 
coming  down  to  974.  The  Ben  no  Naishi  NiTci 
is  a  record  of  events  beginning  with  the  abdica 
tion  of  Go-Saga  no  In  in  1246,  and  ending  with 
1252,  also  by  a  woman.  The  Hojoki,  by  Kamo 
no  Chomei  (beginning  of  the  13th  century),  con 
tains  accounts  of  the  great  fire  in  1177,  the  hur 
ricane  of  1180,  the  removal  of  the  capital  to 
Kioto  in  the  same  year,  the  famine  of  1181, 
and  the  great  earthquake  of  948.  The  Fuji  Go 
ran  no  Ki  is  the  journal  of  a  visit  made  by  the 
shogun  Yoshinori  (1429-'41)  to  Fuji  no  Yama. 
The  Saiokuken  Sochoki  and  the  Socho  kuku 
no  Ki  are  autobiographical  notes  by  the  priest 
Socho  (bora  1447,  lived  beyond  1526).  IX. 
TRAVELS.  The  Tosa  Niki,  by  Kino  Tsurayuki,  is 
a  diary  of  his  journey  back  from  Tosa  to  Kioto 
in  935.  The  author  conceals  his  personality 
by  writing  in  the  style  then  supposed  to  be 
exclusively  employed  by  women.  The  Suma 
no  Ki  purports  to  be  the  diary  of  Sugawara 
Michizane  on  his  way  to  exile  in  Chikuzen ; 
but  although  its  style  is  exactly  that  of  the 
older  literature,  it  is  a  manifest  forgery,  for  it 
speaks  of  the  heroine  of  the  Taketori  Monoga- 
tari,  a  book  written  some  time  after  the  death 
of  Michizane.  The  Matsushima  Niki,  attrib 
uted  to  Sei  Shonagon,  is  also  condemned  by  the 
best  judges  as  a  recent  forgery.  The  Sarashi- 
na  Niki,  by  the  daughter  of  a  descendant  of 
Michizane,  is  the  record  of  a  journey  from 
Shimosa  to  Kioto  by  the  tokaido  in  the  year 
1021,  and  a  second  journey  from  Kioto  to  Sa- 
rashina,  in  Shinshiu,  a  few  years  later.  The 
Izayoi  Niki  is  the  journal  of  Teika  Kio's  widow 
on  a  journey  to  Kamakura  to  obtain  justice 
for  her  son  Tamesuke  against  his  elder  brother 
Tameuji.  It  is  written  in  good  style,  and  ap 
pears  to  be  merely  a  vehicle  for  introducing 
verses  made  by  the  way  at  each  post  town. 
The  Fujikawa  no  Ki  is  the  journal  of  Ichijo 
Kaneyoshi  (1402-'81)  as  he  was  fleeing  from 
Kioto  to  avoid  the  civil  war  of  Onin  (1467). 
The  Sholco  Niki  is  a  diary  of  a  journey  from 
Kioto  to  Suruga  in  1473.  The  Shirin  IkosMu, 
in  6  volumes,  is  a  collection  of  journeys  by 
different  persons,  made  by  Miyagawa  Issuishi. 
All  these  works  belong  to  the  purely  ornament 
al  literature.  A  magnificent  collection  of  frag 
ments  of  this  kind  is  the  Fuso  Shiuyothiu,  in 
36  volumes,  compiled  by  order  of  the  second 
prince  of  Mito.  There  exists  a  supplementa 
ry  collection  called  Shiui  Goyoshiu,  in  26  vol 
umes,  by  Eda  Seikio,  which  ranges  over  nearly 
eight  centuries,  from  the  beginning  of  the  10th 
down  to  near  the  end  of  the  17th.  It  has  not 
been  published.  X.  DRAMATIC.  The  Japanese 
drama  is  of  three  kinds :  the  no,  a  kind  of  his 
torical  play,  generally  of  a  tragical  cast ;  the 


kiogen,  or  low  comedy ;  and  the  joruri,  a  mix 
ture  of  the  two.  The  former  have  been  col 
lected,  and  are  known  as  utai  ;  they  date  from 
the  time  of  the  shogun  Ashikaga  Yoshimasa 
(1449-'90),  and  are  still  played  with  the  cos 
tumes  of  that  period.  There  are  five  editions 
which  slightly  differ  among  themselves,  a  fact 
which  is  due  to  their  having  been  separately 
preserved  by  as  many  families  of  hereditary 
actors,  named  Kanze,  Hosho,  Komparu,  Kongo, 
and  Kita.  The  kiogen  are  in  the  colloquial 
language  of  the  same  period,  and  possess  great 
philological  value.  Fifty  of  them  were  printed 
in  1662,  under  the  title  of  Kiogenki.  The  Mai 
no  Hon,  also  called  Kowaka  Zoshi,  is  a  collec 
tion  of  36  ancient  plays  which  are  no  longer 
acted,  but  recited  with  musical  intonations  by 
a  single  performer,  without  scenery  or  cos 
tume.  The  joruri  are  the  modern  plays,  which 
are  either  acted  on  the  stage  by  actors  and  a 
chorus,  or  recited  by  a  single  person  to  the  ac 
companiment  of  the  three-stringed  lute  or  sha- 
misen.  XI.  DICTIONARIES  AND  WORKS  ON  PHI 
LOLOGY.  The  earliest  dictionary  is  the  Wamio 
Buijiu-sho,  in  20  books,  by  Minarnoto  no  Shi- 
tagau  (911-'83).  It  contains  a  number  of  Jap 
anese  words,  with  the  corresponding  Chinese 
characters,  definitions,  and  quotations  from  five 
or  six  works.  The  whole  is  divided  into  the 
following  categories:  1,  heaven;  2,  earth;  3, 
water;  4,  divisions  of  the  year;  5,  demons 
and  gods;  6,  social  relations;  7,  relatives;  8, 
parts  of  the  body ;  9,  arts  and  accomplishments ; 
10,  music;  11,  offices;  12,  provinces  and  de 
partments;  13,  dwellings;  14,  ships;  15,  vehi 
cles;  16,  kine  and  horses;  17,  treasures;  18, 
scents  and  drugs;  19,  lamps,  &c. ;  20,  woven 
fabrics;  21,  clothing;  22,  utensils,  weapons, 
instruments  of  punishment,  &c. ;  23,  household 
utensils;  24,  eating  and  drinking;  25,  grain; 
26,  fruits ;  27,  vegetables ;  28,  winged  tribe ; 
29,  hairy  tribe;  30,  scaly  tribe;  31,  insects; 
32,  trees  and  plants.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
prepared  at  the  command  of  one  of  the  prin 
cesses.  The  Shinsen  Jikio  is  a  dictionary  of 
Chinese  characters,  arranged  according  to  the 
radicals,  with  the  Chinese  pronunciation  ac 
cording  to  the  system  of  spelling  called  hansetsu 
(fan  tsieh),  and  the  Japanese  equivalents,  com 
pleted  by  the  priest  Shojiu  in  892.  Only  one 
volume  remains  out  of  twelve.  At  the  end 
there  are  collections  of  double  characters  and 
onomatapoeia?.  As  a  general  rule,  however, 
the  Japanese  have  contented  themselves  with 
reprinting  the  best  known  Chinese  dictionaries, 
such  as  the  Yu-pien,  Kanghi's  great  lexicon, 
and  the  Wache-yun-suy.  Of  these  the  first  has 
also  been  translated  into  Japanese.  There  is  a 
useful  dictionary  in  two  volumes  called  Shinso 
Jibiki,  with  the  Chinese  characters  in  the 
square  and  cursive  forms,  and  the  Japanese 
equivalents  in  hiragana.  Dictionaries  of  the 
Japanese  language  came  to  be  made  only  after 
the  revival  of  learning  in  the  17th  century.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  Ninon  Shakumei  (1699), 
by  Kaibara  Tokushin  (1630-1714),  in  which  an 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


561 


attempt  is  made  to  give  the  etymologies  of 
words,  arranged  under  23  categories.  The 
Toga,  by  Aral  Haknseki  (1657-1725),  is  an  ety 
mological  and  explanatory  dictionary  of  Japa 
nese  words,  in  20  books,  arranged  according  to 
categories.  The  author  has  abstained  from  at 
tempting  to  give  any  derivations  of  which  he 
did  not  feel  sufficiently  certain.  The  most  val 
uable  dictionary  of  the  Japanese  language  is 
the  Wdkan  Sniori  of  Tanigawa  Shisei,  who 
flourished  during  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century.  The  first  portion  (45  vols.)  contains 
about  18,000  words,  among  which  are  to  be 
found  the  greater  part  of  those  which  occur 
in  the  ancient  literature,  with  examples.  The 
second  portion  (30  vols.)  contains  about  12,000 
words,  many  of  which  are  of  Chinese  origin. 
A  third  part  was  promised,  but  has  never  been 
published.  The  arrangement  is  according  to 
the  50  sounds,  which  is  a  great  improvement 
on  the  old  arrangement  according  to  categories. 
The  Gagen  Shuran  (21  vols.,  of  which  only  9 
have  been  printed),  by  Ishikawa  Masamochi, 
is  a  dictionary  of  Japanese  words,  with  multi 
tudinous  examples,  but  few  etymologies  or  ex 
planations.  In  1872  the  educational  depart 
ment  of  the  mikado's  government  commenced 
the  publication  of  a  gigantic  dictionary,  which 
was  to  contain  all  the  words  in  use  from  the 
earliest  periods  down  to  the  present,  with  ex 
amples.  Only  5  volumes,  containing  the  words 
beginning  with  A,  have  appeared  as  yet,  and  it 
is  feared  that  the  project  has  been  abandoned. 
The  Wdkan  Gorui  Osetsuyoshiu,  in  13  volumes, 
is  an  excellent  dictionary  of  Japanese  words 
with  their  corresponding  Chinese  characters,  ar 
ranged  first  by  categories,  and  then  according 
to  the  iroha;  but  it  contains  neither  defini 
tions  nor  derivations.  Owing  to  the  Japanese 
generally  writing  their  own  language  with  Chi 
nese  characters,  using  the  Tcana  only  for  termi 
nations  and  particles,  they  have  as  a  general 
rule  been  always  very  ignorant  of  spelling. 
The  earliest  attempt  at  rectifying  the  mistakes 
which  were  committed  by  those  who  used  the 
leana,  chiefly  for  writing  poetry,  was  the  Kana- 
moji-tsulcai,  by  Gioa,  founded  on  the  spelling 
of  Teika  Kio.  A  fuller  edition  of  this  was  pub 
lished  in  1666  by  Arakida  Moriaki,  under  the 
title  of  Ruiji  Ka/nadzulcai.  Neither  of  these 
works  is  a  trustworthy  guide.  Keichiu  (1640- 
1701)  compiled  the  Waji  SJioransho  (5  vols.), 
a  spelling  book,  with  examples  from  the  Rik- 
Tcolcushi,  Kujilei,  Kojilci,  ManyozMu,  and  other 
classical  writings.  The  Waji  Tsureisho,  in  8 
volumes,  is  an  attack  on  the  last  named  book, 
by  Tachibana  Narikazu.  The  Kogentei  (1765), 
by  Katori  Nahiko,  is  an  alphabetically  arranged 
list  of  words  showing  the  correct  ancient  spell 
ing.  It  is  considered  a  very  good  authority 
on  the  subject.  The  Jion-Tcana-dzulcai,  by  Mo- 
toori  Norinaga,  treats  of  the  proper  spelling 
of  the  pronunciation  of  Chinese  characters,  a 
subject  about  which  there  seems  to  be  much 
difference  of  opinion  among  scholars.  The 
Kanji  Sanonko,  by  the  same  author,  discusses 


the  origin  of  the  lean-on,  go-on,  and  to-on.  Hi- 
rata  Atsutane's  Koshi  Honji  Kio  (4  vols.)  is  a 
most  elaborate  treatise  on  the  sounds  of  the 
Japanese  language,  and  the  various  kinds  of 
transformation  which  they  undergo.  The  Do- 
l)un  Tsulco  (4  vols.),  by  Arai  Hakuseki,  is  a  val 
uable  work  on  the  origin  of  Chinese  characters 
and  the  two  Icana.  The  Watoku  Yorei,  by 
Dazai  Shuntai,  is  a  similar  work.  A  large  num 
ber  of  grammatical  works  have  been  the  result 
of  the  great  impulse  given  to  Japanese  studies 
by  the  revival  of  learning,  chiefly  produced 
since  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  As- 
ton's  "Grammar  of  the  Written  Language" 
contains  a  pretty  complete  list  of  the  more  im 
portant  writings  of  this  class.  It  may  be  ob 
served  that  the  efforts  of  native  grammarians 
do  not  go  beyond  the  accidence  of  the  language. 
XII.  TOPOGRAPHY.  In  the  year  713  orders  were 
despatched  to  the  governors  of  all  the  provinces 
to  give  lucky  names  to  the  departments  and 
villages,  and  to  record  the  names  of  the  metals, 
plants,  trees,  birds,  beasts,  fishes,  and  insects 
produced  in  each  department ;  the  quality  of 
the  land,  whether  fertile  or  otherwise ;  the 
origin  of  the  names  of  mountains,  rivers,  plains, 
and  fnoors ;  and  the  local  legends.  The  last 
volume  was  completed  in  734.  It  is  a  constant 
subject  of  regret  with  Japanese  scholars  that 
so  much  of  this  great  work  should  have  perished, 
for  out  of  66  volumes,  only  the  volume  on  Id- 
zumo  and  fragments  of  44  others  have  survived 
the  ravages  of  time  and  civil  war.  From  this 
time  up  to  the  16th  century  the  subject  seems 
to  have  been  completely  neglected.  About 
1580  was  produced  the  Nihon  Kokubun  Ki,  in 
10  books,  by  an  unknown  author ;  it  is  an  ac 
count  of  the  productions  of  each  province,  with 
maps.  Kaibara Tokushiu  compiled  a  "History 
of  the  Province  of  Chikuzen"  {Cliikuzen  no 
Kuni  Sholcu  Fudolci),  in  28  books,  and  "  Trav 
els  in  various  Provinces"  (Shoshiu  Meguri,  7 
vols.).  Other  works  of  this  class  are  Yosliiu 
FusJii,  in  10  books,  by  Kurokawa  Doyu,  a  his 
tory  of  Yamashiro  in  the  Chinese  language 
(1684);  SansMu  MeiselcisM,  by  Hakuye,  a  de 
scription  of  Yamashiro  (25  vols.,  1702)  ;  Yama 
shiro  Meishoshi,  compiled  from  713  works,  all 
of  which  are  quoted  •  literally  (30  vols.  and  12 
maps,  1705)  ;  Yamashiroshi  (9  vols.),  Yamato- 
shi  (7  vols.),  Kowachishi  (3  vols.),  IdzwnisJii 
(2  vols.),  and  Setsushi  (4  vols.),  by  Nabikawa 
Nagashi,  early  in  the  18th  century;  Yamato 
Meishkoi  by  Hayashi  Soyu  (15  vols.,  1681); 
Setsuyo  Gundan,  a  description  of  Setsu,  by 
Okada  Keishi  (17  vols.,  1698)  ;  Shinsen  Kama- 
kurashi,  by  order  of  the  second  prince  of 
Mito  (12  vols.,  1685);  Dankaishi,  a  descrip 
tion  of  Omi,  with  local  legends,  by  an  unknown 
author;  and  the  Shinano  Cliimeiko,  a  history 
of  the  province  of  Shinano,  by  Yoshizawa  Ko- 
ken  (3  vols.).  Besides  these  more  serious  works, 
there  is  a  large  class  of  illustrated  topographical 
works  of  a  popular  nature,  such  as  the  ToTcai- 
do  Meishodzuye,  Nilclcozanshi,  Ki&o  Meisho- 
dzuye,  Yedo  Neislw,  Kioto  Meisho,  Kii  Meiaho, 


562 


JAPAN   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


and  he  Sangu  Meishodzuye,  which  are  in  gen 
eral  repute  for  their  accuracy  and  the  excellent 
wood  engravings  in  which  they  abound.  XIII. 
LITERATURE  OF  THE  SHINTO  RELIGION.  The 
best  sources  of  the  study  of  pure  Shinto  are 
the  Kojiki,  the  Nehongi,  and  the  Norito,  al 
ready  mentioned,  with  the  works  of  Motoori 
Norinaga  and  Hirata  Atsutane  on  the  same 
subject.  The  Kojikiden  of  the  first  is  a  monu 
ment  of  learning  and  industry ;  it  contains  the 
Naoli  no  Mitama,  or  "  Spirit  of  Good,"  a  sum 
mary  of  Motoori's  view.  This  having  been 
attacked  by  an  anonymous  author  in  the  Maga 
no  Hire,  he  replied  to  his  antagonist  in  the  Kuzu- 
hana,  with  further  developments  of  his  posi 
tion,  namely,  that  mankind  are  born  with  a 
capacity  for  distinguishing  right  from  wrong, 
the  test  of  which  is  the  will  of  the  mikado,  and 
that  the  Chinese  system  of  morals,  which  is  an 
invention  of  immoral  men  for  an  immoral  age, 
has  corrupted  the  original  perfection  of  the 
Japanese  heart.  The  Kerikio-jin  ("  The  Mad 
man  Fettered  ")  is  a  polemic  against  the  author 
of  a  book  called  Shoko  Hatsu,  who  had  main 
tained  that  the  age  of  the  gods  was  a  barba 
rous  age,  and  had  spoken  disparagingly  of  the 
mikados.  It  is  a  pity  that  so  much  acuteness 
and  erudition  as  Motoori  possessed  should 
have  been  thrown  away  in  defending  views 
of  which  the  logical  effect  would  be  to  en 
slave  the  whole  Japanese  nation.  His  Jindai 
Shogo  is  the  mythological  part  of  the  Kojiki, 
with  additions  from  the  Nihongi,  in  a  mixture 
of  Chinese  characters  and  kana,  with  kana 
at  the  side,  for  the  use  of  the  young.  The 
Rekicho  Shoshi-kai  is  a  collection  of  the  speeches 
and  proclamations  of  the  early  mikados,  with 
a  commentary,  which  from  his  point  of  view 
are  part  of  the  sources  of  Shinto.  Mabuchi  had 
already  explained  the  liturgies  in  his  Norito- 
kai  and  Norito-ko.  Hirata  Atsutane  followed 
Motoori's  lead  with  the  Koshi  Seibun,  which 
presents  the  whole  of  the  mythylogical  books 
worked  up  into  a  continuous  and  consistent 
form,  and  he  added  a  commentary  in  100  vol 
umes,  entitled  KosMden.  This  work  is  dis 
tinguished  by  an  almost  painful  elaboration  of 
details,  both  mythological  and  philological,  but 
is  of  great  value  to  the  student.  In  his  Zoku 
Shinto  Taii  (4  vols.)  Hirata  has  given  an  ac 
count  of  the  various  sects  of  corrupt  Shintoists, 
which  number  15  or  16.  Besides  the  works 
of  these  men,  there  are  certain  collections  of 
ancient  Shinto  books  which  are  still  considered 
orthodox.  The  earliest  is  the  Shinto  Gobmho, 
containing  five  separate  works:  1.  Yamato- 
Itime  no  Seiki,  said  to  have  been  composed  in 
the  reign  of  Temmu  Tenno  (672-'86),  and  af 
terward  enlarged  in  that  of  Tenchi  (765-'70). 
This  princess  was  in  the  year  30  B.  C.  appointed 
guardian  of  the  sacred  emblems  of  Tensho- 
kodaijin,  with  which  she  travelled  about  in 
order  to  find  a  location  for  them.  In  4  B.  C. 
she  settled  down  in  Ise,  and  is  said  to  have 
lived  about  400  years  after  this.  2.  Gochinza 
Shidaiki,  an  account  of  the  establishment  of 


the  two  temples  at  Ise;  date  of  composition 
unknown.  3.  Go  chinza  Honki,  an  account  of 
the  establishment  of  the  Geku,  ascribed  to  the 
reign  of  Keitei  Tenno  (507-'31).  4.  Gochinza 
Denki,  a  work  similar  to  the  second,  said  to 
date  from  the  reign  of  Yuriaku  (457-'79).  5. 
Holci  Honki,  an  account  of  the  manufacture 
of  the  divine  emblems,  composed  in  the  reign 
of  Shomu  Tenno  (723-'49).  There  is  a  com 
mentary  on  these  five  works  entitled  Shinto 
Gobushoaho,  by  Okada  Masanori  (1721).  The 
Daijin-gu  Gishikicho  (804)  describes  the  cere 
monial  at  these  two  temples  throughout  the  year. 
The  Tenchi  Eeiki  no  Ko,  in  18  books,  contains 
a  mixture  of  Buddhism  and  Shinto ;  it  is  as 
cribed  by  some  to  Shotoku  Taishi,  by  oth 
ers  to  Kobo  Daishi,  who  invented  what  is 
known  as  the  Riobu  Shinto,  a  harmony  of 
that  religion  and  Buddhism.  This  work,  and 
two  others  -of  the  same  nature,  the  Jim- 
fietsuki  and  Temhoki,  are  now  asserted  to  be 
modern  forgeries  by  Buddhist  priests.  The 
Kogoshiui,  by  Imube  no  Hironari  (807),  pro 
fesses  to  have  been  written  to  preserve  frag 
ments  of  ancient  traditions  which  had  not 
been  recorded  in  any  of  the  earlier  books; 
but  the  author's  main  object  was  to  prove  the 
descent  of  his  own  family  from  the  gods. 
Nevertheless,  the  work  is  of  great  value,  and 
was  largely  used  by  Hirata  in  compiling  the 
Koshi  Seilun.  The  Yuiitsu  Shinto  Mioho 
Yoshiu  (2  vols.)  is  a  work  designed  to  prove 
that  Shinto  and  Buddhism  are  identical  in 
their  essence.  The  majority  of  treatises  on 
Shinto  prior  to  the  17th  century  maintained 
this  view.  An  exception  is  the  Gengenshiu 
(8  vols.),  by  Kitabatake  Chikafusa.  It  treats 
of  the  origin  of  the  world,  of  the  coming  into 
existence  of  the  two  races  of  gods,  the  heavenly 
and  the  terrestrial,  the  creation  of  Japan,  the 
delivery  of  the  sacred  emblems  by  the  sun 
goddess  to  her  grandson  before  his  descent 
upon  earth,  the  foundation  of  the  temples  of 
Ise,  and  other  articles  of  the  Shinto  faith.  The 
Nijiu-issha  Ki  is  an  account  of  21  principal 
Shinto  temples,  by  Fujiwara  no  Korechika 
(Gidosanshi,  973-1010).  The  Koro  Kojitsuden 
contains  information  about  the  ceremonial  at 
the  temples  of  Ise,  the  old  costumes  preserved 
therein,  the  messengers  of  the  gods  (the  fox, 
crow,  common  cock,  serpents),  &c.  These 
two  works  are  also  considered  good  sources  of 
information  by  rigid  Shintoists.  The  Shinto 
Shiu  (8  vols.)  is  one  of  those  now  condemned 
on  account  of  its  confusing  the  two  religions  ; 
it  treats  of  the  origin  of  Shinto,  the  gods  of 
Hachiman,  Shinto  archways  (torii),  &c.,  and 
gives  a  list  of  the  Shinto  gods  in  various  prov 
inces  who  were  disguised  under  Buddhistic 
names.  The  Rioltu  Shinto  Koketsusho,  by 
Minamoto  no  Yoshiyasu  (6  vols.,  1716),  is  a 
defence  of  the  sect  called  Riobu  against  those 
who  maintain  that  it  is  the  same  as  the  Yui 
itsu,  the  latter  being  infected  with  Confucian- 
ist  doctrines.  The  Shinto  Miomoku  Ruijiusho 
(6  vols.,  1699)  is  a  description  of  the  accessories 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


563 


of  Shinto  worship,  such  as  robes  and  utensils, 
and  the  functions  of  the  ministers,  by  Watarae 
no  Nobuyoshi.  The  Honcho  Jinjako,  by  Ha- 
yashi  Doshin  (6  vols.),  contains  the  names  of 
all  the  chief  Shinto  temples  and  of  the  gods 
worshipped  therein;  it  is  considered  a  good 
authority  on  these  matters.  The  Mosoki,  in  one 
volume,  describes  burial  according  to  Shinto 
rites.  In  the  Jiuniku  Ron,  Kenko  Hoshi  has 
shown  that  there  is  no  reason  why  the  flesh  of 
wild  boars  and  deer  should  not  be  offered  up 
to  the  gods,  and  that  down  to  the  reign  of 
Seiwa  Tenno  (858-'T6)  such  meats  ordinarily 
formed  part  of  the  mikado's  own  diet.  It 
was  owing  to  the  influence  of  Buddhism  that 
they  came  in  the  middle  ages  to  be  looked  upon 
as  forbidden  food.  The  Nakatomi  no  Harai  is 
a  liturgy  ascribed  to  Tokiwa  no  O-muraji  (mid 
dle  of  the  6th  century) ;  but  Nobuyoshi  and 
Suiga  (the  latter  of  whom  has  given  his  name 
to  a  separate  form  of  Shinto)  assign  it  to 
Amenotaneko  no  Mikoto,  a  person  belonging 
to  the  mythological  age.  However  this  may 
be,  it  seems  to  have  received  its  present  form 
in  the  reign  of  Hommu  Tenno  (696-707).  To 
Tokiwa  no  O-muraji  is  also  ascribed  the  Rokkon- 
shajo  no  Harai,  a  work  which  is  repudiated 
by  the  pure  Shiatoists  as  bearing  the  distinct 
traces  of  Buddhist  influence.  XIV.  BUDDIIIST 
LITERATUEE.  Buddhism  first  gained  a  sure 
footing  in  Japan  in  the  reign  of  the  empress 
Suiko  (593-628),  and  the  whole  canon  has 
been  imported  at  various  times  and  reprinted. 
The  native  works  on  Buddhism  in  the  Japa 
nese  vernacular  are  not  very  important.  The 
Shasekishiu  (10  vols.,  1279)  is  a  book  on  mor 
als  by  the  priest  Mujiu,  in  which  he  endea 
vors  to  make  his  subject  more  palatable  to 
the  vulgar  taste  by  introducing  funny  stories. 
This  is  a  general  characteristic  of  Buddhist 
teaching  in  Japan.  The  Ilosshinshiii,  by  Kamo 
no  Chomei,  is  a  collection  of  stories  of  converts. 
The  Sambu  Kanasho  (7  vols.),  by  Koa  Shonin 
of  the  Jodo  sect  (1265-1345),  consists  of  three 
works  entitled  Kiraei  Ilonguansho,  Saiyo- 
sJio,  and  Fushi  Sokosho.  Most  of  the  Japa 
nese  Buddhist  literature,  of  which  there  is  a 
considerable  quantity,  is  in  the  Chinese  lan 
guage,  and  therefore  not  easily  accessible. 
The  Shingaku  Michi  no  Ilanaslii,  Kiuo  Dowa, 
and  TesJiima  Doica  are  collections  of  sermons 
by  priests  who  belong  to  a  modern  eclectic  sect, 
urhich  professes  to  derive  its  doctrines  from 
Confucianism,  Shinto,  and  Buddhism.  Three 
of  Kiuo's  sermons  have  been  translated  bv  A. 
B.  Mitford  ("Tales  of  Old  Japan,"  London, 
1871).  XV.  MODERN  FICTION.  This  is  divided 
into  three  classes :  kesaku  Tjon,  which  may  be 
called  standard  novels ;  ninjo  ~bon,  or  novels 
of  an  erotic  cast ;  and  kusa  zoshi,  which  are 
popular  romances  printed  in  the  hiragana,  and 
form  the  chief  reading  of  women.  The  most 
famous  author  of  the  first  kind  of  fiction  is 
Bakin.  His  works  are  20  in  number,  ranging 
from  5  to  40  volumes  each.  Bakin  was  a  man 
of  great  learning,  and  his  style  is  almost  classi 


cal.  Among  the  ninjo  Ion  the  most  celebrated 
are  the  Iliza  Kurige  (90  vols.),  containing  the 
history  of  the  travels  of  Yajirobei  and  Kida- 
hachi,  and  the  Misawo  Tsuge  no  OgmM  (9 
vols.),  by  Jippensha  Ikku ;  and  the  Mitsume 
Setsuyo,  which  describes  the  love  of  Kosan 
and  Kingoro,  with  its  tragical  ending,  by 
Kiokusanjin.  Eiuti  Tanehiko  wrote  the 
Inaka  Genji  (76  vols.)  and  Irohalunko  (45 
vols.),  belonging  to  the  class  of  Icusa  zoshi.  A 
short  romance  by  the  same  author,  entitled 
Ukiyo  Rokumai  Biolu,  has  been  twice  mis 
translated,  into  German  by  A.  Pfitzmaier 
(1840),  and  into  English  by  S.  C.  Malan  (1871). 
To  the  class  of  kcsaku  Ion  may  be  added 
such  works  as  the  Yofu  Kogiden  (10  vols.), 
the  Yehon  Chiushingura  (20  vols.),  the  Yehon 
Sangoku  Yofuden  (15  vols.),  the  Yehon  Ko- 
~kand.cn  (10  vols.),  and  the  Honcho  Kiushiku 
Dandzuye  (5  vols.) ;  all  of  which,  though 
purporting  to  be  founded  on  historical  facts, 
are  in  reality  pure  romances.  XVI.  MISCEL 
LANEOUS  LITERATURE.  There  are  many  works 
which  cannot  be  classed  under  any  of  the  fore 
going  categories,  and  the  Japanese  therefore 
mass  them  together  in  their  library  catalogues 
under  this  heading.  The  following  are  the 
principal  bibliographical  works  on  the  native 
literature  :  Honcho  Shojaku  MokuroJcu  (1  vol., 
1294);  Nihon  Shojakko  (1  vol.),  by  Hayashi 
Doshin,  containing  notices  of  120  works  by 
different  authors  from  the  earliest  times  ;  Wa- 
kan  Shojakko  (5  vols.,  1702),  by  Kojima  Soi, 
a  list  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  books  printed 
in  Japan  between  1595  and  1702,  giving  the 
authors'  names,  and  notices  of  the  contents ; 
Bengi  Sho  MoTcurolcu  (3  vols.),  on  books  with 
the  same  title,  books  with  two  titles,  and  those 
which  only  exist  in  manuscript,  and  containing 
various  other  information  for  the  book  hunter ; 
Gorui  Shojaku  Mokuroku  Taizen  (12  vols., 
1801),  containing  lists  of  books  printed  in 
Japan,  beginning  with  those  engraved  by  Muso 
Kokushi  (1275-1351),  and  ending  with  the 
period  Meiwa  (1764— ?7);  Kokucho  Shomolcu  (3 
vols.,  1787),  containing  the  titles  of  books  ar 
ranged  under  different  headings,  partly  chrono 
logically  and  partly  according  to  the  iroha; 
~Wa~kan  Gunsho  Sakusha  Mokuroku  (4  vols.), 
containing  the  names  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
authors  and  their  works,  beginning  for  the 
latter  with  the  period  Yoro  (7l7-'23),  and  end 
ing  with  Kuansei  (1789-1808);  and  Kindai 
Meika  Chojutsu  Mokuroku  (1811),  containing 
the  works  of  the  most  famous  authors  of  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries  arranged  according  to 
the  iroha.  The  Wakan  Sansaidzuye  is  a  cy 
clopaedia  in  105  books,  each  of  which  treats 
of  a  separate  class  of  subjects,  with  an  index 
arranged  according  to  the  iroha.  The  Teijo 
Zakki,  in  16  books,  is  a  work  of  the  same  na 
ture,  arranged  in  categories,  but  extending 
over  a  narrower  field.  Being  written  in  the 
Japanese  language,  it  is  more  useful  to  stu 
dents  than  the  Sansaidzuye.  The  author  was 
Ise  Sadatake,  and  it  was  published  after  his 


564 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


death  in  1843.  The  Gwku  SeUzassU  (1843), 
and  its  supplement  (1848),  in  20  volumes,  by 
Kurihara  Nobumitsu,  contain  much  antiqua 
rian  information  not  to  be  found  elsewhere. 
The  Shiulco  Jisshiu  is  a  magnificent  collection 
of  engravings  of  antique  objects,  in  80  folio 
volumes,  arranged  under  the  following  head 
ings  :  copper  utensils,  seals,  inkstones,  musical 
instruments,  armor,  saddlery,  swords,  bows  and 
arrows,  flags,  inscriptions  on  bells  and  on  tomb 
stones,  pictures,  and  autographs.  The  Shincho 
(6  vols.),  Monshiu,  Kanzen  Yawa  (5  vols.),  and 
Inaka  Chawa  (5  vols.)  are  collections  of  mod 
ern  tales.  The  Sozan  Chomon  KisJiiu  is  a 
work  on  ordinary  Japanese  superstitions.  The 
Honcho  Eigen  (10  vols.,  1714),  by  Izawa 
Nagahide,  and  Kotowaza-gusa  (7  vols.,  1700), 
by  Kaibara  Koki,  are  collections  of  proverbs 
and  common  sayings,  with  explanations  and 
derivations.  The  WajisTii  and  Kanjishi  (6 
vols.),  by  Kaibara  Koko  (1697),  are  works  of 
reference  for  the  introduction  of  inventions, 
the  origin  of  customs,  &c.,  in  Japan  and 
China  respectively.  The  Zolcusetsu-'ben  (1715 
-'22),  by  Izawa  Nagahide,  which  with  its  sup 
plements  extends  to  51  volumes,  is  a  work 
on  popular  errors  with  respect  to  mikados, 
princes,  nobles,  samurai,  women,  priests,  mod 
ern  times,  houses,  topography,  persons,  of 
fices,  arts  and  accomplishments,  books,  uten 
sils,  music,  pictures,  seasons  of  the  year, 
Buddhism,  plants  and  trees,  animals,  fishes, 
and  insects.  Most  worthy  also  of  notice  is  the 
collection  of  rare  books  formed  by  Hanawa 
Hokiichi  (1746-1821),  containing  636  separate 
works  in  530  volumes.  These  consist  of  works 
connected  with  the  Shinto  religion  (28),  history 
of  the  mikados  (15),  appointments  of  officials 
(16),  genealogies  (4),  biographies  (6),  offices 
(5),  laws  (4),  court  ceremonies  (35),  costumes 
(10),  prose  (16),  letters  (8),  Japanese  poetry 
(16),  romances  (13),  diaries  (7),  travels  (14), 
music  (12),  foot  ball  (3),  hawking  (2),  games 
(6),  eating  and  drinking  (5),  w^ars  (30),  history 
of  the  military  class  (25),  Buddhism  (21),  and 
miscellaneous  (84).  Hanawa  restricted  his  la 
bors  to  works  of  not  over  three  books  each. 
Thirty  years  were  occupied  in  collating  manu 
scripts  and  in  the  engraving  of  the  blocks, 
which  number  about  40,000,  and  the  cost  was 
over  $10,000.  In  addition  to  the  collections 
already  printed,  he  got  together  about  as  many 
more  books,  making  a  total  of  about  1,300.  So 
great  a  work  was  perhaps  never  achieved  be 
fore  by  any  private  individual,  under  similar 
circumstances.  He  was  blind  from  infancy. — 
The  history  of  Japanese  literature  may  be  di 
vided  into  four  periods.  The  first  will  com 
mence  far  back  in  the  age  which  preceded  the 
introduction  of  Chinese  literature  and  writing, 
and  extend  down  to  the  end  of  the  9th  century 
A.  D.  During  this  period  the  only  purely  Jap 
anese  literature  consisted  of  poetry  and  sacred 
liturgies,  the  Chinese  language  being  adopted 
as  the  vehicle  of  all  other  forms.  The  beginning 
of  the  second  period  is  marked  by  the  preface 


to  the  KoTcinshiu,  and  ends  with  the  later  ro 
mances,  extending  thus  from  the  early  years  of 
the  10th  to  the  end  of  the  13th  century.  This 
is  the  age  of  classical  prose.  The  Tsuredzure- 
gusa,  though  composed  in  the  14th  century  after 
earlier  models,  belongs  properly  to  this  period. 
Up  to  this  time  learning  was  confined  to  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  court.  During  the 
14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries  the  domination 
of  the  military  class  put  an  effectual  stop  to  its 
cultivation  except  by  a  few  priests.  This  was 
the  dark  age  of  Japan.  With  the  17th  century 
begins  the  fourth  and  modern  period  of  gen 
eral  culture,  inaugurated  by  lyeyasu,  the  first 
of  the  Tokugawa  shoguns,  who,  after  firmly 
establishing  the  power  of  his  family,  and  re 
ducing  the  other  military  chiefs  to  the  position 
of  vassals,  devoted  his  later  years  to  collecting 
manuscripts.  Though  the  art  of  printing  seems 
to  have  been  introduced  in  the  13th  century,  it 
had  not  yet  been  turned  to  much  use,  and  the 
rapid  multiplication  of  books  by  its  aid  dates 
from  his  time.  Chinese  literature  began  to  be 
ardently  cultivated  by  a  succession  of  scholars, 
of  whom  Hayashi  Kazan  (also  called  Doshin, 
1583-1657)  and  Ishikawa  Jozan  (1583-1672) 
were  the  earliest.  Among  their  successors  the 
most  distinguished  were  Hayashi  Shunsa  (1618- 
'80),  Hayashi  Shuntoku  (1624-'61),  Nakaye 
Tojiu  (1608-'48),  Yamazaki  Ansai  (1618-'82), 
who  under  his  other  name  of  Suiga  is  known 
as  the  founder  of  a  separate  school  of  Shinto, 
Kumazawa  Banzan  (1619-'91),  Ito  Jinsai  (1627- 
1705),  Nakamura  Tekisai  (1629-1702),  Kaibara 
Tokushin  (1630-1714),  Arai  Hakuseki  (1657- 
1725),  Ogiu  Sorai  (1666-1728),  Miwa  Shissai 
(1669-1744),  Ito  Togai  (1670-1736),  Dazai 
Shuntai  (1680-1747),  Hattori  Nankuaku  (1683 
-1759),  Ando  Toyu  (1683-1719),  Yamagata 
Shiunan  (1687-1752),  Hirano  Kinkua  (1688- 
1732),  Usami  Junsui  (!7lO-'76),  and  Eai  Sanyo 
(1780-1832).  These  writers  all  belong  to  the 
class  called  jiusha,  or  Chinese  scholars,  but 
they  also  wrote  in  the  Japanese  language. 
Arai  Hakuseki's  TokusM-Yoron,  Toga,  Goji- 
riaku,  Koshi-tsu,  Seiyo  Kibun,  Sairan  Igen, 
and  Seiyo  Dzusetsu,  Sorai's  Seidan  and  Keizai- 
r0w,  and  Dazai's  Keizai-roTcu,  are  all  works  of 
great  merit  in  the  vernacular.  Sorai  also  did 
great  service  by  translating  Chinese  standard 
works,  not  the  least  important  of  which  is  the 
penal  code  of  the  Ming  dynasty.  About  the 
same  time  the  ancient  literature  of  Japan  be 
gan  to  be  studied  with  great  attention  by  men 
who  received  little  countenance  and  encourage 
ment  from  the  shoguns.  The  leaders  in  this 
movement  were  the  priest  Keichiu  (1640-1701), 
Shimokawabe  Choriu  (1622-'84),  and  Kada- 
no  Adzumamaro  (1669-1736),  the  last  of  whom 
may  be  fairly  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
modern  school  of  pure  Shinto.  Keichiu  is  the 
first  who  made  any  real  progress  in  interpret 
ing  the  ancient  poems  of  the  Manyoshiu,  but 
he  made  no  original  contributions  to  the  liter 
ature  of  his  country.  To  these  men  succeeded 
Karno  no  Mabuchi,  whose  commentaries  on 


JAPAN  (LANGUAGE,   &c.) 


JAPANNING 


565 


the  ManyosJiiu,  on  the  Norito,  and  the  Ise 
Monogatari,  and  lexicon  of  Makura-Tcotoba 
(entitled  Kuanji-~ko\  are  most  valuable.  His 
original  works  are  the  Niimanabi,  on  the  study 
of  Japanese  literature,  and  various  archaeologi 
cal  essays.  From  his  time  the  study  of  Shinto 
and  philology  went  on  hand  in  hand  under  the 
name  of  koku-gaku,  "national  learning,"  in 
antithesis  to  kan-gaku,  "Chinese  learning." 
Mabuchi's  mantle  fell  on  the  shoulders  of  Mo 
toori  Norinaga  (1730-1801),  whose  greatest 
work  is  the  commentary  on  the  liojiki,  already 
mentioned.  His  original  contributions  to  liter 
ature  are :  the  Giojiu-gaigen,  against  the  Chi 
nese  philosophy;  the  Tama-kushige,  a  work 
on  the  philosophy  of  government,  written  for 
the  prince  of  Kishiu ;  the  Uiyama-bumi,  a  trea 
tise  on  the  art  of  study,  with  special  reference 
to  Shinto;  the  Tama-arare,  an  essay  on  the 
faulty  composition  of  common  writers;  the 
Tama  no  Ogushi,  a  critical  work  on  the  Genji 
Monogatari;  and  the  Tama-katsuma,  a  collec 
tion  of  miscellaneous  papers,  which  contains 
some  interesting  fragments  of  autobiography. 
His  style  is  a  model  of  clearness  and  ease,  and 
shows  what  the  Japanese  language  might  have 
become  if  it  had  not  been  deformed  by  the  in 
troduction  of  Chinese  words  and  idioms.  That 
of  Mabuchi,  on  the  other  hand,  though  equally 
correct,  is  painful  on  account  of  his  close  imita 
tion  of  the  ancient  classic  literature,  which  is 
not  a  convenient  medium  for  argument.  Mo 
toori  was  succeeded  as  the  leader  of  modern 
Shintoism  by  Hirata  Atsutane  (1776-1843), 
whose  principal  writings  have  already  been 
named.  His  Shutsu-jo  Shogo  (7  vols.)  is  an 
extremely  amusing  attack  upon  Buddhism, 
written  in  a  style  closely  approaching  the  col 
loquial,  a  style  which  if  it  were  universally 
adopted  would  be  an  immense  relief  to  the  in 
tellectual  powers  of  the  Japanese ;  for  the  abil 
ity  to  translate  thought  into  the  literary  style 
requires  years  of  patient  study  to  acquire,  and 
is  a  barrier  to  all  freedom  of  expression.  Other 
writers  of  the  same  school  as  these  men  are 
Fujitani  Nariakira  (1735-176),  Ozawa  Koan 
(1723-1801),  Kato  Chikage  (1734-1808),  Tachi- 
bana  Tsuneki  (l704-'62),  Murata  Harumi  (1746- 
1811),  Arakida  Hisaoye  (1746-1804),  Katori 
Nahiko  (l723-'82),  Motoori  Haruniwa  (1763- 
1828),  Ozaki  Masayoshi  (1752-1827),  Hashimo 
to  Keirio  (1760-1806),  and  Shimidzu  Hamaomi 
(1776-1824).  Most  of  them  confined  their  ef 
forts  to  poetry,  but  Fujitani  is  known  as  the 
author  of  two  celebrated  works  on  grammar, 
the  Ayui-sho  and  the  Kazashi-sJio.  Motoori 
Haruniwa  produced  the  Kotoba  no  Yacliimata, 
a  valuable  treatise  on  the  Japanese  verb.  Oza 
ki  Masayoshi  is  the  author  of  the  Iliakunin- 
sliiu  Hitoyo-gatari,  which,  besides  explanations 
of  the  poems  in  that  collection,  contains  a 
large  number  of  biographical  notices  of  emi 
nent  persons  of  the  second  age  of  literature, 
written  in  the  very  best  style. — Of  contempo 
rary  Japanese  literature  little  is  to  be  said.  The 
20  years  following  1853  have  been  a  period  of 


political  disturbance  and  of  the  influx  of  Euro 
pean  ideas ;  and  original  composition  has  been 
abandoned  for  translations  of  foreign  elemen 
tary  works,  chiefly  on  scientific  subjects. 
Translations  of  such  works  as  Smiles's  "  Self- 
Help"  and  Mill's  "Essay  on  Liberty"  have 
found  an  immense  sale.  Together  with  this 
rage  for  foreign  books  has  grown  up  a  corrupt 
literary  dialect,  formed  on  Japanese  word-for- 
word  translations  of  the  Chinese,  which  bids 
fair  to  become  permanent,  in  spite  of  its  awk 
ward  inelegance. 

JAPAN  CLOVER  (Lespedeza  strictta),  a  plant 
indigenous  to  China  and  Japan,  a  few  speci 
mens  of  which  were  noticed  by  botanists  in  the 
southern  states  before  1860,  but  which  has  since 
spread  with  such  vigor  as  to  kill  out  Bermuda 
grass  and  other  plants  considered  difficult  to 
extirpate.  It  has  received  various  names,  such 
as  "little  wild  clover"  and  "Japan  pea,"  but 
it  is  most  generally  known  as  Japan  clover.  It 


Japan  Clover. 

belongs  to  the  liedysarece,  in  a  different  tribe 
of  the  family  (leguminosce)  from  clover.  The 
plant  is  a  perennial,  a  foot  or  more  high, 
not  very  abundantly  furnished  with  trifoliate 
leaves,  in  the  axils  of  which  are  borne  single 
inconspicuous  flowers,  each  of  which  is  follow 
ed  by  a  small  one-seeded  pod.  Southern  agri 
culturists  differ  as  to  the  value  of  this  plant, 
but  as  it  is  liked  by  stock  of  all  kinds,  and  will 
grow  in  soil  too  poor  to  produce  any  other  for 
age,  the  weight  of  testimony  is  in  its  favor.  It 
seems  to  come  in  almost  everywhere  without 
any  sowing ;  and  though  the  old  plant  is  woody 
and  indigestible,  the  young  shoots  are  readily 
eaten  by  cattle. 

JAPAMING,  the  process  of  ornamenting 
wood,  leather,  paper,  or  metal  by  covering  it 
with  a  brilliant  hard  varnish,  in  which  are 
often  introduced  gilt  or  colored  designs.  The 
art  is  supposed  to  have  been  acquired  from  the 
Japanese,  whence  its  name.  It  is  still  practised 


566 


JAPAXXIXG 


JAPIIETII 


by  them  and  the  Chinese  in  great  perfection, 
and  specimens  of  it  are  seen  upon  the  fancy 
workboxes,  tables,  and  other  small  articles  of 
furniture  imported  from  eastern  Asia.  The 
articles  thus  ornamented  are  first  made  per 
fectly  smooth,  and  primed  with  a  mixture  of 
ox  gall  and  rotten  stone.  Being  then  again 
smoothed,  they  are  next  covered  with  a  thin 
coat  of  varnish,  obtained  from  the  juice  of  cer 
tain  trees,  which,  at  first  appearing  like  cream, 
changes  by  exposure  to  the  air  to  a  deep  black. 
This  being  dried  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat 
and  rubbed,  another  coat  of  varnish  is  applied, 
and  another  polishing  succeeds  ;  and  thus  these 
processes  are  repeated,  it  may  be  18  times, 
using  toward  the  last  the  finest  quality  of 
varnish,  until  a  perfectly  smooth  and  brilliant 
surface  is  obtained.  The  ornamental  design  is 
then  drawn  with  a  pencil  dipped  in  varnish 
of  boiled  oil  and  turpentine,  and  before  this  is 
quite  dry  the  gold  or  silver  leaf  is  laid  upon  it, 
and  finally  secured  by  another  coat  of  varnish. 
The  method  in  use  of  imitating  this  lacquered 
ware  does  not  differ  from  the  preparation  of 
similar  works  in  spirit  or  oil  varnishes,  except 
that  every  coat  of  color  or  varnish  is  dried  by 
placing  the  object  in  a  japanner's  stove,  which 
is  heated  by  flues  to  as  high  a  temperature  as 
the  articles  and  varnish  can  bear  without  in 
jury.  For  colored  grounds,  the  colors  in  or 
dinary  use,  as  Prussian  blue,  vermilion,  flake 
white,  lampblack,  and  various  others,  are  em 
ployed,  well  incorporated  with  linseed  oil  or 
turpentine,  and  mixed  with  copal  or  amine"  var 
nish,  more  commonly  the  latter.  For  black 
japanned  work,  the  application  is  of  ivory  black 
mixed  with  dark-colored  anime"  varnish.  After 
thorough  drying  in  the  stove  the  application  is 
repeated;  and  if  the  article  is  intended  to  be 
finally  polished,  several  coatings  and  dryings 
are  required  to  give  firmness  for  resisting  the 
friction.  After  the  general  color  of  the  ground 
has  been  laid  on,  the  ornamental  devices  are 
painted  in  the  usual  manner,  the  colors  be 
ing  dried  in  and  finally  protected  by  several 
coats  of  varnish,  made  without  drying  ingre 
dients,  which  also  adds  to  their  brilliancy. 
To  produce  a  gold  ground,  the  work  is  varnish 
ed  with  gold  size,  upon  which,  when  partially 
dried,  gold  dust  is  laid  with  a  piece  of  wash 
leather.  Subsequent  varnishing  gives  great 
brilliancy  to  this  coating.  Engravings,  es 
pecially  prepared  for  the  purpose  upon  fine 
paper  washed  with  solution  of  isinglass  or  gum, 
are  sometimes  transferred  to  japan  work  with 
beautiful  effect. — It  is  apparent  that  wood  de 
signed  for  japanning  must  be  thoroughly  dried, 
so  that  there  shall  be  no  risk  of  its  cracking, 
shrinking,  or  warping  by  the  stove  heat  to 
which  it  is  to  be  exposed.  After  undergoing 
the  usual  process  of  seasoning,  it  is  therefore, 
when  sawn  into  nearly  the  shapes  required, 
baked  for  several  days  in  the  japanner's  stove ; 
and  when  after  this  the  finished  shapes  are 
given  to  the  articles,  they  are  again  baked,  and 
any  defects  that  appear  are  remedied  by  the 


application  of  white  lead  or  putty,  or  other 
wise.  An  artificial  ground,  prepared  by  a  pri 
ming  of  size  and  whiting  laid  on  with  a  brush, 
and  after  drying  a  day  or  two  smoothed  down 
with  rushes  and  a  wet  cloth,  is  sometimes  em 
ployed  by  japanners;  but  it  is  objectionable 
from  its  liability  to  crack.  The  practice  of 
japanning  has  been  greatly  extended  of  late 
years  to  a  multiplicity  of  articles,  especially  to 
those  in  papier  mache,  sheet  iron,  and  leather. 
The  product  of  the  process  applied  to  the  last 
named  material  is  the  so-called  patent  leather. 
(See  LEATHEK.)  Besides  the  introduction  of 
the  ordinary  colors  and  of  gold  leaf,  mother-of- 
pearl  is  often  profusely  scattered  through  the 
work  in  the  first  two  materials.  A  display  of 
gaudy  colors  appears  to  be  the  chief  object 
aimed  at ;  and  as  works  of  taste  most  of  the 
articles  of  this  sort  furnished  for  our  markets 
are  far  inferior  to  some  of  the  cheapest  pro 
ductions  of  the  eastern  nations. 

JAPETUS,  one  of  the  Titans  of  Greek  mythol 
ogy,  a  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  and  brother  of 
Cronos  (Saturn),  Oceanus,  Hyperion,  Rhea,  and 
others.  According  to  one  tradition,  he  became 
by  Asia,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus,  father  of 
Atlas,  Prometheus,  Epimetheus,  and  Menoetius. 
According  to  other  traditions,  his  wife  was  Cly- 
mene,  another  daughter  of  Oceanus.  Tethys, 
Asopis,  and  Libya  are  also  associated  with  him 
in  the  varying  forms  of  the  myth.  The  Greeks 
regarded  Japetus  as  the  progenitor  of  the  hu 
man  race,  through  his  son  Prometheus.  His 
fate  in  the  war  with  the  gods  is  variously  stated. 
Homer  represents  him  as  imprisoned  with  Cro 
nos  in  Tartarus;  another  tradition  is  that  he 
was  buried  under  the  island  of  Inarime. 

JAPHETH,  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Xoah,  by 
most  critics  regarded  as  the  eldest.  It  is  said 
of  him  (Gen.  ix.  27):  "God  shall  enlarge  Ja- 
pheth,  and  he  shall  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem ; 
and  Canaan  shall  be  his  servant."  He  was  the 
progenitor  of  extensive  tribes  inhabiting  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Mosaic  world.  His  sons 
(Gen.  x.  2)  were  Gomer,  Magog,  Madai,  Javan, 
Tubal,  Meshech,  and  Tiras.  Gomer  is  now 
generally  identified  with  the  Cimmerians  of  the 
ancients  ;  Magog  probably  represents  Turanian 
Scyths  about  the  Caucasus ;  Madai  is  the  He 
brew  name  for  Media;  Javan  for  Ionia  and 
Greece  ;  Tiras  probably  for  Thrace.  Meshech 
and  Tubal,  who  in  the  Scriptures  always  ap 
pear  coupled  together,  are  identified  with  the 
equally  associated  Moschi  and  Tibareni  of  the 
Greeks,  and  Muscai  and  Tuplai  of  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  (or  Muski  and  Tabali,  as  Schrader 
renders  the  names),  the  former  of  whom,  ac 
cording  to  Rawlinson  (Herodotus,  book  i.,  essay 
xi.),  "  are  regarded  on  very  sufficient  grounds  as 
the  ancestors  of  the  Muscovites,  who  built  Mos 
cow,  and  who  still  give  name  to  Russia  through 
out  the  East ;  and  these  Muscovites  have  been 
lately  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  Tchud  or 
Finnish  family,  which  the  Slavonic  Russians 
conquered,  and  which  is  a  known  Turanian 
race."  This  statement  is  made  still  more  prob- 


JAPURA 


JARVI6 


567 


able  by  the  Hebrew  text  of  Ezekiel  xxxviii.  2, 
3,  and  xxxix.  1,  which  connects  Meshech  and 
Tubal  with  Rosh;  the  latter  word,  rendered 
"chief"  in  the  English  version,  being  now  re 
garded  by  Gesenins  and  others  as  a  proper  noun 
corresponding  to  the  Puc  of  the  Byzantine  his 
torians,  and  the  people  Rus  (on  the  Volga)  of 
the  Arabian  Ibn  Foslan,  and  thus  containing 
the  earliest  historical  trace  of  the  Russian 
name.  Thus  Japheth,  as  a  family  name,  em 
braces  a  large  number  of  primitive  nations, 
in  modern  ethnology  partly  designated  as  Tu 
ranian  and  partly  as  Indo-European.  This 
agrees  with  the  tradition  of  the  Arabians, 
which  assigns  to  Japheth  11  sons,  progenitors 
of  as  many  nations,  among  whom  are  Jin  (the 
Chinese),  Gomari  (Cimmerians  ?),  Turk  (Turks), 
Khozar  (Khazars),  and  Ros  (Russians).  The 
name  Japheth  is  from  a  Hebrew  root  meaning 
expansion,  wide-spreading  (Gen.  ix.  27).  An 
other  derivation,  meaning  fair,  comely,  deno 
ting  the  white-colored  races,  is  less  pertinent. 
It  has  also  been  compared  with  the  Japetus  of 
Greek  mythology.  Japhetic  is  often  used  by 
ethnologists  instead  of  Indo-European. 

JAPURA,  or  faqueta,  a  river  of  South  Ameri 
ca,  rising  in  the  Pasto  mountains  of  Colombia, 
and  flowing  generally  S.  E.  to  its  junction  with 
the  Amazon  by  several  mouths,  the  central  one 
of  which  is  in  lat.  3°  20'  S.,  and  Ion.  65°  40' 
TV.,  opposite  the  town  of  Ega,  while  the  ex 
treme  easterly  and  westerly  mouths  are  350  m. 
apart.  From  Ion.  73°  32'  it  forms  the  boun 
dary  line  between  Brazil  and  Ecuador,  and 
from  the  same  point  to  its  principal  embou 
chure  is  entirely  a  Brazilian  river.  The  whole 
length  of  its  course  is  about  1,000  m.  Among 
its  tributaries  are  the  Messai  and  the  Apaporis, 
both  considerable  streams.  It  was  explored  in 
1865  by  order  of  the  Brazilian  government, 
and  found  to  be  navigable  by  large  vessels  as 
far  as  the  cataract  of  Santa  Cruz,  Ion.  72°  15', 
a  distance  of  over  400  m. 

JAPYGIA.     See  APULIA. 

JARDIV,  Karel  du.     See  DUJARDIN,  KAREL. 

JARNAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
and  on  the  river  Charente,  16  m.  TV.  by  N.  of 
Angouleme;  pop.  in  1866,  4,243.  It  has  a 
small  port  and  an  active  trade  in  grain,  wine, 
and  brandy.  It  is  renowned  for  a  battle  fought 
here  on  March  13,  1569,  between  the  Catholics 
under  the  duke  of  Anjou  (afterward  Henry 
III.)  and  the  Huguenots  under  the  prince  of 
Conde,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  and 
their  leader  captured  and  assassinated. — One 
of  the  lords  of  Jarnac,  Gui  de  Chabot,  a  gen 
tleman  of  the  royal  court,  acquired  notoriety 
in  1547  by  fighting  a  duel  with  the  permission 
of  Henry  II.,  in  which  he  was  about  to  fall 
when  he  gave  a  sudden  thrust  to  his  adversa 
ry;  whence  the  expression  coup  de  Jarnac. 
This  was  the  last  duel  in  France  fought  with 
the  sanction  of  the  king. 

JAROSLAV.     See  YAROSLAV. 

J ARROW,  or  Yarrow,  a  town  of  Durham,  Eng 
land,  on  the  Tyne,  5  m.  E.  of  Newcastle,  and 


240  N.  N.  TV.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  18,- 
179,  chiefly  Irish.  It  was  till  within  a  recent 
period  only  a  small  colliery  village,  and  its  rap 
id  growth  is  due  to  the  establishment  of  iron 
ship-building  yards,  and  chemical  and  other 
works.  There  are  new  docks,  a  large  mechan 
ics'  institute,  and  many  schools  and  places  of 
worship.  A  famous  monastery  was  established 
here  by  St.  Benedict  Biscop  in  681 ;  it  was  de 
stroyed  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  1070,  but 
there  are  still  some  remains  of  it.  St.  Paul's 
church  is  renowned  for  its  relics  of  the  Ven 
erable  Bede,  said  to  have  been  buried  here. 

JARYES,  James  Jackson,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  20,  1818.  On  ac 
count  of  ill  health  he  went  to  the  Hawaiian 
islands  in  1838,  was  for  some  years  United 
States  consul  at  Honolulu,  where  he  published 
the  first  newspaper  ever  printed  there,  called 
"  The  Polynesian,"  and  travelled  extensively 
in  California,  Mexico,  and  Central  America. 
During  a  visit  to  the-  United  States  he  pub 
lished  a  "History  of  the  Hawaiian  or  Sand 
wich  Islands"  (8vo,  Boston,  1843),  "Scenes 
and  Scenery  of  the  Sandwich  Islands"  (12mo, 
1844),  and  "Scenes  and  Scenery  in  California" 
(1844).  He  finally  left  the  Hawaiian  islands  in 
1848,  and  has  for  many  years  resided  in  Eu 
rope,  chiefly  in  Florence,  where  he  was  engaged 
in  making  the  large  collection  of  pictures  which 
was  exhibited  in  this  country  under  his  name, 
and  which  now  forms  part  of  the  art  gallery  of 
Yale  college.  Besides  the  works  above  men 
tioned,  he  has  published  "Parisian  Sights  and 
French  Principles"  (12mo,  New  York,  1855; 
second  series,  1856);  "Art  Hints"  (London 
and  New  York,  1855);  "Italian  Sights  and  Pa 
pal  Principles"  (1856);  "Kiana,  a  Tradition  of 
Hawaii"  (1857);  "The  Art  Idea:  Sculpture, 
Painting,  and  Architecture  in  America  "  (1865); 
"  Confessions  of  an  Inquirer "  (three  parts, 
1857-'69);  and  "  Art  Thoughts"  (1869). 

JARYIS.  I.  Abraham,  an  American  bishop, 
born  in  Norwalk,  Conn.,  May  5,  1739,  died 
May  3,  1813.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college 
in  1761,  was  ordained  deacon  in  London  in 
February,  1764,  and  priest  a  few  weeks  later. 
Returning  home,  he  was  settled  as  rector 
of  Christ's  church,  Middletown,  Conn.  On 
the  death  of  Bishop  Seabury  he  was  unani 
mously  elected  his  successor,  and  in  October, 
1797,  was  consecrated  at  New  Haven.  II.  Sam 
uel  Farmar,  an  American  clergyman,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  Jan.  20, 
1786,  died  March  26,  1851.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1805,  was  admitted  to  deacon's 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in 
March,  1810,  was  ordained  priest  in  April,  1811, 
took  charge  of  St.  Michael's  church,  Bloom- 
ingdale,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1813  became  rector  of 
St.  James's  church,  which  was  near  by,  holding 
the  associate  rectorship  of  those  parishes  until 
May,  1819.  He  was  also  professor  of  Biblical 
criticism  in  the  general  theological  seminary  of 
the  Episcopal  church.  In  1820  he  became  rector 
of  St.  Paul's  church,  Boston.  In  1826  he  resign- 


568 


JASHER 


JASMIN 


ed  his  parish,  and  went  to  Europe.  Returning 
to  the  United  States  in  1835,  he  was  for  two 
years  the  professor  of  oriental  literature  in 
Washington  (now  Trinity)  college,  Hartford, 
and  in  1837  became  rector  of  Christ's  church, 
Middletown.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  by 
the  general  convention  historiographer  of  the 
church.  He  published  a  "Discourse  on  the 
Religion  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  North  Ameri 
ca"  (8vo,  New  York,  1820);  "Chronological 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Church" 
(New  York  and  London,  1844);  "Reply  to 
Dr.  Milner's  End  of  Controversy"  (12mo, 
New  York,  1847);  and  "The  Church  of  the 
Redeemed,  or  the  History  of  the  Mediatorial 
Kingdom"  (vol.  i.,  Boston,  1850). 

JARVIS,  Edward,  an  American  physician  and 
statistician,  born  in  Concord,  Mass.,  Jan.  9, 
1803.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1826,  and  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  there  in 
1830.  After  practising  his  profession  in  sev 
eral  places,  he  settled  in  1843  in  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  where  he  now  resides.  He  has  obtained 
distinction  by  his  knowledge  and  treatment  of 
insanity,  but  is  most  widely  known  for  his  ac 
quaintance  with  the  statistics  of  human  life. 
Since  1843  he  has  published  a  large  amount  of 
valuable  matter  relating  to  population,  vitality, 
health,  longevity,  insanity,  education,  employ 
ments,  &c.,  mostly  in  the  form  of  addresses, 
reports,  memorials,  and  articles  in  periodicals, 
which  if  collected  would  make  several  octa 
vo  volumes.  His  principal  publications  are  : 
"Memorial  of  the  Statistical  Convention  in 
respect  to  the  Errors  of  the  Sixth  Census" 
(1846) ;  two  reports  on  the  "  Sanitary  Survey 
of  the  State  of  Massachusetts "  (1848-'9) ; 
"The  Production  of  Vital  Force"  (1849); 
"  Report  of  the  Legislative  Committee  on 
New  Hospitals  "  (1855);  "Report  on  the  In 
sane  and  Idiots  "  (1856) ;  "  Report  of  the  Com 
mittee  on  the  Memorial  of  the  Sanitary  Asso 
ciation"  (1861);  "Report  of  the  Worcester 
Hospital"  (1862-'3);  "Report  to  the  United 
States  on  the  Mortality  of  the  Eighth  Census  " 
(1865)  ;  "  Physiology  and  the  Laws  of  Health  " 
(1  vol.  12mo,  18G5);  "Increase  of  Human 
Life"  (1869);  two  reports  for  the  United 
States  board  of  education  on  the  "  Relation  of 
Education  to  Mental  Disease  "  (1872),  and  the 
"  Relation  of  Common  Education  to  Common 
Labor"  (1873);  "Provision  for  the  Insane" 
(1872);  "Infant  Mortality,"  and  two  articles 
in  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  state  board 
of  health  (1873);  and  "Political  Economy  of 
Health  "  (1874). 

JASHER,  Book  of  (Heb.  Sepher  hayastiar),  a 
work  cited  in  Joshua  x.  13  and  2  Sam.  i.  18,  but 
no  longer  extant.  Its  contents  are  known  to  us 
only  by  two  short  extracts,  both  in  poetic  form. 
The  quotation  in  Josh.  x.  13  is  a  poetic  apos 
trophe  to  the  sun  and  moon,  bidding  them 
stand  still  in  the  heavens  till  the  discomfiture 
of  the  enemy  should  be  complete.  In  2  Sam. 
i.  19-27  is  another  quotation,  the  beautiful 
elegy  of.  David  on  Saul  and  his  son.  The  18th 


verse  should  be  rendered,  "also  he  bade  them 
teach  the  children  of  Judah  The  Bow"  (the 
elegy  so  named,  in  allusion  to  "the  bow  of 
Jonathan "  in  v.  22,  a  tender  reminiscence  of 
the  poet's  friend)  ;  "  behold  it  is  written  in  the 
book  of  Jasher."  Hence  it  is  very  naturally 
conjectured  by  Gesenius  that  it  was  an  anthol 
ogy  of  ancient  songs  written  in  praise  of  just 
men  (so  esteemed  for  their  patriotic  zeal  and 
devotion),  and  called  "Book  of  the  Just." 
Bishop  Lowth  had  before  inferred,  from  the 
poetical  character  of  the  citations,  that  it  was 
a  collection  of  national  songs.  This  being  all 
that  is  known  of  it,  the  field  is  open  for  the 
wildest  conjectures  and  the  most  absurd  legends 
and  forgeries ;  and  the  following  specimens  will 
show  that  it  has  not  been  neglected.  Theodo- 
ret  supposed  the  whole  book  of  Joshua  to  be  an 
extract  from  Jasher ;  Jerome  that  it  was  identi 
cal  with  the  book  of  Genesis,  an  opinion  also  ex 
pressed,  among  others,  in  the  Talmud ;  others, 
that  it  included  the  whole  Pentateuch,  that  it 
was  a  treatise  on  archery,  and  that  it  contain 
ed  a  series  of  biographies  of  just  men,  yasJiar 
meaning  just.  Dr.  Donaldson  sees  in  a  portion 
of  the  Old  Testament  narratives  a  careless  elab 
oration  of  materials  taken  from  the  dismem 
bered  book  of  Jasher,  which  he  attempts  to  re 
store  to  their  original  order.  (See  Donaldson, 
Jashar,  Fragmenta  Arclietypa  Carminum  He- 
Iraicorum  in  Masorethico  Veteris  Testamenti 
Textu  passim  Tessellata  (London,  1854;  revised 
and  enlarged,  1860). — A  treatise  on  Jewish  laws 
written  by  Rabbi  Jacob  Tarn  in  the  13th  century, 
and  printed  at  Cracow  in  1586,  bears  the  title 
of  "Book  of  Jasher."  With  this  was  afterward 
confounded  a  later  treatise  on  ethics  under  the 
same  title,  of  which  there  are  several  editions. 
Another  mediaeval  work  in  Hebrew  bears  the 
same  title,  and  purports  to  have  been  discov 
ered  at  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  posses 
sion  of  a  concealed  old  man,  brought  thence  to 
Spain,  and  preserved  at  Seville.  It  was  first 
printed  at  Naples,  afterward  at  Venice  (1625), 
at  Cracow  (1628),  and  at  Prague  (1668).  It  con 
tains  the  histories  of  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua, 
and  Judges,  intermixed  with  many  legendary 
statements,  taken  from  the  Talmud,  Midrash, 
Josipon,  and  other  sources.  A  German  trans 
lation,  with  additions,  was  published  at  Frank 
fort  in  1674;  and  an  English  translation,  un 
der  the  direction  of  Mordecai  M.  Noah,  at  New 
York  in  1840.  In  1751  Jacob  Hive,  a  Bristol 
type  founder,  published  a  forgery  entitled  "  The 
Book  of  Jasher,  with  Testimonies  and  Notes 
Explanatory  of  the  Text ;  to  which  is  prefixed 
Various  Readings ;  translated  into  English  by 
Alcuin  of  Britain,  who  went  a  pilgrimage  into 
the  Holy  Land."  This  clumsy  fraud  was  re 
vived  at  Bristol,  1827,  and  at  London,  1833, 
edited  by  C.  R.  Bond.— An  article  on  "The 
Book  of  Jasher  "  is  among  the  "  Literary  Re 
mains  of  the  late  Emanuel  Deutsch"  (New 
York,  1874). 

JASMIN,  Jacques,  a  French  Provencal  poet, 
often  called  the  barber  poet  and  the  last  of  the 


JASMINE 


569 


troubadours,  born  in  Agen,  March  6, 1798,  died 
there,  Oct.  4, 1864.  He  was  the  child  of  a  hunch 
backed  tailor  and  a  lame  mother,  from  whom 
he  inherited  little  besides  poverty,  and  the  pre 
diction,  founded  on  the  experience  of  many 
generations,  that  the  Jasmins  must  inevitably 
die  in  the  almshouse.  His  childhood,  the  events 
of  which  are  described  in  his  piece  entitled 
Mous  soiibenis  ("My  Souvenirs"),  was  one  of 
privation  and  hunger ;  but  these  he  might  have 
endured  with  cheerfulness,  of  which  he  pos 
sessed  an  unfailing  supply,  had  he  not  been 
tormented  with  an  eager  thirst  for  education. 
At  about  the  age  of  12  he  gained  admittance 
to  a  priests'  seminary,  where  for  2£  years  he 
made  rapid  progress,  until  an  act  of  youthful 
indiscretion  caused  his  dismissal  in  disgrace. 
A  few  months  later  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
barber  and  hair  dresser  in  Agen.  At  18  he 
was  married  and  set  up  in  business  for  himself. 
His  leisure  hours  continued  to  be  devoted  to 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  ;  and  from  read 
ing  plays  and  romances  he  took  to  verse  wri 
ting,  which  so  alarmed  his  wife  that  she  per 
sistently  removed  his  pens  and  paper,  and 
otherwise  hindered  him.  Jasmin  obeyed  the 
hint  so  far  as  to  stick  to  his  calling,  which 
he  steadily  practised;  but  no  discouragement 
could  induce  him  to  give  up  his  passion  for 
reading  and  writing  verses  ;  and  gradually  his 
rural  songs,  written  in  an  idiom  of  the  langue 
(Vac,  the  former  tongue  of  the  southern  trouba 
dours,  which  is  still  spoken  by  the  peasantry  of 
southern  France,  found  warm  admirers  among 
his  friends  and  neighbors.  In  1 825  he  ventured 
upon  the  publication  of  a  burlesque  poem,  Lou 
cJialibari  ("  The  Charivari  ").  During  the  next 
ten  years  he  produced  his  "Ode  to  Charity" 
(1830),  "The  Third  of  May"  (1830),  Soulenis 
(1832),  and  "  Stanzas  to  the  Scattered  Remains 
of  the  Polish  Nation  "  (1833).  These  were  col 
lected  in  1835  and  published  in  2  vols.  under  the 
title  of  Las  papillotos  de  Jasmin  ("  The  Curl 
Papers  of  Jasmin").  His  next  piece,  L*Alm- 
glo  de  Castel-CuilU  ("The  Blind  Girl  of  Cas- 
tel  Cuille  "),  founded  on  a  pathetic  legend  of 
Guienne,  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  he 
wrote.  During  his  only  visit  to  Paris  he  recited 
it  26  times  in  15  days,  on  the  last  occasion  in 
presence  of  Louis  Philippe  and  the  royal  family 
at  Neuilly.  The  poem  is  familiar  to  English 
readers  through  the  translation  by  Longfellow. 
Franconette,  produced  in  1840,  is  his  longest 
and  most  ambitious  piece.  Among  his  remain 
ing  works  are  a  second  series  of  the  Papillotos 
(1843),  Lous  dw  frays  Wessons  ("  The  Two  Twin 
Brothers,"  1847),  Maltro  Vinnoucento  ("Mad 
Martha  "),  and  many  minor  pieces. 

JASMINE,  or  Jessamine.  I.  The  name  of  shrubs, 
sometimes  twining,  of  the  genus  jasminum, 
which  with  three  other  genera  some  botanists 
place  in  the  order  jasminacece,  while  others  re 
gard  it  as  belonging  to  the  olive  family.  The 
species  are  all  natives  of  warm  countries ;  they 
have  compound  leaves,  which  are  sometimes  re 
duced  to  a  single  leaflet  and  appear  simple ;  the 


axillary  or  terminal,  yellow  or  white  flowers 
have  a  tubular  corolla  with  a  spreading  limb, 
two  stamens,  and  a  two-lobed  ovary ;  the  fruit 
is  berry-like.  The  flowers  of  most  species  are 
deliciously  fragrant,  and  the  plants  are  favor 
ites  in  the  greenhouse,  and  where  the  climate 


Jasminum  officinale. 

will  allow  are  cultivated  in  the  open  air.  The 
best  known  species  is  the  common  jasmine  (/. 
officinale),  which  was  introduced  into  England 
from  the  East  in  1548,  and  is  there  cultivated 
for  covering  walls  and  arbors.  It  cannot  be 
considered  as  properly  hardy  in  the  climate  of 
New  York,  though  in  some  sheltered  situations 
it  lasts  for  several  years.  It  has  become  thor 
oughly  naturalized  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
is  also  cultivated  there  for  the  sake  of  its  per 
fume,  which  is  obtained  by  stratifying  the 
flowers  with  cotton  impregnated  with  bene 
oil  (sesamum),  and  allowing  them  to  remain  in 
a  closed  vessel  for  24  hours ;  the  flowers  are 
then  removed  and  replaced  by  fresh  ones,  and 
the  process  repeated  until  the  oil  is  strongly  im 
pregnated  with  the  odor ;  the  oil  is  removed 
from  the  cotton  by  pressure,  and  is  used  to 
perfume  pomades ;  when  the  oil  is  treated  with 
alcohol  that  takes  up  the  odor  of  the  flowers, 
it  forms  the  essence  of  jasmine.  Perhaps  the 
hardiest  species  is  J.  nudiflorum,  which  has 
yellow  flowers,  appearing  very  early  in  spring, 
but  they  are  without  odor ;  J.  odoratissimum 
has  also  yellow  flowers,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
fragrant ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  J.  revolu- 
tum.  One  of  the  finest  greenhouse  species  is 
J.  grandiflorum,  which  is  in  Europe  known  as 
the  Malabar,  and  by  American  florists  as  the 
Catalonian  jasmine ;  its  long  weak  stems  allow 
it  to  be  trained  upon  frames  or  trellises,  and  it 
produces  its  exceedingly  fragrant  flowers,  which 
are  tinged  with  pink  on  the  outside,  in  clusters 
of  two  or  three.  The  sambac  (/.  samlac},  an 
East  Indian  species,  is  a  fine  shrub  for  a  warm 
greenhouse;  it  has  leaves  of  a  single  leaflet, 
and  large  flowers  in  small  clusters,  which  are 


570 


JASMINE 


JASPER 


very  fragrant,  especially  in  the  evening ;  there 
are  several  florists'  varieties  of  this  species, 
some  of  which  have  double  flowers,  and  are 
much  prized  by  bouquet  makers.  The  leaves 
of  J.  floribundum  are  exceedingly  bitter,  and 
are  used  in  Abyssinia  to  destroy  the  tape 
worm.  The  jasmines  are  multiplied  by  means 
of  cuttings  in  the  same  manner  as  other  green 
house  shrubs.  II.  Cape  Jasmine,  a  popular  name 
for  plants  of  the  genus  Gardenia,  not  rela 
ted  to  the  true  jasmines.  This  genus  belongs 
to  the  madder  family  (rubiacea),  and  consists 
of  tropical  and  subtropical  shrubs.  The  culti 
vated  species  have  large  terminal  and  very  fra 
grant  white  flowers.  The  genus  was  dedicated 
by  Ellis  to  Dr.  Alexander  Garden  of  Charles 
ton,  S.  C.,  who  commenced  in  1755  a  corre 
spondence  with  Linna3us  and  other  European 
botanists,  and  did  much  to  make  American 
plants  known  to  science.  The  best  known  spe- 


Cape  Jasmine. 

cies  is  G.  florida,  wrhich  does  not  come  from 
the  Cape,  but  was  introduced  into  England 
from  China  in  1754.  The  double  variety  is  the 
one  most  generally  cultivated,  and  is  a  popular 
greenhouse  plant;  it  also  succeeds  in  window 
cultivation ;  in  the  southern  states  it  is  hardy, 
and  is  used  for  the  decoration  of  cemeteries, 
dooryards,  and  the  like.  The  fruit  is  a  large, 
oblong,  orange-colored  berry,  which  is  said  to 
be  used  in  China  for  dyeing  yellow.  A  smaller 
species,  G.  radicans,  is  also  cultivated,  and 
there  are  forms  of  both  with  variegated  leaves. 
Those  who  have  no  greenhouse  can  enjoy  the 
Cape  jasmine  by  treating  it  as  a  bedding  plant, 
allowing  it  to  grow  in  the  open  border  during 
summer,  and  removing  it  to  a  dry  frost-proof 
cellar  for  the  winter.  III.  Carolina  or  Yellow 
Jasmine,  a  climbing  vine,  found  from  Virginia 
southward,  where  it  grows  in  great  profusion, 
festooning  the  trees  and  shrubs,  and  in  spring 
covered  with  funnel-shaped  bright  yellow  flow 
ers,  about  an  inch  across,  which  have  a  fra 


grance  similar  to  that  of  the  true  jasmine; 
when  the  plant  is  abundant  the  odor  is  almost 
overpowering.  It  is  the  gelsemium  semperm- 
rens,  of  the  family  Loganiacece,  and  not  closely 
related  botanically  to  the  jasmine.  The  shining 
leaves  are  very  nearly  evergreen,  and  make  the 
plant  an  attractive  one  when  not  in  flower. 
Within  a  few  years  this  plant  has  come  into  use 
as  a  remedial  agent,  the  root  having  been  acci 
dentally  discovered  to  possess  remarkable  seda 
tive  powers. 

JASOJV.     See  ARGONAUTS. 

JASPER,  a  variety  of  the  quartz  family  oc 
curring  in  the  form  of  rocky  masses,  which  often 
make  up  the  greater  portion  of  hills  of  consid 
erable  size.  It  is  of  various  shades  of  red,  yel 
low,  brown,  and  green,  the  colors  sometimes 
arranged  in  stripes,  when  it  is  called  ribbon 
jasper.  The  hues  are  derived  mostly  from  iron 
in  different  degrees  of  oxidation,  and  the  stripes 
are  sometimes  found  to  be  the  marks  of  former 
stratification  of  the  rock,  which  are  retained  in 
the  metamorphic  product,  and  sometimes  pre 
sented  in  a  brecciated  appearance  resulting  from 
the  forcible  breaking  up  of  the  strata.  From 
the  extreme  hardness  of  the  stone  and  its  sus 
ceptibility  of  taking  a  high  polish,  it  is  much 
used  for  ornamental  purposes,  having  similar 
applications  to  porphyry.  Bloodstone  or  helio 
trope  is  a  deep  green  variety  of  quartz  with 
blood-red  spots  of  jasper  sprinkled  through 
its  mass.  Lydian  stone  or  touchstone  is  a  vel 
vet-black,  flinty  variety,  used  for  testing  the 
purity  of  alloys  of  gold.  The  alloy  is  rubbed 
upon  the  stone  so  as  to  leave  upon  it  a  metallic 
streak,  and  the  quality  is  estimated  by  the  color 
produced  on  applying  nitric  acid.  The  fitness 
of  the  stone  for  this  use  arises  from  its  easily 
abrading  the  metal,  not  being  itself  affected  by 
the  acid,  and  presenting  a  dark  smooth  ground 
best  adapted  for  exhibiting  shades  of  color. 
Jasper  was  highly  prized  by  the  ancients,  and 
was  much  used  for  cameos.  It  was  the  twelfth 
stone  in  the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest,  ac 
cording  to  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Tes 
tament,  and  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
Apocalypse  in  describing  the  New  Jerusalem. 
Mr.  Atkinson,  in  his  work  on  "  Oriental  and 
Western  Siberia,"  speaks  of  the  jasper  in  the 
upper  valleys  of  the  Ural,  and  found  himself 
some  beautiful  specimens  of  it  in  a  ravine  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Irtish,  some  of  the  rocks 
there  being  jasper  of  a  dark  reddish  brown  and 
others  of  a  deep  purple.  He  observed  blocks 
of  a  beautiful  green  jasper  on  the  banks  of 
the  Mein,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Tcherny 
(Black)  Beryl,  and  in  several  other  localities ; 
also  jasper  of  a  deep  red  color  in  the  valley  of 
the  Eremil.  The  principal  deposit  of  jasper  is 
the  gorge  of  the  Korgon.  The  labor  of  cut 
ting  out  the  large  blocks  is  enormous;  the 
workmen  drill  holes  five  inches  apart  the  whole 
length  of  the  block,  and  to  the  depth  required ; 
into  these  they  drive  dry  birch- wood  pins,  which 
they  keep  wet  till  they  swell  and  burst  off  the 
mass.  The  workmen  arrive  at  the  Korgon  in 


JASPER 


571 


May,  and  remain  there  until  September,  when 
they  return  to  their  homes,  some  of  which  are 
at  a  distance  of  400  to  500  in.  Small  stone  huts 
are  built  against  the  precipices  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ravine,  where  they  live,  stowed  away  in 
filth  and  wretchedness,  feeding  upon  black  bread 
and  salt,  and  receiving  the  lowest  of  wages. 
Several  cases  of  this  jasper  were  exhibited  in 
the  London  crystal  palace  in  1851,  and  a  medal 
was  awarded  to  them.  The  most  beautiful 
variety  of  jasper  is  the  Egyptian  pebble,  found 
where  its  name  indicates,  in  small  translucent 
nodules  of  olive  brown  with  darker  markings, 
and  ranked  among  the  lesser  gems. 

JASPER,  the  name  of  seven  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Ocmulgee  river ;  area,  480 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,439,  of  whom  6,555 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven  and  the 
soil  moderately  fertile.  Gold,  iron,  granite, 
jasper,  and  garnets  are  found  in  the  county. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  22,274 
bushels  of  wheat,  185,870  of  Indian  corn, 
15,543  of  sweet  potatoes,  79,099  Ibs.  of  butter, 
and  5,937  bales  of  cotton.  There  w^ere  977 
horses,  1,091  mules  and  asses,  1,729  milch 
cows,  2,800  other  cattle,  1,885  sheep,  and  8,196 
swine;  4  carriage  factories,  and  3  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Monticello.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Mississippi,  drained  by  affluents  of  Leaf  river ; 
area,  650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 10,884,  of  whom 
4,898  were  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven  and 
the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  255,858  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  42,225  of 
sweet  potatoes,  48,814  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,273 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,704  horses,  841 
mules  and  asses,  3,621  milch  cows,  1,335  work 
ing  oxen,  5,034  other  cattle,  4,104  sheep,  and 
18,418  swine.  Capital,  Paulding.  III.  AS.  E. 
county  of  Texas,  bounded  W.  by  the  Neches 
and  Angelina  rivers,  here  navigable  by  steam 
boats ;  area,  918  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,218, 
of  whom  1,759  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
undulating  and  hilly  and  well  timbered.  The 
soil  is  thin,  but  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
streams  very  fertile  ;  a  large  part  of  it  is  devo 
ted  to  pasturage.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  90,377  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
25,559  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,928  bales  of  cotton, 
10,998  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  6,850  of  rice.  There 
were  884  horses,  2,088  milch  cows,  7,832  other 
cattle,  2,173  sheep,  and  10,775  swine.  Capital, 
Jasper.  IV.  A  N.  "VV.  county  of  Indiana, 
bounded  N.  by  Kankakee  river,  and  drained  by 
the  Iroquois ;  area,  about  675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,354.  The  surface  is  mostly  a  level 
prairie,  diversified  with  tracts  of  timber,  and 
composed  partly  of  the  Kankakee  marshes  or 
wet  prairies.  The  soil  is  suitable  for  pasturage. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,711 
bushels  of  wheat,  111,882  of  Indian  corn, 
79,606  of  oats,  20,673  of  potatoes,  22,928  Ibs. 
of  woo],  126,132  of  butter,  and  23,129  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  3,119  horses,  3,192  milch 
cows,  11,272  other  cattle,  7,038  sheep,  and 
5,078  swine.  Capital,  Rensselaer.  V.  A  S.  E. 


county  of  Illinois,  intersected  by  Embarras 
river;  area,  484  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,234. 
It  has  a  level  and  in  some  places  marshy  sur 
face,  about  two  thirds  of  which  is  occupied  by 
prairies.  Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  St. 
Louis,  Vandalia,  Terre  Haute,  and  Indianapolis 
railroad  touches  the  N.  W.  corner.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  87,808  bushels  of 
wheat,  461,345  of  Indian  corn,  149,214  of  oats, 
21,755  of  potatoes,  43,465  Ibs.  of  wool,  and 
10,739  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,170  horses, 
2,946  milch  cows,  5,173  other  cattle,  17,350 
sheep,  and  12,503  swine.  Capital,  Newton. 
VI.  A  S.  E.  central  county  of  Iowa,  traversed 
by  Skunk  river  and  the  N.  fork  of  that  stream ; 
area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,116.  It  has 
an  undulating  surface,  occupied  in  great  part 
by  fertile  prairies,  thinly  timbered.  Coal  is 
abundant.  The  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa 
cific  and  the  Des  Moines  Valley  railroads  cross 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  773,- 
429  bushels  of  wheat,  2,102,366  of  Indian  corn, 
270,631  of  oats,  185,736  of  potatoes,  570,285 
Ibs.  of  butter,  40,865  of  wool,  and  28,454  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  8,506  horses,  6,658  milch 
cows,  10,244  other  cattle,  15,836  sheep,  and 
31,263  swine;  12  manufactories  of  carriages,  4 
of  furniture,  1  of  machinery,  11  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  3  flour  mills,  and  7  saw  mills.  Capi 
tal,  Newton.  VII.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Missouri, 
bordering  on  Kansas,  and  drained  by  Spring 
river;  area,  about  550  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
14,928,  of  whom  138  were  colored.  It  has  an 
undulating  surface  and  a  good  soil.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  87,658  bushels  of 
wheat,  528,591  of  Indian  corn,  133,016  of  oats, 
33,418  of  potatoes,  38,753  Ibs.  of  wool,  209,967 
of  butter,  and  11,054  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
4,795  horses,  3,429  milch  cows,  7,927  other  cat 
tle,  11,444  sheep,  and  14,249  swine;  2  manu 
factories  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  tin,  cop 
per,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  pig  lead,  and  5 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Carthage. 

JASPER,  William,  an  American  revolutionary 
soldier,  born  in  South  Carolina  about  1750, 
killed  at  the  assault  on  Savannah,  Oct.  9,  1779. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution  he  en 
listed  in  the  2d  South  Carolina  regiment,  in 
which  he  became  a  sergeant.  In  the  attack 
upon  Fort  Moultrie  by  a  British  fleet,  June  28, 
1776,  he  distinguished  himself  by  leaping 
through  an  embrasure  to  the  ground,  under  a 
shower  of  cannon  balls,  and  recovering  the  flag 
of  South  Carolina,  which  had  been  shot  off. 
On  this  occasion  Gov.  Rutledge  presented  him 
with  his  own  sword,  and  offered  him  a  lieuten 
ant's  commission;  this,  however,  Jasper,  who 
could  scarcely  read  or  write,  refused,  saying, 
"  I  am  not  fit  to  keep  officers'  company ;  I  am 
but  a  sergeant."  Ilis  commander,  Col.  Moul 
trie,  appreciating  his  bravery  and  coolness, 
gave  him  a  roving  commission  to  scour  the 
country  with  a  few  men,  and  surprise  and  cap 
ture  the  enemy's  outposts.  Ilis  achievements 
in  this  capacity  equal  any  recorded  in  the  revo 
lutionary  annals.  Prominent  among  them  was 


572 


JASSY 


JAUER 


the  rescue  by  himself  and  a  single  comrade  of 
some  American  captives  from  a  party  of  Brit 
ish  soldiers,  whom  he  overpowered  and  made 
prisoners.  At  the  assault  upon  Savannah  he 
was  in  the  column  which  under  D'Estaing  and 
Lincoln  attacked  the  Spring  Hill  redoubt,  and 
received  his  death  wound  while  fastening  to 
the  parapet  the  standard  which  had  been  pre 
sented  to  his  regiment  by  Mrs.  Elliott.  His 
hold,  however,  never  relaxed,  and  he  bore  the 
colors  to  a  place  of  safety  before  he  died.  His 
last  words  were :  "  Tell  Mrs.  Elliott  I  lost  my 
life  supporting  the  colors  she  presented  to  our 
regiment."  A  county  of  Georgia  and  a  square 
in  Savannah  have  been  named  after  him. 

JASSY,  or  Yassy  (Roum.  Task),  a  town  of  Rou- 
mania,  capital  of  Moldavia,  on  the  Bakhlui,  a 
tributary  of  the  Pruth,  205  m.  K  N.  E.  of  Bu 
charest  ;  pop.  about  90,000,  of  whom  35,000  are 
Jews.  It  is  built  partly  on  a  hill  and  partly  in 
a  valley ;  and  as  many  of  the  houses  are  sur 
rounded  by  gardens,  it  covers  a  comparatively 
large  space.  It  has  few  spacious  streets,  but  a 
great  number  of  churches  and  convents,  among 
the  more  remarkable  of  which  are  the  metro 
politan  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  the  churches  of 
Sokolla  and  Galata,  and  the  convent  of  Trisve- 
letch,  containing  the  tombs  of  the  archbishops. 
There  are  also  several  palaces  belonging  to  dis 
tinguished  boyar  families,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  city  the  princely  summer  residence  Copola 
attracts  the  attention  of  travellers.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  has  a  univer 
sity,  a  theological  seminary,  a  lyceum,  schools 
of  art  and  music,  about  70  Greek  churches,  a 
Catholic,  an  Armenian,  and  a  Protestant  church, 
a  magnificent  hospital,  a  large  bazaar,  and  pub 
lic  baths.  The  trade  of  the  city  is  in  great  part 
in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  The  manufactures 
are  limited,  but  the  trade  is  important,  and  a 
large  business  is  done  in  the  public  fairs.  The 
place  was  materially  injured  by  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war  of  1853-'6,  but  since  the  consoli 
dation  of  Roumania  (1861)  has  revived  and  is 
now  flourishing. — Jassy  is  the  Jassiorum  Muni- 
cipium  of  the  Romans,  so  called  from  the  Jassii, 
a  people  of  Dacia.  Trajan  built  here  a  residence, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  last  centu 
ry.  Conflagrations  frequently  visit  the  city ; 
one  of  the  most  disastrous  happened  in  1822, 
and  another  in  1843  destroyed  a  large  number 
of  the  wooden  houses.  A  peace  was  concluded 
here  in  1792  between  the  Russians  and  Turks. 
In  the  wars  of  these  nations,  including  the  last, 
Jassy  was  often  the  headquarters  of  the  con 
tending  armies.  In  April,  1866,  on  the  elec 
tion  of  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern  to  the 
throne  of  Roumania,  Jassy  was  the  scene  of  an 
insurrection,  which  was  soon  suppressed. 

JAS/BKREV Y,  a  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of 
the  united  districts  of  Jazygia  and  Cumania, 
on  the  Zagyva,  38  m.  N.  E.  of  Pesth ;  pop.  in 
1870,  20,233.  It  is  pleasantly  situated,  and  the 
islands  formed  by  the  river  in  the  middle  of 
the  town  have  been  converted  into  promenades. 
Attila  is  popularly  believed  to  have  been  buried 


in  a  fort  of  which  there  are  remains  in  the  pub 
lic  square.  The  most  conspicuous  public  build 
ings  are  a  fine  Catholic  church  and  gymnasium, 
and  a  Protestant  church.  Much  wine  is  pro 
duced  in  this  vicinity,  which  also  contains  ex 
tensive  stone  quarries ;  and  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep  are  reared  in  great  numbers. 

JATS,  or  Jants,  a  race  inhabiting  India,  prin 
cipally  the  N".  W.  portion,  between  the  Indus 
and  Ganges.  They  have  been  variously  re 
garded  as  descendants  of  the  Getse,  Dacians, 
Sacse,  Indo- Scythians,  Yuechi,  Avars,  Huns, 
and  many  other  lost  races.  They  are  to  all 
appearance  a  northern  race  whose  advent  is 
more  recent  than  that  of  the  Rajpoots.  They 
are  tall,  strong,  and  active,  good  tillers  of  the 
soil,  and  if  need  be  good  fighters.  They  form 
perhaps  the  finest  rural  population  of  India. 
The  Jats  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Bari 
Doab,  near  Lahore,  and  of  the  Malwa  district 
are  mostly  Sikhs ;  but  perhaps  not  one  third  of 
the  whole  population  between  the  Jhylum  and 
Jumna  have  as  yet  embraced  the  tenets  of 
ISTanak  and  Govind  (see  SIKHS),  and  the  other 
two  thirds  are  about  equally  divided  between 
Mohammedanism  and  Brahmanism.  Capt. 
Burton  mentions  that  a  wandering  predatory 
tribe  bearing  the  name  of  Jats  are  found  about 
Candahar,  Herat,  and  Meshed.  The  Jats  of  the 
lower  Indus  appear  to  be  of  the  same  race  as 
the  Brahooee  of  Afghanistan.  (See  IRANIAN 
RACES,  and  INDIA,  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES  OF.) 

HUBERT,  Pierre  Am6dee  Emilien  Probe,  a 
French  orientalist,  born  in  Aix,  June  3,  1779, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  28,  1847.  A  graduate  of 
the  school  for  the  oriental  languages,  he  was 
in  1798  appointed  assistant  interpreter  in  the 
French  expedition  to  Egypt.  After  the  18th 
Brumaire  he  was  appointed  secretary  inter 
preter  of  the  government,  and  professor  of  the 
Turkish  language  in  the  oriental  school  in  Pa 
ris.  After  other  official  journeys  in  the  East, 
he  started  in  1805  on  a  mission  to  Persia,  was 
stopped  on  his  way  by  the  pasha  of  Bajazid, 
who  wanted  to  appropriate  the  splendid  pres 
ents  sent  to  the  shah,  and  was  for  nearly  four 
months  incarcerated  in  a  cistern.  Having  final 
ly  accomplished  his  mission,  Napoleon  granted 
him  a  pension  and  several  offices  and  honorary 
rewards,  and  shortly  before  his  fall  appointed 
him  charg6  d'affaires  to  Constantinople.  In 
1818  he  travelled  again  through  the  East,  and 
brought  to  France  a  herd  of  the  Thibetan  goats 
whose  hair  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
shawls.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  acade 
my  of  inscriptions  in  1830,  and  under  Louis 
Philippe  became  a  peer,  professor  of  the  Per 
sian  language  at  the  college  de  France,  and  di 
rector  of  the  oriental  school.  His  most  impor 
tant  publications  are:  Voyage  en  Armenie  et 
en  Perse  (8vo,  Paris,  1821);  Elements  de  la 
grammaire  turque  (4to,  1823);  and  a  French 
translation  of  Edrisi's  Arabian  geography  (2 
vols.  4to,  1836-'40). 

JAl'EB,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Silesia,  on  the  "Wuthende  Neisse,  an  affluent  of 


JAUJA 


JAVA 


573 


the  Katzbach,  and  on  the  Schweidnitz  and 
Liegnitz  railway,  12  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Liegnitz; 
pop.  in  1871,  9,964.  It  has  a  Protestant 
gymnasium,  a  hospital,  and  manufactories  of 
leather,  buckskin,  and  carpets.  From  1314  to 
1392  it  was  the  capital  of  a  principality  of 
Jauer,  which  had  an  area  of  1,200  sq.  m.,  and 
contained  the  present  circles  of  Jauer,  Bunz- 
lau,  Lowenberg,  Hirschberg,  and  Schonau. 

JAUJA,  an  inland  town  of  Peru,  in  the  de 
partment  of  Junin,  108  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Lima ; 
pop.  about  15,000.  It  is  delightfully  situated  in 
the  valley  and  near  the  left  bank  of  a  river  of 
the  same  name,  which,  afterward  known  as  the 
Mantaro,  is  one  of  the  principal  branches  of 
the  Apurimac.  The  town  has  a  fine  cavalry 
barrack  and  several  churches  and  schools,  and 
in  the  vicinity  are  numerous  weaving  factories. . 
The  chief  commerce  is  in  horses  of  excellent 
breed  and  horned  cattle.  In  the  district  of 
Jauja  are  the  celebrated  missionary  convent  of 
Ocapa  and  ruins  of  ancient  Indian  towns  and 
castles.  The  climate,  though  somewhat  cold, 
is  very  salubrious.  This  is  one  of  the  most  an 
cient  towns  in  Peru,  and  was  the  capital  of  the 
viceroyalty  until  Jan.  18,  1535. 

JAUNDICE  (  Fr.  jaunisse,  from  jaune,  yellow), 
a  morbid  affection  known  by  the  yellowness  of 
the  eyes,  skin,  and  urine,  the  color  of  the  skin 
sometimes  becoming  yellowish  green  or  brown, 
the  stools  being  usually  whitish,  and  the  course 
of  the  bile  obstructed.  Epidemics  of  jaundice 
have  been  observed,  especially  during  and  after 
military  campaigns,  during  sieges,  &c. ;  and 
the  disease  is  sometimes  endemic,  as  in  damp 
localities  exposed  to  high  temperatures.  The 
attack  is  usually  preceded  by  symptoms  of  dis 
order  of  the  liver  and  digestive  organs,  such  as 
loss  of  appetite,  irregular  bowels  or  constipa 
tion,  colic  pains,  nausea,  headache,  languor; 
uneasiness  in  the  region  of  the  stomach  and 
liver;  thirst,  unpleasant  taste  in  the  mouth, 
tongue  loaded  at  the  base ;  feeling  of  sinking, 
&c.  Sooner  or  later  the  yellowness  of  surface 
appears ;  sometimes  this  is  the  first  symptom, 
and  it  usually  takes  in  order  the  eyes,  the  face, 
neck,  chest,  and  then  the  whole  body.  At 
first  a  light  yellow,  it  deepens  to  a  golden  or 
orange  hue,  sometimes  greenish.  The  color 
may  appear  in  parts  of  the  surface  only,  in  a 
palsied  side,  the  face,  or  a  single  eye ;  or  while 
yellow  in  some  parts,  it  may  be  green  or  al- 
irost  black  in  others,  constituting  what  is 
known  as  the  black  jaundice.  The  yellow 
tinge  of  visible  objects,  showing  that  the  color 
ing  matter  has  diffused  itself  through  the  hu 
mors  of  the  eye,  undoubtedly  occurs,  but  is 
somewhat  rare.  The  perspiration  is  yellowish. 
Fever,  with  quick  or  hard  and  full  pulse,  ap 
pears  in  cases  of  active  congestion  or  inflam 
mation  of  the  liver ;  in  others  the  pulse  may  be 
natural  or  irregular.  From  the  time  of  the  ap 
pearance  of  the  yellow  hue,  however,  many  of 
the  preliminary  symptoms  may  diminish.  The 
attack  is  often  sudden;  when  following  vio 
lent  emotion,  almost  instantaneous.  The  course 


and  duration  are  various,  the  disease  disap 
pearing  or  proving  fatal  as  early  as  the  fourth 
day,  or  lasting  for  months  or  years.  The 
darker  forms  are  most  rapid  and  oftenest  fatal. 
Favorable  crises  occur  in  the  form  of  bilious 
diarrhoea,  profuse  perspiration,  hasmorrhage, 
or  menorrhagia ;  or  improvement  begins  more 
quietly,  the  color  fading  from  the  surface  in 
the  reverse  order  of  its  appearance.  Jaundice, 
properly  speaking,  can  hardly  be  called  a  dis 
ease.  It  is  rather  a  symptom,  the  yellow  color 
of  the  skin  and  excretions  depending  simply 
upon  the  retention  in  the  circulation  of  the 
yellow  coloring  matter  of  the  bile.  Hence  it 
may  be  a  very  serious  or  a  trifling  affection, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  causes  which 
give  rise  to  it.  When  the  coloring  matter  of 
the  bile  alone  is  retained  in  the  circulation  or 
reabsorbed  from  the  liver,  but  little  injury  re 
sults,  and  a  patient  deeply  tinged  with  the 
color  of  jaundice  from  this  cause  may  still  be 
able  to  walk  about  and  attend  to  his  ordinary 
business  without  much  discomfort.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  all  the  ingredients  of  the 
bile,  or  the  substances  from  which  they  are 
formed,  accumulate  in  the  circulation  owing 
to  a  suspension  of  the  physiological  action  of 
the  liver  or  intestines,  the  disease  becomes 
one  of  great  gravity,  and  is  usually  fatal  if  not 
relieved  within  a  period  of  about  ten  days. 
Death  is  generally  preceded  in  these  cases,  as 
in  those  of  poisoning  by  urea  from  suspended 
action  of  the  kidneys,  by  signs  of  disorder  in 
the  nervous  system,  and  at  last  by  a  condition 
of  coma  or  profound  insensibility.  Attacks  of 
jaundice  belonging  to  the  former  class  often 
pass  off  without  any  other  treatment  than  a 
mild  laxative  and  judicious  regimen ;  those  of 
the  second  class  often  pass  on  to  a  fatal  termi 
nation  notwithstanding  the  use  of  the  most  ac 
tive  remedies. 

JAVA,  an  island  of  the  Indian  archipelago, 
the  most  important  colonial  possession  of  the 
Netherlands  in  the  East  Indies,  and  the  most 
fertile  and  prosperous  tropical  island  in  the 
world,  situated  between  lat.  5°  52'  and  8°  46' 
S.,  and  Ion.  105°  11'  and  114°  33'  E.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  sea  of  Java,  which  sepa 
rates  it  from  Borneo  ;  E.  by  a  strait  2  m.  wide, 
which  separates  it  from  the  island  of  Bali ;  S. 
by  the  Indian  ocean  ;  and  W.  by  the  strait  of 
Sunda,  which  separates  it  from  Sumatra.  Its 
length  from  E.  to  W.  is  666  m.,  and  its  breadth 
varies  from  56  to  135£  m. ;  area,  49,197  sq.  m., 
or  including  the  adjacent  island  of  Madura,  51,- 
336  sq.  m.  It  is  the  fourth  island  of  the  archi 
pelago  in  point  of  size,  being  exceeded  in  area 
by  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Celebes.  The  coast 
line  of  Java  is  about  1,600  m.  in  extent,  and  is 
remarkably  destitute  of  harbors,  especially  on 
the  S.  side,  where  there  are  but  two  ports, 
Pachitan  and  Chalachap.  On  the  N".  coast  the 
chief  harbors  are  those  of  Batavia  and  Sura 
baya,  but  there  are  many  open  roadsteads  with 
good  anchorage,  and  the  want  of  landlocked 
harbors  is  little  felt  in  the  calm  waters  of  the 


JAVA 


Java  sea,  where  hurricanes  are  unknown,  and 
storms  occur  only  at  the  change  of  the  mon 
soons.  On  the  S.  side  there  is  no  safe  anchorage, 
the  coast  being  bold  and  the  ocean  very  deep, 
while  a  heavy  and  dangerous  surf  rolls  con 
tinually  on  the  shore. — The  geological  forma 
tion  of  Java  is  highly  volcanic.  A  range  of 
mountains  runs  from  one  end  of  the  island  to 
the  other  through  the  centre,  with  peaks  vary 
ing  in  height  from  4,000  to  12,000  ft.  The 
highest  is  Semiru,  12,235  ft, ;  Slamat  is  11,329 
ft. ;  six  other  peaks  are  each  over  10,000  ft. 
high,  six  others  over  9,000  ft.,  and  ten  others 
from  5,000  to  9,000  ft.  Among  these  peaks  are 
38  volcanoes,  some  of  which  are  in  constant  ac 
tivity.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  in  the 
Tenger,  "  wide  "  or  "  spacious  "  mountains,  in 
the  E.  part  of  the  island.  It  rises  from  a  very 
large  base  in  a  gentle  slope  with  gradually  ex 
tending  ridges.  The  summit,  seen  from  a  dis 
tance,  appears  less  conical  than  that  of  the 
other  volcanoes,  and  is  about  8,000  ft.  high. 
The  crater  is  more  than  1,000  ft.  below  the 
highest  point  of  the  mountain.  It  is  the  largest 
crater  on  the  globe,  with  perhaps  the  single 
exception  of  that  of  Kilauea  in  the  Hawaiian 
islands.  The  shape  of  the  crater  is  an  irregular 
ellipse  with  a  minor  axis  of  3£  and  a  major 
axis  of  4^  miles,  and  it  forms  an  immense  gulf 
with  a  level  bottom  covered  with  sand,  which 
the  Javanese  call  Laut  Pasar,  or  "sandy  sea." 
From  its  centre  rise  three  cones  several  hun 
dred  feet  in  height,  one  of  which,  called  Brah 
ma,  is  in  almost  constant  activity.  South  of 
the  great  central  range  is  another  range  of 
mountains  from  3,000  to  8,000  ft.  in  height, 
which  skirts  the  S.  coast.  It  is  composed  of 
volcanic  materials,  chiefly  basalt,  and  is  called 
by  the  Javanese  Kandang,  or  "  war  drums," 
from  the  peculiar  columnar  form  of  its  rocks. 
The  volcano  Papandayang  in  this  range  threw 
out  in  a  single  night,  in  1772,  ashes  and  scoria 
spreading  over  an  area  of  7  m.  radius  a  layer 
50  ft.  thick,  destroying  40  native  villages  and 
3,000  people.  On  July  8,  1822,  the  volcano 
Galunggong,  a  few  miles  1ST.  E.  of  Papanda 
yang,  destroyed  everything  within  a  radius  of 
20  m.  Five  days  later  a  second  eruption  fol 
lowed,  and  the  total  loss  of  life  in  both  was 
20,000  persons.  The  S.  shore  of  the  island  is 
in  many  places  bounded  by  steep  piles  of  trap. 
Low  ranges  of  limestone  occur  in  the  eastern 
part,  and  in  the  extreme  west  a  few  granite 
bowlders  are  occasionally  found.  Hot  springs 
are  numerous  at  the  bases  of  the  volcanoes, 
and  some  of  them  are  impregnated  with  car 
bonic  acid.  In  the  lowlands  there  are  mud 
volcanoes,  which  furnish  muriate  of  soda. 
The  principal  elevated  plains  of  Java  are  those 
known  as  Solo  and  Kediri,  which  comprise 
the  central  districts,  and  in  the  west  that  of 
Bandong.  These  plains  are  fertile  and  well 
watered  by  streams  from  the  mountains,  which 
afford  an  abundant  supply  for  irrigation. 
There  is  also  a  long  alluvial  tract  running 
along  the  1ST.  side  of  the  island,  which  may  be 


regarded  as  a  continuous  plain,  and  many  of 
the  mountain  valleys  are  also  spacious  and  fer 
tile. — There  are  a  few  small  and  beautiful 
lakes  among  the  mountains,  and  some  exten 
sive  marshes,  which  in  the  rainy  season  be 
come  lakes,  and  are  navigated.  The  largest  of 
these  is  in  the  province  of  Banyumas,  and  is 
close  to  the  S.  shore.  The  island,  however,  is 
abundantly  watered.  The  rivers  on  the  N". 
side  are  very  numerous,  but  are  none  of  them 
navigable  for  large  vessels,  being  all  more  or 
less  obstructed  by  bars  of  niud  or  sand  at  their 
mouths.  They  are,  however,  of  great  use  for 
irrigation,  and  contribute  largely  to  the  im 
mense  agricultural  capacity  of  the  island.  The 
largest  river  in  Java  is  the  Solo,  which  rises  in 
one  of  the  low  ranges  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
island,  and  after  a  winding  course  of  356  m. 
empties  by  two  mouths  into  the  narrow  strait 
which  separates  Java  from  the  TV.  end  of  the 
island  of  Madura.  This  river  is  navigable  all  the 
year  by  small  boats,  and  by  large  ones  in  all  the 
months  except  August,  September,  and  October. 
The  second  river  in  size  is  called  by  the  natives 
the  Brantas,  but  is  known  to  Europeans  as  the 
river  of  Surabaya.  It  rises  like  the  Solo  in 
the  low  southern  range  of  mountains,  receives 
many  affluents,  and  empties  by  five  mouths 
into  the  Madura  strait,  after  passing  by  the 
city  of  Surabaya  and  contributing  to  form  its 
harbor. — The  seasons  in  Java  are  divided  into 
the  wet  season,  which  begins  with  October 
and  ends  with  March,  and  during  which  wester 
ly  winds  prevail,  and  the  dry,  which  includes 
the  rest  of  the  year,  and  is  characterized  by 
easterly  winds  and  fair  weather.  These  peri 
odical  winds,  the  N.  TV.  and  S.  E.  monsoons 
respectively,  set  in  somewhat  irregularly,  and 
even  during  their  prevalence  there  is  some 
times  dry  weather  in  the  wet  season  and  wet 
weather  in  the  dry.  At  the  equinoxes  the 
weather  is  generally  tempestuous,  and  thunder 
storms  at  that  period  are  frequent  and  some 
times  destructive.  The  temperature  of  the 
island  is  equable,  the  thermometer  in  the  low 
lands  seldom  rising  above  90°  or  falling  below 
70°.  Snow  never  falls  even  on  the  highest 
mountain  peaks,  but  in  the  coldest  weather 
ice  a  few  lines  thick  is  sometimes  seen  at  great 
elevations,  where  the  thermometer  falls  to  27°. 
At  the  height  of  4,000  ft.  in  the  mountain 
valleys  there  is  a  delightful  climate,  healthful 
to  the  European  constitution,  and  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  northern  fruits  and  vegetables. 
The  general  climate  of  the  island  is  in  point  of 
salubrity  equal  to  that  of  any  tropical  country ; 
and  in  places  where  malaria  formerly  pre 
vailed,  as  in  Batavia  and  Cheribon,  the  evil 
has  been  clearly  traced  to  the  neglect  of  water 
courses,  and  has  been  ameliorated  by  proper 
attention  to  drainage. — The  metals  found  in 
Java  are  inconsiderable  in  quantity  and  value, 
and  no  veins  are  worked.  The  uncultivated 
portions  of  the  island,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  small  tracts  and  shore  districts,  are  covered 
with  forest,  and  at  all  seasons  a  luxuriant  ver- 


JAVA 


575 


dure  overspreads  nearly  the  whole  land.  The 
chief  variety  in  the  vegetation  is  caused  by  dif 
ferences  of  elevation.  On  the  low  coast  are 
found  cocoanut  palms,  bananas,  aroideai,  ama- 
ranthacecs,  poisonous  euphorbiacece,  and  legu 
minous  plants.  At  the  height  of  1,000  ft.  ferns 
preponderate  and  magnificent  forests  of  slender 
bamboos  grow  spontaneously.  At  a  greater 
height  are  forests  of  fig  trees,  with  tall  trunks, 
spreading  branches,  and  thick  foliage ;  and  the 
ferns  here  increase  in  number  and  size,  and  often 
grow  to  the  height  of  several  feet.  Above  the 
region  of  fig  trees  is  that  of  oaks  and  laurels, 
with  abundant  melastomas  and  orchidaceous 
plants.  At  the  height  of  6,000  ft.  the  tropical 
character  of  the  vegetation  disappears,  and  is 
succeeded  by  rubiacece,  heaths,  conifers,  and  a 
vegetation  closely  allied  to  that  of  the  temperate 
zone.  Cryptogamous  plants  are  extensively 
multiplied;  mushrooms  are  abundant,  and  moss 
es  and  lichens  cover  the  ground. — The  animal 
life  of  Java  is  as  varied  and  abundant  as  its  vege 
tation.  Among  the  100  species  of  mammalia 
enumerated  as  inhabiting  the  island  are  nine 
species  of  quadrumana,  the  Bengal  tiger,  leop 
ards,  a  peculiar  species  of  rhinoceros  (R.  Son- 
daicus),  the  wild  ox  (bos  Sondaicus),  the  wild 
hog,  several  species  of  deer,  and  22  species  of 
bats.  Among  the  domestic  animals  are  the  ox, 
the  buffalo,  the  horse,  the  goat,  and  a  few  sheep. 
Of  birds  there  are  known  to  be  upward  of  170 
distinct  species,  among  which  are  the  peacock, 
the  green  jungle  cock,  partridges,  quail,  and 
man\  species  of  pigeons  and  herons.  There 
are  but  two  species  of  Javan  parrots.  Birds 
of  prey  are  numerous,  including  falcons,  owls, 
and  carrion  crows.  Serpents  are  frequently 
met  with,  and  more  than  20  species  are  re 
garded  as  venomous.  Other  reptiles  of  com 
mon  occurrence  are  crocodiles,  lizards,  the 
freen  frog,  the  toad,  and  the  land  tortoise, 
ea  turtles  are  found  in  the  waters  adjacent  to 
the  island.  Fish  are  plentiful  along  the  coast, 
but  those  of  the  rivers  are  of  inferior  quality 
as  food. — Though  in  reality  Java  is  wholly 
possessed  by  the  Dutch,  two  native  kingdoms, 
comprising  together  not  more  than  -^  of  the 
island,  have  been  suffered  to  retain  a  nominal 
existence,  under  the  control  of  the  Dutch  offi 
cials.  These  are  the  dominion*  of  the  senaan 
or  emperor  of  Surakerta,  and  the  sultan  of 
Jokjokerta.  The  rest  of  the  island,  with  Ma- 
du^a,  is  divided  into  23  provinces,  called  resi 
dencies.  The  principal  cities  are  Batavia,  the 
capital,  Bantam,  Buitenzorg,  Cheribon,  Sama- 
rang,  Surabaya,  Surakerta,  and  Jokjokerta. 
The  native  population  of  Java  comprises  two 
distinct  nations,  the  Sundese  and  the  Javanese. 
The  Sundese  occupy  the  western  end  of  the 
island,  and  are  greatly  inferior  in  number  to 
the  Javanese,  as  well  as  less  advanced  in  civili 
zation.  They  speak  a  distinct  language,  the 
Sundese,  while  nine  tenths  of  the  entire  na 
tive  population  speak  Javanese.  Both  classes 
are  of  the  Malayan  race.  They  are  generally 
about  two  inches  shorter  than  the  men  of  the 
VOL.  ix. — 37 


Mongolian  and  Caucasian  races,  %ith  round 
faces,  wide  mouths,  high  cheek  bones,  short 
and  small  noses,  and  small,  black,  deep-seated 
eyes.  The  complexion  is  brown  with  a  shade 
of  yellow,  and  is  never  black.  The  hair  of  the 
head  is  thick,  black,  lank,  and  harsh,  and  is 
either  scanty  or  altogether  wanting  on  other 
parts  of  the  body.  A  few  short,  straggling 
hairs  compose  the  beard.  The  natives  are  not 
active,  and  make  but  poor  runners  or  wrestlers. 
They  are  described  as  peaceable,  docile,  so 
ber,  simple,  industrious,  straightforward,  and 
truthful.  Java  is  one  of  the  most  densely  peo 
pled  countries  of  the  world,  the  population, 
inclusive  of  Madura,  amounting,  according  to 
a  census  taken  at  the  end  of  1872,  to  17,298,- 
200,  being  337  persons  to  the  square  mile.  Of 
these,  28,926  were  Europeans,  185,758  Chinese, 
and  22,032  Arabs  and  other  foreign  orientals. 
The  Javanese  are  almost  entirely  occupied  in 
agriculture.  There  is  a  small  class  of  fishermen 
on  the  N".  coast,  and  a  few  artisans  in  the 
towns,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  live 
directly  or  indirectly  by  the  cultivation  of  the 
land,  in  which  they  have  made  greater  pro 
gress  than  any  other  Asiatic  nation  except  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese.  The  chief  cereal  is 
rice,  of  which  with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  in 
dustriously  and  almost  universally  applied,  two 
crops  are  raised  in  a  year.  Java  is  one  of  the 
principal  coffee-growing  countries  of  the  world. 
The  coffee  plantations  are  situated  at  an  eleva 
tion  of  2,000  ft.  and  upward,  and  are  conduct 
ed  under  the  supervision  of  the  colonial  gov 
ernment.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  is  next  in 
importance ;  indigo,  cotton,  pepper,  tea,  and 
tobacco  are  also  raised.  The  mechanic  arts 
among  the  Javanese  are  not  so  far  advanced  as 
their  agriculture.  About  30  crafts  are  prac 
tised  among  them,  of  which  the  principal  are 
those  of  the  blacksmith  or  cutler,  the  carpen 
ter,  the  sheath  maker,  the  coppersmith,  the 
goldsmith,  and  the  potter.  Bricks  and  tiles 
are  largely  made.  The  carpenters  are  skilful 
in  house  and  boat  building.  They  make  boats 
of  all  sizes,  from  fishing  canoes  up  to  vessels 
of  50  tons,  and  under  European  superinten 
dence  build  large  ships.  The  ordinary  dwellings 
of  the  people  are  built  of  a  rough  frame  of 
timber,  thatched  with  grass  or  palm  leaves, 
and  with  walls  and  partitions  of  split  bamboo. 
The  Javanese  excel  all  other  nations  of  the 
Indian  archipelago  in  the  working  of  metals. 
They  are  especially  skilful  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  national  weapon,  the  kris  or  dagger, 
which  is  worn  by  every  man  and  boy  above  14 
years  as  part  of  his  ordinary  costume,  and  by 
many  ladies  of  high  rank.  They  make  also  ex 
cellent  gongs  of  brass,  and  these  with  other 
musical  instruments  of  the  same  metal  have 
long  been  exported  to  the  neighboring  countries. 
The  only  native  textile  material  woven  by  the 
Javanese  is  cotton,  of  which  they  make  a 
stout  durable  calico,  and  this  is  purely  a  domes 
tic  manufacture,  carried  on  exclusively  by  the 
women.  From  raw  silk  imported  from  China, 


576 


JAVA 


the  silkwortn  not  being  reared  in  Java,  a  coarse 
cloth  is  woven  also  by  the  women.  Paper  of 
the  nature  of  the  ancient  papyrus  is  a  manufac 
ture  peculiar  to  the  Javanese.  In  science  the 
people  have  made  little  progress,  possessing 
only  a  rude  notion  of  astronomy  and  a  slight 
knowledge  of  arithmetic.  Their  architecture 
at  the  present  day  hardly  deserves  the  name, 
though  the  country  abounds  with  remarkable 
remains  of  temples  built  many  centuries  ago  by 
the  ancestors  of  the  present  inhabitants.  In 
number  and  beauty  these  structures  are  prob 
ably  unsurpassed  by  the  architectural  remains 
of  any  country  in  the  world,  but  the  action 
of  tropical  vegetation  is  rapidly  destroying 
them.  The  most  extensive  and  interesting  of 
these  ruins  are  at  Brambanam,  near  the  cen 
tre  of  the  island,  at  Borobodo,  80  m.  west 
ward,  and  at  Gunong  Prau,  40  m.  southwest  of 
Samarang.'  At  Brambanam  are  the  "  thousand 


Temple  of  Borobodo. 

temples,"  consisting  of  296  small  temples  ar 
ranged  in  five  concentric  parallelograms,  and 
forming  a  quadrangle  of  540  by  510  ft.,  exactly 
facing  the  cardinal  points.  The  celebrated 
temple  of  Borobodo  is  a  vast  domed  structure 
erected  on  an  inconsiderable  elevation.  It  is 
a  connected  series  of  terraced  walls,  compo 
sed  of  seven  tiers  one  above  another,  and  all 
surmounted  by  a  triple  circle  of  72  towers 
surrounding  the  dome.  It  is  620  ft.  square, 
and  rises  to  a  height  of  about  100  ft.  The 
walls  are  profusely  ornamented  with  sculpture. 
Wallace  says  that  the  amount  of  human  labor 
and  skill  expended  on  the  great  pyramids  of 
Egypt  sinks  into  insignificance  when  compared 
with  that  required  to  complete  this  sculptured 
hill  temple  in  the  interior  of  Java.  The 
temples  on  the  mountain  of  Gunong  Prau  are 
reached  by  four  flights  of  stone  steps  from 
different  directions,  there  being  more  than 
1,000  steps  in  each  flight.  Of  the  other  fine 
arts,  music  is  the  one  in  which  the  Javanese 


have  made  the  greatest  progress.  They  are 
passionately  fond  of  it,  and  have  generally  fine 
musical  ears.  Their  melodies  are  wild,  plain 
tive,  and  interesting,  and  more  pleasing  to  the 
European  ear  than  any  other  Asiatic  music. 
They  have  wind  and  stringed  instruments,  but 
their  most  common  instruments  are  drums  and 
gongs.  In  religion  the  Javanese  are  Moham 
medans,  which  faith  was  established  by  Arab 
conquerors  in  the  15th  century,  and  has  entire 
ly  displaced  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism,  the 
ancient  religions  of  the  country,  except  among 
a  few  people  in  the  Tenger  mountains.  During 
the  rule  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  16th  century, 
the  Catholic  missionaries  formed  some  native 
congregations,  of  which  a  few  remnants  are 
still  left.  The  Dutch  government  showed  it 
self  decidedly  opposed  to  all  missionary  labor, 
and  Protestant  missions  were  therefore  not  be 
gun  until  the  island  passed  in  1811  under  the 
rule  of  England.  After 
the  restoration  of  the 
Dutch  administration, 
all  missionaries  but  the 
Dutch  were  in  1842 
forbidden  to  perform 
missionary  labors,  but 
the  Dutch  missionary 
societies  were  allowed 
to  establish  missions. 
The  results  of  their  la 
bors  are  as  yet  of  no 
great  importance.  The 
number  of  missionaries 
in  1872  did  not  reach 
20,  who  partly  belonged 
to  the  Reformed  and 
partly  to  the  Mennonite 
church.  The  Roman 
Catholics  have  a  vicar 
apostolic  at  Batavia, 
and  16  priests. — The 
commerce  of  Java  is 
transacted  chiefly  at 

the  ports  of  Batavia,  Samarang,  and  Surabaya. 
Among  the  principal  exports  are  coffee,  sugar, 
rice,  indigo,  tea,  tobacco,  spices,  India  rubber, 
birds'  nests,  camphor,  and  rattans.  In  1871  the 
value  of  the  merchandise  and  specie  exported 
was  £7,604,691,  and  that  of  the  imports  was 
£4,489,693.  About  one  half  of  the  rice  exported 
and  four  fifths  of  the  other  exports  go  to  the 
Netherlands.  In  June,  1872,  the  length  of  rail 
roads  in  operation  was  161  m.,  and  in  January, 
1873,  the  number  of  telegraph  offices  was  38. 
There  was  regular  connection  with  the  other  isl 
ands  of  the  archipelago  by  means  of  15  steam 
ers  belonging  to  the  Netherlandish  India  steam 
boat  company. — The  most  important  feature 
of  Javanese  society  is  the  village,  which  forms 
a  complete  body  politic,  with  considerable 
powers  of  self-government.  Its  officers  arc 
elected  by  the  people,  and  are  charged  with 
the  collection  of  the  taxes  and  the  maintenance 
of  public  order.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest 
two  native  sovereigns,  a  sultan  and  an  emperor, 


JAVA 


577 


ruled  the  island,  one  in  Java  and  the  other  in 
Sunda.  When  the  Netherlands  government 
acquired  the  Dutch  East  India  company's  title 
to  its  possessions  in  the  East,  it  appropriated 
to  the  crown  all  unoccupied  lands,  and  secured 
to  the  descendants  of  the  native  sovereigns 
and  their  vassal  rulers  their  titular  rank  and 
the  rights  of  regents ;  but  placed  with  each 
a  Dutch  resident,  whose  "  recommendations  " 
have  always  been  obeyed  as  orders.  The  gov 
ernor  general  acts  as  viceroy,  receiving  his 
directions  from  the  Hague,  and  is  assisted  by  a 
vice  president  and  a  council  of  four  appointed 
by  the  king  of  Holland.  The  governors  of 
Amboyna,  Borneo,  Celebes,  and  Sumatra,  and 
the  army  and  navy  in  the  Dutch  possessions 
in  the  archipelago,  are  under  his  orders.  In 
Batavia  there  is  a  high  court  of  appeal  for 
criminal  and  civil  cases  among  the  Europeans, 
and  the  Javanese  have  native  courts,  presided 
over  in  some  instances  by  Europeans.  There 
are  government  primary  schools  in  all  the 
large  towns,  and  in  each  residency  there  are 
salaried  vaccinators  and  physicians.  While 
the  native  rulers,  who  receive  large  annuities 
from  the  government,  have  the  name  of 
regents,  the  residents  or  assistant  residents, 
with  a  controller,  all  of  whom  must  be  natives 
of  the  Netherlands,  superintend  the  govern 
ment  plantations,  directing  what  seed  shall 
be  sown,  the  wages  to  be  paid,  when  the 
harvest  shall  be  gathered,  and  the  prices  of 
products.  This  culture  system,  introduced  in 
1832,  satisfies  and  employs  the  natives,  defrays 
the  entire  expense  of  the  local  administration, 
and  returns  an  annual  revenue  of  $5,000,000 
to  the  treasury  at  the  Hague.  In  1872  the 
total  revenye  of  the  colony  was  121,258,300 
guilders,  and  the  total  expenditure  108,164,690 
guilders,  leaving  a  surplus  in  guilders  of  13,093,- 
610  for  that  year.  The  culture  system  involves 
the  forced  labor  of  the  natives  in  the  cultiva 
tion  of  coffee  and  sugar,  but  the  legislature  of 
Holland  has  enacted  a  law  by  virtue  of  which 
the  forced  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane  will 
cease  in  the  year  1890.  The  title  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  land  in  the  country  is  in  the  gov 
ernment. — The  history  of  Java  previous  to  the 
llth  century  of  our  era  is  involved  in  fable 
and  obscurity.  It  is  only  certain  that  long  be 
fore  that  period  the  Javanese  had  acquired  a 
considerable  degree  of  civilization.  About  the 
llth  century,  or,  according  to  some  conjec 
tures,  several  centuries  earlier,  Java  was  visited 
by  the  Hindoos,  either  as  emigrants  or  conquer 
ors,  who  founded  kingdoms  and  converted  the 
natives  to  Brahmanism.  Java  was  first  made 
known  to  the  western  world  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  13th  century  by  Marco  Polo,  who,  however, 
did  not  visit  the  island.  Luigi  Barthema  (Var- 
tomanus)  was  the  first  European  who  landed  at 
Java.  He  passed  14  days  there  in  1506 ;  and 
he  represents  the  natives  as  cannibals  who  even  I 
sold  their  children  to  be  eaten  by  the  buyers. 
The  Hindoos  and  their  religion  remained  dom 
inant  in  the  island  from  the  end  of  the  13th  to 


that  of  the  15th  century,  when  Mohammedan 
ism,  which  had  for  a  century  or  two  been 
zealously  propagated  by  Arabs,  Persians,  Ma 
lays,  and  Hindoo  Mohammedans,  who  came  as 
merchants  or  settlers,  gained  a  complete  as 
cendancy  over  Brahmanism.  In  1475  a  Mo 
hammedan  prince  raised  himself  to  supreme 
power  over  nearly  the  whole  island,  and  found 
ed  a  dynasty  which  still  exists  in  the  small 
kingdoms  which  are  permitted  by  the  Dutch 
to  remain  in  nominal  independence.  Bantam, 
the  last  of  the  Hindoo  states,  was  conquered  in 
1480.  The  Portuguese  visited  Java  in  the  16th 
century,  and  entered  into  commercial  negotia 
tions  with  the  natives.  The  Dutch  first  came 
to  Java  about  1595  as  traders.  In  1610  they 
obtained  permission  to  build  a  fort  at  the  na 
tive  village  of  Jacatra,  near  the  site  of  the  pres 
ent  city  of  Batavia.  Both  the  Portuguese  and 
the  English,  who  had  established  a  factory  at 
Bantam,  yielded  to  their  supremacy.  They 
soon  became  involved  in  war  with  the  native 
rulers,  and  in  1677  obtained  a  considerable  ter 
ritory.  From  that  period  to  1830  they  carried 
on  four  great  wars  with  the  natives,  the  first 
of  which,  begun  in  1674,  lasted  for  34  years; 
the  second,  which  began  in  1718,  for  5  years ; 
the  third,  which  began  in  1740,  for  15  years ; 
and  the  fourth,  which  began  in  1825,  for  5 
years.  The  third  was  begun  Sept.  26,  1740, 
by  a  dreadful  massacre  of  the  Chinese  settlers 
at  Batavia,  of  whom  10,000  were  killed  in  two 
days.  In  1749  the  principal  Javan  monarch 
conferred  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  upon 
the  Dutch,  by  an  official  deed  to  the  Dutch 
East  India  company.  In  1811  the  British, 
being  at  war  with  Holland,  then  a  portion 
of  the  French  empire,  sent  a  fleet  and  army 
against  Java,  which  was  conquered  without 
much  opposition  and  held  till  1816,  when  it 
was  restored  to  Holland.  By  a  decree  of  the 
Dutch  government,  slavery  was  totally  abolish 
ed  on  Sept.  20,  1859,  in  all  their  colonies  in 
India.  It  had  never  prevailed  among  the 
native  Javanese,  and  the  number  of  slaves  in 
the  island  amounted  only  to  a  few  thousands, 
mostly  natives  of  other  islands  of  the  archipel 
ago  and  of  Africa,  and  held  by  European  mas 
ters.  In  1860  the  Swiss  auxiliary  soldiers, 
aided  by  natives,  mutinied  ;  they  were  soon  re 
duced  to  submission,  and  many  were  executed. 
—Sir  T.  Stamford  Pvaffles's  "  History  of  Java  " 
(2  vols.  4to,  London,  1817)  is  a  standard  work. 
The  natural  history  of  Java  has  been  treated 
by  Blume,  Flora  Java  necnon  Insularum  Ad- 
jacentium  (3  vols.  fol.,  Brussels,  1826-'36), 
and  by  Dr.  T.  Horsfield  in  his  "Zoological  Re 
searches  in  Java  and  the  Neighboring  Islands  " 
(London,  1824).  Junghuhn  is  the  author  of 
several  works  on  the  natural  history  and  geog 
raphy  of  Java,  the  most  important  of  which 
was  published  in  Amsterdam  in  1850  (3d 
Ger.  ed.,  Leipsic,  1852).  Interesting  recent  de 
scriptions  of  Java  are  given  by  Albert  S.  Bick- 
more,  in  "Travels  in  the  East  Indian  Archi 
pelago"  (New  York,  1869);  by  A.  R.  Wallace, 


578 


JAVA   (LANGUAGE   AND   LITEEATURE) 


in  "  The  Malay  Archipelago  "  (London  and  New 
York,  1869 ;  and  in  W.  H.  Seward's  u  Travels 
around  the  World"  (New  York,  1873). 

JAVA,  Language  and  Literature  of.  Javanese, 
spoken  in  Java  and  several  small  adjacent  isl 
ands,  belongs  to  the  Malayan  division  of  the 
Malayo-Polynesian  group  of  languages,  and  is 
most  closely  related  to  Malay  proper.  It  has 
the  peculiarity  of  employing  special  forms  and 
flexions  for  addressing  superior  or  inferior 
persons.  The  manner  of  speaking  to  subordi 
nates  is  called  bdsd  noko,  or  simply  noko,  com 
manding  speech;  and  that  to  superiors  T)dsd 
krdmd,  or  only  Tcrdmd,  humble  speech.  A 
third  mode  of  conversing,  namely,  between 
equals,  or  as  a  condescension  toward  a  person 
of  lower  rank,  is  called  Msd  madyd,  middle 
speech.  In  the  presence  of  the  sovereign  or 
his  ambassadors  still  another  form  of  speaking 
is  observed,  called  Msd  Tcraton,  the  court  lan 
guage.  The  ancient  Javanese  literature,  the 
beginnings  of  which  can  be  traced  to  the  first 
century  of  our  era,  is  written  in  a  language  thor 
oughly  impregnated  with  Sanskrit  elements,  and 
bearing  the  name  of  Kam,  the  poet's  tongue. 
The  Sunda  language,  spoken  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  island,  is  somewhat  related  to 
Javanese,  but  is  clearly  distinguished  from  it 
by  many  peculiarities.  The  Javanese  alpha'bet 
consists  of  20  consonants  and  6  vowel  sounds ; 
but  the  latter  are  not  considered  by  the  natives 
to  form  part  of  it,  as  they  are  only  supplemen 
tary  characters,  as  in  Arabic.  The  graphic 
system  is  derived  from  the  Indian  Devanagari. 


m  ~mi  ho 

m  ^  no 
IN)  (jV>  tyo 
Tl  11  ro 

ko 


OJ1  Jl  PO 

O  (JD  do 

(l^  G>  dyo 

(IfUl  (UUI  yo 

Old  HI  nvo 


(Ul     <>   do  (dho)        O       fj  mo 

^i  ./A/  to         finn  nnn  go 

(K]l     ^\  so  Ol     (II   bo 

fcfl      /]    Y0  O     ^  t'o  (tho) 

M  W   lo  (H     (H   ngo 

The  Javanese  employ  at  the  end  of  words 
abridged  forms  of  the  regular  characters,  as 
given  in  the  second  column  of  the  alphabet. 
These  twenty  letters  represent  the  native 
sounds  only.  There  are  besides  the  haksdrd 
ffede  or  haksdrd  murda,  large  or  capital  letters, 
which  are  intended  to  be  used  in  rendering 
Indie  words,  but  rarely  employed.  Arabic 
sounds  are  indicated  by  a  diacritic  sign,  con 
sisting  of  three  dots,  above  the  letters.  The 
foreign  elements  of  the  language  are  muti 
lated,  nevertheless,  in  as  great  a  degree  as 


Chinese  is  distorted  by  the  Japanese.  The 
sounds  f  and  ch  are  wanting.  Consonants 
have  an  inherent  o,  for  which  reason  many 
Indian  words  possessing  the  vowel  a  are  pro 
nounced  with  0,  without  necessarily  a  change 
in  the  orthography.  The  gender  and  number 
of  nouns  are  indicated  by  accompanying  ad 
jectives.  The  genitive  case  is  formed  by  in 
flection,  but  the  other  relations  of  words  are 
either  expressed  by  prepositions  or  left  to  be 
inferred.  Adjectives  admit  of  no  distinction 
of  gender,  number,  or  case,  and  of  comparison 
only  by  extrinsic  means.  Pronouns  are  equal 
ly  invariable.  There  is  none  for  the  third  per 
son  singular  or  plural,  none  for  the  second 
person  plural,  and  only  haku  in  Noko  for  the 
first  person  singular,  Jsitd  and  Tcami  for  the 
same  in  the  plural,  and  kove  for  the  second 
person  singular.  The  suffix  pronouns  in  N6k6 
are  -Ten,  I ;  -m?/,  thou  ;  -he,  he  ;  the  last  is  ren 
dered  -na  in  Krama,  and  the  second  person 
singular  -ta  in  Kavi.  It  is  customary,  however, 
to  omit  pronouns,  and  when  possible  to  use  in 
stead  the  titles  of  the  person  addressed.  There 
are  other  pronominal  forms,  but  not  properly 
such,  which  are  used  profusely  in  humble  and 
ceremonial  forms  of  speech.  The  simple  form 
of  the  verb  indicates  present  time,  but  for 
clearness  or  emphasis  some  word  signifying 
now  or  still  is  introduced.  Past  time  is  ex 
pressed  by  the  particle  sampun  in  Krama, 
Jiempun  in  middle,  and  wis  or  wus  in  Noko, 
meaning  past  or  already.  The  particle  lade  in 
Krama,  hakal  in  Noko,  or  the  word  harsd  in  the 
former,  Jiarep  in  the  latter,  meaning  to  will, 
or  the  will,  indicates  the  future  tense.  The  ac 
tive  and  passive  voices  are  distinguished,  but  the 
latter  is  not  properly  such,  and  rather  a  nom 
inal  form.  Thus  the  verb  tandak,  to  seize,  is 
conjugated  as  follows  :  haku  nandak,  I  seize ; 
haku  vis  nyandak,  I  have  seized  ;  haku  bakal 
nyandak,  I  shall  seize ;  and  dak  tandalc,  by  me 
has  been  seized.  Verbs  obtain  a  passive  mean 
ing  also  by  inserting  in,  as  ray  ah,  to  rob,  rina- 
yah,  to  be  robbed.  The  infix  um  forms  neuter 
verbs.  For  the  numerals  see  the  comparative 
table  in  the  article  on  the  Malayo-Polynesian 
languages.  Most  of  the  parts  of  speech  can  be 
changed  one  into  another  by  the  use  of  pre 
fixes,  suffixes,  or  infixes,  either  singly  or  com 
bined. — While  the  language  is  very  copious  in 
some  respects,  it  is  exceedingly  meagre  in  oth 
ers.  There  are  two  and  even  three  names  for 
some  metals,  but  there  is  no  equivalent  for 
metal  or  mineral ;  so  there  is  no  word  for  ani 
mal,  while  there  are  five  w  ords  for  dog,  six  for 
hog,  and  seven  for  horse.  There  are  expres 
sions  for  10  ways  of  standing,  and  20  of  sitting ; 
and  there  are  50  for  the  different  modifications 
of  sound.  Thus  in  unimportant  trifles  the  Jav 
anese  language  has  a  store  of  endless  distinc 
tions,  while  useful  words,  or  such  as  seem  to 
us  absolutely  necessary,  are  utterly  wanting. 
— LITERATURE.  There  is  a  multitude  of  chron 
icles  and  historical  works  written  in  Javanese. 
Other  ancient  books  are  religious,  Buddhistic', 


JAXARTES 


JAY 


579 


astronomical,  astrological,  &c.  Most  interest 
ing  to  oriental  scholars  are  the  adaptations  and 
elaborations  of  Indian  materials.  Thus  the 
Rdmdydnd  is  based  on  the  old  Hindoo  Itdmd- 
yana,  the  Brdtd-yudd  on  the  Mahdbhdrata,  and 
the  Sastrd  mandvd  on  Manu's  book  of  laws. 
There  is  also  an  abundance  of  romantic  litera 
ture.  Peculiar  are  the  carefully  prepared  texts 
for  the  puppet  shows,  which  are  generally  epo 
pees  with  heroes  borrowed  from  the  Hindoos. 
Several  histories  of  Java  have  been  written,  and 
others  specially  treat  the  history  of  the  domains 
of  various  native  princes.  Missionaries  have 
introduced  works  on  the  Christian  religion. 
Winter  translated  into  Javanese  "  The  Thou 
sand  and  One  Nights  "  and  several  other  works, 
and  a  Javanese  newspaper  has  recently  been 
established. — See  Crawfurd,  "  History  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  "  (Edinburgh,  1830) ;  Wll- 
helm  von  Humboldt,  Ueber  die  KawispracJie 
(3  vols.,  Berlin,  1836-'9) ;  the  grammars  by 
Gericke  (Batavia,  1831)  and  Roorda  van  Ey- 
singa  (Amsterdam,  1855) ;  and  Gericke's  Ja- 
vaansch-Nederduitsck  handwoordenboek  (new 
ed.  by  T.  Roorda,  Amsterdam,  1871  et  seq.}. 

JAXARTES,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Sir  Dar 
ya,  a  river  of  central  Asia.  The  Naryn,  its 
main  upper  branch,  rises,  according  to  Fedchen- 
ko's  map  (Petermanri }s  Mittheilungen,  June, 
1874),  in  Russian  Turkistan,  about  lat.  44°  30' 
N.  and  Ion.  70°  30'  E.  Taking  a  western 
course,  and  increased  by  many  small  streams, 
it  enters,  about  20  m.  below  its  junction  with 
the  Jumgal,  the  khanate  of  Kho'kan,  which  it 
traverses  in  a  S.  W.  direction.  Jointly  with  the 
waters  of  several  small  rivers  of  S.  and  E.  Kho 
kan,  it  forms  the  Sir  Darya  a  little  S.  of  the 
town  of  Namangan.  The  Sir  Darya  continues 
the  S.  "W.  course,  enters  the  recently  formed 
Russian  province  bearing  its  name,  and  turns 
soon  after  abruptly  to  the  north.  Reaching 
about  lat.  45°  N.  and  Ion.  67°  E.,  it  assumes  a 
W.  course  and  falls  into  the  sea  of  Aral,  at  the 
N.  E.  side.  The  Jaxartes  figures  in  the  history 
of  Cyrus,  Alexander,  and  other  conquerors, 
but  till  a  time  long  after  the  Christian  era  was 
spoken  of  as  emptying  into  the  Caspian. 

JAY,  the  popular  name  of  many  conirostral 
birds  of  the  crow  family,  and  subfamily  garru- 
lincc,  inhabiting  Europe,  Asia  and  its  archipel 
ago,  and  America.  One  of  the  handsomest  of 
the  genera  is  cyanura  (Swains.),  of  which  the 
type  is  the  blue  jay,  and  all  the  species,  about 
20  in  number,  belong  to  America ;  in  this 
genus  the  head  is  crested,  the  bill  rather  slen 
der  and  curved  at  the  tip,  which  is  slightly 
notched,  the  wings  and  tail  blue  with  trans 
verse  black  bars ;  the  circular  nostrils  are  con 
cealed  by  bristles ;  the  wings  are  rounded, 
with  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  quills  the 
longest ;  tail  about  as  long  as  the  wings,  length 
ened,  and  graduated ;  the  toes  strong,  with  the 
hind  claw  large  and  longer  than  the  toe.  The 
blue  jay  (C.  cristata,  Swains.)  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description  ;  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  say  that  the  general  color  above  is  light 


purplish  blue,  with  the  wings  and  tail  ultrama 
rine  ;  the  under  parts  are  whitish,  with  a  black 
crescent  connected  with  a  half  collar  on  the 
neck  above;  besides  the  black  bands  on  the 
wings  and  tail,  the  lateral  feathers  of  the  latter 
are  tipped  with  white.  This  lively,  impertinent, 


Blue  Jay  (Cyanura  cristata). 

and  noisy  bird  is  one  of  the  most  graceful  and 
beautiful  inhabitants  of  our  woods ;  it  is  found 
all  over  the  United  States,  as  far  west  as  the 
Missouri,  and  as  far  north  as  Canada,  remain 
ing  often  through  the  winter  in  New  England. 
It  has  a  very  mischievous  disposition,  robbing 
the  farmer's  corn  crib,  sucking  eggs  of  other 
birds,  and  tearing  the  young  to  pieces  ;  it  pos 
sesses  considerable  imitative  power,  and  seems 
to  take  delight  in  uttering  the  cry  of  the  spar 
row  hawk  to  terrify  the  small  birds  and  make 
them  rush  to  cover  ;  it  is  very  quarrelsome,  and 
in  an  aviary  will  soon  destroy  other  birds  of 
its  size.  When  eggs  and  tender  birds  fail,  they 
eat  nuts,  fruits,  grain,  and  insects ;  they  breed 
in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  though  in 
Florida  they  are  in  a  great  measure  replaced  by 
the  cyanocitta  Floridana,  and  west  of  the  Rocky 

I  mountains  by  Steller's  jay.  Their  usual  note 
is  a  harsh  scream,  uttered  by  all  in  the  neigh 
borhood  at  the  approach  of  any  rapacious  bird 
or  quadruped  or  human  enemy,  and  on  this  ac 
count  a  jay  is  often  a  nuisance  to  the  sports 
man  in  quest  of  nobler  game.  The  length  is 
about  12  in.,  and  the  extent  of  wings  14. — 
The  genus  cyanocitta  (Swains.)  includes  the 
jays  without  a  crest,  with  no  bands  on  the 
wings  and  tail,  and  with  shorter  wings.  In 
C.  Californica  (Strickl.)  the  belly  and  under 
tail  coverts  are  dull  white;  in  C.  Floridana 

'  (Bonap.)  the  belly  is  brownish  ash ;  in  C.  ul- 
tramarina  (Strickl.)  the  blue  color  is  very  rich, 
with  the  under  tail  coverts  white.  The  pre 
vailing  color  is  blue  in  all  these  jays.  The 
Canada  jay  (peruoreits  Canademis,  Bonap.)  is 
about  an  inch  less  than  the  blue  jay,  of  a  gene 
ral  cinereous  color  above,  smoky  gray  below, 
with  a  whitish  breast  and  neck  and  brown  nu- 
cleal  patch.  It  is  found  throughout  the  north 
ern  parts  of  America,  even  into  New  York  and 


580 


JAY 


New  England.  The  habits  are  much  the  same 
as  those  of  the  blue  jay,  its  common  name  of 
carrion  bird  indicating  its  carnivorous  propensi 
ties  ;  the  young  are  sooty  brown,  and  are  often 
called  u  whiskey-jacks."  Several  other  jays 
are  described  by  Baird  and  Brewer.  The  jay  of 
Europe  (garrulus  glandarius,  Linn.)  is  a  hand 
some  bird,  about  as  long  but  not  so  thick  as 
a  pigeon,  of  a  light  reddish  brown  color,  the 
fore  part  of  the  head  whitish  with  black  spots, 
and  the  feathers  elongated  so  as  to  form  an 
erectile  crest ;  the  blue  wing  coverts  are  band 
ed  with  black ;  the  quills  of  the  wings  and 
tail,  and  broad  band  from  the  base  of  the  bill 
under  the  eye,  black ;  the  female  differs  but 
little  from  the  male.  It  is  common  in  Eng 
land,  southern  Scotland,  and  other  parts  of  Eu 
rope  ;  shy  and  suspicious  like  all  the  crow  fam 
ily,  it  frequents  wooded  districts,  feeding  prin- 
pally  on  nuts,  worms,  and  insects,  in  summer 
visiting  gardens  for  the  sake  of  their  fruits  and 
leguminous  vegetables ;  it  also  plunders  the 
nests  of  other  species,  and  sometimes  pounces 
on  field  mice  and  small  birds.  The  flight  is 
direct  and  quick,  and  performed  with  great 
dexterity  through  the  thickets;  the  ordinary 
notes  are  harsh  and  loud ;  its  power  of  imi 
tation,  especially  in  captivity,  is  considerable, 
embracing  the  sounds  of  birds  and  domestic 
mammals,  and  any  noise  which  may  come  to 
its  ears.  The  eggs,  from  five  to  seven,  are 
l|xf  inch,  pale  bluish  green,  with  faint  frec 
kles  of  purplish  and  yellowish  brown. 

JAY,  an  E.  county  of  Indiana,  bordering  on 
Ohio,  and  drained  by  the  head  waters  of  Sala- 
monie  and  Wabash  rivers ;  area,  370  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  15,000.  The  surface  is  undula 
ting,  and  the  soil  of  various  qualities,  but 
mostly  fertile.  The  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 
and  St.  Louis  railroad  passes  through  the  S.  W. 
corner,  and  the  Cincinnati,  Richmond,  and 
Fort  Wayne  line  intersects  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  282,935  bushels  of  wheat, 
216,090  of  Indian  corn,  96,139  of  oats,  18,946 
of  flax  seed,  24,106  of  potatoes,  78,866  Ibs.  of 
wool,  290,459  of  butter,  45,003  of  maple  sugar, 
and  10,852  tons  of  hay.  There  were  6,046 
horses,  4,192  milch  cows,  4,352  other  cattle, 
24,938  sheep,  and  16,866  swine;  4  carriage 
factories,  1  woollen  factory,  1  flour  mill,  and  7 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Portland. 

JAY.  I.  John,  an  American  statesman,  first 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  born  in  New 
York,  Dec.  12,  1745,  died  at  Bedford,  West- 
chester  co.,  N.  Y.,  May  17,  1829.  He  was  de 
scended  from  Augustus  Jay,  a  Huguenot  mer 
chant  of  Rochelle  in  France,  who  after  the  revo 
cation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  emigrated 
to  America,  and  settled  first  in  Charleston,  S. 
C.,  and  afterward  in  New  York.  Peter  Jay, 
the  father  of  John,  was  a  merchant.  While 
still  an  infant  John  Jay  was  removed  with  the 
rest  of  the  family  to  a  country  seat  at  Rye, 
Westchester  co.,  on  the  shore  of  Long  Island 
sound.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
the  grammar  school  of  New  Rochelle,  and  at 


King's  (now  Columbia)  college,  where  he 
graduated  in  1764.  lie  studied  law  in  the 
office  of  Benjamin  Kissam  at  the  same  time 
with  Lindley  Murray,  the  grammarian.  In 
1768  Jay  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  formed 
a  partnership  with  Robert  R.  Livingston,  after 
ward  chancellor  of  the  state  of  New  York. 
The  revolutionary  movement  called  him  active 
ly  into  the  field  of  politics.  While  he  deemed 
the  course  of  the  British  ministry  dangerous 
to  the  rights  and  liberties  of  his  countrymen, 
his  sentiments  as  to  the  mode  of  resistance 
and  redress  were  moderate.  When  intelligence 
of  the  passage  of  the  Boston  port  bill  reached 
New  Y'ork,  a  meeting  was  held,  May  16,  1774, 
and  a  committee  of  51  formed  to  correspond 
with  the  other  colonies.  Jay  was  appointed  a 
member  of  this  committee,  and  at  their  first 
meeting,  May  23,  a  sub-committee  of  four  was 
nominated  to  draft  an  answer  to  the  Boston 
committee,  who  had  recommended  the  general 
adoption  of  a  non-importation  and  non-ex 
portation  agreement  until  the  act  for  blocking 
up  their  harbor  was  repealed.  He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  this  sub-committee,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  author  of  the  reply  to  the  Bos 
ton  address,  in  which  the  proposition  to  en 
ter  into  an  agreement  of  non-intercourse  was 
pronounced  premature  and  inexpedient,  and  a 
general  congress  of  the  colonies  recommended. 
Though  the  moderation  of  this  document  gave 
much  offence  to  the  more  ardent  patriots,  the 
suggestion  of  a  congress  was  concurred  in,  and 
Philip  Livingston,  Isaac  Low,  John  Alsop,  and 
John  Jay  were  unanimously  elected  delegates 
to  it,  and  were  soon  afterward  adopted  as  their 
delegates  by  the  city  of  Albany  and  by  some 
towns  in  Westchester  and  Dutchess  counties. 
The  congress  met  on  Monday,  Sept.  5,  1774,  at 
the  Carpenters'  hall  in  Philadelphia.  Jay, 
though  the  youngest  member  but  one,  took  a 
leading  part  in  its  proceedings.  He  was  at  this 
time  strongly  opposed  to  any  attempt  at  inde 
pendence,  but  desired  to  see  the  difficulties  be 
tween  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country  ad 
justed  on  terms  satisfactory  to  both  parties. 
When  convinced,  however,  by  the  course  of 
events,  that  independence  had  become  a  neces 
sity,  he  embraced  the  measure  with  zeal  and 
lent  it  hearty  and  efficient  support.  lie  par 
ticipated  in  most  of  the  debates  that  arose,  and 
made  his  first  speech  upon  the  question  of  the 
mode  of  voting  in  the  congress.  On  Sept.  6 
he  was  appointed  one  of  a  committee  of  two 
from  each  colony  to  state  the  rights  of  the 
colonies  in  general,  the  violation  of  those 
rights,  and  the  proper  mode  of  redress.  On 
Oct.  11  he  was  appointed  one  of  a  committee 
of  three  to  prepare  a  memorial  to  the  people 
of  British  America  and  an  address  to  the 
people  of  Great  Britain.  The  latter  document, 
written  by  Jay,  gave  its  author  a  great  reputa 
tion  throughout  the  country.  In  the  second 
continental  congress,  which  met  at  Philadel 
phia  May  10,  1775,  Jay  was  one  of  a  commit 
tee  of  three  appointed  to  draw  up  an  address 


JOHN  JAY 


581 


to  the  people  of  Canada  soliciting  their  co 
operation  in  the  contest  which  had  now  be 
come  inevitable,  and  the  paper  reported  by  the 
committee  was  from  his  pen.  On  Sept.  22  he 
was  appointed  on  a  committee  with  Franklin, 
Rutledge,  Randolph,  and  others,  to  consider  the 
state  of  the  trade  of  America.  Their  report 
led  to  an  animated  debate,  in  which  Jay  ad 
vocated  the  policy  of  continuing  the  trade  with 
Great  Britain  and  the  British  West  Indies  from 
New  York,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  in 
opposition  to  those  who  maintained  that,  as  the 
rest  of  the  colonies  had  been  excluded  from 
this  trade  by  the  "  restraining  act "  of  parlia 
ment,  the  three  colonies  excepted  should  volun 
tarily  relinquish  it.  On  Dec.  4  Jay,  Dickinson, 
and  Wythe  were  appointed  a  committee  to 
confer  with  the  assembly  of  New  Jersey,  and 
endeavor  to  dissuade  that  body  from  sending  a 
petition  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  separate 
from  the  petition  of  united  America  presented 
by  congress.  The  remonstrances  of  the  con 
gressional  committee  prevailed  with  the  assem 
bly,  and  the  design  of  petitioning  the  king 
was  abandoned.  On  Nov.  29,  1775,  congress 
appointed  Harrison,  Franklin,  Johnson,  Dick 
inson,  and  Jay  a  committee  to  correspond  with 
the  European  friends  of  American  liberty.  A 
secret  agent  of  the  French  government  had 
shortly  before  given  to  a  committee,  consisting 
of  Jay,  Franklin,  and  Jefferson,  indirect  assu 
rances  that  the  revolted  colonies  might  rely  on 
receiving  aid  from  France.  The  committee  of 
correspondence  at  once  entered  into  negotia 
tions  with  friends  of  the  American  cause  in 
England,  France,  and  Holland,  the  result  of 
which  was  that  in  the  spring  of  1776  Silas 
Deane  was  privately  sent  as  a  political  agent 
of  America  to  the  court  of  France.  His  let 
ters  from  Paris  were  addressed  to  Jay.  In  ad 
dition  to  his  labors  in  congress,  Jay  was  at  this 
time  much  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  New 
York,  where  the  tories  were  numerous,  and  the 
provincial  congress  was  suspected  of  being 
lukewarm  in  the  cause  of  freedom.  It  was 
difficult  at  this  time  to  induce  men  of  standing 
and  character  to  accept  commissions  in  the 
militia  of  the  state.  Jav,  as  an  example  to 
others,  allowed  himself  to  be  commissioned  as 
colonel  of  the  second  regiment  of  foot  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  though  his  duties  in  con 
gress  kept  him  from  the  field.  In  April,  1776, 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  provincial  con 
gress  of  New  York,  and  at  the  special  request 
of  that  body  he  returned  from  Philadelphia  to 
assist  in  its  deliberations.  He  was  thus  pre 
vented  from  becoming  a  signer  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence,  which  passed  the  conti 
nental  congress  while  he  was  serving  in  the 
congress  of  New  York.  lie  however  gave  that 
measure  his  cordial  approval  and  support.  In 
the  next  New  York  congress,  or  convention  as 
it  was  called,  he  took  a  leading  part,  serving 
on  the  most  important  committees,  and  was 
also  actively  engaged  in  taking  measures  to  re 
pel  the  incursions  of  the  enemy  up  the  Hud 


son,  and  to  suppress  the  conspiracies  of  the 
tories.  To  arouse  the  people  from  the  gloom 
occasioned  by  the  reverses  of  the  army,  he 
drew  up  an  address  which  was  issued  by  the 
convention,  Dec.  23,  1776.  This  document 
was  deemed  of  such  importance  that  the  con 
tinental  congress  specially  recommended  it  to 
the  perusal  of  the  people  of  tlie  United  States, 
and  ordered  it  to  be  translated  into  German 
and  printed  and  circulated  at  the  national  ex 
pense.  When  the  convention  undertook  in 
August,  1776,  to  form  a  government  for  the 
state  of  New  York,  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  committee  to  frame  a  constitution  and  bill 
of  rights.  The  report  of  the  committee,  made 
March  12,  1777,  was  written  by  him,  and  the 
constitution  was  chiefly  his  work.  The  con 
vention,  just  before  its  dissolution,  May  13,  ap 
pointed  a  council  of  safety  invested  with  dic 
tatorial  powers  consisting  of  15  members,  of 
whom  Jay  was  one.  The  convention  also  ap 
pointed  Jay  chief  justice  of  the  state  until  the 
legislature  should  meet,  and  the  constitutional 
power  of  appointment  be  organized,  and  he 
presided  at  the  first  term  of  the  supreme  court 
at  Kingston,  Sept.  9.  On  the  next  day  the 
legislature  met,  and  Jay  was  duly  reappointed 
chief  justice  under  the  constitution.  On  Nov. 
4  he  was  elected  by  the  legislature  a  delegate 
to  the  national  congress,  on  the  ground  that 
the  withdrawal  of  Vermont  from  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  New  York  furnished  a  special  occasion 
for  requiring  his  services  at  Philadelphia.  lie 
took  his  seat  Dec.  7,  1778,  and  on  the  10th 
was  elected  president  of  congress,  Laurens,  the 
former  president,  having  resigned.  On  Sept. 
27,  1779,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Spain, 
and  reached  Cadiz  Jan.  22,  1780,  and  Madrid 
on  April  4.  His  mission  had  two  objects,  to 
obtain  a  loan  of  $5,000,000,  and  to  secure  the 
right  to  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  Spanish  court  received  him  coldly,  and 
many  months  passed  in  fruitless  negotiations. 
Congress,  without  waiting  to  hear  even  of  his 
arrival  in  Spain,  had  directed  its  treasurer  to 
draw  on  him  at  Madrid  for  $500,000.  When 
these  bills  arrived,  rather  than  let  the  credit  of 
the  country  be  damaged  by  their  going  to  pro 
test,  he  accepted  them  at  his  own  risk.  He 
was  afterward  enabled  to  meet  them  when 
due,  partly  by  remittances  from  Franklin  at 
Paris,  and  partly  by  some  smaller  sums  reluc 
tantly  given  by  the  Spanish  government.  lie 
quitted  Madrid,  May  20,  1782,  and  proceeded 
to  Paris  to  assist  in  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  congress  in  1781 
having  appointed  him  a  commissioner  for  that 
purpose,  together  with  Adams,  Franklin,  Jef 
ferson,  and  Laurens.  He  arrived  in  Paris 
June  23.  Of  his  colleagues,  Franklin  alone 
was  there,  Jefferson  being  detained  in  America 
by  the  delicate  health  of  his  wife,  Laurens  a 
prisoner  in  the  tower  of  London,  and  Adams 
in  Holland  negotiating  a  loan.  On  Franklin 
and  Jay  therefore  the  primary  formation  of 
the  treaty  devolved.  To  the  value  of  Jay's  ser- 


582 


JOHN  JAY 


vices  in  this  important  negotiation  we  have  the 
testimony  of  Adams,  who  says  that  all  his  col 
leagues  were  very  able  and  attentive,  "  espe 
cially  Mr.  Jay,  to  whom  the  French,  if  they 
knew  as  much  of  his  negotiations  as  they  do 
of  mine,  would  very  justly  give  the  title  with 
which  they  have  inconsiderately  decorated  me, 
that  of  le  Washington  de  la  negotiation ;  a 
very  nattering  compliment  indeed,  to  which  I 
have  not  a  right,  but  sincerely  think  it  belongs 
to  Mr.  Jay."  Jay  quitted  Paris  in  May,  1784, 
and  arrived  in  his  native  city,  July  24,  after  an 
absence  from  it  of  eight  years.  The  freedom 
of  the  city  was  presented  to  him  in  a  gold  box, 
with  an  address  by  the  corporation.  He  in 
tended  on  leaving  Europe  to  resume  the  prac 
tice  of  his  profession,  but  on  reaching  New 
York  he  learned  that  congress  had  appointed 
him  secretary  for  foreign  affairs.  He  was  also, 
in  the  succeeding  autumn,  elected  by  the  state 
legislature  a  delegate  to  congress.  He  took 
his  seat  in  congress  Dec.  6,  and  held  it  till 
Dec.  21,  when  he  accepted  the  secretaryship 
for  foreign  affairs,  and  performed  its  duties 
for  five  years,  till  the  adoption  of  the  fed 
eral  constitution  in  1789.  In  the  conflict  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  constitution  that 
should  be  formed,  Jay  shared  in  Hamilton's 
preference  for  a  strong  central  government. 
When  the  constitution  was  formed,  however, 
he  urged  its  adoption  with  earnestness  and 
ability,  and  wrote  in  its  defence  in  "  The  Fed 
eralist,"  in  conjunction  with  Hamilton  and 
Madison.  In  April,  1788,  occurred  the  riot  in 
New  York,  known  as  the  doctors'  mob,  oc 
casioned  by  violations  of  the  grave  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  subjects  for  dissection. 
Several  physicians  had  been  lodged  in  prison 
to  protect  them  from  the  popular  fury.  The 
mob  attempted  to  force  the  prison,  and  were 
resisted  by  Hamilton,  Jay,  and  a  body  of  citi 
zens.  In  the  conflict  Jay  received  a  wound  in 
the  temple,  which  confined  him  for  some  time 
to  his  bed  and  interrupted  his  contributions  to 
"  The  Federalist."  About  the  same  time  he 
was  elected  by  a  nearly  unanimous  vote  a  dele 
gate  to  the  New  York  state  convention  called 
to  adopt  or  reject  the  proposed  federal  constitu 
tion.  The  convention  assembled  at  Pough- 
keepsie,  June  17,  1788.  Of  its  57  members,  46 
were  opposed  to  the  constitution ;  but  its  adop 
tion  was  advocated  by  Jay,  Hamilton,  and 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  and  after  a  warm  debate 
of  more  than  five  weeks,  New  York  gave  her 
assent  to  the  Union  by  a  vote  of  30  to  27. 
President  Washington  tendered  to  Jay  a  choice 
of  the  offices  in  his  gift.  He  preferred  the  chief 
justiceship  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  confirmed  by  the  senate,  Sept. 
26,  1789.  The  first  term  of  the  court  was  held 
at  New  York  in  February,  1790.  In  1792,  at 
the  April  election,  Jay  was  the  federal  candi 
date  for  governor  of  New  York,  in  opposition  to 
George  Clinton.  Clinton  was  declared  elected, 
the  legislative  committee  rejecting  on  technical 
grounds  the  returns  of  three  counties  where 


Jay  had  large  majorities.  The  federalists  were 
greatly  exasperated,  and  at  many  public  meet 
ings  Jay  was  declared  to  be  the  rightful  gov 
ernor  of  the  state ;  but  he  counselled  submis 
sion  to  the  letter  of  the  law.  In  1794  the 
difficulties  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  growing  out  of  unsettled  boundaries 
and  the  attacks  of  the  latter  power  on  Amer 
ican  commerce,  became  so  serious  that  war  was 
imminent.  Washington  wished  to  appoint 
Hamilton  as  special  minister  to  England ;  but 
such  was  the  animosity  against  Hamilton  in 
the  senate,  that  he  finally  nominated  Jay,  who 
embarked  at  New  York  May  12,  and  reach 
ed  London  June  15.  He  immediately  entered 
into  negotiations  with  Lord  Grenville,  the 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  and  a  treaty  was 
agreed  upon,  Nov.  19,  1794.  It  provided  for 
constituting  three  boards  of  commissioners : 
one  to  determine  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  by  fixing  on  the  river  intended 
by  the  treaty  of  1783  as  the  St.  Croix;  another 
to  ascertain  the  amount  of  losses  experienced 
by  British  subjects  in  consequence  of  legal  im 
pediments  to  the  recovery  of  pre-revolutionary 
debts,  that  amount,  when  ascertained,  to  be 
paid  by  the  United  States  ;  and  a  third  to  esti 
mate  the  losses  sustained  by  Americans  from 
illegal  captures  by  British  cruisers,  those  losses 
to  be  paid  by  the  British  government.  The 
amount  subsequently  recovered  by  Americans 
under  this  clause  was  $10,345,000.  The  west 
ern  posts  occupied  by  the  British  were  to  be 
surrendered  on  June  1,  1796.  There  was  to 
be  a  reciprocity  of  inland  trade  and  intercourse 
between  the  North  American  territories  of  the 
two  nations,  including  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  British  also  to  be  admitted  into 
all  American  harbors,  with  the  right  to  ascend 
all  rivers  to  the  highest  port  of  entry ;  but  this 
reciprocity  did  not  extend  to  the  admission  of 
American  vessels  into  British  North  American 
harbors  or  rivers.  These  articles  were  declared 
to  be  perpetual ;  the  following  were  limited  to 
two  years  after  the  termination  of  the  war  in 
Europe  :  American  vessels  were  to  be  admitted 
into  British  ports  in  Europe  and  the  East  In 
dies  on  terms  of  equality  with  British  vessels ; 
Americans  might  trade  to  the  British  West  In 
dies  in  vessels  not  exceeding  70  tons  burden, 
but  without  the  right  to  transport  from  Amer 
ica  to  Europe  any  of  the  principal  colonial 
products ;  British  vessels  were  to  be  admitted 
into  American  ports  on  the  same  terms  as 
those  of  the  most  favored  nation.  Privateers 
were  to  give  bonds  to  respond  in  any  damages 
they  might  commit  against  neutrals.  The  list 
of  articles  contraband  of  war  was  to  include, 
besides  ammunition  and  warlike  implements,  all 
articles  serving  directly  for  the  equipment  of 
vessels,  except  unwrought  iron  and  fir  plank. 
No  vessel  entering  a  blockaded  port  was  to  be 
captured  unless  she  had  first  been  informed  of 
the  blockade  and  turned  away.  Neither  nation 
was  to  allow  enlistments  within  its  territories 
by  any  third  nation  at  war  with  the  other ;  nor 


JAY 


583 


were  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  either  to  be 
allowed  to  accept  commissions  from  such  third 
nation,  or  to  enlist  in  its  service.  The  rest  of  the 
articles  were  similar  to  these,  and  were  intend 
ed  to  preserve  neutrality  upon  the  ocean,  and 
its  observance  in  the  American  ports,  so  that 
neither  French  nor  British  privateers  should  be 
exclusively  favored  or  supplied.  A  provision 
was  made  for  the  mutual  surrender  of  fugitives 
from  justice  charged  with  murder  or  forgery. 
Jay  returned  to  New  York  May  28,  1795.  The 
treaty  was  submitted  to  the  senate  on  June  8, 
and  on  the  24th  that  body  advised  the  presi 
dent  to  ratify  it,  with  the  exception  of  the 
articles  relating  to  the  West  India  trade.  It 
was  published  in  Philadelphia  on  July  2,  and 
caused  a  prodigious  storm  of  popular  excite 
ment,  clamor,  and  misrepresentation.  It  was 
denounced  as  a  pusillanimous  surrender  of 
American  rights,  and  a  shameful  breach  of  our 
obligations  to  France.  Meetings  were  held 
against  it  in  all  the  principal  cities.  Copies  of 
it  were  publicly  burned  by  mobs  in  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Charleston,  and  other  places. 
An  attempt  was  made  at  Philadelphia  to  burn 
Jay  in  effigy  on  the  4th  of  July.  Washington, 
though  he  considered  the  crisis  the  most  im 
portant  and  dangerous  that  had  yet  occurred  in 
his  administration,  ratified  the  treaty  on  Aug. 
14.  This,  however,  did  not  quiet  the  agitation. 
Some  of  the  Boston  democrats  paraded  the 
streets  of  that  town  with  an  effigy  of  Jay, 
which  they  finally  burned  ;  they  also  attacked 
the  house  of  a  federalist  editor,  but  were  fired 
on  and  repulsed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  treaty, 
Jay's  treaty  as  it  was  familiarly  called,  was  de 
fended  with  energy  by  Hamilton  and  other 
federalists.  Many  public  meetings  also  were 
held  in  support  of  the  ratification  of  the  treaty, 
and  the  Boston  chamber  of  commerce  passed  a 
resolution  in  favor  of  it,  with  only  one  dissent 
ing  voice,  while  a  memorial  taking  the  same 
ground  was  numerously  signed  by  the  mer 
chants  of  Philadelphia.  In  the  house  of  repre 
sentatives  Fisher  Ames  made  his  greatest  speech 
in  defence  of  the  treaty,  and  in  favor  of  pass 
ing  the  laws  necessary  to  give  it  effect.  After 
a  long  struggle  the  resolution  that  it  was  ex 
pedient  to  pass  the  laws  necessary  for  carrying 
the  treaty  into  effect  was  agreed  to  by  a  vote 
of  58  to  51,  only  four  New  England  members 
voting  against  it,  and  from  the  states  south  of 
the  Potomac  only  four  for  it.  Jay  himself, 
amid  all  this  excitement  and  obloquy,  relied 
upon  the  ultimate  judgment  of  his  countrymen. 
— During  his  absence  in  England  his  friends 
had  put  him  in  nomination  as  candidate  for 
governor  of  New  York,  without  his  knowledge. 
He  was  elected  by  a  large  majority,  and  the 
result  was  officially  declared  two  days  before 
he  reached  New  York.  His  administration,  by 
reelection,  lasted  six  years,  during  which  time 
he  dismissed  no  one  from  office  on  account  of 
his  political  opinions.  In  1799  the  legislature 
passed  an  act  for  the  gradual  abolition  of 
slavery,  a  measure  which  Jay  had  strenu 


ously  urged  in  1777  upon  the  convention 
which  formed  the  constitution  of  the  state. 
In  1785  he  became  the  president  of  a  society 
formed  in  New  York  "for  promoting  the  manu 
mission  of  slaves,  and  protecting  such  of  them 
as  have  been  or  may  be  liberated."  He  contin 
ued  at  the  head  of  this  society  till  he  became 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  when,  think 
ing  it  possible  that  questions  might  be  brought 
before  him  in  which  the  society  was  interested, 
he  deemed  it  proper  to  dissolve  his  official  con 
nection  with  it.  In  November,  1800,  as  the 
end  of  his  second  term  approached,  he  was 
solicited  to  become  a  candidate  for  reelection, 
but  declined.  In  December  he  was  nominated 
by  the  president  and  confirmed  by  the  senate 
to  his  former  office  of  chief  justice,  made  va 
cant  by  the  resignation  of  Oliver  Ellsworth. 
He  firmly  declined  the  honor,  and  at  the  age 
of  55  bade  adieu  for  ever  to  public  life,  and 
re-tired  to  his  paternal  estate  at  Bedford,  West- 
chester  co.,  where  he  lived  for  upward  of 
28  years.  He  was  very  regular  and  exact  in 
all  his  habits,  was  a  member  of  the  Episco 
pal  church,  and  took  great  interest  in  the 
religious  movements  of  his  day,  being  pres 
ident  of  several  religious  societies.  In  1827 
he  was  seized  with  a  severe  illness,  and,  after 
two  years  of  weakness  and  suffering,  was  struck 
with  palsy,  May  14,  1821),  and  died  three  days 
afterward.  In  character  Jay  was  eminent  for 
the  elevation  and  purity  of  his  principles  and 
conduct  both  in  public  and  in  private  life.  He 
had  a  high  sense  of  justice  and  of  humanity, 
and  a  profound  feeling  of  religion.  His  mind 
was  vigorous,  exact,  and  logical,  and  character 
ized  rather  by  judgment  and  discrimination 
than  by  brilliancy.  The  Bible  was  his  constant 
study,  and  Cicero  his  favorite  author.  His 
public  reputation  as  a  patriot  and  statesman 
of  the  revolution  was  second  only  to  that  of 
Washington.  II.  William,  an  American  jurist 
and  philanthropist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  New  York,  June  16,  1789,  died  at  Bedford, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  14,  1858.  He  received  his  early 
education  at  Albany,  and  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1807.  He  studied  law  at  Albany, 
but  having  injured  his  eyes  by  intense  study, 
relinquished  the  practice  of  the  profession  and 
retired  to  Bedford,  where  he  assisted  in  the 
management  of  the  large  landed  estate  which 
descended  to  him  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1829.  In  1815  he  began  his  career  of  philan 
thropic  effort  in  the  founding  of  the  American 
Bible  society,  and  was  its  recognized  champion 
against  the  attacks  of  Bishop  Hobart  and  other 
members  of  the  Episcopal  church,  to  which 
Jay  himself  belonged,  during  a  controversy 
which  lasted  many  years.  As  president  of  the 
Westchester  Bible  society  he  delivered  a  long 
series  of  annual  addresses.  He  organized  a 
society  for  temperance  reform  in  1815.  He 
also  took  an  active  part  in  the  tract,  mission 
ary,  and  educational  movements  of  the  day, 
and  was  frequently  president  of  the  Sunday 
i  school  and  agricultural  societies  of  his  county. 


584: 


JAY 


JAZYGES 


In  1818  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas,  and  in  1820  was  made  the 
first  judge  of  Westchester  co.,  which  office  he 
held  till  1842,  when  he  was  superseded  on  ac 
count  of  his  anti-slavery  opinions.  In  1835, 
when  the  legislature  had  in  contemplation  a 
law  restricting  freedom  of  speech  on  the  sub 
ject  of  slavery,  he  advised  the  grand  jury  that 
it  would  be  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  resist 
such  a  law  as  a  violation  of  the  constitution. 
The  same  year,  on  behalf  of  the  executive  com 
mittee  of  the  American  anti-slavery  society,  he 
prepared  a  reply  to  the  current  charges  against 
the  abolitionists,  and  published  a  work  entitled 
"  An  Inquiry  into  the  Character  of  the  Ameri 
can  Colonization  and  Anti-Slavery  Societies." 
In  1838  he  published  "A  View  of  the  Action 
of  the  Federal  Government  in  behalf  of  Sla 
very."  In  1843-'4  he  visited  Europe,  and  pro 
ceeded  thence  to  Egypt,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  in  con 
junction  with  whom  he  investigated  the  subject 
of  Egyptian  slavery.  He  was  for  some  years 
president  of  the  American  peace  society,  and 
in  1848  published  a  volume  entitled  "  War  and 
Peace  :  the  Evils  of  the  First,  with  a  Plan  for 
supporting  the  Last,"  which  was  reprinted  by 
the  London  peace  society.  His  plan  consisted 
in  treaty  stipulations  for  the  settlement  of  dif 
ferences  by  arbitration.  The  committee  on 
foreign  relations  of  the  United  States  senate, 
to  whom  a  memorial  on  the  subject  was  refer 
red,  reported  in  favor  of  his  plan ;  and  Mr. 
Cobden  wrote  to  him:  "If  your  government 
is  prepared  to  insert  an  arbitration  clause  in 
the  pending  treaties,  I  am  confident  that  it  will 
be  accepted  by  our  negotiators."  By  his  will 
he  left  a  bequest  of  $1,000  for  "  promoting  the 
safety  and  comfort  of  fugitive  slaves."  His 
publications  on  all  subjects  were  43  in  number, 
many  of  which  were  widely  circulated  and 
exercised  much  influence  on  public  opinion. 
His  largest  work  was  the  "  Life  and  Writings 
of  John  Jay"  (2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1833). 
He  left  in  manuscript  an  elaborate  commentary 
on  the  Bible.  III.  John,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  New  York,  June  23, 1817.  He  studied 
and  practised  law,  became  prominent  in  the 
anti-slavery  and  other  political  movements,  was 
active  in  the  affairs  of  the  Episcopal  church, 
was  for  many  years  a  manager  and  correspond 
ing  secretary  of  the  New  York  historical  so 
ciety,  and  has  published  numerous  pamphlets, 
addresses,  and  reports  relating  to  these  subjects. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  and  for  some  time 
president  of  the  Union  league  club  of  New  York. 
In  18G9  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Austria, 
which  post  he  still  holds  (1874). 

JAY,  William,  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Tisbury,  Wiltshire,  May  8,  1769,  died  in  Bath, 
Dec.  27,  1853.  The  son  of  a  stone-cutter,  he 
began  life  as  his  father's  apprentice,  and  was 
employed  in  building  Beckford's  mansion  at 
Fonthill.  His  talents  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  Rev.  Cornelius  Winter  of  the  Marl- 
borough  dissenting  academy,  under  whose  pro 


tection  and  direction  he  prepared  for  the  Con 
gregational  ministry.  He  began  preaching  in 
his  16th  year.  His  first  important  sphere  of 
labor  was  at  Hope  chapel,  near  Bristol.  From 
thence  he  removed  in  1789  to  Argyle  chapel  in 
Bath,  where  he  was  settled  as  pastor  Jan.  31, 
1791,  and  officiated  till  he  retired  from  the 
active  ministry  in  January,  1853.  His  pub 
lished  sermons  have  passed  through  several 
editions.  He  also  wrote  an  "Essay  on  Mar 
riage,"  "Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Cornelius  Win 
ter,"  "Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  John  Clark,"  and 
"Lectures  on  Female  Scripture  Characters" 
(1854).  His  most  popular  work,  however,  was 
his  "Morning  and  Evening  Exercises"  (4  vols., 
1854),  which  has  had  a  very  wide  circulation. 
His  earlier  works  were  collected  in  12  vols. 
(Bath,  1845-'9;  republished  in  3  vols.,  New 
York).  His  autobiography,  with  a  supplement 
by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Redford  and  the  Rev.  J.  A. 
James,  appeared  in  1854. 

JAYADEVA,  a  Hindoo  poet,  born  at  Kenduli, 
a  town  of  doubtful  position,  but  according  to 
tradition  near  the  Ganges,  about  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century.  The  only  poem  of  his 
extant  is  entitled  Gita  Govinda,  in  honor  of 
Govinda  or  Krishna,  the  eighth  avatar  or  in 
carnation  of  Vishnu.  It  is  a  species  of  pastoral 
drama,  in  which  the  loves  of  the  god  and  his 
innamorata  Radha  are  described  in  very  impas 
sioned  language.  This  poetry  has  always  been 
greatly  admired  by  the  Hindoos,  and  most  of 
the  commentators  contend  that  it  is  to  be  un 
derstood  in  a  figurative  and  allegorical  sense, 
the  loves  of  Krishna  and  Radha  describing  the 
attraction  between  the  divine  goodness  and  the 
human  soul.  There  is  an  English  translation 
of  it  by  Sir  William  Jones,  who  admits  the 
allegorical  meaning,  though  others  think  it 
merely  an  amatory  poem. 

JAZET,  Jean  Pierre  Marie,  a  French  engraver, 
born  in  Paris,  July  31,  1788.  Under  the  di 
rection  of  his  uncle  Debucourt  he  became  fa 
mous  by  aquatint  engravings  of  some  of  the 
most  celebrated  works  of  Vernet,  Gros,  Dela- 
roche,  and  other  eminent  painters,  and  was  still 
at  work  in  1864,  though  then  in  his  76th  year. 
— His  son  EUGENE,  who  excelled  in  the  same  art, 
met  with  a  tragic  end  in  1856;  and  another 
son,  ALEXANDER  JEAN  Louis,  executed  a  popu 
lar  engraving  of  TrumbuH's  "Declaration  of 
American  Independence  "  (1861). 

JAZYGES,  a  tribe  belonging  to  the  numerous 
nationalities  comprehended  during  the  earlier 
period  of  the  Roman  empire  under  the  name 
of  Sarmatians,  who  dwelt  originally  on  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Black  sea  and  sea  of 
Azov.  In  the  time  of  the  emperor  Claudius, 
being  pressed  by  their  neighbors,  they  divi 
ded  into  three  bodies,  which  established  them 
selves  respectively  on  the  Don,  between  the 
Dnieper  and  the  Dniester,  and  in  the  marshy 
region  between  the  Theiss  and  the  Danube. 
The  two  former  divisions  became  tributary  to 
the  Goths;  the  third,  because  of  their  posi 
tion  between  Pannonia  and  Dacia,  lived  under 


JAZYGIA 


JEDBURGII 


585 


the  protection  of  Rome,  and  were  called  Jazy- 
ges  j\Ictanasta>,  or  transplanted.  Their  name 
disappeared  in  the  great  invasion  of  the  Ma 
gyars.  They  reappeared  as  a  Magyarized  tribe 
(Hun.  Jaszok,  bowmen)  at  a  later  period,  when 
their  possessions  between  the  Danube  and 
Theiss  formed  a  separate  central  district  of 
Hungary  under  the  name  of  Jazygia  (Jdszsdg). 
This  fertile  region  was  united  with  Cumania, 
and  down  to  1848  was  under  the  special  ad 
ministration  of  the  palatine,  who  also  bore  the 
title  of  captain  of  the  Jazyges  and  Cumanians. 
It  embraces  among  others  the  towns  of  Jasz- 
bereny,  the  capital  of  the  united  districts, 
Arok-Szallas,  and  Apathi,  and  has  an  area  of 
400  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  60,000  (area  of 
Jazygia  and  Cumania  together,  1,825  sq.  m. ; 
pop',  in  1870,  215,526).  (See  CUMAXIA.) 

JAZYGI1.     See  JAZYGES. 

JEAFFRESON,  John  Cordy,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Framlingham,  "Suffolk,  in  January, 
1831.  He  studied  medicine  for  a  while,  after 
ward  entered  Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  where 
he  graduated,  in  1852  entered  Lincoln's  inn  as 
a  law  student,  and  in  1859  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  While  an  undergraduate  he  con 
tributed  frequently  to  magazines  and  news 
papers.  His  first  novel  was  "Crew  Rise" 
(1854).  This  was  followed  by  "  Hinchbrook  " 
(1855)  and  several  other  novels,  such  as  "Isa 
bel,  the  Young  Wife  and  Old  Love,"  "  Miriam 
Copley,"  "Sir  Edward's  Daughter"  (1860), 
"  Olive  Blake's  Good  Work  "  (1862),  and  "  Live 
it  Down  "  (1863).  Among  his  other  works  are 
"A  Book  about  Doctors"  (1860),  "A  Book 
about  Lawyers"  (1866), 
"A  Book  about  the  Clergy," 
"  Annals  of  Oxford  "  (1870), 
and  "  A  Woman  in  Spite 
of  Herself"  (1872). 

JEAXRON,  Philippe  Augnste, 
a  French  painter,  born  in 
Boulogne,  May  10,  1809.  Ho 
is  a  self-taught  artist,  and 
became  known  in  Paris  in 
1830  by  his  "Little  Patri 
ots"  and  other  genre  pic 
tures,  especially  the  "Twelve 
Episodes  in  a  Proletarian 
Life,"  executed  for  Ledru- 
Rollin,  who  placed  him  in 
1848  at  the  head  of  all 
the  national  museums,  from 
which  office  he  retired  in 
1850,  after  making  great  im 
provements  in  the  Louvre 
and  other  institutions  in 
Paris  and  elsewhere.  He 
afterward  became  director 
of  the  museum  of  Marseilles. 
One  of  his  best  works  is  "  The  Abandoned 
Port  of  Ambleteuse,"  in  the  Luxembourg. 
He  has  written  Histoire  de  Vecole  fran$aise 
(1852),  and  De  Vart  de  la  peinture  (1865). 

JEBAIL,  or  Jebeil,  a  town  of  Syria,  built  on 
an  eminence  near  the  Mediterranean,  at  the 


foot  of  Mr.  Lebanon,  20  m.  K  of  Beyrout; 
pop.  about  600.  It  is  walled  on  the  land  side, 
contains  large  gardens,  a  strongly  built  castle, 
an  old  Maronite  church,  and  a  mosque.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Byblus  of  the  ancients,  often 
mentioned  as  a  city  of  Phoenicia,  between  Tri- 
polis  and  Berytus,  the  modern  Tarablus  and 
Beyrout.  In  the  Scriptures  it  is  called  Gebal, 
a  word  signifying  mountain.  Its  territory  is 
called  the  land  of  the  Giblites  (Josh.  xiii.  5) ; 
and  its  inhabitants  are  mentioned  among  the 
builders  of  the  Phoenician  king  Hiram,  who 
assisted  King  Solomon  in  building  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem.  Its  elders  and  wise  men  are  men 
tioned  as  calkers  of  Tyre,  in  the  time  of  its 
glory  (Ezek.  xxvii.  9).  It  is  said  to  be  the  birth 
place  of  Adonis,  and  just  S.  of  the  town  the 
river  Adonis  falls  into  the  sea.  The  harbor 
of  Jebail  was  destroyed  during  the  wars  of  the 
crusaders,  who  captured  the  town  and  kept  it 
as  long  as  they  maintained  their  power  in 
Syria.  It  was  taken  from  Mehemet  Ali  by  the 
English  in  1840. — Another  Gebal  is  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures,  a  mountainous  region  S.  of 
the  Dead  sea,  the  Jebal  of  the  Arabs,  the  Geba- 
lene  of  the  Greeks,  and  probably  the  Syria  So- 
bal  of  the  crusaders. 

JEBEL  SIIOMER.     See  SHOWER. 

JEDBIRGII,  the  chief  town  of  Roxburgh 
shire,  Scotland,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Jed,  42  m.  S.  E.  of  Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1871, 
3,321.  It  is  a  well  built  and  picturesque  town, 
with  manufactures  of  woollens,  iron  and  brass 
wares,  and  machinery ;  but  its  history  and  an 
tiquities  give  it  its  chief  celebrity.  The  prin- 


Jedburgh  Abbey. 

cipal  architectural  remains  are  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  and  once  magnificent  abbey,  built 
during  the  12th  century,  and  the  castle,  a  fa 
vorite  residence  of  the  early  Scottish  kings, 
now  used  as  a  prison. — Jedburgh  was  the 
scene  of  many  desperate  conflicts  during  the 


JEFFERSON 


border  wars,  when  it  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  was  regarded,  with  the  dense  forest  near 
by,  as  one  of  the  chief  Scottish  strongholds. 
The  great  abbey  was  burned  by  the  earl  of 
Surrey  in  1523,  and  again  partially  destroyed 
by  the  earl  of  Hertford  in  1545.  The  town 
was  also  the  scene  of  incidents  in  the  life  of 
Mary  Stuart.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Sir  David 
Brewster  and  Mrs.  Mary  Somerville. 

JEFFERSON,  the  name  of  23  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  N.  county  of  New  York, 
bordering  on  Lake  Ontario  and  the  river  St. 
Lawrence;  area,  1,868  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
65,415.  Black  river  intersects  it,  and  it  is 
watered  by  other  streams.  The  land  rises 
gradually  from  the  lake  to  a  height  of  1,000 
ft.  There  are  low  ridges  in  the  1ST.  E.  parallel 
with  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  marshes  in  the 
S.  "W.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile.  Iron 
ore,  lead,  and  copper  are  found.  The  Rome, 
Watertown,  and  Ogdensburgh  railroad  and 
Cape  Vincent  branch  traverse  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  228,772  bushels  of 
wheat,  221,551  of  Indian  corn,  1,058,227  of 
oats,  415,704  of  barley,  86,602  of  peas  and 
beans,  507,349  of  potatoes,  104,459  Ibs.  of 
wool,  262,738  of  hops,  35,850  of  flax,  529,109 
of  maple  sugar,  4,883,508  of  butter,  2,545,654 
of  cheese,  and  223,343  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  15,564  horses,  72,980  milch  cows,  23,525 
other  cattle,  26,390  sheep,  and  13,930  swine, 

6  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  9 
of  cheese  boxes,  35  of  carriages,  79  of  cheese, 
21  of  clothing,  4  of  confectionery,  1  of  cotton 
goods,  21  of  furniture,  10  of  iron  castings,  1  of 
blooms,  11  of  machinery,  4  of  malt,  6  of  paper, 
3  of  pumps,  34  of  saddlery  and  harness,  8  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  1  of  sewing  machines, 

I  of  steel  springs,  24  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  6  of  woollen  goods,  36  saw  mills, 
5  breweries,  19  tanneries,  9  currying  establish 
ments,    and  40  flour  mills.     Capital,  Water- 
town.      II.    A  "W.   county  of    Pennsylvania, 
drained  by  Mahoning  and  Red  Bank  creeks; 
area,  950  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,   21,656.     The 
surface  is  hilly  and  well  timbered,  and  the 
soil  generally  fertile.     Iron  ore  and  anthracite 
coal  are  abundant.     The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  78,618  bushels  of  wheat,  64,678  of 
rye,  200,484  of  Indian  corn,  390,151  of  oats, 
46,632    of    buckwheat,    54,596    of    potatoes, 
56,621    Ibs.    of  wool,   497,951    of   butter,  and 
18,914  tons  of  hay.     There  were  4,855  horses, 
5,391  milch  cows,   6,029  other  cattle,  20,029 
sheep,  and  8,889  swine;    2  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  8  of   carriages,    8  of 
furniture,  4  of  iron  castings,  1  of  machinery, 

7  of  saddlery  and  harness,  4  of  woollen  goods, 

II  tanneries,  7  currying  establishments,  1  dis 
tillery,    3   planing    mills,    and  44   saw   mills. 
Capital,  Brookville.      III.  The  N.   E.   county 
of    West  Virginia,  separated   from   Maryland 
on  the  X.  E.  by  the  Potomac  river,  bounded 
N.  W.  by  Opequan  creek,  and  S.  and  S.  E.  by 
Virginia,  and  intersected  by  the  Shenandoah  ; 
area,  260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 13,219,  of  whom 


3,488  were  colored.  It  has  a  rolling  surface 
and  a  fertile  soil  resting  on  a  bed  of  limestone. 
The  Blue  Ridge  lies  on  the  S.  E.  border.  The 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Winchester  and 
Potomac  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  468,841  bushels  of 
wheat,  336,287  of  Indian  corn,  44,077  of  oats, 
24,305  of  potatoes,  28,699  Ibs.  of  wool,  120,374 
of  butter,  and  5,753  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
3,694  horses,  2,489  milch  cows,  3,313  other 
cattle,  6,521  sheep,  and  9,151  swine,' 4  manu 
factories  of  woollen  goods,  5  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  paper,  4  of  cooper 
age,  1  of  cement,  1  tannery,  6  flour  mills,  and 
8  saw  mills.  Capital,  Charlestown.  IV.  An 
E.  county  of  Georgia,  intersected  by  Ogeechee 
river  and  Brier  creek ;  area,  634  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,190,  of  whom  7,943  were  colored. 
It  has  a  level  surface,  and  contains  buhrstone, 
agates,  chalcedony,  and  carnelian.  The  soil 
was  originally  fertile.  The  Georgia  Central 
railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  11,949  bushels  of  wheat, 
211,528  of  Indian  corn,  22,514  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  and  6,885  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
643  horses,  1,023  mules  and  asses,  1,508  milch 
cows,  3,432  other  cattle,  4,440  sheep,  and 
8,686  swine.  Capital,  Louisville.  V.  A  N. 
county  of  Florida,  bordering  on  Georgia  and 
Appalachee  bay,  and  bounded  E.  by  the  Ocilla 
river;  area,  470  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,398, 
of  whom  6,374  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  Jack 
sonville,  Pensacola,  and  Mobile  railroad  and 
Monticello  branch  traverse  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  238,728  bushels  of  In 
dian  corn,  15,163  of  sweet  potatoes,  24  hogs 
heads  of  sugar,  21,773  gallons  of  molasses, 
and  6,051  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  494 
horses,  1,025  mules  and  asses,  1,635  milch 
cows,  3,378  other  cattle,  956  sheep,  and  7,004 
swine.  Capital,  Monticello.  VI.  A  central 
county  of  Alabama,  drained  by  Black  Warrior 
and  Cahawba  rivers;  area,  1,040  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,345,  of  whom  2,506  were  colored. 
It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a  fertile  soil.  Coal, 
iron,  and  timber  are  abundant.  The  Alabama 
and  Chattanooga  and  the  South  and  Xorth 
Alabama  railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  45,219  bushels  of  wheat, 
251,184  of  Indian  corn,  24,195  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  31,566  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,470  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  1,754  horses,  3,094  milch 
cows,  1,414  working  oxen,  3,852  other  cattle, 
5,437  sheep,  and  13,753  swine.  Capital,  Ely- 
ton.  VII.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Mississippi,  sepa 
rated  from  Louisiana  by  the  Mississippi  river; 
area,  630  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,848,  of  whom 
10,633  were  colored,  It  has  a  fertile  soil,  and 
the  E.  part  is  occupied  by  pine  woods.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  204,464  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  31,386  of  sweet  potatoes,  33,- 
235  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  13,719  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,681  horses,  1,964  mules  and 
asses,  3,215  milch  cows,  1,584  working  oxen, 
4,825  other  cattle,  2,118  sheep,  and  7,620 


JEFFERSON 


587 


swine.  Capital,  Fayette.  VIII.  AS.  E.  parish 
of  Louisiana,  extending  from  Lake  Pontchar- 
train  to  Barataria  bay,  and  crossed  by  the  Mis 
sissippi;  area,  384  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 17,767, 
of  whom  11,054  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
level  and  partly  occupied  by  marshes  and  lakes. 
The  soil  is  fertile.  The  New  Orleans,  Jackson, 
and  Great  Northern,  the  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
and  Texas,  and  Morgan's  Louisiana  and  Texas 
railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  '1870  were  67,460  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  8,071  of  Irish  and  7,640  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  456  bales  of  cotton,  269,620  Ibs.  of  rice, 
2,196  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  136,200  gallons 
of  molasses.  There  were  195  horses,  828 
mules  and  asses,  533  cattle,  and  336  sheep;  4 
manufactories  of  brick,  and  7  of  molasses  and 
sugar.  Capital,  La  Fayette.  IX.  The  S.  E. 
county  of  Texas,  separated  from  Louisiana  by 
Sabine  lake  and  pass,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the 
Neches,  and  S.  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  area, 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,906,  of  whom  498 
were  colored.  The  surface  consists  chiefly  of 
vast  savannas,  which  pasture  large  herds  of 
horses  and  cattle.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  15,282  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  8,880 
of  sweet  potatoes,  and  15,150  Ibs.  of  rice, 
There  were  1,758  horses,  743  milch  cows,  15,- 
307  other  cattle,  642  sheep,  and  535  swine. 
Capital,  Beaumont.  X.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Arkansas,  traversed  by  Arkansas  river,  which 
is  here  navigable  by  steamboats;  area,  about 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,733,  of  whom 
10,167  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and 
the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  303,125  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  18,- 
390  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  2,211  horses, 
1,936  mules  and  asses,  3,231  milch  cows,  4,315 
other  cattle,  1,079  sheep,  and  17,093  swine;  1 
manufactory  of  agricultural  implements,  1  of 
carriages,  and  6  saw  mills.  •  Capital,  Pine 
Bluff.  XI.  An  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bound 
ed  N.  "W.  by  Holston  river  and  drained  by  the 
French  Broad;  area,  356  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
19,476,  of  whom  2,910  were  colored.  It  has  a 
hilly  and  well  wooded  surface,  and  contains 
iron  ore.  The  soil  is  fertile.  The  East  Ten 
nessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia,  and  the  Cincin 
nati,  Cumberland  Gap,  and  Charleston  rail 
roads  pass  through  it.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  135,764  bushels  of  wheat,  527,- 
853  of  Indian  corn,  132,453  of  oats,  22,892  Ibs. 
of  wool,  75,583  of  butter,  and  3,923  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  3,210  horses,  3,097  milch 
cows,  4,828  other  cattle,  11,598  sheep,  and 
11,971  swine;  4  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  1  of  paints,  1  flour  mill,  and  3  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Dandridge.  XII.  A  N.  county 
of  Kentucky,  separated  from  Indiana  by  the 
Ohio  rivej;  area,  330  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
118,953,  of  whom  19,146  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  diversified  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
Louisville  and  Nashville  and  the  Louisville,  Cin- 
ninnati,  and  Lexington  railroads  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  102,- 
820  bushels  of  wheat,  1,059,729  of  Indian  corn, 


368,328  of  oats,  49,975  of  barley,  377,382  of 
Irish  and  104,862  of  sweet  potatoes,  35,263  Ibs. 
of  wool,  312,233  of  butter,  and  11,228  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  6,360  horses,  1,369  mules 
and  asses,  6,263  milch  cows,  3,071  other  cat 
tle,  7,089  sheep,  and  34,575  swine.  There  were 
altogether  801  manufacturing  establishments, 
chiefly  in  Louisville,  the  county  seat;  capital 
invested,  $11,129,291 ;  value  of  products,  $20,- 
364,650.  XIII.  An  E.  county  of  Ohio,  sepa 
rated  from  West  Virginia  by  the  Ohio  river ; 
area,  396  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  29,188.  The 
surface  is  uneven,  the  soil  rich,  and  coal  abun 
dant.  The  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St. 
Louis  railroad  and  the  river  division  of  the 
Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh  railroad  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
215,694  bushels  of  wheat,  630,196  of  Indian 
corn,  430,384  of  oats,  44,263  of  barley,  122,- 
530  of  potatoes,  664,512  Ibs.  of  wool,  561,- 
047  of  butter,  and  28,569  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  5,577  horses,  5,429  milch  cows, 
6,837  other  cattle,  154,668  sheep,  and  11,- 
627  swine;  15  manufactories  of  carriages,  3 
of  brick,  1  of  cars,  11  of  clothing,  1  of  recti 
fied  coal  oil,  4  of  coke,  1  of  glassware,  8  of 
iron,  3  of  machinery,  1  of  printing  paper,  5 
of  woollen  goods,  6  tanneries,  2  currying  es 
tablishments,  1  distillery,  2  breweries,  5  flour 
mills,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  Steubenville. 
XIV.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  separated  from 
Kentucky  by  the  Ohio  river;  area,  362  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  29,741.  It  has  a  diversified  sur 
face  and  a  rich  soil.  The  Jeffersonville,  Madi 
son,  and  Indianapolis,  and  the  Ohio  and  Mis 
sissippi  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  207,909  bushels  of 
wheat,  466,246  of  Indian  corn,  131,321  of  oats, 
40,028  of  barley,  98,952  of  potatoes,  35,707  Ibs. 
of  wool,  408,565  of  butter,  and  20,933  tons  of 
hay.  There  Avere  6,406  horses,  5,289  milch 
cows,  7,006  other  cattle,  18,921  sheep,  and 
19,757  swine,  and  numerous  manufacturing 
establishments,  chiefly  in  Madison,  the  county 
seat.  XV.  A  S.  county  of  Illinois,  drained  by 
the  head  streams  of  Big  Muddy  river ;  area, 
576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,864.  The  surface 
is  diversified  by  prairies  and  tracts  of  tim 
ber,  and  the  soil  is  moderately  fertile.  The 
St.  Louis  and  Southeastern  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  100,553  bushels  of  wheat,  887,981  of 
Indian  corn,  285,949  of  oats,  52,309  of  pota 
toes,  99,469  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  52,957  of  wool, 
150,298  of  butter,  and  10,460  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  6,006  horses,  1,878  mules  and  assess, 
3,908  milch  cows,  6,484  other  cattle,  22,759 
sheep,  and  24,805  swine ;  4  manufactories  of 
carriages,  5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  wool 
len  goods,  8  flour  mills,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capi 
tal,  Mount  Vernon.  XVI.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
AVisconsin,  drained  by  Rock,  Crawfish,  and 
Bark  rivers,  and  by  Koshkonong  lake,  an  ex 
pansion  of  Rock  river;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  34,040.  The  surface  is  generally  level 
or  undulating,  and  is  well  timbered,  particularly 


588 


JEFFERSON 


in  the  E.  part.  The  soil  is  good,  the  valley  of 
Rock  river  being  of  remarkable  fertility.  The 
La  Crosse  and  St.  Paul,  the  Prairie  clu  Chien, 
and  the  Madison  divisions  of  the  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  railroad,  and  the  Wisconsin  divi 
sion  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  078,715  bushels  of  wheat,  34,374  of  rye, 
579,233  of  Indian  corn,  470.466  of  oats,  50,- 
310  of  barley,  296,103  of  potatoes,  203,408  Ibs. 
of  wool,  206,755  of  hops,  908,119  of  butter, 
84,201  of  cheese,  and  50,055  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  8,409  horses,  11,701  milch  cows, 
11,969  other  cattle,  49,118  sheep,  and  14,965 
swine ;  5  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple 
ments,  8  of  brick,  25  of  carriages,  5  of  cheese, 
16  of  cooperage,  12  of  furniture,  4  of  iron 
castings,  2  of  cotton  and  woollen  machinery, 
10  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  sash,  doors, 
and  blinds,  9  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  2  of  woollen  goods,  2  tanneries,  14 
breweries,  15  flour  mills,  and  11  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Jefferson.  XVII.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Iowa,  drained  by  Skunk  river  and  Big  Cedar 
creek;  area,  380  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,839. 
The  surface  is  occupied  by  rich  rolling  prairies 
and  forests  of  oak,  ash,  hickory,  maple,  &c. 
The  Burlington  and  Missouri  River  railroad 
and  the  Southwestern  branch  of  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  traverse  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  234,779  bushels  of 
wheat,  1,100,560  of  Indian  corn,  242,364  of 
oats,  72,637  of  potatoes,  107,394  Ibs.  of  wool, 
403,782  of  butter,  and  26,335  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  9,150  horses,  6,365  milch  cows, 
11,330  other  cattle,  29,300  sheep,  and  32,845 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages,  2  of  fur 
niture,  1  of  machinery,  7  of  saddlery  and  har 
ness,  2  of  woollen  goods',  and  3  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Fairfield.  XVIII.  An  E.  county  of 
Missouri,  separated  from  Illinois  by  the  Mis 
sissippi  river,  and  drained  by  Maramec  river 
and  its  branches ;  area,  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  15,380,  of  whom  763  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  diversified,  and  the  soil  is  of  Various 
qualities.  Rich  mines  of  lead  are  worked,  and 
copper  and  cobalt  are  also  found.  The  St. 
Louis  and  Iron  Mountain  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  149,298  bushels  of  wheat,  534,705  of 
Indian  corn,  134,279  of  oats,  76,278  of  pota 
toes,  25,235  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  18,152  of  wool, 
152,934  of  butter,  6,426  gallons  of  wine,  29 
bales  of  cotton,  and  5,675  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,639  horses,  1,374  mules  and  asses,  4,739 
milch  cows,  1,235  working  oxen,  5,999  other 
cattle,  10,722  sheep,  and  24,882  swine;  3  flour 
mills,  1  manufactory  of  kaolin  and  ground 
earths,  and  3  of  pig  lead.  Capital,  Hills- 
borough.  XIX.  A  N".  E.  county  of  Kansas, 
bounded  S.  by  Kansas  river,  arid  intersected 
by  Grasshopper  river ;  area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,526.  The  surface  is  undulating, 
and  the  soil  fertile.  Timber  and  limestone  are 
abundant,  and  coal  has  been  found  in  several 
parts.  The  Kansas  Pacific  and  the  Atchison, 


Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  railroads  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  32,302 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,257,790  of  Indian  corn, 
210,040  of  oats,  142,405  of  potatoes,  261,161 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  18,925  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  6,313  horses,  6,215  milch  cows,  13,633 
other  cattle,  4,072  sheep,  and  21,818  swine;  3 
flour  mills,  6  saw  mills,  and  1  woollen  factory. 
Capital,  Oskaloosa.  XX.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Nebraska,  bordering  on  Kansas,  and  intersected 
by  Little  Blue  river ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,440.  The  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  24,847  bushels  of 
wheat,  72,230  of  Indian  corn,  15,199  of  pota 
toes,  19,850  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  2,182  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  528  horses,  507  rnilch  cows, 
905  other  cattle,  791  sheep,  and  712  swine. 
Capital,  Fairburg,  XXI.  A  central  county  of 
Colorado,  situated  partly  in  the  foot  hills  and 
partly  in  the  plains ;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,390.  It  is  watered  by  small 
tributaries  of  the  Platte,  which  afford  good 
water  power.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  easily 
irrigated.  In  the  west  are  found  copper,  iron, 
coal,  fire  and  potter's  clay,  and  gypsum.  The 
Colorado  Central  railroad  terminates  at  the 
county  seat.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  54,746  bushels  of  wheat,  8,625  of  Indian 
corn,  45,523  of  oats,  9,060  of  barley,  15,890  of 
potatoes,  47,470  Ibs.  of  butter,  8,860  of  cheese, 
and  1,957  tons  of  hay.  There  were  433  horses, 
1,026  milch  cows,  and  1,684  other  cattle;  3 
flour  mills,  8  saw  mills,  and  2  manufactories 
of  stone  and  earthenware.  Capital,  Golden 
City.  XXII.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Montana, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Missouri  river;  area,  2,720 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,531,  of  whom  122  were 
Chinese.  It  contains  a  large  area  of  rich  farm 
ing  land,  and  is  well  adapted  to  stock  raising. 
There  are  gold  mines  on  the  branches  of  the 
Missouri  and  Jefferson  rivers.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  4,194  bushels  of  wheat, 
11,584  of  oats,  6,605  of  barley,  11,693  of  pota 
toes,  70,165  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  2,422  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  572  horses,  2,484  milch  cows, 
and  3,614  other  cattle;  6  saw  mills,  and  8 
quartz  mills.  Capital,  Radersburg.  XXIII.  A 
W.  county  of  Washington  territory,  bounded 
E.  and  N.  E.  by  Hoods's  canal  and  Admiralty 
inlet,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  ocean;  area,  1,670 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,268.  The  interior  is 
mountainous,  and  the  surface  is  mostly  covered 
with  forests  of  pine  and  fir,  but  there  is  much 
land  suitable  for  agriculture.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  7,650  bushels  of  wheat, 
3,038  of  oats,  4,373  of  barley,  13,698  of  pota 
toes,  and  13,356  Ibs.  of  butter.  The  value  of 
live  stock  was  $37,674.  There  were  2  saw 
mills,  producing  $326,050  worth  of  lumber 
during  the  year.  Capital,  Port  Townsend. 

JEFFERSON,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Marion  co.,  Texas,  situated  on  Big  Cypress 
bayou,  4  m.  above  its  entrance  into  Soda  lake, 
which  empties  into  Red  river,  and  on  a  branch 
of  the  Texas  and  Pacific  railroad,  260  m.  N.  E. 
of  Austin  and  40  m.  N.  W.  of  Shreveport,  La. ; 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


589 


pop.  in  1860,  988;  in  1870,  4,190,  of  whom 
1,825  were  colored.  In  the  vicinity  are  depos 
its  of  coal  and  iron  ore.  The  river  is  naviga 
ble  to  this  point  by  large  steamers,  and  the 
city  is  the  shipping  point  for  a,  large  extent  of 
fertile  country,  the  principal  articles  being  cot 
ton,  cattle,  hides,  beef,  tallow,  wool,  and  Usage 
orange  seeds.  The  principal  manufactories 
are  a  f oundery,  saw  mills,  planing  mills,  sash 
and  door  factories,  and  brick-making  estab 
lishments.  There  is  also  an  extensive  foun- 
dery  about  4£  m.  from  the  city.  There  are  a 
national  and  a  savings  bank,  ten  schools,  three 
newspapers,  and  seven  churches.  Jefferson 
was  first  settled  in  1843. 

JEFFERSON,  Thomas,  third  president  of  the 
United  States,  born  at  Shadwell,  Albemarle  co., 
Va.,  April  2,  1743,  died  at  Monticello,  July  4, 
1826.  His  father  was  Col.  Peter  Jefferson,  a 
planter  of  great  force  of  character  and  high 
position  ;  his  mother,  Jane  Randolph,  daughter 
of  Isham  Randolph  of  Dungeoness  in  Gooch- 
land.  At  five  years  of  age  he  was  placed  at  an 
English  school,  and  at  nine  commenced  the 
study  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  French  under  Mr. 
Douglass,  a  Scottish  clergyman.  Upon  his  fa 
ther's  death  in  1757,  he  was  sent  to  the  classi 
cal  school  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Maury,  where  he 
continued  for  two  years,  passing  thence  at  the 
age  of  17  to  the  college  of  William  and  Mary  at 
Williamsburg.  He  soon  became  popular  with 
his  companions  and  the  college  professors,  and 
is  described  at  this  time  as  ardent  and  impulsive 
in  demeanor,  with  a  tall,  thin,  and  angular  per 
son,  ruddy  complexion,  red  hair,  and  bright 
gray  eyes  flecked  with  hazel.  Among  the 
friends  whom  he  made  was  Francis  Fanquier, 
the  popular  governor  of  the  colony.  After  re 
maining  in  college  two  years,  he  studied  law 
with  George  Wythe,  and  commenced  practice 
in  1767  at  the  bar  of  the  general  court,  attend 
ing  also  the  county  courts  of  his  district.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  but  slightly  acquainted 
with  the  practice  of  the  profession,  and  an  in 
frequent  speaker ;  yet  during  the  first  two 
years  of  his  practice  he  was  employed  in  about 
200  suits,  his  fees  amounting  to  at  least  £600, 
at  a  time  when  fees  were  very  moderate.  The 
record  of  the  two  succeeding  years  shows  a 
regular  increase,  and  in  1771  Robert  Carter 
Nicholas,  an  eminent  lawyer,  intrusted  to  him 
all  of  his  unfinished  business.  In  1769,  at  the 
age  of  26,  he  was  chosen  to  represent  his 
county  in  the  house  of  burgesses,  where  he  at 
once  took  a  prominent  stand  with  the  oppo 
nents  of  parliamentary  encroachment,  drafting 
the  resolutions  to  be  used  as  heads  in  framing 
a  reply  to  Governor  Botetourt's  address,  and 
signing  the  non-importation  agreement.  At 
this  his  first  session  he  introduced  a  bill  em 
powering  the  owners  of  slaves  to  manumit 
them  if  they  thought  proper  ;  it  was  defeated, 
and  its  policy  not  fully  embraced  till  1782. 
Jefferson  returned  to  his  practice,  and  in  the 
following  year  removed  from  Shadwell  to  a  new 
residence  but  partially  finished,  which  after 


ward  became  famous  as  "  Monticello."  On  Jan. 
1,  1772,  he  was  married  to  Martha  Skelton, 
widow  of  Bathurst  Skelton,  and  daughter  of 
John  Wayles,  an  influential  lawyer  of  Charles 
City.  This  lady,  then  23  years  of  age,  and  re 
markable  for  the  beauty  of  her  person  and  the 
grace  of  her  manners,  brought  him  a  very  con 
siderable  fortune.  She  had  inherited  135  slaves 
and  40,000  acres  of  land,  the  value  of  the  whole 
being  about  equal  to  Jefferson's  own  patrimony. 
The  two  combined  formed  an  ample  estate, 
and  Jefferson's  practice  added  largely  to  his 
income.  In  the  spring  of  1773  he  was  ap 
pointed  by  the  house  of  burgesses  a  member 
of  the  "  committee  of  correspondence  and  in 
quiry  for  the  dissemination  of  intelligence  be 
tween  the  colonies,"  the  plan  of  which  he  had 
aided  in  devising.  The  house  was  dissolved  by 
the  governor  ;  its  members  were  reelccted  and 
resumed  their  seats  in  the  spring  of  1774 ;  and 
it  was  again  dissolved  after  adopting  a  resolu 
tion  drafted  by  Jefferson  and  a  few  associates 
at  a  private  meeting,  recommending  the  ob 
servance  of  June  1  as  u  a  day  of  fasting,  hu 
miliation,  and  prayer,"  in  consequence  of  the 
passage  of  the  Boston  port  bill  in  parliament. 
The  members  met  privately,  and  recommended 
the  election  of  deputies  from  the  counties  to  a 
convention  to  meet  on  Aug.  1.  Jefferson  was 
chosen  a  member  of  this  convention,  but  was 
taken  sick  just  before  the  assembling  of  the  body, 
and  could  not  attend.  He  had  however  drawn 
up  a  paper  to  serve  for  instructions  to  the  dele 
gates  to  the  general  congress  which  the  commit 
tee  of  correspondence  had  been  directed  to  pro 
pose  to  all  the  colonies,  and  this  he  sent  to  Pey 
ton  Randolph,  the  president  of  the  convention. 
The  document  was  afterward  ordered  by  the 
burgesses  to  be  printed  under  the  title  of  "A 
Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British  Amer 
ica,"  and,  as  Jefferson  believed,  procured  the 
enrolment  of  his  name  on  a  bill  for  treason 
brought  into  parliament.  It  was  a  bold,  elabo 
rate,  and  eloquent  exposition  of  the  right  of 
the  colonies  to  resist  taxation,  and  contained 
the  germ  of  the  subsequent  declaration  of  in 
dependence.  The  paper  was  offered,  but  not 
adopted,  being  regarded  as  too  much  in  ad 
vance  of  public  sentiment.  The  people  were 
not  yet  ripe  for  resistance  by  force,  and  even 
the  leaders  still  believed  in  the  possibility  of 
renewing  the  old  amicable  relations  with  Great 
Britain.  Such  a  restoration  of  good  feeling 
was  warmly  hoped  for  by  the  planters  general 
ly.  A  "redress  of  grievances"  was  all  that 
the  foremost  leaders  aimed  at  thus  early,  and 
the  tone  of  the  appeal  for  redress  was  the 
point  at  issue.  The  "Summary  View''  was 
printed  in  England  as  well  as  in  Virginia,  and 
extensively  made  use  of  by  opposition  speakers 
in  parliament.  Its  influence  upon  the  fortunes 
of  Jefferson  was  marked  ;  it  placed  him  before 
the  public  as  a  courageous  and  uncompromising 
advocate  of  constitutional  freedom,  and  above 
all  as  a  most  accomplished  and  eloquent  writer, 
lie  attended  the  second  convention,  which  met 


590 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


in  March,  1775,  and  was  placed  upon  the  com 
mittee  to  report  a  plan  of  defence,  which  was 
soon  drawn  up.  The  convention  then  proceed 
ed  to  elect  delegates  to  congress,  and  Jefferson 
was  chosen  as  the  alternate  of  Peyton  Ran 
dolph,  who  might  be  retained  by  his  office  of 
president  of  the  house  in  Virginia.  This  was 
the  case  when  Gov.  Dunmore  summoned  the 
burgesses  to  meet  on  June  1 .  Jefferson  was  pres- 
ent,  and  at  the  request  of  his  associates  drew  up 
before  leaving  "Williamsburg  the  reply  of  the 
Virginia  assembly  to  Lord  North's  "  conciliatory 
proposition."  This  bold  and  forcible  paper  he 
carried  with  him  to  Philadelphia  soon  after 
ward.  Eight  days  before  his  arrival  Washing 
ton  had  been  appointed  by  congress  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  colonies. 
America  was  thus  in  open  resistance  against 
the  crown.  Jefferson's  arrival  was  anxiously 
expected,  as  he  was  known  to  be  the  bearer 
of  the  reply  of  Virginia  to  Lord  North's  pro 
posal  ;  and  when  the  reply  was  delivered  to 
congress,  it  met  with  the  warmest  approbation. 
As  the  author  of  the  paper,  and  of  the  "  Sum 
mary  View  "  in  the  preceding  year,  Jefferson 
took  his  position  among  the  leaders  of  the 
body.  lie  had  "  the  reputation  of  a  masterly 
pen,"  says  John  Adams,  and  "  writings  of  his 
were  handed  about,  remarkable  for  the  peculiar 
felicity  of  expression."  He  was  silent  upon 
the  floor,  but  in  committee  was  so  "prompt, 
frank,  explicit,  and  decisive,"  says  the  same 
authority,  that  he  won  the  cordial  regard  as 
well  as  respect  of  his  associates.  He  was  at 
once  placed  upon  the  committee  to  draw  up  the 
declaration  of  the  cause  of  taking  up  arms,  and 
aided  John  Dickinson  in  drafting  the  paper, 
of  which  congress  approved.  The  body  then 
proceeded  to  act  upon  Lord  North's  proposi 
tion  ;  and  Jefferson,  as  author  of  the  answer 
of  Virginia,  was  requested  by  the  committee, 
of  which  he  was  a  member,  to  prepare  that 
of  congress.  He  did  so,  nearly  in  the  words 
of  the  former  paper.  Congress  adopted  it,  and 
then  adjourned.  In  November  the  news  ar 
rived  of  the  rejection  of  the  last  petition.  On 
May  15,  1776,  Virginia  instructed  her  delegates 
to  propose  a  declaration  of  the  independence 
of  the  colonies;  and  congress  now  solemnly 
approached  that  great  event.  Early  in  June 
a  committee  to  draw  up  the  declaration  was 
appointed,  with  Jefferson  for  its  chairman. 
He  was  "unanimously  pressed  to  undertake 
the  draft "  by  his  associates  of  the  committee, 
and  did  so,  Franklin  and  Adams  only  making 
two  or  three  verbal  alterations  in  it.  It  was 
laid  before  congress  on  June  28.  On  July  2, 
the  resolution  to  declare  the  colonies  indepen 
dent,  which  had  been  introduced  by  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  in  accordance  with  the  Virginia 
instructions,  passed  ,the  body,  and  the  draft 
of  the  declaration  was  taken  up.  The  debate 
upon  the  paper,  as  to  its  tone,  its  statements, 
and  the  propriety  of  adopting  at  that  time  a 
measure  so  extreme,  lasted  for  nearly  three 
days,  and  was  very  hot.  It  was  so  powerfully 


opposed  by  some  of  the  members,  that  Jeffer 
son  compared  the  opposition  to  "  the  ceaseless 
action  of  gravity,  weighing  upon  us  by  night 
and  by  day."  Its  supporters,  however,  were 
the  leading  minds,  and  urged  its  adoption  with 
masterly  eloquence  and  ability.  On  July  4  the 
declaration  with  the  amendments  was  agreed 
to ;  and  thus  commenced  the  republic  of  the 
United  States  of  America..  The  paper  has  just 
ly  secured  a  renown  more  extended  perhaps 
than  that  of  any  other  state  paper  in  existence. 
Two  questions  have  however  arisen  as  to  its 
originality :  the  first  upon  the  substance  of  the 
document ;  the  second  in  regard  to  its  phrase 
ology,  in  connection  with  the  alleged  Mecklen 
burg  declaration  of  May,  1775.  It  is  more  than 
probable  that  Jefferson  made  use  of  some  of 
the  ideas  expressed  in  newspapers,  conversa 
tion,  and  by  public  speakers  at  the  time ;  and 
that  his  study  of  the  great  English  writers  upon 
constitutional  freedom  was  of  service  to  him. 
But  an  impartial  criticism  will  not  base  upon 
the  fact  a  charge  of  want  of  originality.  It 
should  rather  be  regarded  as  the  peculiar  merit 
of  the  writer  that  he  thus  collected  and  em 
bodied  the  conclusions  upon  government  of 
the  leading  thinkers  of  the  age  in  Europe  and 
America,  rejecting  what  was  false,  and  com 
bining  his  material  into  a  production  of  so 
much  eloquence  and  dignity.  The  "  Summary 
View  "  of  1774  will  however  be  found  to  con 
tain  the  complete  germ  of  the  "  Declaration  ;" 
and  as  the  originality  of  the  former  has  not 
been  impeached,  the  merit  of  the  latter  is  in 
every  fair  sense  due  to  Jefferson.  The  second 
charge,  that  he  made  use  of  the  alleged  Meck 
lenburg  paper,  has  excited  volumes  of  contro 
versy.  Jefferson  distinctly  denied  that  he  had 
ever  seen  it  at  the  time,  and  John  Adams  de 
clared  that  he  had  not  himself  met  with  it. 
Jefferson  was  rechosen  a  delegate  to  congress, 
but  resigned  the  appointment.  "  The  laboring 
oar,"  he  wrote,  was  at  home  in  Virginia.  His 
aim  now  was  to  carry  out  radical  changes  in 
the  laws  of  his  native  state.  The  new  era  could 
not  commence  there  until  fundamental  reforms 
had  taken  place,  and  the  practicability  of  such 
reforms  had  long  engaged  his  attention.  The 
first  movement  in  the  proposed  direction  had 
been  the  formation  by  the  convention  of  a 
constitution  for  the  commonwealth.  Just  be 
fore  the  composition  of  the  declaration,  Jeffer 
son  had  drawn  up  a  preamble  and  outline 
sketch  of  the  proposed  instrument,  and  sent  it 
to  Edmund  Randolph,  president  of  the  conven 
tion  then  sitting.  George  Mason  had  however 
framed  a  constitution  upon  which  the  final 
vote  was  about  to  be  taken.  Jefferson's  draft 
was  not  proposed,  but  his  preamble  was  pre 
fixed  to  the  work  of  Mason.  The  great  reforms 
in  the  organic  laws  were  still  unattained,  and 
to  these  Jefferson  ardently  addressed  himself. 
He  was  elected  to  represent  his  county,  and 
declining  the  appointment  by  congress  to  be 
come  one  of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate 
the  now  important  treaties  of  commerce  and 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


591 


alliance  with  France,  he  took  his  seat  in  the 
Virginia  house  in  October,  1776.  He  com 
menced  at  once  by  obtaining  leave  to  bring  in 
bills  for  cutting  off  entails,  and  for  a  general 
revision  of  the  laws  of  the  commonwealth.  A 
committee  of  revision  was  appointed,  and  Jef 
ferson  placed  at  the  head  of  it,  with  Edmund 
Pendleton  and  other  distinguished  lawyers  for 
colleagues.  The  work  employed  the  committee 
for  more  than  two  years,  and  was  arduous  in 
the  extreme.  To  Jefferson  were  allotted  the 
common  law  and  statutes  to  the  4th  of  James 
I. ;  and  he  applied  himself  with  zeal  to  the  re 
vision.  To  the  more  important  bills  which  he 
brought  in,  the  opposition  was  resolute  and 
bitter.  The  explanation  of  this  fact  may  be 
found  in  a  few  sentences  of  his  memoir:  "I 
considered  four  of  these  bills  as  forming  a  sys 
tem  by  which  every  fibre  would  be  eradicated  of 
ancient  or  future  aristocracy.  .  .  .  The  re 
peal  of  the  laws  of  entail  would  prevent  the 
accumulation  and  perpetuation  of  wealth  in 
select  families.  .  .  .  The  abolition  of  primo 
geniture,  and  equal  partition  of  inheritances, 
removed  the  feudal  and  unnatural  distinctions 
which  made  one  member  of  every  family  rich 
and  all  the  rest  poor.  • .  .  .  The  restoration  of 
the  rights  of  conscience  relieved  the  people 
from  taxation  for  the  support  of  a  religion  not 
theirs,  for  the  establishment  was  truly  the  re 
ligion  of  the  rich."  The  latter  reference  is  to 
the  bill  "  for  establishing  religious  freedom.'1 
On  the  adoption  of  this,  and  the  proposition  to 
cut  off  entails  and  abolish  the  right  of  primo 
geniture,  took  place  the  determined  stand  which 
has  been  mentioned.  From  the  peculiar  charac 
ter  of  Virginia  society  at  the  period,  no  mea 
sures  could  have  been  more  revolutionary.  The 
dominant  class  was  essentially  aristocratic,  and 
the  law  of  primogeniture  represented  their 
deliberate  views  of  social  order ;  the  establish 
ment  was  dear  to  them  as  the  church  of  their 
ancestors,  and  as  the  bulwark  of  Protestant 
Christianity  against  heresy  and  superstition. 
The  contest  was  prolonged  for  years,  and  en 
listed  all  the  ability  of  the  commonwealth. 
The  advocates  and  opponents  of  the  measures 
fought  with  the  desperation  of  men  who  were 
contending  for  the  dearest  prizes  of  existence. 
The  bills  all  finally  passed,  and  the  reorganiza 
tion  was  complete.  When  Jefferson  drew  up 
the  epitaph  to  be  inscribed  upon  his  tomb,  he 
added  to  the  words,  "  author  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence,"  those  others,  "  and  of 
the  statute  of  Virginia  for  religious  freedom." 
In  addition  to  these  radical  measures,  Jefferson 
was  the  author  of  others  of  importance,  for  the 
establishment  of  courts  of  law,  and  a  complete 
system  of  elementary  and  collegiate  education. 
He  continued  to  sit  in  the  house  in  1777  and 
1778.  In  the  former  year  he  strongly  opposed 
the  alleged  scheme  for  appointing  Patrick 
Henry  dictator.  In  the  latter  year  he  proposed 
and  procured  the  passage  of  a  bill  forbidding 
the  future  importation  of  slaves.  In  the  spring 
of  1779  he  was  busily  employed  in  ameliorating 
VOL.  ix. — 38 


the  condition  of  the  British  prisoners  at  Char- 
lottesville.  On  June  1  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Virginia.  He  entered  upon  office  at  a  gloomy 
period  in  the  history  of  the  country.  The  last 
campaign  had  not  been  encouraging  to  the 
American  arms,  and  the  enemy  were  about  to 
carry  the  war  into  the  south.  Jefferson  found 
the  commonwealth  almost  defenceless.  Vir 
ginia  had  nearly  10,000  troops  in  the  army  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  steady  drain  upon 
her  other  resources  had  so  greatly  enfeebled 
her  that  there  was  little  prospect  of  her  being 
able  to  resist  an  enemy.  The  southern  cam 
paign  began  in  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  and 
the  resources  of  the  colonies  were  laid  under  a 
heavy  tax  for  raising  supplies.  Virginia  was 
so  profuse  in  contributions  of  men,  arms,  horses, 
and  provisions,  that  she  was  soon  completely 
exhausted.  Her  extended  coast  and  the  banks 
of  her  great  rivers  were  wholly  unfortified.  A 
few  small  vessels  and  gunboats,  imperfectly 
manned  and  equipped,  were  all  that  she  could 
oppose  to  the  approach  of  an  enemy's  fleet. 
Gen.  Leslie  easily  took  possession  of  Hampton 
and  Portsmouth,  and  Arnold  ascended  James 
river  almost  unresisted  with  fewer  than  2,000 
men.  lie  entered  Richmond,  which  had  re 
cently  become  the  capital,  on  Jan.  5,  1781. 
The  public  functionaries,  including  the  gov 
ernor,  retired  before  the  enemy;  but  Jefferson 
remained  until  they  entered  the  lower  part  of 
the  town,  and  afterward  busied  himself  in  their 
immediate  vicinity  in  attempts  to  protect  the 
public  stores.  Arnold  ravaged  the  place,  burned 
some  buildings,  and  then  dropped  down  the 
river  again.  In  April  Gen.  Phillips  ascended 
the  river  and  threatened  Richmond ;  but  re 
ceiving  orders  from  Cornwallis,  who  had  en 
tered  Virginia  from  the  south,  he  joined  the 
main  army,  then  advancing  in  pursuit  of  La 
fayette  toward  the  Rapidan.  Lafayette  escaped, 
and  Cornwallis  determined  to  capture  or  dis 
perse  the  legislature,  which  had  adjourned  to 
meet  in  Charlottesville.  Tarleton  was  des 
patched  upon  this  enterprise,  and  by  a  forced 
march  he  fell  upon  the  body  almost  before  they 
knew  of  his  approach.  They  were  dispersed, 
but  without  any  captures ;  and  Tarleton  de 
tached  several  of  his  troop  to  take  the  governor 
prisoner  at  Monticello,  which  was  in  sight  of 
the  town.  Jefferson  received  intelligence  of 
their  approach,  and  hastily  sent  off  his  family. 
Having  secured  his  more  important  papers,  he 
followed  on  horseback,  just  in  time  to  escape 
the  party  sent  to  take  him.  Tarleton  rejoined 
Cornwallis,  burning  and  ravaging  on  his  way. 
Among  other  estates  laid  waste  was  Elk  Hill, 
belonging  to  Jefferson,  where  a  large  amount 
of  property  was  wantonly  destroyed.  The 
events  attending  this  inroad  of  the  enemy 
formed  subsequently  the  basis  of  violent  dia 
tribes  against  Jefferson,  Avho  was  declared  to 
have  received  warning  of  the  danger  from 
Washington,  but  to  have  wantonly  disregarded 
it,  and  neglected  to  put  the  state  in  a  posture 
of  defence.  Additional  charges  were  made, 


592 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


discrediting  his  personal  courage,  on  the  ground 
of  his  withdrawal  from  Richmond  and  Monti- 
cello.  But  that  he  had  the  continued  approba 
tion  of  Washington  in  exhausting  Virginia  for 
the  benefit  of  the  general  cause  is  certain ;  that 
the  commonwealth,  thus  drained  of  her  re 
sources,  could  have  been  defended,  is  at  least 
doubtful ;  and  the  circumstances  of  his  with 
drawal  from  Richmond  and  Monticello  do  not 
support  the  accusation  of  a  want  of  personal 
courage.  An  error  of  judgment  is  thus  all 
which  might  be  justly  chargeable  upon  Jeffer 
son.  His  term  of  office  had  expired  two  days 
before  Tarleton  entered  Charlottesville,  and  in 
his  memoir  lie  says  that  he  had  determined  to 
decline  a  reelection,  "  from  a  belief  that  under 
the  pressure  of  the  invasion,  under  which  we 
were  then  laboring,  the  public  would  have 
more  confidence  in  a  military  chief."  At  the 
next  session  of  the  house  a  young  member  de 
manded  an  inquiry  into  his  conduct ;  but  it  was 
never  made,  though  Jefferson,  who  had  gone 
to  the  assembly  to  meet  it,  rose  in  his  place 
and  also  demanded  it.  On  the  contrary,  the 
house  resolved  "  that  the  sincere  thanks  of  the 
general  assembly  be  given  to  our  former  gov 
ernor,  Thomas  Jefferson,  for  his  impartial,  up 
right,  and  attentive  administration  while  in 
office."  But  the  charges  against  his  administra 
tion  wounded  him  deeply,  and  he  did  not  ap 
pear  in  the  spring  session  of  1782. — From  his 
retirement  at  Monticello,  which  had  been  re 
cently  rendered  doubly  gloomy  by  the  death  of 
his  wife,  he  was  summoned  by  congress  to  act 
as  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  to  England,  to 
negotiate  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  The 
business  was  so  far  advanced  before  he  was 
ready  to  sail  that  congress  recalled  the  appoint 
ment  ;  but  taking  his  seat  in  that  body  in  the 
winter  session  of  1783,  he  reported,  as  chair 
man  of  the  committee  to  which  it  had  been  re 
ferred,  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace  with  Eng 
land.  At  the  succeeding  session  Jefferson  pro 
posed  and  secured  the  adoption  of  the  present 
system  of  United  States  coinage,  doing  away 
with  the  old  £.  s.  d.,  and  substituting  the  dollar 
and  its  subdivisions,  down  to  the  hundredth 
part,  to  which,  in  order  to  describe  its  value, 
he  gave  the  present  name  of  cent.  At  the  same 
,  session  he  drafted  the  report  of  the  committee 
/  appointed  to  "  prepare  a  plan  for  the  temporary 
government  of  the  western  territory."  Vir 
ginia  held  this  great  extent  of  country  under 
charter  from  James  I.  In  1780  she  ceded  to 
the  confederation  the  whole  territory  N.  "W.  of 
the  Ohio,  but  the  cession  was  not  then  formally 
consummated.  Jefferson's  plan  of  a  govern 
ment  for  this  territory  was  adopted  with  a  few 
amendments ;  these  consisted  of  an  omission  of 
the  names  suggested  for  the  districts,  and  of 
the  clause  providing  "  that  after  the  year  1800 
of  the  Christian  era  there  shall  be  neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the 
said  states,  otherwise  than  in  punishment  of 
crimes,  whereof  the  party  shall  be  duly  con 
victed  to  have  been  personally  guilty."  The 


cession  was  finally  consummated  in  1788. — In 
May,  1784,  Jefferson  was  appointed  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  Europe,  to  assist  John  Adams 
and  Benjamin  Franklin  in  negotiating  treaties 
of  commerce.  He  sailed  in  July  with  his  eldest 
daughter,  and  was  joined  by  his  associates  in 
Paris.  They  succeeded  in  negotiating  treaties 
with  Prussia  and  Morocco,  the  ships  of  which 
latter  government  had  made  depredations  on 
American  commerce.  By  the  treaties  block 
ades  were  abolished,  the  flag  covered  the  cargo, 
and  contrabands  were  exempted  from  confisca 
tion.  With  England  all  negotiations  failed. 
At  this  time  Jefferson  printed  and  distributed 
among  his  friends  a  small  edition  of  his  "  Notes 
on  Virginia."  The  substance  of  this  work  had 
been  prepared  in  1782,  at  the  request  of  M.  de 
Marbois,  French  secretary  of  legation,  in  hours 
of  confinement  produced  by  a  fall  from  horse 
back.  An  incorrect  copy  had  been  printed,  and 
the  author  now  published  it  in  an  accurate 
form.  In  the  same  year  he  furnished,  at  the 
request  of  the  Virginia  directors,  a  plan  for  the 
capitol  at  Richmond,  on  the  model  of  the 
maison  carree  at  Nimes,  and  another  for  a 
penitentiary,  similar  to  a  building  which  he  had 
examined  in  England.  Both  plans  were  adopted 
with  some  alterations.  In  1785  congress  ap 
pointed  Jefferson  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
France,  in  place  of  Franklin,  who  had  resigned. 
He  combated  the  intrigues  of  Vergennes  and 
Calonne,  the  French  ministers,  in  opposition  to 
the  desired  treaties  of  commerce,  with  energy 
and  effect.  Among  other  objects  which  he  at 
tained  were  the  abolition  of  a  number  of  monop 
olies,  and  the  admission  into  France  of  tobacco, 
rice,  whale  oil,  salted  fish,  and  flour.  In  the 
midst  of  these  duties  he  found  time  to  make 
excursions  into  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  French 
provinces.  In  Paris  he  became  intimately  ac 
quainted  with  Condorcet,  D'Alembert,  Destutt 
de  Tracy,  and  other  liberal  thinkers.  This  seems 
to  have  been  one  of  the  happiest  periods  of  his 
life ;  and  his  sympathies  toward  France  re 
mained  ever  afterward  unshaken.  He  left  the 
country  before  the  excesses  of  the  revolution, 
and  always  regarded  it  with  a  strong  feeling  of 
preference,  especially  in  comparison  with  Eng 
land.  His  diplomatic  functions  wrere  per 
formed  with  marked  ability.  The  adoption  of 
the  American  constitution  did  not  meet  his  full 
approval.  He  did  not  know,  he  wrote,  whether 
the  good  or  the  bad  predominated  in  the  in 
strument,  and  some  portions  "  staggered"  him. 
He  afterward  formed  a  more  favorable  opinion 
of  it. — In  1789  he  obtained  leave  of  absence 
for  a  time,  and  returned  to  America.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  he  was  offered  the  post  of  sec 
retary  of  state  in  Washington's  cabinet,  and,  in 
spite  of  his  desire  to  return  to  France,  accept 
ed  it,  thus  terminating  his  ministerial  career. 
With  the  entrance  of  Jefferson  into  the  cabinet 
in  March,  1790,  commenced  the  struggle  be 
tween  the  federalists  and  republicans,  under 
the  banners  of  their  two  most  distinguished 
leaders.  Alexander  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


>93 


treasury,  stood  at  the  head  of  the  former. 
Jefferson  was  a  democrat  by  nature  and  train 
ing  ;  strongly  opposed  to  England  and  the 
English  system,  against  which  he  had  struggled 
from  the  moment  of  his  entrance  into  public 
affairs;  and  an  unyielding  advocate  of  state 
sovereignty  and  decentralization.  His  visit  to 
Europe  had  strengthened  these  convictions  of 
the  danger  of  strong  governments,  and  the  up 
rising  of  the  French  people  had  secured  his 
cordial  sympathy.  In  the  cabinet  of  Washing 
ton  he  now  represented  the  principles  of  the 
republican  party,  who  opposed  a  strong  gov 
ernment  as  tending  to  monarchy,  advocated 
state  sovereignty  as  the  only  true  republican 
ism,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  France  in  oppo 
sition  to  England.  In  all  the  great  measures 
Hamilton  defeated  his  rival.  The  entire  sys 
tem  of  finance,  including  the  establishment  of 
a  bank  of  the  United  States,  proposed  by  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  was  adopted  in  spite 
of  the  protest  of  Jefferson,  and  of  Randolph 
the  attorney  general.  In  February,  1791,  Jef 
ferson  wrote,  an  able  report  upon  the  cod  and 
whale  fisheries,  recommending  congress  to  pro 
tect  those  valuable  branches  of  trade.  Later 
in  the  same  year  he  conducted  an  important 
correspondence  with  Mr.  Hammond,  the  Brit 
ish  minister,  in  relation  to  alleged  violations 
of  the  treaty  of  peace  with  England.  Jefferson 
complained  of  non-compliance  with  that  arti 
cle  of  the  treaty  which  contained  stipulations 
against  carrying  away  negroes  or  destroying 
property,  and  provided  for  the  evacuation  by 
Great  Britain  of  all  posts  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States.  Mr.  Hammond  replied,  and 
Jefferson  rejoined,  when  the  correspondence 
closed ;  and  the  questions  were  not  reopened 
for  discussion  until  the  more  important  differ 
ences  occurred  which  were  terminated  by  the 
treaty  of  1794.  In  the  spring  of  1792  Jeffer 
son  drew  up  an  elaborate  report  upon  the  re 
lations  of  the  United  States  with  Spain.  These 
involved  the  determination  of  boundaries,  the 
exclusion  of  American  citizens  from  the  navi 
gation  of  the  Mississippi  below  our  limits,  in 
terference  with  the  Indian  tribes,  the  restitu 
tion  of  fugitives  from  justice  and  of  property 
carried  off,  and  the  terms  of  a  commercial 
treaty.  The  negotiations  were  indefinitely 
protracted,  and  it  was  not  until  many  years 
afterward  that  they  were  even  partially  suc 
cessful.  In  the  spring  of  1793  arose  the  para 
mount  question  of  the  neutral  policy  and  rights 
of  the  United  States,  in  view  of  the  declaration 
of  war  just  made  by  France  against  Holland 
and  Great  Britain.  Upon  this  question  was 
put  forth  the  entire  strength  of  the  two  great 
leaders  of  the  federal  and  republican  parties  in 
the  cabinet.  The  republican  party  was  enthu 
siastic  in  its  sympathy  for  France  in  the  strug 
gle  with  her  great  enemies,  and  a  disposition 
was  immediately  shown  to  fit  out  privateers  in 
American  ports  to  cruise  against  English  ves 
sels.  This  was  energetically  opposed  by  the 
federal  leaders,  who  were  anxious  that  no 


cause  of  hostilities  should  be  given  to  England, 
and  held  that  the  true  policy  of  America  was 
to  preserve  peace  and  friendship  with  all  na 
tions,  but  form  entangling  alliances  with  none. 
The  president,  wrho  had  just  entered  upon  his 
second  term,  issued  his  proclamation  warning 
the  citizens  of  the  United  States  against  carry 
ing  to  the  hostile  powers  any  articles  deemed 
contraband  of  war,  or  performing  other  acts 
inconsistent  with  the  duties  of  a  friendly  na 
tion.  This  was  advised  by  Jefferson,  as  by  his 
colleagues.  He  however  advocated  the  pro 
priety  of  receiving  a  minister  from  the  French 
republic,  which  was  determined  upon.  This 
was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  Genest  as 
minister,  to  succeed  the  former  royal  function 
ary,  who  had  been  recalled.  Genest  author 
ized  the  fitting  out  and  arming  of  privateers, 
and  empowered  the  French  consuls  throughout 
the  United  States  to  erect  courts  of  admiralty 
to  try  and  condemn  prizes  brought  into  Amer 
ican  ports.  The  president  ordered  that  his 
privateers*  should  leave  the  ports  immediately, 
notwithstanding  which  he  armed  a  prize  and 
ordered  her  to  sail  as  a  privateer.  A  violent 
debate  took  place  in  the  cabinet  in  Washing 
ton's  absence.  Hamilton,  supported  by  Knox, 
advocated  the  erection  of  a  battery  to  prevent 
the  vessel  from  sailing,  and  denounced  Genest 
as  an  agent  sent  to  embroil  America  with  Eng 
land.  Jefferson  opposed  the  scheme  of  a  bat 
tery  on  the  ground  that  the  vessel  would  not 
sail,  and  that  the  matter  was  too  trifling  to 
cause  hostilities  with  France.  Washington  ar 
rived  and  addressed  a  heated  note  to  Jefferson  ; 
but  explanations  were  made.  In  spite  of  all, 
the  vessel  sailed.  Genest  then  grew  so  inso 
lent  that  the  question  arose  whether  he  should 
not  be  ordered  out  of  the  country.  It  was  de 
termined,  however,  to  request  his  recall.  Jef 
ferson  says  that  he  was  in  favor  of  "  express 
ing  that  desire  with  great  delicacy,"  but  that 
"the  others  were  for  peremptory  terms." 
Genest  was  finally  recalled,  and  this  affair  ter 
minated.  It  had  aroused  to  the  utmost  extent 
all  the  bitterness  in  the  hearts  of  the  two  great 
rivals,  and  the  meetings  of  the  cabinet  were 
stormy.  The  last  act  of  Jefferson  as  secretary 
of  state  was  an  elaborate  report  on  commer 
cial  intercourse  with  foreign  nations,  with  the 
measures  necessary  for  regulating  and  improv 
ing  it.  In  this  paper  he  first  enumerates  the 
articles  of  export,  with  their  value,  and  then 
states  the  various  restrictions  imposed  upon 
them,  calling  attention  to  the  best  method  of 
modifying  or  removing  them.  This  report 
gave  rise  to  long  and  animated  discussions,  and 
the  measures  secured  the  favor  of  a  great  ma 
jority  of  the  national  legislature ;  but  a  vote 
was  not  immediately  taken,  and  the  subject 
was  lost  sight  of.— On  Dec.  31,  1793,  Jefferson 
resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  and,  return 
ing  to  his  home  at  Monticello,  devoted  him 
self  to  his  private  affairs,  which  had  become 
somewhat  embarrassed.  In  September,  1796, 
!  Washington  announced  that  he  would  not 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


again  be  a  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and 
thereupon  the  two  great  parties  fixed  upon 
John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson  as  their 
nominees.  In  February,  1797,  the  votes  were 
opened  and  counted  in  presence  of  both 
houses ;  and  the  highest  number  appearing  in 
favor  of  Adams,  with  the  next  in  favor  of  Jef 
ferson,  the  former  was  declared,  in  accordance 
with  the  existing  law,  president  of  the  United 
States,  and  '  the  latter  vice  president.  On 
March  4,  1797,  Jefferson  took  the  chair  as 
president  of  the  senate,  and  delivered  a  short 
address,  in  which  he  expressed  his  attachment 
to  the  laws,  and  his  anxious  wish  to  properly 
fulfil  his  duties.  The  greater  part  of  the  next 
four  years  was  spent  at  Monticello,  but  Jeffer 
son  was  a  close  observer  of  public  events,  and 
largely  participated  in  affairs,  through  his  wide 
correspondence.  The  reaction  of  public  feel 
ing,  resulting  from  the  excesses  of  the  reign  of 
terror,  had  almost  overwhelmed  the  American 
sympathizers  with  France.  The  aggressions 
of  the  French  directory,  and  the  insulting  re 
ception  of  our  envoys,  paralyzed  the  enemies 
of  the  federalists.  The  "  war  message"  of 
Adams  in  the  spring  of  1797  threw  the  country 
into  unheard-of  agitation.  The  general  indig 
nation  against  France  swept  all  opposition  be 
fore  it.  Congress  declared  all  treaties  an 
nulled;  merchant  vessels  were  authorized  to 
resist  search ;  large  sums  were  voted  for  de 
fence  ;  and  these  measures  were  soon  follo\ved 
by  others  still  more  energetic.  The  alien  and 
sedition  laws  were  passed;  the  former  empow 
ered  the  president  to  order  out  of  the  country 
such  aliens  as  he  considered  dangerous,  on  pain 
of  heavy  penalties ;  the  latter  declared  that 
printing  or  uttering  false  and  malicious  charges 
against  the  president  or  congress  should  be 
deemed  seditious,  and  punished  by  fine  and  im 
prisonment.  These  measures  were  vainly  op 
posed  by  the  republican  party.  The  whole 
nation  was  urgent  for  war,  and  Washington 
offered  to  take  his  place  at  the  head  of  the 
army.  Nothing  was  left  for  the  republicans 
but  to  make  an  issue  on  the  constitutionality 
of  the  alien  and  sedition  laws,  and  even  this 
was  impossible  in  congress.  "Finding  them 
selves  of  no  use  there,"  they  determined  to 
resort  to  the  state  arenas ;  and  the  result  was 
the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  "resolutions  of 
'98."  The  former  state  was  closely  connected 
with  Virginia,  and  Jefferson  drafted  the  Ken 
tucky  resolutions,  denouncing  the  obnoxious 
laws,  and  intimating  a  determination  on  .the 
part  of  the  states  to  proceed  to  armed  resis 
tance.  They  were  followed  in  Virginia  by  sim 
ilar  resolves,  drawn  up  by  James  Madison,  op 
posing  the  consolidation  measures  of  the  fed 
eral  party,  and  calling  on  the  states  to  maintain 
their  liberties  inviolate.  The  spring  of  1799 
brought  a  revulsion  in  favor  of  the  republicans. 
Adams  sent  envoys  to  France;  Washington 
retired  again  to  Mount  Vernon ;  and  the  war 
spirit  rapidly  subsided.  Washington  died  be 
fore  the  close  of  the  year,  and  the  brief  pause 


j  in  political  strife  which  succeeded  the  intelli 
gence  of  his  death  was  followed  by  more  vio 
lent  commotions  than  before.  The  elections  in 
New  York  in  the  spring  of  1800  were  bitterly 
contested,  but  terminated  in  a  republican  tri 
umph,  which  extended  throughout  the  Union. 
The  result  was  largely  attributed  to  the  in 
trigues  of  Aaron  Burr,  who  became  the  repub 
lican  candidate  for  vice  president,  with  Jef 
ferson  for  president.  The  federalists  supported 
Adams  and  Pinckney.  When  the  votes  were 
opened,  it  was  found  that  Jefferson  and  Burr 
were  elected,  but  by  an  equal  number  of  voices. 
The  dilemma  was  serious,  as  the  constitution 
did  not  require  the  specification  of  the  office 
to  which  each  was  elected,  and  the  decision 
devolved  upon  the  house  of  representatives. 
Many  weeks  of  violent  struggles  on  the  part 
of  the  supporters  of  the  two  candidates  took 
place;  but  on  the  36th  ballot  Jefferson  was 
elected  president  and  Burr  became  vice  presi 
dent.  Jefferson  took  his  seat  March  4,  1801, 
at  Washington,  to  which  the  capital  had  been 
removed  some  months  before,  and  delivered 
an  inaugural  address  which  lucidly  and  elo 
quently  summed  up  the  principles  of  repub 
lican  government.  He  had  come  in  upon  a 
swelling  tide  of  popularity,  and  he  carefully 
avoided  all  acts  which  would  tend  to  diminish 
it.  Few  removals  were  made,  and  these  chiefly 
of  those  who  were  appointed  by  Adams  in  the 
last  hours  of  his  administration.  A  general 
amnesty  was  granted  to  the  federalists,  and 
they  seemed  to  gradually  become  merged  in 
the  masses,  which  every  day  grew  more  "re 
publican."  The  old  regime  appeared  to  have 
suddenly  passed  away.  A  change  in  dress  and 
manners  followed  the  political  success  of  the 
republicans.  The  reaction  against  the  stately 
dignity  and  ceremony  of  Washington's  era  was 
headed  by  the  new  president,  who  would  have 
no  formal  address  from  congress,  and  sent  in 
his  message  by  a  common  messenger.  Every 
where  the  new  philosophy  of  life  was  received 
with  acclamations  which  swelled  still  higher 
the  flood  of  Jefferson's  popularity.  In  1800 
Louisiana  had  been  ceded  by  Spain  to  France, 
and  in  1802  the  president  opened  a  private 
correspondence  with  the  French  government, 
which  resulted  in  the  succeeding  year  in  the 
purchase  of  the  entire  territory  for  the  sum 
of  $15,000,000.  The  question  of  the  consti 
tutionality  of  that  measure  was  evaded,  and 
so  great  was  the  advantage  which  it  secured 
that  all  opposition  soon  disappeared.  In  1804 
Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke,  under  the  auspices 
of  Jefferson,  set  out  to  explore  the  continent 
to  the  Pacific,  with  instructions  drawn  up  by 
the  president's  own  hand.  The  expedition  re 
turned  two  years  afterward  with  a  mass  of 
valuable  information,  which  exhibited  the  skill 
of  their  instructions.  In  1803  Commodore 
Preble  vindicated  American  rights  in  the  Med 
iterranean  against  the  emperor  of  Morocco  ; 
Decatur  in  a  small  schooner  entered  the  harbor 
of  Tripoli,  and  burned  the  frigate  Philadelphia, 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


595 


under  the  guns  of  the  enemy,  returning  with 
out  the  loss  of  a  man,  and  the  Tripolitans  were 
compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  The  acquisition 
of  Louisiana,  the  naval  victories,  and  the  gen 
eral  prosperity  throughout  the  nation,  greatly 
increased  the  popularity  of  the  administration ; 
and  Jefferson  was  rcelected,  with  George  Clin 
ton  of  New  York  for  vice  president,  for  the 
term  commencing  March  4, 1805,  by  a  majority 
of  148  out  of  17G  electoral  votes.  In  1806 
Jefferson  was  called  upon  to  arrest  Aaron  Burr 
for  treasonable  operations  in  the  southwest. 
(See  BURR.)  The  former  position  of  the  ac 
cused,  and  his  prominence  before  the  country, 
rendered  the  trial  one  of  deep  interest.  It 
soon  took  a  political  complexion,  and  the  oppo 
nents  of  the  administration  bitterly  inveighed 
against  the  anxiety  displayed  by  the  president 
to  procure  a  conviction.  At  the  same  time 
the  country  was  powerfully  excited  by  the  loss 
of  its  profitable  foreign  trade  as  a  neutral, 
through  the  British  orders  in  council  and  Na 
poleon's  Berlin  decree,  blockading  European 
ports ;  and  still  more  by  the  "  right  of  search  " 
asserted  by  Great  Britain,  under  color  of  which 
American  vessels  were  boarded,  and  their  sailors 
impressed  as  subjects  of  the  king.  This  wrong 
had  been  persistently  opposed,  but  the  claim 
was  never  relinquished.  When,  in  June,  1807, 
the  American  frigate  Chesapeake  was  fired 
upon  by  the  British  ship  Leopard,  and  four  of 
her  crew  were  seized  as  deserters,  the  coun 
try  was  in  a  flame,  and  the  president  issued 
his  proclamation,. interdicting  the  entrance  of 
British  armed  vessels  into  the  ports  or  waters 
of  the  LTnited  States.  In  consequence  of  the 
continued  hostile  policy  of  France  and  Eng 
land,  congress  in  December  passed  an  act  lay 
ing  an  embargo  upon  American  vessels,  which 
were  forbidden  to  leave  any  port  of  the 
United  States.  This  law  was  violently  opposed 
by  the  federal  party,  but  it  was  declared  by 
the  friends  of  the  president  to  be  intended  as 
only  temporary;  and  in  February,  1801),  con 
gress  repealed  it  from  and  after  the  4th«of  the 
ensuing  March,  substituting  an  act  of  non-in 
tercourse  with  France  and  England. — At  this 
point  in  the  history  of  the  country  Jefferson 
retired  from  office,  and  terminated  his  politi 
cal  career.  lie  remained  in  retirement  ever 
afterward,  employing  hi.-  time  in  the  perform 
ance  of  his  various  duties  as  the  head  of  a 
large  plantation.  In  1817  he  took  an  active 

Eart  in  the  measures  then  set  on  foot  to  estab- 
sh  the  u  central  college  "  near  Charlottesville, 
now  the  university  of  Virginia.  In  1819  he 
superintended  the  erection  of  the  building, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  rector.  The 
leading  part  which  he  took  in  founding  this 
great  institution  was  a  subject  of  peculiar  pride 
with  him,  and  he  directed  "  Father  of  the 
university  of  Virginia  "  to  be  inscribed  upon 
his  tombstone.  In  the  spring  of  1826,  his  for 
tunes  having  become  greatly  embarrassed  by 
the  generous  scale  of  his  expenditures  and  the 
profuse  hospitality  at  Monticello,  he  was  em 


powered  by  the  legislature  to  dispose  of  his 
estates  by  lottery,  with  a  view  to  the  discharge 
of  his  liabilities.  But  the  project  was  sus 
pended,  and  then  abandoned.  His  health  had 
long  been  failing,  and  in  June  he  rapidly  de 
clined.  As  midnight  approached  on  July  3, 
he  was  evidently  dying,  but  retained  his  mem 
ory,  and  muttered,  "This  is  the  fourth  of 
July."  He  lived  until  past  noon  on  the  suc 
ceeding  day,  July  4,  1826,  when  he  expired,  a 
few  hours  before  John  Adams.  On  the  same 
day  and  nearly  at  the  same  hour,  just  half  a 
century  before,  these  two  great  men  had  at 
tached  their  signatures  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence ;  and  the  coincidence  of  their 
death  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  country. 
— Jefferson  was  an  original  thinker  in  every 
department  of  human  concern,  and  essentially 
a  reformer.  He  had  no  respect  for  claims  of 
right  founded  only  upon  prescription,  and  at 
tached  no  decisive  weight  to  authority.  In 
the  old  house  of  burgesses  he  opposed  parlia 
ment  upon  abstract  grounds  which  were  clearly 
defined,  and  which  became  the  bases  of  the 
subsequent  struggle,  inaugurated  by  the  formal 
exposition  of  the  same  principles  in  the  Dec 
laration  of  Independence.  In  the  general  as 
sembly  of  the  state  he  attacked  the  time-hon 
ored  system  of  aristocratic  and  religious  intol 
erance,  as  in  conflict  with  natural  right,  and  for 
that  reason  wrongful,  however  fully  acquiesced 
in  and  respected  by  preceding  generations, 
lie  carried  the  rule  of  subjecting  everything  to 
the  test  of  abstract  reason  into  matters  of  reli 
gion,  venerating  the  moral  character  of  Christ, 
but  refusing  belief  in  his  divine  mission.  In 
politics  he  was  an  opponent  of  strong  govern 
ment,  and  maintained  that  the  world  was  gov 
erned  too  much.  He  was  in  favor  of  the  free 
development  and  exercise  of  human  power,  so 
far  as  was  consistent  with  the  good  order  of 
society,  and  a  jealous  advocate  of  individualism. 
His  aim  in  Virginia  was  to  overthrow  the  old 
domination  of  the  ruling  classes,  and  raise  the 
people.  lie  carried  the  same  principles  to  the 
study  of  the  federal  compact.  Once  convinced 
that  the  state  rights  doctrine  of  restriction  was 
the  true  theory  of  the  government,  he  fought 
for  it  with  persistent  energy.  Thus  com 
menced,  on  the  threshold  of  his  entrance  into 
the  cabinet,  the  long  struggle  against  Hamilton, 
the  federal  champion.  The  first  measure  of 
that  great  leader,  the  funding  law,  had  passed ; 
and  it  was  followed  by  the  assumption  of  state 
debts,  and  by^the  United  States  bank,  in  spite 
of  Jefferson's  protest  against  the  constitution 
ality  of  the  measure.  He  did  not  waver,  how 
ever,  and  the  republican  party,  long  suffering 
a  series  of  defeats,  never  found  its  leader  want 
ing,  and  finally  in  1801  bore  Jefferson  triumph 
antly  into  the  presidency.  His  devotion  to 
state  rights  was  so  ardent  that  it  led  him  to 
regard  Shays's  insurrection  as  a  mere  trifle, 
which  the  government  made  itself  ridiculous 
by  opposing.  He  could  never  get  rid  of  the 
idea  that  Hamilton  wished  to  create  a  mon- 


596 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


JEFFERSON   CITY 


archy  in  America.  Such  was  Jefferson  as  a 
statesman  and  leader  of  a  party  under  the  old 
regime,  which  was  ruled  by  his  enemies.  Under 
the  new  order  of  things,  with  his  own  party 
in  power,  the  case  was  altered.  The  force  of 
his  opinions  of  the  rights  of  individuals  suffered 
a  marked  diminution  when  Aaron  Burr  openly 
bearded  his  authority.  He  threw  the  weight 
of  his  great  office  against  Burr,  and  advised 
that  one  of  his  counsel,  Luther  Martin,  should 
be  indicted  as  an  accomplice,  in  order  to  "put 
down  this  impudent  and  unprincipled  federal 
bulldog."  In  the  same  manner,  his  state  rights 
doctrines  became  modified.  The  executive  au 
thority  had  to  be  stretched  to  cover  the  pur 
chase  of  Louisiana ;  and  he  became  convinced 
on  other  occasions  that  the  federal  government, 
to  use  his  own  expression,  must  "  show  its 
teeth."  In  social  life  he  faithfully  carried  out 
his  democratic  principles.  He  discarded  every 
advantage  which  his  birthright  gave  him,  and 
mingled  familiarly  with  the  common  people,  as 
their  equal.  He  was  naturally  a  democrat,  and 
held  as  a  radical  doctrine  of  his  philosophy  the 
principle  that  one  man  is  no  better  than  another. 
He  was  easily  approached,  and  the  natural  amia 
bility  of  his  character  rendered  his  society  de 
lightful  to  all  classes.  His  dislike  of  all  the 
trappings  of  authority  was  excessive.  Not 
content  with  eradicating  all  traces  of  past  au 
thority  and  influence,  he  inaugurated  a  crusade 
against  the  old  forms  and  ceremonies  which 
had  accompanied  it.  Washington  had  held 
levees,  and  awaited  the  two  houses,  standing 
in  full  dress  to  receive  them.  Jefferson  abol 
ished  the  practice,  and  sent  his  first  message 
by  an  unofficial  hand  to  avoid  the  address  which 
was  customary.  A  committee  had  been  usually 
appointed  to  inform  the  president  of  his  elec 
tion  ;  but  Jefferson  declared  it  was  more  in  con 
sonance  with  the  simplicity  of  republican  insti 
tutions  to  communicate  the  intelligence  through 
the  common  post  office.  To  all  titles  of  honor 
he  was  strongly  opposed.  "  Excellency,"  "  Hon 
orable,"  and  even  "  Mr.,"  were  distasteful  to 
him.  He  could  wish,  he  declared,  that  the  last, 
too,  might  disappear.  It  was  always  "  Thomas 
Jefferson,"  or  u  T.  J.,"  not  "  Mr.  Jefferson,"  who 
presented  his  respects  to  "  the  president,"  not 
"  your  excellency."  These  apparent  trifles  were 
in  reality  strong  indications  of  the  character 
of  the  man,  and  contributed  powerfully  to  his 
popularity  with  the  people.  lie  was  regarded 
as  the  epitome  and  incarnation  of  democracy, 
as  opposed  to  the  old  world  of  aristocracy. 
These  social  traits  were  supported  by  consum 
mate  partisan  ability.  He  never  made  a  formal 
public  speech,  but  his  adroitness  in  politics  was 
unsurpassed,  and  his  management  of  persons 
and  events  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  ends 
which  he  aimed  at  was  masterly.  The  objects 
which  he  had  in  view  were  in  a  large  measure 
attained  by  his  elaborate  correspondence.  Mon- 
ticello  became  the  centre  of  a  vast  system  of 
political  nerves,  extending  their  ramifications 
throughout  the  nation.  In  his  retirement  Jef 


ferson  was  thus  as  powerful  as  in  office.  His 
hand  was  often  felt  as  decisively,  and  his  opin 
ions,  instilled  into  active  minds  holding  high 
positions,  became  not  seldom  the  ruling  in 
fluence  in  public  affairs.  Slavery  he  regarded 
as  a  moral  and  political  evil ;  but  in  opposing 
it  he  did  not  advocate  a  change  in  the  agricul 
tural  character  of  the  south,  lie  wrote  that 
the  people  would  "  remain  virtuous  as  long  as 
agriculture  is  our  principal  object,  which  will 
be  the  case  while  there  remain  vacant  lands  in 
America.  When  we  get  piled  upon  one  another 
in  large  cities,  as  in  Europe,  we  shall  become 
corrupt  as  in  Europe."  At  home  he  was  a 
tender  husband  and  father,  a  mild  master,  a 
warm  friend,  and  a  delightful  host.  His  knowl 
edge  of  life,  extensive  travels,  and  long  famil 
iarity  with  great  events  and  distinguished  men, 
rendered  his  conversation  highly  attractive  to 
mere  social  visitors.  His  scientific  acquisi 
tions,  and  the  deep  interest  which  he  took  in 
all  branches  of  natural  history,  made  his  society 
equally  agreeable  to  men  of  learning.  Many 
such  visited  him,  and  were  impressed  as  deeply 
by  his  general  knowledge  as  they  were  charmed 
by  the  courtesy  of  his  demeanor.  De  Chas- 
tellux,  De  Liancourt,  and  other  noblemen  and 
foreigners  of  distinction,  came  away  from  Mon- 
ticello  with  an  enthusiastic  opinion  of  their 
host,  and  informed  all  Europe  that  the  country 
gentleman  of  Virginia  was  the  most  accom 
plished  man  of  his  epoch.  In  entertaining  this 
diverse  society,  in  reading,  writing,  riding,  and 
attending  to  his  farms,  passed  the  intervals  of 
his  absence  from  public  affairs,  and  the  long 
period  of  retirement  which  extended  from  the 
termination  of  his  presidency  to  his  death. — 
Of  his  "Notes  on  Virginia"  many  editions 
have  been  published  ;  that  issued  at  Richmond 
in  1853  was  revised  from  his  own  annotated 
copy.  His  "  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Prac 
tice  "  is  used  by  congress  and  other  legislative 
bodies  in  America.  A  portion  of  his  manu 
scripts  were  purchased  by  congress  in  1848, 
edited,  by  H.  A.  Washington,  and  published 
under  the  title,  "  The  Writings  of  Thomas  Jef 
ferson;  being  his  Autobiography,  Correspon 
dence,  Reports,  Messages,  Addresses,  and  other 
Writings,  Official  and  Private,"  &c,  (9  vols. 
8vo,  Washington,  1853-'5).  Among  the  bio 
graphical  works  relating  to  Jefferson,  the  most 
important  are :  "  Memoirs,  Correspondence, 
and  Private  Papers,"  edited  by  his  grandson, 
Thomas  Jefferson  Randolph  (4  vols.,  New  York, 
1829)  ;  "  Life,  and  part  of  his  unpublished  Cor 
respondence,"  by  George  Tucker  (2  vols.,  Phil 
adelphia,  1837);  "Life,"  by  Henry  S.  Randall 
(3  vols.,  New  York,  1858);  "Domestic  Life." 
compiled  from  family  sources,  by  his  grand 
daughter  Sarah  N.  Randolph  (New  York,  1871); 
and  "  Life,"  by  James  Parton  (Boston,  1874). 

JEFFERSON  CITY,  the  capital  of  Missouri 
and  seat  of  justice  of  Cole  co.,  situated  on  the 
S.  or  right  bank  of  the  Missouri  river,  143  m. 
above  its  confluence  with  the  Mississippi,  oppo 
site  the  mouth  of  Cedar  creek,  and  125  m.  W. 


JEFFERSOXIA 


JEFFREY 


597 


of  St.  Louis,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
Missouri  Pacific  railroad;  pop.  in  1860,  3,082; 
in  1870,  4,420,  of  whom  716  were  colored;  in 
1874,  about  7,500.  It  is  built  on  elevated  and 
uneven  ground,  commanding  a  tine  view  of  the 
beautiful  scenery  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  river. 
The  principal  public  edifices  are  the  state  house, 
a  handsome  building  of  stone,  the  governor's 
residence,  the  state  penitentiary,  several  hotels, 
and  eight  churches  of  various  denominations. 
The  city  has  liour  mills,  manufactories  of  wood 
en  and  iron  ware,  carriages,  furniture,  &c.,  a 
state  bank,  two  national  banks,  and  two  daily 
and  two  weekly  newspapers.  The  state  library 
contains  about  12,000  volumes.  There  are  gra 
ded  public  schools,  divided  in  1872  into  10  de 
partments,  including  a  high  school,  and  having 
about  650  pupils,  besides  several  denomination 
al  schools.  The  United  States  district  court  for 
the  W.  district  of  Missouri  holds  its  sessions  here. 
JEFFERSOMA,  a  vernal  plant  of  the  natural 
order  lerberidacece,  occurring  in  rich  woods 


Jeffersonia. 

from  western  New  York  to  Wisconsin  and 
southward,  named  in  honor  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son.  It  is  popularly  knowrn  as  twin-leaf,  from 
its  two-parted  leaves,  a  character  recognized 
in  its  specific  name,  J.  diphylla ;  the  long- 
petioled  leaves  arise  in  a  tuft  from  the  matted 
fibrous  roots,  and  among  them  are  naked  flower 
stems,  each  terminated  by  a  handsome  white 
flower  an  inch  in  diameter,  not  unlike  that  of 
the  bloodroot,  and  appearing  in  April  and  May. 
The  calyx  falls  as  the  flower  opens ;  petals  and 
stamens  eight;  pistil  single,  which  when  ripe 
becomes  a  pear-shaped  pod,  which  opens  by  a 
horizontal  slit  extending  half  way  around  it. 
In  England  the  Jeffersonia  is  valued  as  a  plant 
for  the  spring  border;  well  established  clumps 
flower  profusely,  though  the  bloom  is  of  short 
duration.  Medicinal  qualities  have  been  attrib 
uted  to  the  plant,  which  has  in  some  localities 
the  name  of  rheumatism  root. 


JEFFERSONVILLE,  a  city  of  Clarke  co.,  In 
diana,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  falls  on  the 
Ohio  river,  nearly  opposite  Louisville,  Ky. ; 
pop.  in  1850,  2,122;  in  1860,  4,020;  in  1870. 
7,254.  It  is  built  on  high  ground  on  the  site 
of  old  Fort  Finney,  and  commands  a  magnifi 
cent  view  of  the  river  and  of  Louisville.  The 
streets  are  wide,  well  paved,  and  laid  out  at 
right  angles  with  one  another.  It  is  the  S.  ter 
minus  of  the  Louisville  division  of  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  railroad,  and  of  the  Jefferson- 
ville,  Madison,  and  Indianapolis  railroad,  and 
is  connected  by  a  branch  of  the  latter  with  Xewr 
Albany,  5  m.  below.  The  Ohio  is  here  crossed 
by  one  of  the  finest  bridges  in  the  country, 
which  connects  these  railroads  with  the  lines 
diverging  from  Louisville.  The  Ohio  is  1  m. 
wide  in  this  part  of  its  course,  and  in  a  distance 
of  2  m.  has  a  fall  of  26  ft.,  which  affords  unri 
valled  motive  power.  The  depth  of  water  is 
sufficient  at  all  seasons  for  craft  of  large  size, 
and  steamboat  building  is  an  important  branch 
of  industry.  There  are  a  large  manufactory  of 
locomotives  and  cars,  machine  shops,  mills,  &c., 
and  two  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capi 
tal  of  $550,000.  Jeffersonville  is  the  seat  of 
the  southern  state  prison,  with  an  average  num 
ber  of  395  convicts,  and  has  a  system  of  graded 
schools,  embracing  18  departments,  including 
a  high  school,  with  about  1,300  pupils  ;  a  week 
ly  and  two  daily  newspapers,  and  11  churches. 
JEFFREY,  Francis,  a  Scottish  critic,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Oct.  23,  1773,  died  at  Craigcrook, 
Jan.  26,  1850.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  a 
depute  clerk  in  the  court  of  session,  and  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Oxford. 
At  Glasgow  he  distinguished  himself  as  one  of 
the  most  acute  and  fluent  speakers,  and  formed 
the  habit  of  accompanying  all  his  studies  by 
collateral  composition.  He  took  little  pleasure 
in  his  residence  at  Oxford,  and  after  one  session 
returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  attended  the  law 
classes  at  the  university.  At  the  same  time  he 
was  busy  with  literature  and  poetry,  and  was 
admitted,  Dec.  11,  1792,  into  the  speculative 
society,  in  which  for  nearly  ten  years  he  trained 
his  powers  of  speaking  and  writing,  having 
among  his  competitors  Walter  Scott,  Lord 
i  Henry  Petty  (marquis  of  Lansdowne),  Henry 
i  Brougham,  Francis  Horner,  John  A.  Murray, 
James  Moncrieff,  and  Henry  Cockburn.  He 
was  admitted  to  practice  Dec.  16,  1794,  but 
suffered  under  the  disadvantages  of  being  as 
devoted  to  literature  as  to  law,  and  of  having 
proclaimed  himself  a  whig,  while  the  effect  of 
the  revolutionary  excesses  of  France  not  only 
debarred  Scottish  whigs  from  hope  of  prefer 
ment,  but  almost  placed  them  under  a  social 
ban.  In  1801  his  professional  income  had 
amounted  in  no  one  year  to  £100.  In  that 
year  he  married,  with  "all  the  recommenda 
tions  of  poverty,"  and  took  up  his  residence  in 
a  third  story  in  Buccleugh  place.  There  several 
of  his  young  whig  associates,  prominent  among 
whom  were  Sydney  Smith,  Brougham,  and 
Homer,  were  wont  to  visit  him,  and  it  was  at 


598 


JEFFREYS 


these  social  meetings  that  the  "Edinburgh  Re 
view  "  was  suggested  and  planned.  The  first 
number  appeared  Oct.  10,  1802,  containing  be 
sides  others  seven  articles  by  Sydney  Smith, 
four  by  Homer,  four  by  Brougham,  and  five 
by  Jeffrey.  Its  learning,  talent,  spirit,  and 
eloquence  caused  it  to  be  hailed  at  once  by  the 
liberal  party  as  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day, 
and  by  thoughtful  men,  indifferent  to  party,  as 
an  organ  of  the  highest  order  for  able  and 
fearless  discussion  of  every  matter  worthy  of 
inquiry.  A  first  and  a  second  impression  of 
750  copies  were  rapidly  exhausted ;  at  the 
issue  of  the  third  number  the  regular  sale  was 
2,500  copies,  and  in  1813  it  exceeded  12,000. 
Jeffrey  became  its  official  editor  with  the 
fourth  number,  and  continued  to  edit  it  for 
26  years,  during  which  period  he  was  its  most 
popular  and  effective  contributor;  and  he 
wrote  for  it  at  intervals  till  near  the  time  of 
his  death.  The  whole  number  of  his  contribu 
tions  is  200,  of  which  79  were  selected  for  re- 
publication  (2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  London,  1846;  1 
vol.,  1853).  In  the  larger  part  of  them  he  ap 
pears  as  literary  critic,  but  several  are  devoted 
to  metaphysics  and  to  politics.  The  thorough 
ness  and  ability  with  which  he  analyzed  litera 
ry  productions,  pointed  out  their  beauties,  and 
chastised  their  defects,  was  unprecedented  in 
periodicals.  His  attack  on  the  "  Odes  and 
Epistles"  of  Moore  (1806)  led  to  a  harmless 
duel  with  Moore,  and  came  near  causing  one 
between  Moore  and  Byron.  Against  Words 
worth,  Southey,  and  Coleridge  he  waged  a 
long  war,  which  he  subsequently  admitted  to 
be  unjustifiable.  Yet  even  in  his  harshest  cri 
tiques  it  was  his  custom  to  select  the  finest  pas 
sages  for  quotation.  In  1813,  after  having  been 
a  widower  eight  years,  he  visited  New  York 
to  marry  Charlotte  Wilkes,  a  grandniece  of  the 
celebrated  politician  John  Wilkes.  In  1815  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  Craigcrook,  two  miles 
from  Edinburgh,  where  he  passed  his  summers 
until  the  year  of  his  death.  His  reputation  at 
the  bar  increased  with  his  success  as  a  reviewer. 
He  rose  to  the  highest  eminence  as  a  pleader, 
was  elected  in  1821  lord  rector  of  the  univer 
sity  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1829  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  advocates,  was  appointed  lord  advocate  in 
1830,  entered  the  house  of  commons  in  1831, 
and  was  elevated  to  the  Scottish  bench  in  1834. 
He  took  part  in  the  reform  debates  in  parlia 
ment,  but  did  not  maintain  there  the  reputa 
tion  for  eloquence  which  he  enjoyed  at  the 
bar.  As  a  judge  he  was  a  model  of  courtesy 
and  patience,  and  remarkable  for  the  rapidity 
of  his  decisions  and  the  vivacity  and  clearness 
of  his  statements.  lie  was  most  highly  es 
teemed  in  private  life,  and  as  a  brilliant  con- 
verser,  abounding  in  wit,  fancy,  and  amiability. 
His  biography  was  written  by  Lord  Cockburn, 
with  a  selection  from  his  correspondence 
(Edinburgh,  1852). 

JEFFREYS,  George,  lord,  an  English  judge, 
born  at  Acton,  Denbighshire  (Wales),  in  1648, 
died  in  the  tower  of  London,  April  19,  1689. 


j  His  family  was  good,  though  not  rich.  He 
was  educated  at  Shrewsbury,  at  St.  Paul's 
school,  London,  and  at  Westminster  school, 
under  Dr.  Busby.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Inner  Temple,  May  19,  1663.  Of  his  boy 
hood  and  youth  but  little  is  known,  and  that 
is  not  to  his  credit.  He  was  called  to  the  bar 
Nov.  22,  1668,  18  months  before  which  he  had 
married  Mary  Nesham,  daughter  of  a  clergy 
man,  under  romantic  circumstances.  On  the 
death  of  this  lady,  in  1678,  he  married  Anne, 
widow  of  Sir  John  Jones,  who  had  been  lord 
mayor  of  London.  His  rise  at  the  bar  was 
rapid,  but  his  practice  was  in  the  Old  Bailey 
and  other  London  courts,  always  beneath  the 
other  tribunals  in  conduct,  and  in  that  'age 
scarcely  better  than  dens  of  torture  and  mur 
der.  So  quickly  did  he  rise  that  in  March, 
1671,  he  became  common  sergeant  of  the  city 
of  London.  At  that  time  he  belonged  to  the 
"country  party,'1  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
his  fortune  by  affecting  to  be  a  patriot  and  a 
Puritan ;  but  he  intrigued  secretly  for  court 
favor,  and  was  made  solicitor  to  the  duke  of 
York,  Sept.  14,  1677,  and  knighted.  This 
startled  his  associates,  but  he  insisted  that  the 
office  was  strictly  professional,  and  in  1678 
men  of  both  parties  united  to  elect  him  re 
corder  of  London.  He  then  went  boldly  over 
to  the  court  party.  In  the  days  of  the  popish 
plot  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  against  the 
accused,  acting  both  as  judge  and  as  counsel, 
in  different  courts;  and  it  was  by  his  advice 
that  the  government  placed  itself  at  the  head 
of  the  patrons  of  the  plot,  whereby  its  inven 
tors  were  prevented  from  turning  it  to  the 
profit  they  had  expected.  He  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  Chester  and  made  king's  ser 
geant  in  April,  1680,  and  in  1681  created  a  bar 
onet.  Having  offended  the  house  of  commons, 
he  was  reprimanded  on  his  knees.  The  office 
of  recorder  he  gave  up  Dec.  2,  1680.  When 
the  Oxford  parliament  was  dissolved  in  1681, 
and  Charles  II.  resolved  to  destroy  the  whigs, 
Jeffreys  became  the  most  efficient  agent  of 
government.  He  labored  against  the  city  of 
London,  and  helped  to  extinguish  its  liberties. 
He  was  of  counsel  for  the  crown  on  the  trial 
of  Lord  Russell,  and  was  made  chief  justice 
of  England,  in  order  to  effect  the  destruction 
of  Algernon  Sidney.  He  was  deeply  con 
cerned  in  several  other  judicial  murders  of  the 
same  kind,  and  in  the  assaults  on  the  munici 
pal  corporations.  He  presided  at  the  trials  of 
Oates  and  Baxter.  On  May  15,  1685,  James 
II.  made  him  a  peer,  by  the  title  of  Baron 
Jeffreys  of  Wem.  In  the  summer  of  that  year 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  special  com 
mission  to  try  persons  accused  of  having  taken 
part  in  Monmouth's  rebellion.  Of  the  pris 
oners  brought  before  him,  320  were  hanged, 
841  ordered  to  be  transported  and  sold  into 
the  slavery  of  the  tropics,  and  others  punished 
with  scourgings,  imprisonment,  &c.  Jeffreys 
boasted  that  he  had  hanged  more  traitors  than 
all  his  predecessors  since  the  conquest.  His 


JEFFRIES 


JEHOVAH 


599 


cruelty  was  all  the  more  offensive  because  he 
traded  in  pardons,  and  thus  enabled  rich  offend 
ers  to  escape.  The  king  called  his  judge's  do 
ings  "  the  chief  justice's  campaign  in  the  west," 
and  rewarded  him  by  making  him  lord  high 
chancellor  of  England,  Sept.  28,  1685,  which 
office  he  held  until  the  downfall  of  the  Stuarts. 
In  the  house  of  peers  he  made  a  bad  figure. 
Attempting  to  bully  the  peers,  he  was  firmly 
met,  and  so  humiliated  that  he  wept.  The 
court  of  high  commission  having  been  revived, 
Jeffreys  was  appointed  its  president,  and  took 
part  in  its  worst  acts.  It  was  by  his  advice 
that  the  seven  bishops  were  imprisoned  and 
tried.  When  the  king  was  frightened  into  a 
change  of  policy,  Jeffreys  became  his  agent  for 
good  purposes.  He  carried  back  its  charter  to 
the  city  of  London,  and  was  hooted  by  the  peo 
ple.  When  James  fled  from  London,  Jeffreys 
made  arrangements  to  sail  for  Hamburg,  but 
landed  for  the  indulgence  of  drunkenness,  and 
was  recognized  and  seized.  The  mob  wished 
to  tear  him  in  pieces,  but  the  authorities  suc 
ceeded  in  placing  him  in  the  tower,  Dec.  13, 
1688.  There  he  remained  for  upward  of  four 
months,  when  he  died  of  the  stone.  It  is  as 
serted  that  James  II.  was  so  well  pleased  with 
him,  that  he  was  to  have  received  promotion 
in  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  earl  of  Flint. 
Lord  Campbell  says  that  "when  quite  sober  he 
was  particularly  good  as  a  nisi  prius  judge." 
Macaulay  says :  "  His  enemies  could  not  deny 
that  he  possessed  some  of  the  qualities  of  a 
great  judge.  His  legal  knowledge,  indeed,  was 
merely  such  as  he  had  picked  up  in  practice  of 
no  very  high  kind.  But  he  had  one  of  those 
happily  constituted  intellects  which,  across 
labyrinths  of  sophistry,  and  through  masses  of 
immaterial  facts,  go  straight  to  the  true  point." 
His  biographer,  Mr.  Woolrych,  says :  "  His 
bright  sterling  talents  must  be  acknowledged ; 
that  intuitive  perception  which  led  him  to 
penetrate  in  a  moment  the  thin  veil  of  hypoc 
risy,  and  show  things  as  they  were,  must  have 
its  meed."  In  spite  of  these  eulogies,  few  will 
dissent  from  the  declaration  of  Mr.  Justice 
Foster,  that  he  was  "the  very  worst  judge 
that  ever  disgraced  Westminster  hall."  Though 
Jeffreys  was  the  father  of  12  children,  his 
family  became  extinct  at  an  early  day,  and  his 
title  disappeared  from  the  peerage  in' 1703. 

JEFFRIES,  John,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Boston,  Feb.  5,  1744,  died  there,  Sept.  1<>, 
1810.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
17<)3,  subsequently  attended  the  medical  schools  j 
of  London,  and  in  1769  received  from  the  uni 
versity  of  Aberdeen  the  degree  of  M.  D.  Re 
turning  to  Boston,  he  entered  upon  a  lucrative 
practice,  which  continued  until  the  evacuation  i 
of  the  town  by  the  British  troops,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Halifax.  After  serving  as 
surgeon  general  of  the  troops  in  Halifax,  he 
was  appointed  in  1770  surgeon  major  of  the 
forces  in  America,  and  Avas  present  for  a  short 
time  with  the  army  in  Savannah.  In  the  suc 
ceeding  year  he  established  himself  in  London 


in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  with  so 
much  success  that  he  declined  the  lucrative 
post  of  surgeon  general  to  the  forces  in  India, 
lie  also  occupied  himself  much  with  scientific 
studies,  and  in  the  prosecution  of  his  experi 
ments  in  atmospheric  temperature  undertook, 
together  with  Francois  Blanchard,  Jan.  7, 
1785,  a  remarkable  voyage  in  a  balloon  from 
Dover  cliffs  across  the  British  channel,  land 
ing  in  the  forest  of  Guines  in  France.  This 
was  the  first  successful  attempt  at  aerostation 
on  an  extended  scale,  and  Dr.  Jeffries  in  con 
sequence  received  many  attentions  from  the 
learned  and  scientific  societies  of  Paris  and 
from  various  eminent  personages.  In  1789  he 
returned  to  Boston,  where  he  practised  his 
profession  until  the  close  of  his  life.  He  an 
nounced  a  course  of  lectures  in  Boston  on  anat 
omy,  but  such  was  the  prejudice  against  dis 
section  that  on  the  evening  of  the  second  lecture 
a  mob  broke  into  his  anatomical  room  and  bore 
away  the  subject,  the  body  of  an  executed  felon 
presented  to  him  by  the'governor.  The  course 
was  never  resumed,  and  the  single  lecture  de 
livered  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  public  one 
on  anatomy  given  in  New  England. 

JEHCfSHAPHAT,  fourth  king  of  Judah,  born 
about  950  B.  C.,  succeeded  his  father  Asa  about 
915,  and  died  about  890.  He  fortified  himself 
at  first  against  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  but  after 
ward  was  connected  with  him  by  alliance  in 
war  and  the  marriage  of  their  children.  He 
was  however  zealous  in  punishing  idolatry  and 
improving  the  administration  of  justice.  He 
took  tribute  from  the  Philistines  and  Arabians, 
and  maintained  a  large  standing  army.  He 
was  Ahab's  ally  at  the  fatal  battle  of  Ramoth- 
Gilead,  but  escaped  without  hurt.  In  alliance 
with  Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel,  he  built  a  fleet 
for  an  expedition  to  Ophir,  but  it  was  wreck 
ed,  lie  was  successful  against  the  Moabites 
and  Ammonites,  accompanied  Jehoram  of  Is 
rael  in  his  campaign  against  Moab,  in  which 
they  were  joined  by  the  king  of  Edom,  and 
maintained  the  supremacy  of  Judah  over  the 
latter  country.  In  his  last  years  his  son  Jeho 
ram  was  associated  with  him  in  the  govern 
ment. — The  name  Jehoshaphat  signifies  "Jeho 
vah  judgeth,"  and  the  prophet  Joel  (ch.  iii.  2, 
12)  predicts  the  judgment  of  the  heathen  in 
the  "valley  of  Jehoshaphat;"  not  any  actual 
valley,  but  an  ideal  scene  of  Jehovah's  righteous 
judgments  on  the  nations,  called  in  verse  14 
"the  valley  of  decision."  But  in  later  times 
the  prophecy  has  been  applied  to  the  final  judg 
ment,  and  the  valley  of  Jehoshapliat  has  been 
localized  as  the  ravine  between  Jerusalem  and 
the  Mount  of  Olives.  This  application  of  the 
name  appears  in  the  4th  century,  and  the  be 
lief  that  the  final  judgment  Avill  take  place 
there  has  led  the  Jews  and  the  Moslems  for 
centuries  to  use  the  sides  of  the  valley  as  a 
place  of  burial. 

JEHOVAH  (Ye7iova7t\  the  Hebrew  name  of 
the  Supreme  Being.  The  pronunciation  and 
derivation  of  this  name  are  matters  of  con- 


600 


JEJEEBHOY 


JELLACIIICH  DE  BUZIM 


troversy.  The  Jews  of  later  periods,  either 
from  religious  awe,  or  from  a  misunderstand 
ing  of  Ex.  xx.  7,  Lev.  xxiv.  16,  abstained  from 
pronouncing  it,  and,  wherever  it  occurred  in 
reading,  substituted  the  word  Adonai  (the 
Lord),  unless  it  followed  that  word,  when  they 
substituted  Elohim  (God) ;  and  it  is  now  gener 
ally  believed  that  the  interlinear  vowel  signs 
attached  to  the  Hebrew  tetragrammaton  Ylivh 
belong  to  the  substituted  word.  The  practice 
antedates  the  Greek  version  of  the  LXX.,  who 
everywhere  substitute  Kvpiog.  Many  believe 
Yah veh  or  Yuhavch  to  be  the  original  pronun 
ciation  ;  but  even  Gesenius  admits  that  "those 
who  regard  Jehovah  as  the  true  pronunciation 
are  not  without  some  apparent  grounds."  The 
name  is  derived  by  some  modern  critics  from 
names  of  Egyptian  divinities,  supposed  to  have 
been  nationalized  by  Moses;  by  others  it  is 
compared  with  the  Jove  of  the  Romans.  Its 
resemblance  to  two  other  Hebrew  words  for 
the  Divinity,  Jah  (Yah)  and  Ehyeh,  in  part 
strengthens  and  in  part  weakens  these  suppo 
sitions,  which  have  been  exhaustively  treated  by 
Tholuck  (Liter  arischer  Anzeiger  for  May,  1832 ; 
translated  for  the  "American  Biblical  Reposi 
tory,"  No.  xiii.,  pp.  89-108).  What  is  certain 
is  the  connection  of  the  word,  in  its  original  or 
adapted  form,  with  the  Hebrew  root  havali  or 
hay  ah,  to  be,  and  its  meaning  throughout  the 
Scriptures  "the  Being"  or  "the  Everlasting." 
JEJEEBHOY,  Sir  Jamsetjee,  a  Parsee  philan 
thropist,  born  in  Bombay,  July  15,  1783,  died 
there,  April  14,  1859.  His  parents  were  poor, 
and  in  early  life  he  made  several  voyages  to 
China.  In  one  of  these  the  ship  in  which  he 
sailed  was  captured  by  the  French,  and  he  thus 
lost  his  property ;  buthe  died  worth  $4,000,- 
000.  As  early  as  1822  he  released  the  debtors 
confined  in  jail  by  paying  their  debts ;  and 
his  donations  to  public  objects  were  estimated 
at  about  $1,500,000.  In  1842  he  was  knighted 
by  the  queen  of  England,  and  in  1843  a  gold 
medal  bearing  the  image  of  Victoria  set  in  dia 
monds  was  presented  to  him  by  the  British 
government.  Among  his  charities  is  the  great 
hospital  in  Bombay  bearing  his  name,  and 
opened  in  1845.  Connected  with  it,  and  also 
endowed  by  him,  is  the  Grant  medical  college. 
In  various  parts  of  the  country  he  built  com 
fortable  places  of  refuge  for  the  convenience 
of  travellers.  An  establishment  at  Bombay 
for  the  education  and  support  of  poor  Parsee 
children  he  endowed  at  an  expense  of  $250,- 
000.  In  one  gift  he  devoted  to  education 
$150,000,  besides  the  schools  which  bear  his 
name,  and  also  contributed  $50,000  for  a  school 
of  design.  He  established  benevolent  institu 
tions  in  Bombay,  in  Surat,  in  Nowsaree,  in 
the  Baroda  territories,  where  his  parents  lived, 
and  in  many  other  places.  He  built  the  cause 
way  which  unites  the  islands  of  Bombay 
and  Salsette,  the  water  works  at  Poonah,  the 
bridges  at  Earla,  Parta,  and  Bartba,  and  many 
other  public  works.  In  June,  1856,  at  a  pub 
lic  meeting,  a  statue  was  voted  to  him.  His  | 


statue,  that  of  the  first  native  Indian  placed  by 
the  side  of  the  monuments  of  Elphinstone, 
Malcolm,  and  Forbes,  was  set  up  in  the  town 
hall  of  Bombay,  and  exposed  to  public  view, 
Aug.  1, 1859.  He  was  advanced  to  the  dignity 
of  a  baronet  of  the  United  Kingdom  by  letters 
patent  of  Aug.  6,  1857. — His  title  descended 
to  his  eldest  son  CURSETJEE  (born  Oct.  9, 1811), 
who  is  a  magistrate  of  Bombay.  Under  an 
act  of  the  legislative  council  of  India  he  as 
sumed  his  father's  name,  Sir  Jamsetjee  Jejee- 
bhoy,  which  is  to  be  that  of  all  his  successors. 

JELALABAD,  a  town  of  Afghanistan,  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  75  m.  E.  of 
Cabool,  near  the  Cabool  river.  The  station 
ary  population  is  little  more  than  2,000,  but 
is  increased  to  20,000  in  the  cold  season  by  the 
influx  from  the  neighboring  mountains.  It  is 
wretchedly  built  and  filthy,  but  has  a  consider 
able  commerce  and  a  large  bazaar.  It  is  re 
nowned  for  the  heroism  displayed  here  by  a 
single  English  brigade  under  Gen.  Sale,  who, 
after  sustaining  a  long  siege,  defeated  in  March, 
1842,  a  large  Afghan  force.  (See  AFGIT AXIS- 
TAX.) — JELALABAD  or  JULLALABAD  is  also  the 
name  of  another  town  in  Afghanistan,  former 
ly  Dooshak  or  Deshtak,  capital  of  Seistan,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Helmund,  240  m.  "VV.  by  S. 
of  Candahar;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  well 
built,  chiefly  of  brick,  and  is  the  residence  of 
a  prince  called  king  of  Seistan. 

JELF.  I.  Richard  William,  an  English  clergy 
man,  born  in  London  in  1798,  died  in  Oxford, 
Sept.  19,  1871.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1820,  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  college,  and 
became  tutor.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  pre 
ceptor  of  Prince  George,  afterward  king  of 
Hanover.  lie  became  canon  of  Christ  church 
in  1831,  and  in  1844  Bampton  lecturer  and 
principal  of  King's  college,  London.  Pie  pub 
lished  a  number  of  works,  mostly  theological, 
among  which  are:  "Sermons,  Doctrinal  and 
Practical"  (1835);  "The  Means  of  Grace" 
(Bampton  lectures,  1844);  and  a  new  edition 
of  the  "Works  of  Bishop  Jewel"  (8  vols., 
1847-'8).  II.  William  Edward,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Gloucester  in  1811.  His 
education  was  received  at  Eton  and  at  Christ^ 
church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1833. 
He  became  tutor  and  censor  of  his  college,  and 
afterward  public  examiner  and  proctor  of  the 
university.  During  two  years  (1846-:8)  he 
was  one  of  the  select  preachers  at  Whitehall, 
and  he  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  in 
1857.  His  principal  work  is  "  A  Grammar  of 
the  Greek  Language"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1842-'5; 
3d  ed.,  enlarged  and  improved,  1861).  He  has 
edited  Aristotle's  "Ethics,"  with  English  notes, 
and  published  a  volume  of  sermons  (1848), 
"  Sermons  on  Christian  Faith  "  (Bampton  lec 
tures,  1857),  and  "Supremacy  of  Scripture,"  a 
reply  to  Dr.  Temple  (1861). 

JELLACHICH  DE  BIZIM,  Joseph,  baron,  an 
Austrian  general,  born  in  Peterwardein,  Oct. 
16, 1801,  died  in  Agram,  May  19,  1859.  He  was 
a  colonel  at  the  commencement  of  the  Hun- 


JELLY  FISH 


G01 


garian  revolution  in  1848,  when  his  popularity 
among  the  Croats  and  their  discontent  at  the 
advantages  gained  by  the  Magyars  made  him  a 
convenient  instrument  for  a  reactionary  move 
ment.  Being  appointed  by  the  emperor  Ferdi 
nand  ban  of  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia, 
and  general-in-chief  in  the  southern  districts, 
he  carried  on  with  vigor  the  consolidation  of 
the  Slavic  tribes,  convoked  a  diet,  disregarded 
all  adverse  orders  extorted  from  the  court  of 
Vienna  by  the  Hungarian  ministry,  and  finally 
invaded  Hungary  in  September.  Repulsed  at 
Pakozd  (Sept.  29),  he  joined  Windischgratz  be 
fore  Vienna,  defeated  Perczel  at  Moor  (Dec.  29), 
and  fought  at  Kupolna  (February,  1849).  Re 
moved  to  the  southern  theatre  of  war,  he  was 
completely  beaten  by  Guyon  at  Kis-Hegyes  (July 
14).  Ilis  subsequent  career  was  of  little  impor 
tance.  II is  Gedichte  were  published  at  Vienna 
in  1850,  and  his  soldier  songs  were  popular. 

JELLY  FISH,  the  popular  name  of  the  aca- 
lephan  class  of  radiated  animals,  or  medusa, 


Adult  Sun  Fish  (Aurelia). 

including  the  orders  Jiydroida,  discophorce,  and 
ctenophorw.  The  body  is  transparent  and  jel 
ly-like,  disk-shaped,  with  the  mouth  down 
ward  and  in  the  centre  of  the  enclosed 
cavity,  from  which  hang  down  appendages 
varying  in  number,  length,  and  purpose.  In 
the  genuine  medusae,  of  which  the  sun  fish 
(aurelia),  so  common  on  our  beaches  after 
storms  or  floating  in  our  waters  in  the  sum 
mer,  is  a  good  example,  the  body  is  so  largely 
made  up  of  water  that  on  drying  it  is  reduced 
to  a  mere  film  of  membrane ;  they  would  hard 
ly  be  seen  in  the  water  were  it  not  for  their 
beautiful  colors.  The  digestive  cavity  is  more 
complex  than  in  the  polyps,  being  excavated 
in  the  substance  of  the  body  with  branches 
ramifying  in  various  directions;  the  stomach 
seems  to  perform  the  office  of  a  heart,  dis 
tributing  the  products  of  digestion  over  the 
system,  and  the  food,  arriving  at  the  periph 
ery,  escapes  by  as  many  openings  as  there 
are  traversing  tubes ;  on  the  free  margin  are 


generally  numerous  minute  tentacles,  forming 
beautifully  delicate  appendages,  which  absorb 
water  into  the  marginal  canal  in  contact  with 
the  food  ;  digestion  is  rapidly  performed  ;  the 
circulation  of  the  digested  materials  is  irregu 
lar,  sometimes  in  one  direction  and  sometimes 
in  another.  The  bunches  of  colored  eggs  g*en- 
erally  hang  outside  the  tentacles  which  sur 
round  the  mouth  ;  in  some,  red  specks  between 
the  tentacles  have  been  conjectured  to  be  eyes. 
The  common  jelly  fishes  move  by  the  alternate 
contractions  and  dilatations  of  the  gelatinous 
disk ;  others,  like  the  Portuguese  man-of-war 
(physalia),  have  a  large  vesicle  which  supports 
the  whole  community  at  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  motion  being  effected  by  the  numerous 
contractile  tentacles  and  the  contractions  of  the 
air  bladder ;  others  (the  ctenophora  or  beroid 
medusae)  move  by  means  of  vertical  series  of 
swimming  appendages  resembling  the  fins  of 
a  crab.  This  class  presents  the  curious  phe 
nomena  of  alternate  generation,  illustrated  by 
Steenstrup,  Sars,  and  others,  noticed  also  in 
other  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom,  especial 
ly  the  helminths  or  entozoa.  The  tulularia, 
common  in  pools  left  by  the  tide,  a  hydroid 
growing  in  tufts  like  small  shrubs,  hangs  like 
a  flower  from  a  slender  tube,  with  the  mouth 
surrounded  by  tentacles,  each  animal  connect 
ed  with  the  rest  of  the  community,  and  each 
mouth  receiving  nutriment  for  the  whole  ;  the 
young  of  this  hydroid  do  not  resemble  the 
parent,  but  are  little,  delicate,  translucent  jelly 
fishes,  like  tiny  cups  from  which  hang  down 
four  long  threads,  and  a  proboscis  at  the  end 
of  which  is  the  mouth  ;  by  the  side  of  the  buds 
branching  out  from  the  parent  hang  bunches 
of  little  spheres  from  which  the  jelly  fishes 
are  produced ;  along  the  proboscis  of  the  float 
ing  cup  are  other  spheres  or  eggs,  from  which 
are  produced  little  pear-shaped  bodies,  which 
become  attached  and  grow  into  the  first  men- 


1.  Early  stape  of  .Tolly  Fish  (Aurelia).  2.  Strobila,  more  ad 
vanced  stnpe.  8.  Strobila,  ready  to  be  detached,  and  form 
the  adult  (Ephyra). 

tioned  branching  hydroid.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  grandchild  resembles  the  grand 
parent,  and  the  hydroid  is  reproduced  through 
a  generation  of  jelly  fishes  into  a  hydroid  again  ; 
if  the  first  be  a  coryne,  the  jelly  fish  would 
be  a  sarsia.  Some  small  single  hydroids,  not 


602 


JEMMAPES 


JENA 


more  than  half  an  inch  high,  produce  some  of 
the  largest  jelly  fishes;  as  the  one  which  by 
subdivision  into  saucer-like  contractions  forms 
the  ephyra,  with  a  marginal  fringe  of  tentacles. 
In  our  common  white  sun  fish,  the  four  cres- 
ceutic  rosy  figures,  forming  a  cross  by  their 
union  in  the  centre,  are  accumulations  of  eggs. 
Some  of  the  jelly  fishes  in  our  waters  formed 
from  these  self-dividing  hydroids  are  as  large 
as  the  largest  wash  tub,  with  tentacles  extend 
ing  20  or  30  ft. ;  these  are  of  a  deep  claret  color, 
and  possess  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  sting 
ing  or  nettling  property  which  has  given  the 
scientific  name  to  the  class.  In  the  Portuguese 
man-of-war,  some  of  the  community  move  the 
whole  establishment,  some  secure  prey  with 
their  lasso  cells  and  eat  and  digest  for  the 
family,  and  some  produce  the  buds  from  which 
the  young  jelly  fishes  arise ;  and  none  of  these 
take  up  or  interfere  with  the  work  of  the 
others.  In  the  same  way  the  hydroid  cam- 
panular'ia  produces  the  jelly  fish  tiaropsis, 
with  its  edge  beautifully  fringed.  Some  very 
handsome  jelly  fishes  do  not  originate  from  any 
hydroid,  but  reproduce  themselves  in  the  usual 
way  by  eggs.  For  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  the  eggs  remain  torpid,  then  a  polyp-like 
vegetation  arises,  with  buds  which  flower-like 
become  rapidly  developed  into  more  highly  or 
ganized  free  jelly  fishes ;  these  animal  flowers, 
as  they  have  been  called,  are  so  sensitive  that 
they  are  instantly  killed  by  a  change  from  salt 
to  fresh  water.  They  are  very  voracious,  feed 
ing  upon  minute  fishes,  crustaceans,  almost  any 
small  marine  creatures,  decaying  animal  or 
vegetable  matters,  and  even  their  own  species ; 
they  move  with  the  rapidity  and  elegance  of 
birds  of  prey,  securing  their  victims  with  pre 
cision  by  means  of  their  nettle-armed  tentacles, 
and  performing  these  acts  in  a  manner  which 
would  hardly  be  expected  in  a  transparent 
mass  of  jelly.  A  nervous  system  is  present ; 
and  the  form  is  in  many  capable  of  remarkable 
changes.  For  details  on  their  structure,  see 
Forbes'a  work  on  the  British  naked-eyed  me- 
dusre ;  two  papers  by  Prof.  Agassiz  in  the 
"  Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,"  vol.  iv.,  part  2,  1850;  and  vol. 
iii.  of  Agassiz's  "  Contributions  to  the  Natural 
History  of  the  United  States"  (4to,  Boston, 
I860).  The  well  known  phosphorescence  of 
the  ocean  is  largely  due  to  the  light  emitted  by 
jelly  fishes,  shining  like  globes  of  fire,  spark 
ling  like  stars,  or  diffusing  a  pale  luminousness ; 
this  is  most  remarkable  when  the  water  is  agi 
tated  by  a  vessel's  keel,  and  on  the  coast  line 
or  amid  breakers,  where  these  creatures  often 
serve  to  mark  the  course  of  the  mariner.  The 
number  of  these  jelly  fishes,  often  very  minute, 
is  beyond  calculation  or  expression,  especially 
in  northern  waters,  where  they  form  the  food 
both  of  the  small  crustaceans  and  other  animals 
upon  which  the  right  whales  feed,  which  also 
devour  the  jelly  fishes  in  immense  numbers. 

JEMMAPES,  or  Gemappe,  a  village  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  of  Ilainaut,  on  the  river  llaine 


and  on  the  canal  from  Mons  to  Conde",  3  rn. 
W.  of  Mons;  pop.  in  1867,  11,405.  The  place 
contains  several  breweries,  tanneries,  forges, 
flour  mills,  a  salt  refinery,  and  extensive  soap 
works.  It  is  noted  for  a  battle,  Nov.  6,  1792, 
between  the  French  under  Dumouriez  and  the 
Austrians  under  Duke  Albert  of  Teschen.  The 
republican  forces  numbered  about  40,000;  the 
Austrian  army  was  equally  strong,  but  it  was 
so  posted  that  only  its  centre,  consisting  of 
18,000  men,  could  be  brought  into  action. 
These  troops  were  intrenched,  however,  be 
tween  Jemmapes  and  Mons,  and  their  position 
was  defended  by  14  redoubts,  mounting-  nearly 
100  pieces  of  artillery.  The  battle  began  at 
daybreak  with  an  attack  by  a  French  column 

!  under  Beurnonville,  who  turned  the  Austrian 

I  flank  and  carried  the  redoubts  on  the  left.     A 

j  simultaneous  attack  on  the  centre  was  also  suc 
cessful,  and  the  victory  was  complete.  The 
Austrian  loss  was  about  5,000,  the  French 
6,000  ;  but  the  consequences  of  the  battle,  the 
first  regular  engagement  won  by  the  republican 

|  forces,  were  very  important  to  both  parties. 

I  Most  of  the  cities  of  the  Netherlands  surren 
dered  to  the  victors  without  opposition ;  and 

j  when  Belgium  wras  annexed  to  the  French  re 
public  Jemmapes  gave  its  name  to  a  depart 
ment  comprising  nearly  the  whole  of  Ilainaut. 
JENA,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,  on  the  Saale, 
12m.  S.  E.  of  Weimar;  pop.  in  1871,  8,197. 
It  is  partly  surrounded  by  steep  barren  moun 
tains,  and  consists  of  the  town  proper,  through 
which  flows  the  little  river  Leutra,  and  several 
suburbs.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  supreme  court  of 
appeals  for  the  grand  duchy,  and  for  several 
neighboring  duchies,  and  the  principalities  of 
Reuss,  and  contains  a  ducal  palace,  three  Luther 
an  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  three 
hospitals,  a  lunatic  asylum,  &c.  The  country 
around  Jena  is  so  beautiful  that  Charles  V.  is 
said  to  have  placed  it  in  that  respect  next  to 
Florence.  The  foundation  of  its  celebrated 
university  was  laid  by  the  elector  John  Frede 
rick  the  Magnanimous  in  1547,  when  as  a  pris 
oner  of  Charles  V.  he  was  removed  to  Jena, 
where  he  was  to  meet  his  three  sons.  The 
university  of  Wittenberg  having  been  wrested 
from  him,  his  object  was  to  establish  in  its 
stead  a  seat  of  learning  at  Jena  which  should 
become  a  nursery  of  science  and  of  the  doc 
trines  of  the  reformation.  The  institution  was 
sanctioned  by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  in  1557, 
and  inaugurated  Feb.  2,  1558;  and  its  300th 
anniversary  was  celebrated  Aug.  15-17,  1858. 
In  connection  with  it  are  a  philological  and  a 
theological  seminary,  a  clinique,  an  anatomical 
theatre,  an  obstetric  and  pharmaceutical  estab 
lishment,  an  institution  for  natural  and  mathe 
matical  sciences,  one  for  agricultural  science, 
and  another  founded  in  1849  for  political  sci 
ence,  a  botanical  garden,  an  observatory,  a  mu 
seum  of  mineralogy,  natural  curiosities,  arche 
ology,  and  oriental  coins,  and  a  library  with 

!  more   than   200,000  volumes.     Jena  holds   a 


JENGIS   KHAN 


JENNER 


603 


high  position  in  German  literature,  particular 
ly  in  philosophy.  Reinhold,  Fichte,  Schelling, 
and  Hegel  were  all  connected  with  it.  Among 
the  eminent  scholars  and  poets  who  have  held 
office  in  the  university  were  Voss  and  the 
brothers  Schlegel ;  among  naturalists,  Oken  ; 
in  chemistry,  Gottling  and  Dobereiner;  in  the 
ology,  Danov,  Griesbach,  Eichhorn,  and  Pau- 
lus ;  in  jurisprudence,  Feuerbach  and  Thibaut. 
In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  atten 
dance  of  students  fluctuated  between  2,000  and 
3,000 ;  at  the  end  of  that  century  there  were 
still  about  1,000.  The  student  associations 
(BurschenscJiafteri)  and  political  agitations  in 
1815-'19,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  the  student 
Sand  happened  to  be  at  Jena  shortly  before  his 
assassination  of  Kotzebue,  and  the  competition 
of  the  new  universities,  greatly  injured  the 
prosperity  of  Jena,  and  the  attendance  has 
since  declined  to  580,  although  the  different 
duchies  which  support  it  have  increased  in  their 
solicitude  for  its  welfare.  The  number  of  pro 
fessors  in  1874  was  65,  among  whom  were 
some  of  the  first  scholars  of  Germany,  as  Ilase 
and  Ililgenfeld  in  the  theological,  and  Kuno 
Fischer  and  Haeckel  in  the  philosophical  facul 
ty.  The  first  literary  periodical  in  Germany 
was  established  in  Jena  in  1785.  After  its  re 
moval  to  Halle,  it  was  followed  from  1804  to 
1842  by  the  Jenaisehe  Liter  aturzeitung,  and 
since  by  the  Neue  Jenaisehe  Literaturzeitung, 
Avhich  after  being  discontinued  for  some  time 
was  revived  in  1874.  Jena  has  also  several 
private  educational  institutions,  a  musical  union, 
and  a  society  for  the  study  of  Thuringian  his 
tory  and  archaeology,  founded  in  1852. — A 
memorable  battle  was  fought  near  Jena,  Oct. 
14,  1806,  between  the  Prussian  and  Saxon  army 
and  the  French.  Napoleon's  victory  at  Jena, 
says  Schlosser,  destroyed  one  half  of  the  Prus 
sian  army,  while  Davoust  gained  on  the  same 
day  a  much  more  glorious  victory  over  the  oth 
er  at  Auerstiidt.  Prince  Ilohenlohe  command 
ed  the  Germans  at  Jena,  and  Duke  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick  at  Aucrstadt,  where  he  received 
a  mortal  wound  shortly  after  the  opening  of 
the  battle.  •  This  double  defeat  brought  about 
the  complete  prostration  of  Prussia. 

JEXGIS  KHAX.     See  GEXGIIIS  KHAN. 

JEMSE1.     See  YENISEI. 

JEiVXER,  Edward,  ail  English  physician,  born 
at  Berkeley,  Gloucestershire,  May  17,  1749, 
died  there,*  Jan.  26,  1823.  He  was  the  third 
son  of  the  Rev.  Stephen  Jenner,  vicar  of  Berke 
ley,  and,  having  evinced  a  taste  for  the  study 
of  natural  history  and  medicine,  he  was  appren 
ticed  at  the  age  of  14  to  a  surgeon  in  Sudbury, 
near  Bristol,  with  whom  he  remained  seven 
years.  At  the  age  of  21  lie  went  to  London 
and  became  a  pupil  of  John  Hunter,  then 
rising  into  eminence  as  a  surgeon  and  physiol 
ogist,  with  Avhom  he  remained  two  years,  and 
between  whom  and  himself  a  lasting  friendship 
was  established.  In  the  interval  he  was  em- 

Sloycd,  at  the  recommendation  of  Sir  Joseph 
anks,  to  arrange  the  specimens  of  natural  his 


tory  brought  back  by  Capt.  Cook  from  his  first 
voyage  of  discovery ;  and  he  received  the  ap 
pointment  of  naturalist  to  the  expedition  which 
sailed  in  1772.  He  declined  this  offer,  and  in 
1773  returned  to  Berkeley,  where  he  established 
himself  as  a  surgeon.  In  1792  he  procured 
from  the  Scottish  university  of  St.  Andrews  the 
degree  of  M.  D.,  and  thenceforth  devoted  him 
self  to  the  practice  of  medicine.  As  early  as 
during  his  apprenticeship  at  Sudbury  his  atten 
tion  had  been  directed  to  the  subject  of  a  pre 
ventive  of  smallpox,  by  hearing  a  young  coun 
trywoman,  who  had  come  to  his  master's  sur 
gery  for  advice,  say  that  she  could  not  take 
that  disease  because  she  had  already  had  the 
cowpox.  Upon  inquiry  he  ascertained  that  in 
Gloucestershire  persons  engaged  in  milking 
cows  frequently  had  the  cowpox,  a  mild  disor 
der  of  the  eruptive  kind  appearing  on  the  ud 
der  of  the  animal,  and  communicated  in  a  sim 
ilar  form  to  their  hands ;  that  it  had  never  been 
known  to  prove  fatal  when  thus  communica 
ted  ;  and  that  the  belief  was  common  among 
the  agricultural  classes  that  whoever  had  taken 
the  disease  was  secure  against  the  infection  of 
smallpox.  He  immediately  commenced  a  seri 
ous  examination,  and  was  soon  led  to  conjec 
ture  that  cowpox,  as  the  milder  disease,  might 
advantageously  supersede  the  inoculated  small 
pox,  which  had  been  introduced  about  50  years 
before ;  and  that  as  the  latter  is  rendered  less 
virulent  by  inoculation,  so  the  former,  intro 
duced  in  the  same  way,  might  be  milder  than 
the  casual  complaint,  and  yet  retain  its  protect 
ing  power.  Upon  going  to  London  in  1770 
he  communicated  this  conjecture  to  Hunter, 
who  made  public  mention  of  it  in  his  lectures, 
but  advised  his  pupil  unot  to  think,  but  try." 
Upon  returning  to  Berkeley  he  pursued  the 
subject  for  many  years,  making  a  thorough 
study  of  varioloid  eruptions.  It  was  not  until 
after  frequent  experiments  that  he  ascertained 
that  only  one  form  of  the  eruption  on  the 
cow's  udder  had  the  property  of  protecting 
from  the  smallpox,  and  such  was  his  faith  in 
his  discovery  that  several  of  these  experiments 
were  made  upon  his  own  son,  a  boy  under  six 
years  of  age.  During  all  this  time  he  met  with 
little  encouragement  from  physicians.  Hav 
ing  satisfied  himself  of  the  efficacy  of  inocula 
tion  with  the  virus  of  the  cowpox  to  prevent 
the  smallpox,  he  next  ascertained  with  equal 
certainty  that  the  former  disease  could  be  com 
municated  from  one  human  being  to  another, 
without  having  recourse  to  the  original  vaccine 
matter.  On  May  14,  1796,  he  vaccinated  a 
boy  eight  years  of  age  with  virus  taken  from  a 
pustule  on  the  hand  of  a  milkmaid,  who  had 
been  infected  by  her  master's  cow.  On  July 
1  the  boy  was  inoculated  for  the  smallpox,  and, 
as  Jenner  had  predicted,  without  the  slightest 
effect ;  and  he  lived  to  be  inoculated  20  times 
for  the  smallpox,  with  the  same  result  in  each 
case.  For  two  years  afterward  he  continued 
his  experiments  in  this  direction,  and  in  1798 
went  to  London.  His  reception  was  disheart- 


604 


JENNER 


JENYNS 


ening  in  the  extreme.  Not  only  did  the  doc 
tors  refuse  to  make  trial  of  the  process,  but 
the  discoverer  was  accused  of  an  attempt  to 
"bestialize"  his  species  by  introducing  into 
their  system  diseased  matter  from  a  cow's  ud 
der  ;  vaccination  was  denounced  from  the  pul 
pit  as  "diabolical;"  and  the  most  monstrous 
statements  respecting  its  effects  were  dissemi 
nated  and  believed.  At  the  end  of  three  months 
he  returned  to  Berkeley,  and  published  his 
"  Inquiry  into  the  .Causes  and  Effects  of  the 
Variola  Vaccine,"  giving  details  of  16  cases 
of  the  casual  and  7  of  the  inoculated  disease. 
The  facts  described  were  incontrovertible ;  but 
the  first  impulse  toward  the  adoption  of  the 
new  practice  was  given  by  the  successful  vac 
cination  of  several  persons  in  London  by  Mr. 
Cline,  a  surgeon,  with  whom  Jenner  on  his  re 
turn  to  Berkeley  had  left  some  vaccine  lymph  ; 
and  so  sudden  was  the  reaction  in  favor  of 
Jenner,  that  in  less  than  a  year  after  his  de 
parture  from  London  a  manifesto  expressive 
of  confidence  in  his  discovery  was  signed  by  73 
of  the  most  eminent  practitioners  of  the  me 
tropolis.  Several  of  his  medical  brethren  un 
dertook  to  rob  him  of  the  merit  of  his  discov 
ery  ;  and  one  of  these,  a  Dr.  Pearson,  in  coop 
eration  with  Dr.  Woodville,  physician  to  the 
smallpox  hospital,  brought  vaccination  into 
temporary  disrepute  by  using  and  distributing 
matter  from  persons  who  had  been  inoculated 
with  smallpox  a  few  days  after  vaccination, 
and  before  the  vaccine  matter  had  taken  a  suf 
ficient  hold.  Jenner  promptly  exposed  this 
mistake  in  his  "  Continuation  of  Facts  and  Ob 
servations  relating  to  the  Variola  Vaccnue " 
(1800).  In  1800-fl  the  "Inquiry"  was  trans 
lated  into  the  principal  continental  languages, 
and  within  the  next  five  years  flattering  testi 
monials  from  crowned  heads  and  scientific  bod 
ies  poured  in  upon  him  in  abundance,  and  his 
discovery  was  hailed  as  an  incalculable  benefit 
to  the  human  race.  In  1802,  not  without  con 
siderable  opposition,  a  parliamentary  grant  of 
£10,000  was  voted  to  him ;  and  so  encouraging 
did  his  prospects  appear  that  in  1803  he  took  a 
house  in  London,  with  a  view  of  commencing 
practice  there.  lie  was  however  deceived  in 
his  expectations,  and  returned  in  the  succeed 
ing  year  to  Berkeley,  where  he  continued  as 
before  to  vaccinate  gratuitously  all  poor  per 
sons  who  applied  to  him  on  stated  days.  The 
royal  Jennerian  society  for  the  encouragement 
of  vaccination  was  established  in  1803,  with 
himself  as  president,  but  was  subsequently 
merged  in  the  national  vaccine  establishment. 
So  inadequate  had  been  the  parliamentary  grant 
to  compensate  him  for  his  outlays  and  sacrifices 
in  the  prosecution  of  his  discovery,  that  in  1807 
a  further  grant  of  £20,000  was  voted  him,  and 
he  subsequently  received  between  £7,000  and 
£8,000  from  India.  He  died  suddenly  of  apo 
plexy.  His  statue  was  placed  in  Trafalgar 
square,  London,  in  1858.  His  life  by  Dr.  John 
Baron,  with  his  correspondence,  was  published 
in  1827  (2  vols.  8vo;  2d  ed.,  1838). 


JENNER,  Sir  William,  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Chatham  in  1815.  In  1848  he  was  ap 
pointed  professor  of  pathological  anatomy  in 
University  college,  London,  in  1857  professor 
of  clinical  medicine,  and  in  1861  physician 
to  the  queen,  in  which  capacity  he  attended 
Prince  Albert  in  his  last  illness.  lie  was  cre 
ated  a  baronet  in  1868,  and  made  K.  C.  B.  in 
1872  for  his  services  during  the  illness  of  the 
prince  of  Wales.  He  is  a  fellow  of  the  royal 
college  of  physicians  and  of  the  royal  society. 
He  published  in  1852  his  "  Gulstonian  Lec 
tures,"  but  his  most  important  works  relate  to 
the  "Identity  and  Non-Identity  of  Typhus  and 
I  Typhoid  Fevers." 

JENNINGS,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  tributaries  of  Muscatatuck  river  ;  area,  375 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,218.  The  surface  is 
diversified,  and  the  soil  is  moderately  fertile. 
The  Jeffersonville,  Madison,  and  Indianapolis, 
and  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  railroads  inter 
sect  at  Vernon.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  147,879  bushels  of  wheat,  402,268  of  In 
dian  corn,  88,242  of  oats,  41,236  of  potatoes, 
48,293  Ibs.  of  wool,  232,299  of  butter,  and  12,- 
903  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,837  horses, 
4,012  milch  cows,  6,246  other  cattle,  17,085 
sheep,  and  20,295  swine;  8  manufactories  of 
carriages,  1  of  iron  castings,  2  of  brick  and 
stone  masonry,  1  distillery,  4  flour  mills,  and  14 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Vernon. 

JENNINGS,  William,  an  English  miser,  born  in 
1701,  died  in  1797.  His  father  was  an  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  duke  of  Maryborough  and  on 
terms  of  intimacy  with  William  III.,  who  offi 
ciated  as  godfather  at  the  baptism  of  the  son. 
In  early  life  William  Jennings  was  a  page  to 
George  I.  On  attaining  his  majority  he  re 
tired  to  a  magnificent  country  seat  in  Suffolk, 
left  unfinished  by  his  father,  where  he  passed 
the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  never  at 
tempted  to  complete  the  building,  but  lived  on 
the  basement  floor  in  a  style  of  penury  rival 
ling  that  of  his  neighbor  John  Elwes,  equally 
celebrated  for  parsimony.  The  remainder  of 
his  life  was  devoted  to  the  accumulation  of 
property,  and  at  his  death  he  possessed  upward 
of  £1,000,000.  Like  Elwes  ho  also  frequented 
Brookcs's  and  other  gambling  clubs  in  London, 
but  less  for  the  purpose  of  play  than  to  lend 
money  to  the  unlucky  at.  enormous  interest ; 
and  so  profitable  was  this  business  that,  until 
too  infirm  to  pursue  it,  he  was  in  the  habit  of 
spending  the  fashionable  season  in  London. 
He  died  a  bachelor,  leaving  a  will  sealed  but 
not  executed;  and  the  disposition  of  his  im 
mense  property  has  ever  since  formed  a  sub 
ject  of  inquiry  among  those  of  his  name. 

JENYNS,  Soame,  an  English  author,  born  in 
London  in  1704,  died  there,  Dec.  18, 1787.  He 
finished  his  education  at  Cambridge.  His  first 
production  was  a  poem  on  the  "  Art  of  Danc 
ing"  (1730).  In  1742  he  was  returned  to  par 
liament  as  a  member  for  Cambridgeshire,  and 
in  1755  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of 
the  board  of  trade  and  plantations.  In  1757 


JEPIITIIAII 


JERBOA 


605 


he  published  his  "  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Na 
ture  and  Origin  of  Evil,"  which  Dr.  Johnson 
severely  criticised.  In  1776  appeared  "A 
View  of  the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Chris 
tian  Religion,"  in  which  he  avowed  his  early 
skepticism  and  recent  conversion.  A  com 
plete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
1790  (4  vols.  Svo,  London). 

JEPHTHAII,  the  ninth  judge  of  Israel,  natural 
son  of  Gilead.  He  was  exiled  by  his  half 
brothers  after  the  death  of  his  father,  and 
dwelt  in  the  land  of  Tob.  There  he  gained 
renown  as  leader  of  a  band  of  border  rovers, 
and  was  at  length  chosen  by  the  Gileadites  to 
be  their  commander  in  a  defensive  war  against 
the  Ammonites.  He,  however,  chose  to  attack 
the  enemy  in  their  own  country,  first  making 
an  oath  that  if  victorious  he  would  sacrifice  to 
the  Lord  whatsoever  should  first  come  forth 
from  his  house  to  meet  him  on  his  return,  lie 
conquered  the  Ammonites,  and  when  he  re 
turned  his  daughter,  an  only  child,  issued  from 
his  house  to  greet  him  with  timbrels  and  with 
dances.  It  is  stated  that  at  her  own  request 
"he  did  with  her  according  to  his  vow;"  but 
some  commentators  suppose  that  he  only  con 
secrated  her  to  perpetual  virginity.  Jephthah 
ruled  Israel  six  years.  The  sacrifice  of  his 
daughter  is  the  subject  of  oratorios  by  Handel 
(1751)  and  Reinthaler  (1855). 

JEQllTIXHONHA,  a  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in 
the  Serro  Frio,  about  0  m.  "W.  of  the  town  of 
Serro,  and  S.  S.  W.  of  the  peak  of  Itambe,  in 
the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  and  falling  into 
the  Atlantic  near  the  town  of  Belmonte  in 
Bahia,  lat.  15°  50'  S.,  Ion.  39°  "W.  It  has  a 
course  of  about  750  m.,  the  first  130  m.  being 
N.,  and  the  remainder  generally  N.  E.,  and  the 
area  of  its  basin  is  estimated  at  19,800  sq.  m. 
Its  bed  is  obstructed  by  many  dangerous  rapids 
and  cataracts,  and  a  magnificent  series  of  cas 
cades  with  an  aggregate  fall  of  300  ft.  occurs 
near  the  boundary  line  between  Minas  Geraes 
and  Bahia ;  so  that  the  river  to  that  point  is 
only  navigable  by  canoes.  Further  down  it 
widens,  but,  being  shallow,  is  only  available 
for  small  steamers ;  while  the  entrance,  owing 
to  numerous  sand  bars,  is  difficult  for  even  the 
smallest  coasters.  The  Poassii,  however,  open 
ing  on  the  left  bank,  and  communicating  with 
the  Pardo,  virtually  forms  the  main  channel 
of  the  Jequitinhonha ;  and  the  maize,  cotton, 
and  other  products,  sent  down  in  large  quan 
tities  from  Minas  Geraes  and  the  lower  river, 
are  not  taken  to  Belmonte,  but  to  Cannavieiras, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Pardo,  40  m.  N.  Of  the 
numerous  tributaries  of  the  Jequitinhonha,  the 
principal  is  the  Arassuai,  a  stream  of  consid 
erable  magnitude  from  the  south.  Diamonds 
are  plentiful  in  all  the  streams. 

JERBOA,  the  principal  old-world  representa 
tive  of  the  rodent  subfamily  dipodince,  char 
acterized  by  greatly  developed  hind  legs  for 
taking  long  leaps,  diminutive  fore  legs,  long 
hairy  tail,  and  large  infra-orbital  foramen. 
The  best  known  species  is  the  Egyptian  jerboa 


(dipits  JEgyptius,  Licht.).  The  incisors  are 
slender  and  sharp,  the  upper  ones  grooved, 
two  above  and  two  below  ;  the  molars,  fif, 
are  complex,  furnished  with  roots;  the  head 
is  large,  with  prominent  eyes,  moderate  point 
ed  ears,  and  silken  whiskers  0  in.  long.  In 
external  conformation  it  somewhat  resembles 
the  kangaroo,  having  an  elongated  body  thick 
est  behind,  the  posterior  limbs  very  much 
larger  than  the  anterior;  the  neck  is  very 
short,  and  the  six  lower  vertebras  are  frequently 
found  united  together  ;  the  metatarsus  consists 
of  a  single  bone ;  there  are  five  toes  on  the  short 
fore  feet,  and  three  on  the  posterior,  armed 
with  obtuse  claws ;  the  tail  is  long,  with  hairs 
set  in  two  rows,  and  tufted  at  the  end ;  it  is  not 
thick  at  the  base,  as  in  the  kangaroo,  though 
it  is  used  to  sustain  the  body  in  the  act  of  leap 
ing.  The  body  is  about  as  large  as  a  rat's,  of 
a  fawn  color  above  and  white  below,  the  black 
tuft  of  the  tail  white  tipped.  From  its  generic 


Egyptian  Jerboa  (Dipus  JEgyptius). 

name,  which  signifies  two-footed,  it  has  been. 
supposed  that  the  jerboa  walks  entirely  on  the 
hind  feet;  but  the  animal  walks  upon  four 
feet,  resorting  to  its  prodigious  leaps  only  when 
alarmed;  when  about  to  spring,  it  raises  itself 
on  the  end  of  the  hind  feet,  with  the  support 
of  the  tail,  the  fore  feet  close  to  the  breast ; 
the  body  comes  down  on  the  fore  feet,  but  is 
elevated  again  so  quickly  that  it  appears  con 
stantly  in  the  air.  All  the  species  are  clavicu- 
lated,  and  carry  their  food  to  the  mouth  with 
the  fore  paws ;  they  pass  the  winter  in  bur 
rows  in  a  state  of  lethargy  ;  they  are  difficult 
to  keep  in  captivity,  even  in  their  own  cli 
mates  ;  the  females  are  generally  the  largest, 
and  have  six  or  eight  young.  The  Egyptian, 
species  lives  in  troops  in  northern  Africa,  most 
abundantly  in  the  sandy  regions  and  ruined 
places  of  Egypt ;  it  extends  into  Syria  and  Ara 
bia,  and  as  far  north  as  the  Caspian  sea ;  it  is 
restless  and  timid,  and  can  be  taken  only  by 
surprise.  The  Arabians  take  jerboas  alive  in 


606 


JEREMIAH 


JEREZ  DE  LA  FRONTERA 


their  burrows ;  their  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Egyp 
tians,  and  their  soft  and  shining  fur  is  valued  by 
them.  The  food  of  the  jerboas  is  exclusively 
vegetable,  and  they  are  said  never  to  drink. 
The  largest  species  is  the  scirtetes  jaculus 
(Wagn.),  about  9  in.  long,  found  in  the  steppes 
between  the  Donetz  and  the  Don  and  in  the 
Crimea ;  this  is  the  alalc-daagha  of  the  Mon 
gols.  The  fur  is  soft,  yellowish  fawn  varied 
with  grayish  brown  above ;  the  under  parts, 
interior  of  limbs,  end  of  nose,  and  crescent  on 
the  nates  are  white.  The  general  appearance 
and  habits  are  as  in  the  common  species ;  they 
become  lethargic  both  under  slight  cold  and 
great  heat ;  the  food  consists  of  succulent 
plants,  roots,  fruits,  insects,  and,  it  is  said,  of 
small  birds  and  of  each  other;  they  dig  very 
rapidly  into  the  earth,  and  live  in  burrows  with 
many  "openings;  their  swiftness  is  such  that  it 
is  difficult  to  overtake  them  even  on  horse 
back  ;  their  flesh  is  also  esteemed  as  food. — To 
this  family  also  belong  other  jumping  rodents, 
often  called  jerboas.  Among  them  is  the 
jumping  hare  of  South  Africa  (pedetes  Cafer, 
Illig.),  with  molars  £if  without  roots,  long  ears, 
five  toes  on  the  fore  feet  and  four  on  the  hind, 
with  long  claws ;  the  posterior  limbs  and  tail 
are  long,  the  latter  tufted.  It  moves  by  great 
leaps,  and  sleeps  by  day;  it  is  as  large  as  a 
rabbit,  of  a  fawn  color,  with  the  end  of  the 
tail  black.  In  North  America  is  the  jumping 
mouse  (jaculus  Hudsonius,  Zimm.),  about  10 
in.  long,  of  which  the  tail  is  more  than  half ; 
the  color  is  red-brown,  darker  on  the  back, 
the  sides  and  under  parts  white.  It  is  found 
as  far  north  as  the  Great  Slave  lake.  The  mo 
lars  are  |-i| ;  the  hand  has  four  fingers  with  a 
rudimentary  thumb,  hind  feet  five-toed,  hind 
legs  and  tail  very  long,  the  latter  thinly  haired  ; 
upper  incisors  grooved  longitudinally  in  front. 
For  full  details  on  this  genus,  see  vol.  viii.  of 
the  reports  of  the  Pacific  railroad  survey. 

JEREMIAII,  the  second  of  the  great  Hebrew 
prophets,  son  of  Hilkiah,  one  of  the  priests 
of  Anathoth,  prophesied  under  the  reigns  of 
Josiah,  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and 
Zedekiah,  and  after  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Babylonians,  from  about  627"  to  575 
B.  C.  He  was  but  a  youth  when  he  began  his 
prophetic  career  in  his  native  city.  The  per 
secutions  of  his  townsmen  drove  him  to  Jeru 
salem,  where,  in  spite  of  opposition  and  impris 
onment,  he  remained  true  to  his  mission,  keep 
ing  firmly  in  view  the  religious  and  political 
rectitude  of  the  state.  After  the  death  of  Jo 
siah  he  was  assailed  by  priests  and  prophets, 
and  was  cast  into  prison,  where  he  wrote  some 
of  his  predictions,  which  were  read  to  the  peo 
ple  by  Baruch,  but  burned  by  King  Jehoiakim. 
After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar  he  was  spared  by  the  conqueror,  in  con 
sideration  of  his  having  advocated  submission 
to  Babylon,  and  he  went  first  to  Mizpah,  and 
afterward  to  Egypt.  There  are  various  tradi 
tions  concerning  his  last  years  and  hi*  death. 
A  grotto  is  still  pointed  out  at  Jerusalem  where 


he  is  said  to  have  composed  his  Lamentations, 
and  his  grave  is  shown  at  Cairo.  His  extant 
writings  embrace  the  book  containing  his  pro 
phecies,  and,  according  to  general  belief,  the 
metrical  book  of  Lamentations.  While  the 
canonicity  of  the  book  of  Jeremiah  in  general 
is  not  doubted  by  any,  the  genuineness  of  some 
portions  have  of  late  been  disputed  by  Movers, 
Ewald,  Ilitzig,  and  others.  An  elegy  on  the 
death  of  King  Josiah,  ascribed  to  him,  is  lost. 
Among  the  more  recent  commentators  on  Jere 
miah  are  Ilitzig  (Leipsic,  1841),  Umbreit  (Hei 
delberg,  1843),  Neumann  (Leipsic,  1850),  Graf 
(1862),  and  Cowles  (New  York,  1869).  There 
are  English  translations  and  commentaries  by 
Blayney  (Oxford,  1784;  new  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1810),  by  Noyes  (Boston,  1837),  and  by  Hen 
derson  (London,  1851 ;  revised,  1868). 

JEREZ  (or  Xerez)  DE  LA  FROM  ERA  (anc. 
Asta  Regici),  a  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  13  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cadiz, 
3  m.  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalete ; 
pop.  about  50,000.  Situated  in  one  of  the 
most  fertile  plains  of  the  peninsula,  it  com 
prises  two  distinct  divisions,  the  old  and  the 
new  town.  The  streets  in  the  latter  are  spa 
cious,  regular,  clean,  and  well  paved  and  light 
ed.  There  are  three  fine  squares.  The  houses 
are  well  built,  are  generally  white,  and  have 
tasteful  courtyards.  The  cathedral,  completed 
in  1695,  though  lofty  and  spacious,  is  heavy 
and  devoid  of  taste ;  it  has  a  library  and  a 
curious  numismatical  collection.  Of  the  11 
parish  churches,  only  those  of  San  Dionisio, 
San  Miguel,  and  Santiago  are  noteworthy ;  in 
them  the  Gothic  style  prevails,  and  among  the 
rich  decorations  of  the  interiors  are  numerous 
paintings,  statues,  and  bassi  rilievi.  There  are 
seven  convents,  and  a  larger  number  of  monas 
teries.  Of  the  five  hospitals,  one  is  for  found 
lings  ;  and  there  are  besides  a  female  orphan 
asylum,  a  college,  and  several  free  schools.  But 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  public  buildings  is 
the  old  Moorish  castle  (Alcazar),  contiguous  to 
the  Alameda,  and  surrounded  by  turreted  walls, 
one  of  the  best  specimens  of  a  palatial  fortress 
in  Spain.  Jerez  derives  its  celebrity  from  its 
wines,  which  are  by  far  the  best  in  the  conn- 
try,  and  consist  of  the  aromatic  pajorete  and 
the  far-famed  sherry,  a  name  Anglicized  from 
that  of  the  town.  Many  of  the  cellars  are 
capable  of  containing  14,000  butts.  (See  SPAIX, 
WINES  OF.)  Some  olive  oil  is  made,  and  there 
are  a  few  woollen  factories,  soap-boiling  estab 
lishments,  and  tanneries.  The  town  has  rail 
way  communication  with  Cadiz  and  Seville. 
The  export  trade,  mainly  consisting  in  Avines, 
is  chiefly  carried  on  through  the  port  of  Santa 
Maria,  7  m.  S.  W. — Near  the  walls  of  Jerez, 
which  are  still  standing  though  much  dilapida 
ted,  Roderic,  the  last  king  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain,  was  defeated  by  the  Moors,  shortly  af 
ter  their  landing  in  711,  in  a  battle  which ^  is 
said  to  have  lasted  a  week.  Alfonso  the  Wise 
recovered  the  town  from  the  Moors  about  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century. 


JERICHO 


JEROME 


607 


JERICHO,  a  flourishing  commercial  city  of 
ancient  Palestine,  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
on  the  TV.  side  of  that  river,  near  its  entrance 
into  the  Dead  sea.  It  was  one  of  the  oldest 
and  richest  cities  of  Canaan,  surrounded  by 
groves  of  palms  and  balsam  trees.  It  was  con 
quered  and  destroyed  by  Joshua  on  his  entrance 
into  the  promised  land,  and  a  curse  was  pro 
nounced  upon  whosoever  should  rebuild  it, 
its  territory  being  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Ben 
jamin.  It  was,  however,  rebuilt  upon  a  site 
near  by,  became  the  centre  of  the  trade  be 
tween  Arabia  and  Palestine,  was  fortified  by 
King  Ahab,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  school  of 
prophets.  Mark  Antony  presented  its  plain  of 
palm  trees  to  Cleopatra.  It  was  embellished 
by  Herod  the  Great,  who  built  there  one  of  his 
residences  ;  under  Vespasian  it  was  destroyed, 
and  under  Hadrian  again  rebuilt ;  it  was  over 
thrown  during  the  Mohammedan  conquest,  re 
vived  under  the  caliphs,  and  completely  de 
stroyed  during  the  crusades.  The  village  of 
Riha,  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  sec 
ond  city,  was  destroyed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  in 
1840,  and  there  only  remain  a  few  huts  and  a 
Saracenic  tower. 

JERICHO,  Rose  of.     See  ROSE  OF  JERICHO. 

JEROBOAM.  I.  Founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Is 
rael,  son  of  Nebat,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  died 
about  953  B.  C.  He  was  selected  by  Solomon 
to  be  a  superintendent  of  the  public  works  at 
Jerusalem.  Informed  by  the  prophet  Ahijah 
that  he  was  to  rule  the  ten  tribes  which  should 
revolt  from  the  house  of  David,  he  immediately 
engaged  in  plots  against  Solomon,  and  fled  to 
the  court  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  to  escape 
punishment.  On  the  death  of  Solomon  he  re 
turned,  headed  the  deputation  of  the  chiefs  of 
tribes  which  met  Rehoboam  at  Shechem  and 
whose  demands  were  rejected,  and  was  then 
elected  by  ten  of  the  tribes  to  reign  over  them, 
with  the  title  of  king  of  Israel,  Judali  and 
Benjamin  alone  remaining  to  Rehoboam  (975 
B.  C.).  He  resided  at  Shechem,  which  he  for 
tified,  built  temples  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  where 
golden  calves  were  made  the  symbols  of  the 
Divinity,  to  which  his  subjects  might  re 
sort  rather  than  to  Jerusalem,  and  was  gen 
erally  successful  in  his  wars  against  Judah, 
though  he  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by 
Abijah.  The  leading  aim  of  his  government 
was  to  raise  a  barrier  against  any  reunion  of 
the  tribes.  II.  Thirteenth  king  of  Israel,  son 
of  Joash,  reigned  823-782  B.  C.  His  reign  of 
41  years  was  prosperous,  although  licentious 
and  oppressive.  He  captured  Damascus  from 
the  Syrians,  and  reconquered  Ammon  and 
Moab.  In  Scripture  he  is  mentioned  only  in 
2  Kings  xiii.-xv.,  1  Chron.  v.,  and  in  the  proph 
ecies  of  Ilosea  and  Amos.  Wherever  the  name 
occurs  elsewhere,  it  refers  to  Jeroboam  I. 

JEROME,  king  of  Westphalia.  See  BONA 
PARTE,  JEROME,  vol.  iii.,  p.  26. 

JEROME,  Saint  (Sopimoxius  EUSEBIUS  HIE- 
RONYMUS),  one  of  the  four  great  doctors  of  the 
Latin  church,  born  at  Stridon,  on  the  confines 
VOL.  ix. — 39 


of  Pannonia  and  Dalmatia,  about  340,  died  in 
Bethlehem  Sept.  30,  420.  His  own  writings 
furnish  an  almost  complete  autobiography. 
His  father  Eusebius  was  a  wealthy  Christian. 
In  363  he  was  sent  to  Rome  with  his  country 
man  Bonosus,  and  studied  Greek  and  Latin 
literature  and  eloquence.  In  365  he  was  bap 
tized  and  took  the  name  of  Hieronymus.  He 
afterward  visited  with  Bonosus  the  southern 
and  northern  provinces  of  Gaul  and  the  coast 
of  Britain,  and  studied  for  some  time  at  Treves. 
Returning  to  Italy,  Jerome  became  the  inmate 
of  a  monastery  at  Aquileia,  and  under  the  di 
rection  of  Valerianus,  bishop  of  that  city,  de 
voted  himself  to  the  study  of  Scripture  and 
theology.  While  there  he  transcribed  a  com 
mentary  on  the  Psalms  and  a  treatise  on  synods 
by  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and  published  his  first 
known  treatise,  addressed  to  Innocentius,  De 
Muliere  septies  Pcrcussa.  There  he  formed 
the  acquaintance  of  Rufinus,  afterward  his  most 
determined  theological  opponent.  In  372  he 
was  called  to  Stridon  to  reclaim  one  of  his 
sisters,  and  this  incident  seems  to  have  deter 
mined  him  to  leave  Italy  for  ever.  After  a 
brief  stay  in  Rome,  he  set  out  for  Syria  with 
several  friends,  travelled  on  foot  through  Thrace 
and  Asia  Minor,  and  stopped  at  Antioch  to 
follow  a  course  of  lectures  on  Biblical  exegesis 
by  the  future  heresiarch  Apollinaris,  bishop  of 
Laodicea.  He  afterward  withdrew  into  the 
desert  of  Chalcis  near  Antioch,  where  he 
spent  four  years  in  a  hermit's  cell,  assiduous 
ly  studied  the  Hebrew  language,  and  wrote  a 
letter  on  Manichseism  and  two  letters  to  Pope 
Damasus,  one  of  which  was  in  relation  to  the 
schism  reigning  in  the  church  of  Antioch,  where 
there  were  at  that  time  three  rival  bishops. 
The  pope  having  advised  him  to  acknowledge 
Paulinus  as  bishop,  Jerome  returned  to  An 
tioch,  and  in  376  consented  to  receive  priestly 
orders,  on  the  condition  that  he  should  not  be 
forced  to  accept  any  pastoral  charge.  He  im 
mediately  applied  himself  to  acquire  an  accu 
rate  knowledge  of  Biblical  topography  and  a 
thorough  familiarity  with  the  Hebrew  and 
Chaldee,  visiting  the  most  celebrated  scenes 
of  Bible  history,  and  consulting  everywhere 
the  most  learned  Jews.  To  perfect  himself  in 
Greek  and  to  have  the  Bible  interpreted  to  him 
by  the  best  living  masters,  he  went  to  Constan 
tinople  about  380,  and  became  the  disciple  of 
St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  whom  he  calls  his  father 
and  master.  In  that  city  he  wrote  a  commen 
tary  on  the  6th  chapter  of  Isaiah,  and  transla 
ted  14  homilies  of  Origen  and  the  chronicle  of 
Eusebius.  His  version  only  follows  the  origi 
nal  to  the  siege  of  Troy ;  in  the  second  part 
Jerome  confesses  to  his  having  arranged  the 
matters  in  his  own  way  as  far  as  the  20th  year 
of  Constantine,  the  remainder  being  entirely 
his  work  down  to  the  death  of  Valens  (378). 
Being  called  to  Rome  by  Pope  Damasus  in  382, 
he  acted  as  notary  to  the  council  held  there  in 
that  year,  and  afterward  remained  as  secretary 
or  refercndarius  to  the  pope  until  the  death  of 


608 


JEROME 


JEROME   OF  PRAGUE 


the  latter  in  384.  Jerome  resided  in  a  monas 
tery,  and  at  the  pope's  request  began  his  revi 
sion  of  the  old  Latin  or  Italic  version  of  the  Bi 
ble.  He  produced  the  translation  of  the  Psalms 
called  Psalterium  Romanum,  and  another  of 
the  Gospels  dedicated  to  the  pope,  wrote  a  com 
mentary  on  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son,  a 
letter  on  the  hierarchy,  and  a  treatise  against 
Helvidius,  who  denied  the  perpetual  virginity 
of  Mary  the  mother  of  Christ.  His  love  of 
monastic  seclusion  induced  him  to  win  converts 
by  voice  and  pen  to  this  mode  of  life.  A  large 
number  of  noble  persons,  particularly  Roman 
ladies,  forsook  all  worldly  pursuits,  and  placed 
themselves  under  his  direction.  This,  and  Je 
rome's  denunciation  of  the  worldly  lives  led 
by  the  generality  of  Roman  Christians,  made 
him  many  enemies,  lay  and  clerical ;  while  his 
frequent  instructions  on  the  Scriptures  and 
Christian  virtues  to  his  numerous  female  con 
verts  afforded  an  opportunity  for  spreading 
malignant  reports  against  him.  So  long  as 
Pope  Damasus  lived  he  supported  Jerome 
against  his  slanderers;  but  after  the  election 
of  Siricius,  Jerome,  taking  with  him  his  young 
er  brother  Politian,  set  out  once  more  for  the 
East.  In  order  to  find  the  most  perfect  models 
of  monastic  life,  he  visited  the  monasteries  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  and  finally  fixed  his 
abode  at  Bethlehem,  the  birthplace  of  Christ. 
Thither  he  was  soon  followed  by  some  of  his 
distinguished  Roman  converts,  who  devoted  a 
portion  of  their  wealth  to  the  erection  of  mon 
asteries.  One  of  these,  for  men,  was  placed 
under  Jerome's  direction,  and  to  it  he  soon 
added  a  hostelry  and  hospital  for  pilgrims,  and 
for  the  numerous  refugees  who  fled  from  Rome 
after  its  sack  by  Alaric  in  410.  There  he  com 
pleted  his  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which 
became  in  the  western  churches  what  the  Sep- 
tuagint  was  in  the  East,  and  served  as  a  basis 
for  nearly  all  the  earlier  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  subsequently  made  into  the  vernac 
ular  tongues  of  Europe.  From  Bethlehem  Je 
rome  also  issued  treatises  against  the  heretics 
of  his  time,  such  as  Jovinian,  Vigilantius,  and 
Pelagius.  He  combated  the  doctrines  of  John, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  his  old  friend 
Rufinus,  who  was  propagating  Origenism. 
In  416  the  Pelagians,  who  were  in  the  ascen 
dancy  in  Palestine,  burned  his  establishment  at 
Bethlehem,  and  compelled  him  to  fly  for  his 
life.  Having  remained  in  concealment  for  more 
than  two  years,  he  returned  to  Bethlehem  in 
418,  exhausted  by  privations,  anxiety,  and  in 
firmities.  He  was  buried  amid  the  ruins  of 
one  of  his  monasteries ;  but  his  remains  were 
afterward  taken  to  Rome,  and  placed  in  the 
basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  near  the  tomb 
of  Sixtus  V.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  Sept. 
30. — The  personal  character  of  St.  Jerome  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  censure  and  much 
praise.  His  writings  show  him  to  have  been 
a  man  of  ardent  nature,  invincibly  attached  to 
what  he  conceived  to  be  the  truth  and  the  right ; 
but  his  very  impetuosity  was  apt  to  hurry  him 


into  extremes.  He  advocated  evangelical  pov 
erty  and  self-denial  under  the  form  of  monas- 
ticism  among  the  Roman  patricians,  as  a  remedy 
for  the  low  morality  which  everywhere  pre 
vailed ;  but  no  one  denounced  with  greater 
energy  than  he  both  false  monks  and  false 
penitents.  Biblical  scholars  are  unanimous 
in  acknowledging  the  incomparable  services 
which  his  labors  rendered  to  the  church.  His 
complete  works  comprise  a  volume  of  letters, 
several  biographical  series,  topographical  and 
grammatical  dissertations  about  Hebrew  his 
tory  and  geography,  commentaries  on  the  books 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  translations 
of  works  of  several  ecclesiastical  writers,  and 
finally  his  Latin  version  of  the  Bible.  Of  all 
his  works  this  is  the  most  useful  and  most 
widely  known,  though  in  a  corrupted  form, 
under  the  name  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  (See 
BIBLE.)  We  have  now  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament  from  MSS.  of  about  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century,  the  Codex  Amialinus,  edited 
by  Tischendorf  in  1853  and  again  in  1855,  and 
the  Codex  Fuldensis,  edited  by  Ranke  in  1868, 
which  rank  with  the  oldest  and  best  Greek 
MSS.  in  determining  the  true  reading  of  the 
sacred  text.  The  readings  of  the  former  in 
the  Old  Testament  have  been  added  by  Heyse 
and  Tischendorf  to  the  Clementine  Vulgate 
Latin,  with  emendations  and  various  readings 
by  Vercellone  (1873).  The  principal  editions 
of  his  works  are  those  of  Erasmus  and  (Eco- 
lampadius  (9  vols.  fol.,  Basel,  1516,  reprinted 
in  1526  and  1537,  and  at  Lyons  in  1530) ;  of 
Marianus  Victorinus  (9  vols.,  Rome,  1566-'72  ; 
Paris,  1578,  1608,  and  1643);  of  Tribbecho- 
vius  (12  vols.  fol.,  Frankfort  and  Leipsic,  1684)  ; 
of  the  Benedictines  Pouget  and  Martianay  (5 
vols.,  Paris,  1693-1706);  and  that  of  Vallarsi 
and  Mallei  (11  vols.,  Verona,  1734-'42 ;  Ven 
ice,  1766-'72 ;  reproduced  by  Migne,  Patrologie 
latine,  vols.  xxii.-xxx.,  Paris,  1845-'6).  His 
life  has  been  written  by  Martianay  (Paris, 
1706),  by  Stilting  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  for 
September,  and  by  Alban  Butler,  "Lives  of 
the  Saints,"  Sept.  30.  See  also  Collombet's 
Histoire  de  St.  Jerome  (Lyons,  1844),  and 
Zoclder,  Hieronymus,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken 
(Gotha,  1865). 

JEROME  OF  PRAGUE,  a  Bohemian  religious 
reformer,  born  in  Prague  about  1375,  burned 
at  Constance,  May  30, 1416.  After  graduating 
at  Prague  he  visited  the  universities  of  Co 
logne,  Heidelberg,  Paris,  and  Oxford.  Return 
ing  to  Paris,  he  preached  boldly  in  favor  of 
reforms  in  the  church,  defending  his  views  in 
a  disputation  held  with  Gerson,  chancellor  of 
the  university.  Pie  was  employed  by  Ladislas 
II.  of  Poland  to  organize  the  university  of  Cra 
cow.  About  1402  he  began  to  disseminate  se 
cretly  the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe  in  Bohemia, 
and  in  1408  openly  identified  his  views  with 
those  of  IIuss.  He  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  at 
Vienna,  and  only  released  through  the  earnest 
entreaty  of  his  Bohemian  friends.  When  Huss 
was  imprisoned  at  Constance  in  1414,  Jerome 


JERROLD 


JERSEY 


609 


went  thither  in  accordance  with  a  promise  to 
defend  him ;  but  because  of  the  rumor  that  Huss 
would  only  be  tried  to  be  executed,  he  fled  to 
Ueberlingen,  whence  he  intimated  his  willing 
ness  to  appear  before  the  council  under  a  safe- 
conduct.  An  equivocal  answer  being  given,  he 
prepared  to  return  to  Prague,  but  was  arrested 
by  order  of  fche  count  palatine  of  Neuburg- 
Sulzbach,  and  delivered  over  to  the  council, 
May  23,  1415.  He  was  several  times  brought 
to  trial,  but  his  learning  and  power  of  debate 
enabled  him  to  answer  all  arguments  urged 
against  him.  On  his  third  examination,  Sept. 
23,  he  made  a  qualified  recantation  of  his 
views  as  to  the  sacrament.  After  being  im 
prisoned  for  several  months,  he  was  again 
brought  before  the  council,  May  26,  1416,  and 
solemnly  retracted  his  late  admission  of  error. 
This  hastened  his  condemnation,  and  he  was 
burned  at  the  stake,  meeting  his  fate  with  cour 
age.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Heller  (Tubin 
gen,  1835),  and  by  Becker  (NOrdlingen,  1858). 
JERRGLD.  I.  Donglas  William,  an  English  au 
thor,  born  in  London,  Jan.  3,  1803,  died  there, 
June  8,  1857.  His  father  was  manager  of  a  the 
atre  in  Sheerness,  but  Jerrold  himself  manifest 
ed  a  dislike  for  the  stage,  and  obtained  in  1813 
a  commission  as  midshipman.  The  hard  life  in 
service  did  not  suit  him ;  and  when  paid  off, 
Oct.  21,  1815,  he  did  not  attempt  to  reenter 
the  navy.  His  father  had  been  ruined  as  man 
ager,  and  the  family  went  to  London,  where  in 
1818  the  boy  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer, 
and  devoted  his  leisure  to  study  and  reading. 
His  first  literary  effort  was  a  comedy,  "  More 
Frightened  than  Hurt,"  written  at  the  age  of 
15 ;  it  was  sent  to  a  London  theatre,  where  it 
remained  unread  for  two  years,  but  met  with 
great  success  when  brought  out  at  Sadler's 
Wells  in  1821.  He  was  afterward  employed 
as  a  writer  for  the  newspaper  on  which  he  had 
worked  as  a  printer,  and  in  1825  married  and 
was  engaged  at  a  salary  to  write  for  the  Coburg 
theatre.  In  1829,  having  quarrelled  with  the 
manager  of  this  establishment  on  account  of  a 
play,  "  Black-Eyed  Susan,1'  written  several  years 
before,  Jerrold  left  his  situation,  and  went  with 
the  MS.  to  Elliston  at  the  Surrey  theatre.  It 
had  a  run  of  over  300  nights,  and  brought  in 
many  thousands  for  the  manager,  though  the 
author  only  received  about  £70.  In  1830  the 
success  of  a  new  play,  "The  Devil's  Ducat,'' 
at  the  Adelphi  theatre,  introduced  him  to  Dru- 
ry  Lane,  where  he  produced  "The  Bride  of 
Ladgate"  and  "The  Rent  Day;"  the  latter, 
founded  on  two  pictures  by  Wilkie,  was  also 
strikingly  successful.  From  1831  to  1836  he 
wrote  "Nell  Gwynne,"  "The  Housekeeper," 
"The  Wedding  Gown,"  and  "Beau  Nash,"  all 
of  which  were  successful.  In  1836  he  under 
took  the  management  of  the  Strand  theatre, 
but  failed  in  the  speculation.  He  had  already 
produced  many  striking  pieces  in  different  mag 
azines.  He  was  in  Paris  when  "Punch  "was 
started  in  1841,  and  on  returning  he  became 
one  of  its  most  popular  contributors.  His  "  Q." 


papers,  "  Story  of  a  Feather,"  and  the  "  Caudle 
Lectures  "  made  his  name  widely  known.  In 
1843  he  started  the  "Illuminated  Magazine;" 
this  was  discontinued  after  two  years,  and  fol 
lowed  by  his  "Shilling  Magazine,"  which  was 
also  a  failure.  More  successful  was  his  con 
nection  with  "  Lloyd's  Weekly  Newspaper." 
He  was  very  witty  in  conversation.  "Doug 
las  Jerrold's  Wit  and  Humor,"  and  "The  Life 
and  Remains  of  Douglas  Jerrold,"  by  his  son, 
were  published  in  1858.  A  partial  collection 
of  his  works,  with  the  life,  has  been  issued 
(5  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1869).  II.  William  Blan- 
cliard,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London  in 
1826.  He  was  educated  partly  at  Brompton 
grammar  school  and  partly  in  France;  studied 
art,  contributed  to  various  periodicals,  and 
wrote  several  tales,  farces,  and  other  works, 
among  which  are  "Swedish  Sketches"  (1852) 
and  "Imperial  Paris"  (1856).  In  1857  he  be 
came  editor  of  "  Lloyd's  Weekly  Newspaper," 
succeeding  his  father,  whose  life  he  wrote  in 
1858.  In  1863  he  went  to  Paris,  as  commis 
sioner  of  the  "Morning  Post,"  to  study  the 
institutions  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  the 
results  of  his  investigations  were  embodied  in 
"  The  Children  of  Lutetia  "  (1864).  He  made 
trips  in  various  parts  of  France  and  Spain, 
and  published  "At  Home  in  Paris,"  "A  Trip 
through  the  Vineyards  of  Spain  "  (1864),  "  Pass 
ing  the  Time"  (1865),  "On  the  Boulevards " 
(1867),  and  several  other  works.  In  1869  he 
made  a  journey  in  the  Netherlands  to  examine 
the  poor-law  administration.  In  1871  he  pub- 
ished  "  The  Story  of  Madge  and  the  Fairy  Con 
tent,"  "At  Home  in  Paris:  at  Peace  and  at 
War,"  and  "The  Cockaynes."  His  comedy, 
"  Cupid  in  Waiting,"  was  produced  at  the  Roy 
alty  theatre  in  July,  1871,  and  his  "London," 
illustrated  by  Dor6,  was  published  in  1872. 

JERSEY,  a  W.  county  of  Illinois,  bounded 
W.  by  Illinois  river,  and  separated  from  Mis 
souri  on  the  S.  by  the  Mississippi;  area,  352 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,054.  The  surface  is 
diversified  with  prairies  and  woodlands,  and 
the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  main  line  and 
the  Jacksonville  division  of  the  Chicago  and 
Alton  railroad,  and  the  Rockford,  Rock  Island, 
and  St.  Louis  railroad,  traverse  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  558,367  bushels  of 
wheat,  519,120  of  Indian  corn,  71,770  of  oats, 
39,330  of  potatoes,  13,226  Ibs.  of  wool,  180,- 
078  of  butter,  and  11,650  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,531  horses,  2,978  milch  cows,  7,977 
other  cattle,  4,552  sheep,  and  16,056  swine;  2 
manufactories  of  boots  and  shoes,  3  of  car 
riages,  2  of  boats,  7  of  cooperage,  and  8  flour 
mills.  Capital,  Jerseyville. 

JERSEY,  the  largest  and  most  important  of 
the  Channel  islands,  lying  in  the  English  chan 
nel,  15  m.  from  the  coast  of  France,  and  be 
longing  to  Great  Britain.  It  is  about  12  m. 
long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  7  m.  wide,  and  con 
tains  an  area  of  45  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  56,- 
627.  The  const  is  indented  with  numerous 
excellent  harbors,  and  save  toward  the  south 


G10 


JERSEY 


JERSEY   CITY 


is  in  general  bold  and  precipitous.  The  surface 
is  an  alternation  of  wooded  hills  and  fertile 
valleys.  The  highlands  in  the  north  consist 
chiefly  of  granite,  and  the  reddish  white  syen- 
itic  granite  which -forms  the  cliffs  on  the  N. 
coast  is  quarried  extensively  for  exportation. 
In  the  south  schist  is  found  overlying  the 
granite  formation.  The  island  contains  neither 
limestone,  chalk,  marl,  nor  gravel.  The  cli 
mate  is  mild  and  healthful.  Agriculture  has 
recently  been  greatly  improved.  Land  is  held 
at  a  high  rent,  the  holdings  averaging  but  15 
acres.  Alderney  cows,  small  sturdy  horses, 
sheep  chiefly  of  the  Southdown  stock,  and  a 
few  varieties  of  feathered  game  are  the  most 
important  animal  productions.  Nearly  all  for 
est  trees  common  to  this  latitude  are  found 
to  thrive;  wheat,  potatoes,  parsnips,  and  lu- 
cern  are  cultivated,  and  much  attention  is  de 
voted  to  apple  orchards,  for  which  the  soil  and 


<-    .  '.'-.  v      ,  i    | 


Mount  Orgueil  Castle,  Jersey. 

climate  are  particularly  favorable ;  as  many  as 
30,000  hhds.  of  cider  have  been  made  in  good 
years.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  products 
of  Jersey  is  its  Chaumontelle  pears,  a  single 
one  of  which  frequently  weighs  a  pound.  The 
most  important  manufactures  are  shoes  and 
hosiery.  Great  numbers  of  ships  are  also  built, 
as  timber  and  cordage  are  duty  free.  The  chief 
exports  are  cattle,  potatoes,  and  oysters;  the 
principal  imports  are  woollens,  hardware,  soap, 
glass,  earthenware,  and  coal.  The  oyster  trade 
employs  about  3,000  persons  and  400  or  500 
vessels.  The  principal  beds  are  on  the  E.  side 
of  the  island,  the  best  being  nearer  to  the 
French  coast  than  to  Jersey.  Between  the 
months  of  February  and  May  about  200,000 
bushels  of  oysters  are  sent  from  the  Jersey 
beds  to  England,  where  most  of  them  are  de 
posited  in  "  parks  "  along  the  coast  of  Essex 
and  the  Thames,  to  be  withdrawn  according  to 
the  demand  of  the  London  market.  The  har 
bor  of  Gorey  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  island  is 


the  principal  rendezvous  for  the  vessels.  Near 
it  is  Mount  Orgueil  castle,  a  picturesque  struc 
ture  on  a  headland  between  St.  Catharine  and 
Grouville  bays.  It  was  once  the  principal 
fortress  on  the  island,  and  it  was  the  residence 
of  Charles  II.  during  a  part  of  his  exile. — 
Jersey  has  a  legislature  of  its  own,  called  the 
"  states,"  or  insular  parliament.  It  consists  of 
the  governor  and  the  baily  of  the  royal  court, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  crown ;  the  12 
judges  of  the  royal  court,  who  are  chosen  for 
life  by  the  rate  payers ;  the  rectors  of  the  12 
parishes,  who  are  appointed  to  their  livings  by 
the  governor ;  and  12  constables  (one  from 
each  parish),  elected  for  three  years  by  the  in 
habitants.  The  vicomte,  or  high  sheriff,  and 
the  two  denonciateurs,  or  under  sheriffs,  oc 
cupy  seats  as  officers  of  the  assembly.  The 
crown  officers  may  take  part  in  the  debates, 
but  not  vote.  The  governor  in  special  cases 
may  confirm  or  annul 
the  decrees  of  the  states. 
The  royal  court  is  the 
supreme  tribunal  in  civil 
and  criminal  cases ;  ap 
peal  lies  from  it  to  the 
sovereign  in  council. 
The  language  of  the  up 
per  classes  is  generally 
French,  but  the  mass 
es  still  speak  a  dialect 
of  the  old  Norman 
and  preserve  a  num 
ber  of  Norman  feudal 
customs.  The  capital 
is  St.  Helier. 

JERSEY  CIH7,  a  city 
and  the  county  seat  of 
Hudson  co.,  New  Jer 
sey,  situated  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  Hudson  riv 
er,  here  about  a  mile 
wide,  at  its  entrance 
into  New  York  bay,  op 
posite  the  city  of  New  York,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  five  ferries,  and  50  m.  N.  E.  of 
Trenton.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  North  Bergen, 
West  Hoboken,  and  Hoboken,  S.  by  Bayonne, 
and  W.  by  Newark  bay,  Hackensack  river,  and 
Penhorn  creek,  and  extends  about  5  m.  N.  and 
S.  by  3  m.  E.  and  W.  It  is  in  the  main  regu 
larly  laid  out,  with  wide  streets  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  but  some  streets  do  not 
conform  to  the  general  plan.  There  are  nu 
merous  handsome  residences,  and  many  sub 
stantial  business  structures  and  public  build 
ings.  Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the 
city  hall,  court  house  and  jail,  a  large  market, 
the  public  school  buildings,  of  which  14  are  of 
brick,  and  the  churches.  There  are  four  small 
public  squares,  of  which  two,  Van  Vorst  and 
Hamilton,  are  provided  with  fountains,  laid 
out  in  grass  plots,  and  adorned  with  trees. 
Washington  square  is  divided  into  four  small 
er  squares  by  intersecting  streets,  and  Bergen 
square,  which  is  unimproved,  is  used  as  a 


JERSEY   CITY 


611 


parade  ground.  The  population  in  1850,  as 
returned  in  the  census,  was  6,856;  in  1860, 
29,227;  in  1870,  82,546,  of  whom  705  were 
colored  and  31,835  foreigners,  including  17,665 
natives  of  Ireland,  7,151  of  Germany,  4,008  of 
England,  and  1,176  of  Scotland.  The  number 
of  families  was  16,687;  of  dwellings,  9,867. 
The  city  is  an  outgrowth  of  New  York,  and 
has  been  built  up  by  the  overflow  of  its  popu 
lation  ;  but  the  extraordinary  ratio  of  increase 
is  partly  due  to  the  absorption  of  contiguous 
municipalities.  The  township  of  Van  Vorst, 
which  had  4,617  inhabitants  in  1850,  was  an 
nexed  in  1851 ;  the  cities  of  Hudson  and  Ber 
gen,  with  7,229  and  7,429  inhabitants  respec 
tively  in  1860,  were  merged  in  1870  (before 
the  census);  and  in  1872  the  township  of 
Greenville  was  annexed.  The  population  of 
Greenville  in  1870  was  2,789,  so  that  the  popu 
lation  at  the  last  census  of  the  city  as  at  pres 
ent  constituted  was  85,335. — Jersey  City  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Morris  canal  and  of  six  lines 
of  railroad,  viz. :  the  Erie,  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  the  Northern 
New  Jersey,  the  New  Jersey  Midland,  and 
the  New  York  and  Newark.  Besides  these, 
the  Morris  and  Essex  division  of  the  Dela 
ware,  Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroad, 
which  has  its  terminus  at  Hoboken,  passes 
through  the  north  part  of  the  city.  The  ferry 
boats  to  New  York  are  commodious  and  well 
appointed,  and  ply  every  few  minutes  through 
out  the  day  and  night.  Horse  cars  run  to  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  city  and  to  Hoboken.  Jer 
sey  City  forms  part  of  the  New  York  customs 
district,  and  its  commerce  is  not  separately  re 
turned.  It  is  one  of  the  termini  of  the  Cu- 
nard  steamship  line  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  The  immense  quantities  of 
coal  and  iron  brought  by  the  canal  and  rail 
roads  create  an  important  business.  Manufac 
turing  is  extensively  carried  on,  the  principal 
establishments  being  the  United  States  watch 
company,  large  glass  Avorks,  three  crucible 
works,  three  steel  works,  zinc  works,  three 
boiler  works,  a  machine  shop,  three  founderies, 
a  found ery  and  machine  shop,  three  railroad  re 
pair  and  supply  shops,  locomotive  works,  two 
sugar  refineries,  three  breweries,  two  planing 
mills,  and  manufactories  of  chains  and  spikes, 
medals,  car  springs,  pottery,  soap  and  candles, 
saleratus,  castor  and  linseed  oil,  copper  articles, 
drugs  and  chemicals,  jewelry,  fireworks,  hy 
drants  and  lathes,  rubber,  oakum,  black  lead 
pnd  lead  pencils,  stove  polish,  &c.  The  cruci 
bles  made  here  are  used  exclusively  in  the 
mints  of  Europe  as  well  as  of  this  country. 
The  business  of  slaughtering  live  stock  for 
the  New  York  market  was  formerly  carried 
on  very  extensively  at  Communipaw,  in  the  S. 
part  of  the  city,  bordering  on  New  York  bay ; 
but  the  stock  yards  have  been  removed,  and 
an  extensive  abattoir,  with  stock  yards,  has 
been  built  in  the  N.  part  of  the  city  near  the 
river  front,  where  cattle  and  sheep  are  slaugh 
tered.  This  establishment  was  opened  in  the 


spring  of  1874;  it  is  connected  by  a  branch 
with  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  and  drains  into 
the  river.  Hogs  are  now  only  slaughtered  on 
the  Hackensack  meadows  beyond  the  city  lim 
its. — Jersey  City  contains  three  national  banks 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,150,000,  two 
state  banks,  eight  savings  banks,  a  trust  com 
pany  with  $200,000  capital,  and  four  insu 
rance  companies.  It  is  governed  by  a  may 
or  and  a  board  of  12  aldermen  (two  from 
each  district),  but  the  chief  functions  are  exer 
cised  by  the  boards  of  police  commissioners 
(five  members),  of  public  works  (three),  and  of 
fire  commissioners  (five),  chosen  by  the  state 
legislature,  and  by  the  board  of  finance  and 
taxation  (five  members),  chosen  by  the  board 
of  aldermen.  The  county  board  of  health  has 
supervision  of  all  contagious  diseases.  For 
police  purposes  the  city  is  divided  into  five 
precincts,  and  the  force  consists  of  a  chief  of 
police,  an  inspector,  5  captains,  19  sergeants, 
and  155  men.  The  fire  department  has  under 
its  control  10  steam  engines,  three  hand  engines, 
five  hook  and  ladder  trucks,  and  a  fire  alarm 
telegraph,  and  the  force  consists  of  a  chief  en 
gineer,  an  assistant,  two  district  engineers,  and 
325  men,  of  wThom  91  are  permanently  em 
ployed  and  234  required  to  respond  at  call. 
The  streets  are  well  paved  and  sewered,  and 
the  city  is  supplied  with  gas  by  two  companies, 
which  have  a  united  capital  of  $1,050,000.  The 
water  works  are  at  Belleville,  on  the  Passaic 
river,  6  in.  N.  W.  of  the  city.  The  water  is 
pumped  into  the  receiving  reservoir  by  five 
engines,  whence  it  is  brought  in  pipes  to  the 
distributing  reservoir  within  the  city ;  another 
distributing  reservoir  is  in  course  of  construc 
tion.  These  works  also  supply  Hoboken.  The 
assessed  value  of  property  in  1871  was  $61,330,- 
987;  in  1872,  $68,496,855;  in  1873,  $62,292,- 
138,  the  decrease  being  due  to  the  non-assess 
ment  of  railroad  property,  which  under  recent 
laws  is  exempt.  The  estimated  expenditures 
for  the  year  ending  Nov.  30,  1874,  are  $1,376,- 
480,  of  "which  $317,000  ($185,000  for  lamps 
and  lights)  is  on  account  of  the  board  of  public 
works;  $60,000,  of  hospital,  dispensaries,  poor, 
&c, ;  $265,000,  of  schools;  $219,500,  of  police; 
$149,430,  of  fire  department ;  $228,000,  of  in 
terest;  the  rest  miscellaneous.  The  bonded 
debt,  April  1,  1874,  amounted  to  $13,082,775, 
including  $422,000  held  by  the  commissioners 
of  the  sinking  fund,  of  which  $5,286,500  con 
sisted  of  assessment  bonds,  $4,530,300  of  water 
bonds,  and  $3,265,975  of  general  debt.  The 
principal  charital)le  institutions  are  the  city 
hospital,  the  home  for  aged  women,  and  the 
children's  home.  There  are  two  young  men's 
Christian  associations,  a  city  mission  and  tract 
society,  and  numerous  temperance  societies, 
masonic  and  odd  fellows'  lodges,  &c.  The 
public  schools  are  under  the  charge  of  a  super 
intendent,  who  is  appointed  by  the  board  of 
education,  which  consists  of  12  members,  two 
being  elected  from  each  aldermanic  district. 
According  to  the  report  of  the  superintendent 


612 


JERUSALEM 


for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873,  there  were 
16  school  houses  owned  by  the  city  and  5  build 
ings  leased,  affording  10,850  seats.  The  schools 
were  divided  as  follows :  1  normal,  1  high,  15 
grammar,  20  primary  (2  colored),  and  7  even 
ing.  The  number  of  children  of  school  age  (5 
to  18)  was  30,758;  enrolled  in  day  schools, 
16,702;  average  attendance,  8,320;  number 
of  teachers,  250  (18  males  and  232  females); 
value  of  school  property,  $674,416  72.  The 
number  enrolled  in  the  evening  schools  was 
2,812;  average  attendance,  792.  The  normal 
school  is  held  on  Saturdays  for  the  instruction 
of  teachers  and  candidates  for  employment  as 
such.  The  expenditures,  which  are  met  partly 
by  a  state  and  partly  by  a  city  tax,  were 
$235,142  75,  of  which  $180,446  14  were  for 
salaries.  The  number  of  private  schools  was 
30  (10  denominational  and  20  secular),  with 
5,973  pupils.  Since  the  date  of  the  report 
another  school  house  has  been  opened.  There 
are  two  daily  and  three  weekly  (two  German) 
newspapers.  The  post  office  has  two  sub-sta 
tions.  The  number  of  churches  is  59,  viz. :  6 
Baptist  (1  German),  2  Congregational,  10 
Episcopal,  2  German  Evangelical  Lutheran,  14 
Methodist  (1  German  and  2  colored),  6  Presby 
terian,  2  United  Presbyterian,  8  Reformed,  8 
Roman  Catholic  (1  German),  and  1  Univer- 
salist. — Although  the  peninsula  upon  which 
Jersey  City  stands  was  granted  by  letters  patent 
from  Sir  William  Kieft,  director  general  of  the 
Dutch  West  India  company,  in  the  year  1638, 
it  was  used  for  farming  purposes  solely  for 
more  than  150  years,  and  it  was  not  till  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  that  it  began 
to  be  settled.  In  1802  the  whole  population 
of  the  place,  then  called  Paulus  Hook,  con 
sisted  of  13  persons,  occupying  but  one  house 
and  out  buildings.  In  1804  the  "associates  of 
the  Jersey  company"  were  chartered  by  the 
legislature  of  New  Jersey,  and  laid  out  the 
whole  of  Paulus  Hook  into  blocks  and  streets. 
In  1820  "the  city  of  Jersey  "  was  incorporated 
with  a  board  of  selectmen;  in  1838  it  was  re- 
incorporated  under  the  name  of  "Jersey  City," 
with  a  mayor  and  common  council. 

JERUSALEM  (Heb.  Yeruslialaim,  possession 
of  peace ;  Gr.  'lepovaa/l^u  ;  Lat.  Hierosolyma  ; 
Arab.  El-Klmds,  the  holy,  or  Khuds  csh-Sherif, 
the  noble  sanctuary),  a  city  of  Palestine,  an 
ciently  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Jews, 
afterward  of  that  of  Judah,  and  now  the  seat 
of  a  Turkish  pasha.  It  is  the  holy  city  of  the 
Jews  and  the  Christians,  and  one  of  the  three 
holy  cities  of  the  Mohammedans,  ranking  next 
in  sanctity  to  Mecca  and  Medina,  It  is  situated 
in  lat.  31°  46'  N.,  Ion.  35°  14'  E.,  133  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Damascus,  33  m.  E.  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
15  m.  W.  of  the  Dead  sea;  elevation  above  the 
Mediterranean,  from  about  2,000  to  nearly  2,600 
ft. ;  pop.  about  20,000,  of  whom  5,500  are  Mo 
hammedans,  8,000  Jews,  and  6,000  Christians, 
mostly  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  the  re 
mainder  Armenians,  Protestants,  Abyssinians, 
Copts,  and  Syrians.  Jerusalem  is  built  on  a 


high  plateau  about  2  m.  square,  connected  on 
the  north  with  the  wide  mountain  range  which 
runs  N.  and  S.  through  Palestine,  and  which 
forms  the  watershed  of  the  country,  so  that 
streams  within  a  mile  of  the  city  walls  flow  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the 
other  to  the  Dead  sea.  Between  the  plateau 
and  the  mountain  ridge  on  the  north  is  a  low 
depression  through  which  small  streams  flow 
during  the  rainy  season.  On  the  other  sides  the 
hills  rise  abruptly  higher  than  the  plateau  on 
which  the  city  stands.  The  limestone  of  this 
plateau  is  much  harder  than  that  of  the  sur 
rounding  hills,  and  is  capable  of  receiving  a  high 
polish.  The  color  is  a  pale  yellow,  with  red  or 
pink  veins.  W.  of  the  city  at  Gihon,  and  on  the 
N.  side,  about  H  m.  from  each  other,  are  two 
gentle  depressions,  one  running  S.  E.  and  then 
E.,  the  other  E.  and  then  S.,  gradually  becom 
ing  deeper  till  they  form  two  narrow  ravines 
with  precipitous  sides.  These  are  the  valley  of 
Ilinnom  arid  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  (or  of 
the  Kedron),  which  almost  skirt  the  city  in 
their  course,  and  unite  in  the  S.  E.  part,  a  lit 
tle  S.  of  the  pool  of  Siloam  and  near  the  well 
En-rogel.  A  third  ravine,  the  Tyropoeon,  begins 
in  the  city,  and  running  S.  joins  the  other  two 
at  this  point.  The  gorge  continues  its  course 
S.  E.  till  it  is  lost  in  the  basin  of  the  Dead  sea. 
On  the  east  the  triple-peaked  mount  of  Olives 
rises  abruptly  from  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat. 
On  the  south  the  hill  of  Evil  Counsel  over 
hangs  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  which  separates 
it  from  Zion.  On  the  side  of  the  hill  of  Evil 
Counsel  a  chain  of  rocks  rises  precipitously 
from  the  valley  to  a  height  of  30  or  40  ft., 
and  on  the  ridge  is  the  small  field  called  Acel 
dama  (field  of  blood),  or  potter's  field.  Fur 
ther  N.  W.,  up  the  valley  where  it  blends  with 
Gihon,  is  the  lower  pool  of  Gihon,  formed  by 
a  strong  wall  built  across  the  lower  end ;  it  is 
called  by  the  Arabs  Mrlwt  es-Sultan,  pool  of 
the  sultan.  The  wall  being  now  broken,  it  is 
used  by  the  Arabs  as  a  threshing  floor.  The 
course  of  this  valley  K  and  then  N.  W.  leads 
up  to  the  plateau  on  which  the  city  stands. 
On  this  spot,  about  -J-  m.  from  the  city  walls, 
is  the  upper  pool  of  Gihon,  a  basin  about  350 
ft.  long,  200  ft.  broad,  and  30  ft.  deep.  The 
water  that  accumulates  in  this  pool,  after  set 
tling,  is  conducted  into  the  pool  of  Hezekiah, 
within  the  city,  where  it  is  used  for  bathing. 
On  the  sides  of  the  pool  of  Gihon  is  the  Turk 
ish  cemetery,  which,  as  in  other  eastern  cities, 
is  unfenced,  and  presents  a  desolate  appear 
ance.  Immediately  AV.  of  this  pool  is  the  hill 
Gareb ;  the  valley  (Wady  Haninah)  beyond 
declines  toward  the  Mediterranean.  E.  of  this 
plnce,  and  next  to  the  city,  is  a  magnificent  es 
tablishment  built  a  few  years  ago  by  the  Pales 
tine  commission  of  St.  Petersburg,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  emperor  of  Russia.  It  consists 
of  the  fine  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  two 
large  hospices  for  male  and  female  pilgrims  re 
spectively,  a  house  for  the  missionaries  and 
travellers  of  the  higher  classes,  a  hospital,  and 


JERUSALEM 


613 


a  residence  for  the  Russian  consul.  Near  by  is 
another  large  building  for  the  Prussian  deacon 
esses'  schools.  The  country  around  Jerusalem 
is  rocky  a/id  not  very  fertile.  The  rocks  almost 
everywhere  crop  out  at  the  surface,  which  in 
many  parts  is  also  thickly  strewn  with  large 
stones,  and  the  whole  region  has  a  dreary  and 
barren  aspect.  At  almost  every  siege  the  trees 
were  either  burned  or  cut  down,  and  the  vege- 


Plan  of  Modern  Jerusalem. 

tation  destroyed.  The  soil  thus  exposed  was 
gradually  washed  down  into  the  valleys  and 
thence  to  the  plains,  which  to  this  day  are  re 
markably  fertile.  Yet  olives  and  vines  thrive  on 
the  sides  of  these  mountains,  and  fields  of  grain 
are  seen  in  the  valleys  and  level  places. — The 
various  parts  of  ancient  Jerusalem  were  at  dif 
ferent  intervals  surrounded  by  walls.  The  first 
old  wall  encircled  Zion  and  a  part  of  Moriah. 


It  began  N.  W.  of  the  tower  Ilippicus,  extend 
ed  to  the  Xystus,  and  terminated  on  the  "W. 
side  of  the  temple,  thus  separating  the  upper 
from  the  lower  city.  The  other  part  of  the 
wall,  toward  the  west,  commencing  also  from 
Ilippicus,  passed  by  a  place  called  Bethso  to 
the  gate  of  the  Essenes ;  thence  it  turned  S. 
and  E.,  taking  in  all  the  south  of  Zion  till  above 
the  pool  of  Siloam ;  it  then  turned  N.  E.,  by 
the  slope  Ophel,  and 
joined  the  E.  cloister  of 
the  temple.  The  second 
wall  began  at  the  gate 
of  Gennath,  in  the  first 
wall  E.  of  the  tower 
Hippicus.  Advancing 
thence  toward  the  N. 
gate  of  the  city,  it  turn 
ed  S.  E.,  and  termina 
ted  at  the  fort  of  Anto- 
nia,  which  flanked  the 
N.  W.  angle  of  the  tem 
ple.  The  third  wall  be 
gan  at  the  tower  Ilip 
picus,  extended  N.  W. 
as  far  as  the  tower 
Psephinus,  then  turn 
ing  E.  passed  by  the 
tomb  of  Helena  on  the 
north  for  some  dis 
tance,  and  finally  turn 
ed  S.,  joining  the  old 
wall  E.  of  the  temple. 
The  present  walls  were 
built  by  the  Turkish 
sultan  Solyman  the 
Magnificent  in  1536-'9. 
They  are  15  ft.  thick 
at  the  base,  and  vary 
in  height  with  the  in 
equalities  of  the  ground 
from  25  to  70  ft.  Their 
total  circuit  is  about  2£ 
m. — The  city  is  irregu 
lar  in  its  outline,  but 
approaches  a  square 
whose  four  sides,  each 
about  £  m.  long,  near 
ly  face  the  cardinal 
points.  It  has  at  pres 
ent  five  gates  that  are 
open,  two  on  the  south, 
and  one  near  the  cen 
tre  of  each  of  the  oth 
er  sides.  On  the  west 
is  the  Jafi'a  gate  (or 
bab  el-Khalil,  Hebron 

gate),  the  chief  entrance  to  the  city ;  on  the 
north  the  Damascus  gate  (bob  el-Amud,  the 
gate  of  the  columns)  ;  on  the  east  St.  Stephen's 
gate,  called  by  the  native  Christians  gate  of  our 
Lady  Mary,  and  by  the  Mohammedans  bab  el- 
Asbat,  gate  of  the  tribes ;  on  the  south  Zion 
gate  (bab  en-nabi  Daud,  gate  of  the  prophet 
David),  and  another  obscure  portal,  the  Dung 
gate  (bab  el-Magliaribeli,  gate  of  the  Moors), 


614 


JERUSALEM 


near  the  centre  of  the  Tyropceon.  The  Golden 
gate,  on  the  E.  side,  is  now  walled  up  with 
solid  masonry,  and  against  it  a  tower  has  been 
erected,  where  a  Mohammedan  soldier  is  con 
stantly  on  guard  ;  for  the  Turks  have  a  tradi 
tion  that  the  Christians  will  some  day  enter  by 
this  gate  and  possess  the  city.  Among  the 
ancient  gates  mentioned  in  Scripture  were  the 
gates  of  Ephraim  and  Joshua,  the  horse,  sheep, 
and  fish  gates  (probably  with  adjoining  mar 
ket  places  for  the  sale  of  horses,  &c.),  and  the 
old,  fountain,  and  water  gates.  The  streets  are 
narrow,  winding,  dirty,  and  badly  paved;  the 
principal  and  broadest  street  is  about  15  ft. 
wide,  and  some  are  only  5  or  6  ft.  The  houses 
are  built  of  heavy  masonry,  with  thick  walls 
supporting  arched  roofs.  They  have  neither 
symmetry  nor  elegance,  but  the  rooms  are 
generally  lofty  and  well  ventilated.  The  houses 
are  usually  two  or 
three  stories  high, 
with  a  plain  front, 
few  or  no  win 
dows  in  the  lower 
stories,  and  doors 
so  low  that  a  per 
son  must  stoop 
in  entering.  The 
roofs  are  terraced 
or  rise  in  domes, 
and  the  apart 
ments  receive 
light  from  inte 
rior  courts,  which 
in  the  larger 
houses  form  cool 
and  agreeable 
promenades,  and 
sometimes  are 
turned  into  gar 
dens,  where  the 
household  spend 
their  leisure  time. 
The  principal 
apartments  are  in 
the  upper  story, 
the  lower  being 
occupied  by  lumber  rooms,  kitchens,  stables, 
cisterns,  and  offices.  Some  of  the  houses  are 
three  or  four  centuries  old. — The  city,  as  seen 
from  the  mount  of  Olives,  above  the  an 
cient  Gethsemane,  appears  to  be  a  regular 
inclined  plane,  sloping  gently  and  uniform 
ly  from  W.  to  E.,  or  toward  the  observer, 
and  indented  by  a  slight  depression  or  vale 
running  N.  and  S.,  the  Tyropceon,  which  was 
formerly  a  deep  ravine,  but  was  filled  up  by 
Simon  Maccabreus  when  he  razed  Acra.  The 
elevation  W.  of  the  Tyropceon  is  Zion,  E.  Mo- 
riah  and  Ophel,  K  Acra,  and  N.  E.  Bezetha. 
The  S.  E.  corner  is  occupied  by  the  great 
mosque  and  its  extensive  and  beautiful  grounds 
on  Mt.  Moriah,  comprising  about  one  seventh 
of  the  modern  city.  This  enclosure  corre 
sponds,  in  part  at  least,  with  the  ancient  tem 
ple  area.  The  site  was  purchased  by  David, 


having  been  the  threshing  floor  of  Araunah, 
an  altar  was  built,  and  materials  were  collect 
ed  for  the  temple.  The  building  was  erected  by 
Solomon  about  1012-1005  B.  C.,  its  general  plan 
being  taken  from  the  ancient  tabernacle,  while 
the  dimensions  were  exactly  doubled.  It  was 
120  ft.  long  and  60  ft.  wide,  and  consisted  of 
three  parts,  the  porch,  the  holy  place,  and  the 
holy  of  holies,  surrounded  on  all  sides  but  the 
front  by  small  chambers  arranged  in  three 
stories,  for  the  priests.  The  porch  probably 
rose  in  a  lofty  second  story,  and  its  ceiling 
was  supported  by  two  highly  ornamented  pil 
lars  of  brass.  The  temple  stood  within  courts 
and  cloisters  of  great  beauty,  and  was  connect 
ed  by  stone  bridges  spanning  the  Tyropceon 
valley  with  the  royal  palace  and  the  city  on 
Mt.  Zion.  It  was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnez 
zar  in  586  B.  C.,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Zerub- 


The  Great  Mosque  (Kubbet  es-Sakhra). 


babel  about  520,  but  of  its  restored  charac 
ter  we  have  little  information.  The  temple  of 
Zerubbabel  was  standing  however  in  the  time 
of  Herod,  and  the  restoration  by  that  king  was 
in  two  parts:  the  temple  proper,  which  the 
priests  rebuilt  in  18  months,  not  trusting  the 
work  to  profane  hands,  and  perhaps  only  re 
pairing  the  ancient  building;  and  the  courts 
and  porches  or  cloisters,  which  Herod  greatly 
enlarged,  spending  eight  years  in  fitting  them 
for  use,  while  the  work  of  completion  con 
tinued  nearly  50  years.  The  facade  of  the 
temple  consisted  of  a  lofty  arch  spanning  the 
entrance.  The  temple  was  surrounded  by  a 
court  about  360  ft.  long  and  270  ft.  wide, 
adorned  by  porticoes  and  ten  magnificent 
gates,  one  of  them  probably  the  "gate  called 
Beautiful;1'  while  beyond  this  was  an  en 
closure  about  600  ft.  square,  bounded  by  por- 


JERUSALEM 


615 


ticoes  surpassing  in  size  those  of  any  other  an 
cient  temple.  The  whole  structure  was  of 
white  marble,  the  roofs  lavishly  adorned  with 
gold,  and  the  high  and  massive  walls  of  the  en 
closure  made  it  the  stronghold  of  the  Jews 
during  the  siege  by  Titus.  The  hill  is  now 
covered  with  greensward,  and  planted  sparing 
ly  with  olives,  cypresses,  and  other  trees,  and 
is  the  most  beautiful  feature  in  the  city. 
About  the  middle  of  this  enclosure  is  a  large 
and  nearly  rectangular  platform,  about  10  ft. 
high,  500  ft.  long,  and  from  460  to  500  ft. 
in  width.  On  this  platform  stands  the  grand 
mosque,  Kiibbet  es-SaMra,  "  Dome  of  the 
Rock."  The  building  is  an  octagon,  each  side 
of  which  measures  67  ft.  It  is  surmounted  by 
a  light  and  graceful  dome,  terminated  by  a  tall 
crescent.  Its  exterior  walls  are  covered  with 
tiles  of  white,  blue,  and  yellow  glazed  porce 
lain,  with  intricate  arabesque  patterns  and  in 
scriptions.  The  lower  parts  of  the  walls  are 
further  decorated  with  slabs  of  marble,  few 
corresponding  to  each  other ;  they  are  said  to 
have  been  taken  from  the  ruins.  Four  doors, 
facing  the  cardinal  points,  lead  to  the  interior, 
which  is  about  150  ft.  in  diameter.  A  corridor 
13  ft.  wide  runs  round,  having  on  its  inner  side 
8  piers  and  16  marble  and  granite  Corinthian 
columns;  the  columns  do  not  appear  to  oc 
cupy  their  proper  places,  and  the  Arabs  say 
that  they  were  lying  about  among  the  ruins 
when  the  mosque  was  built,  Within  these  is 
another  corridor  80  ft.  wide,  with  12  larger 
columns  and  4  great  piers,  which  together 
support  the  dome.  Under  this  dome  is  the 
rock,  which  varies  in  height  from  one  foot  to 
five  feet  from  the  surface.  Under  the  rock  is 
a  cave,  partly  excavated,  which  is  entered  on 
the  southeast  by  a  flight  of  stairs.  Here  are 
pointed  out  the  altars  of  Solomon,  David, 
Abraham,  and  St.  George.  In  the  centre  of 
this  chamber  is  a  circular  slab  of  marble,  which 
on  being  stamped  upon  gives  a  hollow  sound  ; 
the  Mohammedans  call  this  the  "  well  of  souls," 
r.nd  believe  that  the  souls  of  believers  descend 
there  after  death.  The  legend  is  that  Moham 
med,  in  his  midnight  visit  to  heaven,  first 
alighted  on  this  rock,  from  which  he  continued 
his  journey,  whereupon  the  rock  raised  itself 
to  follow,  but  was  prevented  by  the  angel  Ga 
briel  ;  it  therefore  remained  suspended  in  the 
air.  About  450  ft.  S.  from  the  Sakhra,  in  the 
S.  AY.  part  of  the  enclosure,  is  the  mosque  Aksa 
(end  or  extremity,  used  figuratively,  as  alcasi 
cl-ard<  "  the  ends  of  the  earth  ").  Its  form  is 
that  of  a  basilica  of  seven  aisles;  it  is  272  ft, 
long  by  184  ft,  wide ;  in  front  there  is  a  porch 
20  ft.  wide.  The  piers  and  columns  in  the  in 
terior  are  inferior  to  those  in  the  Sakhra.  At 
the  S.  end  is  a  Saracenic  dome  similar  to  the 
Kubbet  es-Sakhra,  but  much  smaller.  To  the 
left,  on  the  east,  a  door  leads  into  a  smaller 
mosque,  said  to  have  been  the  only  one  built 
by  Omar.  In  front  of  the  Aksa  is  a  large 
basin  with  a  fountain  in  the  middle.  The 
water  that  issued  here  was  conducted  from  the 


pools  of  Solomon,  6  m.  S.  of  the  city ;  but  the 
aqueduct  has  lately  been  broken  by  the  Arabs, 
who  supply  the  city  with  water  from  the  well 
En-rogel,  near  the  junction  of  the  valleys  of 
Jehoshaphat  and  Ilinnom.  The  building  of  the 
two  mosques,  the  Sakhra  and  Aksa,  is  ascribed 
to  Abdelmalek  in  686 ;  but  some  writers  say 
that  the  emperor  Justinian  built  the  Aksa, 
then  the  church  of  St.  Mary.  Between  this 
place  and  the  E.  wall  are  extensive  subterranean 
cellars,  called  the  stables  of  Solomon,  nearly 
200  ft.  long  and  100  ft.  wide,  supported  by  col 
umns  about  25  ft.  high.  In  the  centre  of  the 
E.  wall  is  the  Porta  Aurea,  a  double  gateway 
(bat>  ed-Dahariyeh,  the  Eternal  gate),  a  magnifi 
cent  portal  with  finely  sculptured  arches,  which 
have  been  sadly  defaced  by  travellers  since  the 
mosque  was  opened  to  Christians.  When  the 
crusaders  held  the  city,  a  procession  of  Chris 
tians  bearing  palms  entered  by  this  gate  on 
every  Palm  Sunday.  The  whole  enclosure,  in 
cluding  the  mosques,  is  called  Haram  esh- 
Sherif.  In  this  enclosure  are  immense  tanks, 
calculated  to  hold  nearly  8,000,000  gallons  of 
water,  which,  together  with  the  supply  from 
the  Virgin's  fountain  and  the  cisterns  in  the 
houses,  would  last  during  a  protracted  siege. 
The  actual  spot  where  the  temple  stood  has  not 
yet  been  ascertained.  The  Porte,  although  it 
has  granted  the  English  engineers  permission 
to  excavate  around  the  city  and  in  parts  of 
it  where  no  injury  will  be  done  to  the  dwell 
ings,  has  not  been  able  to  overcome  the  super 
stition  and  fanaticism  of  the  natives  so  far  as 
to  allow  them  to  dig  within  the  precincts  of  the 
Haram.  On  the  S.  W.  side  of  the  Haram  a 
portion  of  the  temple  wall  is  still  standing, 
known  as  the  Jewish  wailing  place  ;  in  this  wall 
are  five  courses  of  large  bevelled  stones  in  a 
very  good  state  of  preservation.  Here  the  Jews 
assemble  every  Friday  to  lament  the  woes  of 
their  country.  The  pool  of  Bethesda  (now 
Bir~ket  Is  rail),  N.  of  the  Haram,  near  St.  Ste 
phen's  gate,  is  a  reservoir  about  360  ft.  long, 
130  ft.  broad,  and  75  ft.  deep. — The  church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  is  situated  almost  in  the 
heart  of  the  N.  part  of  the  city,  where  the 
empress  Helena  is  said  to  have  discovered  the 
true  cross.  (See  CROSS,  vol.  v.,  p.  513.)  Con 
cerning  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred  places 
a  great  deal  of  controversy  has  existed  and  is 
still  kept  up.  Dr.  Robinson,  in  his  "  Biblical 
Researches,"  arrives  at  the  conclusion  "that 
the  genuineness  of  the  present  site  of  the  holy 
sepulchre  is  supported  neither  by  well  authen 
ticated  historical  facts,  nor  by  prior  tradition, 
nor  by  archaeological  features."  His  main  ar 
gument  to  this  effect  attempts  to  show  by  the 
topography  of  Jerusalem  that  the  present  lo 
cality  of  the  sepulchre  was  within  the  walls  of 
the  city  at  the  time  of  the  crucifixion,  and  con 
sequently  could  not  be  near  the  place  where 
Christ  was  crucified,  which  is  stated  in  the 
Gospel  to  have  been  without  the  gates.  Most 
Protestant  and  a  few  Catholic  investigators 
agree  substantially  with  Dr.  Robinson;  while 


616 


JERUSALEM 


on  the  other  hand  the  great  majority  of  Cath 
olics  and  some  Protestant  travellers  believe  in 
the  genuineness  of  these  remains.  Among 
others,  Mr.  William  C.  Prime  maintains  the 
authenticity  of  the  sepulchre  on  the  following 
grounds:  "It  is  not  credible  that  this  locality 
was  forgotten  by  Christians  within  300  years 
after  the  great  events  of  the  crucifixion,  burial, 
and  resurrection.  Critical  scholars  and  learned 
men,  employed  in  investigating  the  topography 
of  the  Holy  Land,  had  no  doubt  of  its  authen 
ticity  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century ;  no 
one,  so  far  as  we  know,  thought  in  that  age  of 
disputing  the  fact,  but  all  men  acknowledged 
its  truth ;  it  is  not  doubted  by  any  one  that 
this  is  the  locality  in  which  those  learned  men 
placed  their  confidence,  it  having  been  well 
preserved  from  that  time  to  this."  The  main 
entrance  to  the  church  is  on  the  south.  Af 
ter  descending  a  broad  flight  of  rude  steps, 
a  large  open  paved  court  is  reached,  along 


Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

whose  sides  are  the  bases  of  a  row  of  col 
umns,  which  probably  once  supported  clois 
ters.  Recent  excavations  have  shown  that 
under  this  court  is  a  crypt  with  arches  of 
high  antiquity.  On  the  left  is  the  convent 
and  chapel  of  St.  James ;  and  on  the  opposite 
side  is  the  convent  of  Abraham  or  Isaac,  in 
the  place,  the  Greeks  say,  where  Abraham  was 
going  to  sacrifice  his  son.  The  facade  of  the 
church  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  N. 
side  of  the  court.  The  lower  story  has  a  wide 
double  gateway,  with  marble  and  granite  col 
umns  supporting  richly  sculptured  architraves, 
on  which  is  represented  Christ's  triumphant 
entry  into  Jerusalem ;  over  these  are  finely 
carved  arches.  The  eastern  section  has  been 
closed  for  several  centuries;  it  is  said  to  have 
been  walled  up  by  the  Moslems  to  limit  the 
Christians  to  one  entrance,  where  the  fees 
could  be  collected  by  one  person.  A  large 
polished  slab  of  stone  on  the  floor  of  the  church, 


near  the  entrance,  is  called  the  stone  of  unc 
tion,  and  is  said  to  cover  that  upon  which  Jo 
seph  laid  the  body  of  Christ  to  be  anointed  for 
burial.  On  the  east  of  the  stone  is  a  cham 
ber,  the  roof  of  which  forms  the  floor  of  the 
chapel  of  Golgotha,'  this  chamber  has  on  the 
right  and  left  the  tombs  of  Godfrey  and  Bald 
win,  between  which  the  visitor  passes  to  the 
chapel  of  Adam,  ending  against  the  native 
rock,  in  which  a  huge  fissure  is  visible,  said  to 
have  been  made  by  the  earthquake  at  the  time 
of  the  crucifixion.  This  rock,  ascending  through 
the  roof,  is  pointed  out  as  Calvary,  where  Jesus 
was  crucified.  Ascending  a  flight  of  stairs  out 
side  of  the  chapel  of  Adam  and  the  chamber  of 
Godfrey  and  Baldwin,  the  low  vaulted  chap 
el  of  Golgotha  is  entered.  At  the  E.  end  is  a 
platform  about  10  ft.  long  by  7  ft.  broad,  and 
20  in.  high.  In  the  centre  is  an  altar,  under 
which  is  a  hole  in  the  marble  slab  on  the  floor, 
said  to  be  the  place  where  the  Saviour's  cross 
was  fixed,  and  on  the 
right  and  left  are  shown 
the  holes  where  the 
crosses  of  the  thieves 
were  placed.  In  the  plat 
form  is  another  opening 
in  the  marble  pavement, 
through  which  is  seen 
a  rent  in  the  rock  con 
tinuous  with  the  one  be 
low  in  the  chapel  of 
Adam.  On  the  right 
hand,  S.  of  the  plat 
form,  is  another  division 
called  the  chapel  of  the 
crucifixion,  said  to  have 
been  the  place  where 
Christ  was  nailed  to 
the  cross.  This  part 
does  not  stand  on  the 
rock,  but  forms  a  kind 
of  upper  story,  which 
is  accounted  for  by  say 
ing  that  Helena  removed 
the  ground  beneath  it  and  took  it  to  Rome,  so 
that  the  chapel  is  still  on  the  real  site.  Through 
a  barred  window  in  this  division  another  chapel 
is  seen,  the  entrance  to  which  is  by  a  flight  of 
steps  outside  of  the  church.  Here  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  the  other  women  stood  watching  the 
crucifixion.  Returning  down  stairs  from  the 
chapel  of  Golgotha,  and  passing  by  the  stone 
of  unction,  we  enter  the  rotunda,  about  70  ft. 
in  diameter,  surrounded  by  18  massive  piers 
which  support  the  Armenian  church  on  one 
hand  and  the  Latin  galleries  on  the  other ;  the 
whole  surmounted  by  a  large  dome  with  an 
opening  at  the  top.  This  dome  was  *a  few 
years  ago  in  a  ruinous  condition,  but  in  1869- 
'70  it  was  repaired  at  the  joint  expense  of  the 
French,  Russian,  and  Turkish  governments. 
This  combined  action  was  a  compromise  reached 
after  long  negotiations,  in  which  the  two  Chris 
tian  powers  strenuously  contended  for  the 
privilege  of  doing  the  work,  as  protectors  re- 


JERUSALEM 


61T 


spectively  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  in 
Palestine,  in  order  to  establish  a  claim  to  ex 
clusive  possession.  Claims  thus  originating  in 
the  large  churches  of  Jerusalem,  partitioned 
among  different  sects,  have  sometimes  resulted 
in  tierce  quarrels,  lawsuits,  and  even  fights,  re 
quiring  the  interference  of  the  Turkish  soldiery. 
The  space  behind  the  piers  was  formerly  open; 
now  it  is  partitioned  off  and  divided  among 
the  various  sects.  In  the  centre  of  the  rotunda 
is  the  holy  sepulchre.  Above  it  is  a  chapel  26 
ft.  long  and  18  ft.  broad,  built  of  polished  na 
tive  limestone,  and  surmounted  with  a  small 
dome.  The  facade  is  ornamented  with  several 
twisted  marble  and  limestone  columns,  and  nu 
merous  silver  and  brass  lamps,  pictures,  &c. 
On  each  side  of  this  chapel  is  a  small  circular 
aperture,  through  which  the  holy  fire  is  dealt 
out  to  the  pilgrims  by  the  Greek  patriarch 
within.  The  chapel  is  divided  into  two  com 
partments.  The  front  chamber  is  the  "chapel 
of  the  angel,"  where  the  angel  is  supposed  to 
have  sat  on  the  stone  which  he  rolled  away 
from  the  door  of  the  sepulchre ;  in  the  centre 
of  the  apartment,  on  a  pedestal,  is  a  fragment 
of  the  stone;  the  other  part  is  said  to  have 
been  placed  by  the  Armenians  in  the  convent 
of  Caiaphas,  just  outside  of  the  Zion  gate.  In 
the  second  chamber,  which  is  entered  by  a  low- 
narrow  doorway,  is  the  tomb  of  Christ,  occu 
pying  the  whole  length  and  nearly  half  the 
width  of  the  apartment.  It  is  raised  about 
two  feet  from  the  floor,  and  covered  with  a 
single  slab  of  marble,  whose  edges  have  been 
worn  off  by  the  kisses  and  embraces  of  the  pil 
grims  who  for  centuries  have  gathered  here 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Facing  the  chapel 
over  the  sepulchre  is  the  Greek  section  of  the 
church.  It  is  the  nave  of  the  edifice,  but  is 
now  divided  from  the  aisles  by  high  walls,  said 
to  have  been  built  by  the  Greeks  after  the  cru 
saders  were  expelled  by  Saladin.  This  church 
is  quadrangular,  about  TO  ft.  by  40.  At  the 
E.  end  is  the  high  altar,  reached  by  four  steps, 
and  divided  by  a  richly  gilt  screen.  On  the 
right  hand  is  the  Greek  patriarch's  throne.  In 
the  centre  a  small  column  indicates  the  middle 
of  the  earth,  and  Adam's  skull  is  said  to  be 
buried  beneath.  There  are  two  other  side 
doors,  N.  and  S.,  opening  into  the  aisles.  Re 
turning  by  the  main  entrance  on  the  west, 
facing  the  sepulchre,  the  visitor  turns  to  the 
right,  passing  between  the  piers  of  the  rotun 
da,  and  arrives  at  a  circular  marble  pavement, 
where  Mary,  according  to  the  tradition,  stood 
when  she  first  saw  Christ  after  his  resurrec 
tion.  On  the  north,  ascending  a  few  steps,  is 
the  Catholic  section  of  the  church.  In  this 
place  is  pointed  out  the  pillar  to  which  Christ 
was  bound  when  scourged ;  the  pillar  itself 
is  hidden  from  view  by  the  building,  but  a 
stick  with  a  silver  head  is  thrust  through  an 
iron  grating  in  the  wall ;  the  silver  head,  hav 
ing  touched  the  pillar,  is  drawn  out  and  kissed. 
In  the  vestry  of  this  chapel  the  sword  of  God 
frey  is  exhibited.  Returning  and  following 


the  course  of  the  aisles  behind  the  Greek  sec 
tion,  the  visitor,  after  passing  one  or  two  sta 
tions  connected  with  different  events  in  the 
passion  of  Christ,  arrives  at  a  long  flight  of 
stairs  leading  to  Helena's  church,  a  massive  and 
rudely  constructed  edifice,  crowned  by  a  dome 
with  windows  to  admit  the  light.  Here  He 
lena  sat  while  search  wras  made  for  the  cross. 
At  the  further  end  another  flight  of  stairs  leads 
down  to  the  cave  where  the  cross,  the  crown  of 
thorns,  and  the  nails  were  discovered.  It  is  an 
irregular  excavation  in  the  rock ;  at  one  end 
an  altar  marks  the  spot  where  the  true  cross 
lay.  Ascending  again,  and  continuing  his 
course,  the  pilgrim  arrives  at  last  at  the  prin 
cipal  gate  to  the  church,  near  the  stairs  leading 
to  Golgotha,  from  which  he  first  started. 
About  35  yards  beyond  the  E.  door  of  the 
church  of  the  Sepulchre  are  the  ruins  of  the 
hospital  of  the  knights  of  St.  John ;  the  en 
trance  is  by  a  picturesque  Gothic  gateway,  the 
facade  of  which  was  richly  carved  with  his 
torical  and  symbolical  sculptures,  now  nearly 
defaced  by  curious  tourists.  Beyond  the  gate 
way  is  an  open  court,  part  of  which  was  once 
the  church;  at  the  E.  end  is  the  altar.  A 
stairway  on  the  south  leads  to  a  corridor  sur 
rounding  a  quadrangular  court.  The  building 
itself  is  very  spacious,  but  the  chambers  and 
halls  have  for  ages  been  filled  with  rubbish, 
and  several  are  in  ruins.  In  1869,  on  the  oc 
casion  of  the  visit  of  the  crown  piince  of  Prus 
sia,  the  Turkish  sultan  presented  him  with 
these  ruins ;  and  the  Prussians  are  now  clear 
ing  them  out,  and  intend  to  restore  the  church 
and  other  parts  of  the  building. — On  the  west 
of  Jerusalem,  at  the  Jaffa  gate,  is  the  citadel, 
consisting  of  three  high  square  towers,  sepa 
rated  from  the  city  by  a  low  wall  and  from  the 
suburbs  by  a  deep  and  wide  moat.  The  largest 
and  highest  is  called  the  tower  of  David.  The 
lower  part,  rising  in  a  solid  mass,  is  undoubted 
ly  ancient,  and  is  probably  the  remnant  of  the 
tower  Hippicus,  built  by  Herod,  and  named 
from  his  friend  who  had  fallen  in  the  Parthian 
wars.  The  upper  part,  like  the  other  towers, 
is  of  more  modern  construction.  The  battle 
ments  afford  a  view  of  the  whole  city,  the  mount 
of  Olives,  the  Dead  sea,  and  the  mountains  of 
Moab  beyond.  To  the  northeast  lies  the  pool 
of  Hezekiah ;  to  the  south  lie  the  gardens  of 
the  Armenian  convent,  in  which  are  the  ruins 
of  the  pool  of  Bathsheba ;  and  to  the  west  the 
Jewish  almshouses,  built  by  Sir  Moses  Monte- 
fiore  as  executor  of  his  American  coreligionist 
Judah  Touro,  who  bequeathed  a  large  sum  of 
money  for  that  purpose.  The  tomb  of  David, 
now  outside  of  the  walls,  S.  of  the  Zion  gate, 
was  formerly  within  the  city  ;  the  place  is  kept 
by  the  Mohammedans,  who  have  a  mosque  over 
the  spot.  In  the  large  hall,  the  ccenaculvm, 
is  a  stairway  leading  to  the  cave  which  is  said 
to  contain  the  tombs  of  David  and  his  succes 
sors  ;  but  no  one  is  allowed  to  enter.  Over 
the  cave  is  a  small  room  with  a  raised  struc 
ture  about  3  ft.  high,  representing  a  Moslem 


618 


JERUSALEM 


tomb,  covered  with  green  cloth ;  this  is  pointed 
out  as  the  spot  under  which  the  body  of  David 
lies.  At  the  foot  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  a 
short  distance  N.  of  the  garden  of  Gethsemane, 
is  the  traditional  tomb  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
first  mentioned  in  the  8th  century.  It  fronts 
upon  a  sunken  court  reached  by  a  short  flight  of 
steps.  Within  the  door  60  steps  descend  into 
the  chapel,  which  seems  excavated  in  the  rock, 
and  contains  the  tombs  of  Joseph  and  the  pa 
rents  of  the  Virgin,  as  well  as  the  empty  tomb 
of  the  Virgin  herself.  About  100  paces  from 
it  is  the  traditional  place  of  the  assumption. 
In  the  city  walls,  a  few  yards  E.  of  the  Da 
mascus  gate,  is  an  opening  to  an  extensive 
cavern  extending  to  a  considerable  distance 
under  the  city,  and  known  as  the  royal  quar 
ries.  Descending  S.,  by  a  sloping  hill  formed 
of  accumulated  debris,  the  traveller  arrives  at 
the  edge  of  a  large  pit,  into  which  there  is  a 
passage  in  another  part  of  the  cave.  To  the 
left,  through  some  windings,  is  an  immense 
hall  excavated  out  of  the  rock.  Several  blocks, 
nearly  detached  from  the  rock,  may  be  seen, 


Toinb  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

and  the  marks  of  the  tools  in  the  stone  are 
plainly  distinguishable. — Modern  exploration  of 
Jerusalem  begins  with  the  visit  of  Dr.  Edward 
Robinson  in  1838,  which  was  followed  by  his 
second  journey  in  1852.  Dean  Stanley,  in  his 
"Sinai  and  Palestine"  (London,  1855),  sug 
gested  the  necessity  of  excavations  in  and 
about  the  city  for  the  acquirement  of  certain 
knowledge  of  sacred  localities ;  but  little  was 
done  till  1864,  when  Miss  Burdett-Coutts,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  a  better  water  supply 
for  the  inhabitants,  gave  £500  to  pay  the  ex 
penses  of  a  topographical  survey  of  the  city, 
and  Capt.  Wilson  of  the  British  army  was  de 
tailed  to  conduct  it.  This  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  English  society  entitled  "  The  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,"  which  sent  out  in  1867  a 
party  under  the  command  of  Capt.  Warren, 
R.  E.,  who  remained  in  Palestine  three  years, 
chiefly  occupied  in  and  around  Jerusalem, 
where  several  important  discoveries  have  been 


made.  On  the  S.  E.  side  of  the  city,  where 
the  wall  rises  to  a  height  of  about  55  ft.  from 
the  surface,  a  shaft  was  sunk  and  the  founda 
tion  discovered  at  a  depth  of  Y3  ft.,  making 
a  total  height  of  nearly  130  ft.  The  masonry 
of  the  lower  part  must  have  belonged  to  the 
original  wall,  the  bevelled  stones  giving  indica 
tions  of  Phoenician  workmanship.  On  the  im 
mense  blocks  that  form  the  base  of  the  wall 
several  marks  in  red  paint  were  discovered,  re 
sembling  Phoenician  characters,  though  no  one 
could  explain  their  meaning ;  it  is  supposed 
that  they  were  made  by  Solomon's  workmen. 
The  wall  extended  further  S.  than  the  pres 
ent  one ;  it  ran  S.  by  Ophel,  and  encompassed 
Zion.  At  the  foot  of  Mt.  Moriah,  in  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat,  is  the  Virgin's  fountain,  an  in 
termittent  spring ;  the  water  flows  out  at  the 
rear  of  the  cave  through  an  aqueduct  excavated 
in  the  mountain  into  the  pool  of  Siloam.  Above 
this  place,  on  Ophel,  the  engineers  sunk  another 
shaft,  and  discovered  a  Roman  archway  lead 
ing  to  a  small  cave,  at  one  end  of  which  was  a 
pit  subsequently  found  to  be  connected  with 
the  subterranean  aqueduct  between  the  Vir 
gin's  fountain  and  the  pool  of  Siloam.  This 
important  discovery  goes  far  to  explain  how 
the  city  endured  such  protracted  sieges.  A 
little  S.  of  the  Jewish  wailing  place  three  large 
stones,  forming  a  segment  of  an  arch,  are  seen 
projecting  out  of  the  wall.  Dr.  Robinson  was 
the  first  to  identify  it  as  part  of  the  bridge  that 
was  built  across  the  Tyropoeon.  Capt.  Warren 
discovered  the  remains  of  the  pier  that  sup 
ported  the  other  end  of  the  arch,  about  40  ft. 
beneath  the  surface,  50  ft.  from  the  wall.  The 
distance  from  the  wall  to  the  steep  sides  of  Zion 
is  350  ft.,  and  it  is  calculated  that  live  such 
arches  formed  the  bridge.  Further  N.  he 
found  the  ruins  of  another  similar  bridge. 
About  half  a  mile  S.  of  the  well  of  Rogel  is 
a  place  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Almond  spring, 
where  in  winter  the  water  flowed  out;  it 
was  supposed  to  be  an  outlet  to  the  well  of 
Rogel,  through  which  the  superfluous  water 
|  escaped.  The  engineers  dug  here,  and  dis- 
!  covered  a  passage  hewn  in  the  rock,  but  choked 
with  earth  and  stones,  which  they  cleared  out ; 
it  first  led  N".  for  several  hundred  feet,  then 
took  a  N.  W.  direction,  leaving  Rogel  on  the 
right,  and  at  last  terminated  in  a  small  rock- 
hewn  chamber,  further  than  which  no  passage 
could  be  discovered.  The  party  also  excavated 
another  remarkable  rock-hewn  passage,  lead 
ing  S.  toward  the  temple  from  the  convent  of 
the  sisters  of  Zion.  Mr.  Schick,  who  discov 
ered  the  well  of  Gihon,  traced  the  aqueduct 
from  the  convent  to  the  N.  part  of  the  city, 
where  it  is  partially  destroyed  by  the  forina- 
!  tion  of  the  ditch  and  the  royal  quarries. — The 
!  chief  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  Jerusa- 
|  lem  are  Mohammedans.  Christians  hold  sub- 
;  ordinate  offices,  and  since  the  massacre  of  the 
I  Christians  in  the  Lebanon,  Damascus,  Sidon, 
j  &c.,  in  1860,  they  have  gradually  been  appoint- 
1  ed  to  places  of  trust.  The  United  States,  Rus- 


JERUSALEM 


G19 


ela,  England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Spain, 
and  Greece  have  each  a  consul  resident  here. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  pasha  of  Jerusalem  ex 
tends  northward  to  within  15  m.  of  Nablus, 
southward  to  Gaza  and  the  confines  of  Egypt, 
and  eastward  to  the  Jordan,  lie  is  appointed  by 
the  Porte,  hut  receives  his  instructions  through 
the  governor  general  of  Syria,  except  in  cases 
where  despatch  is  necessary.  His  principal  offi 
cers  and  the  vice  governors  of  the  towns  under 
his  jurisdiction  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
general,  but  are  subject  to  his  orders,  and  deci 
sions  of  the  courts  in  criminal  cases  are  sent  to 
the  courts  at  Damascus  for  confirmation.  Most 
of  the  Jews  now  there  are  of  German  or  Polish 
origin,  and  speak  a  corrupt  German  dialect. 
They  are  called  Ashkcnazim,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Sephardim,  consisting  of  Jews 
of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  origin,  whose  an 
cestors  were  expelled  from  Spain  and  Portu 
gal  toward  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  and 
who  speak  a  corrupt  Spanish  dialect,  and  of 
Persian  and  other  oriental  Jews.  Between 
these  two  bodies  little  intercourse  exists ;  they 
seldom  intermarry,  and  they  pray  in  different 
synagogues.  The  Jewish  community  inhabit 
a  particular  portion  of  the  city;  but  of  late 
years,  in  consequence  of  increasing  numbers, 
they  have  extended  their  quarter  far  into  the 
Mohammedan  part,  and  many  live  in  the  sub 
urbs.  The  Jews'  quarter  proper  is  badly  built 
and  filthy,  and  the  people  suffer  much  from 
crowded  dwellings,  scarcity  of  water,  and  ex 
treme  poverty.  Their  chief  rabbi  is  elected 
for  life,  and  is  recognized  by  the  Sublime 
Porte  in  this  capacity.  He  is  entitled  to  send 
a  delegate  to  act  as  a  member  of  each  local 
court  in  suits  to  which  Jews  who  are  Turkish 
subjects  are  parties.  The  Spanish-Portuguese 
Jews  being  subjects  of  the  Porte,  the  right  of 
election  was  vested  in  them,  and  the  chief 
rabbi  always  was  one  of  the  Sephardim.  To 
this  the  Ashkenazim  objected;  but  being  un 
able  to  carry  their  point,  they  elected  one  of 
their  own  number  as  their  chief  rabbi.  Though 
not  recognized  by  the  Porte,  he  has  great  in 
fluence  over  the  foreign  Jews.  The  Jews,  in 
differences  among  themselves,  are  governed  by 
their  rabbinical  laws,  preferring  to  abide  by 
the  decisions  of  their  rabbis  rather  than  carry 
their  cases  before  gentile  courts.  The  Greek 
Christians  are  Arabs,  Greeks,  and  Syrians, 
and  speak  only  the  Arabic  language,  except 
the  superior  clergy,  who  are  natives  of  Greece 
and  the  archipelago.  They  have  eight  con 
vents  in  the  city.  The  Greek  patriarch  has 
more  power  and  influence  than  any  of  the 
other  spiritual  chiefs  in  the  city,  and  his  church 
is  the  wealthiest.  He  is  officially  recognized 
by  the  Turkish  government  as  the  chief  of  the 
Greek  church  in  Syria,  and  is  entitled  to  send 
representatives  to  act  as  members  in  the  local 
courts.  Under  him  are  two  classes  of  priests 
besides  the  ordinary  monks.  They  are  the 
married  clergy,  who  do  not  aspire  to  the  higher 
grades  in  the  church,  and  the  unmarried.  The 


latter  live  together  in  the  grand  convent,  or 
are  appointed  abbots  and  assistants  to  the 
other  monasteries  under  the  surveillance  of  the 
patriarch.  The  Latin  Christians,  or  Roman 
Catholics,  who  are  principally  seceders  from 
the  Greek  church,  also  speak  Arabic.  They 
have  a  patriarch,  who  exercises  spiritual  over 
sight  over  all  the  Catholic  churches  in  Syria, 
but  is  recognized  by  the  Turkish  government 
only  as  a  distinguished  personage,  and  does 
not  enjoy  equal  privileges  with  the  Greek, 
Jewish,  and  Armenian  spiritual  heads,  partly 
in  consequence  of  his  being  a  foreign  subject. 
The  right  of  sending  representatives  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  community  is  vested  in  the 
abbot  of  all  the  Catholic  convents  in  the 
country,  who  is  always  an  Italian,  his  vicar  a 
Frenchman,  and  the  treasurer  a  Spaniard.  He 
is  appointed  by  the  pope  every  three  years. 
The  Catholics  at  Jerusalem  have  one  large  con 
vent,  that  of  the  Holy  Saviour,  and  two  nun 
neries,  that  of  the  order  of  St.  Joseph  or  sis 
ters  of  charity,  and  that  of  the  daughters  of 
Zion.  No  males  are  admitted  into  the  latter, 
except  monks  and  priests.  There  are  14  other 
convents  in  Syria,  subject  to  the  abbot  of  this 
principal  one.  The  Armenians  number  about 
200 ;  they  have  one  large  convent,  that  of  St. 
James,  in  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  city, 
and  a  patriarch,  who  is  recognized  in  that  ca 
pacity  by  the  Turkish  government,  and  who 
enjoys  equal  privileges  with  the  Greek  patri 
arch  and  Jewish  chief  rabbi.  The  Protestant 
population  numbers  about  200.  An  Anglican 
bishop  resides  here,  with  a  diocese  including 
Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  and 
Abyssinia.  This  bishopric  was  established  in 
1841  by  the  joint  action  of  the  Prussian  and 
British  governments,  and  its  incumbent  is  cho 
sen  alternately  by  the  sovereigns  of  England 
and  Prussia.  Besides  exercising  supervision 
over  a  few  schools,  and  occasionally  officiating 
in  the  Protestant  church,  the  duties  of  the 
bishop  are  almost  nominal,  as  the  work  of 
preaching  and  conducting  the  Protestant  insti 
tutions  is  managed  by  the  missionaries.  The 
Copts,  Abyssinians,  and  Syrians  have  convents 
in  the  city,  and  altogether  amount  to  about 
100  persons.  The  non-Protestant  Christians 
at  Jerusalem  are  in  a  measure  dependent  on 
their  convents,  which  allow  them  house  rent 
and  other  gratuities.  As  nearly  every  commu 
nity  carries  on  a  work  of  proselyting,  it  fre 
quently  happens  that  these  Christians  embrace 
each  denomination  in  turn,  as  the  chances 
favor.  In  1867  the  pasha  commenced  build 
ing  a  carriage  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jaffa,  the  money  for  the  purpose  being  raised 
by  taxation.  For  want  of  proper  engineers 
and  energy  in  the  commissioners,  it  was  imper 
fectly  completed  in  about  18  months,  and  stage 
coaches  carried  passengers  between  Jerusalem 
and  Jaffa.  The  work  was  about  to  be  extended 
when  a  new  governor  was  appointed,  and  it 
was  discontinued.  The  inhabitants  of  Jeru 
salem  get  their  support  mainly  from  the  pil- 


620 


JERUSALEM 


grims  and  travellers  who  visit  the  city.  Beads, 
crosses,  and  ornaments  are  largely  manufac 
tured  and  sold  to  strangers.  Quantities  of 
olive  and  sesame  oil  and  soap  are  also  produced 
here,  and  much  is  exported  to  Egypt  and  to 
ports  on  the  Mediterranean ;  grain  and  other 
articles  are  also  exported.  Almost  all  manu 
factured  articles,  as  cloths,  sugars,  candles,  &c., 
are  imported  from  France,  England,  and  Ger 
many.  Petroleum  has  for  several  years  been  in 
great  demand  in  the  markets  of  Palestine,  and 
has  now  almost  superseded  olive  and  sesame 
oil  for  lighting,  these  being  used  only  for  food 
and  manufacturing  soap. — The  primitive  name 
of  Jerusalem  appears  to  have  been  Jebus,  or 
poetically  Salem,  and  its  king  in  the  time  of 
Abraham  was  Melchizedek.  When  Abraham 
returned  from  the  slaughter  of  the  kings  who 
had  made  his  nephew  Lot  prisoner,  the  king 
of  Sodom  met  him  in  the  valley  of  Shaveh, 
or  the  king's  dale,  now  probably  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat;  and  there  Melchizedek  brought 
bread  and  wine.  At  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
by  the  Hebrews,  the  tribe  of  Judah  took  the 
city  and  set  it  on  fire ;  but  the  fortress  prob 
ably  still  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Jebusites 
for  400  years  longer.  Its  situation  among  the 
mountains  almost  in  the  heart  of  his  kingdom 
naturally  excited  in  David  a  desire  to  possess 
it.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign  (about  1046 
B.  C.)  he  stormed  the  fortress  of  the  Jebusites, 
Zion,  called  it  the  city  of  David,  and  made  the 
place  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  From  that  time 
it  has  been  called  Jerusalem.  Under  Solomon 
the  temple  was  built  on  Mt.  Moriah,  and  several 
palaces  were  erected.  David's  many  conquests, 
his  vast  accumulation  of  treasures  for  the  tem 
ple,  the  magnificent  structure  itself,  and  after 
ward  Solomon's  reputed  wisdom  and  immense 
wealth,  all  tended  to  spread  the  fame  of  the 
city,  and  during  his  reign  it  attained  its  high 
est  degree  of  power.  At  the  accession  of  his 
son  Rehoboam  ten  of  the  tribes  seceded  under 
Jeroboam  and  made  Shechem,  and  subsequent 
ly  Samaria,  the  capital  of  their  kingdom  of  Is 
rael.  Jerusalem  then  lost  much  of  its  impor 
tance,  remaining  only  the  capital  of  the  small 
er,  though  more  powerful,  kingdom  of  Judah. 
About  971  B.  C.  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  took 
the  city  and  plundered  the  temple  and  palace  of 
their  treasures.  It  was  again  conquered  and 
sacked  by  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  and  was  after 
ward  beautified  by  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Hezekiah, 
and  Manassah.  In  the  time  of  Ahaz  the  king 
of  Syria  attacked  Jerusalem,  and  carried  many 
of  the  Jews  captive  to  Damascus,  though  he 
could  not  take  the  city.  Under  Ilezekiah  it 
was  besieged  by  Rabshakeh,  the  general  of 
Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  but  it  was  saved 
by  the  sudden  destruction  which  overtook 
the  Assyrian  army.  Manasseh's  being  carried 
captive  to  Babylon  seems  to  intimate  that  the 
city  was  taken  by  the  Chaldeans  about  650, 
although  the  fact  is  not  expressly  stated  in 
the  Bible.  After  the  death  of  Josiah  at  the 
battle  of  Megiddo,  Jerusalem  was  tributary  to 


Pharaoh  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  for  two  or 
three  years,  when  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Babylonians,  who,  after  repeated  revolts  and 
sieges,  finally  reduced  it  in  586.  (See  HEBREWS.) 
On  this  occasion  Nebuchadnezzar  demolished 
the  walls  and  all  the  principal  houses  in  the 
city,  plundered  and  destroyed  the  temple,  and 
carried  away  to  Babylon  all  except  the  poor 
est  citizens.  For  the  next  50  years  Jerusa 
lem  remained  in  ruins,  till  the  return  of  the 
Jews  during  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  the  conquer 
or  of  Babylon  (538).  This  monarch  issued  a 
proclamation  allowing  the  return  of  the  Jewish 
captives  to  Jerusalem  and  authorizing  them  to 
rebuild  the  temple,  and  enjoined  every  one  to 
contribute  to  and  assist  in  this  work.  A  part 
of  the  captives  returned  under  Zerubbabel,  and 
rebuilt  the  altar  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
second  temple.  But  they  were  interrupted  by 
the  intrigues  of  their  enemies,  who  unceasingly 
wrote  insinuating  letters  to  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  and  at  last  succeeded  in  stopping  them. 
The  work  was  renewed  under  Ezra,  who  ob 
tained  a  commission  from  Artaxerxes  (Longi- 
manus).  In  the  20th  year  of  his  reign  (458),  the 
king  commissioned  Nehemiah  to  rebuild  the  city 
itself.  This  he  effectually  carried  out  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  his  enemies,  being  himself 
appointed  civil  governor  of  Judea,  and  having 
the  direct  patronage  of  the  king,  whose  cup 
bearer  he  was.  Nehemiah  rebuilt  the  walls 
on  the  ruins  of  the  old  city.  From  this  period 
till  the  Macedonian  invasion  in  332  Jerusalem 
enjoyed  comparative  peace.  Yielding  to  Alex 
ander  without  resistance,  it  escaped  the  fate 
of  Tyre  and  Gaza.  After  the  death  of  that 
conqueror  and  the  division  of  his  empire  among 
his  generals,  Judea  and  its  capital,  lying  be 
tween  the  rival  kingdoms  of  Egypt  and  Syria, 
were  alternately  seized  by  the  sovereigns  of 
these  two  countries.  Under  the  Ptolemies  Je 
rusalem  flourished  both  as  a  commercial  city 
and  a  shrine.  It  was  well  adapted  for  trade, 
and  abounded  in  artificers  of  various  crafts.  Its 
markets  were  well  supplied  by  the  Arabs  with 
spices,  gold,  and  precious  stones.  Goods  were 
also  imported  across  the  sea,  for  there  were 
good  harbors  at  Gaza,  Joppa,  and  Ptolemais 
(Acre).  It  passed  into  the  power  of  Syria, 
with  the  rest  of  Judea,  in  198,  and  was  mildly 
ruled  by  Antiochus  the  Great ;  but  the  tyranny 
of  his  son,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  inflicted  on 
it  repeated  massacres,  and  finally  brought  about 
the  victorious  revolt  under  the  Asmoneans. 
Judas  Maccabeus  wrested  Jerusalem  from  his 
enemies,  and  repaired  the  temple  (165),  though 
he  was  unable  to  expel  the  garrison  that  had 
been  left  in  the  fortress  of  Acra  W.  of  Moriah, 
which  commanded  the  temple,  and  from  which 
the  Syrians  made  annoying  sallies.  Against  it 
he  fortified  Mt.  Zion.  This,  however,  shortly 
after  surrendered  to  Antiochus  V.,  who,  break 
ing  the  capitulation,  demolished  the  fort.  Jon 
athan,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Judas,  re 
built  it,  but  equally  failed  in  an  attack  on 
Acra.  His  brother  Simon  reduced  Acra,  de- 


JERUSALEM 


621 


molished  the  citadel,  and  levelled  the  hill.  In 
63  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  Pompey,  who 
intervened  between  the  brothers  Aristobulus 
and  Hyrcanns,  the  walls  were  demolished,  and 
thousands  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain.  He 
also  entered  the  temple,  but  did  not  touch  any 
of  the  treasures.  It  was  plundered  by  Crassus, 
on  his  way  to  Parthia,  in  54.  The  walls  were 
rebuilt  by  Antipater,  who  was  appointed  pro 
curator  of  Judea  by  the  Romans.  In  40  the 
Parthians,  allies  of  Antigonus,  son  of  Aristo 
bulus,  sacked  the  city.  Herod,  having  been 
appointed  king  by  the  Roman  senate,  besieged 
Jerusalem,  and  took  it  in  37,  and  the  massacre 
on  this  occasion  was  as  bloody  as  that  by  Pom 
pey.  Herod  erected  or  enlarged  and  beautified 
the  fortress  of  Antonia ;  he  also  improved  and 
enlarged  the  city,  and  restored  the  temple  on  a 
more  magnificent  scale  than  Solomon's.  Jeru 
salem  appears  now  to  have  reached  the  zenith 
of  its  greatness,  though  not  of  its  power,  which 
it  never  recovered  after  the  death  of  Solomon. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  city  at  this  time  con 
tained  at  least  200,000  inhabitants  in  its  lofty 
and  closely  compacted  dwellings.  This  period 
is  marked  by  the  most  memorable  events  in 
its  history,  the  ministry  and  crucifixion  of 
Christ.  About  A.  D.  66  the  Jews,  goaded  to 
despair  by  the  tyranny  of  the  Romans,  revolt 
ed,  took  possession  of  Jerusalem,  and  defeated 
a  Roman  army  commanded  by  Cestius  Gallus, 
governor  of  Syria.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  disastrous  war  which  ended  in  the  com 
plete  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  In  70  Titus, 
after  a  long  and  vigorous  siege,  took  the  city, 
and  his  soldiery,  maddened  by  the  obstinate 
resistance  of  the  defenders  and  their  own 
repeated  fruitless  attempts  and  great  losses, 
spared  neither  age  nor  sex.  Thousands  of 
Jews,  seeing  all  hope  lost,  threw  themselves 
headlong  from  the  towers,  turned  their  swords 
against  their  own  breasts,  rushed  into  the 
flames,  or  fell  fighting  the  enemy.  Titus  him 
self  was  unable  to  control  the  rage  of  his 
troops,  and  with  regret  saw  the  temple  de 
stroyed  by  the  flames  and  the  principal  towers 
demolished,  which  he  had  intended  to  preserve 
as  memorials  of  his  own  victories.  According 
to  Josephus,  1,100,000  Jews  perished  in  this 
siege,  and  97,000  were  carried  into  captivity ; 
and  Tacitus  says  that  the  number  besieged  in 
the  city,  including  both  sexes  and  every  age, 
amounted  to  600,000 ;  but  a  critical  examina 
tion  easily  proves  both  statements  to  be  great 
ly  exaggerated.  The  walls  were  levelled,  the 
dwellings  demolished,  the  temple  was  burned, 
and  Mt.  Moriah  literally  ploughed  over.  Sixty 
years  afterward  Hadrian  resolved  to  rebuild 
the  city  and  colonize  it  with  Romans.  But  a 
revolt,  headed  by  Bar-Cokheba,  for  a  long  time 
delayed  the  realization  of  his  plans.  For  two 
or  three  years  the  insurgents  held  out  in  Jeru 
salem,  but  at  last  they  were  vanquished,  and 
such  edifices  as  remained  or  had  been  rebuilt 
were  again  demolished  by  the  emperor's  gen 
eral,  Severus.  On  the  ruins  Hadrian  built 


another  city  with  luxurious  palaces,  a  theatre, 
temples,  and  other  public  buildings.  He  called 
it  ^Elia,  after  his  family  name  j^Elius.  On  the 
site  of  the  Jewish  temple  he  raised  another  to 
Jupiter  Capitolinus,  from  which  the  city  took 
its  surname  of  Capitolina.  It  is  said  that  he 
erected  a  fane  of  Venus  over  the  sepulchre  of 
Christ,  and  Jews  were  forbidden  to  enter  or 
come  within  a  certain  distance  of  the  city  on 
pain  of  death.  Under  the  Christian  emperors 
they  were  permitted  to  enter  once  a  year,  on 
payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  to  lament 
over  their  misfortunes.  Under  Constantino 
the  city  had  already  become  the  place  of  pil 
grimage  of  the  Christian  world.  It  regained 
its  ancient  name,  and  the  emperor  furnished 
new  attractions  by  the  erection  of  a  church 
over  the  place  that  had  been  pointed  out  as  the 
sepulchre  of  Christ,  The  emperor  Julian  not 
only  allowed  the  Jews  to  return  to  their  city, 
but  also  made  a  futile  attempt  to  rebuild  the 
temple.  About  530  Justinian  followed  the 
example  of  Constantino  by  building  churches 
and  hospitals  in  the  city.  In  614  Chosroes 
II.  of  Persia  invaded  the  Roman  empire.  A 
division  of  his  army  marched  into  Palestine, 
and  26,000  Jews  mustered  under  his  banner, 
hoping  to  find  in  him  a  second  Cyrus.  After 
conquering  the  northern  parts  of  Palestine, 
the  united  army  of  Persians  and  Jews  laid  siege 
to  and  captured  Jerusalem.  The  Jews  wreaked 
their  vengeance  on  the  Christians  for  all  the  per 
secutions  they  had  suffered  at  their  hands  ;  20,- 
000  of  them  are  said  to  have  fallen,  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  wcs  burned,  and  the  part 
of  the  reputed  cross  of  Christ  which  was  de 
posited  there  was  carried  to  Persia.  It  was  re 
covered  by  the  emperor  Heraclius,  and  replaced 
in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  with  great 
pomp,  and  the  law  of  Hadrian  forbidding  the 
Jews  to  enter  the  city  wcs  renewed.  In  636  Je 
rusalem  was  besieged  by  Khaled  and  Abu  Obei- 
dah,  the  generals  of  the  caliph  Omar.  The  siege 
lasted  four  months,  and  scarcely  a  day  passed 
without  a  sortie  or  an  attack.  The  besiegers, 
notwithstanding  the  inclemency  of  the  winter 
and  the  hardships  against  which  they  had  to 
combat,  displayed  great  courage  and  persistence. 
The  patriarch  Sophronius  at  length  resolved  to 
capitulate,  but  insisted  upon  treating  with  the 
caliph  in  person,  hoping  to  gain  from  him 
better  terms  than  he  could  from  his  generals. 
Omar  came  up  to  Jerusalem,  and  on  taking  pos 
session  of  the  city  treated  the  inhabitants  with 
great  kindness  and  generosity.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  llth  century  Syria  was  invaded  by 
the  Seljuk  Turks  and  converted  into  a  prov 
ince  of  their  empire.  The  cruelties  which  the 
Christian  pilgrims  suffered  at  the  hands  of  these 
people  roused  the  indignation  of  all  western 
Europe,  and  great  numbers  of  the  chivalry  of 
France  and  England  were  led  by  Godfrey  de 
Bouillon  to  recover  the  sepulchre  from  the  in 
fidels.  Jerusalem  was  stormed  and  taken,  July 
15,  1099,  and  the  crusaders,  in  their  zeal  to 
avenge  the  wrongs  of  the  Christians,  slew  70,- 


622 


JERUSALEM 


JERUSALEM  CHERRY 


000  Moslems.  Godfrey  was  elected  ruler  of 
Jerusalem,  and  his  brother  and  successor  as 
sumed  the  title  of  king.  In  1187  Saladin,  sul 
tan  of  Egypt,  marched  against  the  city,  sum 
moned  it  to  surrender,  and  promised  the  in 
habitants  rich  lands  in  Syria;  but  his  pro 
posals  were  rejected  with  scorn.  Upon  this 
he  swore  to  avenge  the  Moslem  blood  shed  by 
the  soldiers  of  Godfrey,  and  to  demolish  the 
towers.  The  Christians  resisted  bravely  for 
12  days,  but  at  last  were  conquered.  Saladin, 
however,  did  not  carry  out  his  threat  of  mas 
sacre,  but  contented  himself  with  expelling 
the  Christians  from  the  city,  granting  them 
40  days  to  remove  their  effects,  and  assisting 
many  of  the  poor  and  helpless  on  their  depart 
ure.  Jerusalem  again  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Franks  by  treaty  in  1229,  was  reta 
ken  by  the  Moslems  in  1239,  once  more  re 
stored  in  1243,  and  finally  conquered  in  1244 
by  a  horde  of  Kharesmian  Turks,  who  had 
overrun  Asia  Minor.  In  1517  Palestine  was 
conquered  by  Sultan  Selim  I.,  and  since  then 
Jerusalem  has  been  under  the  rule  of  the  Otto 
man  empire.  From  1832  to  1840  Palestine 
was  in  the  hands  of  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of 
Egypt,  and  Jerusalem  was  governed  by  his  son 
Ibrahim  Pasha.  Previous  to  the  Egyptian  in 
vasion  Palestine  was  distracted  with  anarchy, 
and  but  nominally  ruled  by  the  Turks.  When 
Ibrahim  Pasha  took  possession  of  Jerusalem 
his  first  acts  were  to  restore  order  in  the  city 
and  country.  He  did  his  utmost  to  protect  the 
Christians  and  Jews  against  the  oppressions  of 
the  Moslems,  and  granted  them  many  privi 
leges.  Safety  was  restored,  the  roads  were 
cleared  of  robbers,  and  commerce  revived. 
(See  PALESTINE,  and  HEBREWS.) — See  Robin 
son,  "  Biblical  Researches  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  Bos 
ton,  1841),  and  "Later  Researches"  (8vo, 
1856);  Bartlett,  "Walks  about  Jerusalem" 
(8vo,  London,  1845) ;  Fergusson,  "  Ancient  To 
pography  of  Jerusalem  "  (London,  1847),  "  Site 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre"  (1861),  and  "  The  Ho 
ly  Sepulchre  and  the  Temple  "  (1865)  ;  Pou- 
joulat,  Histoire  de  Jerusalem  (2  vols.,  2d  ed., 
Paris,  1848);  Thrupp,  "Ancient  Jerusalem" 
(Cambridge,  England,  1855);  Barclay,  "The 
City  of  the  Great  King  "  (Philadelphia,  1857) ; 
Tobler,  Planographie  von  Jerusalem  (Gotha, 
1858) ;  Lewin,  "  Jerusalem  to  the  Siege  by  Ti 
tus  "  (London,  1861);  Sepp,  Jerusalem  und 
das  Jieilige  Land  (Schaffhausen,  1862) ;  Sandie, 
"  Horeb  and  Jerusalem  "  (Edinburgh,  1864) ;  Pi- 
erotti,  "Jerusalem  Explored,"  translated  from 
the  French  by  T.  G.  Bonney  (London,  1864); 
De  Vogue,  Le  temple  de  Jerusalem  (fol.,  Paris, 
1864-'5);  De  Saulcy,  Voyage  en  Terre-Sainte 
(2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1865);  Wilson,  "-Ordnance 
Survey  of  Jerusalem "  (3  vols.  fol.,  London, 
1865-'7);  Wilson  and  Warren,  "The  Recov 
ery  of  Jerusalem  "  (8vo,  London,  1871 ;  popu 
lar  edition,  "Our  Work  in  Palestine,"  1873); 
and  Wolff,  Jerusalem,  nacJi  eigener  Anschau- 
unfj  und  den  neuesten  ForscJiungen  gescJiildert 
(3d  ed.,  including  his  latest  investigations, 


Leipsic,  1872).  See  also  the  works  referred  to 
under  PALESTINE. 

JERUSALEM,  Johann  Fricdrich  Wilhelm,  a  Ger 
man  theologian,  born  in  Osnabrvick,  Nov.  22, 
1709,  died  Sept.  2,  1789.  He  was  appointed  in 
1740  preacher  to  Duke  Charles  of  Brunswick, 
and  in  1742  became  tutor  of  the  hereditary 
prince.  In  1752  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  a 
theological  seminary  established  by  the  Protes 
tants  in  the  former  convent  of  Ridagshausen. 
He  declined  the  appointment  of  chancellor  of 
the  university  of  Gottingen.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  preachers  of  Germany.  The  suicide 
of  his  son  Karl  Wilhelm  suggested  to  Goethe 
the  catastrophe  of  the  "  Sorrows  of  Werther." 

JERUSALEM  CHERRY,  a  name  given  to  two 
species  of  solanum  which  are  cultivated  for  the 
ornamental  character  of  their  fruit.  The  old 
est  and  best  known  of  these  is  8.  pseudo-capsi 
cum,  which  was  introduced  into  England  from 
Madeira  in  1596 ;  it  is  a  half  shrubby  house 
plant,  and  when  properly  treated  has  a  hand- 


Jerusalem  Cherry. 

some  rounded  head  upon  a  stalk  1  or  2  ft. 
high;  it  has  lance-oblong  leaves  and  white 
flowers;  the  small  and  inconspicuous  flowers 
are  succeeded  by  bright  red  berries  about  the 
size  of  cherries,  which  are  borne  in  great  pro 
fusion  and  render  the  plant  very  ornamental. 
It  is  usually  raised  from  seeds,  but  may  be 
grown  from  cuttings;  if  the  seeds  are  sown 
in  early  spring  and  the  plants  kept  growing 
rapidly,  they  will  produce  fruit  the  following 
winter.  It  is  supposed  that  the  name  Jerusalem 
was  applied  to  this,  as  it  formerly  was  to  other 
plants,  more  to  indicate  its  foreign  origin  than 
with  reference  to  the  country  from  which  it 
came.  The  dwarf  Jerusalem  cherry  is  8.  cap- 
sicastrum,  which  is  only  about  half  as  tall  as 
the  other,  and  its  berries  are  more  orange  than 
scarlet ;  there  is  a  form  of  this  with  variegated 
leaves.  In  England  these  plants  are  raised  in 
;  large  quantities  for  Christinas  and  table  dec- 


JERYAS 


JESUITS 


G23 


orations.  An  improved  sort  called  S.  liybri- 
dum-compactum,  very  popular  for  table  deco 
ration,  is  depicted  above. 

JERVAS,  Charles,  a  British  painter,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1676,  died  in  London  in  1739. 
He  studied  for  a  short  time  under  Sir  Godfrey 
Kneller,  and  in  France  and  Italy,  although  de 
ficient  in  the  most  essential  principles  of  art, 
he  acquired  a  fictitious  reputation ;  and  having 
given  drawing  lessons  to  Pope,  the  poet  dedi 
cated  to  him  an  epistle  full  of  extravagant 
praise.  Horace  Walpole  denounced  his  inferi 
ority,  but  Jervas  was  so  conceited  that  on  com 
paring  his  copy  of  a  Titian  to  the  original  he 
exclaimed,  "Poor  little  Tit!  how  he  would 
stare."  Lord  Orford  says  that  "  the  badness  of 
the  age's  taste  and  the  dearth  of  good  masters 
placed  Jervas  at  the  head  of  his  profession." 

JERYIS,  Sir  John,  earl  of  St.  Vincent,  a  Brit 
ish  admiral,  born  at  Meaford,  Staffordshire, 
Jan.  9,  1734,  died  March  15,  1823.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  the  age  of  10  years,  and  became 
post  captain  in  1760.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  several  naval  engagements,  was  made  0.  B. 
in  1782,  and  during  the  same  year  sailed  with 
Lord  Howe  to  the  relief  of  Gibraltar.  He 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  in 
1787,  and  was  in  parliament  from  1782  until 
the  beginning  of  the  French  revolution,  after 
which  he  sailed  to  the  West  Indies  and  captured 
Martinique  and  Guadeloupe.  He  was  appoint 
ed  admiral  of  the  blue,  June  1,  1795,  and  on 
Feb.  14,  1797,  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  defeated 
a  Spanish  fleet  which  was  nearly  twice  as 
strong  as  his  own.  For  this  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  by  the  title  of  earl  of  St.  Vincent 
and  Baron  Jervis  of  Meaford,  receiving  a 
pension  of  £3,000.  He  was  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  from  1801  to  1804. 

JESI,  or  lesi  (anc.  SEsis  or  ^Esium},  a  town 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  and  15  m.  S.  W.  of 
the  city  of  Ancona,  on  the  'N.  bank  of  the 
river  Esino  (anc.  ^Esis)  ;  pop.  about  20,000. 
It  is  an  episcopal  see,  and  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  towns  of  the  province,  with  manu 
factures  of  woollen  and  silk  goods,  and  with 
increasing  activity  owing  to  the  railway  con 
nection  with  Ancona.  Under  the  Romans  it 
was  a  municipium,  and  from  ancient  inscrip 
tions  appears  to  have  been  a  colony.  The 
emperor  Frederick  II.  was  born  here. 

JESI,  Samnele,  an  Italian  engraver,  born  in 
Milan  about  1789,  died  in  Florence,  Jan.  17, 
1853.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Longhi,  and  first 
brought  himself  into  notice  by  his  engraving 
of  the  Madonna  with  St.  John  and  St.  Stephen, 
from  Fra  Bartolommeo's  picture  in  the  cathe 
dral  at  Lucca.  Subsequently  he  devoted  him 
self  to  the  works  of  Raphael.  His  portraits 
of  Leo  X.  and  Cardinals  Rossi  and  Giulio  de' 
Medici,  from  the  original  in  the  Pitti  palace, 
are  much  admired.  The  latter  is  said  to  have 
occupied  him  five  years. 

JESSAMINE.     See  JASMINE. 

JESSAMINE,  a  central  county  of  Kentucky, 
bounded  S.  by  Kentucky  river ;  area,  160  sq. 
VOL.  ix. — 40 


m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,638,  of  whom  3,439  were 
colored.  It  has  a  somewhat  diversified  sur 
face,  with  a  soil  of  more  than  ordinary  rich 
ness.  The  Kentucky  Central  railroad  termi 
nates  at  the  county  seat.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  79,562  bushels  of  wheat,  30,176 
of  rye,  409,505  of  Indian  corn,  58,740  of  oats, 
13,644  of  potatoes,  14,175  Ibs.  of  wool,  and 
78,915  of  butter.  There  were  2,594  horses, 
1,016  mules  and  asses,  1,543  milch  cows,  3,889 
other  cattle,  3,483  sheep,  and  10,150  swine;  3 
manufactories  of  carriages,  1  of  bagging,  and  1 
distillery.  Capital,  Nicholasville. 

JESSE,  John  Heneage,  an  English  author,  born 
about  1815,  died  in  July,  1874.  In  1839-'40 
he  published  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Eng 
land  during  the  Reign  of  the  Stuarts "  (4 
vols.  8vo),  which  he  continued  in  his  "Me 
moirs  of  the  Court  of  London  from  the  Revo 
lution  in  1688  to  the  Death  of  George  III." 
(3  vols.,  1843).  He  also  published  "  George 
Selwyn  and  his  Contemporaries"  (4  vols., 
1843);  "Memoirs  of  the  Pretenders  and  their 
Adherents  "  (2  vols.,  1845) ;  "  Literary  and  His 
torical  Memoirs  of  London  "  (1847),  and  a  sec 
ond  series  under  the  title  "  London  and  its  Ce 
lebrities"  (1850);  "Richard  III.  and  his  Con 
temporaries  "  (1861),  criticising  the  view  com 
monly  taken  of  the  character  of  Richard ;  "  Me 
moirs  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  George  III., 
with  Original  Letters  of  the  King  and  other 
Unpublished  MSS."  (1867);  "London,  its  Cele 
brated  Characters  and  Places  "  (3  vols.,  1870)  ; 
and  several  volumes  of  poems. 

JESSO.     See  YEZO. 

JESSULMEER,  a  town  of  British  India,  capital 
of  a  native  state  of  the  same  name,  the  west 
ernmost  of  Rajpootana,  situated  in  a  rocky  dis 
trict,  190  m.  N.  E.  of  Hydrabad  on  the  Indus; 
pop.  estimated  at  from  30,000  to  40,000,  nearly 
all  Hindoos,  the  ruling  class  being  the  Bhatti 
tribe  of  Rajpoots.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  towns 
in  that  part  of  India,  about  2  m.  in  circuit, 
with  gates,  ramparts,  and  bastions,  and  a  lofty 
citadel  enclosing  six  temples  and  other  remark 
able  buildings,  and  the  palace  of  the  maha  Ra- 
wul,  the  sovereign,  which  is  surmounted  by  a 
huge  metal  umbrella.  The  dwellings  are  re 
markably  well  built.  The  most  conspicuous 
building  has  five  stories  of  cut  stone,  and  a 
sixth  of  timber,  surmounted  by  five  cupolas. 
Opium  is  used  to  excess.  There  is  little  trade, 
and  the  fortifications  are  decaying. 

JESUITS,  or  Society  of  Jesus  (Span.  Compafl'ia 
He  Jesus),  a  religious  order  of  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  church.  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  its  founder, 
does  not  appear  to  have  known  that  the  title 
of  "  Society  of  Jesus  "  had  been  bestowed  in 
the  15th  century  on  an  order  of  chivalry  estab 
lished  by  Pope  Pius  II.,  the  members  of  which 
bound  themselves  by  special  vow  to  fight  un 
ceasingly  against  the  Turks.  This  fact  is  at 
tested  in  a  letter  of  that  pope  dated  Mantua, 
Oct.  13,  1459,  and  addressed  to  Charles  VII. 
of  France,  begging  him  to  permit  one  of  his 
nobles  "to  enter  into  the  society  bearing  the 


621 


JESUITS 


name  of  Jesus,  and  which  has  been  lately 
founded  to  fight  for  the  glory  of  God  against 
the  infidels."  The  efforts  of  Pius  to  organize 
a  crusade  for  the  rescue  of  Constantinople  hav 
ing  failed,  this  new  order  expired  almost  at 
its  hirth.  The  appellation  Societas  Jesu  was 
inserted  in  the  Latin  forms  approved  in  1540 
by  Paul  III.  The  word  "Jesuit,"  it  is  said, 
was  first  used  by  Calvin  in  his  "Institutes;" 
it  is  found  in  the  register  of  the  parliament  of 
Paris  in  1552;  but  at  that  time  it  was  never 
used  by  the  companions  themselves.  The  ac 
tual  title  received  much  opposition  from  the 
Sorbonne  in  France,  and  even  in  Italy,  where 
Sixtus  V.  ordered  Claudio  de  Acquaviva,  then 
general,  to  discontinue  it.  But  Sixtus  died  be 
fore  the  order  could  be  executed ;  and  the  ti 
tle  was  expressly  approved  by  Gregory  XIV., 
June  28,  1594.  Ignatius  Loyola,  very  soon 
after  his  conversion,  conceived  the  idea  of  a 
body  of  apostolic  men  specially  devoted  to  the 
propagation  of  Christianity  among  the  heathen. 
In  his  conception  their  organization  and  spirit 
were  to  partake  somewhat  of  a  military  char 
acter  ;  hence  he  always  used  the  Spanish  word 
compaftia  in  designating  his  order,  both  before 
it  had  been  canonically  established,  and  in  the 
constitutions  which  he  afterward  drew  up  for 
it.  His  original  purpose,  which  he  never  aban 
doned,  was  to  have  the  headquarters  of  this 
religious  militia  in  Jerusalem.  To  effect  this 
he  visited  that  city  as  a  pilgrim  in  1523 ;  but 
the  resident  Franciscan  monks  forbade  his  re 
maining  there.  Eeturning  to  Spain  and  be 
coming  conscious  that  he  lacked  the  literary 
culture  necessary  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
design,  he  set  about  preparing  himself  by  study 
in  the  universities,  and  while  there  collected  a 
small  band  of  young  men  whom  he  formed  by 
ascetic  exercises  to  a  life  of  self-renouncement 
and  devotion  to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  others. 
But  the  peculiarities  of  their  dress  and  manner 
of  living,  and  the  discourses  which  they  ad 
dressed  to  the  people,  excited  the  suspicions 
of  the  inquisitors.  Ignatius  was  repeatedly 
imprisoned  by  the  holy  office,  and  forbidden 
to  discourse  in  public  or  private  on  religious 
subjects.  He  thereupon  separated  himself 
from  his  companions,  who  never  afterward 
joined  him,  and  went  to  study  in  the  universi 
ty  of  Paris  in  January,  1528.  There  he  soon 
gained  as  followers  Pierre  Lefevre,  a  Savoy 
ard,  Francisco  Xavier,  Diego  Laynez,  Alfonso 
Salmeron,  Nicolas  Alfonso  de  Bobadilla,  Span 
iards,  and  Simon  Rodriguez  de  Azevedo,  *a 
Portuguese.  When  each  of  these  had  been 
separately  prepared  by  Ignatius  for  adopting  a 
resolution  conformable  to  his  purpose,  he  as 
sembled  them  in  July,  1534,  and  disclosed  to 
them  his  project  of  going  to  Palestine  in  order 
to  labor  there  for  the  conversion  of  the  Asiatic 
populations.  He  added  that  he  would  "  bind 
himself  to  the  death  "  to  any  among  them  who 
would  follow  him  thither,  and  that  he  intended 
to  confirm  his  purpose  by  taking  before  them 
all  the  vows  of  chastity  and  poverty.  This 


proposal  was  unanimously  adopted;  and  on 
the  morning  of  Aug.  15  following  Ignatius  and 
his  six  companions  met  in  a  crypt  of  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame  des  Martyrs  at  Montmartre.  Le 
fevre,  the  only  priest  among  them,  celebrated 
mass,  and  all,  before  partaking  of  the  commu 
nion,  read  a  written  engagement  by  which  they 
renounced  all  worldly  dignities  and  possessions, 
bound  themselves  to  the  journey  to  Palestine, 
to  perpetual  chastity  and  poverty,  and  to  re 
ceive  no  stipend  for  their  clerical  functions. 
These  vows  were  renewed  annually  in  the  same 
place  while  they  remained  in  France  to  com 
plete  their  theological  studies  and  receive  their 
degrees.  Three  more  were  added  to  the  little 
band  before  Ignatius  left  Paris  for  Spain  in 
March,  1535 ;  and  when  on  Jan.  6,  1537,  they 
met  in  Venice,  their  number  was  increased  to 
13.  Ignatius  having  incurred  the  resentment 
of  Cardinal  Caraffa,  afterward  Pope  Paul  IV., 
and  not  daring  to  visit  Rome  himself  to  solicit 
the  pope's  consent  to  their  going  to  Palestine 
and  his  approval  of  their  labors  in  that  coun 
try,  Lefevre  and  the  others  undertook  the 
journey  to  Rome  amid  great  hardships.  They 
were  well  received  by  Paul  III.,  who,  hearing 
that  they  were  graduates  of  the  university  of 
Paris,  made  them  discuss  theological  questions 
in  his  presence  with  the  most  learned  Italians 
in  Rome.  After  learning  their  manner  of  life, 
he  approved  of  their  project,  gave  them  money 
for  their  expenses,  and  permission  to  receive 
holy  orders  forthwith.  But,  as  the  war  be 
tween  Venice  and  Turkey  rendered  the  voyage 
to  Palestine  impossible,  they  spread  themselves 
throughout  the  peninsula  after  their  ordina 
tion,  Ignatius,  Lefevre,  and  Laynez  going  to 
Rome  in  November,  1537.  He  now  bade  them 
say,  when  asked  who  they  were,  that  they  be 
longed  to  the  compagnia  di  Gesu.  The  pope 
appointed  Lefevre  and  Laynez  to  chairs  of 
theology  in  the  university  of  Sapienza  at  Rome, 
and  Ignatius  occupied  himself  in  directing  per 
sons  who  wished  to  perform  his  "  Spiritual  Ex 
ercises."  All  of  them  embraced  every  oppor 
tunity  of  assembling  and  catechising  the  Ro 
man  children.  In  March,  1538,  all  the  com 
panions  were  summoned  to  Rome  for  the  pur 
pose  of  deliberating  on  the  erection  of  the 
company  into  a  religious  order.  But  a  for 
midable  obstacle  was  raised  by  the  renewal, 
before  the  inquisitors  of  Venice  and  Rome,  of 
the  charge  of  heresy  formerly  made  against 
Ignatius  in  Spain  and  in  Paris.  He  boldly 
went  himself  to  the  pope,  and  related  to  him 
the  whole  story  of  these  inquisitorial  persecu 
tions,  and  demanded  that  an  ordinary  judge 
should  be  instantly  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  matter  and  decide  without  delay.  To  this 
the  pope  assented,  and  a  solemn  sentence  ac 
quitting  Ignatius  and  his  followers  was  issued 
Nov.  18, 1538.  The  pope,  who  recognized  the 
importance  of  the  service  which  the  associa 
tion  could  render  in  counteracting  the  spirit  of 
Protestantism,  immediately  commanded  schools 
to  be  opened  throughout  the  city  in  which  Ig- 


JESUITS 


625 


natius  and  his  associates  might  teach  the  ele 
ments  of  Christian  doctrine.  At  the  same  time 
a  fearful  famine  in  Rome  afforded  them  the 
opportunity  of  displaying  their  charity.  The 
pope  would  not  have  hesitated  to  recognize 
them  at  once  as  a  religious  order,  had  it  not 
been  that  a  commission  appointed  that  very 
year  to  inquire  into  clerical  abuses  and  scandals 
had  presented  to  him  a  report  discountenan 
cing  the  establishment  of  new  religious  orders. 
Nevertheless,  Ignatius  and  his  companions  be 
gan  their  deliberations  in  the  first  days  of  April, 
1539,  and  a  sketch  of  the  proposed  constitu 
tions  in  five  chapters  was  subscribed  by  all  on 
May  4,  and  presented  to  the  pope.  The  master 
of  the  sacred  palace  having  reported  favorably 
on  this  sketch,  it  was  approved  orally  Sept.  3. 
Meanwhile  these  outlines  were  committed  for 
thorough  examination  to  three  cardinals,  among 
whom  Cardinal  Guidiccioni  was  so  opposed  to 
the  introduction  of  new  orders  that  he  would 
not  at  first  even  read  the  sketch.  At  length 
having  done  so,  he  changed  his  mind,  won  over 
his  colleagues  to  his  opinion,  and  the  bull  of 
confirmation,  Eegimini  militantis  ecclesics,  was 
signed  Sept.  27,  1540,  and  promulgated  in  the 
spring  of  1541.  It  restricted  the  number  of 
"professed"  members  to  60;  but  this  restric 
tion  was  removed,  March  14, 1543.  A  written 
promise  of  entering  the  company  after  its  con 
firmation  by  the  pope  had  been  signed  by  11 
of  the  members,  including  Ignatius,  on  April 
15,  1539.  After  their  deliberations  closed  on 
May  4,  most  of  them  were  sent  by  the  pope 
on  various  missions.  Codure,  Le  Jay,  Ignatius, 
and  Francis  Xavier  remained  in  Rome,  Xavier 
being  secretary  and  keeping  up  the  correspon 
dence  with  the  absent  members.  On  March 
15, 1540,  Ignatius  informed  Xavier  that  he  was 
to  leave  Rome  the  next  day  for  Lisbon  and  the 
East  Indies.  At  the  same  time  the  pope  des 
tined  others  for  Ireland  in  order  to  counteract 
there  the  measures  of  Henry  VIII.  At  the 
Easter  of  1541  Ignatius  was  unanimously  chosen 
general,  those  absent  from  Rome  sending  their 
votes  in  writing,  and  he  entered  on  the  office 
April  13.  In  conformity  with  the  will  of  the 
pope  and  the  wish  of  his  companions,  he  now 
began  to  draw  up  constitutions  for  the  new 
order.  lie  had  read  previously  the  lives  of  the 
founders  of  religious  orders,  as  well  as  the  rules 
which  they  had  framed  for  their  followers ;  but 
while  engaged  in  framing  the  constitutions  of 
the  society,  he  shut  himself  up,  with  no  books 
near  him  save  the  Bible  and  the  "Imitation  of 
Christ,"  preparing  himself  before  he  wrote  by 
prayer  and  meditation,  then  placing  what  he 
had  written  upon  the  altar  during  mass,  and 
only  consulting  with  the  other  fathers  when  he 
had  well  considered  each  matter  himself  and 
come  to  some  decision.  These  constitutions, 
drawn  up  in  Spanish,  and  translated  into  Latin 
under  the  eyes  of  Ignatius,  received  high  praise 
from  Cardinal  Richelieu.  They  are  now  ac 
cessible  to  all  (Institutum  Societatis  Jesu,  2 
vols.,  Avignon,  182T-'38,  a  reprint  from  the 


official  edition  of  Prague,  2  vols.,  1757).  It 
was  only  in  1550  that  they  were  so  far  complete 
that  Ignatius  could  communicate  them  to  an 
assembly  of  the  professed  who  had  been  sum 
moned  to  Rome,  including  Laynez  and  Fran 
cis  Borgia.  He  wished  his  work  to  be  suitable 
for  all  without  distinction,  so  that  the  difference 
of  countries  and  nations,  of  manners  and  dis 
positions,  should  require  neither  exceptions  nor 
dispensations.  He  also  submitted  the  constitu 
tions  to  the  judgment  of  the  absent.  They 
were  examined  with  the  most  minute  atten 
tion,  and  were  only  published  when  every  cor 
rection  or  addition  suggested  and  deemed  ne 
cessary  had  been  made.  In  1553  they  were  sent 
upon  trial  to  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  coun 
tries,  in  order  that  they  should  be  approved  by 
the  whole  body  only  when  found  everywhere 
to  be  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  design  of 
the  society.  This  sanction  of  the  whole  body 
was  not  given  to  them  till  1558,  after  the 
death  of  Ignatius,  and  in  the  congregation 
assembled  to  choose  his  successor.  They  were 
revised  with  the  utmost  care,  and  confirmed 
with  unanimity.  They  were  then  presented  to 
Pope  Paul  IV.,  who  appointed  a  commission 
of  four  cardinals  to  examine  them.  These  ap 
proved  the  constitutions  unanimously,  and  the 
pope  confirmed  them  without  changing  a  single 
word.  Laynez  added  nothing  to  them,  nor  is 
it  on  record  that  he  had  any  more  to  do  with 
the  framing  of  them  than  any  other  of  the 
members  consulted  by  Ignatius. — The  kernel 
or  indestructible  portion  of  these  constitutions 
is  found  in  the  draft  presented  to  Paul  III.  and 
first  approved  by  him.  In  this  it  is  said  that 
"  whoever  wishes  to  enter  the  society  of  Jesus, 
to  fight  under  the  standard  of  the  cross  and  of 
God  and  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  serve 
the  church  his  spouse  under  his  vicar  the  Ro 
man  pontiff,  must  keep  in  mind  that  this  society 
has  been  established  for  the  defence  and  prop 
agation  of  the  faith,  for  promoting  the  sal 
vation  of  souls,  by  teaching  Christian  doctrine 
and  Christian  life,  by  explaining  the  word  of 
God,  by  giving  the  '  Spiritual  Exercises,'  by 
teaching  catechism  to  the  young  and  ignorant, 
by  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  and 
especially  the  sacrament  of  penance.  He  must 
keep  also  in  mind  that  its  object  is  to  perform 
works  of  mercy,  more  particularly  for  the  sick 
and  the  imprisoned ;  and  all  this  is  to  be  done 
gratuitously  and  without  any  earthly  compen 
sation."  The  constitutions  are  divided  into  10 
parts.  The  1st  describes  the  qualities  which 
allow  or  forbid  the  admission  to  noviceship; 
the  2d,  the  causes  and  manner  of  rejection ; 
the  3d  and  4th  relate  to  health,  devotion,  and 
study ;  the  5th  explains  the  profession  of  the 
four  vows  and  the  inferior  degrees;  the  6th 
and  7th  instruct  the  professed  and  spiritual 
coadjutors  in  their  various  offices ;  tlie  8th  and 
9th  concern  the  general,  his  election,  authority, 
and  duties;  the  10th  gives  general  directions 
for  the  conservation  and  increase  of  the  society. 
The  greatest  discrimination  is  used  in  the  choice 


626 


JESUITS 


of  candidates  for  membership.  Some  circum 
stances  or  qualities  form  absolute  impediments 
to  admission,  such  as  illegitimate  birth  or  in 
famous  descent,  public  heresy  or  apostasy,  such 
crimes  as  murder  or  enormous  secret  sins,  the 
brand  of  a  degrading  judicial  sentence,  matri 
monial  ties,  membership  even  for  one  day  in 
another  religious  order,  and  insanity  or  notable 
weakness  of  intellect.  Less  serious  impedi 
ments,  such  as  ill  temper,  obstinacy,  injudicious 
enthusiasm  or  visionary  devotion,  the  being 
involved  in  debt,  &c.,  may  be  compensated  by 
other  redeeming  qualities  and  circumstances. 
The  first  probation  consists  of  a  period  of  some 
weeks  spent  by  the  candidate  in  a  house  of  the 
society,  during  which  he  is  given  to  read  the 
Examen  Generate,  taken  from  the  first  part  of 
the  constitutions,  containing  a  series  of  ques 
tions,  which  he  is  required  to  answer  truthfully. 
His  examiner  is  bound  to  the  strictest  secrecy 
as  to  the  answers.  These  questions  involve 
every  possible  impediment  to  his  admission. 
He  is  required  also  to  declare  if  he  is  perfectly 
free  in  his  determination  to  enter,  or  if  he  is 
led  to  do  so  by  friendship  for  any  member  of 
the  society.  He  is  finally  asked  if  he  is  willing 
that  all  letters  written  by  him  or  addressed  to 
him  shall  be  opened  by  the  superior ;  if  he 
consents  that  the  superior  shall  admonish  him 
of  all  imperfections  and  faults  which  he  may 
remark  in  him,  and  that  his  companions  shall 
report  the  same  to  the  superior;  and,  finally, 
if  he  will  be  content  to  accept  any  grade,  occu 
pation,  or  office  in  the  society  which  may  be 
assigned  to  him.  The  candidate,  having  waived 
his  natural  rights  on  these  points,  is  admitted 
to  his  second  probation  or  noviceship,  which 
lasts  two  years  and  one  day  from  the  date  of 
his  first  entrance.  During  the  first  year  the 
novices  devote  a  full  month  to  the  performance 
of  the  "  Spiritual  Exercises,"  which  they  are 
required  to  master  as  an  indispensable  instru 
ment  of  future  utility  to  others.  The  whole 
two  years  are  given  up  to  spiritual  things. 
They  teach  the  elements  of  Christian  doctrine 
to  children  and  the  poor,  serve  the  sick  for 
a  month  in  some  hospital,  and  travel  during 
another  month  from  place  to  place  without 
money,  and  subsisting  on  the  charity  received 
by  the  way.  They  have  also  daily  conferences 
or  lessons  on  the  constitutions  and  rules  of  the 
society.  The  severest  scrutiny  is  exercised 
with  regard  to  the  capacity  and  dispositions  of 
each  novice,  and  every  means  is  employed  to 
encourage  him  to  correct  what  is  faulty  and  to 
perfect  what  is  praiseworthy  in  his  conduct. 
Such  as  are  destined  for  the  priesthood  are 
called  "scholastic  novices;"  the  others,  who 
are  to  be  lay  brothers,  are  not  allowed  to  rise 
any  further  in  secular  knowledge.  They  must 
be  content  with  what  they  already  possess,  and 
apply  themselves  to  the  acquisition  of  humility 
and  solid  piety.  At  the  end  of  these  two 
years,  the  novices  pronounce  the  simple  vows 
of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  with  a 
formal  promise  to  enter  the  society  at  a  future 


day,  implying  an  engagement  to  accept  readily 
any  degree  which  may  be  given  them  therein. 
Such  as  are  destined  to  study  now  assume  the 
name  of  formed  scholastics  (scholastici  for- 
mati).  If  they  are  young  enough,  a  space  of 
two  years,  called  juniorship  or  juvenate,  is  spent 
by  them  in  cultivating  Latin  and  Greek  letters 
and  rhetoric ;  then  three  years  are  given  in  a 
scholasticate  to  mental  and  moral  philosophy 
and  the  sciences.  The  professors  in  these 
special  seminaries  are  all  men  who  have  them 
selves  passed  through  the  entire  curriculum  of 
sacred  and  profane  science,  and  have  either 
made  the  profession  of  the  four  vows,  or  are 
destined  to  do  so  in  due  time.  Every  six 
months  the  scholastics  undergo  a  most  search 
ing  examination  before  four  sworn  examiners, 
who  send  separately  their  sealed  suffrages  to 
the  general  and  the  local  provincial.  At  the 
end  of  the  philosophical  course  the  scholastic 
is  sent  to  teach  in  a  college,  both  for  the  pur 
pose  of  enabling  him  to  apply  his  acquired 
knowledge  and  of  training  him  to  the  science 
of  governing  men.  Should  his  age  permit,  he 
begins  with  the  lowest  grammar  and  leads  his 
scholars  up  to  humanities  and  rhetoric.  This 
is  called  by  the  French  cours  de  regence,  and  is 
followed  by  the  study  of  theology,  Scripture, 
canon  law,  and  church  history,  which  lasts  four 
years.  The  half-yearly  examination  here  be 
comes  still  more  rigorous,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
third  year  it  is  increased  in  length  and  severity. 
Should  the  candidate  break  down  in  this,  he 
is  not  allowed  to  proceed  in  his  fourth  year  of 
study.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year  the  scho 
lastics  are  raised  to  the  priesthood.  The  fourth 
year  closes  with  the  examen  ad  gradum,  or 
the  examination  which  qualifies  the  success 
ful  candidate  for  the  profession  of  the  four 
vows,  the  highest  rank  in  the  society.  Three 
months  in  advance  of  the  day  appointed 
for  this,  the  candidate  is  given  a  series  of 
theses  embracing  the  substance  of  dogmati 
cal  theology,  intellectual  philosophy,  and  the 
natural  sciences.  He  is  freed  from  every  other 
occupation  in  order  thoroughly  to  prepare  him 
self  for  the  ordeal.  The  examination  takes 
place  before  a  commission  of  four  examiners 
presided  over  by  the  rector,  and  lasts  two 
hours,  each  examiner  being  bound  by  his  oath 
to  propound  the  most  searching  questions  and 
formidable  objections  during  half  an  hour. 
The  suffrage,  delivered  sealed  to  the  general 
and  the  provincial,  attests  that  the  "candidate 
is  (or  is  not)  able  to  teach  the  whole  of  theolo 
gy,  philosophy,  and  the  sciences  in  any  univer 
sity."  This  intellectual  ordeal  is  one  regular 
condition  for  obtaining  the  degree  of  professed ; 
the  other  and  a  more  indispensable  condition 
is  proficiency  in  solid  virtue  as  we]l  as  in  learn 
ing.  Sometimes  young  men  of  extraordinary 
eloquence  are  allowed,  after  passing  this  "last 
examination,  to  spend  two  years  more  in  Bib 
lical  and  patristic  studies.  Generally,  how 
ever,  they  pass  from  the  theologate  to  what  is 
known  as  the  third  "probation,"  which  is  an 


JESUITS 


627 


entire  year  spent  in  a  special  establishment  and 
under  a  master  thoroughly  versed  in  asceticism 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  constitutions  of  the 
society.  Their  exercises  are  substantially  those 
of  noviceship  or  second  probation,  a  full  month 
being  devoted  to  the  u  Spiritual  Exercises,"  an 
other  to  pilgrimage,  and  a  third  to  giving  re 
treats  or  missions.  This  year  St.  Ignatius 
called  the  '"school  of  the  heart."  When  the 
special  informations  sent  to  the  general  con 
cerning  the  probationists  assure  him  that  they 
possess  that  superiority  in  virtue  and  science 
required  by  the  constitutions,  he  awards  them 
their  degree  of  professed  of  the  four  vows. 
Throughout  this  protracted  course  of  studies 
and  probation,  every  precaution  is  taken  that 
the  mind  shall  not  be  diverted  from  the  object 
of  study,  that  the  bodily  health  shall  not  be 
injured  by  intense  mental  application,  and  that 
the  springs  of  piety  in  the  soul  shall  not  be 
dried  up  by  the  exclusive  culture  of  the  intel 
lect.  The  establishments  in  which  the  young 
Jesuits  are  trained  are  allowed  by  Ignatius  to 
receive  endowments,  or  they  are  supported 
by  taxes  levied  on  all  the  houses  of  the  prov 
ince,  or,  in  some  instances,  wealthy  novices  are 
allowed  to  retain  the  possession  of  their  prop 
erty,  but  not  the  disposal  of  their  revenues, 
until  their  studies  and  probation  are  ended, 
and  thus  to  pay  their  own  expenses.  But  in 
no  case  are  they  allowed  to  seek  outside  of  the 
house  for  alms,  or  to  be  turned  away  in  any 
manner  from  their  studies.  The  members  of 
the  society  who  have  taken  their  final  vows,  so- 
ciiformati,  are  distinguished  into  three  classes, 
the  professed,  the  spiritual  coadjutors,  and  lay 
brothers,  or  temporal  coadjutors.  The  degree 
of  professed  of  three  vows  is  an  honorary  dis 
tinction  bestowed  for  some  signal  service  or 
great  quality  on  priests  who  do  not  possess 
the  regular  theological  or  scientific  attainments 
required  for  the  profession  of  the  four  vows ; 
this  distinction  enables  its  subject  to  rank 
with  the  latter,  but  not  to  hold  the  offices  re 
served  to  them,  such  as  those  of  general,  pro 
vincial,  and  elector  in  a  general  congregation. 
The  "professed  society"  (societas  professa) 
constitutes  the  core  of  the  whole  body ;  the 
coadjutors,  both  spiritual  and  temporal,  are 
only  auxiliaries  or  helpers.  To  the  professed 
society  belong  the  college?,  seminaries,  houses, 
and  residences  of  the  order,  together  with  all 
other  property  whatsoever,  movable  and  im 
movable  ;  and  it  is  in  its  name  that  this  prop 
erty  is  held  and  administered  by  the  coadjutors. 
In  ordinary  life  the  professed  are  not  distin 
guished  from  the  spiritual  coadjutors.  The 
latter  are  appointed  in  preference  to  the  gov 
ernment  of  lay  colleges  and  seminaries,  to  su- 
periorships  in  residences,  &c. ;  while  the  pro 
fessed  are  left  free  to  preach,  or  to  teach  the 
higher  branches  of  sacred  and  profane  science, 
and  it  is  only  by  certain  reserved  occupations 
and  functions  that  their  rank  is  known  to  the 
majority  of  their  brethren. — The  whole  order 
is  divided  into  assistancies,  of  which  there  are 


at  present  five,  distributed  according  to  the 
foremost  European  races  or  languages,  namely, 
those  of  Italy,  Spain,  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  The  original  assistancy  of  Portugal 
has  been  abolished  since  the  total  extinction 
of  the  society  in  that  country,  and  that  of  Eng 
land  has  been  recently  created.  Each  assis 
tancy  embraces  several  provinces  and  missions. 
A  province  comprises  one  or  more  colleges,  a 
novitiate,  scholasticate,  and  residences  with  a 
stated  number  of  professed.  It  has  a  certain 
autonomy,  and  depends  on  the  general  only  in 
the  measure  prescribed  by  the  constitutions. 
At  the  head  of  the  order  is  a  general  (prcepositus 
generalis),  who  is  elected  for  life  in  a  general 
congregation  composed  of  the  provincials  and 
two  delegates  from  each  province.  They  elect 
at  the  same  time  the  five  assistants  who  form 
his  council,  the  secretary  of  the  society,  and 
an  admonitor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  observe  the 
conduct  and  actions  of  the  general  and  to  ad 
monish  him  when  necessary.  If  they  see  in 
his  conduct  anything  censurable,  they  must  lay 
their  observations  before  him ;  and  in  a  case 
of  great  urgency  or  visible  scandal,  the  assis 
tants  can  summon  without  his  assent  a  general 
congregation,  or  even  depose  him  themselves, 
after  obtaining  by  letter  the  suffrages  of  the 
provinces.  The  power  of  the  general,  so  long 
as  he  acts  within  the  limits  of  the  constitu 
tions,  is  very  great.  He  appoints  the  provin 
cials,  rectors  of  colleges,  scholasticates,  and 
novitiates,  the  superiors  of  professed  houses 
and  residences,  together  with  the  executive 
officer  in  each  house,  called  minister ;  these  are 
properly  denominated  superiors,  and  have  a 
right  to  command.  The  inferior  officers  are 
nominated  by  the  provincial  with  the  approba 
tion  of  the  general.  Every  provincial,  rector, 
and  superior  has  his  council  of  four  consultors 
and  his  admonitor.  The  provincial  is  required 
to  report  every  month  to  the  general;  the  other 
superiors  report  every  three  months.  The  con- 
suitors,  both  provincial  and  local,  are  bound  to 
report  separately  at  stated  times.  Every  three 
years  deputies  elected  by  the  provincial  con 
gregations  meet  in  Rome  or  wherever  the  gen 
eral  resides.  They  compose  what  is  called  the 
"congregation  of  procurators,"  and  one  of 
their  chief  functions  is  to  decide  on  the  neces 
sity  of  convening  a  general  congregation.  They 
also  bear  to  the  general  from  each  province 
a  complete  catalogue  of  its  members,  detailing 
the  conduct  and  capacity  of  each.  In  the  gen 
eral  congregation  resides  the  supreme  legisla 
tive  power.  The  provincial  congregation  is 
composed  of  the  provincial,  rectors,  and  senior 
professed  members.  The  term  of  office  for  all 
superiors  below  the  general  is  three  years. 
Provincials  visit  every  house  in  their  jurisdiction 
once  a  year,  to  see  that  the  constitutions  are 
exactly  observed  by  all.  During  this  visitation 
rigorous  inquiry  is  made  into  the  temporal  and 
spiritual  welfare  of  each  house.  Every  mem 
ber,  beginning  with  the  rector  or  superior,  has 
to  render  to  the  provincial  a  full  account  of 


628 


JESUITS 


his  conscience,  of  his  temptations  and  trials, 
and  the  difficulties  he  meets  with  in  the  per 
formance  of  his  special  office.  This  "  mani 
festation  of  conscience,"  whether  made  in  sac 
ramental  confession  or  not,  obliges  the  pro 
vincial  to  the  most  inviolable  secrecy.  He  can 
only  make  of  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  the 
use  which  the  inferior  permits  him.  At  the 
same  time  the  latter  is  informed  of  the  de 
fects  which  have  been  remarked  in  his  conduct. 
This  practice  is  one  of  the  fundamental  points 
or  sulstantialia  of  the  constitutions,  and  con 
tributes  above  all  others  to  give  to  the  govern 
ment  of  the  society  its  extraordinary  power,  as 
well  as  to  make  obedience  easy.  Another 
chief  object  of  this  yearly  visitation  is  to  cor 
rect  every  abuse  in  the  matter  of  poverty. 
Obedience  and  dependent  poverty  are  the  two 
mainsprings  of  the  order.  One  of  the  vows 
made  at  the  time  of  the  solemn  profession 
binds  the  professed  to  maintain  the  obligations 
of  poverty  inviolable,  or  to  make  them  more 
rigorous.  The  rectors  and  local  superiors 
yearly  demand  the  same  "  account  of  con 
science  "  of  their  subjects ;  and  as  all  who  have 
not  pronounced  their  last  solemn  vows  renew 
their  simple  vows  twice  a  year,  this  renewal 
affords  a  fitting  opportunity  for  repairing  every 
violation  of  religious  poverty.  Before  the 
time  of  Ignatius  one  year's  novitiate  only  was 
required  before  admission  to  membership  in  a 
religious  order,  and  the  emission  of  the  solemn 
religious  vows.  In  his  constitutions,  besides  a 
novitiate  of  two  full  years,  he  demanded  a  fur 
ther  probation  of  several  years  before  any  one 
was  admitted  to  final  membership.  Thus  there 
are  three  kinds  of  vows  made  by  Jesuits  to  the 
society :  the  simple  vows  made  at  the  end  of 
the  novitiate,  and  renewed  every  six  months, 
but  not  accepted  by  the  society;  the  sim 
ple  but  final  vows  made  by  the  coadjutors, 
both  temporal  and  spiritual,  when  they  are 
solemnly  admitted  into  the  society,  which  ac 
cepts  them  by  the  hands  of  the  local  superior ; 
and  the  solemn  vows  made  by  the  professed. 
The  fourth  solemn  vow  is  to  the  pope,  and 
binds  the  Jesuit  to  go  wherever  the  former 
may  send  him  for  the  service  of  the  church. 
The  professed,  besides  these  four  which  are 
made  publicly  in  the  church,  pronounce  in  pri 
vate  immediately  afterward  a  formula  contain 
ing  several  simple  vows,  among  them  one 
binding  them  neither  to  seek  nor  to  accept  any 
dignity  or  office  in  the  society  or  in  the  church, 
and  to  denounce  all  of  their  brethren  whom 
they  know  to  be  seeking  them.  The  society 
of  Jesus  never  admitted  a  third  order,  like  the 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans  ;  and  St.  Ignatius 
inflexibly  refused  not  only  to  allow  nuns  to 
have  any  fellowship  with  the  society,  but  to 
permit  its  members  to  be  cumbered  with  the 
direction  of  nuns.  There  never  has  been  any 
body  .of  men  or  women  directly  or  indirectly 
affiliated  to  the  Jesuits.  The  dress  adopted  by 
St.  Ignatius  and  his  companions  was  that  of  the 
better  class  of  Spanish  secular  priests.  It  con 


sists  in  a  black  cassock  and  cloak,  and  has  been 
somewhat  modified  in  various  provinces.  Two 
popes  (Paul  IV.  and  Pius  Y.)  and  one  general 
(Francis  Borgia)  wished  to  assimilate  the  Jesu 
its  in  some  points  more  to  the  other  religious 
orders,  in  particular  by  introducing  the  ob 
servance  of  the  canonical  hours  ;  but  this  was 
soon  given  up,  and  the  whole  energy  of  the 
order  was  directed  to  laboring  in  behalf  of  the 
church  by  means  of  education  and  missions. — 
As  the  "  Spiritual  Exercises  "  of  St.  Ignatius 
moulded  not  only  his  own  religious  character 
and  that  of  his  early  companions,  but  the  spirit 
of  the  society,  it  is  impossible  to  understand 
either  its  constitutions  or  the  private  and  pub 
lic  life  of  its  members,  without  having  some 
conception  of  the  nature  and  aim  of  that  fa 
mous  book.  It  is  not  a  book  to  be  merely 
read ;  for  it  contains  only  germs  of  thought, 
and  rude  outlines  of  meditations  on  the  great 
Christian  truths  and  facts  of  gospel  history. 
The  "  exercises  "  consist  in  a  graduated  series 
of  meditations  on  the  creation  and  destiny  of 
man ;  on  the  degradation  and  misery  wrought 
by  sin  ;  on  the  restoration  of  the  fallen  children 
of  God  to  their  true  rank  in  Christ,  and  the  man 
ifestation  of  true  heroism  in  following  him,  in 
poverty,  toil,  humiliation,  suffering,  and  death. 
The  meditations  are  intermingled  with  practi 
cal  rules  for  examining  one's  conscience,  for 
the  prudent  use  of  penitential  austerities,  for 
detecting  and  resisting  temptations,  for  discov 
ering  the  action  of  the  good  spirit  on  one's 
soul  from  that  of  the  evil  one,  for  making  a 
safe  election  in  determining  one's  calling  in  life, 
for  a  right  distribution  of  alms,  for  modera 
ting  one's  appetite  in  eating  and  drinking,  and 
finally  for  conforming  one's  judgment  to  that 
of  the  church.  These  exercises,  when  fully  per 
formed  in  retirement,  last  over  a  month,  and  are 
divided  into  four  stages  or  "weeks."  .  In  the 
first,  the  truth  of  God's  right  over  man's  being, 
faculties,  and  life  is  made  the  foundation  of  all 
the  subsequent  exercises,  and  a  practical  "  in 
difference  "  in  the  use  of  all  things,  states,  and 
conditions  of  life  is  inculcated  as  a  necessary 
conclusion  from  the  fact  that  wealth  and  pov 
erty,  health  and  sickness,  are  only  means  to 
an  end,  and  in  themselves  indifferent.  The 
foundation  of  religious  poverty  and  self-re 
nouncement  is  thus  laid  at  the  very  outset. 
Then  come  the  meditations  on  sin  and  its  pun 
ishments  in  time  and  eternity,  terminating  with 
the  contemplation  of  Christ  crucified,  and  the 
mingled  sentiments  of  grief  and  love,  shame 
and  generosity,  inspired  by  the  consciousness 
of  one's  own  guilt  in  presence  of  the  divine 
victim  of  sin.  Next  comes  the  meditation  of 
Christ  our  king  as  the  model  of  the  generosity 
to  be  thenceforth  displayed  in  serving  God. 
Ignatius  proposes  here  the  conception  formed 
at  Manresa,  when  he  had  renounced  the  secu- 
cular  militia  for  a  life  of  spiritual  chivalry. 
Christ  presents  himself  as  a  king  inviting  all 
his  subjects  to  aid  him  in  subjecting  the  whole 
earth  to  God,  asking  none  to  follow  where  ho 


JESUITS 


629 


does  not  lead  himself,  and  promising  certain 
victory  with  a  fellowship  in  glory  after  a  fel 
lowship  in  toil  and  danger.  The  offer  to  fol 
low  Christ,  not  as  the  crowd  may,  but  in  the 
foremost  ranks  of  those  who  shall  wear  his 
livery  and  share  his  poverty  and  privations, 
lays  the  foundation  of  what  Ignatius  conceives 
to  he  the  apostolic  virtues.  These  dispositions 
are  fostered  and  continually  increased  by  the 
meditations  which  follow  on  the  incarnation, 
the  nativity,  the  flight  into  Egypt,  the  private 
life  of  Christ  at  Nazareth,  and  the  labors  of 
his  public  career.  In  the  midst  of  these  medi 
tations  come  the  exercises  known  as  the 
"three  degrees  of  humility"  and  the  "three 
classes  of  men,"  the  whole  drift  of  which  is  to 
raise  the  spiritual  enthusiasm  or  generosity  of 
the  soul  to  the  point  of  resolving  to  leave  all 
to  follow  Christ  in  shame  and  suffering,  and 
be  content  only  when  it  has  embraced  what  is 
most  repugnant  to  flesh  and  blood  and  the 
judgment  of  the  world.  This  resolution  is 
still  further  intensified  and  confirmed  by  the 
meditations  on  Christ  crucified  which  occupy 
the  third  week ;  and  the  meditations  on  the 
resurrection  and  the  life  of  Christ  with  his 
apostles  and  disciples  until  his  ascension  are 
destined  to  set  forth  a  perfect  model  of  the 
sweetness  to  be  enjoyed  in  Christ's  company, 
in  such  a  society  as  Ignatius  contemplated. — 
The  society  spread  with  unparalleled  rapidity, 
so  that  it  was  said  to  have  had  no  period  of 
youth.  At  the  death  of  Ignatius  there  were 
1,000  members  in  12  provinces;  soon  after  the 
death  of  Acquaviva,  in  1615,  13,000  members 
in  32  provinces;  in  1749,  24  professed  houses, 
669  colleges,  176  seminaries,  61  novitiates,  335 
residences,  273  missions  in  Protestant  and  pa 
gan  countries,  and  about  22,600  members.  In 
Portugal  it  was  introduced  as  early  as  1540  by 
St.  Francis  Xavier  and  Eodriguez,  who  found 
a  zealous  patron  in  King  John  III.  Rodriguez 
established  a  college  at  Coimbra,  which  in  1544 
counted  60  members.  A  considerable  num 
ber  of  young  noblemen  prayed  for  admission, 
and  thus  the  order  soon  became  influential. 
King  John  appointed  at  the  same  time  two 
Jesuits  to  be  judges  of  the  inquisition,  but  Ig 
natius  forbade  them  to  accept  the  office. 
"For,"  said  he,  "the  society  has  for  its  mis 
sion  the  assistance  of  our  neighbor  by  preach 
ing  and  the  duties  of  the  confessional;  more 
over,  it  were  undesirable  that  its  members 
had  power  to  punish  heretics  with  death.  On 
the  contrary,  their  duty  is  to  console  with 
priestly  kindness  these  unfortunate  men."  In 
Spain  the  Jesuits  had  at  first  to  overcome  the 
opposition  of  several  bishops,  but  the  patron 
age  of  Francis  Borgia,  at  that  time  governor  of 
Barcelona,  soon  procured  for  them  a  favorable 
reception  and  a  number  of  houses  and  colleges, 
and  at  the  university  of  Salamanca  they  receiv 
ed  some  of  the  theological  chairs.  In  France, 
where  they  likewise  appeared  as  early  as  1540, 
they  met  with  a  very  decided  resistance  on  the 
part  of  the  parliament,  the  university  of  Paris, 


and  many  bishops.  They  could  not  secure  a 
legal  existence  until  1562,  when  they  were 
recognized  as  "fathers  of  the  college  of  Clcr- 
mont."  The  parliament  at  first  refused  to 
register  the  royal  patent,  but  had  at  length  to 
yield  to  the  order  of  the  king.  They  were  un 
able,  however,  to  overcome  the  opposition  of 
the  parliament  and  the  Sorbonne.  When  Cha- 
tel,  who  had  studied  in  one  of  their  colleges, 
made  an  attempt  against  the  life  of  Henry  IV., 
they  were  expelled  from  France  by  a  decree  of 
the  parliament  in  1594,  and  Pere  Guignard,  who 
was  accused  of  having  approved  the  attempt  of 
assassination,  was  put  to  death.  Henry  IV. 
himself  recalled  them  in  1603,  and  from  that 
year  they  remained  in  the  undisturbed  posses 
sion  of  their  property.  They  enjoyed  the  con 
fidence  of  Louis  XIII.,  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and 
Louis  XIV.,  and  were  the  principal  combatants 
against  the  doctrines  of  the  Jansenists.  Their 
colleges  were  very  numerous,  and  among  their 
pupils  were  Descartes,  Bossuet,  Corneille,  Vol 
taire,  and  the  astronomer  Lalande.  Two  Jesuits 
were  sent  to  Ireland  as  papal  nuncios  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Elizabeth  expelled  them 
from  her  dominions,  and  forbade  them  upon 
penalty  of  death  to  return.  "We  find  them, 
nevertheless,  again  as  missionaries  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.,  and  after  the  discovery  of  the  gun 
powder  plot  (1605)  Father  Garnet,  to  whom 
the  plot  had  been  communicated  by  his  subor 
dinate  in  an  "account  of  conscience,"  was  put 
to  death.  In  1678  Titus  Gates  charged  them 
with  having  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against 
Charles  II.  and  the  state,  in  consequence  of 
which  six  Jesuits  were  put  to  death.  In  spite 
of  several  decrees  against  the  public  exercise 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  England  in 
general  and  the  residence  of  Jesuits  in  particu 
lar,  the  society  maintained  itself  there,  although 
it  never  became  very  numerous.  The  Jesuits 
first  appeared  in  Germany  about  1549,  at  the 
instance  of  Duke  William  of  Bavaria  and  of 
Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria;  Salmeron  and  Peter 
Canisius  being  appointed  professors  of  theology 
in  the  university  of  Ingolstadt,  and  others  at 
Prague.  The  society  received  chairs  in  the  col 
leges  at  Cologne  (1556),  Munich  (1559),  Treves 
(1561),  Augsburg  (1563),  and  several  other 
places.  In  Italy  they  spread  more  rapidly  and 
more  extensively  than  in  any  other  country. 
They  were  banished  from  Venice  in  1606,  and 
the  popes  did  not  succeed  until  1657  in  causing 
their  restoration.  Gne  of  the  wars  between 
France  and  Charles  V.,  during  which  all  Span 
iards  were  ordered  to  leave  France,  brought 
some  Jesuits  to  the  Netherlands  soon  after  the 
foundation  of  the  society.  They  gained  a  firm 
footing  under  Philip  II.,  although  the  bishops 
showed  them  less  favor  than  in  other  countries. 
In  Transylvania  they  were  favored  by  Prince 
Christopher  Bathori  and  his  son  and  succes 
sor  Sigismund,  but  the  assembly  of  the  states 
compelled  the  latter  prince  in  1588  to  sign 
a  decree  of  banishment.  They  became  very 
numerous  in  Poland,  which  they  divided  be- 


630 


JESUITS 


fore  the  end  of  the  16th  century  into  two  prov 
inces,  and  where  they  had  houses  and  colleges 
in  20  towns.  In  Sweden  they  made  great  ef 
forts,  under  John  III.  and  Sigismund,  to  re 
store  the  sway  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
but  the  dethronement  of  Sigismund  in  1604 
destroyed  their  hopes.  In  Russia  favorable 
prospects  seemed  to  open  for  them  with  the 
reign  of  Pseudo-Demetrius,  but  the  fall  of  this 
prince  involved  that  of  the  Jesuits. — The  mis 
sionary  activity  of  the  Jesuits  among  the  pa 
gans  commenced  in  1541,  the  year  after  the 
foundation  of  the  order.  Francis  Xavier  sail 
ed  in  that  year  to  the  East  Indies,  founded  a 
college  at  Goa,  preached  in  Travancore,  Ma 
lacca,  Macassar,  the  islands,  and  Japan,  and 
baptized  a  vast  number  of  pagans.  Other 
members  of  the  order  preached  in  Madura, 
Ceylon,  and  many  other  places,  and  the  Chris 
tian  population  of  their  missions  in  India  rose 
to  100,000.  Some  members  of  the  society,  es 
pecially  Robert  de'  Nobili,  appeared  as  Brah- 
mans,  and  tried  to  excel  the  Hindoo  Brahmans 
as  sages  and  penitents,  regarding  this  as  the 
most  efficient  means  of  obtaining  the  confi 
dence  of  the  Hindoo  population.  The  mission 
in  Japan  was  commenced  by  Francis  Xavier 
in  1549;  several  princes  were  converted,  and 
some  natives  were  received  into  the  society. 
In  1613  the  Portuguese  Jesuits  had  in  Japan 
two  colleges,  eight  residences,  and  three  pro 
fessed  houses ;  but  the  persecution  which  soon 
after  broke  out  against  the  Catholics  put  an 
end  to  their  establishments.  Their  last  member, 
a  native  of  Japan,  was  put  to  death  in  1636. 
Father  Rogerius  penetrated  into  China  in  1584, 
disguised  as  a  merchant.  Ricci  established  a 
reputation  as  one  of  the  best  Chinese  scholars. 
Others  became  the  teachers  and  ministers  of 
several  emperors.  In  1692  they  obtained  a  de 
cree  by  which  Christianity  was  declared  to  be 
a  sacred  law  and  the  missionaries  virtuous  men. 
The  number  of  converts  was  very  large,  and 
amounted  in  the  province  of  Kiangsu  alone  to 
100,000.  But  a  controversy  with  several  other 
orders  on  the  conformity  of  the  Jesuits  to  the 
pagan  customs  in  China  and  India  was  decided 
by  the  pope  against  the  Jesuits,  and  proved  a 
fatal  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  their  missions 
in  these  countries.  Cochin  China  (1614)  and 
Tonquin  (1627)  became  likewise  missionary 
fields  for  Jesuits  ;  the  congregations  in  Tonquin 
in  1640  numbered  100,000  members,  but  they 
were  cruelly  persecuted.  The  most  celebrated 
of  the  Jesuit  missions  was  that  established  in 
Paraguay,  where  they  Christianized  and  civil 
ized  an  Indian  population  of  from  100,000 
to  200,000  souls.  With  the  consent  of  the 
Spanish  authorities  they  retained  the  civil  do 
minion  over  the  Indians,  and  their  principles 
of  government  have  been  commended  by  many 
who  in  other  respects  were  their  opponents, 
as  Montesquieu,  Muratori,  and  Southey ;  while 
many  of  their  admirers  have  represented  Para 
guay  under  the  sway  of  the  Jesuits  as  more 
free  from  vice  and  corruption  than  any  oth 


er  state  of  modern  times.  The  prosperity  of 
these  missions  was  interrupted  in  1750,  when 
Spain  ceded  seven  parishes  to  Portugal,  and 
the  Indians,  with  an  army  of  14,000  men,  re 
sisted  the  execution  of  this  project.  After 
some  time,  however,  the  former  state  of  things 
and  the  dominion  of  the  Jesuits  were  restored, 
both  of  which  continued  until  the  suppression 
of  the  order  in  Spain.  In  1566  they  were  sent 
to  Florida,  which  in  the  following  year  was 
formed  into  a  vice  province  of  the  order,  and 
a  school  for  the  children  of  the  Florida  In 
dians  was  commenced  in  Havana  (1568).  On 
the  invitation  of  a  Virginian  chief,  called  by 
the  Spaniards  Don  Luis,  Father  Segura,  the 
vice  provincial,  with  seven  members  of  the  or 
der  and  some  Indian  youths  who  had  been  edu 
cated  at  Havana,  undertook  to  establish  a  new 
mission  on  the  banks  of  the  Chesapeake,  or 
St.  Mary's  bay.  But  the  Indian  proved  to  be 
a  traitor,  and  Father  Segura  with  all  his  com 
panions  except  one  lost  their  lives  (1570). 
This  led  the  Jesuits  to  abandon  Florida  for 
Mexico.  The  first  mission  of  the  Jesuits  in 
California  was  established  by  Father  Eusebius 
Kfihn  or  Kino,  in  1683  ;  gradually  they  found 
ed  16  missionary  stations,  each  of  which  was 
generally  directed  by  one  missionary.  They 
administered  these  missions  until  the  suppres 
sion  of  the  order  in  Spain  and  the  Spanish  pos 
sessions.  In  1611  the  Jesuits  established  their 
first  mission  in  the  French  possessions  in  Ame 
rica.  This  mission  was  interrupted  for  a  time 
by  the  English,  who  in  1629  took  Quebec  and 
carried  off  the  missionaries;  but  their  work 
was  resumed  in  1633,  and  for  nearly  half  a 
century  they  wrestled  with  paganism  in  the 
northern  wilds.  Quebec  remained  their  cen 
tre,  whence  Jesuit  missionaries  were  sent  far 
and  wide.  The  most  distant  effort  made  by 
the  Jesuits  was  a  mission  in  Arkansas.  When 
Louisiana  was  settled,  Jesuits  were  sent  from 
France  to  undertake  missions  on  the  lower 
Mississippi,  but  these  missions  were  not  sub 
ject  to  the  superior  at  Quebec,  but  to  another 
at  New  Orleans.  After  the  restoration  of  the 
order,  the  Jesuits  recommenced  their  missions 
among  the  Indians  on  the  Missouri  in  1824, 
which  gradually  extended  over  a  number  of 
tribes.  In  1840  the  mission  in  Oregon  was 
commenced  by  Father  de  Smet,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  missionaries  of  the  order  in  the 
present  century.  Other  missions  were  estab 
lished  among  the  tribes  near  the  Amazon  river 
in  Brazil  (1549),  Peru  (1567),  Mexico  (1572), 
the  Antilles  (1700),  Congo  and  Angola,  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Africa  (1560),  and  Turkey 
(1627),  where  they  effected  in  particular  the 
submission  of  many  members  of  the  eastern 
churches  to  the  authority  of  the  pope. — To 
ward  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  prime 
ministers  of  Portugal  (Pombal),  Spain  (Aran- 
da),  and  France  (Choiseul)  resolved  nearly  at 
the  same  time  upon  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  from  their  countries.  Pombal  was  in 
censed  against  them,  ostensibly  because  he 


JESUITS 


631 


suspected  them  of  having  instigated  the  Indi 
ans  in  Paraguay  to  resist  the  execution  of  the 
treaty  of  cession  above  mentioned.  Soon  after 
an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Joseph 
Emanuel,  king  of  Portugal,  and  several  Jesuits, 
particularly  Father  Malagrida,  were  accused  of 
having  been  privy  to  the  plot.  Pombal  re 
quested  the  pope  to  take  measures  against  the 
Jesuits;  but  as  Clement  XIII.  took  their  de 
fence,  a  royal  edict  of  Sept.  3,  1759,  declared 
the  Jesuits  to  be  traitors,  suppressed  the  order 
in  Portugal,  Brazil,  and  the  other  Portuguese 
colonies,  and  confiscated  its  property.  All  the 
Jesuits  living  in  Portugal  were  transported  to 
the  Papal  States.  In  France  they  fell  into  dis 
favor  at  court  when  the  two  fathers  who  were 
the  confessors  of  Louis  XV.  and  Mme.  de  Pom 
padour  refused  to  admit  them  to  the  sacra 
ments,  unless  the  latter  was  dismissed  from 
court.  Mme.  de  Pompadour  and  Choiseul  uni 
ted  their  influence  with  that  of  the  parliament 
to  suppress  the  order.  At  the  same  time  its 
reputation  among  the  people,  which  had  long 
before  been  injured  by  the  lax  contents  of 
some  Jesuit  books  of  casuistry,  suffered  great 
ly  in  consequence  of  the  unfortunate  commer 
cial  operations  of  Lavalette,  superior  of  an  es 
tablishment  of  the  order  in  Martinique.  La 
valette  speculated  largely  in  colonial  produce, 
and,  when  two  of  his  ships  were  taken  by  the 
English,  became  a  bankrupt.  A  firm  in  Mar 
seilles  brought  a  suit  for  indemnification  against 
the  whole  society,  and  the  inferior  courts  as 
well  as  the  parliament  of  Paris,  to  which  the 
Jesuits  appealed,  gave  sentence  against  them, 
and  made  them  pay  2,000,000  livres  to  the 
plaintiff  and  the  costs.  Louis  XV.,  who  wished 
to  save  the  society,  at  first  yielded  to  the  ur 
gent  calls  for  its  suppression  only  so  far  as  to 
demand  in  Rome  that  the  society  be  reformed, 
and  that  the  French  Jesuits  be  placed  under  a 
vicar  of  their  own.  To  this  demand  the  gen 
eral,  Ricci,  is  reported  to  have  given  the  fa 
mous  response:  Sint  ut  sunt,  ant  non  sint ; 
whereupon  the  king  expelled  them  from  France 
in  1764.  Their  expulsion  from  Spain  was 
effected  in  1767  by  Aranda,  on  the  charge, 
according  to  some  historians,  that  treasonable 
writings  had  been  discovered  in  one  of  the 
colleges,  which  declared  the  king  a  bastard 
and  not  entitled  to  the  throne.  But  the  true 
reason  is  not  known,  as  the  king  declared 
that  he  kept  the  secret  "locked  up  in  his 
royal  heart."  On  April  2  all  the  Jesuits  of 
Spain  and  the  Spanish  colonies  were  arrested 
at  the  same  hour,  and  shipped  to  the  territory 
of  the  pope,  who,  at  the  request  of  the  general 
of  the  order,  refused  to  receive  them.  At  the 
same  time,  and  in  a  similar  way,  the  order  was 
suppressed  in  Naples,  Parma,  and  Malta.  On 
Dec.  10,  1708,  all  the  Bourbon  courts  (France, 
Spain,  Naples,  and  Parma)  demanded  from 
the  pope  its  entire  suppression  for  the  whole 
church.  Shortly  afterward  the  pope  died 
(1769),  and  the  Bourbon  courts  succeeded  in 
procuring  the  election  of  Clement  XIV.  (Gan- 


ganelli),  who  had  given  to  the  minister  of 
Spain  a  written  declaration  that  a  pope,  with 
out  acting  against  the  canonical  laws,  was  at 
liberty  to  suppress  the  order.  For  four  years 
Clement  XIV.  endeavored  to  put  off  an  event 
from  which  he  feared  the  worst  consequences ; 
but  at  length,  when  also  the  court  of  Vienna 
consented  to  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits, 
he  issued,  July  21,  1773,  the  famous  brief,  Do- 
minus  ac  Redemptor  nosier,  by  which  the 
suppression  of  the  society  of  Jesus  in  all  the 
states  of  Christendom  was  declared.  The  brief, 
though  not  signed  or  published  with  the  usual 
canonical  formalities,  was  quickly  complied 
with ;  yet  the  archives  and  treasures  found  in 
searching  their  houses  did  not  equal  in  impor 
tance  and  amount  the  public  anticipation.  The 
ex-Jesuits  had  the  choice  either  to  enter  other 
religious  orders  or  to  place  themselves  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.  Everywhere, 
except  in  Portugal,  they  received  an  annuity 
from  the  proceeds  of  their  confiscated  property. 
In  Rome  and  the  Papal  States  the  colleges  and 
houses  of  the  suppressed  society  were  intrusted 
to  secular  priests,  who  employed  many  of  the 
former  professors,  and  kept  up  the  method  and 
discipline  of  their  schools.  A  general  resis 
tance  to  the  brief  of  suppression  had  been  ex 
pected  from  the  Jesuits  and  their  many  power 
ful  friends;  and  in  anticipation  of  this,  as 
well  as  to  secure  possession  of  the  large  funds 
supposed  to  be  hoarded  up  in  their  houses  at 
Rome,  the  general,  Lorenzo  Ricci,  was  imprison 
ed  in  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo.  The  members 
of  the  order,  however,  submitted  everywhere 
without  hesitation  to  the  pontifical  will,  Ricci 
did  nothing  to  incite  resistance,  and  the  mi 
nutest  search  discovered  no  treasures.  Ricci 
on  his  deathbed,  in  November,  1775,  as  he  was 
about  to  receive  the  sacrament,  read  a  solemn 
protest  on  the  part  of  the  extinct  society, 
affirming  that  the  conduct  of  its  members 
afforded  no  grounds  for  the  suppression,  and 
that  lie  had  himself  given  no  reason  for  his 
imprisonment.  In  Prussia,  although  they  had 
to  abandon  the  constitution  of  the  order  (1770)) 
the  favor  of  Frederick  II.,  who  esteemed  them 
as  teachers,  permitted  them  to  continue  as  an 
organized  society,  under  the  name  of  priests 
of  the  royal  school  institute  ;  but  this  institute 
also  was  abolished  by  Frederick  "William  II. 
In  Russia,  which  with  the  eastern  part  of  Po 
land  had  received  in  1772  several  houses  of 
Jesuits,  they  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  em 
press  Catharine  II.,  who  appointed  an  ex- Jesuit 
coadjutor  of  the  archbishop  of  Mohilev,  and 
sent  him  in  1783  as  her  minister  to  Rome. 
He  urged  Pius  VI.  to  recognize  the  society  as 
validly  existing  in  Russia,  and  Pius,  moved  by 
the  memoir  presented  to  him  by  Cardinal  Al- 
bani,  as  well  as  by  the  opinion  prevalent  in  the 
college  of  cardinals,  that  the  brief  of  Clement 
XIV.  was  uncanonical,  granted  to  the  Russian 
Jesuits  permission  to  elect  a  vicar  general.  The 
number  of  Jesuits  in  Russia  amounted  at  that 
time  to  178,  and  the  total  number  of  ex-Jesuits 


632 


JESUITS 


was  estimated  at  about  9,000.  Attempts  to 
restore  the  order  under  other  names  were 
made  in  1794,  when  the  ex- Jesuits  De  Broglie 
and  De  Tonrnely  founded  the  "  Society  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,"  and  in  1798,  when  Paccanari 
founded  the  "  Society  of  the  Faith  of  Jesus," 
known  as  peres  de  lafoi.  This  latter  organiza 
tion,  in  spite  of  the  defection  of  its  founder, 
maintained  its  existence,  and  its  members  form 
ed  the  nucleus  of  the  restored  society  in  France. 
The  prospects  of  restoration  dawned  with  the 
pontificate  of  Pius  VII.  (1800).  Solicited  by 
Ferdinand  IV.,  he  authorized  in  1804  the  in 
troduction  of  the  order  into  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies ;  and  on  Aug.  7,  1814,  he  is 
sued  the  bull  of  restoration.  The  vicar  general 
of  Russia,  Brzozowski,  was  recognized  in  Rome 
as  general.  At  his  death  an  attempt  was  made 
to  have  the  constitutions  changed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  suit  the  altered  circumstances  of 
society.  At  the  head  of  the  influential  per 
sons  who  originated  and  actively  favored  this 
scheme  was  Cardinal  della  Genga,  soon  to  be 
Pope  Leo  XII.  The  vicar  general  appointed 
to  govern  the  order  during  the  interim  was 
drawn  into  the  scheme,  and  despatched  couriers 
with  sealed  orders  to  the  electors  already  on 
their  way  to  Rome,  commanding  them  to  pro 
ceed  no  further  on  their  journey.  The  assis 
tant  of  France,  De  Rozaven,  in  the  name  of  his 
colleagues,  issued  a  counter  order,  enjoining 
on  the  deputies  to  hasten  to  Rome.  Not  one 
failed  to  be  there  on  the  appointed  day,  and 
the  first  act  of  the  congregation  was  to  decree 
the  expulsion  of  the  vicar  general  and  his 
associates  in  the  order,  among  whom  was  the 
celebrated  Padre  Ventura,  afterward  the  un 
compromising  opponent  of  the  Jesuits.  Aloisio 
Fortis  was  elected  general,  Oct.  18,  1822,  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  the  Gesu  in  Rome. 
Cardinal  della  Genga  succeeded  Pius  VII.  Sept. 
28,  1823,  and  his  election  filled  the  Jesuits  with 
alarm;  but  the  new  pope  on  his  way  to  St. 
John  Lateran  descended  from  his  chair  of  state 
in  front  of  the  Gesu,  to  bless  the  general  and 
his  household.  In  1824  the  Jesuits  received  the 
direction  of  the  Roman  college,  and  in  1836, 
under  Gregory  XVI.,  of  the  college  of  the  prop 
aganda.  As  no  Jesuits  were  allowed  to  oc 
cupy  chairs  in  the  latter,  and  the  teaching  was 
principally  intrusted  to  their  theological  op 
ponents,  their  connection  with  it  became  a 
source  of  such  serious  annoyance,  that  Pius 
IX.  in  1850,  at  the  petition  of  Father  Roothaan, 
relieved  them  from  this  charge.  In  Modena, 
Sardinia,  and  Naples  they  were  restored  in 
1815,  and  reinstated  in  the  possession  of  a  part 
or  the  whole  of  the  former  property  of  the 
order,  and  several  new  houses  were  established. 
They  returned  to  Lombardy  in  1837,  to  Parma 
and  Venice  in  1844,  and  to  Tuscany  (for  a  short 
time)  in  1846.  The  revolution  of  1848  endan 
gered  their  existence  in  all  Italy  ;  mobs  attack 
ed  their  houses  in  Genoa  and  Naples,  and  they 
were  expelled  from  nearly  every  state,  even 
from  the  dominions  of  the  pope.  The  general 


found  for  some  time  a  refuge  in  England. 
They  returned  after  the  success  of  the  counter 
revolution  in  1849  to  most'  states,  except  Sar 
dinia  and  Tuscany,  but  were  again  expelled 
by  the  movements  of  1859  from  Lombardy, 
Parma,  Modena,  and  the  legations.  In  Naples 
the  principal  organ  of  the  Jesuits,  the  CimltcL 
Cattolica  of  Rome,  was  prohibited  in  1855  for 
having  censured  the  government ;  but  in  1858 
they  received  from  the  latter  new  marks  of 
confidence.  In  1860  the  progress  of  Garibaldi 
in  Sicily  and  the  Neapolitan  provinces  was  at 
tended  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  the 
sequestration  of  their  property.  The  establish 
ment  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  the  signal 
for  the  final  suppression  of  the  order  in  the 
peninsula.  Pius  IX.,  who  was  thought  not 
to  favor  them  in  the  beginning  of  his  pon 
tificate,  gave  them  many  proofs  of  special 
affection  after  his  return  from  Gaeta.  As 
province  after  province  was  taken  from  him, 
the  Jesuits  were  driven  from  their  houses. 
When  Rome  became  the  capital  of  Italy  in 
1870,  the  Italian  parliament  decreed  the  sup 
pression  of  all  religious  orders  and  corpora 
tions.  The  houses  destined  as  residences  for 
the  heads  of  these  orders  and  their  officers 
were  at  first  reserved  from  the  general  decree ; 
but  in  October,  1873,  despite  the  efforts  of  the 
Italian  ministry,  these  central  residences  were 
suppressed  by  the  legislature,  and  no  Jesuit  at 
present  legally  exists  in  Rome  or  elsewhere  in 
Italy.  In  Portugal,  John  VI.  protested  against 
their  restoration  ;  Dom  Miguel  admitted  them 
by  a  decree  of  1829,  but  Dom  Pedro  exiled 
them  in  1834,  since  which  time  there  have  been 
no  recognized  communities  of  Jesuits  in  that 
country.  In  Spain,  Ferdinand  VII.,  after  his 
restoration  in  1814,  put  them  in  possession  of 
all  their  former  rights  and  property.  They 
were  banished  again  during  the  revolution  of 
1820,  but  restored  with  Ferdinand  in  1823.  In 
1834  the  ravages  of  the  cholera  were  attributed 
to  the  poisoning  of  the  wells  by  the  Jesuits. 
The  populace  in  consequence  broke  into  the 
professed  house  and  massacred  the  inmates. 
In  1835  Queen  Christina  was  compelled  to  sup 
press  the  order,  and  in  1840  its  last  house,  at 
Loyola  in  Guipuzcoa,  was  dissolved  by  order 
of  the  provincial  regency;  but  in  1844  they 
succeeded  in  establishing  themselves  again  in 
the  Spanish  dominions.  They  were  once  more 
banished  by  Espartero  in  1854,  but  were  re 
called  by  O'Donnell  in  1858,  at  the  instance 
of  the  emperor  and  empress  of  the  French. 
They  were  intrusted  with  several  colleges  and 
seminaries,  among  others  the  university  of 
Salamanca,  and  with  important  missions  at 
Fernando  Po  and  the  Philippine  islands ;  and 
a  wider  scope  was  allowed  to  their  labors  in 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  Their  numbers  increased 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  many  novices  from 
Portugal  hastening  to  join  them.  But  after 
the  revolution  of  1868  they  were  once  more 
banished  from  Spain,  and  allowed  only  a  pre 
carious  existence  in  her  colonies.  In  France, 


JESUITS 


633 


during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles 
X.,  they  obtained  only  toleration,  and  eight  of 
their  colleges,  with  about  3,500  pupils,  were 
closed  in  1828  by  order  of  the  government. 
The  revolution  of  July,  1830,  banished  them 
again  "  for  ever  "  from  France,  notwithstand 
ing  which  they  were  able  to  maintain  them 
selves.  In  1845  the  chamber  of  deputies,  with 
only  a  few  dissenting  votes,  requested  the  gov 
ernment  to  have  their  houses  closed ;  but  no  de 
cree  was  issued  against  them,  and  after  a  brief 
interval  they  resumed  their  labors  everywhere. 
In  1859  they  there  possessed  01  establishments 
in  38  dioceses.  In  1866  they  numbered  in  all 
2,464,  and  in  1873  2,482,  exclusive  of  the  mem 
bers  belonging  to  the  mission  of  New  York 
and  Canada.  During  the  second  empire  the 
educational  establishments  of  the  French  Jes 
uits  entered  into  a  successful  competition  with 
the  university  schools.  Their  special  scientific 
school  in  Paris  attained  such  eminence  that 
the  emperor  was  induced  to  give  them  the  old 
college  St.  Clement  in  Metz,  where  a  second 
special  school  was  established  scarcely  inferior 
to  that  of  Paris.  At  the  same  time  they  ac 
cepted  from  the  government  the  chaplaincy  of 
the  penal  settlement  of  Cayenne,  where  the 
dreadful  climate  soon  destroyed  upward  of  30 
priests,  and  they  multiplied  their  missionary 
colonies  in  Africa,  Syria,  Madagascar,  India, 
and  China.  In  the  Netherlands  King  William 
I.  permitted  them  to  form  establishments,  and 
after  the  separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland 
they  increased  largely  in  the  former.  The  Bel 
gian  province  reckoned  643  members  in  1873, 
and  the  province  of  Holland  313.  The  gov 
ernment  of  Austria  admitted  them  into  Galicia, 
which  in  1820  was  made  a  separate  province 
of  the  order.  The  revolution  of  1848  endan 
gered  their  existence  in  Austria  for  a  short 
time,  but  after  1849  their  establishments  in 
creased  rapidly.  The  government  transferred  to 
them  seven  of  the  state  colleges,  and  intrusted 
to  them  one  chair  in  the  theological  faculty  of 
Vienna,  and  the  entire  theological  faculty  of  the 
university  of  Innsprnck.  The  Austrian  Jesuits 
at  the  present  time  (July,  1874)  are  threatened 
with  suppression.  The  conversion  of  the  duke 
of  Anhalt-Kothen  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  1825  was  followed  by  the  establish 
ment  of  a  mission  of  the  Jesuits  at  Kothen, 
which  existed  till  1848.  In  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony  they  were  expressly  excluded  from  the 
country  by  a  provision  in  the  constitution  of 
1831.  The  events  of  1848,  which  expelled 
them  from  so  many  countries,  opened  to  them 
a  wide  field  of  action  in  many  of  the  German 
states,  where  they  were  permitted,  for  the  first 
time  since  their  restoration,  to  hold  missions 
for  eight  or  more  days.  Many  of  the  larger 
Protestant  cities,  as  Berlin,  heard  on  this  occa 
sion  the  preaching  of  the  Jesuits  for  the  first 
time.  They  were  allowed  to  settle  in  Prussia, 
and  in  Westphalia  and  the  province  of  the 
Ehine  they  founded  within  a  short  time  a  con 
siderable  number  of  establishments.  During 


the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-'7l  the  Jesu 
its  distinguished  themselves  in  the  service  of 
the  sick  and  wounded,  and  several  of  them 
were  decorated  by  the  emperor  William.  But 
the  active  part  taken  by  the  theologians  of  the 
order  in  advocating  and  promoting  the  dogma 
of  pontifical  infallibility,  and  the  coalition  of 
the  ultramontane  deputies  with  the  separatists 
in  the  Reichstag,  aroused  the  suspicions  of  the 
German  imperial  government,  and  led  finally 
to  their  suppression  and  their  expulsion  from 
the  German  empire  in  1873.  Of  the  two  prov 
inces  of  Germany  and  Galicia,  the  former  num 
bered  in  that  year  764,  the  latter  230  members. 
They  were  recalled  to  Switzerland  as  early  as 
1814  by  the  government  of  Valais,  which  also 
put  them  in  possession  of  the  former  property 
of  the  order.  In  1818  they  founded  a  college 
at  Frifeourg,  which  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
famous  institutions  of  the  order,  and  had  nu 
merous  pupils  (676  in  1845)  from  nearly  every 
country  of  Europe.  The  decision  of  the  grand 
council  of  Lucerne,  in  1844,  to  call  Jesuits  to 
the  chairs  of  the  theological  school  and  to  one 
of  the  parish  churches  of  the  capital,  greatly  in 
creased  the  excitement  already  existing  against 
them  in  most  of  the  Protestant  cantons.  Sev 
eral  incursions  were  made  from  other  cantons 
to  overthrow  the  local  government  in  order  to 
expel  the  Jesuits.  They  were  however  un 
successful,  and  strengthened  the  separate  alli 
ance  (Sonderbund)  which  the  government  of 
Lucerne  had  formed  with  six  other  cantons  for 
the  protection  of  what  they  considered  their 
sovereign  cantonal  rights.  In  1847  the  federal 
diet  demanded  the  dissolution  of  the  Sonder- 
bund  and  the  removal  of  the  Jesuits;  the 
seven  cantons  refusing  submission  to  this  de 
cree,  Avar  ensued,  and  ended  in  breaking  up 
the  alliance  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  have  ever  since  been  forbidden  by  the 
federal  constitution  to  return.  The  Swiss  con 
stitution,  as  revised  in  1874,  rigorously  ex 
cludes  all  religious  corporations  from  the  ter 
ritory  of  the  republic.  In  England,  a  rich 
Catholic,  Thomas  Weld  of  Lulworth  castle,  in 
1790  gave  to  ex-members  of  the  order  Stony- 
hurst,  which  is  still  their  largest  establish 
ment  in  that  country.  They  conduct  at  pres 
ent  the  colleges  of  Stonyhurst,  near  Whalley, 
Lancashire,  Mount  St.  Mary's,  near  Ches 
terfield,  and  Beaumont  Lodge,  near  Windsor, 
besides  the  scholasticate  of  St.  Beuno's  at  St. 
Asaph.  They  possess  several  other  flourishing 
establishments  in  England  and  Scotland,  and 
maintain  missions  in  Guiana  and  Jamaica. 
In  Ireland  they  have,  besides  the  well  known 
college  of  Clongowes,  others  at  Tullabeg,  Dub 
lin,  Limerick,  and  Gahvay,  and  a  novitiate  at 
Miltown  Park,  Donnybrook.  The  Irish  prov 
ince  has  also  missionary  establishments  in  Mel 
bourne,  Australia.  In  Russia,  where  their  col 
lege  of  Polotzk  received  in  1812  the  rank  of  a 
university,  they  lost  the  favor  of  the  emperor 
when  several  young  noblemen,  who  had  been 
their  pupils,  were  received  by  them  into  the 


634 


JESUITS 


Koman  Catholic  church.  An  imperial  ukase 
of  Jan.  1,  1816,  closed  their  establishments  at 
St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow;  and  another  of 
March  25,  1820,  suppressed  the  order  entirely 
in  all  Russia  and  Poland. — The  Jesuits  had  ac 
companied  Lord  Baltimore  when  he  sailed  for 
the  Chesapeake,  and  were  the  first  religious  in 
structors  of  the  early  Catholic  settlers  of  Ma 
ryland,  as  well  as  of  the  neighboring  Indian 
tribes.  John  Carroll,  first  archbishop  of  Bal 
timore,  and  some  of  his  American  fellow  coun 
trymen,  were  completing  their  "  third  proba 
tion  "  in  Austria  when  the  brief  of  suppression 
was  issued.  They  hastened  to  America  at  the 
beginning  of  the  revolutionary  war,  and  con 
tinued  to  live  in  community  until  the  restora 
tion  of  the  order.  Since  then  their  progress 
has  been  rapid.  They  are  divided  into  two 
provinces  and  several  important  missions.  The 
parent  province  of  Maryland  has  establish 
ments  in  the  states  of  Massachusetts,  Pennsyl 
vania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  and  the  District 
of  Columbia ;  the  province  of  Missouri,  found 
ed  by  that  of  Maryland  with  the  help  of  nu 
merous  recruits  from  Belgium  and  Holland, 
has  establishments  in  the  dioceses  of  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  Milwaukee.  The 
mission  of  New  York,  originally  founded  by 
the  province  of  France,  but  now  independent, 
embraces  the  whole  state  of  New  York  and  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  and  has  three  colleges 
with  a  novitiate,  several  residences,  and  mis 
sionary  establishments  among  the  Indian  tribes 
of  Lake  Superior.  The  mission  of  the  province 
of  Germany,  recently  organized  for  the  benefit 
of  the  German  population,  possesses  several 
houses  in  western  New  York  and  Ohio.  The 
New  Orleans  mission,  dependent  on  the  prov 
ince  of  Lyons,  conducts  three  colleges  and  sev 
eral  flourishing  houses  in  the  dioceses  of  New 
Orleans  and  Mobile.  The  province  of  Naples 
has  about  25  missionaries  in  New  Mexico  and 
Colorado,  and  the  province  of  Turin  120  in 
California  and  among  the  Indians  of  the  Rocky 
mountains.  Their  colleges  in  the  United  States 
are  as  follows  :  Boston  college,  South  Boston, 
and  college  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Worcester, 
Mass.;  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  New  York;  St. 
John's,  New  York  (Fordham) ;  St.  Joseph's, 
Philadelphia ;  St.  John's,  Frederick,  Md. ;  Loy 
ola,  Baltimore;  Gonzaga,  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
Georgetown,  D.  C. ;  Spring  Hill,  near  Mobile, 
Ala. ;  St.  Louis  university,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ; 
college  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  New 
Orleans ;  St.  Charles's,  Grand  Coteau,  La. ;  St. 
Joseph's,  Bardstown,  Ky. ;  St.  Xavier's,  Cin 
cinnati  ;  St.  Ignatius'  college,  San  Francisco ; 
and  Santa  Clara,  Cal.  In  Canada,  the  Jesuits 
conduct  St.  Mary's  college,  Montreal,  founded 
in  1848  ;  and  they  have  recently  petitioned  the 
Dominion  parliament  for  a  restoration  to  them 
of  the  estates  owned  by  the  order  before  its 
suppression  in  France  and  her  colonies.  The 
number  of  Jesuits  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  at  the  present  time  (1874)  is  1,062.  In 
Mexico  and  the  states  of  Central  and  South 


America  they  have  sometimes  been  admitted, 
sometimes  again  expelled,  their  fate  being  de 
pendent  on  the  success  or  defeat  of  the  several 
political  parties.  They  are  now  entirely  ex 
pelled  from  the  Mexican  and  Colombian  repub 
lics.  The  prosperous  seminaries  which  they 
directed  in  Guatemala  were  suppressed  in  1873, 
and  the  Jesuits  themselves  compelled  to  leave 
the  country.  Missionary  establishments  had 
been  also  opened  a  few  years  ago  in  Ecuador, 
Peru,  and  the  province  of  Maranham,  Brazil; 
but  they  were  suppressed  in  1874.  In  Chili 
and  Paraguay  several  establishments  have  been 
recently  founded,  all  of  which  are  subject  to 
the  same  insecurity.  Jesuits  also  now  labor  as 
missionaries  among  nearly  all  the  non-Chris 
tian  nations  of  the  world,  especially  among  the 
Indians  of  North  America,  in  Turkey,  in  India, 
and  China. — The  number  of  Jesuits  distributed 
through  the  five  assistancies  in  1873  was  as 
follows :  in  the  five  dispersed  provinces  of  the 
Italian  assistancy — Rome  459,  Naples  308,  Si 
cily  206,  Turin  301,  and  Venice  246 ;  in  the 
German  assistancy — Austria  462,  Belgium  642, 
Galicia  230,  Germany  764,  and  Holland  313 ; 
in  the  French  assistancy  —  Champagne  430, 
missions  of  New  York  and  Canada  251,  France 
735,  Lyons  722,  Toulouse  595 ;  in  the  dispersed 
Spanish  assistancy — Aragon  560,  Castile  784, 
Mexico  31 ;  in  the  English  assistancy — England 
383,  Ireland  183,  Maryland  265,  and  Missouri 
255.  Total  number  of  members,  9,266.  At 
tached  to  the  assistancy  of  Italy  are  the  fol 
lowing  missions :  province  of  Rome,  80  mem 
bers  in  Etruria,  ^Emilia,  and  Brazil ;  province 
of  Naples,  25  in  New  Mexico  and  Colorado ; 
Turin,  120  in  California  and  the  Rocky  moun 
tains  ;  Venice,  40  in  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  and 
Venetia.  German  assistancy:  Austria,  23  in 
South  Australia ;  Belgium,  44  in  Bengal;  Ger 
many,  52  in  western  New  York,  &c.,  70  in 
Bombay,  31  in  Brazil,  and  15  in  Java.  French 
assistancy:  Champagne,  21  in  northern  China; 
New  York  and  Canada,  19  in  Indian  missions 
of  Lake  Superior;  France,  16  in  Cayenne  and 
86  in  Nanking;  Lyons,  72. in  Algeria,  94  in 
New  Orleans  and  gulf  states,  and  70  in  Syria ; 
Toulouse,  77  in  the  isle  of  Reunion  and  Mada 
gascar,  and  78  in  Madura  (India).  English  as 
sistancy:  England,  14  in  Scotland,  13  in  Guiana, 
and  17  in  Jamaica;  Ireland,  12  in  Melbourne, 
Australia;  Missouri,  13  among  the  Osages,  and 
22  among  the  Pottawattamies.  In  all,  1,734 
missionaries. — The  order  has  had  since  the 
foundation  the  following  22  generals,  many  of 
whom  belong  also  to  its  most  celebrated 
names :  1,  Loyola,  a  Spaniard,  1541 -'56;  2,  Lay- 
nez,  a  Spaniard,  1558-'6o  ;  8,  Borgia,  a  Span 
iard,  1565-'72  ;  4,  Mercurian,  a  Belgian,  1573- 
'80;  5,  Acquaviva,  a  Neapolitan,  1581-1615; 
6,  Vitelleschi,  a  Roman,  1615-'45;  7,  Caraffa,  a 
Neapolitan,  1646-'9;  8,  Piccolomini,  a  Floren 
tine,  1649-'51 ;  9,  Gottofredi,  a  Roman,  Jan.  21 
to  March  12,  1652  ;  10,  Nickel,  a  German,  1652- 
'64;  11,  Oliva,  a  Genoese;  1664-'81 ;  12,  De 
Noyelle,  a  Belgian,  1682-'6;  13,  Gonzalez,  a 


JESUITS 


JESUS  CHRIST 


635 


Spaniard,  1687-1705;  14,  Tamburini,  a  Mode- 
nese,  1706-'30;  15,  Retz,  a  Bohemian,  1730-'50 ; 
16,  Visconti,  a  Milanese,  1751-'5;  17,  Centuri- 
oni,  a  Genoese,  l755-'7;  18,  Ricci,  a  Floren 
tine,  l758-'73,  died  in  1775;  19,  Brzozowski,  a 
Pole,  1814-'20 ;  20,  Fortis,  a  Veronese,  1820- 
'29;  21,  Roothaan,  a  Hollander,  1829-'53;  22, 
Beckx,  a  Belgian.  Among  the  Jesuits  who  have 
been  canonized  or  beatified,  the  most  celebrated 
are  Ignatius  Loyola,  Francis  Xavier,  Francis 
Borgia,  Francis  Regis,  Aloysius  Gonzaga,  and 
Stanislas  Kostka. — Before  the  suppression  of 
the  order,  the  Jesuits  counted  among  their 
members  some  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  Eu 
rope.  The  works  of  Petavius,  Sirmond,  Tur- 
sellinus,  and  Viger  in  classical  literature,  and  of 
Tiraboschi  in  literary  history,  are  still  valued 
and  used.  Among  the  theologians  and  pulpit 
orators,  Bellarmin,  Pallavicini,  Paolo  Segneri, 
and  Bourdaloue  are  especially  distinguished. 
Since  the  restoration,  Passaglia  (who,  however, 
left  the  order  in  1858)  and  Perrone  have  gained 
the  reputation  of  being  among  the  principal 
theological  writers  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  and  Ravignan  and  Felix  in  France  and 
Roh  in  Germany  have  been  counted  among  the 
greatest  Catholic  pulpit  orators.  The  most  ex 
tensive  literary  work  of  the  order  is  the  Acta 
Sanctorum  (Bollandist),  commenced  in  the  17th 
century  and  still  continued.  Among  its  peri 
odicals  are  the  Civiltd  Cattolica,  semi-monthly, 
at  Rome  (which  has  the  largest  circulation  of 
any  theological  publication  of  Italy);  the  Pre 
cis  historiques  et  litter  aires^  semi-monthly,  at 
Brussels;  the  Etudes  theologiques,  fortnight 
ly,  at  Paris;  "The  Month,"  at  London;  and 
two  published  at  Freiburg  in  Germany. — Sev 
eral  charges  of  complicity  in  the  murder  of 
princes  have  been  brought  against  the  Jesuits, 
Borne  of  which  have  been  abandoned  by  all 
impartial  historians,  while  all  are  -contested. 
These  charges  are  closely  connected  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  rightfulness  of  tyrannicide, 
which  has  been  defended  by  several  writers  of 
the  order.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  14 
Jesuits,  viz.,  Sa,  Tolet,  Valentia,  Delrio,  Salas, 
Mariana,  Heissius,  Suarez,  Lessius,  Becan, 
Gretser,  Tanner,  Castro-Paolo,  and  Escobar, 
have  maintained  it.  But  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  alleged  that  this  doctrine  was  one  very  com 
mon  among  the  Roman  Catholic  theologians, 
and  that  even  Thomas  Aquinas  taught  it ;  that 
more  than  60  Jesuits  have  written  against  it ; 
and  that  those  Jesuits  who  admit  it,  confine  it 
to  a  few  exceptional  cases,  and  allow  it  to  be 
committed  only  by  a  nation.  Acquaviva,  by 
a  decree  issued  after  the  assassination  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  dated  July  6, 1610,  forbade  any  mem 
ber  publicly  or  privately  to  uphold  the  doc 
trine  that  it  is  lawful  for  any  one  under  any 
pretext  of  tyranny  to  attempt  the  life  of  any 
ruler.  On  other  points  of  ethics  members  of 
the  order  have  been  accused  of  unsound  prin 
ciples  even  by  certain  Catholic  writers,  and 
some  of  the  writings  of  Jesuits  have  been  on 
this  account  censured  by  Rome.  Concerning 


this  point  the  defence  presents  the  same  argu 
ments  as  on  the  preceding,  viz.,  that  none  of 
the  censured  doctrines  were  peculiar  to  the  or 
der  or  shared  by  all  its  members.  The  follow 
ing  passage  in  the  constitution  of  the  order  has 
often  been  and  is  still  construed  by  some  wri 
ters  as  if  it  gave  to  the  superiors  of  the  order 
the  right  of  obliging  their  inferiors  to  commit 
a  sin  :  Visum  est  nobis  in  Domino,  cxccpto  ex- 
presso  Toto  quo  societas  summo  pontiftci  pro 
tempore  existenti  tenetur,  ac  tribus  aliis  essen- 
tialibus  paupertatis,  castitatis,  et  oledientm, 
nullas  constitutions,  declarationes,  vel  ordi- 
nem  ullum  vivendi  posse  olligationem  adpecca- 
tum  mortale  vel  veniale  inducere,  nisi  superior 
ea  in  nomine  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi,  xel  in 
mrtute  oledientice  juberet.  But  the  Jesuits 
have  proved  this  to  be  a  mistranslation  of  the 
Latin  and  in  conflict  with  others  of  their  rules ; 
the  true  sense  of  the  passage  hieing,  that  none 
of  the  rules  of  the  order  so  bind  the  members 
that  the  non-observance  by  itself  involves  a 
sin,  but  that  a  sin  is  committed  only  when  a 
member  violates  a  special  order  of  the  superior. 
Several  Protestant  historians  of  note,  as  Ranke 
("  History  of  the  Popes  ")  and  Reuchlin  ("  His 
tory  of  Port  Royal  "),  who  in  the  first  editions 
of  their  works  had  followed  the  former  inter 
pretation,  have  changed  their  view  in  subse 
quent  editions,  and  pronounced  the  interpreta 
tion  which  the  order  itself  gives  of  it  the  true 
one. — Among  the  most  important  works  on  the 
history  of  the  Jesuits  are:  Ilistoria  Societatis 
Jesu,  from  1540  to  1625,  by  Orlandini,  Sac- 
chini,  Passinus,  and  other  members  of  the  so 
ciety ;  Wolf  (adverse  to  the  Jesuits),  Allge- 
meine  GescMchte  der  Jesuiten  (4  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1803),  valuable  for  its  complete  bibliography; 
Cretineau-Joli,  Histoire  religieuse,  politique  et 
litteraire  de  la  compagnie  de  Jesus  (6  vols., 
Paris,  1844-'6);  Gioberti  (adverse  to  the  Jesu 
its),  II  Gesuita  moderno  (5  vols.,  Lausanne, 
1847) ;  A.  Steimnetz,  "  History  of  the  Jesuits  " 
(3  vols.,  London,  1848);  Abbe  GuettSe  (Gal- 
lican),  Histoire  des  Jeauites  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1858-'9) ;  Huber  (Old  Catholic),  Der  Jesuiten- 
Orden  (Berlin,  1873).  See  also  the  "Institute 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  approved  by  the  Holy 
See,"  "Decrees  of  the  General  Congregations," 
and  "  Ordinances  of  the  Superiors  General,"  all 
which  have  been  published ;  "  Life  and  Institute 
of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,"  by  Bartoli;  Documents 
authentiques,  &c.,  by  Carie  de  la  Charie  (Paris, 
1827);  and  Ravignan's  IS  Existence  et  Vimtitut 
des  Jesuites  (Paris,  1844),  and  Clement  XIII. 
et  Clement  XIV.  (2  vols.  8vo,  1854). 

JESUITS'  BARK.     See  CINCHONA. 

JESUS  CHRIST  ('Iflffoi-f,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
Hebrew  Jeshua  or  Joshua,  help  of  Jehovah, 
saviour;  Xpiar6c,  the  Greek  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  Messiah,  the  anointed),  the  founder 
of  the  Christian  religion,  born  in  Bethlehem, 
a  city  of  Judea,  during  the  reign  of  the  empe 
ror  Augustus,  probably  in  the  fourth  year  (or 
perhaps  the  sixth)  before  the  Christian  era, 
crucified  in  a  locality  of  or  near  Jerusalem 


636 


JESUS  CHRIST 


called  Golgotha,  in  the  34th  or  35th  year  of  his 
age.  The  25th  of  December  has  been  received 
and  commemorated  by  the  church  in  the  fes 
tival  of  Christmas  from  the  4th  century  as  the 
day  of  his  birth,,  though  this  date  was  previous 
ly  unsettled,  and  the  opinions  of  the  learned 
have  always  varied  concerning  it.  His  geneal 
ogy  is  traced  from  Abraham  by  St.  Matthew, 
and  from  Adam  by  St.  Luke,  through  the  royal 
line  of  David ;  the  two  pedigrees,  after  Da 
vid,  are  very  different,  and  the  discrepancies 
have  been  variously  explained  by  Biblical  crit 
ics.  Nor  are  these  the  only  debatable  points 
in  the  Biblical  narrative,  the  main  parts  of 
which  are  condensed  in  the  following.  His 
mother  was  Mary,  who  was  betrothed  to  a  car 
penter  named  Joseph,  when  an  angel  announced 
to  her :  "  The  Holy  Ghost  shall  come  upon 
thee,  and  the  power  of  the  Highest  shall  over 
shadow  thee;"  accordingly  "she  was  found 
with  child  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and,  as  St.  Mat 
thew  states,  her  husband  "knew  her  not  till 
she  had  brought  forth  her  first-born  son," 
who  was  named  Jesus.  Joseph  and  Mary  re 
sided  in  Nazareth,  an  obscure  town  in  Lower 
Galilee,  whence  they  went  up  to  Bethlehem 
to  be  taxed,  in  compliance  with  a  decree  of 
Augustus,  and  because  Joseph  was  of  the  house 
and  lineage  of  David.  It  was  there  that  the 
days  were  accomplished  that  she  should  be 
delivered,  and  the  child  was  born,  wrapped  in 
swaddling  clothes,  and  laid  in  a  manger,  the 
inn  being  full.  His  birth  and  Messianic  digni 
ty  were  revealed  by  angels  to  shepherds  tend 
ing  their  flocks  by  night  in  the  field,  and  they 
went  in  haste  to  Bethlehem  to  greet  the  babe. 
After  8  days  he  was  circumcised ;  after  33 
days  he  was  presented  in  the  temple  at  Jerusa 
lem,  when  the  aged  Simeon  took  him  in  his 
arms,  and  blessed  God  that  he  had  lived  to  see 
the  Saviour;  and  soon  after  his  birth,  most 
probably  while  his  parents  remained  in  Bethle 
hem,  three  wise  men  (magi ;  according  to  eccle 
siastical  tradition,  three  kings)  came  from  the 
East,  guided  by  a  star,  and  fell  down  before 
the  young  child,  worshipped  him,  and  present 
ed  to  him  gifts,  gold,  and  frankincense,  and 
myrrh.  Their  inquiries  in  Jerusalem  had  ex 
cited  the  suspicion  of  King  Herod,  who  com 
manded  them  to  bring  him  word  when  they 
had  found  the  child.  But  the  parents  of  Je 
sus,  warned  in  a  dream,  fled  with  him  to  Egypt. 
Herod,  to  whom  the  wise  men,  by  divine  direc 
tion,  had  not  returned,  and  who  feared  the  loss 
of  his  throne  if  the  Messiah  were  acknowl 
edged,  was  greatly  enraged,  and,  in  order  to 
secure  the  destruction  of  Jesus,  gave  orders 
that  all  the  male  children  in  and  near  Bethle 
hem,  from  two  years  old  and  under,  should  be 
put  to  death.  After  the  death  of  Herod,  a 
few  months  later,  Jesus  was  brought  by  his 
parents  to  Nazareth.  Of  his  early  youth  noth 
ing  more  is  known,  except  the  summary  state 
ment  of  Luke  that  he  waxed  strong  in  spirit, 
was  filled  with  wisdom,  and  the  grace  of  God 
was  upon  him.  When  he  was  12  years  old 


his  parents  took  him  with  them  to  Jerusalem, 
to  the  feast  of  the  passover.  As  they  returned, 
he  tarried  behind  without  their  knowledge ; 
they  retraced  their  steps  in  search  of  him,  and 
after  three  days  found  him  in  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  sitting  in  the  midst  of  the  doctors, 
hearing  them  and  asking  them  questions,  and 
astonishing  them  by  his  understanding  and  his 
answers.  He  returned  to  Nazareth  with  his 
parents,  and  was  subject  to  them.  Of  the  fol 
lowing  18  years,  till  the  commencement  of  his 
public  ministry,  the  canonical  Gospels  give  no 
account.  Various  suppositions  have  been  made 
to  fill  this  gap  in  the  narrative,  as  that  he  as 
sociated  with  learned  Jews  and  studied  the 
Greek  authors;  that  in  his  14th  year  he  went 
with  John  the  Baptist  to  Egypt,  and  was  in 
structed  for  16  years  by  Egyptian  philosophers ; 
that  he  was  educated  in  the  school  of  the  Es- 
senes  (which  is  the  oldest  opinion) ;  that  he 
was  a  Nazarite ;  and  that  he  belonged  to  the 
sect  of  the  Sadducees.  None  of  these  hypothe 
ses,  however,  rests  upon  any  historical  basis. 
It  is  more  probable,  as  the  gospel  narrative 
intimates,  that  he  followed  the  occupation  of 
a  carpenter,  and,  as  the  eldest  son  of  the 
family,  provided  for  its  maintenance  after  Jo 
seph's  death.  The  apocryphal  gospels  give  full 
but  fanciful  and  often  absurd  narratives  of 
this  period,  concerning  which  the  four  evan 
gelists  are  silent.  His  appearance  as  a  public 
teacher  was  heralded  by  John  the  Baptist,  who 
admonished  and  warned  the  people,  exhort 
ing  them  to  repentance,  baptizing  them  in  the 
Jordan,  and  announcing  the  approach  of  one 
mightier  than  himself,  who  should  baptize 
with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire.  It  was 
probably  in  his  31st  year  that  Jesus  came  to 
the  Jordan  at  Bethabara  to  John,  was  recog 
nized  by  him  as  the  Messiah,  and  was  bap 
tized  by  him  at  his  own  command;  and  as 
he  went  up  from  the  water  a  voice  from 
heaven  said:  "This  is  my  beloved  Son,  in 
whom  I  am  well  pleased."  The  events  of 
his  ministry,  which  is  usually  believed  to  have 
occupied  about  three  years,  are  related  by 
the  evangelists,  and  have  been  arranged  in 
chronological  order  (not  in  all  cases  with  cer 
tainty)  in  harmonies  of  the  Gospels.  The  pub 
lic  administration  of  baptism  was  followed 
immediately  by  the  fast  for  40  days  in  the  wil 
derness,  and  the  temptation  by  the  devil.  Di 
rectly  after  this  he  selected  the  first  five  or  six 
of  his  twelve  disciples,  subsequently  called 
apostles,  and  began  to  promulgate  his  doctrines, 
and  to  perform  miracles.  At  a  marriage  in 
Cana  of  Galilee  he  changed  water  into  wine  to 
supply  the  guests.  He  attended  a  feast  of  the 
passover  at  Jerusalem,  drove  the  traders  out 
of  the  temple,  and  by  his  mighty  works  made 
many  believe  in  his  name.  Passing  from  Ju- 
dea  to  Galilee  by  way  of  Samaria,  he  announced 
himself  as  the  Messiah  to  a  Samaritan  woman 
by  Jacob's  well  at  Sychar.  Again  in  Cana  he 
cured  by  a  word  a  nobleman's  son  lying  ill  at 
Capernaum;  in  Nazareth  he  preached  in  the 


JESUS  CHRIST 


C3T 


synagogue,  was  scornfully  rejected  on  account 
of  his  humble  parentage  and  family  connec 
tions,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  Capernaum, 
where  he  healed  a  demoniac  and  other  sick 
persons ;  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  he  lulled  a 
tempest,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  he 
performed  many  wonderful  cures ;  and,  as  the 
number  of  those  seeking  help  from  him  in 
creased,  he  chose  and  ordained  twelve  disci 
ples  who  should  be  with  him  continually.  It 
was  probably  on  another  journey  through  Gal 
ilee  that  he  delivered  before  a  numerous  con 
course  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  in  which  he 
set  forth  the  spirit  of  his  doctrine,  the  condi 
tions  of  participation  in  the  kingdom  of  God, 
and  gave  in  the  Lord's  prayer  an  example  op 
posed  to  the  long  prayers  of  the  Pharisees. 
He  afterward  healed  the  palsied  servant  of  a 
centurion  of  Capernaum,  and  restored  a  wid 
ow's  son  at  Nain  to  life.  While  performing 
such  deeds  as  exemplifications  and  in  attestation 
of  his  doctrines,  the  second  feast  of  the  pass- 
over  came.  He  attended  it,  and  gave  occasion 
for  the  hostility  of  the  Pharisees  by  healing  on 
the  sabbath  day,  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  a  man 
who  had  suffered  from  an  infirmity  for  38  years. 
Leaving  Jerusalem  for  a  third  circuit  in  Galilee, 
he  instructed  and  sent  forth  the  twelve  apos 
tles,  and  miraculously  fed  5,000  persons  with 
five  loaves  and  two  small  fishes.  His  numer 
ous  miraculous  cures,  and  the  increasing  num 
ber  of  believers  in  him  as  the  Messiah,  deep 
ened  the  enmity  of  the  Pharisees,  who  sought 
to  do  violence  to  him.  At  this  period  the 
third  passover  in  his  ministry  occurred.  He, 
however,  left  Judea,  and  passed  along  the 
coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  repeating  his  mira 
cles.  The  transfiguration,  the  foreshadowing 
of  his  own  sufferings,  and  the  choice  of  TO 
disciples,  whom  he  sent  two  by  two  into  all 
the  places  which  he  intended  to  visit,  preceded 
his  journey  to  Jerusalem  to  the  feast  of  taber 
nacles.  After  his  public  teaching  there,  he  went 
to  Perasa ;  at  Bethany  he  raised  from  the  dead 
Lazarus,  the  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  and 
on  his  way  toward  the  capital  he  cured  at  Jer 
icho  blind  Bartimaeus.  He  made  his  entry  into 
Jerusalem,  riding  on  an  ass,  and  was  received 
in  triumph  by  the  people.  Returning  after  a 
night  'spent  in  Bethany,  he  blighted  with  a 
word  the  barren  fig  tree,  foiled  the  insidious 
attempt  to  ensnare  him  on  the  subject  of  trib 
ute,  and  denounced  their  hypocrisy  and  the 
guilt  and  doom  of  the  city.  At  the  fourth  and 
last  feast  of  the  passover  with  his  disciples,  he 
washed  their  feet  as  a  lesson  of  love  and  hu 
mility;  announced  that  on  that  night  one  of 
them  would  betray  him,  and  designated  Judas 
Iscariot  as  the  traitor ;  and  instituted  the  Lord's 
supper.  Afterward  with  great  agony  of  spirit 
he  prayed  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane.  Thith 
er  Judas  came  with  an  armed  band,  and  be 
trayed  to  them  the  object  of  their  search  by 
saying,  "Hail,  master!"  and  kissing  him.  Re 
fusing  the  offers  of  assistance,  Jesus  freely  sur 
rendered  himself,  when  his  disciples  fled.  He 


was  brought  before  the  court  of  the  sanhe 
drim  ;  and  as  he  did  not  deny  that  he  was  the 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  he  was  adjudged  guilty 
of  blasphemy,  and  condemned  to  death.  He 
was  brought  thence,  on  the  charge  of  sedition, 
before  the  tribunal  of  Pontius  Pilate,  the  Ro 
man  procurator  of  the  province,  who  was  in 
duced  by  the  clamor  of  the  people  and  by 
threats  to  condemn  him,  although  he  declared 
him  to  be  innocent.  He  was  scourged,  a  scar 
let  robe  and  a  crown  of  thorns  were  put  on  him 
in  mockery,  and  he  was  led  away  to  be  crucified. 
At  Golgotha  (Calvary)  vinegar  mingled  with 
gall  was  offered  him  to  drink.  He  was  crucified 
between  two  thieves,  one  of  whom  became  peni 
tent  and  was  forgiven  by  the  suffering  Saviour. 
The  cross  on  which  he  hung  bore  the  inscription, 
in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  "  Jesus  of  Naza 
reth,  the  King  of  the  Jews."  He  committed 
his  mother  to  the  care  of  his  beloved  disciple 
John,  according  to  which  evangelist  his  last 
words  were,  "  It  is  finished."  At  his  death  the 
sun  was  darkened,  the  earth  quaked,  and  the 
veil  of  the  temple  was  rent  in  twain  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom.  In  the  evening  came  Joseph 
of  Arimathsea,  a  disciple  of  Christ,  and  begged 
the  body  and  buried  it.  This  was  on  the  after 
noon  of  Friday.  On  the  third  day,  i.  <?.,  early 
on  the  morning  of  the  day  thence  called  the 
Lord's  day,  he  rose  from  the  dead ;  he  appeared 
to  his  11  remaining  disciples,  and  to  many  oth 
ers  ;  remained  with  them  40  days,  instructing 
them  in  the  things  pertaining  to  the  kingdom 
of  God,  and  blessing  them ;  and  then  visibly 
ascended  to  heaven.  His  last  charge  to  his  dis 
ciples  was  to  go  and  teach  all  nations,  baptizing 
them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. — The  person  and  work 
of  Jesus  Christ  have  been  the  subject  of  ex 
tended  discussion  from  many  points  of  view. 
The  Lebensgeschichte  Jesu  of  J.  J.  Hess  (Zu 
rich,  1781)  is  one  of  the  earlier  general  works 
on  this  subject.  The  "  Life  of  Christ  and  the 
Lives  of  the  Apostles,  John  the  Baptist,  and 
the  Virgin  Mary,"  by  John  Fleetwood  (Glas 
gow,  1813 ;  many  times  reprinted),  attempts 
from  the  four  gospel  narratives  to  give  the  con 
nected  history.  Mention  may  be  made  also  of 
the  "  Life  of  the  Saviour,"  by  H.  Ware,  jr. 
(Boston,  1832;  new  ed.,  New  York,  1868).' 
The  results  of  German  rationalistic  criticism 
appear  in  the  works  called  Das  Lelen  Jesii,  by 
H.  II.  E.  G.  Paulus  (Heidelberg,  1828),  D.  F. 
Strauss  (Tubingen,  1835  ;  revised  and  abridged 
in  1864;  English  translation,  London,  1840), 
and  C.  F.  von  Ammon  (Leipsic,  1842-7).  The 
work  of  Strauss,  the  most  destructively  critical 
of  the  three,  made  a  great  impression,  and 
called  out  many  replies.  That  of  Karl  Hase 
(Leipsic,  1829;  English  translation,  Boston, 
1860)  was  prior  to  it  in  date,  and  the  ablest 
answer  to  Strauss  was  the  work  of  J.  A.  W. 
Neander  (Hamburg,  1837;  English  translation, 
New  York,  1848),  which  was  followed  by  those 
of  J.  P.  Lange  (Heidelberg,  1844-'5;  English 
translation,  Edinburgh,  1864),  J.  A.  Dorner 


638 


JET 


JEWEL 


(Berlin,  1845-'53),  Schenckel  (1864),  and  Keim 
(1867-'71).  A  humanitarian  view  is  presented 
by  W.  II.  Furness  in  "Jesus  and  liis  Biogra 
phers"  (Philadelphia,  1838),  and  "Jesus" 
(1870).  The  Vie  de  notre  seigneur  Jesus- 
Christ,  by  the  abbe  Brispot  (Paris,  1850- 
'53),  presents  the  Koman  Catholic  view.  A 
volume  of  "  Historical  Lectures  on  the  Life 
of  Christ,"  by  C.  J.  Ellicott  (London,  1859),  is 
a  popular  work,  while  the  notes  appended 
consider  most  of  the  points  under  critical 
discussion.  The  "Life  of  our  Lord  upon 
Earth,"  by  Samuel  J.  Andrews  (New  York, 
1863),  considers  only  the  outward  events  of 
the  life  of  Jesus,  but  is  a  thorough  discussion 
of  these.  A  new  impulse  was  given  to  this 
department  of  study  by  the  Vie  de  Jesus  of 
Ernest  Renan  (Paris,  1863),  which  considered 
the  gospel  story  as  a  legendary  romance.  A 
reply  by  E.  de  Pressense,  entitled  Locale  cri 
tique  de  Jesus- Christ,  appeared  the  same  year, 
followed  by  Jesus- Christ,  son  temps,  sa  vie,  son 
ceuvre  (Paris,  1866),  by  the  same  author ;  while 
a  multitude  of  volumes  and  essays  on  the  sub 
ject  appeared  in  Europe  and  America.  Among 
the  works  of  more  recent  importance  or  popu 
lar  interest  are  those  of  G.  Uhlhorn,  Die  mo- 
dernen  Darstellungen  des  Lebens  Jesu  (Hano 
ver,  1866;  English  translation,  Boston,  1868); 
J.  R.  Seeley,  "  Ecce  Homo  "  (London,  1866) ; 
Z.  Eddy,  "  Immanuel "  (Springfield,  1868)  ; 
William" Hanna,  "Life  of  Christ"  (Edinburgh, 
1869);  Lyman  Abbott,  "Jesus  of  Nazareth: 
His  Life  and  Teachings"  (New  York,  1869); 
Ploward  Crosby,  "Jesus,  his  Life  and  Works" 
(New  York,  1871)  ;  Lewis  Mercier,  "  Outlines 
of  the  Life  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  "  (London, 
1871);  Sir  George  Stephen,  "Life  of  Christ" 
(London,  1871);  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  "Life 
of  Jesus  the  Christ "  (New  York,  1871  et  seq.)  ; 
Charles  F.  Deems,  D.  D.,  "  Jesus  "  (New  York. 
1872);  and  F.  W.  Farrar,  "Life  of  Christ" 
(London,  1874).  The  principal  works  on  the 
harmony  and  chronology  of  the  Gospels  are 
those  of  Lightfoot  (1655),  Macknight  (1756), 
Bengel  (1736),  Newcome  (1778),"  Greswell 
(1830),  Wieseler  (1843),  Robinson  (1845;  revis 
ed  ed.,  1851),  Jarvis(1845),  Tischendorf  (1851), 
Strong  (1852),  Stroud  (1853),  and  G.  W.  Clark 
(1868).  Other  works  deserving  of  mention  are 
those  of  Stier,  Die  Reden  des  Herrn  Jesu 
(1843-'8;  English  translation,  Edinburgh,  1859); 
Ullmann,  Die  Stiiulloitig'keit  Jesu  (1841  ;  Eng 
lish  translation,  Edinburgh,  1841) ;  Schaff,  "  The 
Person  of  Christ  "  (Boston,  1865) ;  Liddon, 
"  Bampton  Lectures  of  the  Divinity  of  Christ " 
(London,  1867) ;  and  Plumptre,  "  Christ  and 
Christendom"  (London,  1867).  A  life  of 
Christ  according  to  the  apocryphal  gospels  has 
been  published  by  R.  Hofmann  (Das  Lelen 
Jesu  nach  den  Apokryplien,  Leipsic,  1851). 

JET,  a  variety  of  lignite,  resembling  cannel 
coal,  but  harder,  of  deeper  black,  and  of  more 
brilliant  lustre.  It  is  found  in  detached  pieces 
in  tertiary  clays  along  the  coast  of  Yorkshire, 
England,  and  in  various  places  on  the  continent 


of  Europe.  From  its  susceptibility  of  taking  a 
fine  polish  and  its  intense  blackness,  it  has 
been  largely  used  for  mourning  articles  of  or 
nament,  as  buttons,  crosses,  and  ear  rings. 

JETER,  Jeremiah  B.,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Bedford  co.,  Va.,  July  18,  1802.  He 
entered  the  Baptist  ministry  in  his  native  coun 
ty  in  1822,  and  removed  in  1827  to  the  "  North 
ern  Neck  "  of  Virginia,  where  he  was  pastor 
of  the  Maratico  church  in  Lancaster  co.,  and 
of  the  Nicomico  church  in  Northumberland 
co.  In  1836  he  became  pastor  of  the  first 
Baptist  church  in  Richmond,  and  in  1849  ac 
cepted  an  invitation  from  the  second  church 
in  St.  Louis.  In  1852  he  returned  to  Rich 
mond  to  fill  the  pulpit  of  the  Grace  street  Bap 
tist  church.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "Memoir 
of  the  Rev.  Abner  W.  Clopton,"  the  "Life 
of  Mrs.  Henrietta  Shuck,"  a  "Memoir  of  the 
Rev.  Andrew  Broaddus,"  the  "  Christian  Mir 
ror,"  "Campbellism  Examined"  (1845),  and 
"The  Seal  of  Heaven"  (1871).  He  also,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Rev.  Richard  Fuller, 
compiled  "  The  Psalmist,"  a  hymn  book  in 
general  use  among  the  Baptists. 

JETSAM.     See  FLOTSAM. 

JEVONS,  William  Stanley,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Liverpool  in  1835.  He  was  educated 
at  University  college,  London,  and  in  1854  re 
ceived  an  appointment  in  the  mint  at  Sydney, 
Australia,  where  he  remained  five  years.  He 
then  visited  the  United  States,  returned  to 
England,  and  took  the  master's  degree  at  the 
university  of  London  in  1862.  In  1866  he  be 
came  professor  of  logic  and  mental  and  moral 
philosophy,  and  lecturer  on  political  economy, 
in  Owens  college,  Manchester.  In  1872  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  royal  society  of 
London.  He  has  published  a  pamphlet  demon 
strating  the  depreciation  of  the  precious  met 
als  in  consequence  of  the  discoveries  in  Cali 
fornia  and  Australia  (1863);  "The  Coal  Ques 
tion  "  (1865),  pointing  out  the  probable  exhaus 
tion  of  the  British  coal  mines,  and  the  neces 
sity  of  reducing  the  national  debt ;  "  Elementary 
Lessons  in  Logic"  (1870)  ;  "Theory  of  Politi 
cal  Economy"  (1871),  containing  an  attempt 
to  reduce  the  science  to  a  mathematical  form, 
and  to  explain  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand 
by  the  aid  of  the  differential  calculus ;  "The 
Principles  of  Science"  (1874),  in  which  some 
new  views  of  the  value  of  the  reasoning  pro 
cesses  are  put  forth,  and  syllogistic  operations 
are  shown  to  be  practicable  by  mechanism. 

JEW,  The  Wandering.     See  WANDERING  JEW. 

JEWEL,  or  Jewell,  John,  an  English  bishop, 
born  at  Buden,  Devonshire,  May  24,  1522,  died 
at  Monkton  Farleigh,  Wiltshire,  Sept.  22,  1571. 
He  finished  his  education  at  Oxford,  became 
tutor  there,  and  labored  assiduously  to  dissemi 
nate  the  principles  of  the  reformation  among 
his  pupils,  but  did  not  make  a  public  profes 
sion  of  Protestantism  till  after  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.  He  was  expelled  from  Oxford 
in  the  reign  of  Mary,  fled  to  the  continent  to 
escape  imprisonment,  and  at  the  invitation  of 


JEWELL 


JIDDAH 


639 


Peter  Martyr  went  to  Strasburg,  where  lie  for 
some  time  assisted  in  conducting  a  collegiate 
institution.  On  the  death  of  Mary,  Jewel  re 
turned  to  England,  and  was  one  of  the  eight 
divines  appointed  by  Elizabeth  to  hold  a  con 
troversy  at  Westminster  with  a  similar  num 
ber  of  Catholics.  In  1559  he  was  placed  on 
the  commission  to  extinguish  Catholicism  in 
the  western  dioceses  of  England,  and  on  Jan. 
21,  1560,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Salisbury. 
The  most  famous  of  his  works  is  his  Apologia 
Ecclcsica  AnglicaiKB  (1562),  of  which  Eliza 
beth  ordered  a  copy  to  be  chained  in  every 
parish  church. 

JEWELL,  a  N.  county  of  Kansas,  bordering 
on  Nebraska ;  area,  900  sq.  rn. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
207.  It  is  drained  by  affluents  of  the  Republi 
can  and  Solomon  rivers.  Capital,  Jewell  City. 

JEWS.     See  HEBREWS. 

JEWSBIRY.  I.  Maria  Jane,  an  English  wri 
ter,  born  in  Warwickshire  about  1800,  died  in 
Bombay,  India,  in  1833.  She  was  a  writer 
for  literary  periodicals.  In  1833  she'  married 
the  Rev.  William  Fletcher,  and  went  with  him 
as  a  missionary  to  India,  but  died  soon  after 
her  arrival  in  that  country.  She  published 
"  Phantasmagoria/'  a  series  of  sketches  of  life 
and  literature,  ""Letters  to  the  Young,"  "Lays 
of  Leisure  Hours,"  and  "Three  Histories." 
II.  ticraldine  Endsor,  sister  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Warwickshire  in  1821.  Siie  is  the 
author  of  "Zoe,  a  History  of  T\vo  Lives" 
(1845);  -The  Half  Sisters "(1848);  "Marian 
Withers  "  (1851) ;  "  Constance  Herbert "  (1855) ; 
"  The  History  of  an  Adopted  Child  "  and  "  The 
Sorrows  of  Gentility"  (1856) ;  and  "Right  or 
Wrong"  (1857).  She  has  also  written  a  story 
for  children  entitled  "Angelo,  or  the  Pine 
Eorest  in  the  Alps"  (1855). 

JEYPOOR.  I.  A  Rajpoot  native  state  of  India, 
between  lat,  25°  40'  and  27°  37'  N.,  and  Ion. 
75°  8'  and  77°  20'  E. ;  area,  15,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  1,500,000.  The  surface  is  level  excepting 
N.  and  N.  W.,  and  imperfectly  watered.  The 
principal  products  are  cattle  and  salt,  and  to 
some  extent  wheat,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  The 
state  abounds  in  small  forts,  and  possesses  some 
of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  India.  The  Minns 
are  regarded  as  the  aborigines,  and  the  Jats  are 
the  most  extensive  and  skilful  agriculturists. 
The  government  is  invested  in  a  hereditary 
rajah,  who  pays  an  annual  tribute  of  £40,000 
to  Great  Britain.  The  army  consists  of  about 
30,000  men.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  state,  140 
m.  3.  W.  of  Delhi ;  pop.  about  60,000.  It  is  the 
most  attractive  city  of  upper  Ilindostan.  The 
main  thoroughfares  intersect  each  other  at 
right  angles,  each  intersection  forming  a  mar 
ket  square  or  cJiank,  and  they  are  crossed  by 
smaller  streets,  the  whole  forming  rectangular 
blocks.  The  centre  is  occupied  by  the  royal 
residence,  seven  and  eight  stories  high,  with 
towers  and  domes,  including  a  dozen  pal 
aces  communicating  either  by  galleries  or  gar 
dens.  In  the  palace  proper  is  an  audience 
hall  of  white  marble.  Many  of  the  private 
TOL.  ix. — 41 


houses,  three  and  four  stories  high,  are  embel 
lished  with  frescoes,  marble  porticoes,  stat 
uary,  and  projecting  stone  balconies.  Among 
the  mosques  and  temples  are  exquisite  speci 
mens  of  the  purest  Hindoo  architecture.  Oth 
er  notable  public  buildings  are  the  extensive 
observatory  and  the  arsenal.  Jey  Singh  found 
ed  this  city  early  in  the  18th  century  as  a  sub 
stitute  for  his  old  and  decayed  capital  Amber. 
— There  are  three  other  towns  of  the  same 
name  in  various  parts  of  India. 

JHiNSI,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  capital  of  a  small  state  of  the  same 
name,  annexed  to  the  British  possessions  in 
1854, 120  S.  S.  E.  of  Agra.  It  is  a  walled  town, 
having  a  circuit  of  4  m.,  with  strong  fortifica 
tions,  and  surrounded  by  line  groves.  The 
streets  are  remarkably  clean  and  orderly.  A 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  the'  cities 
of  the  Deccan  and  the  Doab,  and  there  are 
manufactories  of  native  weapons.  On  June 
4,  1857,  a  mutiny  of  native  troops  took  place 
here,  and  67  Europeans,  about  half  of  whom 
were  women  and  children,  were  massacred  at 
the  instigation  of  the  ranee  or  chieftainess  of 
Jhansi.  The  ranee  put  herself  at  the  head  of 
the  rebels,  clad  in  mail,  and  during  the  rest  of 
her  career  led  her  forces  with  masculine  valor 
and  ferocity.  In  1858  a  body  of  mutineers 
under  her  command  shut  themselves  up  in 
Jhansi,  where  they  were  besieged  by  Sir  Hugh 
Rose,  March  25.  After  a  relieving  force  under 
Tantia  Topee  had  been  defeated,  the  city  was 
stormed  on  April  2,  5,000  rebels  being  killed. 
The  ranee  escaped  to  Gwalior,  in  the  storming 
of  which  place,  in  June,  she  was  killed. 

JH1LUM,  Jailiim.  or  Jeluni  (anc.  llydaspes; 
Sanskrit  Vitastd ;  modern  Hindoo,  Behut), 
the  most  western  of  the  five  great  rivers  of 
the  Punjaub,  British  India.  It  rises  in  the  N. 
W.  Himalaya,  in  the  southern  part  of  Cash 
mere,  flows  N.  W.  along  the  centre  of  the  val 
ley  of  Cashmere  in  a  winding  course  for  about 
120  m.,  more  than  half  being  navigable,  and 
after  various  deviations  finds  an  outlet  through 
the  pass  of  Baramula,  and  thence  proceeds  in 
a  western  direction  toward  the  vicinity  of 
Mazufarabad.  Thence,  enlarged  by  the  almost 
equally  considerable  Kishen  Gunga  river,  it 
pursues  a  S.  direction  until  it  falls  into  the 
Chenaub,  after  an  entire  course  of  about  450 
m.  It  abounds  in  fish,  and  is  said  to  contain 
alligators.  Horace  called  the  river  falulosus 
llydaspes,  on  account  of  the  wonderful  stories 
associated  with  it.  Virgil  refers  to  it  as  Modus 
llydaspes,  and  Ptolemy  calls  it  Bidaspes.  Alex 
ander  is  reported  to  have  seen  crocodiles  on 
the  banks  of  this  river,  on  which  he  built  his 
fleet  for  the  war  with  Porus  from  the  timber 
of  the  Himalaya  forests. 

JIDDAH,  Jeddali,  or  Djeddali,  a  town  of  Iledjaz 
in  Arabia,  on  the  Red  sea,  65  m.  W.  of  Mecca ; 
lat.  21°  28'  K,  Ion.  39°  13'  E. ;  pop.  about 
18,000.  It  is  built  on  the  edge  of  the  sea,  in  a 
sterile  desert,  about  10  m.  back  of  which  is  a 
range  of  low  hills,  devoid  of  trees  or  vegeta- 


640 


JIDDAII 


JOACHIM 


tlon.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  with  fortified 
towers  at  intervals,  and  a  ditch,  and  has  nine 
gates,  six  facing  the  sea.  Thejea  is  gradually 
receding  from  the  town,  owing  to  the  constant 
growth  of  the  coral  reefs.  The  harbor,  which 
is  the  best  on  the  Red  sea,  has  a  depth  of  from 
3  to  17  fathoms;  it  is  difficult  of  entrance,  be 
ing  shut  in  by  ranges  of  reefs.  The  streets  are 
straight  and  regular,  and  cleaner  than  those 
of  most  eastern  towns,  and  the  houses  of  the 
better  class  are  built  of  stone  or  madrepore; 
but  the  suburbs  are  extremely  filthy,  and  the 
dwellings  little  more  than  hovels.  The  princi 
pal  buildings  are  the  governor's  residence,  the 
custom  house,  several  mosques  of  little  archi 
tectural  pretension,  some  large  and  handsome 
khans,  and  the  British  and  French  consulates. 
A  rude  stone  structure  outside  the  walls  is  ven 
erated  as  the  tomb  of  Eve.  The  climate  is  very 
trying  to  Europeans,  the  thermometer  ranging 
from  76°  to  107°  F.,  and  sometimes  rising  to 


Jiclduh. 

132°  during  the  simoom.  Intermittent  fevers 
are  prevalent,  and  they  generally  attack  Euro 
peans  on  arrival.  During  the  months  of  pil 
grimage  the  population  is  increased  to  40,000, 
and  sometimes  to  60,000,  about  120,000  pilgrims 
for  Mecca  and  Medina  passing  through  it  annu 
ally.  Of  the  ordinary  population,  about  1,000 
are  British-Indian  subjects,  a  number  of  whom 
are  wealthy  merchants.  There  are  also  many 
Egyptians  and  a  few  Greeks,  and  several  Eng 
lish  and  French  merchants.  The  industry  of 
the  natives  consists  of  fishing,  diving  for  black 
coral,  which  is  found  for  only  a  short  distance 
along  the  coast,  the  manufacturing  it  into  beads 
and  mouth-pieces  for  pipes  and  cigars,  and  the 
dyeing  of  English  cotton  cloths.  The  trade 
of  Jidd.'ih,  which  is  very  large,  is  carried  on 
chiefly  by  square-rigged  British  vessels,  the  ves 
sels  of  tlie  Mejidie  steam  company,  and  native 
coasting  vessels  averaging  about  80  tons  bur 
den.  The  exports  are  coffee,  gum,  spices, 


balm,  incense,  essences,  senna,  cassia,  ivory, 
mother-of-pearl,  pearls,  tortoise  shell,  ostrich 
feathers,  coral,  dates,  cutlery,  hardware,  and 
leather.  The  imports  are  provisions,  including 
grain,  from  Egypt;  metals,  glass,  bottles  for 
essences,  cutlery,  soaps,  cloths,  silks,  and  cot 
tons,  from  Europe;  rice,  sugar,  timber,  nan 
keens,  muslin  for  turbans,  and  girdles,  from  In 
dia  ;  elephants'  teeth,  ostrich  feathers,  musk, 
mules,  and  slaves,  from  Africa.  A  brisk  trade 
is  still  carried  on  in  slaves,  the  most  of  whom 
are  Abyssinians ;  they  are  landed  at  night  along 
the  shore,  and  carried  into  the  city  in  the 
morning  with  the  connivance  of  the  Turkish 
authorities,  with  whom  the  firman  of  the  sul 
tan  for  the  suppression  of  the  traffic  is  a  dead 
letter.  Jiddah  was  bombarded  in  1858  by  the 
British  in  retaliation  for  the  massacre  of  the 
British  consul  and  a  number  of  Christians. 
JIHOOtf.  See  Oxus. 

JOAB,  a  Hebrew  warrior,  "captain  of  the 
host "  (generalissimo  of 
the  army)  during  the 
greater  part  of  David's 
reign,  died  about  1015 
B.  C.  In  the  reign  of 
Saul  he  accompanied 
David  on  his  wander 
ings  in  the  southern 
part  of  Palestine  and 
its  vicinity,  and  after 
Saul's  death  he  defeat 
ed  the  troops  of  Abner, 
who  supported  Ishbo- 
sheth,  the  son  of  that 
king,  as  successor,  and 
whom  he  assassinated 
after  he  became  recon 
ciled  to  David.  His 
valor  in  the  assault  on 
the  fortress  of  Zion, 
held  by  the  Jebusites, 
gained  him  the  chief 
command  of  the  army 
of  all  Israel,  and  he  had 
the  principal  merit  in  the  conquests  of  his  mas 
ter.  He 'adhered  faithfully  to  the  king  during 
the  revolt  of  Absalom.  When,  in  order  to  con 
ciliate  the  powerful  rebellious  party,  the  com 
mand  of  the  host  was  given  to  Amasa,  who 
had  been  Absalom's  general,  Joab  soon  rid  him 
self  of  this  rival  by  murdering  him.  David 
was  obliged  to  overlook  the  murders  of  Abner 
and  Amasa,  but  before  dying  gave  strict  direc 
tions  to  his  son  Solomon  to  put  Joab  to  death. 
Shortly  before  the  death  of  David  he  partici 
pated  in  the  unsuccessful  demonstration  in  fa 
vor  of  the  natural  heir  Adonijah,  and  afterward 
fled  for  refuge  to  the  altar,  where  he  was  put 
to  death  by  command  of  the  new  king.  His 
brothers  Abishai  and  Asahel  were  also  con 
spicuous  as  military  leaders  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  history  of  David. 

JOACHIM,  king  of  Naples.     See  MURAT. 
JOACHIM,  Joseph,  a  German  violinist,    born 
of  Jewish  parents  at  Kittsee,  near  Presburg, 


JOACHIMSTHAL  , 


JOAtf  OF  ARC 


641 


Hungary,  July  15,  1831.  He  received  his 
first  instruction  on  the  violin  from  Helmes- 
berger  and  Bohm  at  the  Vienna  conservatory. 
So  rapid  was  his  progress  that  he  Avas  permit 
ted  to  play  when  only  11  years  of  age  at  a 
Gewandhaus  concert  in  Leipsic.  He  performed 
at  Leipsic  during  many  succeeding  seasons,  and 
always  with  indications  of  progress  and  increas 
ing  talent.  In  1850  he  accepted,  at  the  solici 
tation  of  Liszt,  the  post  of  concert  master  at 
Weimar.  Three  years  later  he  exchanged  this 
situation  for  a  similar  one  at  Hanover,  where 
he  still  resides.  He  makes  frequent  visits  to 
England,  Holland,  and  Belgium,  and  occupies 
perhaps  the  foremost  rank  among  living  violin 
ists.  His  chief  points  of  excellence  as  a  per 
former  are  purity  and  fulness  of  tone,  perfect 
intonation,  absolute  mastery  of  all  the  tech 
nical  difficulties  of  the  instrument,  and  the 
closest  sympathy  with  the  classical  composers 
whose  works  he  interprets.  His  reluctance  to 
appear  in  public  has  led  to  his  declining  all 
offers  for  a  concert  tour  in  the  United  States. 
He  has  composed  both  for  violin  and  orchestra, 
but  his  fame  rests  on  his  qualities  as  a  player 
rather  than  on  the  merits  of  his  compositions. 

JOACHIMSTHAL,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  the 
circle  of  Eger,  near  the  frontier  of  Saxony,  and 
10  m.  N".  of  Carlsbad ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,566.  It  is 
situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  of  the  Erzgebirge, 
more  than  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  edu 
cational  institutions  include  schools  for  straw 
plaiting  and  lace  making.  "White  lead,  red  lead, 
smalt,  and  paper  are  also  manufactured.  But 
the  celebrity  of  the  town  is  mainly  due  to  its 
lead,  tin,  iron,  and  silver  mines.  The  last  em 
ployed  12,000  men  in  the  16th  century,  but  the 
production  has  since  much  declined.  The  term 
TJtalcr  derives  its  origin  from  this  place,  where 
the  counts  Schlick,  who  were  the  local  rulers 
early  in  the  16th  century,  had  Gulden groscli en 
coined,  which  became  known  as  Joachimstha- 
ler,  and  afterward  as  thaler.  In  the  neighbor 
hood  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Freuden- 
stein.  The  town  was  almost  completely  de 
stroyed  by  a  conflagration  March  31, 1873.  The 
fine  church  of  St.  Joachim  was  burned,  with 
celebrated  pictures  by  Diirer  and  Cranach; 
nearly  450  of  the  586  houses  were  burned,  and 
5,000  persons  were  rendered  houseless.  The 
rebuilding  of  the  town  was  at  once  commenced. 

JOAN,  Pope,  a  fictitious  female  personage  who 
was  long  supposed  to  have  succeeded  Leo  IV. 
in  the  papal  chair  in  855,  and  to  have  occu 
pied  it  over  two  years.  The  first  who  men 
tions  her  is  Marianus  Scotus,  a  monk  of  the 
abbey  of  Fulda  in  the  llth  century.  According 
to  Martinus  Polonus,  a  chronicler  of  the  13th 
century,  Joan  was  a  native  of  Mentz,  who 
went  with  an  English  lover  to  Rome  in  the 
disguise  of  a  man,  and,  having  become  pro 
ficient  in  sacred  and  profane  learning,  was 
chosen  to  the  papacy  under  the  name  of  John 
VIII.,  no  suspicion  being  had  of  her  sex.  She 
was  seized  with  the  pains  of  labor  one  day 
while  passing  in  procession  to  the  Late  ran  ba 


silica,  and  died  in  the  street.  This  story  was 
interpolated  into  the  work  of  Anastasius,  who 
lived  at  the  time  of  her  supposed  reign,  and 
some  critics  contend  that  it  is  even  wanting  in 
the  earlier  copies  of  Martinus  Polonus.  It  was 
completely  disproved  by  David  Blondel,  a  Prot 
estant  writer,  in  his  Familier  eclaircissement 
de  la  question  si  unefemme  a  ete  assise  au  siege 
papal  entre  Leon  IV.  et  Benoit  III.  (Amster 
dam,  1649)  ;  and  it  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  no  such  person  as  Pope  Joan  ever  existed. 
JOAN  OF  ARC  (JEANNE  D'ARC),  known  as 
La  Pucelle  and  "the  Maid  of  Orleans,"  a 
French  heroine,  born  at  Domremy  (now  called 
from  her  Domremy-la-Pucelle),  in  Lorraine, 
about  1411,  burned  at  the  stake  in  Rouen, 
May  31,  1431.  She  was  the  fifth  child  of 
poor  parents,  whose  family  name  was  probably 
Dare.  She  received  no  instruction,  but  was 
accustomed  to  out-of-door  duties,  such  as  the 
tending  of  sheep  and  the  riding  of  horses  to  and 
from  the  watering  place.  The  neighborhood 
of  Domremy  abounded  in  superstitions,  and  at 
the  same  time  sympathized  with  the  Orleans 
party  in  the  divisions  which  rent  the  kingdom 
of  France.  Jeanne  shared  both  in  the  politi 
cal  excitement  and  the  religious  enthusiasm ; 
imaginative  and  devout,  she  loved  to  meditate 
on  the  legends  of  the  Virgin,  and  especially,  it 
seems,  dwelt  upon  a  current  prophecy  that  a 
virgin  should  relieve  France  of  her  enemies. 
At  the  age  of  13  she  began  to  believe  herself 
the  subject  of  supernatural  visitations,  spoke  of 
voices  that  she  heard  and  visions  that  she  saw, 
and  a  few  years  later  was  possessed  by  the  idea 
that  she  was  called  to  deliver  her  country  and 
crown  her  king.  An  outrage  upon  her  native 
village  by  some  roving  Burgundians  raised  this 
belief  to  a  purpose ;  her  "  voices  "  importuned 
her  to  enter  upon  her  mission  by  applying  to 
Baudricourt,  governor  of  Vaucouleurs;  and 
this,  by  the  aid  of  an  uncle,  she  did  in  May, 
1428.  The  governor,  after  some  delay,  granted 
her  an  audience,  but  treated  her  pretensions 
with  such  scorn  that  she  returned  to  her  uncle. 
The  fortunes  of  the  dauphin,  however,  were 
desperate,  and  Baudricourt,  pressed  by  her  en 
treaties,  sent  her  to  Chinon,  where  Charles 
held  his  court.  Introduced  into  a  crowd  of 
courtiers  from  whom  the  king  was  undis 
tinguished,  she  is  said  to  have  singled  him  out 
at  once.  Her  claims  were  submitted  to  a  se 
vere  scrutiny.  Xo  evidence  indicating  that 
she  was  a  dealer  in  the  black  art,  and  the  fact 
of  her  virginity  removing  all  suspicions  of  her 
being  under  satanic  influence,  her  wish  to  lead 
the  army  of  her  king  was  granted.  A  suit  of 
armor  was  made  for  her,  and  a  consecrated 
sword  Avhich  she  described  as  buried  in  the 
church  of  St.  Catharine  at  Ficrbois  was  brought 
and  placed  in  her  hands.  Thus  equipped,  she 
put  herself  at  the  head  of  10,000  troops  com 
manded  by  royal  officers,  threw  herself  upon 
the  English  who  were  besieging  Orleans,  rout 
ed  them,  and  in  a  week  forced  them  to  raise 
the  siege  (May,  1429).  Other  exploits  followed. 


642 


JOAN  OF  ARC 


JOANNA 


The  presence  of  the  virgin  with  her  consecra 
ted  banner  struck  a  panic  into  the  souls  of  her 
enemies.  In  less  than  three  months  Charles 
was  crowned  king  at  Rheims,  the  maid  of  Or 
leans  standing  in  full  armor  at  his  side.  Her 
promised  work  was  done.  Dunois,  however, 
unwilling  to  lose  her  influence,  urged  her  to  re 
main  with  the  army,  and  she  did  so ;  but  her 
victories  were  over.  In  an  attack  on  Paris  in 
the  early  winter  she  was  repulsed  and  wound 
ed.  In  the  spring  of  the  next  year  (1430)  she 
threw  herself  into  Compiegne,  then  beleaguer 
ed  by  the  English ;  made  a  sortie  in  which  she 
was  taken  prisoner  (May  24),  and  was  at  once 
carried  to  Jean  de  Luxembourg's  fortress  at 
Beaurevoir.  An  attempt  to  escape  by  leaping 
from  a  dungeon  wall  was  unsuccessful,  and 
she  was  taken  to  Rouen.  The  university  of 
Paris  demanded  that  she  should  be  tried  on  a 
charge  of  sorcery,  and  solicited  letters  patent 
from  the  king  of  England,  which  were  reluc 
tantly  granted.  The  chapter  at  Rouen  were 
rather  favorably  disposed  toward  her ;  many 
of  the  English  in  authority  were  unwilling  to 
proceed  to  extremities ;  but  the  university  of 
Paris  prevailed.  The  examination  lasted  seve 
ral  months,  and  resulted  in  a  conviction  of  sor 
cery.  The  papers  were  sent  from  Rouen  to 
Paris,  and  the  verdict  of  the  university  was 
unanimous  that  such  acts  and  sentiments  as 
hers  were  diabolical,  and  merited  the  punish 
ment  of  fire.  Sentence  of  condemnation  was 
read  to  her  publicly  by  the  bishop  of  Beauvais, 
and  the  alternative  offered  of  the  stake  or  sub 
mission  to  the  church.  The  terrified  girl  made 
a  recantation,  and  was  taken  back  to  prison. 
Here  her  visions  returned.  A  man's  apparel 
being  left  in  her  cell  to  tempt  her,  she  put  it 
on  ;  the  bishop  seized  upon  the  act  as  a  virtual 
relapse  into  her  old  unbelief,  and  hastened  the 
execution  of  the  first  sentence.  A  huge  pile 
of  wood  was  erected  in  the  market  place  of 
Rouen,  and,  surrounded  by  a  vast  assembly  of 
soldiers  and  ecclesiastics,  'Joan  of  Arc  was 
burned,  and  her  ashes  were  thrown  into  the 
Seine.  The  infamy  of  this  transaction  lies 
heavily  upon  all  concerned  in  it.  The  French 
king  did  nothing  to  avenge  her,  and  waited  ten 
years  before  he  reversed  the  process  by  which 
she  was  condemned,  and  pronounced  her  "  a 
martyr  to  her  religion,  her  country,  and  her 
king."  The  character  of  the  "  Maid  of  Or 
leans  "  was  spotless.  She  was  distinguished 
for  her  purity,  innocence,  and  modesty.  Her 
hand  never  shed  blood.  The  gentle  dignity  of 
her  bearing  impressed  all  who  knew  her,  and 
restrained  the  brutality  of  her  soldiers.  The 
cottage  in  which  she  was  born  still  stands  be 
tween  two  buildings,  founded  as  a  monument 
to  her  by  the  department  of  the  Vosgcs ;  it 
contains  a  copy  of  the  beautiful  statue  by  Marie 
d'Orleans,  daughter  of  Louis  Philippe.  The 
place  where  she  was  captured  was  indicated 
by  a  ruined  tower  which  fell  down  in  1868 ;  and 
the  spot  of  her  execution  in  the  place  de  la 
Pucelle,  Rouen,  is  marked  by  a  mean  statue.  A 


fine  statue  of  her  was  unveiled  in  Paris,  in  the 
place  des  Pyramides,  Feb.  25,  1873. — Among 
the  French  authors  who  have  written  the  life  of 
Joan  of  Arc  are  Lenglet  du  Fresnoy  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1753-'4),  Lebrun  de  Charmettes  (3  vols., 
1817),  Barthelemy  de  Beauregard  (2  vols., 
1847),  Michelet  (1853),  Lafontaine  (Orleans, 
1854),  Villaume1  (Paris,  1863),  and  Barante 
(1865).  The  best  German  life  is  by  Eysell 
(Ratisbon,  1864).  The  best  English  works  are 
by  Lord  Mahon  (now  Earl  Stanhope),  "  Life 
of  Joan  of  Arc "  (London,  1853),  and  Mrs. 
Bray,  "  Joan  of  Arc  and  the  Times  of  Charles 
VII.,  King  of  France"  (1874).  See  also 
Quicherat,  Proces  de  condamnation  ct  de  re 
habilitation  de  Jeanne  d^Arc  (published  by  the 
French  historical  society,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1841- 
'50),  and  his  Apercus  nouvelles  sur  I'histoire  de 
Jeanne  (PArc  (1850).  Among  the  poems  and 
dramas  founded  on  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
the  most  noteworthy  are  Voltaire's  travesty 
La  Pucelle,  Southey's  "Joan  of  Arc,"  Schil 
ler's  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  and  Calvert's 
"Maid  of  Orleans  "  (1874). 

JOANES,  Vicente.     See  JUAXES. 

JOANNA.  I.  Queen  of  Naples,  daughter  of 
Charles,  duke  of  Calabria,  and  granddaughter  of 
Robert  of  Anjou,  born  about  1327,  put  to  death 
at  the  fortress  of  Muro,  in  the  province  of  Ba- 
silicata,  May  22,  1382.  An  attempt  was  made 
by  her  father  to  secure  harmony  between  the 
two  branches  of  the  Anjou  family  which  had 
claims  to  the  Neapolitan  throne,  by  marrying 
Joanna  when  about  seven  years  old  to  her  sec 
ond  cousin  Andrew  of  Hungary ;  but  the  plan 
proved  an  entire  failure.  As  the  young  couple 
grew  up  the  most  bitter  enmity  arose  between 
them,  and  was  constantly  encouraged  by  the 
opposing  parties  among  their  relatives.  Duke 
Charles  died  before  his  father  Robert,  and 
Joanna  therefore  directly  succeeded  the  latter 
on  his  death  in  1343.  Her  court  speedily  di 
vided  into  two  factions,  taking  sides  respec 
tively  with  the  queen  and  her  husband ;  and 
two  years  of  intense  hostility  terminated,  in 
September,  1345,  in  the  assassination  of  the 
king  by  a  party  of  conspirators  who  enticed 
him  from  his  room  and  strangled  him  in  a  cor 
ridor  of  the  palace.  Joanna  seems  to  have 
deserved  the  accusation  universally  brought 
against  her,  of  having  inspired  and  directed 
this  plot  down  to  its  smallest  details ;  though 
the  story  of  the  old  chroniclers  that  she  wove 
the  rope  of  gold  thread  with  which  Andrew 
was  strangled  is  probably  exaggerated.  Short 
ly  after  the  death  of  her  husband  she  married 
her  relative  and  supposed  paramour,  Louis  of 
Taranto,  without  obtaining  a  papal  dispensa 
tion.  Louis  the  Great  of  Hungary,  anxious  for 
an  opportunity  to  avenge  his  brother's  death, 
made  this  his  pretext,  and  in  1347  invaded  the 
Neapolitan  territory.  Joanna,  unprepared  for 
defence,  fled  to  Avignon,  then  the  residence  of 
the  popes ;  but  here  she  was  summoned  before 
a  consistory  and  charged  with  the  murder  of 
her  husband.  She  escaped  the  prosecution  of 


JOANNA 


JOB 


this  charge  by  consenting  to  cede  Avignon  to 
the  holy  see  for  a  permanent  possession,  on 
payment  of  80,000  gold  tiorins,  and  on  condi 
tion  that  the  pope  should  formally  proclaim 
her  innocence  and  the  validity  of  her  new  mar 
riage.  In  the  mean  time  the  king  of  Hungary 
retired  from  Naples,  leaving  a  strong  garrison 
behind  him  ;  and  this  was  soon  after  removed, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  pope.  Louis  of 
Taranto  died  in  1362,  and  Joanna  married  in 
1363  James  of  Aragon,  king  of  Majorca,  who 
left  her  soon  after  and  returned  to  his  home  in 
Spain,  where  lie  died  in  1376.  Joanna  now 
married  a  fourth  husband,  Otho  of  Brunswick, 
and  by  this  gave  offence  to  Duke  Charles  of 
Durazzo,  whose  wife  was  heir  presumptive  to 
the  throne.  In  1378,  when  the  rival  popes 
Clement  VII.  and  Urban  VI.  contested  the 
papal  see,  Joanna  declared  for  Clement.  Ur 
ban  in  revenge  immediately  summoned  the 
duke  of  Durazzo  and  proclaimed  his  right  to 
the  throne  of  Naples.  Acting  under  the  ad 
vice  of  Clement,  Joanna  made  a  special  will, 
making  the  second  son  of  the  king  of  France 
her  heir,  and  entirely  disinheriting  the  duke 
and  his  wife.  These  events  gave  Charles  of 
Durazzo  the  pretext  for  which  he  had  long 
wished.  He  invaded  Joanna's  territory,  met 
with  little  opposition  from  the  people,  ad 
vanced  to  Naples,  captured  the  queen  in  the 
castle,  and  sent  her  a  prisoner  to  Muro.  Here 
she  was  placed  at  the  disposition  of  the  king 
of  Hungary,  who  ordered  her  immediate  exe 
cution.  She  was  smothered  with  pillows,  in 
revenge  for  the  method  of  Andrew's  assassina 
tion.  II.  Queen  of  Naples,  grandniece  of  the 
preceding,  and  daughter  of  Duke  Charles  of  Du 
razzo,  born  about  1370,  died  in  1435.  Married 
when  young  to  William  of  Austria,  and  several 
years  after  left  a  widow,  she  succeeded  her 
brother  Ladislas  in  1414.  Since  her  husband's 
death  she  had  maintained  a  secret  connection 
with  Count  Pandolfello  Alopo,  and  this  she 
now  continued  without  attempt  at  conceal 
ment,  appointing  her  favorite  to  the  highest 
offices  and  giving  him  virtual  control  of  the 
affairs  of  the  kingdom.  She  was  finally  per 
suaded  by  her  councillors,  however,  to  marry 
again,  and  chose  as  her  husband  Jacques  de 
Bourbon,  count  of  La  Marche.  Joanna's  mar 
riage  did  not  put  an  end  to  her  dissolute  man 
ner  of  life;  and  her  husband,  detecting  her 
infidelity,  rid  the  court  of  her  favorites,  had 
Pandolfello  publicly  beheaded,  and  sent  the 
queen  into  retirement.  An  apparent  recon 
ciliation  soon  followed,  but  Joanna  was  no 
sooner  allowed  to  resume  her  place  at  court 
than  she  succeeded  by  a  stratagem  in  impris 
oning  her  husband  in  one  of  the  Neapolitan 
forts,  from  which  he  escaped  with  difficulty 
only  to  retire  from  the  country,  and  to  enter 
a  monastery  in  Burgundy.  The  rule  of  favor 
ites  now  began  again,  and  the  history  of  her 
reign  for  some  years  is  little  more  than  a  rec 
ord  of  intrigues,  which,  with  the  hatred  of 
the  people  throughout  the  kingdom,  gave  rise 


to  constant  feuds  at  court  and  insurrections  in 
the  country.  The  strife  of  parties  was  aug 
mented  by  the  conflicts  between  Louis  III.  of 
Anjou  and  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  who  claimed 
the  succession  to  the  throne.  Joanna  decided 
first  for  Alfonso,  and  then  reversed  her  deci 
sion,  and  on  Louis  III.'s  death  changed  her 
choice  to  another  member  of  the  Anjou  house. 
Alfonso,  however,  was  able  to  seize  the  throne, 
to  which  he  succeeded  in  spite  of  his  testa 
mentary  exclusion. 

JOANNES,  Island  of.     See  MAEAJ6. 

JOANNY,  a  French  actor,  whose  real  name  was 
JEAN  BAPTISTE  BERNARD  BRISSEBAXE,  born  in 
Dijon,  July  2,  1775,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  5, 1849. 
He  was  a  royal  page,  a  student  of  art,  a  soldier, 
and  a  clerk  in  the  civil  service,  before  he  ap 
peared  on  the  stage  in  1797,  where  he  acquired 
a  reputation  next  to  that  of  Talma,  whom  he 
succeeded  at  the  Comedie  Frangalse  in  1826. 
Pie  excelled  in  personating  Corneille's  old  Eo- 
mans,  and  in  Othello  and  kindred  parts ;  and 
Victor  Hugo  ascribed  the  success  of  his  play 
Le  roi  s* amuse  to  his  acting.  He  retired  in 
1841,  and  published  poetry  and  prose  writings. 

JOB,  Book  of,  one  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  so  called  from  the  name 
of  the  patriarch  whose  history  it  contains.  Ac 
cording  to  the  narrative  contained  in  the  in 
troductory  chapter,  Job  dwelt  in  the  land  of 
Uz  (probably  in  the  northern  part  of  Arabia 
Deserta),  was  a  man  of  eminent  probity  and 
piety,  blessed  with  great  riches  in  camels, 
sheep,  and  cattle,  and  highly  reputed  among 
the  surrounding  people.  But  God  permitted 
Satan  to  put  his  virtue  to  the  test.  His  oxen 
were  stolen  by  the  Sabceans,  his  sheep  were 
consumed  by  fire  from  heaven,  his  camels  were 
carried  away  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  his  sons 
and  daughters  perished  amid  the  ruins  of  a  house 
overthrown  by  a  whirlwind.  He  bore  these  ca 
lamities  without  repining,  saying:  '"The  Lord 
gave,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away ;  blessed 
be  the  name  of  the  Lord."  Then  Satan  was 
permitted  to  afflict  his  person.  He  was  smitten 
with  a  terrible  disease,  and  his  wife  counselled 
him  to  "curse  God,  and  die"  (properly  ren 
dered,  according  to  Gesenius  and  others,  "bless 
God ").  Three  friends,  Eliphaz,  Bildad,  and 
Zophar,  informed  of  his  misfortunes,  came  to 
console  him.  The  book  consists  chiefly  of  dis 
cussions  between  Job  and  his  consolers  on  the 
question :  Why  do  the  righteous  suffer  ?  The 
burden  of  their  argument,  which  is  afterward 
taken  up  with  some  variation  by  another 
friend,  Elihu,  is  that  calamities  are  in  propor 
tion  to  sins,  and  that  Job  must  have  been 
guilty  of  great  transgressions,  or  he  would  not 
be  made  to  suffer  so  severely.  They  therefore 
admonish  him  to  confess  and  repent  of  the 
guilt  of  which  by  his  misfortunes  he  stands 
convicted.  Job  maintains,  in  opposition,  that 
his  afflictions  are  greater  than  his  faults,  that 
upright  men  are  sometimes  greatly  afflicted, 
that  God's  justice  does  not  always  appear  in 
the  government  of  the  world,  and  that  he  some- 


JOBBE-DUVAL 


JOB'S  TEAES 


times  seems  to  act  arbitrarily,  as  absolute  Lord. 
At  the  conclusion  the  Lord  himself  addresses 
Job  out  of  a  whirlwind,  condemning  both  his 
presumption  in  daring  to  criticise  the  Omnipo 
tent,  of  whose  ways  he  knows  so  little,  and  the 
false  reasoning  of  his  friends,  who  endeavored 
to  vindicate  Providence  by  accusing  an  inno 
cent  sufferer.  Job  acknowledges  his  nothing 
ness,  and  is  amply  rewarded  for  his  constancy. 
Of  the  author  of  this  book  nothing  is  known, 
and  its  age  is  variously  estimated.  Formerly 
it  was  generally  believed,  from  the  archaic 
character  of  its  diction  and  descriptions,  to  be 
one  of  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  canon, 
and  to  have  been  originally  written  in  old  He 
brew  or  perhaps  in  Arabic.  More  recent  ex 
positors,  as  Gesenius,  Umbreit,  and  De  Wette, 
glace  it  in  the  time  of  the  Chaldean  exile, 
chlottmann,  Delitzsch,  and  others  refer  it  to 
the  age  of  Solomon,  or  a  still  later  one.  In 
poetic  sublimity  the  book  is  surpassed  by  no 
other  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  in  vigor 
of  expression  hardly  equalled  by  any.  Many 
of  its  passages,  however,  are  exceedingly  ob 
scure. — The  book  of  Job  has  been  treated  by 
many  authors,  among  whom  are  De  Pineda, 
(Commentarii,  Madrid,  1597-1601,  and  later 
editions  in  Cologne,  Antwerp,  Venice,  Paris, 
and  Lyons),  Schultens  (1737),  Umbreit  (1824 ; 
English  translation,  Edinburgh,  1836-'7),  Ro- 
senmuller  (1824),  Ewald  (1836),  Lee  (1837), 
Hirzel  (1839;  new  ed.,  1864),  Heiligstedt 
(1847),  Halm  (1849),  Noyes  (1850 ;  new  ed., 
1867),  Schlottmann  (1851),  Hengstenberg 
(1856;  new  ed.,  1870),  Conant  (1856),  Eb- 
rard(1858),  Kenan  (1859-'60),  Delitzsch  (1864; 
English  translation,  Edinburgh,  1866),  David 
son  (1862),  Merx  (1870),  Hitzig  (1874),  and 
Green  (Xew  York,  1874). 

JOBBE-MVAL,  Armand  Marie  Felix,  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Carhaix,  Finistere,  in  1825.  He 
studied  under  Delaroche,  and  became  known  as 
a  genre,  portrait,  and  religious  painter  of  the  so- 
called  Neo-Greek  school,  excelling  by  his  deli 
cate  treatment  of  his  subjects.  He  was  adjunct 
mayor  of  Paris  in  1870-'71,  but  resigned  shortly 
after  the  installation  of  the  commune,  and  sub 
sequently  became  one  of  the  municipal  coun 
cillors.  Among  the  best  known  of  his  numer 
ous  works  are  "  The  Painting  of  the  Virgin  " 
(1849),  "The  Toilet  of  a  Bride"  (1857),  "The 
Jews  expelled  from  Spain  "  (1857),  and  paint 
ings  of  the  life  of  St.  Francis  for  the  Paris 
church  of  Saint  Louis  en  1'lle  (1864). 

JOBERT,  Antoiue  Joseph,  a  French  physician, 
known  as  Jobert  de  Lamballe,  born  in  Brittany 
in  1799  or  1802,  died  in  Paris,  April  22,  1867. 
He  took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  in  1828,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  surgeons 
of  Paris,  his  new  operations  in  diseases  of 
the  womb  and  his  process  of  intussusception 
being  generally  adopted.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  became  insane.  The  French  in 
stitute,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  awarded 
a  purse  of  2,000  francs  to  his  Traite  theorique 
et  pratique  des  maladies  cMrurgicales  du  canal 


intestinal  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1829).  His  other 
works  relate  to  his  specialty  of  uterine  dis 
eases  and  his  process  of  intestinal  intussuscep 
tion  (invagination  intestinale),  including  Traite 
de  chirurgie  plastique  (2  vols.,  1849),  with  a 
sequel,  Traitement  des  fistules  vesico-vaginales 
(1  vol.,  1852) ;  Des  appareils  electriques  et  des 
poissons  electriques  (1858)  ;  and  De  la  reunion 
en  chirurgie  (1864). 

JOB'S  TEARS,  the  fruit  of  a  grass  which  has 
long  been  in  use  in  Catholic  countries  for  the 


Job's  Tears. 

beads  of  rosaries.  This  grass,  coix  lacliryma, 
is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  was  former-, 
ly  treated  as  a  greenhouse 
plant ;  it  will  flourish  in  the 
open  air  in  the  climate  of 
New  York ;  and  as  its  seeds 
retain  their  vitality  during 
the  winter,  numerous  self- 
sown  plants  spring  up  where 
the  plant  stood  the  year  be 
fore.  It  grows  2  or  3  ft. 
high,  and  before  flowering 
has  much  the  appearance  of 
Indian  corn ;  each  root  pro 
duces  numerous  stems  and 
forms  a  large  clump.  The 
flowers  are  borne  at  the  sum 
mit  of  the  stems  in  a  simple 
spike  or  branching  panicle, 
and  are  monoecious ;  their 
structure  is  quite  unlike  that 
of  most  grasses;  the  pistil 
late  flower  is  enclosed  by  an 
egg-shaped  involucre,  from 
an  orifice  in  the  apex  of 
which  appears  a  slender  stem 
which  bears  several  stami- 
nnte  flowers ;  the  stigmas  of 
the  flowers  are  protruded 
beyond  the  opening  in  the 
involucre  to  be  fertilized; 
when  this  has  taken  place  the  staminate  flowers 
fall  away,  and  the  formerly  herbaceous  involucre 


Flower  Spike. 


JO  DAVIESS 


JOGUES 


645 


becomes  of  a  very  hard  and  bony  texture.  When 
ripe  the  involucre  is  of  the  size  of  a  large  pea, 
somewhat  pear-shaped,  pearly  white  or  of  some 
shade  of  gray,  with  a  hard  enamelled  surface. 
These  involucres,  or  seeds  as  they  are  popularly 
regarded,  were  formerly,  on  account  of  their 
stony  appearance,  supposed  to  be  useful  as 
remedies  for  gravel  and  stone  in  the  bladder, 
and  are  found  in  the  works  of  the  old  herbalists 
as  lachryma  Jobi ;  the  Chinese  still  regard 
them  as  medicinal,  but  they  are  not  recognized 
by  modern  pharmacopoeias.  Their  principal 
use,  as  beads,  has  been  already  mentioned ;  in 
some  countries  they  are  made  up  into  neck 
laces,  chaplets,  and  other  personal  ornaments. 
The  plant  is  of  the  easiest  culture.  The  seeds 
may  be  sown  in  place  after  the  soil  is  warmed, 
or  they  may  be  sown  under  glass  and  be  trans 
planted  afterward.  When  loaded  with  its 
ripened  tears,  the  plant  is  an  interesting  if  not 
highly  ornamental  occupant  of  the  border. 

JO  DAVIESS,  the  N.  W.  county  of  Illinois, 
bordering  on  Wisconsin,  and  separated  from 
Iowa  by  the  Mississippi  river  ;  area,  G50  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  27,820.  The  surface  is  moderately 
uneven,  and  the  soil  is  fertile  and  watered  by 
numerous  small  streams-.  The  county  abounds 
in  lead  ore,  and  also  contains  copper.  The 
Mineral  Point  and  Illinois  Central  railroads 
pass  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  283,613  bushels  of  wheat,  1,286,326 
of  Indian  corn,  874,016  of  oats,  201,015  of 
potatoes,  66,650  Ibs.  of  wool,  32,476  of  flax, 
655,681  of  butter,  and  34,372  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  8,528  horses,  10,309  milch  cows, 
18,329  other  cattle,  17,517  sheep,  and  34,591 
swine  ;  4  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple 
ments,  17  of  carriages,  3  of  pig  lead,  3  of  ma 
chinery,  2  of  marble  and  stone  work,  10  of  sad 
dlery  and  harness,  9  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  3  of  woollen  goods,  2  flour  mills, 
and  7  breweries.  Capital,  Galena. 

JODE,  Pietcr  de,  the  elder,  a  Flemish  engra 
ver,  born  in  Antwerp  in  1570,  died  in  1634. 
He  engraved  at  Venice  Titian's  u  Virgin  and 
Child,"  and  other  works,  and  executed  in  Paris 
one  of  the  largest  prints  known,  after  Jean 
Cousin's  "  Last  Judgment,"  which  is  in  the 
Louvre.  After  his  return  to  Antwerp  he  pro 
duced  many  other  fine  works,  his  "  Christ  giv 
ing  the  Keys  to  St.  Peter,"  after  Rubens,  being 
his  masterpiece. — His  son  PIETER  the  younger 
also  engraved  many  works  after  Vandyke,  Ru 
bens,  and  others. 

JODELLE,  Eticnnc,  sieur  de  Lymodin,  a  French 
dramatic  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1532,  died  there 
in  July,  1573.  He  published  sonnets  and  odes 
at  the  age  of  17,  and  endeavored  to  replace 
the  mysteries  and  moralities  by  imitations  of 
the  Greek  drama  with  choruses.  His  tragedy 
Cleopdtre  captire  (1552)  achieved  a  brilliant 
success,  despite  its  tediousness,  he  himself  per 
sonating  Cleopatra ;  and  his  tragedy  Lidon  and 
comedy  Eugene,  on  Id  rencontre,  were  very 
popular.  He  was  also  known  as  an  orator, 
architect,  painter,  and  sculptor.  His  collected 


works  appeared  in  1574;  the  best  edition  is 
that  of  Lyons,  1597. 

JOEL,  the  second  of  the  twelve  Hebrew 
minor  prophets,  son  of  Pethuel.  By  some 
critics  he  is  supposed  to  have  prophesied  in  the 
reign  of  Uzziah,  between  about  800  and  780 
B.  C. ;  while  according  to  Credner,  Movers, 
Hitzig,  and  Meier,  he  lived  in  the  early  time 
of  King  Joash,  and  according  to  Hilgenfeld 
at  the  time  of  the  Persian  supremacy,  shortly 
before  the  arrival  of  Ezra.  The  historical 
background  seems,  however,  to  determine  the 
date  of  the  prophecy.  There  is  no  mention  of 
a  king,  and  all  is  controlled  by  the  ministers 
of  religion,  pointing  to  the  minority  of  Joash 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  high  priest  Je- 
hoiada,  about  870 ;  and  the  absence  of  Assyr 
ians  in  the  enumeration  of  foreign  enemies 
favors  this  early  date.  The  book  of  Joel  be 
gins  with  announcing  an  extraordinary  plague 
of  locusts  accompanied  by  drought.  This 
is  followed  by  promises  of  the  divine  for 
giveness,  of  the  restoration  of  the  land  to  its 
former  fertility,  of  spiritual  blessings,  and  of 
the  divine  vengeance  on  the  enemies  of  the 
chosen  people.  His  descriptions  rank,  in  sub 
limity,  vividness,  and  purity  of  style,  among 
the  finest  passages  of  Hebrew  poetry.  Among 
the  more  important  commentators  are  Pocock 
(Oxford,  1691,  and  in  Latin,  Leipsic,  1695), 
Van  Toll  (Utrecht,  1700),  Rosenmiiller  (Leip 
sic,  1836),  Credner  (Halle,  1831),  Meier  (Tubin 
gen,  1841),  and  Umbreit  (Hamburg,  1844)  ;  be 
sides  the  works  on  the  minor  prophets  by  Hen 
derson  (London,  1845),  Hitzig  (1852),  and  Pu- 
sey  (Oxford,  1861),  and  Ewald  on  the  Old 
Testament  prophets  (2d  ed.,  Gottingen,  1867). 

JOGl'ES,  Isaac,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary, 
born  in  Orleans,  Jan.  10,  1607,  killed  by  the 
Mohawks  at  Caughnawaga,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  18, 
1646.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at 
Rouen  in  1624,  spent  some  years  in  teaching, 
studied  theology  in  Paris,  and  was  ordained  in 
1636.  He  had  earnestly  sought  a  foreign  mis 
sion,  and  was  sent  to  Canada,  reaching  Que 
bec  July  2.  He  proceeded  at  once  to  the  Hu 
ron  country  by  the  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Ottawa,  and  labored  among  the  Hurons 
and  Dinondadies  under  great  danger  and  priva 
tions  for  several  years.  In  1642,  with  Father 
Raymbault,  he  penetrated  westward  to  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  where  a  number  of  Algonquin  tribes 
were  convened.  He  then  accompanied  a  party 
of  Ilurons  to  Quebec  to  obtain  supplies  for 
the  mission.  On  the  way  back  they  fell,  Aug. 
3,  into  anlroquois  ambuscade,  and  were  nearly 
all  killed  or  taken.  The  missionary  was  hur 
ried  away. to  the  Mohawk  by  way  of  Lake 
Champlain,  subjected  to  mutilation  of  the 
hands,  and  to  the  running  of  the  gauntlet  at 
the  lake  and  in  the  village.  Here  he  saw  his 
associate,  Goupil,  tomahawked  at  his  side  ;  and 
although  the  Dutch  endeavored  to  release  him, 
he  was  reduced  to  the  most  cruel  slavery. 
While  he  was  with  a  fishing  party  on  the  Hud 
son,  below  Albany,  his  death  was  resolved 


646 


JOHANNA  ISLAND 


JOHN 


upon  by  the  tribe,  as  the  defeat  of  a  war  party 
was  ascribed  to  a  letter  sent  by  him  to  his 
countrymen.  At  Albany  the  Dutch  com 
mander,  aware  of  this,  urged  Jogues  to  escape. 
He  succeeded  with  great  difficulty,  and  reached 
a  vessel  in  the  river  in  August,  1643  ;  but  the 
tribe  made  such  furious  demands  for  their  cap 
tive  that  Jogues  was  taken  ashore  again  till 
the  Mohawks  were  appeased.  He  then  came 
to  New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York),  where 
Gov.  Kieft  received  him  kindly,  and  sent  him 
to  Europe  in  the  first  vessel.  This  ship  had  to 
put  into  Falmouth,  England,  whence  he  pro 
ceeded  to  France.  He  returned  to  Canada  in 
time  to  witness  the  negotiations  with  the  Iro- 
quois  at  Three  Rivers,  July  12,  1644.  JnMay, 
1646,  he  set  out  with  M.  Bourdon  to  confirm 
the  peace  in  the  Mohawk  castles,  and  on  his 
way  visited  Lake  George,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  Lac  St.  Sacrement.  Peace  being  to 
all  appearance  firmly  established,  he  returned 
to  prepare  for  the  founding  of  a  Mohawk  mis 
sion.  He  set  out  Sept.  27,  1646,  but  was  re 
ceived  as  an  enemy,  diseases  in  the  tribe  being 
ascribed  to  a  box  left  by  him.  He  and  his 
companion,  Lalande,  were  almost  immediately 
put  to  death.  He  wrote  at  Albany  a  long  Latin 
letter  describing  his  captivity,  a  description  of 
New  Netherland  as  he  saw  it,  and  an  account 
of  Rene  Goupil.  These  with  his  letters  have 
been  published  by  the  New  York  historical  so 
ciety  (New  York,  1847-'8) ;  also  his  Novum 
Belgium,  with  translation  and  notes  (4to,  New 
York,  1862).  A  life  of  Jogues,  by  the  Rev. 
Felix  Martin,  S.  J.,  appeared  at  Paris  in  1873. 

JOHANNA  ISLAND,  called  also  ANZOOAN,  or 
HIXZUAN,  the  most  frequented  of  the  Comoro 
islands,  in  Mozambique  channel,  E.  coast  of 
Africa ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  said  to 
be  about  20,000.  It  is  extremely  fertile  and 
picturesque.  Its  centre  rises  into  a  single 
peak,  5,900  ft.  above  the  sea. 

JOHANNES  SECINDUS,  a  Dutch  poet,  whose 
true  name  was  JAN  EVERARD,  born  at  the 
Hague,  Nov.  14,  1511,  died  in  Utrecht,  Sept. 
24,  1536.  He  gained  while  young  the  degree 
of  LL.  D.,  and  had  also  some  celebrity  as  a 
sculptor  and  painter.  After  travelling  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  he  accompanied  Charles  V.  on  his 
expedition  to  Tunis.  His  poems  are  written 
in  purely  classical  Latin,  and  the  Basia  (u  Kiss 
es,"  Utrecht,  1539)  have  been  ranked  by  his 
admirers  with  the  lyrics  of  Catullus.  They 
have  been  repeatedly  translated  into  the  prin 
cipal  European  languages ;  and  an  edition,  with 
translations  by  different  English  scholars  and 
with  notes,  was  published  by  Bohn  (London, 
1858).  His  Opera  Poetica,  consisting  of  ele 
gies,  odes,  epigrams,  and  other  poems,  were 
published  by  his  brothers,  the  poets  N.  G.  and 
A.  M.  Everard  (Paris,  1541 ;  Gottingen,  1748  ; 
Leyden,  1821). 

JOHANNISBERG.     See  GERMANY,  WINES  OF. 

JOHANNOT.  I.  Charles  Henri  Alfred,  a  French 
artist,  born  in  Offenbach,  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
March  21,  1800,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  7,  1837. 


is  Philipp 
,  and  at  hi 


Having  shown  considerable  talent  as  an  en 
graver  in  Paris,  in  1831  he  attempted  painting. 
His  "  Shipwreck  of  Don  Juan  "  and  "  Cinq 
Mars  "  attracted  the  notice  of  Louis 
who  gave  him  several  commissions 
death  he  was  rising  into  eminence.  II.  Tony, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Offenbach, 
Nov.  9,  1803,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  4.  1852.  In 
making  designs  for  vignettes  he  displayed 
much  talent.  His  illustrations  for  a  Werther," 
Moliere's  works,  "Gil  Bias,"  the  "  Vicar  of 
Waken*  eld,"  and  Sterne's  "  Sentimental  Jour 
ney  "  are  well  known. 

JOHN,  the  name  of  23  popes,  of  whom  the 
following  are  the  most  important.  I.  John  I., 
SAINT,  born  in  Siena  about  470,  died  in  Rome, 
May  27,  526.  He  was  a  cardinal  priest  when 
he  succeeded  Hormisdas,  Aug.  13,  523.  Shortly 
after  his  election  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople 
by  the  Arian  king  Theodoric,  to  obtain  from 
the  emperor  Justin  milder  measures  toward 
the  eastern  Arians.  He  was  received  with  much 
honor  by  the  emperor,  whom  he  solemnly 
crowned  in  March,  525.  Justin  revoked  all 
rigorous  laws  against  the  Arians,  but  refused 
to  restore  the  churches  taken  from  them. 
John,  having  returned  to  Italy,  was  imprisoned 
by  Theodoric,  treated  with  great  rigor,  and 
died  in  captivity.  He  is  honored  as  a  martyr 
in  the  western  church,  and  his  feast  is  cele 
brated  on  May  27.  II.  John  VIII.,  born  in 
Rome  about  820,  died  there,  Dec.  15,  882.  He 
was  cardinal-archdeacon  when  he  succeeded 
Adrian  II.,  Dec.  14,  872.  From  the  beginning 
of  his  pontificate  his  partiality  for  the  French 
made  him  odious  to  the  Italians.  He  crowned 
Charles  the  Bald  of  France  as  emperor  in 
875,  and  in  876  deposed  Formosus,  bishop  of 
Porto,  reduced  him  to  lay  communion,  and 
banished  him  to  France,  whence  he  bound  him 
by  oath  never  to  return.  The  innocence  of 
Formosus,  who  was  afterward  pope  (891),  is 
now  generally  admitted.  John,  having  solicit 
ed  in  vain  the  help  of  Charles  against  the  Sar 
acens  who  occupied  southern  Italy  and  were 
threatening  Rome,  purchased  peace  by  prom 
ising  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  the  Bald  he  supported  the 
claims  of  Charles  the  Fat  against  his  Italian 
rivals,  crowned  him  at  Ravenna  in  877,  and 
was  compelled  to  fly  to  France  in  878,  where 
he  presided  over  the  council  of  Troyes  and 
crowned  Louis  III.  He  returned  to  Rome  in 
879,  and  at  the  prayer  of  the  Greek  emperor 
Basil  I.  approved  of  the  restoration  of  Photius 
to  the  see  of  Constantinople.  Soon  afterward 
he  retracted  this  approbation,  and  pronounced 
against  Photius  a  sentence  of  deposition.  This 
vacillating  conduct  caused  Baronius  to  say  that 
in  the  pontificate  of  John  VIII.  the  church  was 
governed  by  a  woman.  John  gave  to  the  duke 
of  Gaeta  the  district  of  Traetto  and  the  town 
of  Fondi,  in  order  to  induce  him  to  take  up 
arms  against  the  Saracens.  In  879  he  sum 
moned  to  Rome  St.  Methodius,  apostle  of  the 
Slavs,  and  confirmed  him  as  independent  me- 


JOHN 


647 


tropolitan  of  the  churches  which  he  head 
founded.  (See  CYRIL  AND  METHODIUS.)  lie 
made  many  enemies  by  his  arbitrary  conduct 
and  numerous  excommunications,  and  died  by 
violence.  There  are  326  letters  by  him  extant. 
III.  John  X.  (GIOVANNI  CENCI),  born  in  Ravenna 
about  884,  died  in  Rome,  June  2,  928.  Accord 
ing  to  Luitprand,  bishop  of  Cremona,  whose  re 
lation  is  discredited  by  Milman,  Giovanni  was 
successively  appointed  bishop  of  Bologna,  Ra 
venna,  and  Rome,  by  the  influence  of  the  pow 
erful  and  profligate  Theodora.  lie  was  elect 
ed  pope  in  914,  and  displayed  great  energy 
against  the  Saracens.  He  crowned  Berenger 
as  king  of  Italy  and  emperor,  March  24,  910. 
Uniting  with  the  imperial  army  the  forces  of 
the  dukes  of  Benevento  and  Naples,  he  led 
them  against  the  Saracens  intrenched  in  the 
territory  of  Garigliano,  and  utterly  routed 
them.  He  confirmed  the  appointment  to  the 
see  of  Rheims  of  Hugo,  five  years  old,  son  of 
Ileribert,  count  of  that  city.  Having  resisted 
Marozia,  the  daughter  of  Theodora,  who,  with 
her  husband  Guido,  duke  of  Tuscany,  could 
brook  no  rival  influence  in  Rome,  he  was  cast 
by  them  into  prison  and  suffocated  there.  IV. 
John  XI.  (GIOVANNI  CONTI),  regarded  by  many 
as  the  son  of  Marozia,  born  in  Rome  between 
905  and  910,  died  there  in  January,  936.  He 
was  raised  to  the  papacy  in  931,  and  was  the 
mere  tool  of  Marozia  and  the  evil  men  who  sur 
rounded  her.  Her  son  Alberico,  having  excited 
the  Romans  to  throw  off  her  yoke,  expelled 
her  husband,  King  Hugo,  made  himself  master 
of  Rome  with  the  title  of  consul,  imprisoned 
his  mother  and  the  pope,  and  held  them  in 
captivity  from  933  till  the  death  of  the  latter. 
V.  John  XII.  (OTTAVIANO  CONTI),  son  of  Al 
berico  and  grandson  of  Marozia,  born  in 
Rome  about  937,  died  there  in  964.  He  was 
intruded  into  the  papal  office  in  956,  and  as 
sumed  the  name  of  John,  being  the  first  pope 
who  thus  changed  his  name.  In  957  he  took 
into  his  pay  the  troops  of  the  duke  of  Spoleto, 
and  inarched  at  their  head  against  Pandolt'o, 
prince  of  Capua,  who  defeated  him  and  com 
pelled  him  to  sue  for  peace.  He  invoked  the 
aid  of  Otho  the  Great  against  Berenger  II. 
Otho,  having  driven  Berenger  from  Italy,  en 
tered  Rome  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  was 
crowned  emperor  of  the  West  in  February,  962. 
He  secured  to  the  pope  his  title  to  the  States 
of  the  Church,  and  exacted  from  him  the  prom 
ise  that  he  would  hold  no  relation  with  Beren 
ger.  John  violated  this  promise ;  and  the  em 
peror,  incensed  at  his  faithlessness,  as  well  as 
at  the  loud  complaints  about  his  licentious  life, 
returned  to  Rome  in  963,  and  caused  the  pope 
to  be  degraded  in  an  assembly  of  bishops  held 
in  St.  Peter's  in  November,  and  the  antipope 
Leo  VIII.  to  be  chosen  in  his  stead.  In  964,  the 
Romans  having  revolted,  John  reentered  Rome 
at  the  head  of  a  large  force,  expelled  Leo,  and 
committed  many  atrocities.  Otho  was  prepar 
ing  to  march  once  more  toward  Rome  when  the 
pope  fell  suddenly  sick  and  died.  VI.  John  XXII. 


(JACQUES  D'EUSE),  born  in  Cahors,  France, 
about  1244,  died  in  Avignon  in  1334.  He  was 
an  Augustinian  monk,  and  was  transferred  from 
the  see  of  Frejus  to  that  of  Avignon  by  Clem 
ent  V.,  who  also  appointed  him  cardinal-bish 
op  of  Porto.  He  was  elected  pope  at  Lyons  in 
August,  1316,  and  crowned  there  in  September. 
His  first  act  was  to  create  one  Italian  and  seven 
French  cardinals,  a  step  indicating  a  resolve 
to  make  the  ptfpacy  a  permanent  French  insti 
tution.  French  historians  accordingly  bestow 
great  praise  on  this  pope,  while  the  Italians  are 
unsparing  in  their  censure.  After  the  death 
of  Henry  VII.  in  1313,  the  imperial  crown  was 
claimed  by  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick  of 
Austria.  John  cited  the  contestants  before 
him,  and  Louis  refusing  to  appear,  the  pope 
excommunicated  him.  Louis  appealed  to  a 
general  council.  The  diet  of  Frankfort  sus 
tained  him,  declaring  that  the  imperial  author 
ity  depended  upon  God  alone.  The  strife 
which  existed  in  Italy  between  the  Guelphs  and 
Ghibellines  made  the  latter  espouse  the  cause 
of  Louis,  while  the  former  sided  with  the  pope. 
Robert,  king  of  Naples,  who  aspired  to  be  sole 
ruler  in  the  peninsula,  became  the  leader  of 
the  Guelphs,  while  Frederick,  king  of  Sicily, 
with  the  Visconti,  the  Scalas,  and  the  Estes, 
supported  Louis.  They  were  excommunicated 
as  heretics,  a  crusade  was  preached  against  them, 
and  pope  and  emperor  sent  armies  to  the  as 
sistance  of  their  respective  partisans.  Louis  en 
tered  Italy  in  1327,  was  crowned  at  Milan  with 
the  iron  crown,  and  at  Rome  with  the  impe 
rial  crown.  In  an  assembly  held  in  the  square 
of  St.  Peter's  he  cited  the  pope  to  appear  and 
answer  to  the  charges  of  heresy  and  high  trea 
son,  deposed  him,  sentenced  him  to  be  burned 
alive,  appointed  in  his  stead  Pietro  da  Corva- 
ria,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Nicholas  V.,  and 
made  it  a  law  that  any  pope  residing  out  of 
Rome  for  more  than  three  months  should  be 
considered  as  deposed.  Louis  returned  to  Ger 
many,  the  leaders  of  the  Ghibellines  died  soon 
afterward,  and  the  Guelphs  gradually  gained 
the  ascendancy.  John  was  indefatigable  in  his 
exertions  to  save  Christendom  from  Saracenic 
aggression,  and  succeeded  in  the  last  year  of 
his  life  in  forming  against  the  Turks  a  league 
composed  of  the  kings  of  France,  Sicily,  Cy 
prus,  and  Armenia,  and  of  the  Greek  emperor 
Andronicus.  He  sanctioned  the  custom  intro 
duced  by  St.  Bonaventura  of  ringing  the  church 
bells  at  sunset,  and  saluting  the  Virgin  with 
three  Are  Marias  in  honor  of  the  incarna 
tion.  He  confirmed  the  military  order  of 
Christ  (March,  1319),  founded  by  King  Denis  of 
Portugal,  restrained  the  power  of  the  Teutonic 
knights,  who  oppressed  the  new  Christians  of 
Lithuania,  and  canonized  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 
He  deprived  by  statute  the  people  of  towns  of 
the  right  of  electing  their  bishops,  established 
the  custom  of  collecting  "annates"  or  first 
fruits,  and  left  at  his  death  a  well  filled  treasu 
ry.  VII.  John  XXIII.  (BALTASSAIJE  COSSA),  born 
in  Naples  about  1360,  died  in  Florence,  Nov. 


648 


JOHN"  (ENGLAND) 


22,  1419.  St.  Antoninus,  archbishop  of  Flor 
ence,  describes  him  as  a  man  of  great  adminis 
trative  ability,  a  clever  politician,  and  a  bold 
soldier,  who  had  been  in  his  youth  a  corsair ; 
but  as  a  priest  he  was  ill  calculated  to  advance 
spiritual  interests.  He  was  created  cardinal  in 
1402,  and  was  degraded  from  that  dignity  by 
Gregory  XII.  in  punishment  of  his  tyrannical 
conduct  toward  the  Bolognese,  but  was  re 
stored  to  it  by  Alexander  V.,  wfio  reappointed 
him  governor  of  Bologna.  He  was  elected 
pope  in  May,  1410,  after  the  death  of  Alex 
ander.  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.  now 
divided  with  John  the  allegiance  of  Christen 
dom.  John  wrote  letters  to  the  imperial 
electors  to  induce  them  to  choose  Sigismund 
of  Luxemburg,  king  of  Hungary,  and  he 
espoused  the  claims  of  Louis  of  Anjou  to  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  in  opposition  to  the  reign 
ing  king,  Ladislas.  He  entered  Rome  in  tri 
umph  with  Louis  in  1411,  and,  gathering  all 
the  troops  he  could  muster,  attacked  and  de 
feated  Ladislas  at  Roccasecca  in  May.  He  pub 
lished  a  crusade  against  him  in  the  following 
December,  and  compelled  him  to  forsake  the 
party  of  Gregory  XII.  and  submit  to  himself. 
He  then  broke  off  his  relations  with  Louis  of 
Anjou,  and  restored  Ladislas  to  his  kingdom, 
appointing  him  at  the  same  time  general  of 
the  Roman  church,  and  furnishing  him  with 
money.  But  Ladislas  soon  afterward  took 
possession  of  Rome  and  forced  John  to  fly. 
The  latter  now  had  recourse  to  Sigismund, 
who  urged  him  to  assemble  a  council  at  Con 
stance  for  the  purpose  of  terminating  the 
great  western  schism  and  reforming  ecclesias 
tical  abuses,  with  the  assurance  that  John  should 
be  free  to  come  and  go  during  the  council. 
After  much  hesitation  ho  consented  to  the 
emperor's  scheme',  and  opened  the  council  in 
person,  Nov.  5,  1414.  Meanwhile  the  death 
of  Ladislas  had  left  Rome  open  to  John,  who 
repented  of  having  yielded  to  the  emperor's 
solicitations,  and  only  watched  for  an  opportu 
nity  of  returning  to  Italy.  On  March  2,  1415, 
he  bound  himself  by  oath  to  renounce  the  pon 
tifical  dignity  as  soon  as  his  rivals  had  abdi 
cated  ;  but  he  afterward  refused  to  sign  the 
act  of  renunciation,  and  fled  from  Constance 
disguised  as  a  merchant  under  the  protection 
of  the  duke  of  Austria,  and  took  refuge  at 
Freiburg.  In  May  a  sentence  of  deposition 
was  pronounced  against  him  by  the  council ; 
and  the  duke  of  Austria  gave  him  over  to 
the  emperor,  who  sent  him  a  prisoner  first 
to  Heidelberg,  and  then  to  Munich,  where  he 
was  detained  for  four  years.  John  escaped 
in  1419,  and  making  his  way  to  Florence  was 
kindly  received  by  Martin  V.,  who  appointed 
him  bishop  of  Frascati  and  dean  of  the  college 
of  cardinals. 

JOIL\,  king  of  England,  third  sovereign  of 
the  house  of  Plantagenet,  and  fourth  son  of 
Henry  II.  and  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  born  in 
Oxford,  Dec.  24,  1166,  died  Oct.  19,  1216. 
The  surname  of  Lackland  (Sansterre),  by  which 


he  is  often  mentioned,  was  popularly  given  him 
because  of  the  small  possessions  that  devolved 
upon  him,  while  the  elder  sons  were  all  liber 
ally  provided  for ;  and  it  was  "  the  usual  appel 
lation  of  younger  sons,  whose  fathers  died  du 
ring  their  minority,  and  who  could  not  possess 
estates  until  they  were  of  age  to  do  the  feudal 
services  required  for  them."  When  he  was 
seven  years  old  his  father  bestowed  property 
upon  him  in  England  and  Normandy.  A  mar 
riage  between  him  and  Alice,  eldest  daughter 
of  the  count  of  Savoy,  was  negotiated,  but  her 
early  death  prevented  its  completion.  Henry 
II.  made  John  lord  of  Ireland,  and  he  went 
with  a  large  army  to  that  country  in  March, 
1185,  accompanied  by  his  lord  deputy,  De  Lacy, 
and  Gerald  Barry  (Giraldus  Cambrensis),  the 
historian.  His  behavior  was  so  imprudent  that 
he  became  the  object  of  almost  universal  abhor 
rence,  and  his  father  was  compelled  to  recall 
him  to  England  at  the  close  of  the  year.  John 
was  Henry's  favorite  son,  but  he  joined  in  the 
repeated  rebellions  of  his  brothers ;  and  Henry's 
death  was  occasioned  by  his  becoming  informed 
that  John's  name  stood  at  the  head  of  the  list 
of  those  barons  who  had  joined  Philip  Augus 
tus  of  France  against  him,  though  at  that  very 
time  he  was  exerting  himself  to  benefit  the 
fortunes  of  the  rebellious  prince.  Richard  I., 
successor  of  Henry,  bestowed  large  possessions 
upon  John,  then  known  as  earl  of  Mortaigne, 
but  that  did  not  prevent  him  from  behaving 
as  unfraternally  as  he  had  behaved  unfilially. 
Richard  departed  on  his  famous  crusade,  in 
tending  that,  in  case  he  should  die  childless, 
his  successor  should  be  Arthur,  duke  of  Brit 
tany,  son  of  his  brother  Geoffrey,  John's 
senior.  When  Richard  on  his  return  became 
a  prisoner  in  Germany,  John  sought  to  render 
his  imprisonment  perpetual,  and  to  seize  the 
crown,  raising  forces,  and  doing  homage  to 
Philip  Augustus  for  such  portions  of  Normandy 
as  he  had  not  surrendered  to  him.  He  besieged 
places  in  England  that  were  held  by  Richard's 
friends,  asserted  that  his  brother  was  dead,  and 
demanded  his  own  recognition  as  king.  He 
did  not  succeed,  and  Richard  returned  to  Eng 
land  in  1194,  seized  John's  castle  of  Notting 
ham,  and  summoned  him  to  take  his  trial 
for  treason,  he  being  then  in  France,  whither 
Richard  led  an  army.  At  the  intercession  of 
their  mother,  the  king  pardoned  his  brother, 
who  remained  faithful  during  the  rest  of  Rich 
ard's  life.  Richard  bequeathed  to  John  all  his 
dominions,  and  most  of  his  treasure,  and  re 
quired  that  homage  should  be  done  him.  John 
experienced  little  difficulty  in  obtaining  pos 
session  of  England  and  Normandy,  and  was 
crowned  at  Rouen,  April  25,  1199,  and  at 
Westminster,  May  27.  His  accession  dates 
from  April  6,  but  he  was  not  regarded  as  king 
of  England  until  he  had  been  crowned.  Ac 
cording  to  the  rule  of  descent,  the  crown  be 
longed  to  Arthur,  duke  of  Brittany,  and  the 
mother  of  that  prince,  Constance,  persuaded 
Philip  Augustus  to  espouse  his  quarrel.  Philip 


JOHN   (ENGLAND) 


649 


seized  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Maine  for  Arthur, 
and  he  was  advancing  into  Normandy  when 
John  arrived  there.  After  some  negotiation, 
war  was  renewed ;  but  the  general  of  Arthur's 
forces,  finding  that  the  French  king  was  acting 
for  himself  alone,  effected  a  reconciliation  be 
tween  John  and  Arthur,  which  was  of  brief 
duration.  The  uncle  sought  to  make  away 
with  his  nephew,  who  tied  back  to  Philip,  ac 
companied  by  his  mother.  In  1200  a  peace 
was  made  between  John  and  Philip,  the  latter 
acknowledging  John  as  Richard's  heir,  and 
forcing  Arthur  to  do  him  homage  for  Brittany. 
John  paid  a  large  sum  of  money  to  Philip,  the 
collection  of  which  caused  much  trouble  in 
England.  The  first  demand  for  the  privileges 
of  Magna  Charta  was  made  by  the  barons  in 
May,  1201,  and  refused,  whereupon  they  de 
clined  accompanying  him  to  Paris,  which  he 
visited  in  order  to  be  present  at  the  marriage 
of  his  niece  with  the  dauphin,  and  the  king 
seized  their  castles.  John,  who  had  put  away 
his  first  wife,  Avisa,  because  they  were  related 
within  the  forbidden  degrees,  married  Isabella, 
daughter  of  the  count  of  Angouleme,  Aug.  24, 
1200.  This  lady  had  been  betrothed  to  Hugh 
de  Lusignan,  son  of  the  count  of  La  Marche, 
who  challenged  John  to  combat.  John  offered 
to  fight  by  his  champion,  an  offer  which  Lu 
signan  treated  with  contempt,  declaring  that 
the  king's  champions  were  bravos.  Arthur's 
claims  having  been  renewed,  and  insurrections 
in  his  favor  occurring  in  Anjou  and  Maine, 
Lusignan  espoused  his  cause,  and  civil  war 
broke  out  in  Poitou  and  Normandy.  Arthur 
and  Lusignan  besieged  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  in 
the  castle  of  Mirebeau,  in  Poitou,  and  John 
hastened  to  his  mother's  assistance.  On  Aug. 
1,  1202,  he  defeated  the  besiegers  in  a  pitched 
battle,  killing  or 'capturing  them  all.  Arthur, 
then  in  his  16th  year,  was  among  the  captives. 
He  was  imprisoned,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  put  to  death  by  his  uncle,  a  belief  quite 
in  keeping  with  John's  actions.  John  was  ac 
cused  by  Philip  Augustus  of  the  murder,  and 
was  summoned  to  defend  himself  before  the 
peers  of  France.  He  refused  to  attend,  and 
the  court  pronounced  judgment,  that  "where 
as  John,  duke  of  Normandy,  in  violation  of  his 
oath  to  Philip  his  lord,  had  murdered  the  son  of 
his  elder  brother,  a  homager  of  the  crown  of 
France,  and  had  perpetrated  the  crime  within 
the  seignory  of  France,  he  was  found  guilty  of 
felony  and  treason,  and  was  therefore  adjudged 
to  forfeit  all  the  lands  which  he  held  by  hom 
age."  This  decree  of  forfeiture  was  vigorous 
ly  put  in  force  by  Philip,  whose  proceedings 
were  aided  by  the  discontent  that  prevailed  in 
John's  French  possessions.  In  1203  nearly  all 
those  possessions  except  Guienne  were  taken  by 
Philip,  and  John  fled  to  England.  He  had  said, 
on  hearing  of  Philip's  captures  of  towns :  "  Let 
him  take  them,  I  will  one  day  recover  them ; 
the  English  sterlings  will  restore  all  things." 
This  would  have  been  no  idle  boast  had  he  been 
a  popular  monarch  in  England ;  but  there  he 


was  even  more  detested  than  he  was  in  France. 
The  name  of  Lackland  was  now  revived  for 
him.  lie  landed  with  an  army  at  La  Rochelle 
in  120G,  and  took  Angers,  but  then  retired. 
He  had  received  no  aid  from  the  English  bar 
ons,  whom  he  proceeded  to  fine  frequently 
and  heavily ;  and  the  archbishop  of  York 
cursed  the  collectors  of  the  fines  and  left  Eng 
land.  Those  quarrels  now  began  which  ended 
in  the  granting  of  the  great  charter.  John  be 
came  involved  in  a  contest  with  the  church 
concerning  the  election  of  Cardinal  Langton  to 
the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  Pope  Innocent  III. 
laid  England  under  an  interdict.  The  king 
seized  the  possessions  of  the  church,  and  ban 
ished  those  who  had  occupied  them.  A  bull 
of  excommunication  was  issued  in  1209,  and 
John  sought  to  prevent  its  promulgation  in 
England,  without  which  it  could  have  no  force. 
His  fear  was  that  Philip  Augustus  would  at 
tempt  the  conquest  of  England,  under  papal 
authority,  and  he  maintained  relations  with 
some  of  that  prince's  neighbors.  In  the  mean 
time  he  compelled  William,  king  of  Scotland, 
to  acknowledge  his  supremacy,  and  effected 
conquests  in  Wales,  dictating  terms  of  peace  to 
Prince  Llewellyn.  He  also  led  a  great  army  to 
Ireland,  where  he  Curbed  the  Norman  colo 
nists,  divided  the  English  possessions  into  coun 
ties,  and  established  there  the  laws  of  England. 
He  was  guilty  of  acts  of  cruelty  that  shocked 
the  sentiment  of  even  that  ferocious  age.  Of 
the  captives  whom  he  took  in  1202,  most  of 
the  principal  men  were  starved  to  death  in 
prison.  On  an  insurrection  occurring  in  Wales, 
he  caused  28  hostages,  all  young  nobles,  to  be 
executed.  In  1213  the  pope  solemnly  deposed 
John,  and  absolved  his  vassals  from  their  alle 
giance.  The  French  king  prepared  to  enforce 
the  sentence,  and  John  assembled  a  numerous 
army  to  defend  his  kingdom  ;  but  as  he  could 
not  rely  upon  its  fidelity,  he  listened  to  the  ar 
guments  of  the  nuncio,  Pandulph,  and  resigned 
his  kingdom  to  the  pope,  whose  vassal  he  be 
came.  This  act,  so  degrading  to  modern  ideas, 
was  not  viewed  so  harshly  then,  and  had 
many  precedents ;  and  the  barons  themselves 
acknowledged  its  validity.  Pandulph  proceed 
ed  to  France,  where  he  commanded  Philip  to 
put  an  end  to  his  project  of  invasion,  as  Eng 
land  had-  become  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 
j  That  monarch  endeavored  to  turn  his  prepara- 
I  tions  to  account  by  planning  the  conquest  of 
Flanders,  but  he  had  ultimately  to  fight  for 
i  his  own  dominions  at  Bovines.  John  invaded 
France,  but  accomplished  nothing,  though  his 
fleet  had  previously  defeated  that  of  Philip. 
As  he  continued  his  course  of  misgovernment, 
a  confederacy  was  formed  against  him  by  the 
nobility,  at  the  head  of  which  stood  Archbishop 
Langton  and  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  Rob 
ert  Fitz-Walter  commanded  its  forces.  The 
king  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  barons, 
who  forced  him  to  make  the  grant  known  as 
Magna  Charta,  June  15,  1215.  (See  MAGXA 
CHARTA.)  His  submission  was  but  momentary ; 


650 


JOHN  II.    (FKAXCE) 


JOHN  II.   (POLAND) 


as  soon  as  he  could  raise  a  foreign  force,  aided 
by  the  pope,  who  regarded  the  barons  as  rebels 
against  himself,  he  resumed  the  war  with  suc 
cess.  The  barons  applied  to  France  for  aid, 
offering  to  make  the  dauphin  Louis  king  of 
England.  Louis  entered  England  at  the  head 
of  an  army.  John  was  about  to  fight  a  battle 
for  his  crown,  when  he  lost  his  baggage,  trea 
sure,  &c.,  in  "the  Wash."  This  affected  his 
mind,  and  as  he  was  ill  at  the  time  of  the  loss, 
his  sickness  so  increased  that  he  soon  after 
died.  His  death  was  attributed  to  poison,  and 
also  to  dysentery  brought  on  by  partaking 
freely  of  peaches  and  new  cider.  Modern 
England  dates  from  the  reign  of  John,  whose 
cowardice  and  imbecility  led  to  the  loss  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  French  possessions  of  his 
family,  and  so  caused  the  Gorman  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  island  to  regard  the 
English  as  their  countrymen.  lie  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  Henry  III. 

JOHLV  II.,  surnamed  LE  Box  (the  Good,  or 
rather  the  Gallant),  king  of  France,  the  second 
of  the  Valois  family,  born  about  1319,  died  in 
London  in  1304.  Succeeding  his  father  Philip 
VI.  in  1350,  he  indulged  in  such  extravagant 
expenditures  to  celebrate  his  accession  to  the 
throne  that  he  soon  found  the  royal  treasury 
exhausted,  and  had  to  summon  the  states  gen 
eral  for  a  grant  of  money.  His  first  measures 
were  marked  by  despotism  and  cruelty.  By 
his  orders  the  great  constable  Raoul,  count  of 
Eu  and  Guines,  whom  he  suspected  of  treach 
erous  dealings  with  the  English,  was  arrested 
and  beheaded  without  any  form  of  trial,  while 
his  office  and  property  were  given  to  Charles  of 
Lacerda,  a  Spanish  prince.  The  latter  having 
been  murdered  at  Laigle,  Normandy,  by  Charles 
the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre,  a  friend  of  Raoul, 
King  John  came  unexpectedly  to  Rouen,  where 
Charles  was  entertained  by  the  dauphin,  made 
him  a  prisoner  with  his  own  hand,  and  caused 
four  of  his  followers  to  be  decapitated  on  the 
spot.  Philip,  brother  of  Charles  of  Navarre, 
and  the  count  of  Harcourt,  uncle  of  one  of  the 
victims,  appealed  to  Edward  III.  of  England 
for  vengeance.  The  English  invaded  France 
at  once.  King  John  met  one  of  their  armies, 
under  the  Black  Prince,  at  Maupertuis,  near 
Poitiers,  and,  elated  by  his  superiority  in  num 
bers,  attacked  him  imprudently,  was  defeated, 
Sept.  19,  1356,  and  carried  prisoner  first  to 
Bordeaux,  and  then  to  London,  his  conquer 
ors  treating  him  with  courtesy  and  distinction. 
During  his  captivity  violent  dissensions  broke 
out  in  France,  and  the  dauphin  (afterward 
Charles  V.),  who  had  assumed  the  regency,  was 
for  a  while  unable  to  contend  against  the  rising 
power  of  the  third  estate.  At  the  end  of  three 
years  John  tried  to  regain  his  freedom  by  a 
humiliating  treaty  with  Edward  III.,  which 
was  rejected  by  the  states  general  of  France. 
The  disastrous  peace  of  Bretigny  (1360),  how 
ever,  provided  for  the  liberation  of  the  French 
king  by  the  sacrifice  to  the  English  of  some  of 
the  best  French  provinces  and  the  payment  of 


a  ransom  of  3,000,000  crowns.  On  his  return 
home,  John,  coming  by  inheritance  into  pos 
session  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  bestowed  it 
on  his  fourth  son,  Philip  the  Bold,  as  a  reward 
for  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers. 
Another  son,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  whom  he  had 
given  as  a  hostage  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
treaty  of  Bretigny,  having  forfeited  his  word 
by  running  away  from  England,  John  thought 
himself  in  honor  bound  to  return  to  captivity, 
saying,  "If  good  faith  were  banished  from 
earth,  it  ought  to  be  still  found  in  the  hearts 
of  kings."  He  consequently  returned  to  Lon 
don,  and  there  died. 

JOHN  II.  CASDIIR,  king  of  Poland,  born 
March  21,  1609,  died  in  Nevers,  France,  Dec. 
16,  1672.  He  was  a  younger  son  of  Sigismund 
III.,  of  the  house  of  Vasa,  by  an  Austrian 
princess,  who  was  baffled  in  her  schemes  to 
procure  him  the  throne  by  his  loyal  adherence 
to  his  elder  half  brother  Ladislas,  who  after 
the  death  of  Sigismund  was  elected  king 
(1632).  In  1638  he  embarked  at  Genoa  for 
Spain  to  negotiate  a  league  with  Philip  III. 
against  France ;  but  suffering  shipwreck  on 
the  coast  of  Provence,  he  was  seized  and  by 
order  of  Richelieu  imprisoned  at  Yincennes, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  and  was  only 
released  on  promise  of  his  brother  the  king 
of  Poland  never  to  wage  war  against  France. 
He  then  travelled  through  various  countries  of 
western  Europe,  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  Rome,  was  made  cardinal  by  Innocent  X., 
but  after  his  return  to  Poland  again  became  a 
layman,  and,  having  succeeded  his  brother  in 
1648,  married  his  widow  Maria  Luisa  Gonzaga. 
His  reign  commenced  amid  the  confusion  and 
disasters  caused  by  the  great  revolt  of  the  Cos 
sacks  under  Chmielnicki,  who  had  advanced 
into  the  very  heart  of  Poland.  The  power  of 
the  king  had  been  stripped  of  almost  all  its 
prerogatives  by  the  growing  influence  of  the 
nobles.  Russia  and  Sweden,  which  had  long 
been  active  enemies  of  Poland,  availed  them 
selves  of  its  distracted  condition,  and  renewed 
their  attacks.  George  Rakoczy  of  Transylva 
nia,  too,  invaded  the  Polish  territory,  while 
diet  after  diet  was  dissolved  by  abuses  of  the 
liberum  veto.  Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden  tri 
umphantly  marched  through  the  country,  and 
occupied  Cracow  (1655),  John  Casimir  having 
fled  to  Silesia.  Before  Czentochowa,  however, 
the  Swedes  met  with  an  unexpected  check,  and 
a  confederation  of  the  nobles  against  all  ene 
mies  of  the  country  having  been  formed,  Czar- 
niecki  won  a  series  of  victories  over  the 
Swedes,  Transylvanians,  Cossacks,  and  Rus 
sians.  The  wars  with  the  Swedes  and  Rus 
sians  were  terminated  by  treaties  involving 
considerable  cessions  of  provinces  on  the  Bal 
tic  and  the  Dnieper  on  the  part  of  Poland, 
which  also  lost  its  sway  over  the  Cossacks, 
who  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  czar.  During  these  long  disturbances  John 
Casimir,  though  feeble  and  of  a  peaceful  dis 
position,  frequently  proved  his  patriotism  and 


JOHN  III.   (POLAND) 


JOHN  (SAXONY) 


651 


bravery.     The  intrigues  of  his  wife  in  favor  of  ! 
the  duke  of  Enghien,  son  of  the  prince  of  Con-  '• 
de",  as  successor  to  the  throne,  having  brought 
about   a  rebellion  under  George  Lubomirski,  | 
and  a  bloody  though  short  civil  war,  the  king 
finally  resolved  upon  abdication,  and  resigned  j 
his  crown  at  the  diet  of  Warsaw,  Sept.  10,  ' 
1668.     In   the  following  year  he  retired  to 
France,   where  he  was  hospitably  treated  by  • 
Louis  XIV.     His  wife  had  died  without  issue  | 
before  his  abdication.     His  body  was  removed 
to  the  cathedral  of  Cracow  in  1676,  his  heart 
only  being  interred  in  St.  Germain  des  PrCs, 
of  which  Louis  XIV.  had  made  him  abbot. 
John  Casimir's  reign  was  one  of  the  most  dis 
astrous  in  the  history  of  Poland,  whose  dis 
memberment  by  the  houses  of  Mosco\v,  Bran 
denburg,  and  Hapsburg,  as  it  took  place  100 
years  after  his  death,  he  predicted  in  a  memo 
rable  speech  to  the  diet  of  1661. 

JOBL\  III.  SOBIESKI,  king  of  Poland,  born  in 
the  circle  of  Zloczow,  then  belonging  to  the 
palatinate  of   Belz,  in  1629,  or  according  to 
some  in  1624,  died  June  17,  1696.     His  father, 
Jacob  Sobieski,  castellan  of  Cracow,  carefully 
attended  to  the  education  of  his  two  sons,  of 
whom  Marcus  was  the  elder,  and  to  complete 
it  sent  them  to  Paris.     Here  John  entered  the 
ranks  of  the  musketeers  of  the  young  Louis  I 
XIV.  under  Conde;  but  on  receiving  the  news  j 
of  the  death  of  King  Ladislas  IV.  and  the  dis 
asters  caused  by  the  bloody  rising  of  the  Cos- 
sacks  (1648),  both  brothers  hastened  to  their  i 
country  and  offered  their  services  to  the  brother  j 
and  successor  of  Ladislas,  John  Casimir.    Both  j 
fought  bravely,  John  especially  distinguishing  ! 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Beresteczko  (1651),  but  | 
Marcus  fell  soon  after.    The  invasion  of  Charles  I 
Gustavus    of  Sweden,  and    the   simultaneous 
dangers  which  threatened  Poland  from  every 
quarter,  gave  Sobieski  ample  opportunity  to 
display  his  valor,  and  next  to  Czarniecki  he 
was  foremost  in  saving  the  country  from  ruin. 
His  services  were  well  rewarded,  and  shortly 
before  the  abdication  of  John  Casimir  he  re 
ceived  the  chief  command  of  the  army.      In 
1672   Poland  was  invaded  by  the  Turks  and 
Tartars,  both  of  whose  armies  he  successively 
surprised  and  defeated.    The  new  king,  Michael 
Korybut,  being  besieged  by  the  Turks  in  the 
fortress  of  Kamenetz,  concluded  an  ignomin 
ious  treaty  with  the  sultan ;  but  Sobieski  caused 
its  rejection  by  the  senate,  hastened  to  Podo- 
lia,  and  routed  the  Turks  at  Khotin  (1673). 
The  news  of  the  king's  death  arrived  a  few 
days  later,  and  the  commander  and  his  follow 
ers  hastened  to  Warsaw  to  attend  to  the  elec 
tion  of  a  successor.     This  resulted,  after  stormy  ! 
debates,  in  the  choice  of  Sobieski,  who  imme-  | 
diately  resumed  the  war,  and  rescued  the  for-  ! 
tress  of  Trembowla,  which  had  been  saved  by  | 
the  heroism  of  the  wife  of  the  commander,  j 
Another  campaign  was  terminated  less  success-  j 
fully  by  a  treaty  with  the  Turks  at  Zuraw-  j 
no,  where  Sobieski  was  nearly  compelled  to  I 
surrender  with  his  comparatively  small  army.  ! 


The  rising  of  the  Hungarians  under  Tokoli, 
and  the  invasion  of  the  Mussulmans  under  the 
grand  vizier  Kara  Mustapha,  having  brought 
Austria  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  Sobieski  was  per 
suaded  by  his  wife  and  the  ambassadors  of  the 
emperor  and  pope  to  hasten  to  the  rescue  of 
Vienna,  which  was  besieged  by  an  army  of 
300,000  men  (1683).  The  Poles,  numbering 
about  one  tenth  as  many,  were  joined  by  a 
somewhat  larger  body  of  German  troops. 
Scarcely  had  they  arrived  before  Vienna  when 
Sobieski  gave  the  signal  for  attack.  The  Turks 
were  driven  within  their  intrenchments,  and 
attacked  there  on  the  next  day  (Sept.  12). 
The  charge  was  terrible,  and  after  a  short 
struggle  the  Turks  were  completely  routed. 
Sobieski  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  Vienna, 
and  was  hailed  by  all  Europe  as  the  saviour 
of  Christendom.  The  emperor  Leopold  alone, 
who  had  fled  from  his  capital,  was  too  proud  to 
receive  cordially  the  hero  who  was  "  only  an 
elected  monarch.'1  Sobieski  pursued  his  suc 
cess,  following  the  enemy  into  Hungary,  which 
was  soon  restored  to  the  emperor.  Returning 
to  Poland,  where  the  intrigues  of  his  wife  had 
created  for  him  a  large  number  of  enemies,  he 
made  a  disadvantageous  peace  with  the  czar, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  turn  all  his  forces  against 
the  Turks.  The  conquest  of  Wallachia  was 
the  aim  of  this  undertaking,  in  which  he  failed 
after  various  attempts.  The  last  years  of  his 
life  were  embittered  by  civil  as  well  as  domestic 
troubles.  Admired  as  a  warrior,  he  was  little 
esteemed  by  the  Polish  nation  as  a  monarch, 
and  after  his  death  his  three  sons,  Jacob,  Con- 
stantine,  and  Alexander,  were  passed  over  at 
the  election,  which  gave  the  crown  of  Poland 
to  Augustus  of  Saxony. — The  Lettrca  clu  roi  de 
Fologne,  Jean  SobiesTci,  d  la  reinc  Marie  Casi- 
mire,  pendant  la  campagne  de  Vienne,  were 
published  in  Paris  in  1826. 

JOHN  (JoiiANN  NEPOMUK  MARIA  JOSEPH), 
king  of  Saxony,  born  in  Dresden,  Dec.  12,  1801, 
died  there,  Oct.  29,  1873.  He  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Duke  Maximilian  of  Saxony  and  the 
princess  Carolina  of  Parma.  At  the  age  of  20 
lie  entered  the  ministry  of  finance,  of  which  he 
was  president  until  he  retired  in  1831.  As  a 
member  of  the  upper  house  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  discussion  of  the  constitution  of  that 
year.  He  was  commander  of  the  national  guard 
from  1831  to  1846.  His  brother,  Frederick  Au 
gustus  II.,  dying  without  issue,  Aug.  9,  1854, 
he  became  king.  He  adopted  a  policy  on  east 
ern  affairs  hostile  to  the  western  powers,  and 
in  the  war  of  1866  took  the  side  of  Austria. 
The  Prussians  entered  Saxony  June  18,  and  the 
Saxon  army,  having  withdrawn  without  a  blow 
to  Bohemia,  fought  against  them  in  the  buttle 
of  Koniggratz,  July  3.  Peace  was  concluded 
between  Prussia  and  Saxony,  Oct.  21,  and  the 
king  returned  to  Dresden  Nov.  3,  having  agreed 
to  pay  a  large  sum,  and  to  cede  the  fortress  of 
Konigstein.  Subsequently  Saxony  entered  the 
North  German  confederation,  and  her  troops, 
under  command  of  the  crown  prince  Albert, 


652 


JOHN   (AECHDUKE) 


JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA 


took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Franco-Prus 
sian  war  of  1870-71.  King  John  early  show 
ed  a  taste  for  archa3ological  study  and  Italian 
literature.  He  made  a  journey  to  Italy  in 
1838,  and  as  the  fruit  of  his  studies  puhlished, 
under  the  pseudonyme  Philalethes,  a  German 
translation  of  the  Divina  Commedia  of  Dante, 
with  critical  and  historical  notes  of  great  value 
(Leipsic,  1839-'49;  2d  ed.,  1865).  In  1824  he 
became  president  of  the  society  of  antiquaries  of 
Saxony,  and  in  1852*and  1853  was  president  of 
the  German  society  of  history  and  antiquities. 
He  left  manuscript  translations  from  the  English 
of  70  poems,  including  several  by  Bryant. 

JOHN  (Jo H ANN  BAPTIST  JOSEPH),  archduke  of 
Austria,  ninth  son  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II. 
and  Maria  Louisa  of  Spain,  born  in  Florence, 
Jan.  20,  1782,  died  in  Gratz,  May  10, 1859.  He 
was  carefully  educated,  and  in  1800,  when  but 
18  years  of  age,  was  made  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Austrian  army.  He  pressed  forward 
into  Bavaria,  encountered  the  French  under 
Moreau  at  Hohenlinden,  and  suffered  a  grave 
defeat  there  (Dec.  3),  which  was  quickly  fol 
lowed  by  a  second  at  Salzburg  (Dec.  14). 
After  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  February, 
180i,  he  became  director-in-chief  of  the  de 
partments  of  fortification  and  engineering 
throughout  the  empire.  lie  especially  inter 
ested  himself  in  the  welfare  of  Tyrol,  and  after 
serving  as  minister  of  war  from  1803  to  1805, 
he  was  appointed  in  the  latter  year  to  com 
mand  the  army  stationed  in  that  province. 
After  the  separation  of  Tyrol  from  Austria,  he 
planned  through  Hormayr  the  rising  of  the 
Tyrolese  in  1809  against  their  new  masters, 
and  commanded  with  success  the  army  ope 
rating  there  and  in  Italy,  defeating  the  vice 
roy  Eugene  (April  16)  in  an  important  engage 
ment  near  Sacile,  but  retreating  when  he  heard 
of  the  critical  situation  of  Vienna.  On  his.  re 
treat  he  suffered  two  defeats  (on  the  Piave  and 
at  Kaab),  nor  was  an  attempt  to  join  his  forces 
with  those  of  his  brother  at  Wagram  attended 
with  better  fortune.  He  resigned  his  com 
mand  soon  after  the  peace  of  October,  1809, 
and  was  afterward  but  little  concerned  in  mili 
tary  affairs,  lie  lived  in  retirement  in  Gratz, 
a  city  on  which  he  conferred  many  public  bene 
fits,  till  1848,  when  he  was  elected  vicar  of  the 
empire  (Reichwerweser}  by  the  Frankfort  par 
liament.  In  this  capacity  he  chiefly  devoted 
himself  to  protecting  the  interests  of  the  house 
of  Austria  against  the  growing  preponderance 
of  Prussia ;  and  this  course  he  continued  after 
the  nomination  of  the  Prussian  king  as  empe 
ror.  On  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office 
(Dec.  20,  18i9),  which  in  the  mean  while  had 
become  merely  nominal,  he  again  retired  to 
Gratz.  He  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage 
in  1827  with  Anna  Plochel,  the  daughter  of  a 
Styrian  postmaster;  and  by  her  he  left  one 
son,  the  count  of  Meran. 

JOHN,  Eugenie,  a  German  novelist,  popularly 
known  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  E.  Marlitt, 
born  at  Arnstadt,  Thuringia,  Dec.  5,  1825. 


She  is  the  daughter  of  a  painter,  and  on  ac 
count  of  her  fine  voice  was  adopted  in  1841  by 
the  princess  Matilda  of  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen,  who  had  her  educated,  and  enabled  her 
to  study  music  in  Vienna  during  three  years. 
She  then  appeared  on  the  stage,  but  a  sudden 
deafness  made  her  return  to  Sondershausen  as 
a  companion  of  the  princess.  Her  correspon 
dents,  struck  with  her  attractive  style,  en 
couraged  her  to  write  novels,  for  which  pur 
pose  she  returned  to  Arnstadt  in  1863.  Her 
first  work,  Die  Zwolf  Apostel,  appeared  in  the 
Leipsic  Gartenlaube  in  1865.  She  acquired 
celebrity  in  1866  by  her  graphic  and  poetic 
delineations  of  German  life  in  Goldelse  ;  and 
in  the  same  year  she  published  Blciubart.  Her 
subsequent  works  are  Das  Geheimniss  der  alien 
Mamsell  (1867),  Reiclisgrafin  £w?a(1869),  Das 
Haideprinzesschen  (1871),  and  Die  zweite  Frau 
(1874).  Many  of  them  have  been  translated 
into  English  by  Mrs.  Wister  of  Philadelphia. 
JOHN,  Knights  of  Saint.  See  SAINT  JOHX, 

KXIGHTS   OF. 

JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA,  Don,  a  Spanish  general, 
natural  son  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  born  in 
Katisbon,  probably  in  1547,  died  near  Namur, 
Oct.  1,  1578.  His  mother  was  Barbara  Blom- 
berg,  said  to  have  been  originally  a  washer 
woman  ;  she  at  one  time  declared  in  a  fit  of 
passion  that  Don  John  was  not  the  emperor's 
son,  so  that  there  still  remains  some  doubt  as 
to  his  origin,  though  Charles  himself  never  en 
tertained  any.  The  child,  at  first  called  Ge- 
ronimo,  was  carried  to  Spain  and  brought  up 
with  great  care  by  the  emperor's  majordomo, 
Don  Luis  Quixada;  but  his  parentage  was 
concealed  till  after  Charles's  death  in  1558, 
when  a  private  letter  to  his  son  and  succes 
sor  Philip  II.  was  found  acknowledging  him. 
Philip  changed  his  name,  gave  him  a  splen 
did  establishment  at  Madrid,  and  sent  him  to 
Alcala  to  be  educated.  He  was  distinguished 
for  beauty  and  for  martial  tastes  and  accom 
plishments.  In  1565  he  departed  secretly 
for  Barcelona  to  take  part  in  the  defence  of 
Malta,  but  was  compelled  to  return  by  com 
mand  of  the  king.  Philip  manifested  for  him 
the  tenderest  affection,  and  his  countrymen 
came  in  time  to  regard  him  with  feelings  little 
short  of  idolatry.  In  June,  1568,  Don  John 
sailed  in  command  of  an  expedition  against  the 
Barbary  corsairs,  with  Requesens  as  lieutenant, 
and  returned  triumphant  at  the  end  of  eight 
months.  In  the  same  year  the  great  insurrec 
tion  of  the  Moriscos  of  Granada  had  broken 
out,  and  Don  John  was  sent  thither  as  nominal 
commander-in-chief,  but  hampered  by  a  coun 
cil  to  whose  will  he  was  obliged  to  defer.  His 
first  independent  exploit  was  the  capture  of 
Galera,  which  fell  Feb.  6,  1570,  after  immense 
losses  on  both  sides,  and  all  the  inhabitants 
except  a  few  women  and  children  were  by 
his  order  put  to  the  sword,  and  the  place  was 
razed  to  the  ground  and  sown  with  salt.  Other 
successes  followed  rapidly  until  the  final  expul 
sion  of  the  Moriscos  from  Granada,  in  which 


JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST 


653 


Don  John  had  but  a  subordinate  share.  In  1571 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  immense  ar 
mament  organized  by  the  holy  league  against 
the  Turks,  which  won  the  famous  naval  victory 
of  Lepanto,  Oct.  7.  Although  this  success  was 
not  followed  up,  owing  to  the  dissensions  of 
the  chiefs,  and  subsequently  to  the  avoidance 
of  battle  by  the  Turks,  all  Europe  rang  with 
the  praise  of  the  young  hero,  and  his  ambition 
rose  with  his  glory.  In  September,  1573,  he 
made  a  descent  on  the  Barbary  coast,  and 
captured  Tunis,  the  fortifications  of  which  he 
repaired  and  strengthened,  although  ordered 
by  Philip  to  destroy  them,  and  conceived  the 
project  of  establishing  a  throne  for  himself  on 
the  ruins  of  Carthage.  The  pope  favored  the 
scheme,  but  the  king  thwarted  it,  and  the  next 
year  Tunis  was  recaptured  by  the  Turks.  He 
then  turned  his  attention  northward,  and, 
promised  all  the  aid  in  the  power  of  the  pope, 
dreamed  of  liberating  and  marrying  the  captive 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  and  reigning  with  her 
over  all  Britain,  Elizabeth  being  dethroned. 
Opportunely,  as  it  seemed,  for  this  wild  plan, 
he  was  appointed  governor  general  of  the 
Netherlands,  and,  disguised  as  a  Moorish  slave 
to  one  of  his  attendants,  travelled  secretly 
through  France,  and  entered  Luxemburg  Nov.  4, 
1570,  the  very  day  of  tha  terrible  massacre  and 
pillage  by  the  Spanish  soldiery  known  as  the 
"fury  of  Antwerp."  Don  John  came  with 
the  contradictory  instructions  to  conciliate  the 
provinces,  but  concede  nothing ;  but  before  he 
could  procure  his  recognition  as  governor,  he 
found  himself  obliged  to  sign  the  treaty  called, 
after  its  ratification  by  Philip,  the  perpetual 
edict,  and  to  send  away  the  hated  Spanish 
soldiers,  on  whom  he  had  relied  for  carrying 
out  his  personal  designs  upon  England.  The 
edict  ostensibly  confirmed  the  "  pacification  of 
Ghent,"  concluded  between  the  provinces  just 
before  his  arrival,  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
religious  toleration;  but  William  of  Nassau, 
and  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand  un 
der  his  guidance,  perceiving  the  duplicity  of 
its  stipulations,  and  the  governor's  insincerity, 
refused  to  accept  it.  Don  John,  for  his  own 
purposes,  Avas  sincerely  desirous  of  establish 
ing  peace,  but  at  the  same  time  determined  to 
maintain  the  royal  supremacy  and  suppress 
heresy ;  and  the  long  and  harassing  negotia 
tions  carried  on  with  these  irreconcilable  aims, 
during  which  he  made  to  no  purpose  unbound 
ed  offers  of  wealth  and  power  to  the  prince  of 
Orange,  chafed  his  fiery  spirit  and  embittered 
his  hatred  of  the  Netherlander.  At  length  he 
seized  the  castle  of  Namur,  held  for  the  states 
by  a  feeble  garrison,  but  of  which  he  had  the 
right  as  governor  to  take  peaceable  possession, 
and  recalled  in  small  bodies  and  at  intervals 
the  troops  he  had  sent  to  Lombardy,  while  in 
spite  of  the  treaty  he  had  all  the  time  retained 
a  numerous  German  force.  Meantime  the 
archduke  Matthias  of  Austria,  called  in  by  a 
faction  of  nobles,  had  been  nominally  accepted 
by  the  states  general  as  governor  of  the  Neth- 


]  erlands,  while  the  real  power  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  William  of  Nassau ;  and  on  Dec.  7, 
1577,  Don  John  was  formally  deposed,  and  de 
nounced  as  an  infractor  of  the  peace  which  he 
had  sworn  to  maintain.  The  states  had  by 
great  exertions  raised  a  force  equal  to  his  own, 
but  led  by  lukewarm  nobles,  which  assembled 
near  Namur,  and  then  retired  to  seek  a  strong 
er  position.  The  governor  followed  with  his 
army,  and  his  vanguard  came  up  with  them  near 
Gembloux,  Jan.  81,  1578.  There,  while  they 
were  struggling  irregularly  through  a  marsh, 
Alexander  Farnese  with  a  small  body  of  cav 
alry  attacked  them  by  surprise,  and  almost 
annihilated  them,  many  thousands  being  slain, 
all  their  equipments  captured,  and  many  pris 
oners  carried  off  and  put  to  death ;  while  on 
the  Spanish  side  scarcely  a  man  was  lost  or  a 
wound  received.  This  stunning  blow,  how 
ever,  Don  John  could  not  effectively  follow  up 
from  want  of  resources,  though  he  possessed 
himself  of  many  towns.  All  through  his  ad 
ministration  he  had  received  abundant  prom- 
ise>,  but  very  little  substantial  aid,  from  Philip 
II.,  who,  by  the  intrigues  of  his  minister  Pe 
rez,  had  been  led  to  suspect  him  of  designs 
upon  the  throne  ;  and  he  was  forced  to  remain 
idly  in  his  intrenched  camp  a  league  from  Na 
mur,  while  the  provinces,  more  united  than 
ever,  were  again  gathering  head  under  the  ex 
ertions  of  William,  and  the  duke  of  Alencon 
was  threatening  him  with  a  French  force  from 
another  quarter.  Moreover,  his  own  soldiers 
were  dying  in  crowds  of  the  plague ;  and  he 
now  heard  of  the  assassination,  by  royal  order, 
of  his  secretary  and  confidential  friend  Esco- 
vedo,  whom  he  had  sent  to  Madrid  in  the  pre 
vious  year  to  represent  his  grievances.  (See 
PEREZ,  ANTONIO.)  At  length  he  was  carried 
off  by  a  fever  which  had  long  been  consuming 
him,  dying  in  a  wretched  hovel  hastily  prepared 
for  his  reception.  His  body  after  death  pre 
sented  strong  appearances  of  having  been  poi 
soned,  but  no  other  evidence  of  the  fact  has 
ever  transpired.  His  funeral  was  celebrated 
with  great  pomp  at  Namur,  and  then  his  em 
balmed  remains  were  by  order  of  Philip,  in 
order  to  save  the  expense  of  a  public  progress, 
divided  into  three  parts  and  secretly  transport 
ed  through  France  in  bags  slung  at  the  pom 
mels  of  troopers.  On  their  arrival  in  Spain 
they  were  reunited  by  wires,  magnificently 
robed  for  presentation  to  Philip  with  a  mock 
ery  of  life,  and  then  interred  in  the  Escurial, 
in  accordance  with  his  wish,  by  the  side  of 
Charles  V.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  govern 
ment  of  the  Netherlands  by  his  nephew  Alex 
ander  Farnese. 

JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  the  forerunner  and 
relative  of  Christ,  son  of  the  priest  Zucharias 
and  Elizabeth,  and  cousin  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
born  at  Juttah  or  at  Hebron  about  5  B.  C.,  be 
headed  about  the  end  of  A.  D.  28.  The  main 
particulars  of  his  life  are  contained  in  the 
Gospel  of  Luke.  His  birth  and  office  were 
foretold  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  his  father 


654 


JOHN  THE  EVANGELIST 


as  he  was  burning:  incense  in  the  temple  of  Je 
rusalem.  When  Zacharias  asked  for  some  sign 
of  the  truth  of  the  prophecy,  his  tongue  was 
sealed,  and  he  did  not  recover  his  speech  till 
after  the  birth  of  the  child.  Six  months  after 
Elizabeth  had  conceived,  she  was  visited  by 
Mary,  and  at  her  salutation  she  felt  the  babe 
leap  in  her  womb.  John  abode  in  the  desert 
until,  a  short  time  before  the  ministry  of  Jesus, 
he  appeared  clothed  with  camel's  hair  and  with 
a  leathern  girdle  about  his  loins  as  a  prophet 
in  the  country  about  the  Dead  sea,  exhorting 
the  people  to  repentance,  and  proclaiming  the 
approach  of  the  Messiah.  Those  who  believed 
he  baptized  in  the  Jordan,  announcing  at  the 
same  time  the  coming  of  a  mightier  one,  who 
should  baptize  them  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
with  fire.  He  recognized  the  Messiah  in  Jesus, 
who  presented  himself  for  baptism,  and  pub 
licly  declared  him  "the  Lamb  of  God,  that 
taketh  away  the  sins  of  the  world."  It  is  not 
certain  what  were  the  relations  between  John 
and  Jesus ;  but  the  disciples  of  the  former  were 
a  separate  sect  after  his  death,  and  still  exist 
in  the  East  under  the  name  of  Sabians  or 
Christians  of  St.  John.  On  account  of  his  cen 
sure  of  the  marriage  of  Herod  Antipas  with 
his  sister-in-law  Ilerodias,  John  was  impris 
oned  in  the  castle  of  Machasrus,  and  probably 
it  was  there  that  he  was  beheaded  at  the  in 
stance  of  Herodias.  His  birth  and  death  are 
commemorated  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
respectively  on  June  24  and  Aug.  29.  In  Eng 
land  he  was  formerly  esteemed  the  patron  of 
architects,  and  was  held  in  special  honor  by 
the  freemasons. — See,  besides  the  different 
lives  of  Jesus,  especially  those  by  Hase  and 
Nermder,  Witsius,  I)e  Joanne  Baptista  (in  his 
Miscellanea  Sacra,  vol.  ii.) ;  Leopold,  Johannes 
der  Tdufer  (Hanover,  1825);  and  Von  Roh- 
den,  Johannes  der  Tdufer  (Lubeck,  1838).  The 
ecclesiastical  traditions  concerning  John  the 
Baptist  are  collected  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum, 
vol.  iv.,  and  in  a  compendious  form  in  Tille- 
mont's  Memoires,  vol.  i. 

JOHN  THE  EVANGELIST,  one  of  the  apostles, 
son  of  the  fisherman  Zebedee  and  Salome,  born 
in  Bethsaida,  on  the  lake  of  Galilee,  died  about 
A.  D.  100.  He  followed  the  occupation  of  his 
parents,  was  probably  a  disciple  of  John  the 
Baptist,  and  became  when  about  25  years  old, 
with  his  brother  James,  a  disciple  of  Jesus, 
whom  he  was  one  of  the  first  constantly  to 
accompany.  It  is  believed  that  he  was  the 
youngest  of  the  apostles,  and  the  special  at 
tachment  of  the  Saviour  to  him  is  expressed  in 
his  description  of  himself  as  "that  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved."  He  was  present  at  the 
transfiguration,  assisted  in  preparing  the  last 
supper,  at  which  he  reclined  on  the  bosom  of 
his  master,  and  was  the  only  disci  pie  who  ac 
companied  Jesus  to  the  cross.  While  hanging 
on  the  cross  the  Saviour  confided  his  mother 
to  the  care  of  St.  John.  After  the  ascension 
John  remained  for  a  while  at  Jerusalem,  but 
from  this  time  Scriptural  history  is  silent  con 


cerning  him.  The  traditions,  however,  agree 
that  he  afterward  abode  in  Ephesus  and  Asia 
Minor.  According  to  Jerome,  he  was  arrest 
ed  by  command  of  the  proconsul,  and  taken 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  plunged  into  a  vessel 
of  boiling  oil,  but,  as  this  did  not  harm  him,  he 
was  banished  in  the  year  95  to  the  island  of 
Patmos.  He  was  released  after  the  death  of 
Domitian,  and  died  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  at  a 
very  advanced  age.  According  to  the  same 
authority,  he  became  toward  the  last  so  weak 
that  he  was  obliged  to  be  carried  to  the 
Christian  assemblies,  and  when  there  could 
only  say,  "Love  one  another,  my  children." 
His  festival  is  celebrated  by  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  church  on  Dec.  27.  He  is  usually  painted 
with  a  cup  from  which  a  serpent  is  issuing,  in 
allusion  to  poison  which  was  believed  to  have 
been  offered  him  in  a  glass,  from  which  he  ex 
pelled  the  venom  in  the  form  of  a  serpent  by 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross. — The  New  Tes 
tament  contains  a  Gospel,  three  epistles,  and 
the  Apocalypse,  or  book  of  Revelation,  bear 
ing  his  name.  His  Gospel  gives  the  speeches 
of  Christ  more  fully  than  the  synoptic  Gospels, 
but  historical  facts  appear  less  prominently  in 
it  than  the  doctrines  which  are  implied  and 
established  by  the  facts.  According  to  the  fa 
thers,  it  was  written  at  Ephesus  or  at  Patmos  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  1st  century.  The  work 
of  Bretschneider,  Probdbilia  de  Evangelii  et 
Epistolarum  Joliannis  Apostoli  Indole  et  Ori- 
gine  (Leipsic,  1820),  is  the  earliest  attempt  of 
importance  to  raise  doubts  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  Gospel.  The  subject  is  discussed  by  Strauss 
(in  his  Leben  Jesu),  Baur,  Schwegler,  and 
others,  from  a  rationalistic  standpoint ;  while 
it  has  been  defended  by  Tholuck  (Glaiibicilr- 
diglceit  der  evangelischen  Gescldclite)  and  others 
of  note.  See,  besides  the  authors  just  men 
tioned,  Ebrard,  Kritik  der  evangelischen  Ge- 
schicJite  (Zurich,  1850);  Meier,  Commentar 
(Gottingen,  1856;  new  ed.,  ISGo-'O);  Ewald, 
Die  Johanneischen  ScJtriftcn  (2  vols.,  Gottin 
gen,  1861-'2) ;  Bleek,  Einlcitung  in  das  Neue 
Testament  (Berlin,  1802) ;  Davidson,  "  Introduc 
tion  to  the  New  Testament"  (London,  1868); 
and  Roffhack,  Auslegung,  &c.  (Leipsic,  1871). 
—The  first  epistle  was  probably  addressed  to 
Christian  congregations  in  Asia  Minor,  which 
had  been  under  the  charge  of  the  apostle,  and 
urges  love,  devotion,  and  moral  strictness.  It 
consists  of  separate  thoughts  and  precepts, 
with  little  logical  connection.  The  most  im 
portant  works  on  this  epistle  are  the  commen 
taries  of  Sebastian  Schmid  (Leipsic,  1687,  and 
many  later  editions)  and  Neander  (Berlin, 
1851 ;  English  translation  by  Mrs.  Conant, 
!  New  York,  1852).  The  second  epistle  is  ad- 
i  dressed  to  a  lady  of  rank,  called  ik  the  elect 
I  lady,"  supposed  by  some  to  refer  to  a  Chris- 
i  tian  church.  The  third  epistle  is  addressed  to 
Gains,  who  is  commended  for  his  hospitality 
to  the  faithful,  and  contains,  like  the  first,  al 
lusions  to  Gnostic  errors.  (For  the  book  of 
Revelation,  see  APOCALYPSE.) 


JOHN  THE  FEARLESS 


JOHST  OF  SWABIA 


655 


JOHN  THE  FEARLESS,  duke  of  Burgundy, 
born  about  1370,  assassinated  Sept.  10,  1419. 
He  was  the  son  of  Philip  the  Bold,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1404,  and  took  immediate  mea 
sures  to  secure  for  himself  the  influence  which 
his  father  had  possessed  in  the  government  of 
France.  He  was  opposed  by  the  queen  and 
the  duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of  the  king.  The 
duke  of  Orleans  was  murdered  in  Paris  by  as 
sassins  hired  by  John  in  1407.  A  civil  war 
ensued,  in  which  John  was  supported  by  Hen 
ry  IV.  of  England  (1411);  it  was  suspended 
by  the  treaty  of  Arras  in  1414.  In  1416  John 
entered  into  a  secret  alliance  with  Henry  V.  of 
England,  and  soon  overran  a  great  part  of 
France,  and  in  1418  obtained  possession  of  the 
king's  person.  A  plot  was  formed  to  assassi 
nate  him,  in  pursuance  of  which  he  was  invi 
ted  to  meet  the  dauphin,  on  the  bridge  of  Mon- 
tereau.  He  went  there  with  an  escort  slightly 
armed,  and  perished  with  many  of  his  com 
panions,  the  rest  escaping  by  flight.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Philip  the  Good. 

JOHN  OF^GAUNT  (or  GHENT),  duke  of  Lan 
caster,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.,  born  in 
Ghent  in  1340,  died  Feb.  3,  1399.  He  distin 
guished  himself  for  valor  in  the  wars  of  his 
brother  the  Black  Prince  in  France,  and  suc 
ceeded  to  his  government  in  that  country. 
In  1359  he  married  the  lady  Blanche,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Henry  Plantagenet;  she  bore 
him  a  son  who  in  1399  became  the  first  Eng 
lish  king  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  as  Henry 
IV.  After  her  death  he  married  in  1370  Con 
stance,  daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Cas 
tile,  and  assumed  the  arms  and  title  of  king  of 
Castile,  but  returned  to  England  within  less 
than  a  year  after  his  brother.  There  he  de 
fended  Wycliffe,  and  was  often  suspected  of 
aiming  at  the  crown.  He  resigned  his  preten 
sions  to  the  throne  of  Castile  when  his  daugh 
ter  Catharine  married  the  heir  apparent  of  that 
kingdom.  John  of  Gaunt's  third  wife  was 
Catharine  Swynford,  governess  of  his  chil 
dren,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons  and  one 
daughter  before  their  marriage.  These  were 
legitimated,  and  one  of  them,  John  de  Beau 
fort,  earl  of  Somerset,  was  an  ancestor  of  the 
Tudors. 

JOHN  OF  LETDEN,  a  Dutch  fanatic,  born 
about  1510,  put  to  death  in  Milnster,  Westpha 
lia,  in  January,  1536.  Ilis  true  name  was  John 
Boccold  or  Bockelson,  and  he  was  the  son  of  a 
magistrate  of  the  Hague,  and  worked  in  that 
city  at  the  trade  of  a  tailor.  In  1533  he  joined 
the  Anabaptists  in  Minister,  where  he  assisted 
Matthias  of  Haarlem  in  the  rebellion  of  that  year, 
and  after  his  death  assumed  power  as  a  pro 
phet.  On  June  24,  1534,  he  was  crowned  with 
the  title  king  of  Zion.  lie  appointed  12  judges 
to  administer  his  government,  assumed  prince 
ly  state  and  luxury,  introduced  polygamy,  mar 
rying  15  wives,  and  the  city  was  given  up  to 
excesses  of  fanaticism  and  lust.  He  issued 
proclamations  against  neighboring  rulers,  and 
sent  out  more  than  20  apostles,  who  preached 
TOL.  ix. — 42 


his  doctrine,  though  they  rejected  many  of  his 
excesses.  He  coined  money,  specimens  of 
which,  silver  pieces  with  his  stamp,  arc  in  the 
museum  of  Hanover.  Being  besieged  by  the 
bishop  of  Minister,  discontent  and  rebellion 
broke  out  among  his  followers,  which  he  re 
pressed  with  much  cruelty  and  bloodshed,  exe 
cuting  one  of  his  wives  with  his  own  hand. 
The  city  was  taken  by  treachery  in  the  night 
of  June  24,  1535,  and  he  was  made  prisoner. 
He  was  sent  through  the  country  in  an  iron 
cage,  and  at  length,  together  with  two  of  his 
companions,  was  tortured  to  death  with  hot 
pincers.  Their  caged  bodies  were  hung  upon 
the  tower  of  St.  Lambert's  church,  where  the 
cages  are  still  to  be  seen.  His  house  in  Mini 
ster  is  yet  standing.  (See  ANABAPTISTS.) 

JOHN  OF  SALISBURY,  called  also  JOHANNES 
PAKVUS  (John  the  Little),  an  English  scholastic 
philosopher,  born  in  the  old  town  of  Salisbury 
(Old  Sarum)  about  1120,  died  in  Chartres, 
France,  Oct.  25,  1180.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  in  1136  passed  over  to  France,  where  he 
attended  the  lectures  of  Abelard  and  others. 
He  opened  a  school  in  Paris  about  1140,  but 
with  little  success,  and  on  account  of  his  pov 
erty  retired  to  the  abbey  of  Montier-la-Celle. 
About  1151  he  returned  to  England,  and  was 
appointed  secretary  to  Theobald,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  introduced  him  to  his  future 
successor  Thomas  a  Becket.  He  was  sent  on 
important  diplomatic  missions  to  Popes  Euge- 
nius  III.,  Anastasius  IV.,  and  Adrian  IV.,  with 
the  last  of  whom  he  was  an  especial  favorite. 
He  was  the  secretary  of  Becket  when  he  be 
came  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  called  his 
eye  and  his  arm,  supported  him  in  his  con 
test  with  Henry  II.,  shared  his  exile  and  dis 
grace,  and  returned  with  him  to  England.  In 
1176  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Chartres,  and 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  his  diocese.  He 
was  highly  reputed  not  only  as  a  scholar,  but 
as  a  poet  and  orator.  Ilis  most  important 
works  are  Polycraticiis,  sive  de  Curialhim 
Nurjis  et  Vestigiis  Philosophorum,  an  erudite 
and  caustic  satire  on  the  follies  of  courtiers 
and  philosophers,  and  Metalogicus,  in  which  he 
vindicates  the  studies  of  the  schools  against 
the  sneers  and  outcries  of  the  ignorant.  Ilis 
complete  works  were  first  collected  by  J.  A. 
Giles  (5  vols.,  Oxford,  1848). 

JOHN  SCOTl'S.     See  ERIGENA. 

JOHN  OF  SWABIA,  or  Jolm  the  Parricide,  a 
German  prince,  born  in  1289,  died  in  1313  or 
1368.  He  was  a  son  of  Duke  Rudolph  of 
S \vabia  and  nephew  of  the  emperor  Albert  I., 
the  son  and  successor*  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg. 
On  attaining  his  majority  he  claimed  the  pos 
sessions  to  which  he  was  entitled  in  Austria 
and  Bohemia,  but  the  emperor  would  not  even 
surrender  the  county  of  Ivyburg,  which  had 
been  bequeathed  to  John  by  his  mother  Agnes 
of  Bohemia.  The  prince  thereupon  entered 
into  a  conspiracy  with  a  number  of  discon 
tented  noblemen,  with  the  assistance  of  three 
of  whom  he  murdered  his  uncle  the  emperor, 


G56 


JOHNSON 


May  1,  1308,  near  Windisch,  in  Switzerland, 
assailing  him  as  lie  was  crossing  the  river 
Reuss  on  his  way  to  Brugg.  The  murderers, 
who  had  been  disguised  as  monks,  escaped 
separately,  and  John  fled  to  Italy,  where 
according  to  some  accounts  he  ended  his  life 
in  Pisa,  April  13,  1313,  after  having  received 
absolution  from  Pope  Clement  V.  at  Avi 
gnon.  But  this  story  is  doubtful,  as  well  as 
that  of  his  having  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
as  a  hermit  on  his  estate  of  Eigen  without 
being  recognized,  and  that  he  only  made  him 
self  known  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1368. 
The  emperor's  daughter  Agnes,  the  widow 
of  Andrew  III.  of  Hungary,  and  her  mother, 
the  dowager  empress  Elizabeth,  being  unable 
to  lay  hands  on  the  conspirators,  doomed  to 
death  thousands  of  their  innocent  relatives, 
friends,  and  vassals,  destroying  their  abodes 
and  confiscating  their  property.  One  of  the 
conspirators,  Rudolph  von  Palm,  was  beheaded 
in  the  presence  of  Agnes  and  Elizabeth,  with 
63  other  knights  and  their  armbearers,  while 
Agnes  held  a  wreath  of  roses  in  her  hand  and 
exclaimed  exultingly  that  "she  was  bathing  in 
the  dew  of  May,"  referring  to  the  shedding 
cf  her  father's  blood  on  the  first  of  May.  Ru 
dolph  von  der  Wart,  another  conspirator,  hav 
ing  been  surrendered  by  the  Burgundian  count 
Blamont,  to  whom  he  had  fled,  was  broken  on 
the  wheel  after  having  been  submitted  in  his 
wife's  presence  to  fearful  tortures.  Part  of 
the  proceeds  of  her  victims'  estates  was  ap 
propriated  by  Agnes  toward  the  establishment 
of  the  nunnery  of  Konigsfelden,  on  the  site 
where  her  father  had  been  slain,  and  where 
she  died,  May  13,  1364,  but  without  having 
been  able  to  satiate  her  revenge  on  John  him 
self.  He  was  however  outlawed  by  her  father's 
successor,  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg.  Schiller 
introduces  John  in  his  Wilhelm  Tell. 

JOHXSON,  the  name  of  eleven  counties  in  the 
United  States.  It  An  E.  central  county  of 
Georgia,  bounded  W.  by  the  Oconee  river,  and 
drained  by  the  Great  Ohoopee ;  area,  about 
250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,964,  of  whom  915 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  undulating.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  47,229  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  7,168  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
1,558  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  374  horses, 
680  milch  cows,  755  other  cattle,  1,306  sheep, 
and  4,571  swine.  Capital,  Wrightsville.  II. 
A  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  S.  "W.  by 
Brazos  river ;  area,  594  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,923,  of  whom  279  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  undulating ;  the  soil  is  well  adapted  to  wheat, 
and  is  generally  fertile.  *  Prairie  and  timber 
lands  are  distributed  in  nearly  equal  quantities. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5, 694  bush 
els  of  wheat,  155,435  of  Indian  corn,  6,718  of 
oats,  7,297  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  1,212  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  6,343  horses,  2,549  milch 
cows,  16,396  other  cattle,  1,212  sheep,  and  8,758 
swine.  Capital,  Cleburn.  III.  A  N.  W.  county 
of  Arkansas,  bounded  S.  by  Arkansas  river, 
which  is  here  navigable  by  steamboats ;  area, 


576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,152,  of  whom  613 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  moderately  un 
even,  and  the  soil  is  fertile,  but  not  uniformly 
so.  The  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  railroad 
passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  13,864  bushels  of  wheat,  275,185  of 
Indian  corn,  21,159  of  oats,  7,048  of  Irish  and 
16,890  of  sweet  potatoes,  11,915  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
70,493  of  butter,  and  4,489  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  3,341  horses,  2,958  milch  cows, 
4,708  other  cattle,  3,135  sheep,  and  18,906 
swine.  Capital,  Clarksville.  IV.  The  N.  E. 
county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina,  and  having  the  Alleghany 
mountains  on  its  S.  E.  boundary  ;  area,  300  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,852,  of  whom  418  were 
colored.  It  is  watered  by  Watauga  river  and 
its  branches.  The  surface  is  mountainous  and 
thickly  wooded,  and  the  county  is  rich  in  iron. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  16,484 
bushels  of  wheat,  13,397  of  rye,  85,782  of  In 
dian  corn,  34,682  of  oats,  10,671  of  potatoes, 
11,333  Ibs.  of  wool,  72,041  of  butter,  and  1,513 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  951  horses,  1,601 
milch  cows,  2,579  other  cattle,  6.004  sheep, 
5,271  swine,  and  7  iron  forges  and  rolling  mills. 
Capital,  Taylorsville.  V.  An  E.  county  of  Ken 
tucky,  traversed  by  the  TV.  fork  of  Big  Sandy 
river ;  area,  140  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,494, 
of  whom  37  were  colored.  It  abounds  in  sand 
stone  and  coal,  and  has  a  hilly  surface  with  a 
sandy  but  fertile  soil.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  9,482  bushels  of  wheat,  256,256 
of  Indian  corn,  30,310  of  oats,  13,341  of  pota 
toes,  14,481  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  13,798  of  wool, 
and  81,082  of  butter.  There  were  1,129  horses, 
1,537  milch  cows,  1,088  working  oxen,  2,352 
other  cattle,  8,105  sheep,  and  9,277  swine. 
Capital,  Paintville.  VI.  A  central  county  of 
Indiana,  watered  by  the  TV.  fork  of  White 
river  and  several  smaller  streams  ;  area,  320  sq. 
in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,366.  The  surface  is  mod 
erately  uneven,  and  the  soil  is  chiefly  a  rich 
loam.  The  Jeffersonville,  Madison,  and  In 
dianapolis  and  the  Cincinnati  and  Martinsville 
railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  544,917  bushels  of  wheat,  1,240,- 
221  of  Indian  corn,  50,392  of  potatoes,45,363  Ibs. 
of  wool,  300,915  of  butter,  and  6,376  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  6,319  horses,  4,279  milch 
cows,  8,233  other  cattle,  13,775  sheep,  and 
30,006  swine ;  2  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  11  of  brick,  13  of  carriages,  3  of 
clothing,  7  of  cooperage,  5  of  brick  and  stone 
masonry,  8  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  starch, 
2  of  woollen  goods,  2  leather-currying  estab 
lishments,  11  flour  mills,  2  planing  mills,  and 
14  saw  mills.  Capital,  Franklin.  VII.  A  S. 
county  of  Illinois,  drained  by  Cache  river ;  area, 
486  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 11,248.  It  has  a  level 
surface  and  a  good  soil.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  92,191  bushels  of  wheat,  343,298 
of  Indian  corn,  74,525  of  oats,  19,764  of  Irish 
and  7,076  of  sweet  potatoes,  307,013  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  21,663  of  wool,  99,725  of  butter,  2.327 
tons  of  hay,  and  33  bales  of  cotton.  There 


JOHNSON 


65T 


were  2,247  horses,  926  mules  and  asses,  1,846 
milch  cows,  2,202  other  cattle,  9,563  sheep,  and 
13,988  swine.  Capital,  Vienna.  VIII.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  Iowa,  drained  by  Iowa  river,  which 
is  navigable  by  small  steamboats  in  the  S.  part ; 
area,  324  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  24,898.  The 
surface  is  moderately  uneven  and  the  soil  re 
markably  fertile.  The  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  503,141  bushels 
of  wheat,  2,147,570  of  Indian  corn,  491,137  of 
oats,  104,889  of  potatoes,  674,500  Ibs.  of  flax, 
69,796  of  wool,  594,573  of  butter,  32,962  of 
cheese,  and  40,659  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
9,989  horses,  9,628  milch  cows,  15,902  other 
cattle,  16,975  sheep,  and  40,456  swine ;  7  manu 
factories  of  carriages,  1  of  linseed  oil,  1  of  wrap 
ping  paper,  5  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  of  woollen  goods, 
3  breweries,  6  flour  mills,  1  planing  mill,  and  4 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Iowa  City.  IX.  A  W.  coun 
ty  of  Missouri,  drained  by  branches  of  Black 
river ;  area,  785  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  24,648,  of 
whom  1,458  were  colored.  The  surface  is  most 
ly  prairie,  diversified  with  large  tracts  of  tim 
ber.  The  soil  is  generally  good  and  suitable 
for  pasturage,  and  there  are  rich  beds  of  coal. 
The  Pacific  railroad  of  Missouri  passes  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  462,990 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,946,741  of  Indian  corn, 
356,351  of  oats,  106,731  of  potatoes,  18,700  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  43,256  of  wool,  367,464  of  butter, 
and  12,049  tons  of  hay.  There  were  9,732 
horses,  2,137  mules  and  asses,  7,161  milch  cows, 
14.516  other  cattle,  16,865  sheep,  and  36,152 
swine ;  2  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple 
ments,  5  of  carriages,  1  of  iron  castings,  6  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  5  flour  mills,  and  3  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Warrensburg.  X.  An  E.  county  of 
Kansas,  bordering  on  Missouri,  and  bounded 
N.  W.  by  Kansas  river ;  area,  472  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  13,684.  It  is  watered  by  several 
streams,  and  has  a  fertile  soil.  The  Kansas 
City  and  Santa  Fe  division  of  the  Leaven-worth, 
Lawrence,  and  Galveston  railroad,  and  the 
Missouri  River,  Fort  Scott,  and  Gulf  line  pass 
through  the  county.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  71, 835  bushels  of  wheat,  1,074,186 
of  Indian  corn,  335,056  of  oats,  112,046  of  po 
tatoes,  219,358  Ibs.  of  butter,  24,850  of  cheese, 
and  16,399  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,798 
horses,  4,518  milch  cows,  6,701  other  cattle, 
3,691  sheep,  and  10,342  swine.  Capital,  Olathe. 
XI.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  intersected  by 
the  Big  Nemaha  river,  and  drained  by  the  S. 
fork  of  the  Little  Nemaha ;  area,  about  375  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,429.  It  contains  extensive 
fertile  prairies,  with  good  timber  along  the 
streams.  Coal  and  limestone  are  abundant. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  81,454 
bushels  of  wheat,  113,495  of  Indian  corn,  32,- 
914  of  oats,  21,341  of  potatoes,  58,107  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  4,545  tons  of  hay.  There  were  671 
horses,  533  milch  cows,  999  other  cattle,  and 
1,442  swine.  Capital,  Tecumseh. 


JOHNSON,  Alexander  Bryan,  an  American  au 
thor,  born  at  Gosport,  England,  May  29,  1786, 
died  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  9,  1867.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1801,  and  settled  at 
Utica,  where  he  was  a  banker  for  many  years. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never  practised. 
From  his  youth  he  had  given  all  his  leisure  to 
the  study  of  problems  in  intellectual  philoso 
phy,  and  especially  of  the  relations  between 
knowledge  and  language.  He  attempted  to 
show  the  ultimate  meaning  of  words,  apart 
from  their  meaning  as  related  to  each  other 
in  ordinary  definition,  and  thus  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  human  knowledge  as  it  exists 
independent  of  the  words  in  which  it  is  ex 
pressed.  His  publications  include  "  Philoso 
phy  of  Human  Knowledge,  or  a  Treatise  on 
Language"  (New  York,  1828);  "Treatise  on 
Language,  or  the  Relation  which  Words  bear 
to  Things"  (1836);  "  Religion  in  its  Relation 
to  the  Present  Life  "  (1840),  in  which  he  aims 
to  establish  the  congruity  of  Christian  pre 
cepts  with  man's  physical,  intellectual,  and 
emotional  nature;  "The  Meaning  of  Words 
Analyzed  into  Words  and  Unverbal  Things, 
and  Unverbal  Things  Classified  into  Intellec 
tions,  Sensations,  and  Emotions"  (1854),  in 
which  he  confesses  that  he  had  been  50  years 
in  arriving  at  a  clear  comprehension  of  the 
object  of  his  search;  "Physiology  of  the 
Senses,  or  How  and  What  we  See,  Hear,  Taste, 
Feel,  and  Smell"  (1856);  "Encyclopaedia  of 
Instruction,  or  Apologues  and  Breviates  on 
Men  and  Manners"  (1857);  and  several  works 
on  financial  and  political  topics. 

JOHNSON,  Andrew,  seventeenth  president  of 
the  United  States,  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Dec. 
29,  1808.  His  father,  Jacob  Johnson,  who 
died  in  1812,  was  city  constable,  sexton,  and 
porter  of  the  state  bank.  Extreme  poverty 
prevented  Andrew  from  receiving  any  school 
ing,  and  at  the  age  of  10  he  was  apprenticed 
to  Mr.  Selby,  a  tailor.  A  gentleman  was 
in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  shop  and  read 
ing  to  the  workmen,  generally  from  "  The 
American  Speaker;"  and  Andrew  became  in 
tensely  interested,  especially  in  the  extracts 
from  the  speeches  of  Pitt  and  Fox.  He  de 
termined  to  learn  to  read,  and  having  done 
this,  he  devoted  all  his  leisure  hours  to  the- 
perusal  of  such  books  as  he  could  obtain.  In 
the  summer  of  1824,  a  few  months  before  his 
apprenticeship  expired,  he  got  into  trouble  by 
throwing  stones  at  an  old  woman's  house,  and 
ran  away  to  avoid  the  consequences.  He  went 
to  Laurens  Court  House,  S.  C.,  and  obtained 
work  as  a  journeyman  tailor.  In  May,  1826, 
he  returned  to  Raleigh.  Mr.  Selby  had  moved 
into  the  country,  and  Johnson  walked  20  miles 
to  see  him,  apologized  for  his  misdemeanor, 
and  promised  to  pay  him  for  the  unfulfilled 
portion  of  his  apprenticeship.  Selby  required 
security,  which  Johnson  could  not  furnish ; 
and  in  September  he  went  to  Tennessee, 
taking  with  him  his  mother,  who  was  depen 
dent  upon  him  for  support.  He  worked  for 


658 


ANDREW  JOHNSON 


a  year  at  Greenville,  during  which  time  he 
married,  and,  after  a  vain  search  for  a  more 
desirable  home  further  west,  finally  settled 
there.  Thus  far  his  education  had  been  limited 
to  reading  ;  but  now,  under  his  wife's  instruc 
tion,  he  learned  to  write  and  cipher.  Taking 
an  interest  in  local  politics,  he  organized  in 
1828  a  working  men's  party,  to  oppose  the  so- 
called  aristocratic  element  which  had  always 
ruled  the  town.  Considerable  excitement  en 
sued,  and  Johnson  was  elected  alderman  by  a 
large  majority.  He  was  reflected  in  each  of 
the  two  following  years,  and  in  1830  was 
chosen  mayor,  which  office  he  held  three 
years.  During  a  portion  of  this  time  he  was 
prominent  in  a  debating  society  formed  by 
some  young  men  of  the  neighborhood  and 
students  of  Greenville  college.  One  of  the 
students  says :  "  On  approaching  the  village, 
there  stood  on  the  hill  by  the  highway  a  soli 
tary  little  house,  perhaps  ten  feet  square.  We 
invariably  entered  when  passing.  It  contained 
a  bed,  two  or  three  stools,  and  a  tailor's  plat 
form.  Here  we  delighted  to  stop,  because  one 
lived  here  whom  we  knew  outside  of  school, 
and  made  us  welcome ;  one  who  would  amuse 
us  by  his  social  good  nature,  taking  more  than 
ordinary  interest  in  catering  to  our  pleasure." 
In  183-4  the  county  court  elected  Johnson  a 
trustee  of  Rhea  academy ;  and  in  that  year  he 
was  also  active  in  securing  the  adoption  of  the 
new  constitution  of  the  state.  In  the  summer 
of  1835  he  offered  himself  as  candidate  for 
a  seat  in  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature, 
and  announced  that  he  was  a  democrat.  Meet 
ing  with  a  cool  reception  from  the  leaders  of 
that  party,  he  entered  the  canvass  personally, 
and  in  his  first  speech  made  such  a  vigorous 
and  well  sustained  attack  on  the  political  ca 
reer  of  his  whig  opponent  that  their  opposi 
tion  soon  ceased,  and  he  was  elected.  The 
most  important  measure  brought  before  that 
legislature  was  a  bill  which  involved  the  state 
in  a  debt  of  $4,000,000,  for  a  vast  scheme  of 
internal  improvements,  consisting  chiefly  of 
macadamized  and  turnpike  roads.  Johnson 
strenuously  opposed  it,  on  the  ground  that  no 
such  debt  should  be  incurred  until  the  question 
had  been  submitted  to  the  people,  and  pre 
dicted  that  the  scheme  would  only  result  in  a 
squandering  of  the  money,  without  securing 
the  benefits  it  promised.  The  bill  became  a 
law,  and  was  so  popular  that  in  the  election  of 
1837  Johnson  failed  to  be  returned  to  his  seat. 
But  before  the  expiration  of  the  next  two 
years  the  evils  he  predicted  had  developed 
themselves  ;  many  of  the  works  were  abandon 
ed,  and  some  of  the  companies  had  defrauded 
the  state.  In  1839  he  was  again  elected.  In 
the  presidential  contest  of  1840  he  canvassed 
eastern  Tennessee  in  favor  of  Mr.  Van  Buren, 
and  was  a  candidate  on  the  democratic  ticket 
for  elector  at  large.  In  1841  he  was  elected  to 
the  state  senate,  into  which  he  introduced  a 
judicious  measure  for  internal  improvements 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  lie  was  elected 


to  congress  from  the  first  district  of  Tennessee 
in  1843,  took  his  seat  in  December  of  that 
year,  and  held  it  by  successive  reflections  for 
ten  years.  During  this  time  he  advocated  the 
bill  refunding  the  tax  imposed  on  Gen.  Jackson 
at  New  Orleans,  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the 
war  with  Mexico,  the  tariff  of  1846,  and  gen 
eral  retrenchment  in  the  expenses  of  the  gov 
ernment.  He  sustained  President  Polk  in  his 
acceptance  of  the  parallel  of  49°  as  a  settlement 
of  the  Oregon  boundary  question,  and  was 
conspicuous  in  urging  the  passage  of  a  home 
stead  law.  On  Aug.  2,  1848,  he  delivered  an 
elaborate  speech  in  favor  of  the  veto  power. 
In  1853  he  was  elected  governor  of  Tennessee, 
over  Gustavus  A.  Henry,  the  whig  candidate  ; 
and  in  1855  he  was  reflected,  over  Meredith  P. 
Gentry,  candidate  of  the  whigs  and  the  "  know- 
nothings."  The  contest  was  exciting,  and  vio 
lence  and  threats  of  murder  were  frequent.  At 
one  meeting  Johnson  appeared  with  a  pistol  in 
his  hand,  laid  it  on  the  desk,  and  said :  "Fel 
low  citizens,  I  have  been  informed  that  part  of 
the  business  to  be  transacted  on  the  present  oc 
casion  is  the  assassination  of  the  individual  who 
now  has  the  honor  of  addressing  you.  I  beg  re 
spectfully  to  propose  that  this  be  the  first  busi 
ness  in  order.  Therefore  if  any  man  has  come 
here  to-night  for  the  purpose  indicated,  I  do 
not  say  to  him,  let  him  speak,  but  let  him 
shoot."  After  pausing  for  a  moment,  with 
his  hand  on  his  pistol,  he  said :  "  Gentlemen,  it 
appears  that  I  have  been  misinformed.  I  will 
now  proceed  to  address  you  on  the  subject 
that  has  called  us  together." — On  Dec.  7,  1857, 
Mr.  Johnson  took  his  seat  in  the  United  States 
senate,  to  which  he  had  been  elected  for  a  full 
term  by  the  legislature  of  Tennessee.  Here,  as 
in  the  lower  house,  he  persistently  urged  the 
passage  of  a  bill  giving  160  acres  of  the  public 
land  to  any  citizen  who  would  settle  upon  it 
and  cultivate  it  a  certain  number  of  years ;  and 
he  was  soon  recognized  as  the  leading  advocate 
of  that  measure.  The  bill  was  finally  passed 
by  more  than  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each  house ; 
but  President  Buchanan  vetoed  it,  and  the  veto 
was  sustained.  In  1858  Johnson  was  one  of 
the  foremost  opponents  of  the  bill  introduced 
by  Jefferson  Davis  to  increase  the  standing 
army  because  of  the  troubles  in  Utah,  and 
offered  a  substitute  which  authorized  the  rais 
ing  of  4,000  volunteers,  to  be  dismissed  when 
the  trouble  was  over ;  which  was  modified  so 
as  to  authorize  two  regiments  of  18-months' 
men,  and  passed.  In  1859  he  was  conspicuous 
in  his  efforts  to  secure  the  passage  of  a  bill  to 
retrench  the  government  expenses,  and  in  his 
opposition  to  the  Pacific  railroad.  On  the 
question  of  slavery,  Johnson  as  a  southern 
man  and  a  democrat  generally  went  with  his 
party.  He  accepted  slavery  as  an  existing  in 
stitution,  protected  by  the  constitution,  but  be 
lieved  it  would  some  day  come  to  an  end,  and 
held  that  it  must  be  kept  subordinate  to  the 
Union  at  every  hazard.  He  opposed  the  com 
promise  measures  of  1850,  but  finally  voted  for 


ANDREW  JOHNSON" 


G59 


them.    Tn  the  Charleston-Baltimore  democratic 
convention  of  1800  he  was  the  presidential  can 
didate   of  the   Tennessee  delegation.     In  the 
canvass  which  followed  he  supported  Brecken- 
ridge   and   Lane,  the   candidates  of  the  ultra 
southern  wing-  of  his   party.     But  when  the 
purposes  of  the  leaders  of  that  wing  became  I 
apparent,    and   secession  was   actually  intro-  j 
duced,  he  took  ground  against  them,  and  in  a 
speech  delivered  in  the  senate,  Dec.  18  and  19, 
set  forth  the  injustice  and  folly  of  the  move 
ment,  and  placed  himself  unreservedly  on  the 
side   of  the  government.     The  legislature  of 
Tennessee  having  voted  the  state  out  of  the 
Union,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  people  had 
voted  down  a  proposition  for  a  convention  on 
the  subject,  a  reign  of  terror  began  there,  and 
Johnson,  returning  home  in  May,  1861,  was  in 
peril  of  his  life.     On  one  occasion  a  mob  en 
tered  a  railroad  car   with  the  intention    of  [ 
lynching  him ;  but  he  met  them  boldly,  pistol 
in  hand,  and  they  retired.     In  nearly  every 
city  of  the  state  he  was  burned  in  effigy.     He  ! 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  East  Tennessee  i 
Union  convention  of  May  30,  and  on  his  arri-  J 
val  at  Cincinnati  (June  19)  he  received  an  ova-  j 
tion  from  the  loyal  citizens.    On  Jan.  31, 1862,  j 
lie  spoke  in  favor  of  the  expulsion  from  the 
senate  of  Jesse  D.  Bright  of  Indiana.     In  the 
winter  of  1861-'2  large  numbers  of  Unionists 
were  driven  from  their  homes  in  East  Tennes 
see,    and   sought  refuge   in   Kentucky.      Mr.  j 
Johnson  met  them  there,  relieved  the  imme-  j 
diate  wants  of  many  from  his  own  purse,  and 
used  his  influence  with  the  government  for  the  ! 
establishment  of  Camp  Dick  Robinson,  where  | 
these  refugees  found  shelter,  food,  and  cloth-  \ 
ing,  and  were  to  a  large  extent  organized  into  | 
companies  and  mustered  into  the  national  ser-  j 
vice.     His  own  wife  and  child  had  been  turned 
out  of  their  home,  and  his  nine  slaves  confis 
cated. — On  March  4,  1862,  President  Lincoln 
nominated   Andrew   Johnson   to   be   military 
governor  of  Tennessee ;  the  senate  confirmed 
the   nomination;    and   on   the    12th   of    that 
month  he  readied  Nashville  and  assumed  the 
duties  of  the  office.     The  insurgent  state  gov 
ernment  had  been  moved  to  Memphis  when 
the  capital  was  occupied  by  national  troops.  I 
On  March  18  Governor  Johnson  issued  a  pro-  j 
clamation    which    recited    briefly   the   history  j 
of  the    state,    the    means   by    which    it    had 
been   placed   in   hostility  to  the  federal  gov-  j 
eminent,  the  reSstablishment  of  the  national  ' 
authority,  and  the  abdication  of  the  governor 
and  dissolution  of  the  legislature;  announced  J 
his  own  appointment  as  military  governor,  and 
his  purpose  to  fill  the  state  and  county  offices 
by  appointment  until  order  could  be  restored ;  | 
and  declared  that,  "while  it  may  become  ne-  | 
cessary,  in  vindicating  the  violated  majesty  of 
the  law  and  reasserting  its  imperial  sway,  to 
punish    intelligent   and   conscious   treason    in 
high  places,  no  merely  retaliatory  or  vindictive 
policy  will    be   adopted."     This  proclamation  ,' 
attracted  wide  attention,  because  it  Avas  looked  j 


upon  as  indicating  the  policy  of  the  federal  ad 
ministration  ;  but  it  produced  little  effect  on  the 
secession  element  in  Tennessee.  He  next  ad 
dressed  a  letter  to  the  mayor  and  council  of 
Nashville,  requiring  them  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance.  They  refused,  and  he  immediately 
declared  their  offices  vacant,  and  appointed 
other  citizens  to  fill  them  temporarily.  Two 
months  later,  to  protect  Unionists  from  out 
rage  at  the  hands  of  roving  bands  of  secession 
ists,  he  issued  a  proclamation  of  which  the  fol 
lowing  is  the  essential  portion  :  "In  every  in 
stance  in  which  a  Union  man  is  arrested  and 
maltreated  by  the  marauding  bands  aforesaid, 
five  or  more  rebels,  from  the  most  prominent 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  shall  be  ar 
rested,  imprisoned,  and  otherwise  dealt  with 
as  the  nature  of  the  case  may  require ;  and  fur 
ther,  in  all  cases  where  the  property  of  citizens 
loyal  to  the  government  of  the  LTnited  States 
is  taken  or  destroyed,  full  and  ample  remuner 
ation  shall  be  made  to  them  out  of  the  proper 
ty  of  such  rebels  in  the  vicinity  as  have  sym 
pathized  with,  and  given  aid,  comfort,  informa 
tion,  or  encouragement  to  the  parties  commit 
ting  such  depredations."  Three  days  after  is 
suing  this  proclamation,  he  addressed  a  Union 
meeting  at  Nashville  in  a  three-hour  speech, 
which  was  most  enthusiastically  received. 
Here  the  tide  of  affairs  seemed  to  turn,  and 
similar  meetings  in  various  parts  of  the  state 
greatly  strengthened  the  Union  cause.  But 
Tennessee  was  still  overrun  by  guerillas,  and 
Johnson  pursued  his  task  amid  continual  per 
sonal  peril.  He  showed  courage  and  ability  in 
maintaining  order  in  Nashville  while  it  was 
threatened  by  Gen.  Bragg,  and  preventing  the 
evacuation  or  surrender  of  the  place,  in  provi 
ding  for  Union  refugees,  and  in  raising  troops 
for  the  government.  On  Dec.  8,  1862,  he  issued 
a  proclamation  ordering  elections  to~  fill  vacan 
cies  in  the  37th  congress;  and  on  the  15th  an 
order  levying  five  monthly  assessments  on  cer 
tain  citizens  of  Nashville,  uin  behalf  of  the 
many  helpless  widows,  wives,  and  children  in 
the  city  of  Nashville  who  have  been  reduced 
to  poverty  and  wretchedness  in  consequence 
of  their  husbands,  sons,  and  fathers  having 
been  forced  into  the  armies  of  this  unholy  and 
nefarious  rebellion."  On  Feb.  20,  1863,  he  is 
sued  a  proclamation  warning  all  persons  who 
occupied  property  belonging  to  u  traitors  "  not 
to  pay  the  rents  until  a  person  should  be  ap 
pointed  to  receive  them  in  the  name  of  the 
LTriited  States.  In  a  speech  at  Columbus,  Ohio, 
March  3,  he  expressed  his  belief  that  slavery 
would  be  extinguished  by  the  war,  but  declared 
that  the  emancipation  proclamation  would  not 
at  all  affect  the  question.  On  the  first  Satur 
day  in  March,  1864.  by  his  order,  elections  were 
held  for  state  and  county  officers,  and  the  usual 
machinery  of  civil  government  was  once  more 
set  in  motion. — On 'June  7,  1864,  the  republi 
can  convention  at  Baltimore,  having  renomi- 
nated  Mr.  Lincoln  for  the  presidency,  nomi 
nated  Andrew  Johnson  for  the  vice  presidency. 


CGO 


ANDREW  JOHNSON 


He  accepted  the  nomination  in  a  long  letter,  in 
which  he  set  forth  fully  his  views  on  the  ques 
tions  at  issue.  On  Sept.  30  he  issued  a  proc 
lamation  ordering  an  election  in  Tennessee  for 
presidential  electors,  and  prescribing  a  rigid 
test  oath  as  the  condition  of  suffrage.  On  his 
inauguration  as  vice  president  (March  4,  1865) 
Johnson  delivered  an  incoherent  address,  which 
was  severely  censured.  President  Lincoln  was 
assassinated  on  the  evening  of  April  14,  and 
died  the  next  morning.  The  members  of  the 
cabinet,  excepting  Mr.  Seward,  at  once  addressed 
a  note  to  Mr.  Johnson  announcing  the  fact, 
and  urging  his  immediate  qualification  as  pres 
ident.  Accordingly,  at  10  o'clock  he  took  the 
oath  of  office,  in  the  presence  of  the  chief  jus 
tice,  a  portion  of  the  cabinet,  and  several  con 
gressmen,  at  his  room  in  a  hotel.  On  April  17 
he  made  a  speech  in  which  he  said :  "  The 
American  people  must  be  taught,  if  they  do 
not  already  feel,  that  treason  is  a  crime  and 
must  be  punished ;  that  the  government  will 
not  always  bear  with  its  enemies;  that  it  is 
strong  not  only  to  protect,  but  to  punish.  In 
our  peaceful  history,  treason  has  been  almost 
unknown.  The  people  must  understand  that 
it  is  the  blackest  of  crimes  and  will  be  surely 
punished."  Though  in  the  same  speech  he 
said,  u  In  regard  to  my  future  course  I  will 
now  make  no  professions,  no  pledges,"  yet 
the  whole  country  looked  upon  these  expres 
sions  as  foreshadowing  a  severe  policy  in  deal 
ing  with  the  secessionists.  But  it  soon  be 
came  evident  that  this  expectation  was  to  be 
disappointed,  and  the  result  was  the  alienation 
from  President  Johnson  of  almost  the  entire 
body  of  the  party  that  had  elected  him.  On 
May  1  he  appointed  a  military  commission 
for  the  trial  of  those  immediately  concerned 
in  the  assassination  conspiracy,  and  offered 
$100,000  for  the  arrest  of  Jefferson  Davis, 
and  smaller  amounts  for  several  others,  on  the 
ground  that  they  had  aided  and  incited  that 
conspiracy.  On  May  9  a  new  set  of  rules  reg 
ulating  trade  with  the  southern  states  was 
promulgated,  and  on  June  24  all  restrictions 
were  removed.  An  order  for  the  restoration 
of  Virginia  to  her  relations  with  the  federal 
government  was  issued  May  9;  and  on  May 
29  two  proclamations  were  promulgated,  one 
establishing  a  provisional  government  in  South 
Carolina,  the  other  granting  a  general  amnesty, 
on  condition  of  their  taking  an  oath  of  alle 
giance,  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  rebellion, 
with  the  exception  of  14  specified  classes,  per 
sons  included  in  any  of  which  might  obtain 
pardon  by  a  special  application  to  the  presi 
dent.  The  appointment  of  provisional  govern 
ments  for  the  other  insurgent  states  followed 
at  brief  intervals.  On  the  assembling  of  con 
gress  in  December,  a  determined  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  majority  to  the  reconstruction 
policy  of  the  president  was  at  once  developed. 
The  point  at  issue  was,  whether  the  seceding 
states  should  be  at  once  admitted  to  represen 
tation  in  congress,  and  resume  all  the  rights 


they  enjoyed  before  the  civil  war,  without  fur 
ther  guarantees  of  good  faith  than  the  surren 
der  of  their  armies,  and  with  no  provision  for 
protecting  the  emancipated  blacks  in  the  en 
joyment  of  their  freedom  and  securing  them 
the  full  rights  of  citizenship.  A  joint  com 
mittee  of  15  was  appointed,  to  which  were 
referred  all  questions  concerning  the  recogni 
tion  of  Ufcese  states,  and  the  credentials  of  all 
persons  sent  from  them  as  senators  or  repre 
sentatives  were  laid  on  the  table,  to  await  the 
action  of  that  committee.  Congress  passed  an 
act  known  as  the  u  civil  rights  bill,"  and  another 
for  the  extension  of  the  freedmen's  bureau,  both 
of  which  the  president  vetoed,  and  the  bills 
were  then  reconsidered  and  passed  over  the 
veto.  In  a  speech  delivered  before  the  White 
House,  Feb.  22,  1806,  the  president  charac 
terized  the  position  assumed  by  congress  as  a 
new  rebellion;  and  thereafter,  in  messages 
and  speeches,  he  maintained  an  open  hostility 
to  the  majority  of  that  body.  In  June,  1866, 
a  call  was  issued  for  a  convention  to  be  held 
at  Philadelphia  on  Aug.  14,  of  delegates  from 
every  state  and  territory.  Its  specific  object 
was  not  defined ;  but  it  was  understood  to  be 
the  foundation  of  a  new  party,  on  the  basis  of 
President  Johnson's  reconstruction  policy.  It 
failed  of  any  practical  effect,  though  some  lead 
ing  members  of  the  dominant  party  attended 
or  approved  it.  The  members  of  President 
Lincoln's  cabinet  had  remained  in  office ;  but 
in  July  the  postmaster  general,  Mr.  Denison, 
the  attorney  general,  Mr.  Speed,  and  the  secre 
tary  of  the  interior,  Mr.  Harlan,  resigned  their 
offices,  because  of  disagreement  with  the  presi 
dent;  and  their  places  were  filled  by  A.  W. 
Randall,  Henry  Stanbery,  and  O.  II.  Browning, 
respectively.  On  Aug.  28  President  Johnson, 
accompanied  by  Secretaries  Seward,  Welles, 
and  Randall,  Gen.  Grant,  Admiral  Farragut, 
and  others,  left  Washington  for  Chicago,  to 
be  present  at  the  laying  of  the  corner  stone 
of  a  monument  to  Stephen  A.  Douglas.  They 
went  by  way  of  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
and  Albany;  and  at  every  important  place 
the  president  addressed  the  assembled  crowd, 
entering  very  fully  into  a  discussion  of  his 
policy,  and  often  denouncing  the  action  of 
congress.  An  expression  which  he  frequently 
repeated  in  these  speeches  gave  rise  to  the 
popular  quotation,  "swinging  round  the  cir 
cle."  The  effect  of  this  conduct  upon  himself 
was  disastrous,  and  the  autumn  elections  indi 
cated  a  decided  popular  approval  of  the  posi 
tion  maintained  by  congress.  In  June  that 
body  had  resolved  that  no  state  should  be  re 
admitted  until  it  had  ratified  the  proposed  14th 
amendment  to  the  constitution,  which  made 
all  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  tTnited 
States  citizens  thereof,  and  of  the  state  wherein 
they  resided;  and  in  the  session  of  1866-'7  it 
passed  acts  requiring  the  elective  franchise  to 
be  granted  without  distinction  of  color  in  the 
territories  before  they  should  be  admitted  as 
states,  and  similarly  extending  the  franchise  in 


ANDREW  JOHNSON 


661 


the  District  of  Columbia.  All  these  measures 
met  the  determined  opposition  of  President 
Johnson ;  but  his  vetoes  were  regularly  over 
ridden  by  the  constitutional  majority  in  con 
gress.  His  argument  against  such  measures 
was,  that  they  "initiated  an  untried  experi 
ment  for  a  people  who  have  said,  with  one 
voice,  that  it  is  not  for  their  good,"  and  that 
they  were  unconstitutional.  On  March  2, 
1867,  congress  passed  over  the  president's  veto 
an  act  dividing  ten  of  the  seceding  states  into 
five  military  districts,  and  making  the  civil 
governments  therein  subject  to  the  authority 
of  the  United  States,  exercised  through  the 
military  commanders.  After  appointing  the 
commanders,  President  Johnson  requested  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Stanbery,  the  attorney  general, 
as  to  the  legal  questions  arising  from  the  re 
construction  acts ;  and  this  opinion,  after  being 
considered  in  the  cabinet,  where  Mr.  Stanton 
alone  objected  to  those  portions  calculated  to 
nullify  the  law,  was  issued  to  the  district  com 
manders  as  an  order.  Gen.  Sheridan,  com 
manding  the  fifth  district,  soon  after  reported 
to  Gen.  Grant,  commander-in-chief,  that  "the 
result  of  Mr.  Stanbery's  opinion  is  beginning 
to  show  itself  by  a  defiant  opposition  to  all 
acts  of  the  military  commander,  by  impeding 
and  rendering  helpless  the  civil  officers  acting 
under  his  appointment"  In  July  congress 
passed  an  act  declaring  the  meaning  of  the 
previous  act,  and  making  the  conduct  of  the 
military  commanders  subject  only  to  the  ap 
proval  of  the  general  of  the  army.  This  was 
vetoed,  and  passed  over  the  veto.  The  only 
resource  left  to  the  president  was  to  change 
the  military  commanders,  which  he  did  before 
tlje  end  of  the  year.  On  Aug.  12,  1867,  the 
president  notified  to  Mr.  Stanton  his  suspen 
sion  from  office  as  secretary  of  .war,  and  the 
appointment  of  Gen.  Grant  as  secretary  ad 
interim.  Mr.  Stanton  turned  over  the  office 
to  the  latter,  submitting,  "  under  protest,  to  su 
perior  force,"  but  denying  the  right  of  the 
president  to  remove  him.  This  denial  was 
based  on  the  tenure-of-office  act  (passed  March 
2,  1867),  which  provided  that  no  such  remo 
val  should  be  made  without  the  consent 
of  the  senate,  and  that  appointments  to  va 
cancies  occurring  during  the  recess  of  con 
gress  should  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
senate  at  its  next  session.  On  Aug.  20  the 
president  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
peace,  order,  and  civil  authority  existed  once 
more  throughout  the  United  States;  and  on 
Sept.  7  he  proclaimed  an  amnesty  which  re 
lieved  nearly  all  the  white  inhabitants  of  the 
southern  states  from  any  liability  to  confis 
cation  of  property,  and  restored  to  them  the 
right  of  suffrage.  When  congress  assembled 
in  September  the  president  sent  to  the  senate 
a  statement  of  his  reasons  for  the  removal  of 
Mr.  Stanton ;  but  that  body  refused  to  sanction 
the  removal,  and  Gen.  Grant  immediately  re 
signed  the  office  into  Mr.  Stanton's  hands. 
On  Feb.  21,  1868,  Mr.  Stanton  was  again  in 


formed  of  his  removal,  and  of  the  appointment 
of  Gen.  Lorenzo  Thomas  as  secretary  of  war 
ad  interim.  When  the  senate  was  officially 
informed  of  this  action,  it  passed  a  resolution 
declaring  that  "the  president  has  no  power 
to  remove  the  secretary  of  war  and  designate 
any  other  person  to  perform  the  duties  of 
that  office."  Mr.  Stanton  therefore  refused  to 
vacate  his  office.  On  the  following  day  the 
house  of  representatives  passed  a  resolution 
that  the  president  be  impeached  for  high  crimes 
and  misdemeanors  (yeas,  126;  nays,  47;  not 
voting,  17).  The  articles  of  impeachment  were 
agreed  to  by  the  house  on  March  3,  and  pre 
sented  to  the  senate  on  the  5th.  The  specifi 
cations  were  based  on  the  president's  removal 
of  Mr.  Stanton,  his  expressions  in  public 
speeches  of  contempt  for  congress,  declaring 
the  39th  not  a  constitutional  congress,  and  his 
hindrance  of  the  execution  of  some  of  its  acts. 
The  trial  began  on  March  23,  the  president 
appearing  by  counsel.  In  his  defence  he  as 
serted  that  his  reconstruction  policy  was  in 
pursuance  of  a  course  which  had  been  marked 
out  and  determined  upon  by  President  Lincoln 
and  his  cabinet ;  and  that  Mr.  Stanton  himself 
had  expressed  his  emphatic  opinion  of  the  un 
constitutionally  of  the  tenure-of-office  act, 
when  its  veto  was  under  consideration.  On 
May  16  the  senate  voted  upon  the  article  in 
reference  to  contempt  of  congress  and  hin 
drance  of  execution  of  its  acts,  and  on  the  2Gth 
upon  that  in  reference  to  the  removal  of  Mr. 
Stanton.  In  each  case  the  vote  stood  :  guilty, 
35;  not  guilty,  19.  So  the  president  was 
formally  acquitted,  as  a  two-thirds  vote  is  re 
quired  to  convict.  Mr.  Stanton  thereupon  re 
signed  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gen. 
Schofield.  At  the  democratic  national  conven 
tion  held  in  New  York,  July  4,  1868,  Mr.  John 
son's  name  was  presented  as  a  candidate  for 
the  presidency,  and  on  the  first  ballot  he  re 
ceived  65  votes,  leading  all  other  candidates 
except  George  II.  Pendleton,  who  received 
105.  On  the  successive  ballots  he  lost  rapidly, 
until  on  the  19th  he  received  no  votes.  On  July 
4  President  Johnson  issued  a  proclamation  of 
pardon  to  all  persons  except  those  under  pre 
sentment  or  indictment  before  a  LTnited  States 
court;  and  on  Dec.  25  a  full  pardon  to  every 
body  who  had  participated  in  the  rebellion. 
On  March  4,  1869,  he  was  succeeded  in  the 
presidential  office  by  U.  S.  Grant,  and  retired 
to  his  home  in  Greenville,  Tenn.  In  1870  he 
was  a  candidate  before  the  legislature  of  Ten 
nessee  for  a  seat  in  the  United  States  senate, 
but  was  defeated  by  two  votes.  In  1872  he 
was  an  independent  candidate  for  congress 
man  at  large,  and  divided  the  democratic 
vote  with  the  confederate  (Jen.  I>.  F.  Cheat- 
ham,  which  resulted  in  the  election  of  Horace 
Maynard,  the  republican  candidate. — See  "Life 
and  Public  Services  of  Andrew  Johnson," 
by  John  Savage  (New  York,  1865);  "Life, 
Speeches,  and  Services  of  Andrew  Johnson " 
(Philadelphia,  1865);  "Speeches  of  Andrew 


CG2 


JOHNSON 


Johnson,"  -with  a  biographical  introduction 
by  Frank  Moore  (Boston,  1805) ;  "Life  and 
Speeches  of  Andrew  Johnson,  President  of 
the  United  States,"  by  Lillian  Foster  (Philadel 
phia,  18GG) ;  "  Life  and  Times  of  Andrew 
Johnson"  (New  York,  1866);  "Impeachment 
and  Trial  of  Andrew  Johnson  "  (Philadelphia, 
1868);  and  "Proceedings  in  the  Trial  of  An 
drew  Johnson  "  (Washington,  1868). 

JOHXSON,  Eastman,  an  American  painter,  born 
at  Lovell,  near  Freyburg,  Me.,  July  29, 1824.  He 
first  became  known  for  his  drawings  in  crayon, 
and  in  1849  went  to  Diisseldorf,  where  he  studied 
for  two  years.  lie  afterward  resided  at  the 
Hague  for  four  years,  and  executed  there  the 
" Savoyard "  and  "Card  Players,"  his  earliest 
elaborate  paintings  in  oil,  besides  a  number  of 
portraits  and  genre  paintings.  He  also  visited 
the  principal  galleries  and  studios  in  Holland, 
Italy,  and  France.  In  1856  he  removed  to 
Paris,  but  returned  the  same  year  to  America, 
and  has  since  resided  for  the  most  part  in  New 
York.  He  gives  his  attention  mainly  to  genre 
painting,  finding  his  favorite  subjects  in  the 
American  rustic  and  negro,  and  in  glimpses  of 
household  and  childish  life.  His  paintings  are 
characterized  by  clearness,  vigor,  and  faithful 
ness  to  nature.  Among  the  best  known  are 
"  The  Old  Kentucky  Home "  (1859),  first  ex 
hibited  in  New  York,  and  sent  with  "Mating" 
(I860)  and  "The  Farmer's  Sunday  Morning" 
(1866)  to  the  Paris  universal  exposition  in 
1867;  "The  Barefoot  Boy"  (1860),  illustrating 
Whittier's  poem;  "The  Village  Blacksmith" 
,(1864);  "Fiddling  his  Way"  (1865);  "The 
Boyhood  of  Abraham  Lincoln"  and  "The 
Field  Hospital"  (1867) ;  " The  Pension  Claim 
Agent"  (1868);  "Our  Father  who  art  in 
Heaven"  (1869);  "The  Old  Stage  Coach"  and 
"  Bo-peep  "  (1871) ;  "  The  Wounded  Drummer 
Boy  "  (1872) ;  "  Dropping  off  "  and  "  The  Ped 
dler"  (1873).  He  has  also,  during  a  visit  to 
the  upper  Mississippi,  sketched  some  excellent 
portraits  of  American  Indians.  His  "  Old  Ken 
tucky  Home,"  "  Boyhood  of  Abraham  Lincoln," 
and  some  other  works,  have  been  copied  in 
chromolithography,  and  photographs  have  been 
published  of  the  "  Wounded  Drummer  Boy" 
and  "  Our  Father  who  art  in  Heaven." 

JOHXSON,  Edward,  a  historian  of  New  Eng 
land,  born  in  Kent,  England,  about  1600,  died 
at  Woburn,  Mass.,  April  23,  1672.  He  emi 
grated  to  America  probably  with  Gov.  Win- 
throp  in  1630.  In  1632  he  was  engaged  in 
trade  at  Merrimack,  but  appears  to  have  re 
sided  usually  at  Charlestown.  He  was  on  the 
committee  appointed  to  superintend  the  foun 
dation  of  a  new  town  and  church  at  the  place 
now  called  Woburn.  In  1643  he  went  to  Prov 
idence  with  Capt.  Cook's  party  to  seize  Gor 
ton,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  a  mem 
ber  of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts,  in 
which  he  continued  to  sit  till  1671,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  the  year  1648.  In  1655  he  was  cho 
sen  speaker  of  the  house.  He  was  recorder  of 
Woburn  from  the  time  of  its  incorporation  till 


his  death.  In  1665  he  was  one  of  the  mem 
bers  deputed  to  hold  conference  with  the  com 
missioners  sent  from  England  by  Charles  II. 
He  wrote  a  "  History  of  New  England  from 
the  English  Planting  in  1628  till  1652,  or  Won 
der-Working  Providence  of  Zion's  Saviour " 
(London,  1654),  which,  notwithstanding  its 
defective  and  desultory  style,  is  interesting  and 
valuable.  It  has  been  reprinted  in  the  second 
series  of  the  Massachusetts  historical  collections, 
scattered  through  vols.  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  vii.,  viii. 

JOHNSON,  Isaac,  one  of  the  original  colonizers 
of  Massachusetts,  born  in  Clipsham,  Rutland 
shire,  England,  died  in  Boston,  Sept.  30,  1630. 
He  arrived  at  Salem  with  his  wife,  June  12, 
1630,  and  was  one  of  the  four  persons  who 
founded  the  first  church  at  Charlestown  in  the 
following  month.  The  water  there,  however, 
being  bad,  Mr.  Johnson  and  some  others  re 
moved  to  Shawmut,  now  Boston,  where  was 
"an  excellent  spring."  He  superintended  the 
first  settlement  of  Boston,  and  bequeathed  at 
his  death  considerable  property  to  the  colony. 
— His  wife,  AEBELLA  or  ARABELLA,  daughter 
of  Thomas,  14th  earl  of  Lincoln,  accompanied 
him  to  New  England,  and  died  in  Salem  in  the 
August  subsequent  to  her  arrival.  She  was 
usually  styled  the  "Lady  Arbella,"  and  was 
highly  esteemed  by  Winthrop,  who  changed 
the  name  of  his  ship,  and  called  it  after  her. 

JOHNSON,  Reverdy,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Annapolis,  Md.,  May  21,  1796.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  college  in  that  city, 
and  at  the  age  of  17  began  to  study  law  in 
Prince  George's  co.  in  the  office  of  his  father, 
who  was  chief  justice  of  the  judicial  district 
of  which  that  county  was  a  part.  In  1815  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1817  removed 
to  Baltimore.  He  has  devoted  much  of  his  time 
to  the  arguing  of  cases  before  the  United 
States  supreme  court.  In  conjunction  with 
Mr.  Thomas  Harris  he  reported  the  decisions 
of  the  Maryland  court  of  appeals,  known  as 
"  Harris's  and  Johnson's  Reports "  (7  vols., 
1820-'27).  In  1821  he  was  elected  a  state  sen 
ator  for  four  years,  and  in  1825  reflected .  In 
1845  he  was  chosen  a  Ignited  States  senator, 
which  office  he  resigned  in  1849  on  being  ap 
pointed  by  President  Taylor  attorney  general 
of  the  United  States.  On  the  successkm  of 
Mr.  Fillmore  after  the  death  of  President  Tay 
lor,  Mr.  Johnson  resigned  that  office,  and  re 
sumed  in  Baltimore  the  practice  of  the  law. 
In  1861  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  in 
Washington  which  tried  to  prevent  the  out 
break  of  the  civil  war.  In  1862  he  was  again 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  and  was  a 
member  from  1863  to  1868.  In  June  of  the 
latter  year  ho  was  appointed  minister  to  Eng 
land,  where  he  negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  set 
tlement  of  the  Alabama  claims,  Avhich  was  re 
jected  by  the  senate.  He  was  recalled  in  1869. 

JOHNSON,  Richard  Mentor,  an  American  states 
man,  born  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  Oct.  17,  1780, 
died  in  Frankfort,  Nov.  19,  1850.  He  was 
educated  at  Transylvania  university,  and  sub- 


SAMUEL  JOHNSON" 


663 


sequently  studied  law  and  practised  with  suc 
cess.  He  commenced  his  public  career  as  a 
member  of  the  Kentucky  legislature,  to  which 
he  was  elected  at  the  age  of  23,  and  in  1807 
was  returned  to  congress,  and  remained  a 
member  of  the  house  till  1819.  He  was  a  firm 
supporter  of  the  administration  of  President 
Madison,  and  upon  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  1812  raised  a  body  of  Kentucky  mount 
ed  riflemen,  whom  he  commanded  with  the 
rank  of  colonel  on  the  Canadian  frontier.  He 
resumed  his  legislative  duties  in  the  autumn 
of  that  year,  but  upon  the  adjournment  of 
congress  in  the  spring  of  1813  he  immediately 
raised  another  mounted  regiment,  with  which 
he  was  employed  for  several  months  on  the 
Indian  frontier.  In  September  he  joined  Gen. 
Harrison,  then  in  pursuit  of  Proctor,  and  by 
the  decisive  charge  of  his  mounted  volunteers 
mainly  contributed  to  the  brilliant  victory 
gained  over  the  British  and  Indians  at  the 
battle  of  the  Thames,  Oct.  5.  Col.  Johnson 
fought  with  distinguished  valor  in  this  engage 
ment,  and  it  was  by  his  hand  that  the  Indian 
leader  Tecumseh  is  commonly  supposed  to 
have  fallen.  He  was  carried  from  the  field 
desperately  wounded,  his  person,  clothing,  and 
horse  having  been  pierced  by  more  than  25 
bullets  ;  but  in  the  following  February  he  re 
sumed  his  seat  in  congress.  In  1819  he  was 
elected  to  lill  a  vacancy  in  the  United  States 
senate,  of  which  he  continued  a  member  till 
1829,  when  he  was  again  returned  to  the 
house  of  representatives,  and  held  his  seat 
there  till  March,  1837.  Having  been  a  candi 
date  for  vice  president  on  the  Van  Buren 
ticket  in  1836,  and  received  a  large  plurality 
.of  votes,  though  not  a  majority  as  required  by 
the  constitution,  he  was  elected  to  the  office 
by  the  senate,  and  discharged  the  duties  of 
presiding  officer  of  that  body  for  four  years. 
In  the  presidential  election  of  1840  he  was  again 
candidate  of  the  democratic  party  for  vice  pres 
ident,  and  was  defeated.  He  returned  to  his 
farm  in  Scott  co.,  Ky.,  after  upward  of  34 
years'  continuous  public  service,  and  thence 
forth  lived  chiefly  in  retirement.  He  was, 
however,  serving  a  term  in  the  state  legislature 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  In  congress  his  chief 
efforts  were  against  the  discontinuance  of  the 
Sunday  mails,  and  in  behalf  of  soldiers  of  the 
revolution  or  of  the  war  of  1812  who  applied 
for  pensions.  He  was  the  author  of  the  law 
abolishing  imprisonment  for  debt  in  Kentucky. 
JOII.XSON,  Samuel,  an  American  clergyman, 
first  president  of  King's  (now  Columbia)  col-  I 
lege,  New  York,  born  in  Guilford,  Conn.,  Oct. 
14,  1696,  died  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  June  6, 
1772.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1714, 
and  two  years  later  was  appointed  tutor  there,  j 
In  1720  he  was  ordained  as  a  Congregational 
minister,  and  settled  at  West  Haven.  He 
relinquished  his  pastoral  charge  in  1722, 
and  soon  after,  in  company  with  Mr.  Cutler, 
rector  of  the  college,  and  another  gentle 
man,  sailed  for  England,  where  they  received 


episcopal  ordination  in  1723,  and  in  May  he 
received  the  degree  of  A.  M.  from  the  univer 
sity  of  Oxford.  He  soon  returned  to  America, 
bearing  a  commission  as  missionary  of  the  so 
ciety  for  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  in  for 
eign  parts,  and  settled  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  as 
rector  of  an  Episcopal  church  there.  In  1743 
lie  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  uni 
versity  of  Oxford.  In  1746  he  published  "A 
System  of  Morality,"  and  about  the  same  time 
composed  a  compend  of  logic  and  metaphysics, 
and  another  of  ethics,  originally  prepared  for 
the  use  of  his  sons.  The  two  latter  were 
printed  by  Franklin  (Philadelphia,  1752),  as 
text  books  for  the  university  of  Pennsylvania. 
In  1753  he  was  invited  to  become  president  of 
the  newly  founded  college  in  New  York ;  and 
having  declined  the  presidency  of  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  he  entered  upon  his  duties  in 
New  York  in  1754.  In  addition  to  teaching 
the  classes  he  assisted  in  planning  the  college 
edifices,  and  made  earnest  appeals  to  his  friends 
in  England  for  assistance  in  its  endowment. 
During  the  nine  years  of  his  presidency  he 
lost  his  wife,  younger  son,  and  stepson,  and 
became  so  much  depressed  as  to  be  unwilling 
to  remain  longer  in  charge  of  the  college. 
He  accordingly  wrote  to  England  for  a  suc 
cessor,  and  in  1763  resigned  and  returned  to 
Stratford.  During  his  presidency  he  published 
one  or  two  small  works,  and  after  his  return 
to  Stratford,  where  he  resumed  his  parochial 
duties,  revised  his  previous  works,  and  pub 
lished  an  English  and  a  Hebrew  grammar. — 
See  "Life  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,"  by  E.  E. 
Beardsley  (New  York,  1874). 

JOHNSON,  Samuel,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Lichfield,  Sept.  18,  1709,  died  in  London,  Dec. 
13,  1784.  His  father,  Michael  Johnson,  was 
a  bookseller  and  stationer,  and  for  some  time 
a  magistrate  of  Lichfield ;  but  dying  in  middle 
age,  he  left  his  family  in  poverty.  From  his 
birth  the  younger  Johnson  was  afflicted  with 
a  malignant  scrofula  which  permanently  dis 
figured  his  face,  and  injured  both  his  sight  and 
hearing.  At  10  years  of  age  he  commenced 
the  study  of  Latin  at  the  Lichfield  free  school, 
and  remained  there  five  years,  and  another 
year  at  a  private  academy  in  Stourbridge.  On 
account  of  poverty  his  entrance  at  Oxford  was 
delayed  for  two  years,  during  which  time  he 
amused  himself  chiefly  in  reading  the  books 
in  his  father's  shop.  At  length  lie  went  to 
OxforcJ  with  a  schoolmate,  the  son  of  a  neigh 
boring  gentleman,  as  assistant  and  fellow  stu 
dent,  and  was  admitted  to  Pembroke  college 
in  1728.  His  college  life  was  disorderly,  but 
not  vicious.  He  especially  distinguished  him 
self  in  a  Latin  translation  of  Pope's  u  Messiah," 
for  which  he  received  the  applause  of  his  col 
lege,  while  Pope  himself  declared  that  it  would 
be  a  question  for  posterity  which  was  the 
original  and  which  the  translation.  AVhile  at 
Oxford  he  showed  signs  of  the  morbid  state 
of  his  brain  and  nervous  system  which  affected 
him  in  all  his  after  life ;  but  by  skilful  treat- 


664 


SAMUEL  JOHNSON 


ment,  and  the  strong  will  of  the  patient,  the 
disease  was  held  in  check,  and  the  threatened 
wreck  of  intellect  averted.  He  remained  at 
the  university  about  three  years,  left  it  on  ac 
count  of  poverty  without  a  degree,  and  pro 
cured  employment  as  an  usher  in  a  school  at 
Market  Bosworth,  Leicestershire.  lie  next 
spent  some  time  at  Birmingham  with  a  book 
seller,  who  also  published  a  small  newspaper, 
to  which  Johnson  contributed.  Here  he  be 
came  acquainted  with  the  family  of  Mr.  Por 
ter,  a  linen  draper,  whose  widow  he  afterward 
married.  About  this  time  he  executed  his  first 
literary  work,  a  translation  of  Father  Lobo's 
"Voyage  to  Abyssinia."  He  soon  after  issued 
proposals  to  publish  by  subscription  the  Latin 
poems  of  Politian,  with  a  history  of  Latin 
poetry  from  the  age  of  Petrarch  to  the  time  of 
Politian  ;  but  the  work  was  never  completed. 
He  spent  his  time  alternately  at  Birmingham 
and  Lichfield,  till  after  two  years  he  was  mar 
ried  to  Mrs.  Porter,  who  was  nearly  twice  his 
age,  and  then  he  opened  a  private  academy 
at  Edial  Hall,  near  Lichfield.  But  he  obtained 
only  three  pupils,  two  of  whom  were  David 
Garrick  and  his  younger  brother ;  and  after 
trial  of  a  year  and  a  half  the  enterprise  was 
abandoned. — In  the  spring  of  1737  he  >et  out  for 
London  accompanied  by  Garrick.  He  sought 
employment  among  the  booksellers,  and  lived 
at  the  most  economical  rates,  bearing  all  his 
privations  and  discouragement  with  a  sullen 
fortitude.  He  contributed  to  the  "Gentle 
man's  Magazine,"  and  at  length  became  assis 
tant  editor  of  that  publication.  He  first  be 
came  known  in  1738  by  the  publication  of 
"London,"  a  poem  in  imitation  of  the  third 
satire  of  Juvenal,  which  was  received  with  de 
cided  favor.  He  was  recommended  to  the  mas 
tership  of  a  school  at  Appleby,  but  his  want 
of  a  degree  disqualified  him  by  the  statutes 
of  the  corporation.  A  like  difficulty  prevent 
ed  his  entering  the  legal  profession.  He  now 
contributed  to  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine" 
a  class  of  papers  in  biography  and  general 
literature  which  gave  a  new  and  higher  charac 
ter  to  that  work.  He  also  wrote  two  or  three 
political  pamphlets  against  Walpole  and  the 
whig  administration.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  session  of  parliament  in  November,  1740, 
Johnson  undertook  to  write  imaginary  reports 
of  the  debates,  following  the  order  in  which 
the  members  spoke,  and  imitating  their  respec 
tive  styles.  The  eloquence  of  the  speeches 
thus  produced  excited  universal  admiration, 
and  the  sale  of  the  magazine  was  greatly 
increased;  but  after  a  little  more  than  two 
years  Johnson  relinquished  the  position,  be 
cause  he  doubted  the  morality  of  the  decep 
tion  he  Avas  practising  upon  the  world,  though 
he  still  retained  his  connection  with  the  maga 
zine.  Early  in  1744  was  published  the  "Life 
of  Richard  Savage,"  which  Johnson  had  prom 
ised  to  the  public  immediately  upon  the  death 
of  its  subject,  a  few  months  before.  The  book 
contributed  very  considerably  to  fix  the  repu 


tation  of  its  author.  The  next  year,  among 
other  labors,  he  wrote  the  preface  and  index  to 
the  Harleian  miscellany,  a  collection  of  pam 
phlets  from  the  library  of  the  earl  of  Oxford, 
which  had  been  purchased  by  the  bookseller  Os- 
borne.  In  that  painful  drudgery  Johnson  toiled 
as  a  day  laborer,  and  was  treated  by  Osborne 
with  an  insolence  that  once  provoked  Johnson 
to  knock  him  down.  The  same  year  he  issued 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "Miscellaneous  Observa 
tions  on  the  Tragedy  of  Macbeth,"  to  which 
he  affixed  proposals  for  a  new  edition  of  Shake 
speare.  This  pamphlet  attracted  the  attention 
of  Warburton,  who  was  then  engaged  in  a 
similar  work,  and  was  commended  by  him  as 
evidently  the  work  of  "  a  man  of  parts."  In 
1747  Garrick  became  joint  manager  of  Drury 
Lane  theatre,  and  Johnson  wrote  a  prologue 
to  be  spoken  at  its  opening,  which  added 
greatly  to  his  reputation.  In  this  year  he 
issued  proposals  for  his  "Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language."  The  plan  of  the  work, 
which  indicates  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
the  subject,  and  a  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  the  method  to  be  pursued  in  its  prosecu 
tion,  was  addressed  to  the  earl  of  Chester 
field,  then  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state,  who 
was  ambitious  of  the  reputation  of  a  patron  of 
learning,  and  expressed  a  warm  interest  in  the 
enterprise.  Five  publishing  houses  were  con 
cerned  in  the  contract.  Johnson  was  to  re 
ceive  £1,575,  which  amount  however  was  to 
cover  all  the  incidental  expenses  of  preparing 
the  work  for  the  press.  To  facilitate  his  work 
he  removed  to  Gough  square  in  Fleet  street, 
where  he  had  rooms  properly  arranged  for  its 
prosecution,  being  assisted  by  six  copyists. 
He  availed  himself  of  whatever  helps  were 
offered  in  the  extant  works  on  English  phi 
lology  and  lexicography,  but  relied  chiefly  on 
his  own  original  labors.  This  great  work  oc 
cupied  its  author,  though  not  exclusively,  du 
ring  the  next  seven  years.  A  trip  to  Tunbridge 
Wells,  in  the  summer  of  1748,  brought  him 
into  contact  with  some  of  the  celebrities  of  the 
metropolis,  among  them  William  Pitt,  Lord 
Lyttelton,  and  Speaker  Onslow,  who  paid  him 
marked  attention.  To  facilitate  his  intercourse 
with  his  literary  associates,  he  also  this  year 
originated  a  club,  called  from  its  place  of  meet 
ing  the  "  Ivy  Lane  Club."  At  its  organization 
it  consisted  of  ten  members,  of  whom  John 
son,  Hawkins,  and  Dyer  afterward  belonged 
to  the  celebrated  "Literary  Club."  In  1748 
Dodsley  brought  out  his  "Preceptor,"  a  com 
pilation  of  choice  pieces  for  young  persons,  in 
which  first  appeared  Johnson's  "  Vision  of  Theo 
dore,  the  Hermit  of  Teneriffe."  To  this  year 
also  belongs  his  second  poetical  production, 
"  The  A'anity  of  Human  Wishes,"  an  imitation 
of  the  10th  satire  of  Juvenal;  it  was  printed 
by  Dodsley,  and  brought  its  author  15  guineas. 
While  yet  residing  at  Lichfield  Johnson  had 
commenced  a  tragedy,  in  five  acts,  called 
"Irene,"  which  he  finished  during  his  first 
two  or  three  years  in  London ;  and  Garrick, 


SAMUEL  JOHNSON 


665 


soon  after  his  accession  to  the  management  of 
Drury  Lane  theatre,  undertook  to  bring:  it  out. 
It  was  acted  for  nine  successive  nights,  before 
tolerably  large  and  highly  respectable  audi 
ences,  and  was  received  with  a  good  share  of 
favor.  The  author's  profits  amounted  to  £200, 
and  the  copyright  brought  him  another  £100, 
making  together  a  larger  amount  than  he  had 
hitherto  received  on  any  one  occasion. — On 
March  20,  1750,  Johnson  issued  the  lirst  num 
ber  of  the  "Rambler."  Its  authorship  was 
not  publicly  confessed,  but  it  was  readily  iden 
tified  by  all  who  knew  anything  of  Johnson's 
style,  nor  did  he  affect  any  great  secrecy  in 
the  matter.  Its  merits  were  generally  con 
fessed,  and  for  two  years  the  semi-weekly  is 
sues  were  continued  without  omission.  John 
son  was  the  sole  author  of  all  but  eight  of  the 
208  numbers.  At  the  same  time  he  was  chief 
ly  occupied  with  his  dictionary,  then  rapidly 
approaching  its  completion.  During  this  por 
tion  of  his  life  his  mind  was  remarkably  vig 
orous  and  fruitful,  and  its  vast  accumulations 
were  thrown  off  in  profusion  and  with  great 
facility.  The  "Rambler,"  though  coldly  re 
ceived  as  a  periodical,  immediately  became 
popular  when  collected  into  volumes.  About 
this  period  Johnson  was  concerned  in  an  at 
tempt  to  prove  Milton  guilty  of  a  wholesale  pla 
giarism  in  his  "  Paradise  Lost."  One  Lander,  a 
Scotch  schoolmaster,  pretended  to  have  found 
a  large  share  of  the  best  portions  of  Milton's 
great  poem  among  the  works  of  the  modern 
Latin  poets ;  his  proofs  of  this  grave  charge 
were  embodied  in  a  pamphlet,  to  which  John 
son  was  induced  to  write  a  preface  and  post 
script,  thus  by  implication  approving  the  whole 
production.  But  Lander's  pretended  quota 
tions  from  the  modern  Latin  poets  were  found 
to  be  either  taken  from  Hogg's  Latin  version  of 
"Paradise  Lost,"  or  pure  forgeries.  Johnson 
was  deeply  chagrined,  and  at  once  acknowl 
edged  his  own  error,  and  compelled  Lander  to 
publicly  confess  his  falsehood.  That  Johnson 
highly  appreciated  Milton's  genius,  he  about 
this  time  gave  a  practical  demonstration. 
"Comus"  was  to  be  produced  at  Drury  Lane 
theatre  for  the  benefit  of  Milton's  granddaugh 
ter,  then  living  in  London  in  poverty.  John 
son  entered  into  the  arrangement  with  zeal, 
and  wrote  the  prologue  for  the  occasion,  which 
was  spoken  by  Garrick.  Early  in  1752  John 
son's  wife  died.  Notwithstanding  the  dis 
parity  of  their  ages,  his  early  affection  had 
only  changed  into  a  settled  esteem.  At  her 
bedside  he  was  convulsed  with  grief,  and  yet 
while  she  lay  a  corpse  awaiting  burial  he  com 
posed  a  funeral  sermon  to  be  spoken  over  her 
remains.  His  published  "  Prayers  and  Medita 
tions  "  indicate  his  feeling.  He  prayed  that, 
if  agreeable  to  the  will  of  God,  he  might  be 
favored  with  her  guardianship,  and  with  in 
timations  of  her  presence,  "  by  appearances, 
impulses,  dreams,  or  in  any  other  manner 
agreeable  to  the  divine  government."  In  1752 
Johnson  engaged  with  Dr.  Ilawkesworth  in 


the  publication  of  the  "Adventurer,"  a  series 
of  periodical  essays  on  the  plan  of  the  "Ram 
bler."  Of  these  140  numbers  appeared,  29  of 
which  were  written  by  Dr.  Johnson.  The  dic 
tionary  was  completed  in  1755.  Lord  Ches 
terfield,  who  had  received  the  "Plan"  with 
great  coolness,  now  wrote  two  laudatory  let 
ters  in  "The  World,"  shortly  before  the  work 
was  printed.  But  Johnson  rejected  these 
tardy  advances,  and  the  dictionary  was  issued 
without  a  dedication.  The  original  preface 
was  at  once  a  characteristic  and  a  highly  valu 
able  essay.  The  merits  of  Johnson's  diction 
ary  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  state 
ment  in  this  place.  It  first  brought  order 
out  of  the  chaos  of  the  language  ;  and  though 
it  has  been  generally  superseded  by  later  com 
pilations,  yet  the  fundamental  excellences  of 
all  modern  dictionaries  of  the  English  lan 
guage  have  their  elements  in  that  work.  It 
greatly  enhanced  its  author's  reputation,  but 
he  was  still  compelled  to  labor  unremittingly 
for  the  means  of  daily  subsistence.  He  pub 
lished  at  this  time  a  large  number  of  reviews 
in  Newbery's  "  Literary  Magazine."  The  pro 
posal  for  an  edition  of  Shakespeare  made  some 
years  before,  but  not  prosecuted,  was  renewed 
and  a  subscription  opened,  but  the  work  still 
lingered  on  his  hands  through  nine  years.  He 
next  engaged  with  the  publishers  of  the  "  Uni 
versal  Chronicle,"  a  weekly  newspaper,  to  fur 
nish  a  series  of  miscellaneous  essays,  and  the 
"Idler"  appeared  in  regular  order  for  two 
successive  years,  beginning  in  April,  ]  758.  Of 
its  103  numbers  Johnson  wrote  all  but  12.  In 
the  spring  of  1759  appeared  his  most  celebra 
ted  work,  "  Rasselas,  Prince  of  Abyssinia," 
which  he  wrote  in  the  evenings  of  one  week, 
and  sent  to  the  printer  as  first  written,  receiv 
ing  for  it  £100,  out  of  which  he  paid  the  ex 
penses  of  his  mother's  funeral.  But  if  John 
son's  literary  labors  had  failed  to  provide  him 
a  competence,  they  had  procured  for  him  a 
greatly  advanced  social  position,  and  secured 
him  a  large  circle  of  admirers.  Ilis  constitu 
tional  indolence  had  however  become  positive- 
j  ly  morbid,  and  he  indulged  in  idleness  just  as 
I  far  as  his  immediate  necessities  would  allow. 
I  He  seldom  went  abroad,  lay  in  bed  till  past 
noon,  and  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  in  promis 
cuous  conversations  with  whosoever  called 
upon  him  ;  or  moped  in  morbid  melancholy  if 
left  to  himself,  which,  however,  was  not  often 
the  case.  To  his  guests  he  devoted  a  large 
share  of  each  afternoon,  meanwhile  regaling 
himself  with  his  favorite  tea,  with  which  he 
solaced  both  his  earlier  and  his  later  hours. 
Among  his  personal  associates  at  this  period 
were  Richardson.  Garrick,  Reynolds,  Warton, 
Baretti,  Arthur  Murphy,  Dr.  Charles  Burney, 
Dr.  (afterward  Bishop)  Percy,  Bcnnet  Langton, 
and  Topham  Beauclerk.  lie  was  all  this  time 
domiciled  at  Gough  square,  where  he  had 
passed  the  greater  portion  of  the  years  of  his 
residence  in  London.  Here,  before  the  de 
cease  of  his  wife,  he  had  begun  to  gather  about 


666 


SAMUEL  JOHNSON 


him  a  family  group,  -which  was  afterward 
much  enlarged,  made  up  of  a  strangely  assort 
ed  set  of  dependants  and  pensioners.  Anna 
Williams,  the  blind  daughter  of  a  Welsh  phy 
sician  ;  Robert  Levett,  who  practised  medicine 
amon<r  the  very  poor,  and  often  received  his 
fees  in  liquor  ;  Mrs.  Desmoulins  and  her  daugh 
ter,  who  had  no  other  claim  upon  his  benevo 
lence  than  the  service  which  the  father  of  the 
former,  Dr.  Swinfen,  had  rendered  to  John 
son  in  a  professional  capacity  in  his  youth; 
and  Francis  Barber,  his  negro  servant,  were 
among  the  inmates  of  his  house. — Johnson  had 
an  implicit  belief  in  the  supernatural  and  invis 
ible  world,  lie  practically  adopted  the  maxim 
that  it  is  safer  to  believe  too  much  than  too  lit 
tle.  He  believed  in  the  existence  and  appear 
ance  of  disembodied  spirits,  and  that  they 
might  be  manifested  to  our  cognizance.  A 
case  of  this  kind  occurred  in  1763,  which  ex 
posed  Johnson  to  the  ridicule  of  his  enemies. 
Certain  strange  phenomena  in  the  form  of 
u  rappings  "  about  the  bed  of  a  young  girl,  in  a 
house  in  Cock  lane,  caused  a  considerable  ex 
citement,  and  a  number  of  gentlemen,  of  whom 
Johnson  was  one,  attempted  to  solve  the  mys 
tery.  Their  examinations  satisfied  them  that 
the  whole  was  a  cheat  and  imposture,  and 
Johnson  afterward  wrote  out  a  statement  of  it 
for  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine."  But  the  af 
fair  was  seized  upon  by  Johnson's  enemies,  as 
exposing  a  vulnerable  point  for  their  attacks. 
Churchill,  in  his  poem  "The  Ghost,"  depicted 
Johnson  in  such  broad  caricature  that  it  was  at 
once  recognized  ;  and  Foote  the  comedian  pro 
posed  to  present  him  on  the  stage  for  the 
amusement  of  the  town,  but  abandoned  his 
purpose  upon  being  assured  that  Johnson  was 
preparing  to  chastise  him  if  he  undertook  it. — 
In  1762  Johnson  received  from  the  king  a  pen 
sion  of  £300.  He  had  often  stigmatized  the 
whole  business  of  giving  and  receiving  pensions 
as  the  basest  kind  of  bribery;  but  it  being 
urged  by  his  friends  that  the  whole  nation  was 
his  debtor  for  what  he  had  written,  and  espe 
cially  for  the  dictionary,  and  the  premier  assu 
ring  him  that  no  service  to  the  ministry  would 
ever  be  expected  from  his  pen  in  return  for  the 
favor,  he  allowed  his  scruples  to  be  overcome. 
Early  in  176o  the  long  promised  and  long  de 
layed  edition  of  Shakespeare  made  its  appear 
ance,  with  an  elaborate  preface  discussing  the 
genius  and  writings  of  the  dramatist,  and  with 
a  concise  account  of  each  play,  and  notes  and 
commentaries,  both  original  and  selected,  on 
various  passages.  But  the  work  was  not  such 
as  the  reputation  of  the  editor  had  promised. 
He  no  doubt  possessed  many  valuable  qualifi 
cations  for  such  a  work,  yet  he  was  better 
adapted  for  original  compositions,  and  in  this 
case  his  powers  were  but  moderately  called 
into  requisition.  His  own  estimate  of  the  work 
did  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  others. 
He  had  now  fully  attained  the  height  of  his 
ambition  as  a  scholar  and  man  of  letters. 
His  claim  to  the  first  place  among  his  peers 


was  cheerfully  conceded  to  him  with  almost 
absolute  unanimity.  The  university  of  Ox 
ford,  from  which  he  sought  in  vain  for  the  de 
gree  of  M.  A.  when  it  would  have  been  valu 
able  to  him,  now  accorded  a  tardy  recognition 
of  his  greatness  by  granting  to  him  by  diploma 
the  honor  of  LL.  D.  He  had  received  the  same 
degree  ten  years  earlier  from  Dublin  univer 
sity  ;  but  after  returning  thanks  for  the  honor, 
he  declined  to  wear  it,  and  would  not  consent 
to  be  called  doctor  till  Oxford  had  given  him 
the  title. — About  this  time  Johnson  was  intro 
duced  by  Arthur  Murphy  to  Mr.  Thrale,  a 
wealthy  brewer  of  Southwark.  Thrale  was  a 
man  of  a  well  cultivated  mind,  of  sound  judg 
ment,  and  great  force  of  character;  and  his 
wife,  whose  name  has  become  intimately  con 
nected  with  Johnson's  history,  was  also  a  per 
son  of  some  learning  and  of  almost  unbounded 
vivacity,  flippant,  versatile,  and  addicted  to 
hero  worship.  The  acquaintance  thus  begun 
soon  grew  into  friendship.  Johnson  dined 
with  his  new  friends  weekly  during  several 
succeeding  months,  when,  having  suffered  by 
an  attack  of  sickness,  he  was  removed  in  1766 
to  their  residence,  and  had  apartments  assigned 
him  in  their  house  at  Southwark,  and  also  in 
their  villa  at  Streatham.  Thrale  was  a  mem 
ber  of  parliament  for  Southwark,  and  as  his 
political  creed  was  nearly  allied  to  that  of  his 
guest,  Johnson  became  interested  in  the  poli 
tics  of  the  times,  and  there  was  at  one  time  a 
purpose  to  bring  him  into  parliament ;  but  the 
government,  fearing  that  he  would  not  prove 
sufficiently  facile,  did  not  encourage  it,  and  so 
the  design  was  abandoned.  He  accompanied 
his  friends  on  their  annual  excursions,  visiting 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom  with  them,  and 
also  making  a  visit  of  several  weeks  at  Paris. 
His  connection  with  this  family  not  only 
brought  him  innumerable  comforts  and  plea 
sures,  but  it  also  afforded  him  a  retreat  from 
his  own  strangely  assorted  household,  where 
strifes  and  complaints  were  loud  and  frequent. 
It  continued  till  the  death  of  Thrale,  and  the 
subsequent  marriage  of  his  widow  to  Signer 
Piozzi,  greatly  to  the  chagrin  of  her  friends. — 
A  few  years  previous  to  his  connection  with 
the  Thrales,  Johnson  had  formed  another  asso 
ciation,  by  which  his  future  renown  was  to  be 
very  largely  affected.  In  1763  James  Boswell, 
a  young  man,  the  son  of  a  Scotch  judge,  visit 
ed  London  and  obtained  an  introduction  to 
Johnson.  Boswell  was  loose  in  life  and  con 
versation,  conceited,  meddling,  and  inquisi 
tive,  yet  endowed  with  an  insight  into  charac 
ter,  and  an  appreciation  of  qualities  the  fur 
thest  possible  removed  from  his  own.  Johnson 
fancied  this  young  Scot  on  first  acquaintance, 
and  Boswell  at  once  fastened  himself  upon 
him.  They  were  together  almost  daily,  ram 
bling  in  the  parks,  supping  together  at  the 
Mitre  tavern,  or  wandering  the  streets  till  after 
midnight.  Boswell  lived  in  Johnson's  shadow, 
noting  his  words,  describing  his  manners,  and 
detailing  the  most  trivial  occurrences;  all  of 


SAMUEL  JOHNSOX 


667 


which  wore  afterward  embodied  in  his  "  Life 
of  Johnson,'1  by  which,  much  more  than  by  the 
dictionary,  or  the  "  Rambler,"  or  even  by 
"  Rasselas  "  and  the  "  Vanity  of  Human  Wish 
es,"  Johnson  is  known. — The  founding  of  the 
"  Literary  Club "  belonged  to  this  period. 
Reynolds  and  Johnson  led  in  the  movement, 
and  among  the  original  nine  members  were 
Hawkins,  Langton,  Beauclerk,  Goldsmith,  and 
Burke.  Goldsmith  had  a  few  years  before 
become  somewhat  intimate  with  Johnson,  by 
whom  he  was  greatly  esteemed  as  a  writer  and 
cherished  as  an  associate.  During  its  earlier 
years  the  club  held  weekly  meetings  for  con 
versation,  which  contributed  not  a  little  to 
maintain  the  balance  of  Johnson's  strangely 
affected  mind.  New  members  were  admitted 
with  great  caution,  and  for  several  years  the 
whole  number  did  not  exceed  12.  In  1778  it 
had  grown  to  26,  and  two  years  later  to  35, 
when  40  was  lixed  as  its  complement.  The 
club  is  still  in  existence,  but  it  has  become  ra 
ther  a  learned  than  a  convivial  society. — John 
son's  indolent  and  purposeless  mode  of  life 
proved  highly  unfavorable  to  his  spirits.  His 
"  Prayers  and  Meditations,"  published  after  his 
death,  indicate  the  unhappy  state  of  his  mind. 
He  was  accustomed  to  write  bitter  things 
against  himself  in  his  penitential  moments,  and 
especially  during  Lent.  Sometimes  his  melan 
choly  verged  almost  on  insanity  ;  and  again  he 
would  pass  suddenly  to  the  most  extravagant 
hilarity.  His  ordinary  manners,  especially  in 
Ids  later  years,  were  strangely  eccentric.  He 
talked  much  to  himself,  muttering  in  a  vocal 
but  generally  inaudible  undertone.  He  was 
never  still,  but  sat  with  head  inclined  over  the 
right  shoulder,  his  vast  trunk  swaying  back 
ward  and  forward,  and  his  hand  keeping  up  a 
corresponding  motion  upon  his  knee.  At  times 
he  would  make  a  kind  of  clucking  sound,  and 
again  a  suppressed  whistle,  and  still  more  fre 
quently  a  humming  noise,  accompanied  with  a 
vacant  smile.  His  conversation  was  often  vio 
lent  and  discourteous,  and  he  delighted  in  con 
tradictions.  During  the  years  from  1770  to 
1775  he  produced  several  political  pamphlets, 
all  in  the  interest  of  the  government,  and  de 
signed  to  meet  some  immediate  necessity.  The 
last  of  these,  "Taxation  no  Tyranny"  (1775), 
was  written  to  controvert  the  remonstrance  of 
the  American  congress  against  taxation  with 
out  representation.  In  this  Johnson  sustained 
the  British  government  in  its  measures  against 
the  colonies,  and  predicted  the  speedy  subjuga 
tion  of  America.  In  177o  he  made  a  tour  to 
the  highlands  of  Scotland  and  the  Hebrides, 
through  the  persuasion  of  Boswell,  who  became 
his  fellow  traveller,  and  afterward  the  chron 
icler  of  the  journey,  of  which  an  account  was 
also  written  by  Johnson.  While  in  Scotland 
Johnson  made  inquiries  respecting  the  original 
manuscripts  from  which  Macpherson  pretend 
ed  to  have  translated  the  poems  of  Ossian,  and 
came  away  with  the  conviction  that  a  large 
share  of  that  work  was  a  forgery,  and  the  rest 


of  comparatively  modern  origin.  His  avowal 
of  this  conviction  after  his  return  led  to  a 
violent  controversy  between  himself  and  the 
professed  translator.  In  1774-  he  made  a  tour 
in  Wales  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thrale.  His  last 
considerable  literary  work,  the  "  Lives  of  the 
English  Poets,"  in  four  volumes,  appeared 
from  1779  to  1781,  when  their  author  was  over 
70  years  old;  they  were  undertaken  at  the 
request  of  the  booksellers,  and  performed  by 
irregular  impulses.  In  some  respects  this  was 
one  of  the  best  written  of  all  his  works,  simple 
in  its  style,  genial  and  appreciative  in  its  spirit, 
and  full  of  interesting  statements  and  valuable 
criticisms. — About  the  date  of  the  close  of  that 
work  the  hand  of  death  began  to  be  busy  with 
those  about  him.  Mr.  Thrale  died  in  1781, 
and  a  few  months  later  he  removed  to  his  own 
house.  In  1782  Levett  died,  and  the  next  year 
Mrs.  Williams  followed  him.  Some  time  be 
fore  the  last  event  he  had  suffered  temporarily 
from  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  vocal  organs. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  summer  he  once 
more  visited  his  native  town ;  but  as  winter 
drew  on  he  was  again  brought  down,  and  his 
whole  system  became  swollen  with  dropsy. 
By  the  assiduity  of  his  friends,  and  skilful 
medical  treatment,  he  so  far  recovered  that  du 
ring  the  next  summer  he  visited  Derbyshire 
and  was  again  at  Lichfield.  Late  in  the  fol 
lowing  autumn  he  grew  worse.  To  physical 
suffering  he  was  comparatively  indifferent,  and 
when  near  his  end  he  earnestly  entreated  his 
attendants  to  spare  no  efforts,  however  pain 
ful,  to  prolong  his  life.  He  anticipated  death 
with  horror ;  but  as  his  last  hour  approached 
his  forebodings  at  length  gave  place  to  humble 
confidence  in  the  divine  clemency. — Few  names 
are  more  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  English 
literature  than  that  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Though 
scarcely  reckoned  among  English  poets,  his 
productions  in  that  department  sufficiently  vin 
dicate  his  claim  to  a  recognition,  and  not  a  few 
judicious  critics  have  believed  that  with  equal 
devotion  to  that  kind  of  writing  he  would  have 
rivalled  Pope  or  Dryden.  As  an  essayist  he  is 
ranked  with  Addison  and  Steele,  whom  he  imi 
tated  only  as  to  the  form  of  his  pieces,  impress 
ing  whatever  he  thus  wrote  with  his  own  in 
dividuality.  He  lacked  their  vivacity  and  va 
riety,  and  especially  their  genial  good  humor, 
but  surpassed  them  in  depth  of  reflection  and 
nervous  energy  of  style.  He  especially  excelled 
in  biographical  writing,  and  among  his  numer 
ous  sketches  of  personal  history  and  mental 
portraitures  are  some  that  may  he  studied  as 
models  of  their  kind.  As  a  critic,  his  judg 
ment  was  clear  and  discriminating,  and  such 
was  his  independence  that  he  often  condemned 
the  popular  favorites  of  the  day,  and  in  most 
cases  posterity  has  confirmed  his  decisions. 
His  fictions  are  chiefly  moral  allegories;  for  so 
fully  was  he  intent  on  inculcating  the  practical 
lesson  of  life,  that  it  was  constantly  before 
him,  and  gave  form  and  coloring  to  his  purely 
imaginative  productions. — The  only  complete 


668 


JOHNSON 


edition  of  Johnson's  works  is  that  of  Oxford 
(11  vols.  8vo,  1825).  That  by  Hawkins  (15 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1787-'9)  contains  several 
pieces  not  written  by  Johnson.  That  by  Mur 
phy  not  containing  the  parliamentary  debates 
(12  vols.  8vo,  London,  1792),  has  been  fre 
quently  reprinted,  and  in  a  compact  form  by 
Bohn  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1850).  Lives  of 
Johnson  are  numerous.  BoswelFs  (2  vols.  4to, 
London,  1791)  has  been  many  times  edited. 
Croker's  edition  (5  vols.  8vo,  London,  1831)  is 
one  of  the  best ;  and  an  exact  reprint  of  the 
first  edition,  with  notes  by  Percy  Fitzgerald, 
appeared  in  1874  (3  vols.,  London). 

JOHNSON,  Walter  Rogers,  an  American  physi 
cist,  born  in  Leominster,  Mass.,  June  21,  1794, 
died  in  "Washington,  April  26,  1852.  He  grad 
uated  at  Harvard  college  in  1819,  and  in  1821 
became  principal  of  the  academy  at  German- 
town,  Pa.  In  1826  the  Franklin  institute  es 
tablished  a  high  school  in  Philadelphia,  to  give 
the  industrial  classes  cheap  instruction  in  sci 
ences  and  arts,  according  to  a  plan  of  Mr. 
Johnson,  and  gave  him  the  chair  of  mechanics 
and  natural  philosophy.  He  added  to  his  in 
structions  a  public  course  of  lectures  on  me 
chanics  and  philosophy,  under  the  direction  of 
the  institute,  which  were  largely  attended  by 
both  sexes.  In  1836  he  commenced  a  series  of 
geological  investigations,  with  special  reference 
to  the  coal  formations  and  iron  ores  of  Penn 
sylvania.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  to  take 
charge  of  the  department  of  magnetism,  elec 
tricity,  and  astronomy  in  the  United  States 
exploring  expedition,  but  he  resigned  owing  to 
changes  of  the  original  plan.  In  1839  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  physics 
in  the  medical  department  of  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  1843  he  entered  upon  a 
course  of  investigations,  under  the  authority  of 
congress,  into  the  character  of  the  different  va 
rieties  of  coal,  and  their  absolute  and  relative 
values  for  generating  steam  and  heat  and  pro 
ducing  illuminating  gas,  of  which  a  report  was 
published  in  1844.  He  subsequently  made  sci 
entific  researches  on  other  subjects  connected 
with  the  navy  department ;  and  in  1845,  under 
appointment  of  the  city  authorities  of  Boston, 
he  examined  the  sources  from  which  a  supply 
of  pure  water  might  be  brought  to  that  city. 
He  participated  in  the  organization  of  the 
American  association  of  geologists,  arid,  at  its 
subsequent  reorganization  as  the  American  as 
sociation  for  the  advancement  of  science,  was 
its  first  secretary. 

JOHXSO&  I.  Sir  William,  baronet,  a  British 
general  and  colonial  officer,  born  at  Warren- 
town,  county  Down,  Ireland,  in  1715,  died 
near  Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  July  11,  1774.  He 
was  a  younger  son  of  Christopher  Johnson, 
an  Irish  gentleman  of  good  family.  Educated 
to  a  mercantile  life,  his  career  was  entirely 
changed  by  the  refusal  of  his  parents  to  permit 
him  to  marry  a  lady  with  whom  he  had  fallen 
in  love.  His  uncle,  Admiral  Sir  Peter  Warren, 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Stephen  De  Lancey 


of  New  York,  and  received  with  her  a  large 
landed  estate  in  that  colony,  which  he  increased 
by  purchase,  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Mo 
hawk,  then  a  wilderness.  Sir  Peter  offered 
his  nephew  the  management  of  his  entire  prop 
erty  in  New  York,  if  he  would  undertake  its 
improvement  and  settlement.  Johnson  ac 
cepted  the  offer,  and  in  1738  established  him 
self  upon  a  tract  of  land  on  the  Mohawk,  about 
24  miles  from  Schenectady,  which  Sir  Peter 
had  called  Warrensbilrgh.  In  addition  to  the 
settling  and  improving  of  the  country,  he  em 
barked  in  trade  with  the  Indians,  whom  he 
always  treated  with  perfect  honesty  and  jus 
tice.  He  would  never  deal  with  them  when 
they  were  under  the  influence  of  liquor,  nor 
yield  to  them  anything  when  he  had  once  re 
fused.  This  course,  added  to  his  easy  but  dig 
nified  and  affable  manner,  and  the  intimacy 
which  he  cultivated  with  them,  by  accommo 
dating  himself  to  their  manners,  and  sometimes 
even  to  their  dress,  soon  won  for  him  their 
entire  confidence,  so  that  he  acquired  an  influ 
ence  over  them  greater  than  was  ever  possessed 
by  any  other  white  man.  He  became  a  master 
of  their  language,  speaking  many  of  their  dia 
lects  perfectly,  and  was  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  their  peculiar  habits,  beliefs,  and  customs. 
He  was  adopted  by  the  Mohawks  as  one  of 
their  own  tribe,  chosen  sachem,  and  named 
Wariaghejaghe,  or  Warraghiaghy,  "he  who 
has  charge  of  affairs."  Complaints  against 
the  Indian  commissioners  and  local  quarrels 
led  to  their  resignation,  upon  which  Gov.  Clin 
ton  appointed  Johnson,  already  justice  of  the 
peace,  colonel  of  the  Six  Nations.  In  1746  he 
became  commissary  of  New  York  for  Indian 
affairs,  and  as  such  was  very  active  in  sending 
out  war  parties  against  the  French.  In  Feb 
ruary,  1748,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  all 
the  New  York  colonial  troops  for  the  defence 
of  the  frontier,  and  showed  ability  in  organ 
izing  and  preparing  for  a  campaign.  No  im 
portant  operations  took  place,  as  peace  was 
soon  after  made  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  April, 
1750,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  pro 
vincial  council.  The  revival  of  the  Albany 
board  of  commissioners  in  1753  led  to  a  quar 
rel  between  the  colonists  and  the  Indians,  and 
the  council  and  assembly  urged  Col.  Johnson 
to  effect  a  reconciliation.  The  governor  hav 
ing  granted  him  a  new  commission,  July  5, 
1753,  he  proceeded  to  Onondaga,  held  a  coun 
cil,  and  succeeded  in  settling  the  difficulty,  but 
declined  having  anything  further  to  do  with  In 
dian  affairs.  He  lived  at  Fort  Johnson,  a  large 
stone  dwelling  which  he  had  erected  upon  the 
N.  side  of  the  Mohawk,  directly  opposite  War- 
rensburgh,  and  which  he  had  fortified  in  1743 
shortly  before  the  commencement  of  the  war 
with  the  French.  It  is  now  (1874)  stand 
ing  in  good  preservation,  about  three  miles 
west  of  the  present  village  of  Amsterdam.  In 
1754  he  attended  as  one  of  the  delegates  from 
New  York  the  celebrated  congress  of  Albany, 
and  also  the  great  council  held  with  the  In- 


JOHNSON 


JOHNSTON 


669 


dians  on  that  occasion,  at  which  they  strongly  ' 
urged  his  reappointment  as  their  superinten-  ] 
dent.  At  the  council  of  Alexandria,  April  14,  ! 
1755,  he  was  sent  for  hy  Braddock  and  com 
missioned  by  him  "sole  superintendent  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Six  United  Nations,  their  allies 
and  dependants."  lie  was  also,  pursuant  to 
the  determination  of  that  council,  created  a 
major  general,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
provincial  forces  destined  for  the  expedition 
against  Crown  Point.  At  the  head  of  these 
forces,  in  September,  Johnson  utterly  defeat 
ed  Baron  Dieskau  at  Lake  George.  He  was 
wounded  in  the  hip  early  in  the  action,  but  re 
mained  on  the  field  of  battle.  This  victory 
saved  the  colony  from  the  ravages  of  the 
French,  prevented  any  attack  on  Oswego,  and 
went  far  to  counteract  Braddock's  disastrous 
defeat  on  the  Monongahela.  Gen.  Johnson 
received  the  thanks  of  parliament  for  his  vic 
tory,  was  voted  £5,000,  and  on  Nov.  27, 1755, 
was  created  a  baronet  of  Great  Britain.  It 
was  on  his  arrival  at  Lake  St.  Sacrement  a  few 
days  before  this  battle  that  he  gave  to  it  the 
name  of  Lake  George,  "not  only  in  honor  of 
his  majesty,  but  to  assert  his  undoubted  do 
minion  here."  In  March,  1756,  he  received 
from  George  II.  a  commission  as  "colonel, 
agent,  and  sole  superintendent  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Six  Nations,  and  other  northern  Indians," 
with  a  salary  of  £600,  paid  by  the  mother 
country.  He  held  this  office  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  In  1756  and  1757  he  was  engaged  with 
his  Indians  in  the  abortive  attempts  of  the 
British  commanders  to  relieve  Oswego  and 
Fort  William  Henry;  and  in  1758  he  was  pres 
ent  with  Abercrombie  at  the  repulse  of  Ticon- 
deroga.  In  Gen.  Prideaux's  expedition  against 
Fort  Niagara  in  1759,  Sir  William  Johnson 
was  second  in  command,  and  upon  the  death 
of  Prideaux  before  that  fort  succeeded  to  the 
command  in  chief.  lie  continued  the  siege 
with  great  vigor,  routed  the  French  army  un 
der  Aubry  sent  to  its  relief,  and  then  sum 
moned  the  garrison,  which  surrendered  at  dis 
cretion.  He  led  the  Indian  allies  the  following 
year  in  the  Canadian  expedition  of  Amherst, 
and  was  present  at  the  capitulation  of  Mon 
treal  and  the  surrender  of  Canada  to  the  Brit 
ish  arms  in  1760.  The  war  was  now  at  an 
end,  and  the  king  granted  to  Sir  William  for 
his  services  a  tract  of  100,000  acres  of  land, 
north  of  the  Mohawk,  long  known  as  "Kings- 
Itmd"  or  the  "Royal  Grant."  His  influence 
alone  prevented  the  whole  Six  Nations  from 
joining  Pontiac  in  1763,  though  he  could  not 
prevent  some  acts  of  hostility  by  the  Senecas. 
In  176-4  Sir  William  erected  Johnson  hall,  a 
large  wooden  edifice  still  standing  near  the 
village  of  Johnstown,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Fort  Johnson.  The  village  of  Johnstown  had 
already  been  laid  out,  and  the  building  of 
stores,  an  inn,  a  court  house,  and  an  Episcopal 
church  soon  followed.  Numerous  settlers 
were  brought  in,  the  surrounding  country  was 
improved,  and  in  three  years  Johnstown  be 


came  a  thriving  village,  and  in  1772  the  shire 
town  of  Tryon  co.  Sir  William  gave  great  at 
tention  to  agriculture,  and  was  the  first  who 
introduced  sheep  and  blood  horses  into  the 
valley  of  the  Mohawk.  He  lived  in  the  style 
of  an  old  English  baron,  and  exercised  the 
most  unbounded  hospitality.  He  continued 
active  in  his  duties  as  head  of  the  Indian  de 
partment,  made  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix  in 
1768,  and  his  death  resulted  from  over-exertion 
at  an  Indian  council.  About  1740  he  married 
Catharine  Wisenburgh,  a  German  girl,  who 
died  young,  leaving  him  a  widower  with  three 
children,  a  son,  John,  knighted  in  1765,  and 
two  daughters,  who  married  respectively  Col. 
Claus  and  Col.  Guy  Johnson.  Sir  William 
never  married  again.  He  had  for  some  years 
many  mistresses,  both  Indian  and  white,  by 
whom  it  is  said  that  he  had  100  children  ;  and 
one  of  his  earlier  ones,  also  a  German,  has 
been  the  probable  cause,  from  having  been 
confounded  with  his  wife,  of  the  erroneous 
statement  that  none  of  his  children  were  le 
gitimate.  Mary,  or  as  she  is  generally  called 
"  Molly  "  Brant,  the  sister  of  Thayendanega  or 
Joseph  Brant,  the  great  Mohawk  sachem,  whom 
he  took  to  his  house,  and  with  whom  he  lived 
happily  till  his  death,  is  by  some  termed  his 
wife,  but  they  were  never  legally  married.  He 
had  eight  children  by  her,  whom  he  provided 
for  by  his  will,  in  which  he  calls  them  his 
natural  children.  The  church  in  a  vault  of 
which  he  was  buried  was  burned  down  in 
18^7 ;  but  in  1862  the  vault  was  discovered, 
and  his  remains  were  removed  and  reinterred. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  W.  L.  Stone  (2 
vols.,  1865).  II.  Sir  John,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1742,  died  in  Montreal,  Canada,  Jan. 
4,  1830.  He  succeeded  to  his  father's  title  in 
1774,  and  was  at  the  same  time  appointed  a 
major  general  in  the  British  service.  In  the 
revolutionary  war  he  remained  loyal  to  the 
crown,  and  used  his  influence  with  the  Indians 
to  inflict  frequent  injuries  upon  the  frontier 
settlements  of  New  York,  in  retaliation  for 
the  sequestration  of  his  large  estates  in  the 
Mohawk  valley.  He  was  governor  of  Upper 
Canada  for  several  years  subsequent  to  1796. 

JOHNSTON,  a  central  county  of  North  Caro 
lina,  drained  by  Neuse  and  Little  rivers  ;  area, 
660  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,897,  of  whom 
5,194  were  colored.  It  has  a  diversified  sur 
face,  and  contains  iron  ore  and  granite.  The 
North  Carolina  railroad  traverses  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  246,338  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  132,277  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
4,108  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,366  horses, 
788  mules  and  asses,  3,253  milch  cows,  1,689 
working  oxen,  4,239  other  cattle,  5,653  sheep, 
and  20,530  swine  ;  4  flour  mills,  5  sa\v  mills,  1 
manufactory  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  and 
6  of  tar  and  turpentine.  Capital,  Smithfield. 

JOHNSTON,  Albert  Sidney,  an  American  sol 
dier,  born  in  Mason  co.,  Ky.,  in  1803,  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6,  1862.  He  gradu 
ated  at  West  Point  in  1826,  and  served  on  fron- 


670 


JOHNSTON 


tier  duty  and  in  the  Black  Hawk  war  till  1834, 
when  he  resigned,  went  to  Texas,  enlisted  as 
n  private  soldier,  in  1836  became  adjutant 
general,  and  soon  after  succeeded  Gen.  Felix 
Houston  in  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of 
Texas.  This  led  to  a  duel,  in  which  Johnston 
was  wounded.  He  was  the  Texan  secretary 
of  war  from  1838  to  1840.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Mexican  war  he  was  made  colonel  of  a 
volunteer  regiment  of  Texan  rifles;  his  regi 
ment  having  been  discharged,  he  became  in 
spector  general  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  W.  O.  But 
ler,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Monterey. 
From  1840  to  1849  he  was  engaged  as  a  farm 
er  on  the  Brazos  river.  In  October,  1849,  he 
reentered  the  United  States  army  with  the  rank 
of  major,  and  served  as  paymaster  till  1855. 
He  was  then  made  colonel  of  cavalry  and  placed 
in  command  of  the  department  of  Texas,  which 
he  held  till  August,  1857,  when  he  took  com 
mand  of  the  expedition  to  Utah.  In  Novem 
ber,  1857,  he  was  made  brevet  brigadier  gen 
eral  for  meritorious  conduct  while  in  command 
of  the  army  in  that  territory.  In  January, 
1801,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  de 
partment  of  the  Pacific,  but  was  superseded  in 
April  by  Gen.  Sumner.  He  resigned  his  com 
mission  May  3,  entered  the  confederate  service, 
and  was  placed  in  command  of  the  division  of 
the  West.  On  the  first  day  of  the  battle  of  Shi- 
loh  he  received  a  ball  in  the  leg  which  severed 
an  artery,  and  he  soon  died  from  loss  of  blood, 
Gen.  Beauregard  succeeding  to  the  command. 

JOHNSTON,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  painter,  b<*rn 
in  Edinburgh  in  181.6.  He  early  became  known 
chiefly  in  Scotch  genre  painting  and  smaller 
pictures.  His  more  elaborate  work,  "  Lord 
and  Lady  Russell  receiving  the  Sacrament  in 
Prison"  (1846),  is  in  the  Vernon  gallery,  and 
his  subsequent  productions  include  "  Melanch- 
thon  surprised  by  a  French  Traveller  while 
rocking  the  Cradle  of  his  Child"  (1854)  and 
"Tyndal  translating  the  Bible"  (1855).  His 
"  Introduction  of  Flora  Macdonald  to  Prince 
Charlie  "  was  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1855.  Many 
of  his  pictures  have  been  engraved. 

JOHNSTON,  Alexander  Keith,  a  Scottish  geog 
rapher,  born  in  Kirkhill,  Mid-Lothian,  Dec.  28, 
1804,  died  at  Ben  Rhydding,  July  9, 1871.  He 
was  educated  in  Edinburgh,  and  then  appren 
ticed  to  an  engraver,  but  soon  manifested  a 
decided  taste  for  the  study  of  geography.  That 
he  might  be  able  to  consult  the  highest  geo 
graphical  authorities  in  the  original,  he  made 
himself  master  of  a  number  of  modern  lan 
guages.  He  also  travelled  extensively  for  sci 
entific  purposes.  His  first  important  work 
was  the  "National  Atlas"  (1843),  which  se 
cured  his  election  to  the  royal  geographical 
society,  and  his  appointment  to  the  office  of 
geographer  to  the  queen  for  Scotland.  In  1848 
his  "Physical  Atlas"  was  published,  and  im 
mediately  after  its  appearance  he  was  chosen 
member  of  the  Gesellschaft  far  Erdkunde  of 
Berlin,  of  the  geographical  society  of  Paris, 
and  of  the  geological  society  of  London.  Ilis 


other  principal  works  are :  a  "  Dictionary  of 
Geography "(1850-'52;  lasted.,  1867);  a  "Geo 
logical  Map  of  Europe,"  in  the  preparation  of 
which  he  was  aided  by  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  and 
Prof.  Nichol  ;  "Atlas  of  North  America" 
(1858)  ;  "'  Military  Atlas  to  Alison's  Europe  ;" 
"  Royal  Atlas  of  Modern  Geography,"  with  a 
special  index  to  each  map  (1860-'62,  and  later 
editions),  the  only  atlas  for  which  a  prize  medal 
was  awarded  at  the  London  exhibition  of  1862 ; 
and  a  series  of  six  library  maps  of  the  great 
divisions  of  the  globe  (1863-'5). 

JOHNSTON,  Arthur,  a  Scottish  physician,  born 
at  Caskieben,  near  Aberdeen,  in  1587,  died  in 
Oxford  in  1641.  After  studying  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Aberdeen,  he  went  to  Padua,  where 
he  completed  his  education  in  1010.  He  then 
travelled  for  some  time  in  southern  and  cen 
tral  Europe,  and  resided  for  20  years  in  France. 
About  1632  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  was 
appointed  physician  to  Charles  I.  In  1637  he 
became  principal  of  the  university  of  Aber 
deen,  but  his  duties  as  royal  physician  requiring 
his  residence  at  court,  the  greater  part  of  his 
subsequent  life  was  passed  in  England.  He 
was  highly  esteemed  as  a  Latin  poet,  his  prin 
cipal  works  being  Parerga  et  Epigrammata 
(Aberdeen,  1632) ;  Cantici  Salomonis  Para- 
phrasis  Poetica  (London,  1633) ;  and  Para- 
plirasis  Poetica  Psalmorum  Damdis  (Aber 
deen,  1637),  by  many  considered  equal  to  Bu 
chanan's  version. 

JOHNSTON,  or  Johnstone,  Charles,  a  British 
satirist,  born  in  Ireland  early  in  the  18th  cen 
tury,  died  in  British  India  about  1800.  He 
studied  law,  but  on  account  of  deafness  prac 
tised  only  as  a  chamber  counsel  in  London; 
and  during  his  last  18  years  he  was  a  journal 
ist  in  Bengal.  He  published  many  satirical 
works,  and  acquired  most  notoriety  by  his 
" Chrysal,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Guinea" 
(London,  1760 ;  3d  and  enlarged  ed.,  4  vols., 
1761 ;  French  translation  by  Frenais,  Paris, 
1768),  with  contemporary  sketches  painting 
44  the  baser  sides  of  literature  and  life." 

JOHNSTON,  George,  a  Scottish  naturalist,  born 
in  1798,  died  in  Berwick-on-Tweed,  July  3, 
1855.  After  serving  a  medical  apprenticeship 
with  Dr.  Abercrombie  of  Edinburgh,  he  en 
tered  the  university  of  that  city,  where  he 
graduated  in  1819.  Subsequently  he  settled  as 
a  medical  practitioner  at  Berwick-on-Tweed. 
Amid  many  arduous  professional  duties  he  cul 
tivated  natural  history  with  an  enthusiasm  and 
a  success  which  rendered  the  place  of  his  resi 
dence  "  one  of  the  most  classic  localities  in 
Great  Britain."  Apart  from  numerous  papers 
contributed  to  the  "  Edinburgh  Philosophical 
Journal"  and  other  scientific  periodicals,  he 
published  two  works  of  first-rate  importance : 
44  History  of  British  Zoophytes"  (2d  ed.,  2  vols. 
8vo,  London,  1847),  and  "History  of  British 
Sponges  and  Lithophytes  "  (8vo,  1842).  In  1850 
appeared  his  "Introduction  to  Conchology," 
with  an  abundance  of  illustrations.  His  latest 
work  was  "  The  Natural  History  of  the  East- 


JOHNSTON 


JOHNSTOWN 


en 


era  Borders"  (vol.  i.,  "Botany,"  8vo,  1854), 
and  he  was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death 
upon  a  complete  work  on  British  annelids.  He 
is  considered  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
contributors  to  the  literature  of  natural  history, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Kay  society. 
JOIL\STOi\,  James  F.  W.,  a  Scottish  chemist 
and  agricultural  writer,  horn  in  Paisley  about 
1796,  died  in  Durham,  England,  Sept.  18,  1855. 
When  a  young  man  he  supported  himself  by 
preparing  students  for  the  Glasgow  university, 
and  in  1825  he  established  a  school  at  Durham. 
In  1830  he  married,  gave  up  his  seminary,  went 
to  Sweden,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Berzelius. 
On  his  return  he  settled  in  Edinburgh,  and  was 
appointed  chemist  to  the  agricultural  society 
of  Scotland,  tilling  at  the  same  time  the  office 
of  lecturer  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  the 
university  of  Durham.  After  the  dissolution 
of  the  society  he  removed  to  Durham,  and  de 
voted  himself  chiefly  to  the  composition  of 
works  on  agricultural  chemistry.  He  subse- 

Siently  visited  the  United  States  and  France. 
is  works  are :  "  Elements  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry  and  Geology"  (Svo,  Edinburgh, 
1842) ;  '•  Suggestions  for  Experiments  in  Agri 
culture"  (Svo,  1843) ;  "  Catechism  of  Agricul 
tural  Chemistry  and  Geology"  (IGmo,  1844), 
translated  and  used  as  a  school  text  book  in 
most  countries  of  Europe  and  America ;  "  Lec 
tures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology  " 
(Svo,  1844) ;  "  Contributions  to  Scientific  Agri 
culture"  (1849);  "Treatise  on  Experimental 
Agriculture"  (1849);  "Use  of  Lime  in  Agri 
culture"  (184!));  "Notes  on  North  America, 
Agricultural,  Economical,  and  Social "  (2  vols. 
Svo,  1851) ;  "  Instructions  for  Analysis  of  Soils, 
Limestone,  &c."  (3d  ed.,  1855);  and  "Chemis 
try  of  Common  Life"  (2  vols.,  1854-'5). 

JOHNSTON,  Joseph  Eedeston,  an  American 
soldier,  born  in  Prince  Edward  co.,  Va.,  in 
February,  1807.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1829,  and  served  mainly  in  garrison  duty  till 
1834,  and  afterward  in  the  Seminole  war,  in 
which  he  was  aide  to  Gen.  Scott.  He  resigned 
in  May,  1837,  and  became  a  civil  engineer,  but 
in  July,  1838,  reentered  the  army,  with  the 
rank  of  first  lieutenant  of  topographical  engi 
neers,  and  was  brevetted  as  captain  for  gallan 
try  during  the  war  with  the  Florida  Indians.  He 
served  in  the  topographical  bureau,  and  in  1843 
on  the  survey  of  the  boundaries  between  the 
United  States  and  the  British  provinces.  From 
1844  to  1846  he  was  engaged  on  the  coast  sur 
vey.  During  the  Mexican  war  he  served  as 
captain  of  topographical  engineers  under  Gen. 
Scott  in  all  the  important  actions,  was  twice 
wounded,  and  successively  brevetted  as  major, 
lieutenant  colonel,  and  colonel.  The  regiment 
of  voltigeurs,  of  which  he  had  been  made  lieu 
tenant  colonel,  was  disbanded  in  1848,  but  he 
was  replaced  in  his  former  rank  as  captain 
in  the  army.  From  1853  to  1855  he  was  in 
charge  of  western  river  improvements.  lie 
was  subsequently  employed  in  various  duties 
in  Kansas  and  elsewhere,  and  in  1858  was  act- 
TOL.  ix.— 43 


!  ing  inspector  general  in  the  L'tah  expedition. 

I  In  June,  1860,  he  became  quartermaster  gen 
eral,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier  general  of 
staff.  lie  resigned  his  commission  April  22, 
1861,  entered  the  confederate  service,  and 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
subsequently  at  Yorktown  and  Richmond. 
During  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  (May  31,  1862) 
he  was  severely  wounded,  and  was  for  some 
months  disabled  for  service.  In  November  he 
reported  for  duty,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
command  of  the  departments  of  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi.  During  Grant's  Vicksburg  cam 
paign  he  made  an  attempt  with  a  feeble  force 
to  extricate  Pemberton,  but  was  repulsed,  May 
14,  1863,  at  Jackson,  and  retreated  to  Canton. 
After  Bragg's  defeat  at  Chattanooga  in  Novem 
ber,  he  took  command  of  his  army,  occupying 
a  position  at  Dalton,  Ga.,  which  was  turned 
by  Sherman  early  in  May,  1864;  whereupon 
Johnston  fell  back  successively  to  Resaca,  Alla- 
toona  pass,  Kenesaw  mountain,  and  Atlanta, 
in  turns  fighting  and  flanked.  Failing  to  satisfy 
the  expectations  of  the  authorities  at  Rich 
mond,  he  was  on  July  17  ordered  to  turn  over 
the  command  to  Gen.  Hood.  Near  the  close  of 
February,  1865,  Sherman  having  marched  from 
Atlanta  to  Savannah,  and  thence  into  South 
Carolina,  Johnston  was  directed  to  assume  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Tennessee  and  all 
troops  in  the  department  of  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  to  "  concentrate  all 
available  forces  and  drive  back  Sherman." 
The  force  which  he  could  concentrate  was 
wholly  inadequate,  and  he  was  unable  to  check 
the  march  of  the  victorious  army,  though  he 
fought  a  part  of  it  at  Bentonville,  N.  C. 
(March  18).  Having  learned  that  Lee  had 
surrendered  the  army  of  Virginia  to  Grant, 
Johnston  surrendered  the  forces  under  his 
command  to  Sherman,  April  26,  at  Durham's 
Station,  near  Greensboro,  N.  C.  In  his  fare- 

|  well  order  to  his  troops  he  said:  "I  earnestly 
exhort  you  to  observe  faithfully  the  terms  of 
pacification  agreed  upon,  and  to  discharge  the 
obligations  of  good  and  peaceful  citizens  as 
well  as  you  have  performed  the  duties  of  thor 
ough  soldiers  in  the  field."  Since  the  close  of 
the  war  he  has  been  actively  engaged  in  the 
industrial  reconstruction  of  the  South,  especial 
ly  in  connection  with  its  agricultural,  commer 
cial,  and  railroad  enterprises,  residing  at  Sa 
vannah,  Ga.  He  has  published  a  "Narrative 
of  Military  Operations  "  directed  by  him  during 
the  war  between  the  states  (New  York,  1874). 
JOIINSTONE,  a  town  of  Renfrewshire,  Scot 
land,  on  the  Black  Cart  Water,  10  in.  W.  of 
Glasgow;  pop.  in  1871,  6,882.  It  has  grown 
rapidly  in  population  and  importance  within 
the  last  50  years,  in  consequence  of  the  estab- 

j  lishment  of  cotton  mills  and  iron   and  brass 

l  founderies.     It  is  well  built,  and  contains  five 

'  churches  and  several  schools  and  libraries. 
JOHNSTOWN.      I.  A  village  in  the  town  of 

1  the  same  name,  seat  of  justice  of  Fulton  co., 
New  York,  on  Cayadutta  creek,  a  branch  of 


672 


JOIGNY 


JOINVILLE 


the  Mohawk  river,  40  m.  N.  W.  of  Albany ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,282;  of  the  town,  12,273.  It 
is  connected  with  Fonda  on  the  New  York 
Central  railroad,  6  m.  distant,  by  the  Fonda, 
Johnstown,  and  Gloversville  line,  and  contains 
large  skin  and  leather  dressing  establishments, 
a  large  number  of  glove  and  mitten  factories, 
three  hotels,  a  gas-light  company,  three  week 
ly  newspapers,  and  ten  churches.  The  town 
also  contains  the  village  of  Gloversville.  (See 
GLOVERSVILLE.)  II.  A  borough  of  Cambria  co., 
Pennsylvania,  at  the  junction  of  Stony  creek 
and  Conemaugh  river,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
canal  and  railroad,  78  m.  E.  of  Pittsburgh; 
pop.  in  1850,  1,269;  in  1860,  4,185;  in  1870, 
6,028.  It  has  an  active  trade,  and  contains 
extensive  iron  works,  a  national  and  a  savings 
bank,  two  state  banks,  a  daily  and  four  weekly 
newspapers,  and  a  monthly  periodical. 

JOIGNY  (anc.  Jociniacum),  a  town  of  Cham 
pagne,  France,  in  the  department  and  on  the 
river  Yonne,  15  m.  N.  W.  of  Auxerre;  pop.  in 
1872,  6,400.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  old  wall 
with  six  gates,  and  has  two  suburbs,  exceeding 
ly  steep  streets,  a  fine  quay,  several  Gothic 
churches  besides  the  fine  cathedral,  and  good 
cavalry  barracks.  Coarse  cloth  and  other  arti 
cles  are  manufactured,  and  the  trade  in  wine 
is  brisk. — The  territory  of  Joigny  was  a  county 
in  the  middle  ages,  and  about  1600  belonged 
to  the  cardinal  de  Gondy,  a  brother  of  Marshal 
de  Retz,  who  built  a  handsome  castle  here. 

JOINT-STOCK  COMPANY.  This  name  usually 
designates  a  partnership  in  which  the  capital 
is  distributed  by  shares  among  a  large  num 
ber  of  partners.  They  assume  in  certain  re 
spects  a  corporate  form,  but  possess  legally 
none  of  the  peculiar  attributes  or  powers  of 
corporations,  except  as  conferred  by  statute. 
Like  these,  however,  they  adopt  a  corporate 
name;  divide  a  fixed  capital  into  shares, 
which  they  make  transferable  by  assignment 
and  delivery ;  and  commit  the  conduct  of  their 
business  to  a  board  of  directors.  It  is  also 
sometimes  stipulated  in  the  fundamental  arti 
cles  of  the  association,  that  no  member  shall 
be  liable  for  the  company's  debts  beyond  the 
amount  of  hi.s  shares.  So  far  as  the  partners 
alone  are  concerned,  they  may  adopt  what 
rules  they  will  for  the  internal  administration 
of  the  partnership  ;  but  their  imitation  or  as 
sumption  of  corporate  powers  or  responsibili 
ties  cannot  avail  them  in  law,  except  so  far  as 
recent  legislation  favors  them,  or  prejudices 
the  rights  of  third  parties.  They  remain  part 
nerships,  and  are  generally  subject  to  the  rules 
of  law  which  govern  partnerships.  Thus,  such 
a  company  cannot  sue  its  shareholders  at  law  | 
for  breach  of  their  engagements  to  it ;  for  as 
copartners  of  the  plaintiffs,  they  cannot  be 
made  liable,  according  to  the  rules  of  pleading, 
in  such  a  suit;  they  must  therefore  resort  to 
the  intervention  of  trustees  in  order  to  avail 
themselves  of  contracts  made  or  to  be  made 
with  their  members,  or  they  must  sue  in  equity. 
And  they  are  bound  by  that  familiar  rule  of 


partnership  law,  which  no  mere  mutual  agree 
ment  can  evade,  that  each  member  of  the  asso 
ciation  is  liable  as  a  partner  in  solido,  or  to  an 
swer  with  his  whole  private  property  for  all 
the  debts  of  the  partnership.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  this  rule  would  be  changed  even 
though  the  creditor  dealing  with  the  company 
have  notice  of  a  stipulation  in  the  articles  of 
association  limiting  the  responsibility  of  the 
members  to  the  mere  joint  funds,  or  to  a  quali 
fied  extent.  In  recognition  of  the  advantages 
secured  to  the  community  by  the  combination 
of  capital  in  the  prosecution  of  important  en 
terprises,  and  in  view  of  the  embarrassments 
to  which  they  are  subjected  by  the  operation 
of  the  rules  of  law,  joint-stock  companies  have 
received  both  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States  some  assistance  from  legislation,  which 
gives  them  a  qualified  corporate  character,  and 
a  separate  legal  existence  apart  from  that  of 
their  individual  members.  There  is  no  such 
uniformity  in  these  statutes  as  will  admit  of  a 
comprehensive  statement  of  their  purport.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  the  statutory  joint- 
stock  companies  occupy  an  intermediate  posi 
tion  between  corporations  and  partnerships, 
and  partake  of  the  nature  of  both. 

JOINT  TENANTS,  persons  to  whom  a  single 
estate  is  granted  jointly  by  the  same  deed  or 
will,  and  without  any  exclusive  restrictions  or 
explanatory  words.  The  grant  can  take  effect 
in  such  a  case  only  by  considering  that  all  the 
grantees  have  equal  interests,  and  that  each  has 
the  entire  possession  of  the  whole  estate.  For 
between  the  grantees  there  is  a  unity :  1,  of 
title,  the  estate  being  derived  from  one  and  the 
same  conveyance ;  2,  of  time,  for  it  was  cre 
ated  and  vested  in  them  at  the  same  period ; 
3,  in  respect  to  interest,  for  it  is  a  single  estate 
which  was  conveyed;  4,  in  respect  to  posses 
sion,  for  the  estate  is  to  be  enjoyed  in  common 
during  the  same  time.  It  was  the  distinguish 
ing  incident  of  joint  tenancies  that,  upon  the 
death  of  his  co-grantees,  the  estate  passed  un- 
diminished  to  the  last  survivor.  This  is  the  so- 
called  jus  accresccndi,  or  right  of  survivorship. 
It  originated  in  the  feudal  law,  the  policy  of 
which  was  averse  to  the  division  of  tenures, 
and  to  the  distribution  of  the  feudal  services 
among  tenants  who  might  be  strangers  to  the 
lord.  The  rules  of  law  in  relation  to  joint  ten 
ancies  were  strictly  upheld  for  a  long  time  by 
the  courts  of  common  law,  but  were  regarded 
with  less  favor  in  proportion  as  the  law  of  ten 
ancies  was  modified.  Joint  tenancies,  with  all 
their  incidents,  have  been  but  little  recognized 
in  the  United  States;  and  the  incident  of  sur 
vivorship  is  very  generally  abolished,  except  in 
the  case  of  conveyances  to  husband  and  wife, 
or  to  trustees  as  such,  or  by  way  of  mortgage. 
JOINYILLE,  Francois  Ferdinand  Philippe  Louis 
Marie  d'Orleans,  prince  de,  the  third  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  king  of  the  French,  born  at  the  pal 
ace  of  Neuilly,  near  Paris,  Oct.  14,  1818.  Like 
his  elder  brothers,  he  completed  his  classical 
studies  in  the  college  of  Henry  IV.,  and  then 


JOINVILLE 


673 


entered  the  naval  school  at  Brest.  His  birth 
secured  him  rapid  promotion.  In  1838,  when 
Admiral  Baudin  was  sent  against  Mexico,  he  had 
reached  the  rank  of  post  captain,  and  distin 
guished  himself  during  the  bombardment  of  the 
castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua.  A  few  days  later,  at 
the  head  of  a  detachment  of  sailors,  he  landed 
near  Vera  Cruz,  broke  in  the  gate  of  the  city, 
passed  through  the  streets  amid  brisk  discharges 
of  musketry,  and  with  his  own  hand  took  Gen. 
Arista  prisoner.  lie  was  rewarded  by  the  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  full  captain.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to 
St.  Helena,  with  two  frigates,  the  Belle  Poule 
and  Favorite,  to  receive  the  remains  of  Na- 
poleon  I.,  which  were  transported  to  France. 
After  a  visit  to  the  United  States  and  a  cruise 
along  the  coast  of  Africa,  he  repaired  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  which  he  had  already  visited,  and 
there,  May  1,  1843,  married  the  princess  Fran- 
cesca  of  Braganca,  the  sister  of  Dom  Pedro  II. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  rear  admi 
ral,  and  became  a  member  of  the  admiralty 
board;  he  participated  in  the  deliberations  of 
the  committee  for  the  organization  of  a  steam 
navy,  insisting  upon  the  necessity  of  taking  ac 
tive  measures  toward  this  end.  In  1844  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  French  fleet 
cruising  along  the  coast  of  Morocco,  and  while 
Marshal  Bugeaud  was  invading  that  empire  by 
land,  he  bombarded  Tangier,  Aug.  6,  and  Moga- 
dore,  Aug.  15,  taking  possession  of  the  island 
and  harbor,  and  obliged  the  Moors  to  come 
to  terms.  The  prince,  who  entertained  liberal 
opinions,  had  more  than  once  warned  his  fa 
ther  of  the  dangers  attending  his  retrograde 
policy ;  but  his  voice  had  been  powerless.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  in  Algeria ;  lie  resigned  his  command  to 
republican  Officers,  sailed  for  England,  and 
joined  his  exiled  family  at  Claremont.  When 
the  constituent  assembly  discussed  the  decree 
of  banishment  against  the  Orleans  family,  he 
sent  in  a  protest  couched  in  most  dignified 
terms.  lie  lived  for  some  years  in  retirement, 
keeping  aloof  from  all  political  intrigues,  and 
devoting  his  leisure  hours  to  the  education  of 
his  children  and  the  colonization  of  his  vast 
possessions  in  Brazil.  The  domain  in  France 
which  lie  inherited  from  his  aunt  Adelaide  was 
confiscated  by  Louis  Napoleon  in  1852.  Short 
ly  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in 
America  he,  with  his  nephews,  the  count  de 
Paris  and  the  duke  de  Chartres,  joined  the  staff 
of  Gen.  McClellan,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  Chickahominy  campaign,  returning  to  Eng 
land  in  1862.  At  the  news  of  the  first  defeats 
of  the  French  in  the  war  of  1870  he  offered  his 
services  to  Napoleon,  who  declined  to  accept 
them.  Considering  the  decree  of  his  exile 
made  void  by  the  downfall  of  the  empire,  he 
went  with  his  brother  the  duke  d'Aumale  and 
the  duke  de  Chartres  to  Paris.  The  govern 
ment  of  national  defence  ordered  their  imme 
diate  departure,  but  the  prince  succeeded  in 
participating  in  the  campaign  of  the  army  of 


the  Loire  under  cover  of  his  American  pseu- 
donyme  of  '"  Colonel  Lutherod."  Gambetta, 
who  was  then  minister  of  war,  ordered  his  ar 
rest,  and  he  was  escorted  by  the  police  on  board 
of  a  vessel  to  take  him  back  to  England,  Jan.  18, 
1871.  Two  departments,  La  Manche  and  Ilaute- 
Marne,  elected  him  in  the  following  month  to 
a  seat  in  the  national  assembly,  lie  decided 
to  represent  the  latter,  but  the  assembly  re 
served  its  decision  on  the  validity  of  his  elec 
tion.  After  the  repeal  of  the  laws  of  expatri 
ation  against  the  former  sovereign  families  of 
France,  and  the  declaration  of  the  validity  of 
the  election  of  the  princes,  Joinville  resigned 
his  seat  at  the  instance  of  Thiers.  But,  con 
trary  to  their  promise,  he  and  the  duke  d'Au 
male  appeared  in  the  national  assembly,  Dec. 
10.  In  letters  addressed  to  the  electors  they 
explained  their  reasons  for  this  step,  and  by  an 
almost  unanimous  vote  the  assembly  declared 
that  the  promises  given  were  an  entirely  pri 
vate  affair  in  which  it  was  not  concerned.  lie 
has  contributed  anonymously  to  the  Rerue  des 
Deux  Mondes  many  articles,  several  of  which 
have  been  reprinted  in  pamphlet  form.  Among 
these  are  :  Note  sur  Vetat  des  forces  naxalcs  de 
la  France  (1844)'  Etude  sur  Vescadre  de  la 
Meditcranee  (1852) ;  La  guerre  de  Chine  (1857) ; 
La  guerre  d^Amerique,  campagne  du  Potomac, 
(1803) ;  and  a  comparative  view  of  the  fleets 
of  the  United  States  and  of  France  (1865).  To 
him  also  has  been  attributed  an  article  on  the 
battle  of  Sadowa  (1868). 

JOINVILLE,  Jean,  sire  de,  a  French  chron 
icler,  born  in  the  chateau  of  Joinville,  Cham 
pagne,  about  1224,  died  about  1319.  He  was 
of  an  illustrious  family,  and  early  became  sen 
eschal  to  Thibaut  IV.,  king  of  Navarre.  In 
1248  he  joined  the  crusade  of  Louis  IX.  with 
700  men-at-arms,  and  a  strong  friendship 
sprang  up  between  them.  He  fought  bravely, 
was  taken  prisoner  and  liberated  with  the 
king,  spent  four  years  with  him  in  Palestine, 
returning  to  France  in  1254,  and  afterward 
remained  his  intimate  friend  and  counsellor. 
But  when,  in  1270,  Louis  summoned  his  bar 
ons  to  another  crusade,  Joinville  declined  to 
go,  in  consequence  of  an  ominous  dream, 
though  he  excused  himself  on  the  ground  of 
duty  to  his  people.  He  bore  witness  to  the 
king's  virtues  during  the  inquest  preparatory 
to  canonization,  and  he  gladly  assented  when 
Queen  Jeanne  of  Navarre  requested  him  to 
write  the  deeds  and  good  sayings  of  her  hus 
band's  grandfather.  To  this  request  we  owe 
his  Memoircs,  which  are  invaluable  as  a  chron 
icle,  and  unrivalled  in  point  of  simplicity  and 
grace.  They  were  completed  about  1309,  and 
first  printed  by  Marnef  brothers  (4to,  Poitiers, 
1547).  The  best  editions  are  those  of  Du 
Cange  (1668),  Capperonnier  (1761),  and  F. 
Michel  (Didot,  Paris,  1858).  Capperonnier's 
was  reprinted  in  1840,  with  annotations,  in  the 
Recucil  des  historiens  de  France,  vol.  xx.  An 
edition  from  a  newly  discovered  manuscript, 
rendered  into  modern  French  by  Natalie  de 


J(3KAI 


JOLLIET 


Wailly,  was  published  at  Paris  in  1873,  under 
the  title  of  Histoire  de  St.  Louis. 

JOKAI.  Mor,  a  Hungarian  author,  born  at 
Coraorn  in  1825.  lie  became  known  in  1842 
by  a  drama,  and  in  1840  by  a  novel.  lie  has 
since  published  more  than  150  volumes.  Du 
ring  the  movements  of  1848  he  made  himself 
conspicuous  by  his  revolutionary  ardor,  but  in 
1849  belonged  to  the  moderate  party.  lie  was 
at  the  time  editor  of  the  weekly  literary  jour 
nal  illeikepek,  and  from  1858  to  1863  of  the 
humorous  Uatolcos  ("The  Comet").  Since 
1863  he  has  been  editor  of  the  lion  ("  Father 
land  "),  a  daily  political  journal.  He  has  been 
several  times  elected  to  the  diet  from  Pesth. 
His  more  recent  works  include  Politikai  diva- 
tok  ("  Political  Fashions,"  4  vols.,  Pesth,  1863) ; 
Mire  megvenulunJs  ("Till  One  grows  Old,"  4 
vols.,  1865) ;  Szerclem  lolondjai  ("  Love's 
Fools,"  4  vols.,  186T);  A  fa'szivu  ember  fiai 
("  The  Sons  of  the  Man  with  the  Stony  Heart," 
4  vols.,  1869);  and  Fekete  gyemdntok  ("Black 
Diamonds,"  5  vols.,  1870).  In  1848  he  mar 
ried  Rosa  Laborfalvi,  a  distinguished  actress. 

JOKJOKERTA,  Jokyokarta,  or  Yngyakarta.  I* 
A  maritime  province  or  residency  in  the  S. 
part  of  Java,  formerly  one  of  the  most  impor 
tant  native  states  on  the  island,  but  now  sub 
ject  to  the  Dutch;  pop.  about  500,000.  It 
contains  the  volcano  of  ISTerapi,  3,000  ft.  high, 
abounds  in  teak,  is  very  fertile,  and  produces 
rice,  coffee,  and  tobacco,  but  has  no  good  har 
bors.  II.  The  capital  of  the  residency  and  seat 
of  a  native  sultan  and  a  Dutch  resident,  near 
the  S.  coast,  about  275  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Batavia; 
pop.  about  120,000.  The  most  interesting  fea 
tures  of  the  town  are  said  to  be  the  native 
monarch's  water  palace,  with  its  walls,  towers, 
and  subterraneous  approaches,  and  the  fort 
occupied  by  Europeans.  The  sultan  is  attend 
ed  by  a  body  guard  of  young  females,  armed 
with  lance,  sword,  and  pistol,  and  serving  both 
as  infantry  and  cavalry.  From  them  are  often 
chosen  inmates  for  the  royal  harem.  There  is 
now  a  Christian  church  and  school. 

JOLIB4.     See  XIGEK. 

JOL1ET,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Will 
co.,  Illinois,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Des 
Phdnes  river,  35  m.  S.  W.  of  Chicago;  pop.  in 
1850,  2,659;  in  1860,  7,102;  in  1870,  7,263. 
The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  passes  through 
the  city,  and  it  is  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  the  Chicago 
and  Alton,  and  the  Michigan  Central  railroads. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  agricultural  country, 
and  is  the  principal  shipping  point  for  the  pro 
duce  of  this  region  which  is  exported  by  canal. 
The  canal  and  river  furnish  water  power,  and 
there  are  several  flour  mills,  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  &c.  There  are  inex 
haustible  quarries  of  fine  blue  and  white  build 
ing  stone  near  the  city.  Juliet  is  well  built 
and  lighted  with  gas.  The  city  hall  is  a  large 
and  imposing  edifice.  The  state  penitentiary, 
one  of  the  finest  buildings  of  the  kind  in  the 
country,  cost  more  than  $1,000,000.  There 


are  two  national  banks,  a  semi-weekly  and  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  10  public  schools,  in 
cluding  a  high  school. 

JOLIET,  Charles,  a  French  author,  born  at 
Saint-IIippolyte,  department  of  Doubs,  Aug. 
8, 1832.  He  was  employed  in  the  civil  service 
till  1864,  and  became  known  as  a  journalist 
and  as  a  miscellaneous  writer.  His  works  in 
clude  Le  Toman  de  deux  jeunes  maries  (Paris, 
1866),  Mademoiselle  Cherulin  (1870),  and  pa 
triotic  novels  based  upon  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-'7l,  which  have  given  him  a 
reputation  almost  equal  to  that  of  Erckmann- 
Chatrian. 

JOLIETTE.  I.  A  W.  county  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  St.  Lawrence 
river;  area,  2,669  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  23,075, 
of  whom  22,020  were  of  French  descent.  It 
is  drained  by  the  river  L'Assomption  and 
several  smaller  streams.  II.  A  town,  capital 
of  the  county,  on  L'Assomption  river,  42  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Montreal;  pop.  in  1871,  3,047.  It 
is  connected  by  a  railway  12  m.  long  with  a 
harbor  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  Joliette  is  the 
business  centre  of  the  surrounding  country, 
has  a  weekly  market,  and  carries  on  an  exten 
sive  trade  in  agricultural  produce  and  lumber. 
It  contains  large  grist,  saw,  carding,  and  fulling 
mills,  an  extensive  foundery,  a  tannery,  quar 
ries  of  limestone,  a  college,  a  French  weekly 
newspaper,  a  hospital,  and  a  convent. 

JOLLIET,  or  Joliet,  Louis,  one  of  the  early  ex 
plorers  of  the  Mississippi,  born  in  Quebec  in 
1645,  died  in  1700.  His  father  was  the  smith 
of  the  settlement,  but  placed  his  son  at  the 
Jesuit  college,  where  he  made  rapid  progress 
and  evinced  a  decided  taste  for  hydrography. 
He  received  the  tonsure  and  minor  orders  in 
1662,  and  graduated  in  1666.  He  soon  after 
abandoned  his  design  of  becoming  a  priest,  and 
went  west,  where  he  spent  some  years  in  trade, 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  Indian  languages 
and  of  western  topography.  This  led  to  his 
selection  by  Talon  in  1672  to  push  through  to 
the  Mississippi.  lie  and  Pere  Marquette  studied 
over  the  route,  drawing  up  maps  from  their 
own  knowledge  and  Indian  reports,  laying 
down  rivers,  tribes,  and  natural  features.  They 
started  from  Michilimackinac  May  17, 1673,  and 
proceeded  to  Green  bay.  Then  they  ascended 
the  Fox  river  to  an  Indian  town,  where  they 
obtained  guides  to  the  Wisconsin,  and  on  June 
17,  1673,  entered  the  Mississippi.  They  found 
some  Illinois  60  leagues  lower  down,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Des  Moines,  but  passed  the  Mis 
souri,  the  Piesa  or  Painted  Rocks,  and  the  Ohio, 
without  encountering  other  Indians.  They 
soon  met  a  tribe  not  named,  then  the  Mitchi- 
gamea,  and  finally  the  Arkansas.  Here  they 
found  that  the  Indians  had  intercourse  with 
Europeans ;  and  having  gone  far  enough  to  be 
certain  that  the  river  flowed  into  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  and  not  into  the  Pacific,  they  turned 
back  up  the  river,  July  17,  ascended  the  Illinois, 
and  reached  Lake  Michigan.  Jolliet  at  once 
set  out  to  report  his  success,  but  his  canoe  up- 


JOLLIVET 


JOMINI 


675 


set  in  the  Lachine  rapids  near  Montreal,  and  ' 
he  lost  his  men  and  his  valuable  maps  and  ! 
papers,  barely  escaping  with  his  life.  His  re 
port  from  memory  was  necessarily  brief,  and 
his  map  less  accurate  than  that  which  Pere 
Marquette  had  drawn  and  retained.  Although 
he  continued  to  study  the  topography,  and  by 
maps  from  time  to  time  embodied  all  new  data 
of  discovery,  he  was  not  allowed  to  continue 
his  researches  in  the  west,  but  made  an  ex 
pedition  in  the  king's  service  to  Hudson  bay. 
II is  modest  merits  were  thrown  in  the  shade- 
by  the  pretensions  of  La  Salle,  who  had  won 
Frontenac's  favor.  As  if  to  keep  Jolliet  as  far 
as  possible  from  the  Mississippi,  he  was  re 
warded  in  1080  by  a  grant  of  the  seigneury  of 
Anticosti  island.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
development  of  its  fisheries  and  trade,  and 
from  this  time  signed  himself  Jolliet  d'Anti- 
costy.  lie  was  also  appointed  royal  hydrogra- 
pher  at  Quebec,  and  his  numerous  maps  still 
extant  show  that  his  title  was  not  a  nominal 
one.  Few  men  contributed  more  to  the  geog 
raphy  of  the  continent  at  that  time.  In  1097 
he  obtained  the  seigneury  of  Joliette,  which 
still  belongs  to  his  family.  Among  his  de 
scendants  in  1874  are  Archbishop  Taschereau  of 
Quebec  and  Archbishop  Tach6  of  Red  River. 

JOLLIVET,  Pierre  Jules,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Paris,  June  27,  1803.  lie  left  the  school  of 
fine  arts  in  1825,  lived  for  some  time  in  Ma 
drid,  and  returning  to  Paris  exhibited  in  1831 
genre  pictures  relating  to  Spanish  history  and 
life.  His  works  include  "Louis  VIII.  taking 
the  Oriflamme  at  Saint  Denis,"  and  other 
pieces,  at  Versailles;  "Lara,"  after  Byron's 
poem,  at  the  Luxembourg ;  "  The  Massacre  of 
the  Innocents,"  at  the  museum  of  Rouen;  and 
"The  Installation  of  the  Magistrates  in  1849," 
in  possession  of  the  government.  Among  his 
recent  productions  are  "  Art  in  the  Time  of  Per 
icles"  and  "The  Jewels  of  Cornelia  "  (1809). 

J03IARI),  Edine  Francois,  a  French  geographer, 
born  in  Versailles,  Nov.  20,  1777,  died  Sept. 
22,  1802.  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Egyptian 
scientific  commission  in  1798,  distinguishing 
himself  by  his  successful  researches,  and  was 
afterward  appointed  secretary  of  the  commis 
sion  to  prepare  the  Description  de  VEgypte, 
and  in  1*07  superintendent  of  the  engraving 
and  printing  of  that  work,  to  which  he  devoted 
18  years.  He  participated  in  1821  in  the  es 
tablishment  of  the  geographical  society.  In 
1828,  on  the  organization  of  the  new  depart 
ment  of  geography  and  travels  in  the  royal 
library,  he  received  the  appointment  of  con- 
servateur  administrateur.  Being  held  in  great 
esteem  by  Mehemet  AH,  he  persuaded  the  pasha 
^o  send  a  number  of  young  Egyptians  to  study 
in  Paris.  These  young  men  formed  what  was 
called  the  institut  dcs  Egyptiens,  placed  under 
the  direction  of  Jomard.  As  a  reward  for 
his  services,  the  successor  of  Mehemet  AH 
appointed  him  his  scientific  correspondent, 
and  granted  him  the  honorary  title  of  bey. 
His  numerous  publications  are  all  devoted  to 


geography,  archaeology,  or  public  education. 
Besides  his  contributions  to  the  great  work  of 
the  Egyptian  commission,  which  he  printed 
separately,  under  the  title  of  Recueil  ^obser 
vations  et  de  memoires  sur  VEgypte  ancicnne 
et  moderne  (4  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1830),  his  most 
important  publications  are  :  Voyage  a  V oasis 
de  Syouali  (1819),  from  the  notes  of  the  trav 
ellers  Cailland  and  Drovetti ;  Rcmarqucs  sur 
les  rapports  de  VEthiopie  ct  de  V  Kgypte,  &c. 
(1822);  Aperfus  et  coups  d'ceil  sur  les  nouvellcs 
decouvertes  dans  VAfrique  cent-rale  (1824-'7) ; 
Observations  sur  le  voyage  au  Darfour  (1845)  ; 
Classification  methodique  dcs  prochrits  de  Vin- 
dustrie  extra-europeenne  (1862) ;  and  Lcs  monu 
ments  de  la  geographic  (1802),  a  collection  of 
ancient  charts  of  Europe  and  the  Orient,  re 
produced  in  facsimile. 

JOMELLI,  Nicole,  an  Italian  composer,  horn  in 
Aversa,  near  Naples,  in  1714,  died  in  Xaples, 
Aug.  28,  1774.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo 
Leo.  His  Err  ore  amoroso  and  Odoardo,  pro 
duced  in  Naples  before  he  was  24  years  of  age, 
established  his  reputation,  and  he  was  invited 
to  Rome,  where  he  composed  two  new  operas. 
Thence  he  went  to  Bologna,  where  he  studied 
under  Padre  Martini.  After  a  successful  career 
in  the  chief  cities  of  Italy,  he  returned  in  1749 
to  Rome,  where  his  Artaserse  was  coldly  re 
ceived.  In  the  following  year  he  produced 
his  AcJiille  in  Sciro  with  complete  success  in 
Vienna,  where  he  made  a  congenial  friend  in 
the  poet  Metastasio,  whose  Didone  he  set  to 
music,  and  on  whose  works  he  thenceforth 
almost  exclusively  employed  himself.  Return 
ing  to  Rome  in  1751,  he  was  made  chapelmas- 
ter  of  St.  Peter's,  but  resigned  in  1753  to  accept 
an  invitation  from  the  duke  of  Wurtemberg  to 
settle  as  musical  director  in  Stuttgart.  He  re 
turned  to  Naples  in  1708;  but  his  style  no 
longer  pleased,  and  his  Dcmofoonte  and  JJigcnia 
in  Aulide  failed.  The  Miserere  was  the  last 
and  greatest  of  his  works. 

JGAIIiM,  Ileuri,  baron,  a  French  military  his 
torian,  born  at  Payerne,  canton  of  Vaud,  Switz 
erland,  March  0,  1779,  died  at  Passy,  near 
Paris,  March  24,  1809.  He  joined  the  French 
army  in  1804  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  was 
soon  made  a  colonel,  serving  as  aide-de-camp 
and  chief  of  staff  to  Marshal  Ney  in  Germany 
and  Spain.  In  1805  he  presented  to  Napoleon 
on  the  field  of  Austerlitz  the  first  edition  of 
his  Traite  dcs  grandes  operations  militaires,  ou 
Histoire  critique  et  militaire  des  gucrres  de 
Frederic  IL  comparees  d  cellcs  de  la  revolution 
(5  vols.  8vo,  with  an  atlas,  Paris,  1S04-'D).  In 
consequence  of  a  misunderstanding  with  Ney 
in  1808,  he  resigned,  and  offered  his  services  to 
the  emperor  Alexander;  but  Napoleon  com 
pelled  him  to  return  and  accept  the  commission 
of  brigadier  general.  In  1S12  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Wilna  and  then  of  Smolensk,  and 
was  of  great  service  to  the  French  army  du 
ring  the  latter  part  of  the  disastrous  retreat 
from  Moscow.  After  the  victory  of  Bautzen 
Ney  asked  for  him  the  rank  of  general  of  divi- 


6T6 


JONAH 


JONES 


sion;  but  Berthier,  who  was  unfriendly  to 
him,  put  him  under  arrest  on  account  of  some 
trifling  irregularities  in  his  routine  duties. 
This  treatment  he  deeply  resented ;  and  after 
the  armistice  of  Plaswitz  he  left  the  French 
army  and  repaired  to  the  headquarters  of 
Alexander,  who  appointed  him  his  aide-de 
camp.  Sentence  of  death  Avas  passed  against 
him  as  a  deserter.  The  rumor  that  he  betrayed 
the  military  plans  of  the  French  was  wholly 
unfounded,  according  to  Napoleon's  own  dec 
laration.  Joinini  even  declined  taking  an  ac 
tive  part  in  the  operations  of  the  allied  armies 
against  France.  In  1815  he  accompanied  the 
czar  to  Paris,  and  received  the  cross  of  the 
order  of  St.  Louis  from  Louis  XVIII.  lie 
tried,  but  in  vain,  to  save  the  life  of  Ney. 
After  sojourning  in  France  to  superintend  the 
publication  of  his  great  work,  Histoire  critique 
et  militaire  des  campagnes  de  la  revolution  de 
1792  d  1801,  written  in  conjunction  with  Col. 
Koch  (15  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1819-'24),  he  re 
turned  to  Russia  in  1822,  and  was  intrusted 
with  the  completion  of  the  military  education 
of  the  grand  duke  Nicholas,  who  on  his  acces 
sion  to  the  throne  retained  him  as  his  aide-de 
camp.  He  served  in  1828  during  the  Russian 
war  against  Turkey,  and  organized  in  1830  the 
Russian  military  academy.  He  then  retired  to 
Brussels,  but  hastened  to  St.  Petersburg  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Crimean  war.  He  spent 
the  last  years  of  his  life  in  Brussels  and  Passy. 
Besides  the  above  mentioned  works,  which  are 
the  basis  of  his  reputation  as  a  military  writer, 
his  chief  publications  are:  Principcs  de  la 
strategic  (3  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1818);  Vie  poli- 
tique  et  militaire  de  Napoleon,  racontee  par 
lui-meme  au  tribunal  de  Cesar,  cVAlexandre  et 
de  Frederic  (4  vols.,  1827) ;  Tableau  analytique 
des  principales  combinaisons  de  la  guerre  et  de 
leurs  rapports  auec  la  politique  des  etats  (4th 
ed.,  St.  Petersburg,  1830);  Precis  de  Vart  de 
la  guerre,  ou  nouveau  Tableau  analytique  des 
principales  combinaisons  de  la  strategic,  de  la 
grande  tactique  et  de  la  politique  militaire 
(1830;  new  ed.,  Paris,  1855);  Precis  politique 
et  militaire  de  la  eampagne  de  1815  (1839); 
Append  ice  au  Precis  la  Thistoire  de  la  guerre 
(1849).  The  following  translations  of  his 
works  have  appeared  in  the  United  States: 
"Art  of  War,"  by  Capt,  G.  II.  Mendell  and 
Lieut.  W.  P.  Craighill  (Philadelphia,  1862); 
"  Political  and  Military  Life  of  Napoleon,"  by 
Maj.  Gi-n.  II.  W.  IlaHeck  (4  vols.  8vo,  New 
York,  18(54);  "Political  and  Military  History 
of  the  Campaign  of  Waterloo,"  by  Capt.  S.  Vo 
Benet  (New  York,  1864);  "Treatise  on  Grand 
Military  Operations,  and  Art  of  War,"  by  Col. 
S.  B.  Holabird  (2  vols.  8vo,  with  atlas,  New 
York,  1865). 

JOXAH,  the  fifth  of  the  minor  Hebrew  proph 
ets,  son  of  Amittai,  born  in  Gath-hepher,  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebuhm,  prophesied  in  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  under  Jeroboam  II.  The  book  called 
after  him  relates  that  he  received  the  divine 
command  to  go  to  Nineveh  and  denounce  the 


|  wickedness  of  that  city.  Fearing  to  under 
take  the  mission,  he  embarked  at  Joppa  for 
Tarshish,  that  he  might  flee  from  the  presence 
of  the  Lord.  Overtaken  by  a  tempest,  the 
mariners  threw  him  overboard  as  the  cause  of 
their  disaster.  He  Avas  sAvallowed  by  a  great 
fish,  Avithin  which  he  lived  three  days  and 
three  nights,  Avhen  the  monster  threw  him 
forth  upon  dry  land.  Again  sent  to  Nineveh, 
he  prophesied  the  destruction  of  that  city  Avith- 
in  40  days.  The  Ninevites  repented,  and  God 
forbore  to  execute  the  sentence  Avhich  he  had 
pronounced.  Jonah  complained  of  this  result, 
retired  from  the  city,  and  Avhile  dwelling  in 
a  booth  Avas  symbolically  reproved  by  God. 
The  literal  interpretation  of  the  book  of  Jo 
nah  was  maintained  by  the  early  ecclesiasti 
cal  authors.  Various  allegorical  and  mythical 
interpretations  have  been  advanced  by  some 
modern  critics,  as  Semler,  Michaelis,  Herder, 
Eichhorn,  Meier,  and  De  Wette.  A  modern 
oriental  tradition  places  the  tomb  of  Jonah  at 
Nebi  Yunus,  opposite  Mosul.  (See  NINEVEH.) 
— See  Ja'ger,  Ueber  den  Ziceck  des  Buclics  Jo 
nas  (1840),  and  Krahmer,  Das  Bucli  Jonas  his- 
torisch-kritisch  untersucht  (1846),  besides  the 
collective  Avorks  on  the  minor  prophets  by 
Ilitzig,  Keil,  arid  Lange. 

JONAS,  Justus,  a  German  theologian,  born  in 
Nordhausen  in  1493,  died  in  Eisfeld  in  1555. 
He  studied  laAv  and  afterward  theology  at  Er 
furt,  and  Avas  appointed  in  1521  professor  at 
Wittenberg,  Avhere  he  embraced  Avith  zeal  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformation,  becoming  inti 
mate  with  Luther  and  accompanying  him  to 
the  diet  at  Worms.  He  Avas  present  at  the 
conference  in  Marburg  and  at  the  imperial  diet 
of  Augsburg.  In  1541  he  Avas  appointed 
preacher  at  Halle,  from  which  place  Avhen  ban 
ished  he  accompanied  Luther  on  his  last  jour 
ney  to  Eisleben.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
Avas  pastor  and  superintendent  at  Eisfeld.  Ho 
assisted  Luther  in  translating  the  Bible.  The 
Avork  by  Avhieh  he  is  best  knoAvn  is  the  Discus- 
sio  pro  Conjugio  Saccrdotali  (1523). 

JO.VATHAX,  brother  of  Judas  Maccabeus. 
See  HEBREWS,  A'ol.  A7iii.,  p.  592. 

JO\ES,  the  name  of  five  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  drained  by  Trent  river;  area,  380 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,002,  of  whom  2,656 
were  colored.  It  has  a  level  and  marshy  sur 
face,  with  pine  and  cypress  forests,  and  a 
sandy  soil.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
Avere  96,385  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  14,139 
of  sAveet  potatoes,  and  1,196  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  251  horses,  256  mules  and  asses, 
683  milch  cows,  1,594  other  cattle,  1,610  sheep, 
and  4,717  swine.  Capital,  Trenton.  II.  A 
central  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  W.  by 
Ocmulgee  river ;  area,  360  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  9,436,  of  whom  6,445  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  generally  good, 
though  much  Avorn.  Iron,  granite,  and  quartz 
are  found.  The  central  Georgia  railroad  passes 
along  its  southern  boundary,  and  the  Macon 


JONES 


677 


and  Augusta  line  crosses  the  S.  E.  portion. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  6,191 
bushels  of  wheat.  108,045.  of  Indian  corn, 
6,815  of  oats,  14,354  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
5, 188  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  479  horses, 
891  mules  and  asses,  1,082  milch  cows,  2,648 
other  cattle,  1,250  sheep,  and  6,675  swine. 
Capital,  Clinton.  III.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Mississippi,  drained  by  Leaf  river  and  its  tribu 
taries;  area,  672  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,313, 
of  whom  308  were  colored.  It  has  a  rolling 
or  slightly  hilly  surface,  with  a  sandy  soil  of 
various  qualities.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  43,187  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  5,662 
of  oats,  20,503  of  sweet  potatoes,  29,070  Ibs. 
of  rice,  and  315  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
608  horses,  1,804  milch  cows,  2,738  other  cat 
tle,  3,773  sheep,  and  7,764  swine.  Capital, 
Ellisville.  IV.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Texas, 
drained  by  the  head  streams  of  Brazos  river ; 
area,  1,004  sq.  m. ;  returned  as  having  no  pop 
ulation  in  1870.  It  is  nearly  all  prairie ;  mes- 
quite  grass  and  the  timber  of  the  same  name 
abound.  The  soil  is  of  a  reddish  color  and 
generally  fertile.  The  county  is  well  adapted 
to  stock  raising.  V.  An  E.  county  of  Iowa, 
drained  by  Wapsipinicon  and  Makoqueta  rivers ; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,731.  It 
has  a  diversified  surface,  with  alternations  of 
prairie  and  forest,  and  a  fertile  soil  resting 
chiefly  on  a  bed  of  limestone.  The  Dubuque 
Southwestern,  the  Davenport  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Sabula,  Ackley,  and  Dakota  railroads 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  476,039  bushels  of  wheat,  1,606,646  of 
Indian  corn,  682,260  of  oats,  111,216  of  po 
tatoes,  37,104  Ibs.  of  wool,  733,645  of  butter, 
35,121  of  cheese,  and  37,936  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  7,791  horses,  9,736  milch  cows, 
9,811  other  cattle,  7,725  sheep,  and  18,724 
swine ;  10  manufactories  of  carriages,  1  of 
cheese,  6  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  and  4  flour  mills. 
Capital,  Anamosa. 

JOMES,  Anson,  president  of  the  republic  of 
Texas,  born  in  Great  Barrington,  Mass.,  Jan. 
20,  1798,  died  by  his  own  hand  in  Houston, 
Texas,  Jan.  7,  1858.  lie  commenced  the  study 
of  medicine  in  Litohfield,  Conn.,  in  1817,  and 
in  1820  was  licensed  to  practise.  After  a  resi 
dence  in  South  America,  Philadelphia,  and 
New  Orleans,  he  established  himself  in  1833 
in  Brazoria,  Texas.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
troubles  between  Texas  and  Mexico  he  served 
as  a  private  soldier  and  as  surgeon  in  the  Tex 
an  army.  In  lS37-'8  he  was  a  representative 
in  the  Texan  congress.  In  1838  he  was  sent 
as  minister  to  Washington,  where  he  remained 
about  a  year,  and  where  he  unsuccessfully  en 
deavored  to  secure  the  annexation  of  Texas  to 
the  United  States.  On  his  return  to  Texas  he 
took  his  seat  in  congress  as  senator  from  Bra 
zoria,  and  in  1841  he- was  appointed  by  Presi 
dent  Houston  secretary  of  state,  which  office 
he  filled  three  years.  In  September,  1844,  he 
was  elected  president  for  three  years  from  the 


ensuing  December,  and  held  that  office  until 
the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States. 
The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  ag 
ricultural  pursuits.  In  1859  his  journal,  pre 
ceded  by  a  brief  autobiography,  was  printed 
for  private  circulation. 

JONES,  Inigo,  an  English  architect,  born  in 
London  about  1572,  died  July  21,  1652.  He 
was  of  humble  origin,  and  in  early  life  is  said 
to  have  been  apprenticed  to  a  joiner ;  but  mani 
festing  a  strong  inclination  for  drawing,  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke, 
who  afforded  him  the  means  of  procuring  an 
art  education  abroad.  During  several  years 
he  made  careful  studies  of  the  chief  architec 
tural  monuments  of  France,  Germany,  and 
Italy.  In  Venice  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  masterpieces  of  Palladio,  whose  style  he 
subsequently  transplanted  into  England.  At 
the  invitation  of  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark 
he  visited  Copenhagen  in  1604,  and  furnished, 
it  is  said,  the  designs  for  the  royal  residences 
of  Rosenberg  and  Frederiksborg.  In  1605  he 
returned  to  England,  where  he  was  employed 
by  James  I.  to  prepare  the  scenery,  decora 
tions,  and  machinery  for  the  masques  written 
by  Ben  Jonson,  which  were  among  the  chief 
amusements  of  the  court.  He  became  a  per 
son  of  considerable  consequence  at  court,  and 
by  his  overbearing  manners  incurred  the  en 
mity  of  his  dramatic  associate  Jonson,  who 
satirized  him  under  the  name  of  Lantern 
Leather-head  in  his  "  Bartholomew  Fair."  In 
1612,  upon  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  to 
whom  he  had  been  appointed  architect,  he 
revisited  Italy,  and  succeeded  in  materially 
improving  his  style.  LTpon  his  return  he 
was  appointed  surveyor  general  of  the  royal 
buildings,  and  during  the  next  25  years  was 
occupied  with  many  important  public  works. 
His  designs  for  the  palace  at  Whitehall,  of 
which  only  the  banqueting  house  was  built, 
are  considered  his  masterpieces ;  besides  which 
he  designed  the  river  front  of  Somerset  house, 
a  Corinthian  portico  added  to  old  St.  Paul's, 
the  arcade  and  church  of  St.  Paul,  Covent 
Garden,  York  stairs,  surgeons'  hall,  Shaftes- 
bury  house,  Ashburton  house,  and  many  pri 
vate  residences  in  various  parts  of  England. 
At  the  request  of  James  I.  he  made  a  careful 
examination  of  the  druidical  remains  at  Stone- 
henge,  and  pronounced  them  part  of  a  temple 
of  the  Roman  or  Tuscan  order  dedicated  to 
Cu'lus.  The  errors  of  his  restoration,  as  dis 
closed  in  his  "Essay  on  Stonehenge,"  published 
after  his  death  by  his  son-in-law  John  Webb 
(fol.,  1655),  have  since  become  apparent.  Du 
ring  the  civil  war  he  adhered  to  the  royal 
cause,  and  suffered  so  much  from  fines  and 
other  persecutions  that  he  died  broken-heart 
ed  and  in  poverty.  He  was  an  accomplished 
classical  scholar  and  mathematician,  and  occa 
sionally  wrote  verses.  His  publications  con 
sist  of  a  masque  and  several  miscellaneous  es 
says,  and  he  also  left  some  notes  on  Palladio's 
architecture.  His  designs  were  published  by 


CT8 


JONES 


William  Kent  in  1727  and  1770,  and  by  Isaac 
Ware  in  1743.  See  "  Life  of  Inigo  Jones,"  by 
Peter  Cunningham  (London,  1848). 

JONES,  Jat-ob,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  near  Smyrna,  Kent  co.,  Del.,  in  1770, 
died  in  Philadelphia  in  August,  1850.  After 
studying  medicine,  he  received  in  April,  1799, 
a  midshipman's  warrant,  and  served  for  some 
time  in  the  frigate  United  States  under  Com 
modore  John  Barry.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  in  February,  1801,  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  war  with  Tripoli  was  at 
tached  to  the  frigate  Philadelphia,  in  which  he 
was  captured  off  Tripoli  in  1803,  and  remained 
a  prisoner  20  months.  He  was  afterward  em 
ployed  for  some  years  on  the  S.  coast  of  the 
United  States,  a  part  of  the  time  in  command 
of  the  brig  Argus.  In  April,  1810,  he  Avas 
commissioned  as  master  commandant,  and  in 
1811  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Wasp,  a  sloop  of  war  of  18  guns.  He  was  on 
his  passage  home  from  France  in  1812  when 
war  was  declared  by  the  United  States  against 
England.  On  his  arrival  the  Wasp  was  ordered 
to  sea  again  immediately,  and  met  a  convoy  of 
English  merchantmen  protected  by  a  sloop  of 
war.  An  engagement  ensued,  lasting  43  min 
utes,  when  the  Wasp  boarded  and  carried  her 
antagonist.  The  captured  vessel,  which  proved 
to  be  the  British  sloop  Frolic,  Capt.  Wliinyates, 
was  a  mere  wreck  when  she  surrendered.  Be 
fore  they  were  able  to  clear  the  wreck,  the 
British  ship  Poictiers,  of  74  guns,  captured 
both  vessels  and  carried  them  to  Bermuda. 
The  Americans  were  soon  put  on  parole,  and 
returned  to  the  United  States.  Congress  vo 
ted  a  gold  medal  to  Jones,  and  silver  ones 
to  each  commissioned  officer  of  the  Wasp.  In 
March,  1813,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
post  captain,  and  appointed  to  command  the 
frigate  Macedonian  in  the  squadron  of  Decatur. 

JONES,  John,  a  Welsh  clergyman,  born  in 
Carmarthenshire,  died  in  London,  Jan.  10, 
1827.  He  completed  his  education  at  the  Uni 
tarian  college  of  Hackney,  and  in  1792  was  ap 
pointed  classical  and  mathematical  tutor  in  the 
Welsh  academy  at  Swansea,  lie  continued  in 
this  situation  for  three  years,  and  then  re 
moved  to  Plymouth  Dock,  where  he  became 
minister  of  a  Unitarian  church.  This  charge 
he  exchanged  in  1797  for  that  of  the  Unitarian 
congregation  at  Halifax,  in  Yorkshire.  About 
1800  he  removed  to  London,  and  resided  there 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  chiefly  as  a 
classical  teacher.  He  published  a  Greek^gram- 
mar  (1804),  "  Illustrations  of  the  Four  Gospels" 
(London,  1808),  a  "Greek  and  English  Lexi 
con"  (1823),  and  Etymologia  Grceca  (1826), 
an  enlarged  edition  of  his  grammar. 

JONES,  .John  Paul,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  at  Arbigland,  on  Sol  way  firth,  Scotland, 
July  6,  1747,  died  in  Paris,  July  18,  1792. 
His  name  was  John  Paul,  that  of  Jones  having 
been  assumed  in  after  life.  At  the  age  of  12 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  merchant  of  White- 
haven,  who  was  engaged  in  American  trade. 


His  first  voyage  was  to  Virginia,  where  his 
elder  brother  was  established  as  a  planter.  He 
was  afterward  engaged  for  a  short  time  in  the 
slave  trade,  which  he  left  in  disgust,  and  made 
a  number  of  voyages  to  the  West  Indies,  real 
izing,  it  was  said,  a  fortune  by  commercial 
speculations.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
American  revolutionary  struggle  he  was  in 
Virginia,  and  entered  the  colonial  service  as  a 
lieutenant  in  the  navy,  Dec.  22,  1775.  It  is 
said  that  Jones  hoisted  on  the  Alfred  (of  which 
he  was  first  lieutenant),  the  flag  ship  of  a  squad 
ron  of  eight  vessels,  the  first  American  flag 
ever  displayed.  The  device  it  bore  is  believed 
to  have  been  a  pine  tree  with  a  rattlesnake 
coiled  at  its  root.  From  the  Alfred  he  was 
soon  transferred  to  the  command  of  the  sloop 
Providence,  of  12  guns  and  70  men,  in  which 
vessel  he  made  16  prizes  during  a  cruise  of  six 
weeks  between  the  Bermudas  and  the  gut  of 
Canso.  He  was  appointed  a  captain  in  1776, 
receiving  command  of  the  Alfred,  and  in  1777 
of  the  Ranger.  He  made  many  prizes  on  his 
cruisers  and  broke  up  the  fishery  at  Cape  Bre 
ton.  In  November,  1777,  he  sailed  to  Europe, 
harassed  the  coasting  trade  of  Scotland,  and 
made  a  bold  attack  on  Whitehaven.  He  also 
attempted  to  capture  the  earl  of  Selkirk,  who 
resided  upon  his  estate  near  Kirkcudbright,  on 
the  river  Dee,  in  order  to  bring  about  a  system 
of  exchanges  of  prisoners,  to  which  England 
had  hitherto  showed  a  reluctance.  This  de 
sign  failed,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  earl 
from  home.  The  crew  plundered  the  house 
of  the  silver  plate;  but  Jones  bought  it  of 
them  and  restored  it  to  Lady  Selkirk.  During 
this  cruise  the  Ranger  captured  the  Drake,  a 
sloop  of  war  superior  to  her  in  force.  On 
May  8,  1778,  the  Ranger  arrived  at  Brest,  with 
her  prize  and  200  prisoners,  being  nearly 
double  the  number  of  her  own  crew.  From 
this  time  until  February,  1779,  he  used  every 
effort  to  obtain  another  and  better  commandr 
The  Ranger  was  despatched  by  the  commis 
sioners  to  America,  Jones  being  retained  by 
them  in  France.  After  many  months  of  dis 
appointment,  he  set  out  for  Paris,  and  made 
such  strong  personal  appeals  to  the  minister, 
M.  de  Sartine,  that  on  Feb.  4  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  ship  Duras,  an  old  In- 
diaman  converted  into  a  ship  of  war,  and  then 
lying  at  Lorient.  In  compliment  to  Dr.  Frank 
lin,  Jones  changed  the  name  of  this  ship  to 
"  Bon  Ilomme  Richard."  After  many  delays 
she  was  equipped  for  service,  though  in  a  very 
inefficient  manner.  On  her  main  or  gun  deck 
she  mounted  28  12-pounders,  and  on  her  quar 
ter  deck  and  forecastle  14  9-pounders,  making 
an  armament  of  42  guns  in  all.  But  Jones,  de 
termined  to  make  the  most  of  her,  caused  12 
ports  to  be  cut  in  her  gun  room  below,  where 
6  old  18-pounders  were  mounted.  This  expe 
dient  did  not  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  ship, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  as  will  be  seen,  pro 
duced  disastrous  consequences.  On  Aug.  14, 
j  1779,  Jones  sailed  from  Lorient,  having  under 


JONES 


679 


his  command  a  squadron  of  five  vessels.  By 
the  middle  of  September  26  vessels  had  been 
captured  or  destroyed  by  them,  which  created 
great  alarm  upon  the  E.  coast  of  England.  On 
Sept.  23  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  was  off 
Flamborough  Head,  having  in  company  the 
Alliance,  Capt.  Landais,  and  the  Pallas,  a  ship 
mounting  32  light  guns,  commanded  by  Capt. 
Cottineau.  Soon  after  noon  the  headmost 
ships  of  a  fleet,  known  to  be  from  the  Baltic, 
were  seen  standing  out  from  under  Flam- 
borough  Head,  and  beating  down  toward  the 
straits  of  Dover.  This  fleet  was  under  con 
voy  of  the  Serapis,  44,  and  Countess  of  Scar 
borough,  22.  Signal  for  general  chase  was 
made  by  Jones,  and  the  Alliance,  being  the 
fastest  of  the  squadron,  took  the  lead ;  but  no 
sooner  had  she  discovered  the  force  of  the 
English  vessels  of  war  than  she  stood  off  from 
them.  About  7i  o'clock  the  Richard  came 
up  with  the  Serapis,  commanded  by  Capt. 
Pearson,  and  closed  with  her,  upon  her  weath 
er  quarter,  to  about  half  pistol  shot.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  action  two  of  the  old 
18-pounders  mounted  in  the  Richard's  gun 
room  burst,  blowing  up  the  deck  above  and 
killing  or  wounding  a  large  portion  of  the 
men  stationed  at  them.  This  part  of  the  bat 
tery  was  then  abandoned,  and  the  ports  were 
closed.  A  close  and  heavy  cannonade  was 
now  maintained  by  both  ships  for  about  an 
hour,  when  they  fouled  each  other,  and  Jones 
with  his  own  hands  assisted  in  lashing  the  jib  | 
stay  of  the  Serapis  to  the  mizzen  mast  of  the  j 
Richard.  The  ships  being  in  actual  contact,  j 
fore  and  aft,  each  discharged  her  guns  into  the  ' 
side  or  through  the  ports  of  her  antagonist. 
The  effect  of  such  a  fire  was  terrible  to  both. 
Soon  after  10  o'clock  the  Serapis  struck,  and 
Dale,  the  first  lieutenant  of  the  Richard  (after 
ward  Commodore  Dale),  wtrs  ordered  on  board 
to  take  possession  of  her.  In  the  morning 
the  spectacle  presented  by  the  Richard  was  sin 
gular  and  dreadful.  She  was  on  fire  in  two 
places,  and  had  7  ft.  of  water  in  her  hold.  Her 
counters  and  quarters  on  the  lower  deck  were 
driven  in,  the  whole  of  her  main  battery  was 
dismounted,  and  she  was  cut  to  pieces  in  a 
most  extraordinary  manner.  The  after  part 
of  the  ship,  in  line  with  the  guns  of  the  Sera- 

Sis,  was  so  completely  beaten  in  that  the  upper 
eck  was  only  sustained  by  a  few  frames, 
which  had  been  missed  by  shot.  It  being 
deemed  impossible  to  carry  her  into  port,  the 
wounded  were  removed,  and  she  soon  after 
sank.  The  Serapis  suffered  much  less.  She 
was  a  new  ship,  in  excellent  condition,  and 
much  superior  in  force  to  the  Richard,  mount 
ing  50  guns,  though  rated  at  44.  Her  crew 
numbered  320,  while  those  engaged  upon  the 
Richard  were  only  227,  Irish,  Scotch,  Portu 
guese,  Norwegians,  &c.,  with  but  very  few 
Americans.  During  the  action  the  Countess 
of  Scarborough  surrendered  to  the  Pallas,  the 
captain  of  which  requested  Capt.  Landais  of  the 
Alliance  to  take  charge  of  the  prize,  to  enable 


him  to  go  to  the  assistance  of  the  Richard ; 
but  Landais,  instead  of  complying,  actually 
opened  fire  upon  Jones's  ship.  Jones  carried 
his  prize  into  the  Texel.  On  his  arrival  in 
France  he  was  received  with  the  most  distin 
guished  honors.  A  sword  was  presented  to  him 
by  Louis  XVI.,  who  also  requested  permission 
of  congress  to  decorate  him  with  the  military 
order  of  merit.  In  1781  he  sailed  for  the  Uni 
ted  States,  arriving  in  Philadelphia  in  Febru 
ary,  where  congress  voted  him  a  gold  medal, 
and  Washington  addressed  him  a  highly  com 
plimentary  letter.  He  was  afterward  em 
ployed  to  superintend  the  construction  of  a 
line-of-battle  ship,  the  America,  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  which  he  was  to  have  commanded ;  but 
the  ship  was  presented  by  congress  to  France. 
He  then  went  to  Paris  as  an  agent  for  prize 
money,  and  while  there  was  invited  into  the 
Russian  service  with  the  rank  of  rear  admiral, 
but  was  disappointed  at  not  receiving  command 
of  the  fleet  in  the  Black  sea.  He  quarrelled 
with  the  admiral,  the  prince  of  Nassau,  and 
owing  to  the  intrigues  of  enemies  fell  into  dis 
favor  at  court,  and  was  finally  permitted  by 
the  empress  Catharine  to  retire  from  the  ser 
vice,  with  a  pension  which  was  never  paid. 
He  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he 
died  in  poverty  and  neglect. 

JONES,  Owen,  an  English  architect,  born  in 
Wales  in  1809,  died  in  London,  April  19,  1874. 
He  was  the  only  son  of  Owen  Jones,  a  Welsh 
tradesman,  whose  "  Myvyrian  Archaeology  of 
WTales,"  published  under  the  name  of  Owain 
Myvyr  (3  vols.,  London,  1801-'7),  has  been  de 
scribed  by  Matthew  Arnold  as  a  great  reposito 
ry  of  Welsh  literature.  The  son,  after  studying 
with  a  London  architect,  spent  four  years  on 
the  continent  and  in  the  East.  While  in  Gra 
nada  he  made  with  Jules  Goury  drawings  of 
the  Alhambra,  which  revealed  for  the  first  time 
the  sinking  characteristics  of  that  unique  mon 
ument ;  and  after  Goury's  death  he  carried  on 
the  publication  of  the  work  almost  alone,  in 
vesting  in  it  his  whole  patrimony,  and  sparing 
no  effort  in  its  elaborate  execution.  It  was 
published  under  the  title  of  "  Plans,  Elevations, 
Sections,  and  Details  of  the  Alhambra,"  with 
a  notice  of  the  kings  of  Granada  and  the  trans- 

I  lation  of  Arabic  inscriptions  by  Gayangos 
(London,  1836-^42 ;  2d  ed.,  1847,  with  101 

1  plates).     In  1851  he  became  one  of  the  snper- 

i  intendents  of  the  crystal  palace  in  London, 
and  next  year  director  of  its  decoration  in 
conjunction  with  the  present  Sir  Matthew 
Digby  Wyatt ;  and  the  courts  of  architecture 
and  sculpture  in  the  Sydenham  crystal  pal 
ace,  and  the  decorative  painting  of  that  build 
ing,  were  all  completed  under  his  direction, 
with  the  assistance  of  Bonomi,  Sharpe,  and 

|  others  in  the  Egyptian  court.  His  polychro 
matic  decoration  of  the  Greek  court  having 
excited  comment,  he  vindicated  his  imitation  of 
the  ancient  Greek  sculptors,  and  illustrated  his 
views  by  painting  a  portion  of  the  casts  of  the 

:  Elgin  marbles  at  Sydenham  in  party-colors,  the 


680 


JONES 


hair  being  gilt.  In  his  handbooks  to  the  Al- 
hambra  and  other  courts  of  the  crystal  palace, 
lie  gives  a  full  exposition  of  the  principles  of 
ornamentation.  His  principal  architectural 
work  is  St.  James's  Hall  in  Piccadilly.  He  also 
delivered  lectures,  and  published  one  of  the 
most  important  of  them  for  the  promotion  of 
his  views,  which  he  lived  to  see  generally  adopt 
ed,  though  the  variety  and  novelty  of  his  con 
ceptions  occasioned  controversy.  The  last  of 
the  many  public  recognitions  he  received  was 
an  honorary  diploma  for  designs  at  the  Vienna 
exhibition  of  1873.  He  also  prepared  with 
Goury  "Views  on  the  Nile"  (London,  1842), 
and  furnished  many  others  for  illustrated 
works.  His  other  productions  include  "  Designs 
for  Mosaic  and  Tessellated  Pavements,"  with 
an  essay  by  F.  O.  Ward  (1842) ;  "  The  Poly 
chromatic  Ornament  of  Italy  "  (1846) ;  an  elab 
orate  "Grammar  of  Ornament"  (folio,  1856); 
"One  Thousand  and  One  Initial  Letters,"  and 
"  Seven  Hundred  and  Two  Monograms  "  (1864); 
"Examples of  Chinese  Ornament "  (1867);  and 
several  volumes  of  Biblical  illustrations.  A 
scholarship  was  founded  after  his  death  in 
1874,  by  the  "Owen  Memorial"  committee,  in 
commemoration  of  his  genius,  and  his  portrait 
in  mosaic  was  presented  by  it  to  the  nation. 

JOINTS,  Thomas  Rymer,  an  English  anatomist, 
born  about  1810.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
royal  college  of  surgeons  in  1833,  but  on  account 
of  a  defect  in  his  hearing  has  never  practised. 
Subsequently  lie  was  appointed  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  in  King's  college,  Lon 
don.  1  lis  first  work,  "  A  General  Outline  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom  "  (8vo,  1841),  written  to  supply 
a  want  in  English  scientific  literature,  established 
his  reputation  as  a  comparative  anatomist  and 
physiologist,  and  is  still  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best  works  of  its  kind  in  any  language.  About 
this  time  he  was  appointed  Fullerian  professor 
of  physiology  in  the  royal  institution,  and  sub 
sequently  he  became  examiner  in  comparative 
anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  London  univer 
sity.  In  1845  and  1852  were  published  the  first 
two  volumes  of  his  Fullerian  lectures,  under 
the  title  of  "  Lectures  on  the  Natural  History 
of  Animals,"  the  work  being  still  incomplete. 
His  other  works  are:  "  General  Outline  of  the 
Organization  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  and 
Manual  of  Comparative  Anatomy"  (1855); 
"The  Aquarian  Naturalist"  (London  1858); 
and  "The  Animal  Creation"  (1865).  He  also 
contributed  to  the  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology." 

JONES,  William,  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Lowick,  Northamptonshire,  in  1726,  died  at 
Nayland  in  1800.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse,  and  at  University  college,  Ox 
ford,  and  became  successively  vicar  of  Bethers- 
den  (1764),  rector  of  Pluckley,  perpetual  curate 
of  Nayland  (1776),  and  rector  of  Pasten  and  of 
Hollingbourn,  the  last  three  of  which  appoint 
ments  he  held  at  his  death.  lie  was  eminent 
as  a  scholar  and  theologian,  and  proficient  in 
music.  His  principal  works  are :  "  The  Catho 


lic  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  Proved"  (1756); 
"  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Language  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures"  (1786,  several  times  reprint 
ed):  "The  Scholar  Armed  against  the  Errors 
of  the  Time,"  a  compilation  (2  vols.,  1792)  ; 
and  a  "Life  of  Bishop  Home"  (1795).  He 
also  wrote  treatises  on  music,  composed  an 
thems,  and  was  the  originator  of  the  "  British 
Critic."  A  collected  edition  of  his  works,  with 
a  biography  by  William  Stevens,  was  published 
in  1801  (12  vols. ;  new  ed.,  6  vols.,  1810).  Two 
posthumous  volumes  of  his  sermons,  edited  by 
Henry  Walker,  appeared  in  1830. 

JONES,  Sir  William,  an  English  orientalist, 
born  in  London,  Sept.  28,  1746,  died  in  Cal 
cutta,  April  27,  1794.  His  father,  an  eminent 
mathematician,  died  when  he  was  but  three 
years  old,  and  the  care  of  his  education  de 
volved  on  his  mother.  When  seven  years  old 
he  was  sent  to  the  grammar  school  at  Harrow, 
where  he  remained  ten  years,  not  only  sur 
passing  his  associates  in  classical  studies,  but 
making  some  progress  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic, 
and  applying  himself  to  French  and  Italian 
during  his  vacations.  In  1764  he  was  entered 
at  University  college,  Oxford;  and  in  1765  he 
was  invited  to  reside  in  the  family  of  Earl 
Spencer,  as  tutor  to  Lord  Althorp,  then  seven 
years  of  age,  which  office  he  held  for  five 
years,  during  which  he  was  elected  a  fellow  at 
Oxford.  Meantime  his  fame  for  oriental  schol 
arship  had  begun  to  extend,  and  in  1768  Chris 
tian  VII.  of  Denmark  requested  him  to  trans 
late  into  French  a  Persian  life  of  Nadir  Shah. 
This  was  published  at  London  in  1770,  in  con 
nection  with  a  dissertation,  also  in  French,  on 
oriental  poetry,  containing  translations  of  sev 
eral  of  the  odes  of  Ilafiz.  In  the  following 
year  appeared  his  Persian  grammar,  which,  as 
enlarged  by  subsequent  editors,  long  remained 
the  standard  text  book  on  the  subject.  In  1770 
he  became  a  student  at  the  Temple,  and  began 
to  contemplate  "the  stately  edifice  of  the  laws 
of  England,"  but  was  immediately  called  upon 
to  defend  his  university  against  the  aspersions 
of  the  French  orientalist  Anquetil-Duperron. 
His  pamphlet  (1771)  was  anonymous,  in  idio 
matic  and  efi'ective  French,  and  was  universally 
admitted  to  surpass  the  attack  both  in  wit  and 
learning.  In  the  following  year  he  published 
a  small  volume  of  poems,  chiefly  translations 
from  the  Asiatic  languages,  which  was  follow 
ed  by  the  more  important  Poeseos  Axiaticm 
Commentariorum  Libri  >Skr(1774;  rcpublished 
by  Eichhorn,  Leipsic,  1777),  in  which  with 
equal  skill  and  erudition  he  aimed  to  familiar- 
i  ize  the  European  mind  with  oriental  modes  of 
thought  and  expression.  Called  to  the  bar  in 
1774,  he  left  at  Oxford  all  his  oriental  books 
arid  manuscripts,  and  applied  himself  exclu 
sively  to  legal  studies.  He  was  ambitious  of  a 
seat  in  parliament,  and  in  1780  stood  for  the 
|  university  of  Oxford ;  but  his  liberal  politics, 
I  and  his  condemnation  of  the  American  war 
j  and  of  the  slave  trade,  deprived  him  of  all 
i  chance  of  success,  and  he  withdrew  from  the 


JONESBOKO 


JONSON 


681 


contest.  His  political  opinions  were  declared 
in  several  essay*,  as  his  u  Inquiry  into  the  Legal 
Mode  of  Suppressing  Riots,"  uPlan  of  a  Na 
tional  Defence,"  and  "Principles  of  Govern 
ment;"  and  he  produced  in  1781  a  more  elab 
orate  work  on  the  "Law  of  Bailments," 
which  alone,  according  to  Judge  Story,  would 
have  given  him  "a  name  unrivalled  in  the  com 
mon  law  for  philosophical  accuracy,  elegant 
learning,  and  finished  analysis."  lie  resumed 
his  oriental  studies  to  produce  a  translation 
of  the  "Moallakat,  or  Seven  Arabian  Poems 
which  were  suspended  in  the  Temple  at  Mecca" 
(1783).  In  1783  he  was  married,  knighted, 
and,  through  the  intluence  of  Lord  Ashburton, 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
judicature  at  Fort  William  in  Bengal.  One  of 
his  first  acts  after  his  arrival  was  the  founding 
of  the  Asiatic  society  of  Bengal,  or  "society 
for  inquiring  into  the  history  and  antiquities, 
the  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  of  Asia."  He 
was  the  first  president  of  this  body,  and  con 
tributed  to  the  first  four  volumes  of  its  "Asi 
atic  Researches"  numerous  treatises  of  great 
importance.  He  undertook  to  make  a  digest 
of  Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  laws,  similar  to 
the  codification  of  Greek  and  Roman  laAV  ef 
fected  by  Justinian.  This  task  he  did  not  live 
to  complete,  and  it  was  finished  under  the  su 
perintendence  of  Mr.  Colebrooke.  He  trans 
lated  and  published  in  1704  the  ordinances  of 
Maim,  the  foundation  of  Hindoo  jurisprudence. 
He  also  translated  the  SaJcontala,  or  "The  Fa 
tal  Ring,"  an  Indian  drama  by  Kalidasa ;  the 
Hitopadesa,  the  original  of  the  famous  fables 
of  Bidpay ;  the  tales  and  fables  of  Nizami ; 
and  portions  of  the  Ramayana  and  the  Vedas. 
He  had  decided  to  return  to  England,  when 
he  died  suddenly.  lie  was  familiar  with  27 
languages.  No  predecessor  had  equalled  his 
attainments  in  Sanskrit,  Arabic,  and  Persian. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works  was  pub 
lished  in  G  vols.  in  1799  ;  a  life  by  Lord  Teign- 
mouth  was  added  in  1804;  and  the  whole  was 
reprinted  in  1807,  in  13  vols. 

JOXESBOKO,  a  village,  capital  of  Clayton  co., 
Georgia,  on  the  Macon  and  Western  railroad, 
20  m.  S.  of  Atlanta;  pop.  in  1870,  531.  An 
important  battle  was  fought  here,  Aug.  31, 
1864.  Sherman,  then  besieging  Atlanta,  de 
spatched  a  force  under  Howard  to  seize  the 
railroad  near  Jonesboro,  an  operation  which  if 
successful  would  compel  the  evacuation  of  At 
lanta.  Hood,  the  confederate  commander,  sent 
a  force  under  Ilardee  to  oppose  this  attempt. 
Howard  occupied  an  intrenched  position  in 
which  he  was  attacked  by  Ilardee.  After  a 
severe  action  of  two  hours,  the  confederates 
withdrew.  Their  loss,  as  officially  given  by 
Hood,  was  1,400  killed  and  wounded;  the 
Union  force,  being  attacked  in  their  intrench- 
ments,  suffered  much  less.  As  the  immediate 
consequence  of  this  action,  Atlanta  was  evacu 
ated  by  the  confederates  in  the  night  of  Sept.  1. 

JOVROPING,  I.  A  S.  province  or  Ian  of 
Sweden,  bordering  on  Ostergothland,  Kalmar, 


Kronoberg,  Halland,  and  Elfsborg ;  area,  4,298 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  181,788.  It  is  traversed 
by  several  mountains,  and  is  watered  by  the 
rivers  Nissa  and  Em  and  by  Lake  Wetter.  It 
is  well  cultivated  and  wooded,  and  abounds  in 
minerals,  particularly  iron,  which  is  largely 
exported,  together  with  corn,  cattle,  butter, 
cheese,  pitch,  and  tar.  Hemp,  flax,  and  pota 
toes  are  also  extensively  raised.  II.  A  town, 
capital  of  the  Ian,  situated  on  a  tongue  of  land 
at  the  S.  end  of  Lake  Wetter,  175  rn.  S.  W.  of 
Stockholm;  pop.  in  1872,  11,751.  The  low 
situation  requires  embankments  against  inun 
dations.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  a  fine  parish 
church,  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  a  governor's 
residence,  a  superior  court,  and  a  theatre.  The 
harbor  in  the  adjoining  Munk  lake  has  in 
creased  in  importance  through  the  opening  of 
the  Gota  canal.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  corn, 
iron,  and  wood ;  famous  lucifer  matches  are 
made  here,  and  much  used  in  France  and  Eng 
land.  In  the  vicinity  are  mineral  springs,  sum 
mer  resorts,  and  villas.  It  is  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  stations  on  the  southern  railroad,  and  is 
connected  by  steamers  with  Stockholm. 

JOIVSON,  Benjamin,  commonly  called  BEX,  an 
English  dramatist,  born  in  Westminster  in  1573 
or  1574,  died  Aug.  6, 1037.    He  was  the  posthu 
mous  son  of  a  clergyman,  and  during  his  child 
hood  his  mother  was  married  a  second  time, 
according  to  tradition,  to  a  master  bricklayer 
named  Fowler.     Ben  was  educated  at  West 
minster  school  under  the  tuition  of  Camden, 
and  subsequently  followed  the  calling  of  his 
stepfather,  whom  he  assisted  in  building  part 
of  Lincoln's  Inn.     Finding  this  occupation  not 
to  his  taste,  he  enlisted  in  the  army,  and  served 
a  campaign  in  Flanders.     Returning  to  Eng- 
|  land,    he   is   said   to   have  entered  himself  at 
St.  John's  college,  Cambridge.     About  the  age 
of  20  he  went  upon  the  stage,  but  met  with 
little  success  as  an  actor,  and  also  engaged  in 
dramatic  composition.     In  1590  appeared  his 
"  Comedy  of  Humors,"  which  was  recast  and 
brought  out  at  the  Globe  theatre  in  1598  under 
the  title  of  "  Every  Man  in  his  Humor."    Shake 
speare,  who  is  said  to  have  aided  in  the  compo 
sition  of  the  play,  was  one  of  the  performers. 
About  the  same  time  he  was  imprisoned  for 
killing  Gabriel  Spenser,  an  actor,   in  a  duel, 
and  during  his  confinement  was  converted  to 
!  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  although  he  subse- 
|  quently  became  again  a  Protestant.     "  Every 
,  Man  in  his  Humor"  was  succeeded  in  1599  by 
I  "Ever}'  Man  out  of  his  Humor,"  a  less  able 
'  performance,    in   which   the    "  euphuism "    so 
I  fashionable  at  that  time  is  ridiculed  ;   "  Cyn- 
|  thia's  Revels"  (1000);  the  "Poetaster"  (10n2), 
|  Avhich  involved  the  author  in  a  quarrel  with 
Decker,  who  retaliated  upon  him  in  "  Satyro- 
mastix  ;"  and  "Sejanus,"  a  tragedy  (Ki03),  in 
;  which  Shakespeare  is  said  to  have  taken  his 
|  farewell  of  the  stage  as  an  actor.     Shortly  af- 
I  ter  the  accession  of  James  I.,  Jonson,  in  con- 
!  junction  with   Chnpiuan  and  Marston,  Avroto 
!  the  comedy  of   "Eastward  Hoe,"  containing 


GS2 


JOXSOX 


JOODPOOR 


some  reflections  on  the  Scottish  nation,  in  con 
sequence  of  •which  the  three  dramatists  were 
imprisoned  and  threatened  with  the  loss  of 
their  ears  and  noses.  After  a  short  confine 
ment  they  were  pardoned,  and  Jonson  made 
his  peace  with  James,  who  employed  him  in 
writing  masques  and  other  court  entertain 
ments.  Between  1605  and  1611  appeared  his 
comedies  of  u  Volpone,"  "Epicoene,  or  the  Si 
lent  Woman,"  and  "The  Alchemist,"  and  the 
tragedy  of  "  Catiline."  In  1613  he  visited  the 
continent  as  travelling  tutor  to  a  son  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  Among  his  favorite  haunts 
at  this  time  was  the  Mermaid  cluh,  where  he 
was  thrown  into  the  society  of  Shakespeare 
and  the  great  Elizabethan  dramatists,  and  of 
Raleigh,  Camden,  Selden,  Donne,  and  others. 
The  Apollo  club,  which  met  at  the  Devil  tavern 
in  Fleet  street,  was  founded  by  Ben  Jonson  him 
self  at  a  later  date.  In  1619  he  received  the  ap 
pointment  of  poet  laureate  with  a  pension  of 
100  marks,  and  about  the  same  time  made  a 
pedestrian  excursion  to  Scotland,  in  the  course 
of  which  he  visited  Drummond  of  Hawthorn- 
den,  who  has  preserved  some  curious  notes  of 
his  conversation.  In  1628  he  was  attacked  by 
palsy,  and  compelled  also  by  poverty  to  write 
for  the  stage.  His  "  New  Inn  "  was  unsuccess 
ful,  but  Charles  I.,  hearing  of  his  necessities,  sent 
him  a  present  of  £100,  and  raised  his  salary  to 
that  sum,  adding,  a  tierce  of  canary  annually. 
Notwithstanding  this  assistance,  his  improvi 
dent  habits  kept  him  always  in  difficulties.  He 
wrote  two  or  three  more  dramas,  which  Dry- 
den  calls  his  "dotages,"  and  left  "The  Sad 
Shepherd,"  a  fragment  of  great  beauty.  Jon- 
son's  pride  of  learning,  which  obtrudes  itself 
into  some  of  his  best  works,  has  interfered  not 
a  little  with  their  popularity  as  literary  per 
formances.  In  the  opinion  of  some  of  his 
critics  his  genius  was  more  poetic  -than  drama 
tic.  His  delineations  of  character  are  striking, 
original,  and  artistic,  rather  than  natural.  His 
comedies  are  esteemed  his  best  performances. 
His  tragedies,  founded  on  classic  history,  and 
burdened  with  long  extracts  from  Sallust, 
Tacitus,  and  other  Latin  authors,  are  correct  in 
form,  but  lack  vivacity.  He  published  in  1616 
a  folio  edition  of  most  of  his  works  produced 
previous  to  that  date,  carefully  revised  and 
corrected.  Various  collective  editions  subse 
quently  appeared,  the  first  good  one  being  that 
of  Gilford  (9  vols.  8vo,  1816),  accompanied 
with  notes  critical  and  explanatory,  and  a 
biographical  memoir,  written  with  ability,  but 
in  a  partisan  spirit.  Moxon's  reprint,  the 
latest,  prefaced  by  Gifford's  memoir  (royal 
8vo,  1853),  contains  17  plays,  15  of  which  were 
performed  on  the  stage ;  over  30  masques  and 
interludes;  epigrams,  translations  from  Horace, 
an  English  grammar,  and  a  variety  of  miscel 
lanies  in  prose  and  verse.  lie  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey,  and  the  pithy  inscription 
upon  his  tomb,  "  O  rare  Ben  Jonson,"  was 
added  at  the  expense  of  an  eccentric  Oxford 
shire  squire,  called  Jack  Young,  who,  observing 


the  tomb  to  be  destitute  of  an  epitaph,  gave  a 
mason  18  pence  to  carve  the  words  upon  it. 
The  stone  has  since  been  removed. 

JOXSSON,  Finn,  an  Icelandic  historian,  born 
in  Ilitardal,  Jan.  16,  1704,  died  July  23,  1789. 
In  1725  he  entered  the  university  of  Copen 
hagen,  and  in  1728  was  present  at  the  fire 
which  destroyed  the  great  collection  of  Ice 
landic  MSS.  formed  by  his  patron  Arni  Mag- 
nusson.  In  his  endeavors  to  save  these  MSS. 
he  neglected  his  own  effects  and  library,  which 
were  burned.  On  returning  to  Iceland  he  ob 
tained  a  benefice,  and  in  1754  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Skalholt.  He  wrote  many  works  in 
Latin  and  Icelandic,  the  principal  of  which  is 
the  Historia  Ecclesiast  ica  Ixlandiw,  published 
under  the  care  of  his  son  Hannes  Finsson  at 
Copenhagen  (4  vols.  4to,  1772-'9).  The  latter, 
who  succeeded  his  father  in  the  bishopric, 
made  important  additions  to  this  work,  edited 
several  sagas,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  Ice 
land  agricultural  society. 

JOODPOOR,  or  Marwar.  I.  The  largest  of  the 
native  Rajpoot  states  of  India,  between  lat.  24° 
36'  and  27°  40'  N.,  and  Ion.  70°  4'  and  75°  23' 
E. ;  area,  about  36,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated 
at  1,800,000,  chiefly  Hindoos.  The  Loonee  riv 
er  divides  it  into  two  parts;  the  S.  E.  or  left 
bank  is  fertile,  and  the  N.  W.  or  right  bank  is 
a  continuation  of  the  desert  of  Sinde.  It  is 
traversed  in  the  east  by  the  Aravulli  range  of 
mountains,  from  3,000  to  4,000  ft.  high,  the 
torrents  of  which  irrigate  the  south,  and  favor 
the  cultivation  of  grain.  The  chief  products 
are  wheat  and  cotton,  but  frosts  often  destroy 
the  latter  in  a  single  night.  Millet  and  a  pulse 
called  moth  are  the  principal  food.  Camels, 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  abound,  as  well  as 
many  wild  animals,  and  snakes  to  such  an  ex 
tent  that  thick  gaiters  are  worn  as  a  protec 
tion.  Salt  is  plentiful.  Iron  is  worked  to 
some  extent,  and  there  are  large  deposits  of 
hard  red  sandstone  adapted  for  building ;  and 
fine  quarries  of  marble  at  Mukrana,  120  m.  N. 
E.  of  Joodpoor.  Various  woollen  articles  are 
manufactured,  and  trade  is  active,  the  natives, 
chiefly  Jains,  excelling  as  merchants  and  bank 
ers.  The  revenue  is  about  £175,000,  and  the 
maharajah  or  ruler  of  Joodpoor  pays  to  Great 
Britain  a  considerable  annual  tribute.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  state,  300  m.  S.  W.  of 
Delhi ;  pop.,  including  suburbs,  estimated  as 
high  as  150,000,  but  supposed  to  be  rather  less 
than  80,000.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  rampart  5 
m.  in  circuit,  which  is  in  a  dilapidated  con 
dition.  The  town  is  well  built ;  several  streets 
and  the  tanks  are  bordered  by  trees,  and  some 
of  the  houses  are  built  of  red  freestone.  The 
greater  part  of  the  area  of  the  citadel  is  occu 
pied  by  the  royal  palace  and  premises,  and 
there  are  many  temples.  The  Mahumandir 
suburb  outside  the  walls,  enclosed  by  a  for 
tified  wall  with  a  distinct  settlement  of  1,000 
houses,  derives  its  name  from  a  great  sanctuary 
which  has  a  lofty  spire  and  rich  interior  deco 
rations,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  which 


JOOXPOOE 


JOPvDAX 


683 


is  a  canopy  of  silver  in  the  shape  of  an  um 
brella.  The  most  important  manufactures  are 
those  of  ivory  and  hardware.  It  was  founded 
in  1450  as  the  capital  of  Marwar,  in  place  of 
Mandor,  the  ruins  of  which  are  5  m.  N. 

JOONPOOR,  or  Jannpoor,  a  town  of  India,  cap 
ital  of  a  district  of  the  Northwestern  Prov 
inces,  on  the  Goomtee,  36  m.  N".  W.  of  Be 
nares;  pop.  about  10,000.  The  river,  which  is 
navigable  here,  divides  the  town  into  two  une 
qual  parts,  and  its  bridge  is  one  of  the  finest 
and  strongest  in  India.  The  fort  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  with  a  highly  ornamental  gate-  i 
way,  is  half  a  mile  in  circuit,  and  is  used  as  a  | 
prison.  The  castle  and  mosques  were  renown 
ed  in  former  times  for  their  splendor,  and  the 
town  and  its  vicinity  abound  in  ruins  of  mag 
nificent  buildings.  The  principal  mosque, 
though  dilapidated,  is  an  imposing  edifice  with 
colonnades  and  lofty  domes.  The  population 
was  formerly,  much  more  considerable  in  the 
town  as  well  as  in  the  district,  in  which  latter 
it  has  declined  from  over  1,100,000  to  about 
800,000.  Joonpoor  is  renowned  for  its  sugar. 

JOPPA.     See  JAFFA. 

JORDAENS,  Jat-ob,  a  Flemish  painter,  born  in 
Antwerp  in  1594,  died  there  in  1678.  lie 
studied  in  the  school  of  Adam  van  Oort,  whose 
daughter  he  married.  Eubens,  whom  he  imi 
tated,  intrusted  him  with  the  execution  on  a 
large  scale  of  many  of  his  small  sketches.  He 
excelled  in  the  representation  of  bacchanalian 
subjects  and  scenes  of  festive  riot.  Of  these, 
the  pictures  of  the  u  Satyr  and  the  Man  blow 
ing  hot  and  cold,"  and  "  Pan  and  Syrinx,"  are 
well  known  specimens.  He  was  an  industri 
ous  painter,  designing  and  executing  with 
great  facility,  and  in  the  course  of  his  long  life 
finished  an  immense  number  of  works. 

JORDAN  (Ileb.  ha-Yanlen,  the  descender, 
now  called  by  the  Arabians  of  Palestine  csh- 
STieriah,  or  Sheriat  el-Kebir,  the  great  water 
ing  place),  the  only  large  river  in  Palestine, 
and  one  of  the  few  perennial  streams  in  that 
country.  Its  sources  are  on  the  southern  de 
clivities  of  the  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus. 
The  highest  rises  in  the  S.  part  of  Mt.  Her- 
mon,  near  the  village  of  Hasbeiya,  1,700  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  formed  by  about 
20  springs,  which  bubble  up  within  a  small 
circuit  and  form  a  pool  15  ft.  deep.  The  uni 
ted  waters,  under  the  name  of  the  Hasbany, 
flow  "W.  and  then  S.,  receiving  small  tributa 
ries  on  either  side  till  the  river  enters  the 
marshy  plain  of  Iluleli,  where  it  is  joined  by  j 
the  united  streams  of  the  Leddan,  Dan,  or 
Daphne,  and  the  Banias,  the  two  larger  and 
principal  sources  of  the  Jordan.  The  former  ; 
of  these  streams,  one  of  the  largest  single 
sources  in  the  world,  originates  in  a  large  pool, 
12  m.  below  the  source  of  the  Hasbany,  at  the  ! 
southern  prolongation  of  Hermon,  about  650  \ 
ft.  above  the  sea;  and  4  in.  E.  of  it  rises  the 
other,  near  Banias,  about  1,150  ft.  above  the  sea 
level.  Struggling  through  the  morass,  which 
is  thickly  overgrown  with  papyrus,  the  Jordan 


enters  Lake  Merom,  now  called  Iluleh,  also  El 
Mallaha  and  Bahr  Banias  .or  Bahr  Khait,  150 
ft.  above  the  sea.  On  leaving  the  lake  the  riv 
er  is  sluggish  and  turbid,  but  is  soon  purified, 
and  becomes  a  torrent  rushing  between  small 
islands  and  rocks  thickly  set  with  oleanders. 


Source  of  the  Jordan. 

About  2  m.  below  the  lake  is  the  so-called  Ja 
cob's  bridge,  where  Jacob  on  his  return  from 
Mesopotamia  is  said  to  have  crossed  ;  it  was 
built  after  the  crusades,  probably  in  connec 
tion  with  the  caravan  route  from  Egypt  to 
Damascus.  The  breadth  of  the  river  at  this 
place  has  been  variously  stated  from  64  to 
80  ft.  About  13  m.  below  it  enters  the  lake 
of  Tiberias  or  Gennesaret,  which  is  between 
600  and  700  ft.  below  the  Mediterranean,  and 
about  as  much  above  the  Dead  sea.  Issuing 
from  the  S.  extremity  of  this  lake,  the  river 
enters  a  broad  valley,  or  glior,  by  which  name 
the  natives  designate  a  depressed  tract  or  plain 
between  the  mountains  ;  the  Bible  calls  it  u  the 
plain;"  its  width  varies  from  5  to  10  in.  The 
river  at  first  winds  very  much,  and  flows  first 
near  the  W.  hills,  then  turns  E.,  and  continues 
to  the  district  called  Kurn  el-IIemar,  then  again 
returning  toward  the  W.  side.  Lower  down 
it  rather  follows  the  middle  of  the  great  val 
ley.  Its  course  is  so  tortuous  that  within  a 
space  of  only  60  m.  long  and  4  or  5  m.  broad 
it  traverses  at  least  200  in.  and  plunges  over 
27  formidable  rapids.  It  enters  the  Dead  sea 
at  its  N.  extremity,  1,316  ft.  below  the  Medi- 


684 


JORDAN 


terranean,  after  a  total  direct  course  of  120  m. 
Its  mouth  is  180  yards  wide.  Its  principal  af 
fluents  are  the  Zurka  (Jabbok)  and  Sheriat  el- 
Mandhur,  or  Yarmuk.  Its  breadth  and  depth 
greatly  vary,  which  circumstance  explains  the 
great  discrepancies  in  the  reports  of  travellers. 
Its  entire  descent  from  Ilasbeiya  to  its  mouth 
is  about  3,000  ft.,  from  Banias  about  2,450  ft. 
The  Jordan  flows  through  a  deep  chasm  or  fis 
sure  in  the  earth's  crust,  caused  by  the  rending 
and  falling  in  of  the  aqueous  strata,  upheaved 
by  the  eruption  of  the  basalt  which  forms  its 
bed,  and  belonging  to  the  prehistoric  age  of 
the  present  configuration  of  the  earth's  sur 
face.  At  the  surface  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  it  is 
G53  ft.  below  the  Mediterranean;  at  the  sur 
face  of  the  Dead  sea  it  is  1,316  ft.,  and  at  the 
greatest  depth  of  that  sea  2,624  ft.,  below  the 
ocean  level.  The  sources  and  the  course  of  the 
Jordan  were  partially  explored  in  1847  by  the 
English  Lieut.  Molyneaux,  and  very  thoroughly 
in  1848  by  an  American  expedition  under  Lieut. 
Lynch,  and  again  in  1868-'9  by  Mr.  Macgreg- 
or  (see  "  The  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,"  Lon 
don,  1869).  As  Christ  was  baptized  by  John 
in  the  Jordan,  Christians  have  often  regarded 
it  as  a  special  privilege  to  receive  baptism  in 
its  waters,  and  water  is  even  now  occasionally 
procured  from  the  Jordan  for  the  baptism  of 
princes.  (See  DEAD  SEA,  and  GEXNESAKET.) 

JORDAN,  Camille,  a  French  statesman,  born 
in  Lyons,  Jan.  11,  1771,  died  in  Paris,  May 
19,  1821.  He  was  educated  by  the  Oratorians, 
opposed  the  revolutionary  government,  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  insurrection  at  Lyons, 
and  left  France  on  the  fall  of  that  city,  Oct. 
9,  1793.  Returning  after  the  9th  Thermidor, 
he  was  elected  in  1797  to  the  council  of  500, 
advocated  the  principles  of  religious  liberty, 
opposed  the  directorial  government,  and  was 
again  compelled  to  seek  refuge  abroad  after  the 
18th  Fructidor.  Recalled  in  1800,  he  energet 
ically  opposed  the  designs  of  Bonaparte,  and 
denounced  the  frauds  in  the  election  of  1802, 
in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Vrai  sens  du  vote  na 
tional  sur  le  consulat  d  vie.  From  that  peri 
od  till  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  he  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  literature,  In  1816  he 
was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  He 
was  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  doctrinaire  school 
of  politics.  *A  collection  of  his  speeches  was 
published  in  1818.— See  Camille  Jordan  et  Ma 
dame  de  Stael,  by  Sairite-Beuve  (1868). 

JORDAN,  Charles  Etienne,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Berlin,  Aug.  27,  1700,  died  there,  May 
14,  1745.  He  belonged  to  a  French  Protestant 
family  and  became  a  clergyman.  After  the 
death  of  his  wife  in  1732  he  travelled  for  some 
years ;  and  in  1736  he  became  a  literary  assist 
ant  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  who  on  his 
accession  as  Frederick  II.  (1740)  made  him 
privy  councillor  and  curator  of  the  national 
academies.  He  was  the  king's  inseparable 
companion.  Carlyle  in  his  "  History  of  Fred 
erick  the  Great"  makes  many  references  to 
Jordan's  intimate  relations  with  the  king,  and 


to  his  gossiping  letters  to  him,  which  are  in 
cluded  in  vol.  x.  of  his  posthumous  correspon 
dence  ;  but  Carlyle  ridicules  Jordan's  Histoire 
(Tun  voyage  litteraire  en  1733  en  France,  An- 
gleterre  et  Hollande,  because  it  "awakens  a 
kind  of  tragic  feeling,  being  itself  dead,  and 
treating  of  matters  which  are  all  gone  dead." 

JORDAN,  Dorothy  or  Dora,  an  Irish  actress, 
born  near  Waterford  about  1762,  supposed  to 
have  died  at  St.  Cloud,  July  3, 1816.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  Capt.  Bland,  an  Irish  gentleman, 
who,  having  married  her  mother  under  age, 
procured  the  invalidation  of  the  union.  At  16 
she  made  her  debut  in  Dublin,  under  the  name 
of  Miss  Francis,  as  Phebein  "  As  You  Like  It." 
She  soon,  under  the  name  of  Mrs.  Jordan,  by 
which  she  was  afterward  known,  was  engaged  at 
the  York  theatre,  where  she  remained  for  three 
years.  She  then  went  to  London,  and  made 
her  first  appearance  there  Oct.  18,  1785,  soon 
becoming  immensely  popular  in  comedy  and 
musical  farce.  By  her  talents  and  remarkable 
beauty  she  attracted  the  attention  of  the  duke 
of  Clarence,  afterward  William  IV.  She  was 
at  that  time  under  the  protection  of  Mr.  Rich 
ard  Ford,  and  had  several  children,  but  yield 
ed  to  the  admiration  of  the  royal  duke.  Her 
children  by  him  were  ten  in  number,  and  are 
known  under  the  name  of  Fitz-Clarence.  At 
the  termination  of  this  connection  she  went  to 
France,  and  died  there  in  obscurity  and  pover 
ty.  A  monument  by  Chantrey  was  erected  to 
her  memory  at  St.  Cloud  by  William  IV.  after 
his  accession  to  the  throne.  Her  professional 
career  was  brilliant.  She  was  of  an  amiable 
character  and  a  kind  heart,  and  her  domestic 
duties  were  performed  with  devotion  to  the 
interests  of  her  family.  Her  "Memoirs,"  by 
J.  Boaden,  were  published  in  1831.  There  is 
some  mystery  as  to  her  retirement,  which  is 
not  cleared  up  by  her  biographer,  and  it  was 
generally  supposed  that  she  did  not  actually 
die  at  the  time  and  place  stated,  but  that  she 
lived  in  England  for  seven  years  after  under  a 
different  name. 

JORDAN,  Rudolph,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Berlin  in  1810.  He  studied  in  that  city  and  in 
Diisseldorf,  resided  for  a  long  time  in  Heligo 
land,  and  became  known  as  a  marine  and  genre 
painter.  His  "Interior  of  a  Pilot's  House" 
(1831)  has  been  purchased  for  the  royal  gallery 
at  Babelsberg,  and  his  "Proposal  of  Marriage 
in  Heligoland"  (1834)  has  been  often  litho 
graphed.  His  other  masterpieces  comprise 
"  An  Examination  of  Pilots,"  "  Shipwreck  on 
the  Coast  of  Normandy,"  in  the  gallery  of  the 
earl  of  Ellcsmere,  and  pictures  of  life  in  the 
Dutch  islands. 

JORDAN,  WiHiclm,  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Insterburg,  Prussia,  Feb.  8,  1819.  He  gradu 
ated  at  the  university  of  Konigsberg  in  1842, 
and  published  his  first  volume  of  poetry  in  the 
same  year.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Berlin 
national  assembly  in  1848,  and  was  subsequent 
ly  employed  for  a  short  time  in  naval  affairs. 
His  works  include  Geschickte  dcr  Insel  Haiti 


JORG 


JORNANDES 


C85 


(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1846-'9),  tragedies  and  com 
edies,  and  translations  of  Sophocles  and  of 
Shakespeare's  poems  and  several  of  his  plays. 
His  most  famous  poetical  production  is  Dcmi- 
urgos,  ein  Mysteriam  (3  vols.,  1852-'4),  and  he 
lias  written  an  epic,  in  a  peculiar  old  German 
metre,  entited  Siqfridsage,  portions  of  which 
he  has  recited  in  various  cities  of  Germany,  as 
well  as  of  the  United  States,  which  country  he 
visited  in  1872. 

JOKG,  Joseph  Edmnnd,  a  German  author,  born 
at  Irnmenstadt,  Bavaria,  Dec.  23,  1819.  lie 
studied  theology  at  Munich,  and  was  for  sev 
eral  years  amanuensis  of  Dollinger.  In  1847 
he  became  connected  with  the  bureau  of  ar 
chives,  and  in  1852  succeeded  Guido  Gorres 
as  editor  of  the  ffistorisch-politische  Blatter. 
In  1865  he  became  a  member  of  the  second 
Bavarian  chamber,  to  which  he  has  been  re 
peatedly  reflected,  and  in  1867  of  the  customs 
parliament.  He  is  a  prominent  partisan  of  ul 
tramontane  views,  and  his  works  include  Ge- 
schichte  des  grossen  Banernkriegs  (Freiburg, 
1850),  Gcschichte  dcs  Protcstantismns  in  seiner 
neuesten  Entwickelung  (2  vols.,  1857),  and 
Geschiclite  der  sodal-politischen  Parteien  in 
Devtscldand  (1867). 

JORG.  I.  Johann  Christian  Gottfried,  a  Germ  an 
physician,  born  at  Prcdel,  near  Zeitz,  Dec.  24, 
1779,  died  in  Leipsic,  Sept.  20,  1856.  He  was 
professor  of  obstetrics  in  the  university  of  I 
Leipsic  from  1810  till  his  death.  His  works 
relate  chiefly  to  female  physiology  and  pa 
thology,  and  include  a  series  of  manuals 
which  passed  through  several  editions.  II. 
Eduard,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Leipsic, 
Jan.  1 9,  1 808.  After  taking  his  degree  of  M.  D. 
he  travelled  extensively,  went  to  the  United 
States  in  1837,  and  spent  several  years  in  Cuba 
observing  tropical  diseases,  on  which  he  pub 
lished  several  works.  Subsequently  he  re 
turned  to  the  United  States  and  practised  in 
Illinois  and  in  Pennsylvania. 

JORGENSON,  Jorgen,  a  Danish  adventurer, 
born  in  Copenhagen  in  1779,  died  in  New 
South  Wales  about  1830.  He  belonged  to  the 
celebrated  family  of  watchmakers  named  Jiir- 
gensen,  was  apprenticed  at  14  years  of  age  to 
the  master  of  an  English  collier,  and  subse 
quently,  it  is  said,  served  in  the  British  navy 
as  a  midshipman,  and  Anglicized  his  name  into 
Jorgenson.  In  1807  he  sailed  from  Copenha 
gen  in  command  of  a  privateer,  and  was  cap 
tured  and  taken  to  England,  where  he  was  put  ! 
upon  his  parole.  lie  succeeded  in  inducing  a  j 
London  merchant  named  Phelps  to  freight  a 
vessel  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  trade  with 
Iceland.  Jorgenson  arrived  at  Reykiavik  in 
January,  1809,  but  was  forbidden  to  land  his  , 
cargo.  He  then  seized  a  Danish  brig,  which 
had  arrived  with  needed  provisions,  and  the 
alarmed  authorities  permitted  him  to  land  his 
goods,  but  forbade  trade  with  him.  Restoring 
the  captured  brig,  and  leaving  his  supercargo 
with  his  goods,  he  returned  to  England,  but 
oaine  back  with  Phelps  in  June.  Five  days 


before  his  arrival  the  governor,  Count  Trampe, 
had  agreed  with  the  captain  of  the  British 
sloop  of  war  Rover  to  allow  trade  -with  Brit 
ish  subjects  during  the  war ;  but  this  agree 
ment  not  being  carried  out,  Phelps  imprisoned 
the  governor  on  his  ship,  making  a  prize  of  his 
brig  the  Orion;  and  the  next  day  Jorgenson 
assumed  the  government  of  Iceland,  declaring 
its  independence  of  Denmark,  and  seized  the 
public  money  chest,  containing  2,700  rix  dol 
lars.  On  July  11  he  proclaimed  himself  pro 
tector  of  Iceland,  appointed  a  new  flag,  and  re 
pealed  all  restrictions  upon  trade.  His  author 
ity  was  acknowledged  by  an  ecclesiastical  syn 
od,  and  by  the  people  generally.  He  equipped 
an  army  of  eight  men,  confiscated  all  Danish 
property  on  the  island,  established  a  battery  to 
defend  Reykiavik,  and  seized  a  Danish  vessel 
which  came  into  the  harbor.  But  in  August  the 
British  sloop  of  war  Talbot  arrived  at  the  island, 
and,  upon  the  representations  of  the  Danish 
merchants  and  Count  Trampe,  her  captain  sent 
both  Jorgenson  and  Trampe  to  England.  The 
former  opened  a  correspondence  with  the  ad 
miralty,  but  it  having  transpired  that  he  was  a 
prisoner  of  war  who  had  broken  his  parole,  he 
was  confined  for  a  time  in  Tothill  Fields  prison. 
In  1811  he  published  a  work  entitled  "State 
of  Christianity  in  Otaheite,  and  a  Defence  of 
the  Gospel  against  Modern  Antichrists."  L'pon 
the  conclusion  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  he  trav 
elled  on  the  continent,  and  in  1817  published 
"  Travels  in  France  and  Germany  in  1815-'17." 
He  subsequently  fell  into  bad  habits,  was  con 
victed  of  theft,  and  sentenced  to  transportation 
for  life,  and  in  1825  was  sent  to  New  South 
Wales.  Previous  to  his  departure  from  Eng 
land  he  published  "  The  Religion  of  Christ  is  the 
Religion  of  Nature  ;  written  in  the  condemned 
cells  of  Newgate,  by  Jorgen  Jorgenson,  late 
Governor  of  Iceland"  (8vo,  London,  1827). 

JOKNANDES,  or  according  to  the  oldest  MSS. 
JORDAXES,  a  Gothic  historian,  who  lived  about 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century.  He  was  at 
first  one  of  the  notaries  or  rather  secretaries 
of  the  king  of  the  Alans,  who  inhabited  Mo?sia, 
but  became  a  convert  to  Christianity,  and  em 
braced  the  monastic  state.  It  has  been  said,  but 
without  proof,  that  he  was  bishop  of  Crotona. 
lie  wrote  DC  Getarum  sive  Gothorum  Origine 
et  Itcbus  Gestis,  which  is  chiefly  an  extract 
from  Cassiodorus's  lost  u  History  of  the  Goths." 
Notwithstanding  its  many  shortcomings  and 
incorrect  style,  it  is  an  important  work.  He 
left  also,  under  the  title  De  Eegnorum  et  Tem- 
porum  Saccessione,  a  synopsis  of  universal 
history,  which  has  been  generally  printed  at 
the  end  of  his  Gothic  history.  The  flrst  edi 
tion  of  the  latter  is  that  published  by  Peutin- 
ger  with  Warnefrid's  u  History  of  the  Lom 
bards"  (Augsburg,  1515).  It  has  been  fre 
quently  reprinted  in  various  historical  collec 
tions  ;  a  correct  edition  is  to  be  found  in  Mura- 
tori's  Scriptores  Iterum  Italicarum  ;  the  latest 
edition,  with  critical  notes,  is  that  of  Closs 
(Stuttgart,  1861). 


686 


JORTIX 


JOSEPH 


JORTI\,  John,  an  English  divine  and  author, 
born  in  London  in  1698,  died  in  Kensington, 
Sept.  5,  1770.  lie  graduated  at  Cambridge  in 
1719,  and  was  presented  by  his  college  with  a 
living  in  Cambridgeshire ;  but  after  his  mar 
riage  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  soon 
became  widely  known  as  a  popular  and  power 
ful  preacher.  lie  was  successively  rector  of 
Eastwell  in  Kent  and  St.  Dunstan's-in-the-East, 
domestic  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London, 
prebend  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in  17G4  archdeacon 
of  London.  lie  published  Lusus  Poetici  (1722), 
a  small  volume  of  Latin  poems,  which  were 
greatly  admired,  and  numerous  critical  and 
theological  works,  which  display  a  vast  amount 
of  unusual  learning.  The  most  important  are : 
"  Remarks  upon  Authors,  Ancient  and  Modern  " 
(2  vols.,  1731-'2) ;  "  Remarks  on  Ecclesiastical 
History"  (5  vols.,  1751-'73);  and  "Life  of 
Erasmus  "  (2  vols.,  1758-'60).  He  also  wrote 
criticisms  on  Spenser,  Milton,  Tillotson,  and 
Seneca. — See  "  Memoirs  of  John  Jortin,  D.  D.," 
by  John  Disney,  D.  D.  (London,  1792). 

JOKl'LLO,  a  volcano  of  Mexico,  in  the  state 
of  Michoacan,  100  m.  "W.  by  S.  of  the  city 
of  Mexico.  It  rises  from  the  plain  of  Mal- 
pais,  which  forms  a  part  of  a  plaform  having 
a  mean  elevation  of  2,500  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  is  on  a  line  with  a  chain  of  volcanoes 
including  Tuxtla,  Orizaba,  and  Popocatapetl 
to  the  east,  and  Colima  to  the  west.  From 
the  discovery  of  America  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  no  volcanic  disturbance 
had  occurred  4n  this  region ;  and  the  present 
site  of  Jorullo,  about  100  m.  from  the  nearest 
sea,  was  the  centre  of  a  series  of  sugar  and 
indigo  fields,  drained  by  two  small  streams, 


Jorullo. 

the  Cuitimba  and  the  San  Pedro.  In  June, 
1759,  strange  hollow  sounds  were  audible, 
and  earthquakes  succeeded  each  other  until 
the  end  of  September,  when  flames  issued 
from  the  ground,  and  rocks  were  thrown  to  a 
prodigious  height.  On  the  line  of  a  chasm 


running  from  N".  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  "W.  were  formed 
six  volcanic  cones  composed  of  scorise  and  frag 
mentary  lava,  the  smallest  of  which  attained 
300  ft.  in  height,  while  Jorullo,  the  central 
volcano,  rose  to  an  elevation  of  1,600  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  plain,  and  launched  forth 
streams  of  basaltic  lava  with  included  frag 
ments  of  granitic  rocks,  which  ejection  did  not 
cease  until  February,  1760.  The  natives,  on 
returning  to  the  spot  many  years  after  the  out 
burst,  found  the  ground  still  uninhabitable 
from  the  excessive  heat.  Around  the  base  of 
the  newly  formed  cones,  and  radiating  from 
them  as  from  a  centre,  over  an  area  of  4  sq. 
m.,  is  a  convex  mass  of  matter  some  550  ft. 
high  at  its  junction  with  the  cones,  and  gradu 
ally  sloping  thence  in  all  directions  toward  the 
plain ;  and  on  this  convex  protuberance,  slo 
ping  at  an  angle  of  about  6°,  are  thousands  of 
low  conical  mounds,  called  hornitos,  ranging 
from  6  to  9  ft.  in  height,  from  which,  as  well 
as  from  extensive  fissures  across  the  plain,  is 
sued  clouds  of  sulphurous  acid  and  aqueous 
vapor.  In  1827  they  had  entirely  ceased  to 
emit  steam,  and  the  mountain  has  not  since 
shown  any  signs  of  activity;  vegetation  had 
made  marked  progress  on  the  flanks  of  the 
new  hills ;  and  cultivation  had  been  resumed 
on  the  fertile  plain  surrounding  the  volcanic 
centre.  The  great  distance  of  Jorullo  from 
the  ocean  is  observed  by  Lyell  as  an  important 
circumstance,  showing  that  proximity  to  the 
sea,  though  a  common  characteristic,  is  not  an 
essential  condition  of  the  site  of  active  volca 
noes.  The  two  streams  above  mentioned  dis 
appeared  at  the  time  of  the  eruption  below  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  plain,  and  afterward 
reappeared  as  hot  springs  at  its  western  limit. 

JOSEPH,  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  having  a 
younger  brother  Benjamin  and  ten  elder  half 
brothers.  lie  was  envied  by  his  brethren  on 
account  of  his  father's  partiality  toward  him ; 
and  their  aversion  was  increased  by  two  dreams 
that  he  told,  in  which  was  foreshadowed  his 
preeminence  in  the  family.  Conspiring  against 
him,  they  sold  him  for  a  slave  to  a  caravan  of 
Arabian  merchants,  and  he  was  taken  to  Egypt. 
There  he  rose  to  the  highest  power  in  the  house 
of  Potiphar,  an  officer  of  Pharaoh.  The  wife  of 
Potiphar,  stung  by  his  rejection  of  her  licen 
tious  advances,  caused  his  imprisonment  on 
a  false  charge ;  but  his  successful  interpreta 
tion  of  the  king's  dreams  soon  raised  him  to 
supreme  authority  at  the  court.  One  of  the 
dreams  foretold  a  famine,  against  which  he 
made  ample  provision ;  and  such  was  his  dis 
tinction  that  he  married  the  daughter  of  the 
high  priest  of  On  or  Ileliopolis.  While  the 
famine  prevailed,  his  brethren  came  from  Ca 
naan  to  Egypt  to  purchase  corn.  He  at  once 
recognized  them,  and  after  a  period  of  delay  in 
which  he  became  convinced  that  they  had  la 
mented  their  former  cruelty  to  him  and  re 
pented  of  it,  he  made  himself  known  to  them, 
and  appropriated  to  Jacob  and  his  family  the 
land  of  Goshen.  The  Egyptian  people  were 


JOSEPH 


JOSEPH  II. 


68T 


at  length  obliged  to  pay  with  their  land  for 
food  from  the  public  granaries,  so  that  "Jo 
seph  bought  all  the  land  of  Egypt  for  Pha 
raoh,"  and  the  whole  territory  of  the  country, 
excepting  that  of  the  priests,  was  let  to  the 
population  as  tenants.  The  story  of  Joseph  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  portions  of  the  Mo 
saic  writings.  He  died  at  the  age  of  110  years, 
and  left  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 
who,  being  adopted  by  Jacob,  took  their  place 
among  the  heads  of  the  tribes  of  Israel. 

JOSEPH,  the  spouse  of  Mary  the  mother  of 
Jesus  Christ.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  a  descendant  of  David.  Matthew  and 
Luke  give  his  genealogy,  the  former  making 
him  the  son  of  Jacob  and  descended  from 
David  through  Solomon,  and  the  latter  calling 
his  father  Eli,  and  tracing  his  lineage  through 
Nathan.  This  discrepancy  is  explained  in  vari 
ous  ways.  Julius  Africanus  supposes  that  Ja 
cob  and  Eli  were  brothers,  and  that,  Eli  dying 
without  children,  Jacob  married  his  widow, 
who  bore  him  Joseph.  The  child  was  thus  the 
son  of  Eli  according  to  the  Mosaic  law,  but 
of  Jacob  according  to  nature.  Other  commen 
tators  assume  that  the  genealogy  given  by 
Luke  is  that  of  Mary.  It  is  not  known  where 
Joseph  was  born.  He  was  living  at  Nazareth, 
where,  according  to  the  received  tradition,  he 
followed  the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  when  he 
was  betrothed  to  Mary.  Finding  her  preg 
nant,  he  was  minded  to  put  her  away;  but 
being  warned  by  an  angel  in  a  dream  that  she 
was  with  child  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  took 
her  to  himself,  but  knew  her  not  till  she  had 
brought  forth  her  first-born  son,  who  was  called 
Jesus.  Joseph  is  supposed  to  have  died  before 
the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  but  there  is  little 
mention  of  him  in  the  Scriptures.  He  is  held 
in  high  honor  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
and  March  19  is  assigned  as  his  festival.  In 
painting  he  is  represented  as  an  aged  man, 
with  a  lily  or  flowering  branch. 

JOSEPH  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg,  eldest  son  of  Leopold  I.  by 
his  third  wife,  born  July  26,  1678,  died  April 
17,  1711.  He  was  crowned  king  of  Hungary 
in  1687,  of  Rome  in  1690,  and  after  the  death 
of  his  father  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  Germany  in  1705.  He  inherited  at  the  same 
time  a  double  war,  against  Louis  XIV.  for  the 
succession  of  his  brother  Charles  to  the  throne 
of  Spain,  and  in  Hungary  against  the  revolted 
patriots  under  Francis  Rakoczy.  He  was  wil 
ling  to  make  concessions  to  the  Protestants  of 
Hungary  and  other  provinces,  frequently  at 
tempted  to  negotiate  with  the  insurgents,  and 
readily  yielded  to  the  demands  of  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  of 
Silesia,  which  country  the  young  conqueror 
crossed  on  his  march  from  Poland  to  Saxony 
without  even  asking  the  permission  of  the  dis 
tracted  emperor.  The  victories  of  Marlbor- 
ough  and  Eugene  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession  allowed  Joseph,  who  had  personally 
taken  part  in  the  siege  of  Landau,  to  send  con- 
VOL.  ix. — 44 


siderable  forces  against  the  Hungarians,  and 
dissensions  which  broke  out  in  the  camp  of 
the  latter  slowly  prepared  a  final  triumph  of 
the  imperial  arms.  Shortly  before  the  death 
of  Joseph,  Count  Pulffy  succeeded  in  conclu 
ding  a  treaty  with  the  insurgents  at  Szatmar, 
in  the  absence  of  Rakoczy.  Joseph  was  of  a 
mild  disposition,  and  exceedingly  fond  of  cere 
mony  and  of  the  chase,  lie  founded  the  acad 
emy  of  arts  at  Vienna,  and  a  national  bank. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Charles  VI. 

JOSEPH  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  elder  son 
of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa,  born  March 
13,  1741,  died  Feb.  20,  1790.  When  Joseph 
was  born,  his  mother  confided  him  and  her 
rights  under  the  pragmatic  sanction  to  the  pro 
tection  of  the  Hungarian  nation,  which  gal 
lantly  responded  to  her  confidence,  and  Prince 
Batthyanyi  afterward  took  the  principal  charge 
of  his  education.  Ambitious,  but  obstinate,  Jo 
seph  gave  proofs  of  considerable  capacity.  Lan 
guages,  mathematics,  war,  and  music  were  the 
studies  to  which  he  devoted  most  of  his  zeal. 
He  participated  in  none  of  the  campaigns  of 
the  seven  years'  war,  though  this  was  waged 
in  the  years  of  his  advanced  youth,  and  though 
he  admired  no  less  the  military  glory  of  its 
hero,  Frederick,  than  he  did  after  its  close  his 
peaceful  career.  He  successively  married  and 
lost  within  seven  years  a  princess  of  Parma 
and  a  princess  of  Bavaria.  His  only  daughter 
died  in  1770  in  her  eighth  year.  Made  titular 
king  of  Rome  in  1764,  he  became  emperor  of 
Germany  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  the  fol 
lowing  year ;  but  this  was  then  little  more 
than  an  empty  title,  and  in  the  hereditary  pos 
sessions  of  his  mother  he  received  only  the 
dignity  of  assistant  without  any  real  influence, 
though  placed  at  the  head  of  military  affairs. 
He  returned  to  the  state  22,000,000  florins  of 
bonds  and  all  the  estates  which  his  father  had 
purchased  during  his  reign.  He  travelled  ex 
tensively  incognito,  traversing  not  only  the 
countries  which  were  to  be  ruled  by  his  scep 
tre,  but  also  non-Austrian  Germany,  Italy, 
Spain,  Holland,  and  France,  lie  had  an  inter 
view  with  Frederick  in  his  camp  at  Neisse  in 
Silesia  (1769),  a  province  which  that  king  had 
wrested  from  the  empire  of  Maria  Theresa. 
Frederick  in  the  following  year  repaid  the  visit 
at  Neustadt  in  Moravia,  where  Joseph  not  only 
strove  to  display  the  perfections  of  his  army, 
upon  which  he  bestowed  his  principal  cares, 
and  into  which  he  had  introduced  various  lib 
eral  reforms,  but  also  concerted  with  his  guest 
the  scheme  of  dismembering  Poland  jointly 
with  Catharine  II.  of  Russia.  This  extraordi 
nary  act  was  executed  in  1772,  and  added  Gali- 
cia  and  the  Zips  to  the  empire  of  Austria.  A 
few  years  later  Bukowina  was  taken  from  Tur 
key.  Bavaria,  the  elector  of  which  died  in 
1777,  was  also  to  be  annexed,  but  Frederick 
suddenly  marched  into  Bohemia  ;  and  Joseph, 
who  eagerly  grasped  the  opportunity  of  mea 
suring  his  strength  with  that  of  the  renowned 
conqueror,  was  compelled  by  the  order  of  the 


688 


JOSEPH  II. 


JOSEPHINE 


old  empress  peaceably  to  terminate  the  short 
struggle  of  succession.  In  1780  he  went  to 
Mohilev  to  see  Catharine,  with  whom  schemes 
of  Russian  and  Austrian  aggression  in  Turkey 
and  Italy  respectively  were  agreed  upon.  Soon 
after  his  return  his  mother  died,  and  the  reign 
of  the  imperial  philanthropist,  so  long  impa 
tiently  looked  for  by  liberal  Europe,  began. 
The  long  suppressed  desire  of  totally  trans 
forming  his  empire  and  its  nations,  nourished 
by  a  love  of  the  people,  and  a  certainly  not  less 
ardent  ambition,  now  found  full  satisfaction. 
Equality,  centralization,  and  uniformity  were 
the  leading  principles.  Serfdom  was  abolished, 
German  was  made  the  official  language  every 
where,  new  codes  were  introduced,  the  press 
was  almost  entirely  made  free ;  about  700  con 
vents,  containing  36,000  of  the  younger  monks, 
were  dissolved,  and  all  others  placed  under  the 
bishops ;  the  bulls  of  the  pope  were  made  de 
pendent  upon  the  placet  regium ;  the  bulls 
Unigenitus  and  In  Ccena  Domini  were  ex 
punged  from  the  Austrian  rituals  ;  and  by  the 
celebrated  edict  of  toleration,  which,  however, 
excluded  deists,  the  Protestants  were  set  on  a 
perfectly  equal  footing  with  the  Catholics.  All 
this  was  executed  without  consulting  any  legis 
lative  or  deliberative  body,  and  the  private 
rights  of  individuals  were  as  little  considered 
as  the  privileges  of  classes,  or  the  prejudices 
and  ignorance  of  the  masses.  The  people  were 
to  be  enlightened  and  made  happy  by  decrees, 
all  obstacles  violently  removed,  and  the  refrac 
tory  punished.  Pius  VI.  personally  visited 
Vienna,  and  strove  in  vain  to  check  or  mod 
erate  the  reformatory  movement.  But  in  the 
mean  time  the  interests  which  had  been  so 
violently  assailed  by  these  changes,  having  their 
defenders  in  the  most  powerful  and  most  in 
fluential  classes  of  society,  were  active  in  pre 
paring  the  overthrow  of  the  new  system.  No 
bles,  priests,  and  patriots  were  united  in  secret 
opposition.  The  dissatisfaction  was  most  in 
tense  in  Hungary,  Brabant,  Tyrol,  and  Bohe 
mia.  In  Transylvania  a  bloody  rising  of  the 
Wallach  peasantry  against  the  nobles,  under 
Hora  and  Kloska,  was  slowly  suppressed  and 
most  cruelly  punished.  Joseph's  attempt  to 
exchange  the  Austrian  Netherlands  for  Bavaria 
was  prevented  by  Frederick's  last  great  act  of 
external  policy,  the  formation  of  the  Farsten- 
luncl  (confederation  of  princes)  in  1785.  Un 
flinching  amid  all  these  difficulties,  Joseph  pro 
ceeded  in  his  course  of  reform,  and,  eager  to 
add  military  glory  to  the  fame  of  his  internal 
achievements,  visited  Catharine  at  Kherson 
during  her  triumphal  progress  through  the 
southern  regions  of  her  empire  (1787),  and 
finally  concerted  with  her  the  long  meditated 
war  against  Turkey.  It  was  soon  begun.  Jo 
seph  opened  it  by  a  sudden  attack  on  Belgrade, 
but  suffered  a  repulse,  which  was  followed  by 
the  defeat  at  Lugos  (1788),  and  other  disasters. 
A  part  of  the  army  was  lost,  when  Joseph  re 
turned  to  his  capital,  with  a  fatal  malady,  while 
victory  followed  the  banners  of  the  Russian 


generals.  Brabant,  which  had  long  been  in 
open  rebellion,  declared  its  independence,  Hun 
gary  was  violently  agitated,  and  it  availed  Jo 
seph  little'  that  Laudon  partially  restored  the 
fortunes  of  the  war  in  1789.  The  revolution 
in  France  brought  new  dangers.  Broken  in 
spirit,  Joseph,  shortly  before  his  death,  which 
was  attributed  by  some  to  poison,  abrogated 
all  his  innovations  (January,  1790),  except  tol 
eration  and  the  abolition  of  serfdom. 

JOSEPH,  king  of  Naples  and  of  Spain.  See 
BOXAPARTE,  vol.  iii.,  p.  29. 

JOSEPH,  Father,  the  confidential  friend  of  Car 
dinal  Richelieu,  whose  real  name  was  FRAXQOIS 
LECLERC  DU  TREMBLAY,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  4, 
1577,  died  at  Rueil,  Dec.  18,  1638.  He  was 
the  son  of  an  eminent  functionary,  and  his 
mother  belonged  to  the  Lafayette  family.  In 
his  youth  he  saw  much  of  society  of  different 
countries,  and  also  something  of  warfare,  hav 
ing  served  in  the  army  under  an  assumed 
name.  Entering  the  priesthood,  he  attained 
great  eminence  in  the  order  of  Capuchin  friars. 
His  tact,  intelligence,  and  activity  attracted  the 
attention  of  Richelieu,  who  employed  him  as 
his  secretary  and  as  his  agent  in  many  diplo 
matic  negotiations.  The  immense  work  of  the 
cardinal  was  performed  by  Father  Joseph, 
who  became  indispensable  to  him,  and  was  in 
timately  associated  with  the  most  confidential 
and  important  transactions  of  the  period.  To 
an  enthusiastic  religious  zeal,  which  caused  him 
to  send  missionaries  to  England,  Canada,  and 
the  East,  and  to  advocate  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks,  he  added  a  consummate  shrewdness 
and  a  wonderful  capacity  for  incessant  labor. 
Richelieu  used  to  say  that  no  statesman  in  Eu 
rope  could  grapple  with  the  astute  Capuchin 
friar,  and  deplored  his  death  as  a  great  calam 
ity.  The  king  prevailed  upon  the  pope  to 
make  Joseph  cardinal,  but  the  latter  died  be 
fore  the  dignity  was  tendered  to  him.  Owing 
to  his  immense  influence  over  the  cardinal  and 
in  public  affairs,  he  was  treated  with  great  re 
gard,  though  his  cat-like  and  mysterious  man 
ner  and  his  occasional  outbursts  of  rudeness 
and  wrath  were  repulsive.  He  is  the  reputed 
author  of  a  Latin  poem  in  favor  of  a  crusade 
against  the  Turks,  and  of  other  writings,  the 
most  remarkable  being  manuscript  memoirs  in 
4  vols.  (in  the  national  library  in  Paris),  pur 
porting  to  be  a  history  of  Louis  XIII.  in  1634- 
'6,  but  narrating  events  down  to  near  the  end 
of  1638;  it  gives  authentic  documents  of  sev 
eral  treaties,  and  interesting  information  about 
Wallenstein  (in  whose  removal  from  command 
in  1629  Father  Joseph  was  instrumental  at 
Vienna),  about  the  project  of  making  a  free 
state  out  of  the  Netherlands,  and  in  respect 
to  other  schemes  and  incidents.  Ranke  sub 
mitted  in  1860  a  report  on  these  memoirs  to 
the  French  academy  of  moral  and  political  sci 
ences.  Gerome  has  painted  a  celebrated  pic 
ture  of  Father  Joseph,  called  L1  Eminence  grise. 

JOSEPHINE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Oregon,  bor 
dering  on  California,  bounded  N.  by  the  Rogue 


JOSEPHINE 


JOSHUA 


G89 


River  mountains,  and  drained  by  Rogue  and 
Illinois  rivers ;  area,  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,204,  of  whom  223  were  Chinese.  The  sur 
face  is  hilly  and  in  some  parts  mountainous, 
with  small  valleys  of  rich  alluvial  soil.  In  the 
S.  part  are  rich  gold  mines,  and  copper  ore  is 
also  found.  The  value  of  farm  productions 
in  1870  was  $24,775;  of  live  stock,  $27,100. 
Capital,  Kirbyville. 

JOSEPHINE,  empress  of  France.  See  BOXA- 
PAKTE,  vol.  iii.,  p.  46. 

JOSEPHIS,  Flavins,  a  Jewish  historian,  born 
in  Jerusalem  about  A.  D.  37,  died  about  100. 
Ilis  father  belonged  to  the  highest  sacerdotal 
family,  and  his  mother  was  descended  from 
the  Asmonean  princes.  He  received  a  superior 
education,  and  acquired  an  extensive  acquaint 
ance  with  Greek  literature.  lie  studied  the 
doctrines  of  the  three  Jewish  sects,  and  passed 
three  years  in  the  desert  with  the  ascetic  Banus, 
of  the  sect  of  the  Essenes,  after  which  he  re 
mained  by  creed  as  by  birth  a  Pharisee.  At 
the  age  of  26  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  plead 
the  cause  of  some  Jewish  priests  arrested  by 
the  procurator  Felix,  and,  escaping  from  a 
shipwreck  on  his  way,  was  introduced  to  Pop- 
ptea,  the  wife  of  Nero,  and  not  only  effected 
the  liberation  of  his  friends,  but  received  many 
presents  from  the  empress.  Returning  to  Je 
rusalem,  he  attempted  to  dissuade  the  Jews 
from  the  revolt  on  which  they  were  bent,  but 
failing  in  his  efforts  he  joined  the  war  party. 
He  was  appointed  one  of  the  generals  and  de 
puted  to  defend  the  province  of  Galilee,  and  he 
made  vigorous  and  for  a  time  successful  prepa 
rations  against  the  Romans,  though  vehement 
ly  opposed  by  a  strong  party  in  the  council  at 
Jerusalem  led  by  John  of  Giscala.  On  the  ap 
proach  of  Vespasian  in  67  he  threw  himself  into 
Jotapata,  the  strongest  of  the  Galilean  cities, 
where  he  maintained  a  desperate  resistance  for 
47  days.  Escaping  from  the  massacre  which 
succeeded  its  fall,  he  took  refuge  in  a  cave,  but 
was  betrayed  to  the  Romans.  He  thereupon 
assumed  the  character  of  a  prophet,  and,  pro 
fessing  to  derive  his  knowledge  from  the  sa 
cred  books  of  the  Jews,  announced  to  Vespa 
sian  that  the  Roman  empire  should  one  day  be 
his  and  his  son's.  Conlidence  in  him  was  in 
creased  by  the  discovery  from  prisoners  that 
he  had  foretold  the  exact  number  of  days  that 
the  siege  of  Jotapata  should  last.  lie  was  not, 
however,  released  from  bonds  till  Vespasian 
became  emperor,  and  Titus  succeeded  to  the 
control  of  the  Jewish  war.  lie  was  present  at 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  suspected  as  a  traitor 
by  both  Jews  and  Romans,  and  accompanied 
Titus  on  his  return  to  Rome,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  literary  pursuits. 
He  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  the 
city,  an  annual  pension,  and  a  house  which 
had  formerly  been  an  imperial  residence.  He 
was  three  times  married,  and  was  divorced  from 
his  first  two  wives.  Pride  in  the  ancient  glo 
ries  of  his  nation,  awe  of  the  greatness  and 
power  of  Rome,  personal  vanity,  and  a  ten 


dency  to  unbounded  flattery  of  the  Flavian 
family,  appear  with  equal  prominence  in  his 
writings.  In  a  passage,  the  genuineness  of 
which  is  much  disputed,  allusion  is  made  to 
Christ  as  something  more  than  man,  to  his 
miracles,  Messiahship,  death,  and  resurrection 
in  accordance  with  the  prophecies;  but  there 
is  no  evidence  that  he  was  a  Christian.  Ilis 
principal  works  are  a  "  History  of  the  Jewish 
War,"  written  in  Hebrew,  translated  by  him 
self  into  Greek,  and  published  about  75 ;  and 
a  treatise  on  "Jewish  Antiquities,"  written  in 
Greek,  completed  about  93.  The  former  ex 
tends  from  170  B.  C.  to  the  war  which  termi 
nated  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  of  which 
it  gives  a  detailed  narrative ;  and  the  latter  in 
cludes  the  period  from  the  creation  to  A.  D. 
66,  and  manifests  a  desire  to  conciliate  heathen 
readers.  He  also  wrote  his  own  biography, 
and  a  treatise  against  Apion  on  the  antiquity 
of  the  Jewish  nation.  An  account  of  the  mar 
tyrdom  of  Eleazar,  and  of  seven  youths  and 
their  mother,  entitled  Etf  MaK/ca/faZowc,  has  been 
ascribed  to  him,  but  is  of  doubtful  genuine 
ness.  The  best  editions  of  his  works  are  by 
Hudson  (Oxford,  1720),  Havercamp  (Amster 
dam,  1726),  and  Dindorf,  in  Didot's  Billiotheca 
Grccca  (Paris,  1845).  The  principal  English 
translations  are  by  Lodge  (1602),  L'Estrange 
(1702),  Whiston  (1737),  and  Dr.  Robert  Traill, 
who  died,  leaving  finished  only  "The  Jewish 
War,"  which  was  edited  by  Isaac  Taylor  (2 
vols.,  London,  1847).  An  imitation  of  Jose- 
phus's  histories,  in  excellent  Hebrew,  but  con 
taining  many  legendary  and  fabulous  narra 
tives,  was  composed  in  the  middle  ages,  and 
has  often  been  published  under  the  title  "  Book 
of  Josipon." 

JOSH  BELL  (now  called  BELL),  a  S.  E.  county 
of  Kentucky,  bordering  on  Tennessee  and  Vir 
ginia,  and  drained  by  Cumberland  river  and 
the  S.  fork  of  the  Kentucky;  area,  about  600 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,731,  of  whom  111  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  mountainous.  There 
are  extensive  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  ore. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  3,608  bush 
els  of  wheat,  105,465  of  Indian  corn,  12,883  of 
oats,  and  42,357  Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were 
670  horses,  2,660  cattle,  2,890  sheep,  and  5, 036 
swine.  Capital,  Pineville. 

JOSHrA,  the  successor  of  Moses  in  the  com 
mand  of  the  Israelites.  He  was  the  son  of 
Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  gained  the 
victory  over  the  Amalekites  at  Rephidim,  ac 
companied  Moses  to  Mt.  Sinai,  was  deputed 
with  eleven  others  to  explore  the  land  of  Ca 
naan,  was  appointed  by  Moses,  at  the  age  of  85, 
to  the  command  of  the  Israelites,  led  them  into 
the  promised  land,  and  divided  the  country 
among  the  tribes.  (See  HEBKE\VS.)  lie  gov 
erned  Israel  during  25  years.  He  was  buried 
at  Timnath-serah  in  the  mountains  of  Ephraim. 
His  reputed  tomb  was  discovered  in  Is73,  near 
Tibnelr,  by  M.  Guerin,  who  was  employed  by 
the  French  government  in  scientific  researches 
in  Palestine. — His  history  is  contained  in  the 


690 


JOSIAH 


JOST 


canonical  book  called  after  him.  Formerly 
this  book  was  usually  regarded  as  a  produc 
tion  of  Joshua;  but  at  present  the  common 
opinion  among  theologians  of  all  schools  is 
that  it  received  its  name  from  its  subject, 
not  from  its  author.  While  some  critics  be 
lieve  it  to  have  been  written  soon  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  others  refer  its  origin  to  the 
time  of  David,  or  even  of  the  Babylonian 
exile.  Among  the  best  commentaries  on  the 
book  are  those  by  Maurer  (1835),  Keil  (1847; 
new  ed.,  1863),  Knobel  (1861),  and  Crosby 
(Xew  York,  1874). — There  is  a  Samaritan 
book  of  Joshua  (published  in  Arabic  and  Latin 
by  Juynboll,  Leyden,  1848),  which  is  a  chron 
icle  of  events  from  the  death  of  Moses  to  the 
time  of  Alexander  Severus. 

JOSIAH,  king  of  Judah,  son  of  King  Amon, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  about  640  B.  0.,  at 
the  age  of  eight,  and  died  about  609.  Unlike 
his  immediate  predecessors,  he  did  right  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord,  and  undertook  to  free  the 
land  from  idolatry,  though  the  groves  and 
altars  consecrated  to  idol  worship  were  favor 
ed  by  men  of  rank  and  influence  in  the  king 
dom.  Having  accomplished  this  purpose  in 
the  18th  year  of  his  reign,  he  proceeded  to  re 
pair  and  adorn  the  neglected  temple  of  the 
Lord.  In  the  sanctuary  there  was  found  a 
volume  containing  the  books  of  Moses,  which 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  the  original 
copy  of  the  Mosaic  law.  Soon  after  this  he 
ordered  the  celebration  of  the  passover  with 
a  care  and  magnificence  unexampled  from  the 
time  of  the  judges.  Being  tributary  to  the 
Babylonian  empire,  he  resisted  the  passage 
through  his  territories  of  the  Egyptian  king 
Xecho,  on  an  expedition  against  the  Chal 
deans,  and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Megiddo  fought 
between  the  Hebrew  and  Egyptian  forces. 

JOSIKA,  Miklos,  baron,  a  Hungarian  novel 
ist,  born  in  Torda,  Transylvania,  Sept.  28, 
1796,  died  in  Dresden,  Feb.  27,  1865.  He 
studied  law,  and  early  entered  the  Austrian 
army,  which  he  left  in  1818  with  the  rank  of 
captain  of  cavalry.  After  the  reunion  of 
Transylvania  with  Hungary  in  the  spring  of 
1848,  he  became  a  member  of  the  upper  house 
of  the  Hungarian  diet,  was  a  decided  supporter 
of  Kossuth,  and  on  the  resignation  of  the  Bat- 
thyunyi  ministry  was  appointed  member  of 
the  committee  of  defence.  He  followed  the 
revolutionary  government  to  Debreczin,  and 
after  its  overthrow  effected  his  escape  to  Brus 
sels,  where  he  resided  till  1864,  when  he  re 
moved  to  Dresden.  Condemned  to  death  in 
his  absence,  he  was  hanged  in  effigy  in  Pesth 
in  1851.  His  works  include  Abaft  (1836);  Az 
v.tolso  Bdthori  ("The  Last  of  the  Buthoris")  ; 
A  CseTieTc  Magyarorszdgl>an  ("  The  Bohemians 
in  Hungary");  Zrinyi  a  Tcdlto  ("  Zrinyi  the 
Poet");  Josika  Istvdn  ("Stephen  Josika"); 
Eszter  ("  Esther  "  );  and  Mdsodik  liakoczi  Fe- 
rencz  ("  Francis  Rakoczy  II.,"  1801).  All  these, 
with  others  of  his  works,  have  been  translated 
into  German,  partly  by  Klien,  partly  by  the 


author's  second  wife  Julia  Podmaniczky,  whom 
he  married  in  1847. 

JOSQIL\  DES  PRES,  or  Depres  (Jooocus  PRA- 
TEXSIS),  a  French  composer,  born  in  Hainaut, 
Belgium,  about  1450,  died  at  Conde,  France, 
Aug.  27,  1531.  Though  known  to  musicians 
as  Josquin,  this  was  only  his  Christian  name, 
it  being  the  contraction  of  the  Flemish  Josse- 
kin,  or  little  Joseph.  He  was  rightly  styled 
the  father  of  modern  harmony,  and  was  es 
teemed  in  his  own  day  as  the  greatest  com 
poser  of  his  time.  Preceding  as  he  did  by 
nearly  a  century  Palestrina,  Cipriano,  and  Or 
lando  di  Lasso,  he  nevertheless  anticipated 
most  of  their  methods  and  forms  of  composi 
tion.  So  great  was  his  knowledge  of  counter 
point  and  fertility  of  invention,  that  every 
subtlety  of  the  art  seemed  known  to  him.  His 
first  master  was  Jean  Ockeghem,  one  of  the 
chaplains  of  Charles  VII.,  with  whom  he 
studied  at  Paris  for  several  years.  He  then 
went  to  Italy,  and  entered  the  pontifical  choir 
of  Sixtus  IV.  at  Rome.  Here  he  studied  with 
diligence  and  gave  the  first  proofs  of  his  great 
genius  as  a  composer.  Returning  to  France, 
he  was  made  the  chief  singer  in  the  chapel  of 
Louis  XII.,  a  position  corresponding  to  that 
of  chapelmaster  subsequently  created.  He 
added  to  his  duties  as  musician  those  of  an 
ecclesiastic.  The  king  had  promised  Josquin 
a  benefice,  but  it  was  long  before  the  promise 
was  redeemed,  the  composer  being  constantly 
put  off  with  the  words  Laissez  moi  faire.  At 
last  Josquin  composed  a  mass  on  the  notes  La 
sol  fa  re  mi  (Laissez  faire  moi).  This  not 
being  effectual  as  a  reminder,  he  composed 
music  to  a  part  of  the  119th  psalm  (Memor 
csto  verli  tui  servo  tuo),  "  Remember  thy  word 
unto  thy  servant,  upon  which  thou  hast  caused 
me  to  hope."  This  also  failing  to  produce  the 
desired  effect,  Josquin  composed  a  motet  on  the 
words,  "  I  have  no  inheritance  in  the  land  of 
the  living."  Upon  this  the  benefice  was  granted, 
and  the  composer  expressed  his  gratitude  in  a 
setting  of  the  psalm,  "  O  Lord,  thou  hast  dealt 
graciously  with  thy  servant."  These  composi 
tions  were  all  of  great  merit.  The  works  of 
Josquin  were  numerous,  consisting  of  masses, 
motets,  and  other  compositions  of  a  religious 
character.  Many  of  them  are  preserved  among 
the  manuscripts  of  the  British  museum. 

JOST,  Isaak  Markns,  a  German  author,  born 
in  Bernburg,  Feb.  22,  1793,  died  in  Frankfort, 
Xov.  25,  1860.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and 
Berlin,  was  appointed  teacher  in  the  latter 
city  in  1816,  and  in  1835  principal  teacher  of 
the  Jewish  Realschule  in  Frankfort,  which  post 
he  held  till  his  death.  Of  his  numerous  his 
torical  and  other  works,  the  best  known  are  : 
GescUcJite  der  Israeliten  (9  vols.,  Berlin,  1820- 
-'29) ;  Allgemeine  Gescliiclite  des  judischen 
Volkcs  (2  vols.,  1832)  ;  Neuere  Gescliichte  der 
Israeliten  (3  vols.,  1846-'7),  containing  the 
history  of  the  Jews  since  1815  ;  and  Geschichte 
des  Judenthums  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1857-'9). 
He  translated  the  Mishnah  into  German  (6 


JOTUNS 


JOUFFROY 


C91 


vols.,  1832-'4),  and  in  1839-'41  edited  the  Isra- 
elitiscJie  Annalcn  (Frankfort). 

JOTl'XS.     See  MYTHOLOGY. 

JOIBERT,  Barthelemy  Catherine,  a  French  gen 
eral,  born  at  Pont-de-Vaux,  in  Bresse,  April 
14,  1709,  fell  at  the  battle  of  Novi,  Aug.  15, 
1799.  lie  enlisted  in  the  army  in  1701,  dis 
tinguished  himself  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Italy, 
and  especially  in  the  invasion  of  Tyrol  which 
preceded  the  peace  of  Campo  Formic  (1797). 
Napoleon  gave  him  the  highest  praise,  and 
sent  him  to  Paris  with  the  trophies  of  his  bril 
liant  victories,  upon  which  the  directory  suc 
cessively  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  army 
in  Holland,  at  Mentz,  and  in  Italy  (August, 
1798),  where  he  speedily  occupied  Piedmont 
and  gained  possession  of  vast  materials  of  war 
in  the  arsenal  of  Turin  and  other  places.  He 
took  umbrage  in  1799  at  the  commissioners  ap 
pointed  by  the  directory  for  the  prevention  of 
venality  among  the  generals,  and  tendered  his 
resignation,  which  was  accepted.  He  was  soon 
reinstated  in  his  command,  but  being  detained 
in  Paris  by  his  marriage  with  Mile,  de  Montho- 
lon,  he  reached  his  headquarters  only  in  August 
to  take  the  place  of  Moreau.  Joubert,  in  order 
to  recover  the  ground  lost  during  his  absence 
(Alessandria  and  Mantua  having  surrendered 
in  July),  at  once  crossed  the  mountains  of 
Montferrat  with  20,000  men,  took  Acqui,  and 
effected  a  junction  with  the  remains  of  the 
army  of  Naples  under  Championnet,  when  his 
forces  mustered  about  40,000,  against  70,000 
Russians  and  Austrians.  Before  he  had  time 
to  carry  out  his  project  of  retiring  to  the  passes 
of  the  Apennines  to  await  additional  ree'n- 
forcements,  he  was  attacked  at  the  dawn  of 
Aug.  15  by  Suvaroff,  and,  exposing  himself  to 
the  fire  of  the  enemy,  was  shot  while  encour 
aging  his  soldiers,  and  died  begging  one  of  his 
aides-de-camp  to  make  the  Russians  believe 
that  he  was  still  alive.  Joubert's  death  was 
mourned  as  a  great  public  calamity.  Fort  La 
Malgue  at  Toulouse  received  the  name  of  Fort 
Joubert,  and  monuments  in  his  honor  were 
erected  at  Bourg  and  in  the  senate  building. 
It  was  generally  believed  that  if  he  had  lived, 
lie  instead  of  Napoleon  would  have  been  called 
upon  by  the  directory  to  restore  order  in  Paris. 

JOl'DPORE.     See  JOOD.-OOR. 

JOUFFROY,  Theodore  Simon,  a  French  philoso 
pher  of  the  eclectic  school,  born  in  the  ham 
let  of  Les  Pontets,  Doubs,  July  6,  1790,  died 
in  Paris,  Feb.  4,  1842.  After  attending  the 
college  of  Nozeroy,  he  was  confided  in  1807 
to  the  care  of  his  uncle,  an  ecclesiastic  and 
professor  in  the  college  of  Pontarlier,  with 
whom  he  remained  four  years,  and  was  then 
transferred  to  the  college  of  Dijon.  Rollin 
was  the  first  author  in  whom  he  took  delight, 
and  history  continued  through  his  life  to  be  a 
constant  and  favorite  study.  lie  had  already 
attempted  a  tragedy,  when  in  1814  he  was  se 
lected  as  a  brilliant  pupil  for  admission  into 
the  normal  school.  Theological  meditations 
had  led  him  to  the  highest  problems,  and  he 


describes  himself  as  at  this  time  uncertain  about 
the  enigma  of  human  destiny,  yet  detesting  in 
credulity,  and  resolute  to  solve  the  question  by 
the  light  of  reason,  since  he  had  lost  that  of 
faith.  He  was  thus  in  a  condition  to  be  strongly 
impressed  by  the  youngest  of  his  masters,  Vic 
tor  Cousin,  whose  eloquent  lectures  decisively 
directed  his  vocation  to  philosophy.  In  1817 
he  became  pupil-assistant  in  the  philosophical 
department  of  the  normal  school,  at  the  same 
time  lecturing  in  the  Bourbon  college,  and  ful 
filled  both  tasks  till  his  health  obliged  him  to 
resign  the  latter  in  1820.  By  the  suppression 
of  the  normal  school  in  1822,  he  was  deprived 
of  public  employment  for  five  years,  and  in 
the  interval  he  delivered  a  private  course  of 
lectures,  attended  by  the  elite  of  the  young 
men  of  the  capital ;  published  philosophical 
articles  in  the  Globe  and  other  journals  and 
reviews,  one  of  which,  entitled  Comment  Ics 
dogmes  finissent,  added  much  to  his  reputation  ; 
translated  the  "Moral  Philosophy"  of  Dugald 
Stewart  (Paris,  1826),  to  which  he  furnished 
an  elaborate  preface ;  and  began  his  transla 
tion  of  the  complete  works  of  Thomas  Reid  (6 
vols.,  Paris,  1828-'35),  to  which  he  added  sev 
eral  of  the  lectures  of  Royer-Collard,  and  a 
preface  in  which  he  undertook  a  complete  ex 
amination  of  the  Scottish  philosophy.  In  1828 
he  was  made  assistant  professor  of  ancient  phi 
losophy  in  the  faculty  of  letters  of  Paris,  and, 
interested  rather  in  philosophy  than  its  history, 
treated  of  the  faculties  of  the  soul  in  a  course 
of  lectures  on  the  first  "  Alcibiades  "  of  Plato ; 
and  in  1830  became  adjunct  professor  of  the 
history  of  modern  philosophy,  and  delivered 
his  Cours  de  droit  naturel  (2  vols.,  1835  ;  vol. 
iii.,  edited  by  Damiron,  1842),  his  most  elo 
quent  work,  which  treats  at  once  of  ethics, 
psychology,  and  theodicy.  In  1831  he  was 
elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  in  1833 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Greek  literature 
and  philosophy  in  the  college  de  France,  and 
elected  to  the  academy  of  moral  and  political 
sciences.  In  1835  he  was  obliged  to  seek  a 
restoration  of  his  health  in  Italy,  and  on  his 
return  in  1838  resigned  his  professorship  to 
succeed  Laromiguiere  as  librarian  of  the  uni 
versity.  His  feeble  voice  and  calm  and  me 
thodical  mind  alike  unfitted  him  to  excel  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  though  from  his  abilities 
and  personal  character  he  always  commanded 
attention.  In  1840  he  was  called  into  the  royal 
council  of  public  instruction,  and,  being  ap 
pointed  to  draw  up  the  address  of  the  new 
ministry,  maintained  that  its  administration 
should  be  distinguished  by  some  broad  differ 
ence  from  that  which  had  preceded  it.  Find 
ing  himself  in  a  minority,  his  disappointment 
had  a  fatal  influence  on  his  already  broken 
health.  His  principal  works  not  already  men 
tioned  are  the  Melanges  philosophiques  (1833), 
containing  28  essays,  most  of  which  had  be 
fore  appeared  in  periodicals;  the  Nouveaux 
melanges  philosophiques,  edited  by  Damiron 
(1842);  and  the  Cours  d'esthctique,  also  edited 


692 


JOUFFROY  D'ARBANS 


JOULE 


by  Damiron  (1843).  His  Cours  de  droit  natu- 
rel  has  been  translated  into  English  under  the 
title  of  "An  Introduction  to  Ethics,"  by  "W.  II. 
Channing,  and  a  selection  from  his  essays  un 
der  that  of  "Philosophical  Miscellanies,"  by 
G.  Ripley,  in  Ripley's  "  Specimens  of  Foreign 
Literature"  (Boston,  1838-'40). 

JOrFFROY  D'ARBAXS,  Claude  Francois,  mar 
quis  de,  a  French  mechanician,  born  about 
1751,  died  in  Paris  in  1832.  The  idea  of  steam 
boats  occurred  to  him  first  in  1775,  on  occasion 
of  his  examining  a  fire  engine ;.  but  he  failed 
in  the  experiment  which  he  made  with  a  small 
propeller  on  the  river  Doubs  in  the  summer 
of  1776.  Other  experiments  in  1780  and  1783 
on  the  same  river  and  on  the  Saone  at  Lyons 
were  less  unsatisfactory,  though  far  from  suc 
cessful  ;  and  the  government,  after  referring 
the  matter  to  the  academy,  declined  (1784)  to 
grant  him  a  patent,  whereupon  he  went  to 
England.  He  did  not  return  to  France  until 
the  consulate,  when  he  became  acquainted 
with  Fulton.  In  1816  he  received  permission 
to  form  a  company,  arfd  the  count  of  Artois 
allowed  him  to  give  his  name  of  Charles  Phi 
lippe  to  the  first  steamer,  which  was  launched 
on  the  Seine  Aug.  20.  But  the  enterprise,  as 
well  as  that  of  a  rival  company,  ended  dis 
astrously,  and  the  marquis  retired  after  the 
July  revolution  to  the  Invalides,  where  he  died 
of  the  cholera.  He  wrote  Memoires  sur  les 
pompes  a,  feu  for  the  academy,  and  published  in 
1816  Les  bdteaux-a-vapeur.  His  claim  to  the 
discovery  of  steam  navigation  was  acknowl 
edged  by  Arago,  and  in  1840  by  the  French 
academy ;  and  Fulton  spoke  highly  of  his  in- 
ven,tion. — His  son  ACHILLE,  marquis  de,  born 
about  1790,  was  an  ardent  legitimist  politician 
and  writer,  but  after  the  revolution  of  1830 
devoted  himself  to  the  perfecting  of  steamboats, 
invented  an  unsuccessful  system  of  railway 
propulsion,  and  published  several  works  on 
history,  inventions,  &c. 

JOULE,  James  Prescott,  an  English  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Salford,  Dec.  24,  1818.  At 
the  age  of  15  he  became  the  pupil  of  Dr.  John 
Dalton,  the  author  of  the  atomic  theory,  who 
trained  him  in  the  art  of  physical  experimenta 
tion  and  the  philosophy  of  chemistry,  and  taught 
him  mathematics.  His  first  scientific  paper 
was  upon  the  construction  of  electro-magnetic 
engines ;  but  on  account  of  the  difficulties  in 
the  way,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  rapid  decrease 
of  attraction  accompanying  increase  of  distance 
between  magnets,  he  soon  relinquished  the  de 
sign  of  producing  a  practical  motor.  In  1841 
lie  gave  a  lecture  in  the  royal  Victoria  gallery 
at  Manchester  on  the  results  of  his  experiments 
on  a  new  class  of  magnetic  forces,  which  em 
braced  a  statement  of  what  had  been  done  by 
Jacobi  of  St.  Petersburg  and  himself  in  apply 
ing  magnetism  as  a  motive  power.  Continu 
ing  the  investigation  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Scoresby,  Joule  arrived  at  the  result  that  a 
grain  of  coal  consumed  by  a  steam  engine  will 
raise  143  Ibs.  one  foot  in  height,  while  a  grain 


of  zinc  consumed  in  a  voltaic  battery  can  only 
raise,  theoretically,  a  weight  of  80  Ibs.  through 
the  same  distance  ;  and  that  the  cost  of  power 
by  electro-magnetism  is  about  25  times  great 
er  than  that  of  steam.  His  communication  to 
the  royal  society  "  On  the  Change  of  Tempera 
ture  produced  by  the  Rarefaction  and  Conden 
sation  of  Air "  led  Prof.  Thomson  of  Glas 
gow  to  unite  with  him  in  investigating  the 
thermal  effects  of  fluids  in  motion.  The  first 
of  the  series  of  papers  on  this  subject  was  read 
before  the  royal  society  in  June,  1853,  the  last 
in  June,  1862  ;  and  they  were  all  published 
in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  He  also 
published,  in  connection  with  Dr.  Lyon  Play- 
fair,  an  account  of  investigations  into  the 
volumes  occupied  by  bodies  when  in  a  solid 
state,  and  when  dissolved  in  water ;  a  subject 
having  many  important  relations  to  molecular 
physics.  His  inventive  talent  was  early  dis 
played  in  the  construction  of  galvanometers,  the 
use  of  which  was  so  constantly  required  in  his 
electro-magnetic  investigations.  In  1863  he 
described  to  the  Manchester  society  a  new  and 
sensitive  thermometer,  with  which  he  was  en 
abled  to  detect  heat  in  the  moon's  rays.  The 
principal  subject  to  which  he  has  devoted  him 
self,  however,  is  that  of  heat  in  its  relation  to 
mechanical  power.  His  labors  in  this  direc 
tion  commenced  about  the  year  1840,  when 
he  communicated  to  the  royal  society  the  dis 
covery  of  a  principle  in  the  development  of 
heat  by  voltaic  action,  in  which  he  established 
certain  relations  between  heat  and  chemical 
affinity.  The  experiments  of  Count  Rumford 
in  1796-'8  had  exposed  the  fallacy  of  the  calo 
ric  or  material  theory  of  heat,  and  had  very 
nearly  established  the  mechanical  equivalent 
of  heat,  and  Prof.  Mayer  of  Heilbronn  had 
announced  his  belief  that  the  heat  evolved  in 
compressing  a  gas  was  exactly  equal  to  the 
compressing  force;  but  these  views  required 
for  their  complete  establishment  the  demon 
stration  by  experiment.  Placing  water  in  a 
vessel  made  for  the  purpose,  Joule  agitated  it 
by  paddles  driven  by  a  measured  force,  and  de 
termined  both  the  amount  of  heat  produced  by 
stirring  the  liquid,  and  the  amount  of  labor  ex 
pended.  He  also  measured  the  amount  of  heat 
produced  by  revolving  cast-iron  wheels  against 
one  another.  He  varied  the  experiments  by  for 
cing  water  through  capillary  tubes,  and  calcula 
ting  the  heat  generated  by  the  friction  produced. 
He  employed  other  liquids  in  place  of  water, 
such  as  oil  and  mercury,  and  although  he  found 
a  different  degree  of  sensible  heat  evolved  with 
the  same  force  expended  upon  different  fluids, 
still  he  found  that  it  was  exactly  in  the  inverse 
proportion  of  the  fluid's  specific  heat,  thus  add 
ing  another  proof  of  the  correctness  of  his 
opinions,  and  of  his  methods  of  experimenting. 
By  numerous  trials  he  found  that  the  quantity 
of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water 
I  one  degree  F.  in  temperature  is  precisely  com- 
j  potent  to  raise  772  pounds  avoirdupois  one 
j  foot  in  height,  or  in  other  words,  is  equal  to 


JOUNPORE 


JOUVENET 


693 


772  "foot  pounds,"  which  is  the  measure  of 
the  force  called  the  mechanical  equivalent  of 
heat.  (See  CORRELATION  OF  FORCES.)  In  con 
sideration  of  these  important  labors,  the  royal 
medal  of  the  royal  society  was  awarded  to  him 
in  1852,  and  in  1860  he  received  the  Copley 
medal.  His  contributions  to ,  scientific  peri 
odicals  and  other  publications  have  been  nu 
merous  and  important.  He  was  elected  a  fel 
low  of  the  royal  society  in  1850;  has  received 
the  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford,  and  of 
LL.  D.  from  Dublin  and  Edinburgh  ;  is  a  corre 
sponding  member  of  the  institute  of  France ; 
and  was  president  of  the  British  association 
for  the  advancement  of  science  in  1873. 

JOUNPORE.     See  JOONPOOR. 

JOIRDAX,  Antoine  Jacques  Louis,  a  French 
physician,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  29,  1788,  died 
there,  Jan.  2,  1848.  He  was  a  surgeon  in  the 
army  and  in  military  hospitals  till  1814,  and 
took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  Paris  in  1819.  He 
wrote  Traite  complet  des  maladies  venerienncs 
(2  vols.,  1826),  Pharmacopee  universelle  (2 
vols.,  1828;  2d  ed.,  1840),  and  Dictionnaire 
raisonne,  etymologique,  synonymique  et  poly- 
glotte  des  termes  mites  dans  les  sciences  (2  vols., 
1834).  He  translated  many  works  from  the 
German  (including  those  of  Halmemann),  Eng 
lish,  Italian,  and  Latin. 

JOIRDAN,  Jean  Baptistc,  count,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Limoges,  April  29,  1762,  died 
in  Paris,  Nov.  23,  1833.  He  enlisted  in  the 
army  when  scarcely  16  years  old,  served  five 
years  in  America  under  Count  d'Estaing,  and 
was  discharged  in  1784.  He  then  became  a 
merchant's  clerk,  and  had  married  a  milliner 
and  adopted  her  business  when  the  revolution 
broke  out.  He  became  a  lieutenant  of  the  na 
tional  guards,  and  was  in  1791  elected  to  com 
mand  a  battalion  of  volunteers  ;  he  joined  the 
army  of  the  north,  distinguished  himself  in 
Belgium  under  Dumouriez,  was  appointed 
brigadier  general  in  1793,  and  four  months 
later  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general  of  divi 
sion.  Wounded  at  the  battle  of  Ilondschoote, 
he  had  scarcely  recovered  when  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  army  of  the  north.  lie 
drove  the  imperial  troops  from  their  position 
at  Wattignies,  Oct.  16,  1793,  and  was  called  to 
Paris  to  consult  with  the  committee  of  public 
safety ;  but  being  unexpectedly  placed  on  the 
retired  list,  he  returned  to  his  shop  at  Limoges. 
But  his  services  could  not  well  be  dispensed 
with,  and  on  April  15,  1794,  he  received  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Moselle.  A  few 
days  later  he  was  transferred  to  that  of  the 
Sambre  and  Meuse,  with  which  he  won  (June 
26)  the  victory  of  Fleurus,  executed  several 
other  successful  operations,  and  drove  the  Aus- 
trians  beyond  the  Rhine.  In  1795  he  displayed 
uncommon  talents  in  crossing  that  river.  In 
1796  he  advanced  into  Germany,  and  defeated 
Clerfayt  at  Altenkirchen ;  but  being  subse 
quently  worsted  near  Wiirzburg  by  the  arch 
duke  Charles,  he  was  obliged  to  fall  back, 
and  resigned  his  command.  In  1797  he  was 


elected  to  the  council  of  500,  where  he  pro 
cured  the  adoption  of  the  law  of  military  con 
scription.  He  was  president  of  that  body  in 
October,  1798,  when  he  resigned  his  legisla 
tive  functions  to  assume  the  command  of  the 
army  on  the  Danube.  After  a  short  and  un 
successful  campaign,  he  returned  to  Paris,  was 
reflected  to  the  council  of  500,  refused  to  par 
ticipate  in  the  plans  of  Bonaparte  for  the  sub 
version  of  the  directorial  government,  and  was 
one  of  the  members  excluded  from  the  corps 
legislatif  formed  after  the  18th  Brumaire.  He 
nevertheless  was  sent  by  the  first  consul  on  a 
special  mission  to  Piedmont,  and  reconciled 
that  country  to  the  French  domination.  He 
was  appointed  marshal  of  the  empire  and  grand 
eagle  of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1804,  but  re 
ceived  no  important  command,  and  lived  in 
comparative  inactivity  until  he  was  appointed 
in  1806  governor  of  Naples,  and  became  the 
principal  adviser  and  friend  of  Joseph  Bona 
parte.  He  accompanied  Joseph  to  Spain,  with 
the  title  of  major  general  of  the  armies  of  his 
Catholic  majesty;  but  he  had  as  such  neither 
authority  nor  influence,  and  was  not  answer 
able  for  the  reverses  of  the  French  armies  in 
the  Peninsula  from  1808  to  1813.  He  was 
treated  by  Napoleon  with  a  coldness  amounting 
to  disgrace.  In  1814,  having  assented  to  the 
deposition  of  Napoleon,  he  received  a  peerage 
from  Louis  XVIII.  He  joined  Napoleon  du 
ring  the  hundred  days,  but  on  his  defeat  at 
Waterloo  went  back  to  the  Bourbons,  was  cre 
ated  a  count,  then  governor  of  the  seventh 
military  division,  and  in  1819  peer  of  France. 
On  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  held  for  a 
few  days  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
was  appointed  by  Louis  Philippe  governor  of 
the  Invalides.  He  was  honest,  and  died  poor. 

JOIRNALISM.     See  NEWSPAPERS. 

JOtTEL,  Henri,  a  French  explorer,  born  in 
Rouen  about  1651.  lie  was  the  son  of  a  gar 
dener,  served  in  the  army  from  an  early  age, 
and  in  1684  joined  La  SahVs  expedition  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  La  Salle  placed  Jou- 
tel  in  command  of  his  first  fort  in  Texas,  and 
also  of  the  larger  one,  St.  Louis,  when  he  set 
out  in  November,  1685,  to  seek  the  river.  On 
the  last  expedition,  in  January,  1687,  Joutel 
accompanied  La  Salle,  and  was  in  charge  of 
the  camp  when  the  latter  was  assassinated. 
Leaving  the  murderers,  he  set  out  with  La 
Salle's  brother  and  nephew  and  three  others, 
and  reached  Canada  by  way  of  the  Illinois. 
Thence  he  returned  to  France  in  1688,  and 
retired  to  his  native  city.  In  1713  appeared 
at  Paris  his  Journal  historiqiie  du  dernier 
voyage  que  feu  M.  de  la  Sale  jit  dans  le  golfe 
de  Mcxique,  edited  by  M.  de  Michel.  Charle- 
voix  met  Joutel  at  Rouen  in  1723,  and  speaks 
highly  of  him.  The  only  stain  on  him  is  his 
complicity  in  the  fraud  practised  by  Cavelier 
on  Tonty  in  the  Illinois  country. 

JOl TENET,  Jean,  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Rouen  about  1645,  died  in  Paris,  April  5, 
1717.  He  belonged  to  a  family  of  artists,  be- 


69-i 


JOUY 


JOVIAL 


came  known  in  1673  by  his  "  Jesns  curing  the 
•  Paralytic,"  and  was  professor  and  president  of 
the  academy  of  painting.  In  1075  appeared 
his  masterpiece,  "Esther  before  Ahasuerns," 
comparing  favorably  with  the  works  of  Pous- 
sin  and  Lebrun.  Several  of  his  pictures  are  at 
Notre  Dame  and  in  the  Louvre.  His  right 
hand  being  disabled  shortly  before  his  death, 
he  painted  with  his  left  hand  the  u  Magnificat " 
in  the  choir  of  Notre  Dame. 

JOUY,  Victor  Joseph  Etienne  de,  a  French  au 
thor,  born  at  Jouy,  near  Versailles,  probably 
in  1764,  died  in  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Sept.  4, 
1846.  Having  enlisted  in  the  army  when  a 
boy,  he  went  to  South  America,  and  afterward 
to  India,  where  he  was  introduced  to  Tip- 
poo  Sahib.  He  participated  in  the  first  cam 
paigns  of  the  French  revolution,  reached  the 
rank  of  major,  and  at  the  age  of  S3  was  placed 
on  the  retired  list.  Pie  now  produced  several 
light  comedies,  and  in  1807  gained  considerable 
reputation  by  La  vcstale,  a  lyric  poem,  set  to 
music  by  Spontini ;  this  performance  was  re 
warded  three  years  later  with  one  of  the  great 
decennial  prizes.  He  composed  the  libretti  for 
Spontini's  Fernancl  Cortez  (1807),  Catel's  Les 
bayaderes  (1810),  Cherubini's  Les  amazones 
and  Les  Abencerrages  (181 2-' 13),  and  Rossini's 
Noise  (1827)  and  Guillaume  Tell  (1829).  He 
also  attempted  tragedy.  His  Tippo-Sdib  was 
performed  in  1813 ;  Sylla,  for  which  Talma's 
acting,  and  especially  his  wonderful  resem 
blance  to  Napoleon,  secured  a  remarkable  suc 
cess,  in  1822;  Belisaire  in  1825;  and  Julien 
dans  les  Oaules  in  1827.  A  series  of  his  sketch 
es  was  collected  in  181 2-' 14  under  the  title 
of  L'Hermite  de  la  chaussee  d'Antin,  which 
was  compared  with  Addison's  "Spectator." 
In  1815  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
academy.  Under  the  restoration  he  took  an 
active  part  in  politics,  and  his  attacks  brought 
the  wrath  of  the  government  upon  him  and  his 
friend  Jay ;  both  were  incarcerated  for  a  few 
months,  which  considerably  added  to  their 
popularity,  and  was  the  occasion  of  their  pub 
lishing  Les  Jiermitcs  en  prison  (1823)  and  Les 
hermites  en  liberte  (1824).  After  the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  he  was  appointed  librarian  at  the 
Louvre  by  Louis  Philippe,  who  granted  him  also 
in  his  later  years  an  apartment  in  the  chateau 
of  St.  Germain.  lie  published  his  own  (Euvrcs 
completes  (27  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1823-'7), 

JOVELLAXOS,  Gaspar  Mck-hlor  de,  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  in  Gijon,  Jan.  5,  1744,  died  at  Vega, 
Nov.  27,  1811.  lie  was  originally  destined  to 
the  church,  and  received  his  first  tbnsure  at  the 
age  of  13.  But  after  having  studied  philoso 
phy  at  the  university  of  Oviedo,  his  friends 
in  Madrid  persuaded  him  to  change,  and  he 
was  appointed  a  magistrate  of  the  criminal 
court  of  Seville  in  October,  1707.  In  1774  he 
became  judge  of  the  same  court,  and  four  years 
later  alcalde  of  the  royal  household  and  court 
at  Madrid.  The  friend  and  protector  of  Cabar- 
rus,  he  shared  in  the  persecutions  visited  upon 
the  latter  by  Godoy.  Cabarrus  was  cast  into 


prison,  and  Jovellanos  banished  from  court, 
under  the  pretext  of  a  mission  to  explore  the 
province  of  Asturias,  and  report  upon  the  state 
of  its  natural  resources.  On  the  restoration 
of  Cabarrus  to  Godoy's  favor  Jovellnnos  was 
recalled  (1797),  and  appointed  ambassador  to 
Eussia ;  but  before  he  had  time  to  set  out  he 
was  made  minister  of  justice.  But  Godoy  soon 
sent  him  once  more  to  Asturias,  and  in  1801 
had  him  dragged  from  his  bed  by  night,  hur 
ried  to  Barcelona,  and  transported  to  Majorca, 
whence  he  did  not  return  until  after  the  down 
fall  of  Charles  IV.  in  1808.  He  rejected  a  port 
folio  tendered  him  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  but 
represented  his  native  province  in  the  first 
central  junta,  and  was  its  leading  spirit  in  the 
darkest  moments  of  his  country's  struggle  for 
existence.  When  the  junta  was  dissolved,  on 
the  approach  of  the  French  troops,  he  succeed 
ed  in  reassembling  the  dispersed  members,  and 
prevailed  upon  them  to  yield  their  power  to  the 
regency.  He  then  returned  to  Gijon,  whence 
upon  the  occupation  of  the  town  by  the  French 
in  1811  he  escaped  to  Vega.  Distinguished 
alike  as  a  patriot  and  a  scholar,  he  materially 
aided  Llorente  in  his  endeavors  for  the  intro 
duction  of  such  reforms  into  the  tribunal  of  the 
holy  office  as  should  insure  the  publicity  of  its 
proceedings,  and  strove  sedulously  for  the  re 
form  of  the  Spanish  drama.  His  complete 
works  (7  and  5  vols.,  Madrid),  with  a  biography 
prefixed,  comprise  lyrical  and  didactic  poems, 
epistles,  odes,  and  other  minor  compositions  in 
verse,  both  grave  and  gay ;  a  drama,  El  delin- 
cuente  honrado,  a  discourse  on  the  study  of  his 
tory  ;  a  paper  on  the  agrarian  law,  &c.  Jovel 
lanos  was  versed  in  English  literature,  and 
translated  the  first  book  of  "Paradise  Lost." — 
See  Mcmorias  para  la  mda  de  Jovellanos,  by 
Cean-Bermudez  (12mo,  Madrid,  1814). 

JOVIAN  (FLAVIUS  CLAUDIUS  JOVIANUS),  Ro 
man  emperor,  died  in  February,  304,  after  a 
reign  of  seven  months.  The  son  of  Varronia- 
nus,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  age,  he 
was  captain  of  the  body  guards  of  the  emperor 
Julian,  and  participated  in  his  fatal  campaign 
against  the  Persians.  After  the  death  of  Ju 
lian,  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions, 
and  declared  himself  a  Christian.  His  army 
was  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  country,  from 
which  his  first  care  was  to  extricate  it.  But 
Sapor,  the  Persian  monarch,  so  harassed  his 
march  with  repeated  attacks,  that  Jovian,  to 
save  his  army  from  destruction,  consented  to 
an  ignominious  peace,  which  restored  to  the 
Persians  several  possessions  formerly  wrested 
from  them,  both  E.  and  W.  of  the  Tigris.  On 
reaching  the  Roman  territory,  the  emperor 
caused  an  edict  to  be  issued  which  abrogated 
Julian's  edicts  against  the  Christians,  and  re 
stored  the  supremacy  of  their  religion ;  but  he 
would  not  permit  the  pagans  to  be  oppressed 
on  account  of  their  belief.  On  the  way  to 
Constantinople  he  arrived,  Feb.  16,  364,  at  Da- 
dastana,  an  obscure  village  of  Galatia,  where 
he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  the  next  morn- 


JOVIUS 


JUAN  FERNANDEZ 


695 


ing;  whether  suffocated  by  the  charcoal  fire  in 
the  room,  or  overcome  by  intemperance,  or 
the  victim  of  poison,  is  uncertain. 

JO VI IS,  Pa ii his.     See  GIOVIO. 

JOWETT,  Benjamin,  an  English  clergyman 
and  critic,  born  at  Camber  well  in  1817.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  school,  elected 
scholar  of  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  in  1835,  and 
fellow  three  years  later.  He  became  tutor  in 
his  college  in  1842,  was  very  successful  as  an 
educator,  and  was  appointed  regius  professor 
of  Greek  in  the  university  in  1855,  and  master 
of  Balliol  college  in  1870.  He  published  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to 
the  Thessalonians,  Galatians,  and  Romans " 
(2  vols.,  1855),  and  contributed  to  the  "Essays 
and  Reviews  "  a  paper  "  On  the  Inspiration  of 
Scripture."  His  principal  work  is  "  The  Dia 
logues  of  Plato,  translated  into  English,  with 
Analyses  and  Introductions  "  (4  vols.,  1871). 

JOWF,  or  Djowf  (Arab.,  belly),  a  province  of 
the  sultanate  of  Jebel  Shomer,  Arabia,  between 
lat.  29°  and  30°  N.,  and  Ion.  39°  and  41°  E. ; 
area,  about  700  sq.  in. ;  pop.  about  40,000.  It 
is  a  kind  of  oasis,  a  deep  oval  depression  in  the 
desert,  by  which  it  is  surrounded  as  if  by  hills, 
about  70  in.  long  by  10  or  12  broad.  The  prin 
cipal  town,  of  the  same  name,  is  a  collection 
of  eight  villages,  once  distinct  but  now  united. 
Sekakah,  another  large  village,  lies  12  in.  N.  E. 
of  Jowf.  The  united  population  of  the  two 
towns  is  about  34,000.  The  climate  of  the  val 
ley  is  temperate  and  dry.  The  gardens  of  the 
Jowf  are  celebrated  in  that  part  of  the  East. 
The  date  palm  is  the  main  object  of  cultivation, 
but  the  peach,  apricot,  fig,  and  grape  grow 
luxuriantly,  and  surpass  in  flavor  the  fruits  of 
Syria  and  Palestine.  Various  cereals,  legumi 
nous  plants,  gourds,  melons,  &c.,  are  also  raised. 
The  gardens  are  irrigated  by  running  streams, 
instead  of  from  wells  and  cisterns,  as  in  the 
interior.  The  inhabitants  are  fine  specimens  of 
the  northern  Arab  type.  They  are  tall,  well 
proportioned,  and  of  dignified  carriage,  strong, 
active,  long-lived,  brave,  hospitable,  and  intel 
ligent.  They  are  said  to  have  been  Christians 
before  their  forcible  conversion  to  Islamism. — 
The  Jowf  became  subject  to  the  Wahabee  mon 
archy  near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  but  re 
covered  its  independence  ut  the  downfall  of  that 
power.  Civil  contentions  followed,  and  the 
surrounding  Bedouins  forced  it  into  a  tributary 
position.  This  continued  until  the  rise  of  the 
new  sultanate  of  Jebel  Shomer,  when  it  was 
subdued  and  made  a  province  of  that  govern 
ment.  Since  then  it  has  advanced  rapidly  in 
wealth,  and  civilization. 

JOZE,  Antonio,  a  Portuguese  dramatist,  born 
in  Lisbon  early  in  the  18th  century,  burnt 
there,  Sept.  23,  1745.  His  comic  plays  were 
very  popular,  especially  ''Don  Quixote"  and 
"xEsop."  Being  of  Jewish  descent,  he  was 
accused  of  Judaism,  and  condemned  by  the 
inquisition  to  die  at  the  stake.  His  works  are 
included  in  the  Thcatro  comico  portuguez  (5 
vols.,  Lisbon,  1759-'62). 


JOB,  a  central  county  of  Utah;  area,  1,100 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,034.  It  is  situated  in 
a  mountainous  region,  and  contains  the  sources 
of  streams  flowing  N.  to  Utah  lake  and  S.  W. 
to  Sevier  river  and  lake.  The  loftiest  peak  is 
Mt.  Nebo,  12,000  ft.  high.  Along  the  E.  bor 
der  is  the  most  elevated  portion  of  the  Wasatch 
range.  Only  a  small  portion  is  suitable  for 
agriculture.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  23,905  bushels  of  wheat,  6,141  of  Indian 
corn,  2,069  of  oats,  12,320  of  potatoes,  5,947 
Ibs.  of  wool,  23,300  of  butter,  and  1,181  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  313  horses,  460  milch 
cows,  607  other  cattle,  and  2,908  sheep ;  1  flour 
mill,  2  saw  mills,  and  1  wool-carding  estab 
lishment.  Capital,  Nephi. 

JUAN,  Don.     See  Jonx  OF  AUSTRIA. 

JUANES,  or  Joanes,  Vicente,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  at  Fuente  la  Higuera,  Valencia,  in  1523, 
died  at  Bocairent,  near  Alicante,  Dec.  21,  1579. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  and  devoted  himself  to  re 
ligious  subjects,  his  piety  leading  him  to  par 
take  of  the  communion  as  a  preparation  for 
each  new  painting.  His  studio  at  Valencia 
became  a  nucleus  of  art,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  most  renowned  Spanish  painters  of  his  day. 
The  churches  and  convents  of  Valencia  and 
other  parts  of  Spain  abound  with  his  works. 
His  masterpieces  are  the  "Baptism  of  Christ" 
in  the  cathedral  of  Valencia,  and  six  pictures 
of  the  life  of  St.  Stephen  in  the  royal  palace 
of  Madrid.  The  finest  of  his  works  in  the 
Louvre  is  the  "  Holy  Supper." 

JUAN  FERNANDEZ,  an  island  in  the  South  Pa 
cific  ocean,  in  lat.  33°  38'  S.,  Ion.  78°  46'  "SV., 
about  420  m.  W.  of  Valparaiso,  belonging  to 
Chili.  It  is  of  irregular  form,  about  12  m.  in 
length  from  E.  to  W.,  but  not  more  than  4  m. 
across  in  the  widest  part.  A  small  detached 
portion  at  the  S.  "W.  end  is  called  Santa  Clara 
island.  About  92  m.  "\V.  lies  a  small  island 
called  Mas-a-Fuera  (further  off  shore),  Juan 
Fernandez  being  distinguished  as  Mas-a-Tierra 
(nearer  the  mainland).  Mas-a-Fuera  is  covered 
with  trees  and  well  provided  with  fresh  water ; 
but  being  destitute  of  anchorage  or  landing 
place,  it  is  seldom  visited,  and  very  little  known. 
Juan  Fernandez  is,  like  most  of  the  isolated 
oceanic  islands,  of  volcanic  origin,  though  the 
original  shape  and  position  of  the  crater  are 
difficult  to  trace.  The  principal  material  in  its 
formation  is  a  stratified  tufa,  interspersed  with 
blocks  of  harder  volcanic  rocks,  such  as  vesic 
ular  lava  and  greenstone.  The  X.  E.  part  is 
high,  rising  to  3,000  ft.  in  the  mountain  called 
El  Yunque  (the  anvil).  The  headlands  form 
abrupt  cliffs  toward  the  sea,  and  are  separated 
by  narrow  valleys,  clothed  in  rich  vegetation, 
and  watered  by  small  streams  of  excellent  wa 
ter.  The  S.  W.  prolongation  of  the  island  is 
less  elevated,  forming  a  plateau  covered  with 
grass,  destitute  of  trees,  and  bordered  by  cliffs. 
A  few  other  parts  of  the  S.  shore  present  the 
same  appearance.  The  island  is  very  pictu 
resque,  particularly  when  approached  from  the 
north.  The  mountains,  rising  rapidly  from 


696 


JUAN  FERNANDEZ 


JUAN  Y  SANTACILIA 


the  sea,  have  wlien  seen  from  that  side  an  as 
pect  of  grandeur  which  they  lose  when  seen 
from  other  directions.  Notwithstanding  their 
steepness,  which  renders  most  of  the  summits 
inaccessible,  they  are  wooded  to  the  top.  The 
only  anchorage  in  use  is  Cumberland  bay  in 
the  N.  E.  part ;  it  is  well  sheltered  from  the 
southerly  winds,  which  are  the  prevailing  ones 
in  summer.  Two  valleys  open  into  this  bay, 
and  at  their  confluence  is  situated  the  settle 
ment,  consisting  of  a  few  Chilian  huts,  sur 
mounted  "by  the  remains  of  a  fort. — The  first 
settler  on  the  island  was  a  Spaniard,  after 
whom  it  is  named,  who  resided  here  with  his 
family,  but  afterward  went  to  live  on  the  new 
ly  conquered  mainland  of  Chili.  Subsequent 
ly  the  island  was  for  a  long  time  a  debatable 
ground  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  bucca 
neers,  the  latter  finding  it  a  convenient  place 
to  refit  within  easy  distance  of  the  Spanish 
settlements.  To  that  period  may  be  attributed 
the  numerous  small  batteries  of  which  the  re 
mains  can  be  seen  in  Cumberland  bay,  and,  ac 
cording  to  the  residents,  in  all  the  small  bays 
in  which  a  landing  might  have  been  attempted. 
At  one  time  it  was  made  the  seat  of  a  Chilian 
penal  settlement.  To  the  labor  of  the  convicts 
are  due  the  series  of  large  caves,  dug  in  the  side 
of  the  hill  above  the  anchorage,  now  being  rap 
idly  closed  up  by  the  crumbling  of  the  hillside. 
A  foot  path  over  the  Yunque  range,  through 
a  pass  1,800  ft.  high,  was  also  constructed  by 
them.  In  1872  only  a  dozen  Chilians  resided 
on  the  island,  cultivating  a  few  vegetables,  and 
raising  poultry  in  limited  quantities ;  but  they 
were  supplied  with  most  of  the  necessaries  of 
life  from  Valparaiso. — It  is  doubtful  whether 
there  were  any  native  land  mammals  on  the 
island  at  the  time  of  its  discovery.  Anson  in 
deed  speaks  of  having  seen  the  burrows  of  an 
animal  called  pardela  by  older  writers,  which 
he  thought  to  be  then  extinct.  Goats  were 
early  introduced,  perhaps  by  Juan  Fernandez 
himself.  They  multiplied  enormously,  and 
formed  the  chief  supply  of  the  buccaneers  who 
used  the  island  as  a  rendezvous.  The  viceroy 
of  Peru  caused  a  large  number  of  dogs  to  be 
landed,  in  the  hope  that  they  would  destroy 
the  goats  and  thus  deprive  the  buccaneers  of 
this  resource ;  but  the  steepness  of  the  sum 
mits  and  of  the  cliffs  preserved  many  of  those 
animals.  AVhen  Anson  visited  the  island 
(1741)  the  dogs  were  still  numerous,  but  sub 
sisted  chiefly  on  young  seals.  At  present  they 
have  been  nearly  exterminated  by  the  set 
tlers,  and  the  goats  have  increased  again, 
though  mostly  confined  to  the  southern  slope 
of  the  island.  Horses  and  asses  roam  over  the 
island  in  a  half  wild  condition ;  horned  cattle 
and  a  few  sheep  are  kept  by  the  settlers,  but 
apparently  in  numbers  much  below  the  re 
sources  of  the  pasture  offered.  The  shores 
were  formerly  frequented  by  large  numbers 
of  seals,  sea  lions,  and  sea  elephants.  The  last 
are  extinct,  as  on  the  neighboring  coast  of 
South  America,  and  the  first  have  become 


much  less  numerous.  A  thrush-like  bird  and 
one  or  two  of  smaller  size  are  found  in  the 
woods.  A  fine  humming  bird  is  abundant 
at  a  considerable  elevation ;  and  a  few  hawks 
may  occasionally  be  seen.  Most  of  these  birds 
are  peculiar  to  this  island.  Pigeons,  resem 
bling  the  European  rock  pigeon,  frequent  the 
cliffs  on  Cumberland  bay,  and  may  have  been 
introduced.  Few  sea  birds  are  seen  except  at 
the  breeding  season  on  some  of  the  islets  on 
the  S.  side.  No  reptiles  have  been  found  here. 
Fish  are  abundant,  and  are  dried  for  the  Chi 
lian  market,  to  which  are  also  sent  the  dried 
tails  of  a  large  crawfish. — The  most  striking 
parts  of  the  vegetation  are  a  myrtle-like  tree, 
the  aromatic  wintersbark,  tree  ferns,  and  a 
large  variety  of  other  ferns.  A  remarkable 
palm,  peculiar  to  the  island,  but  very  limited 
in  numbers,  grows  only  on  a  few  inaccessible 
summits.  Apples,  plums,  apricots,  and  peaches 
were  planted  by  Anson,  and  have  become  plen 
tiful.  Fig  trees  grow  luxuriantly  near  the  set 
tlement,  where  also  turnips  and  radishes  run 
wild  in  abundance.  A  species  of  Gunner  a, 
with  enormous  leaves,  forms  a  beautiful  orna 
ment,  overhanging  the  small  streams  at  the 
bottom  of  the  valleys.  Strawberries  abound. 
The  pasture  lands  are  covered  with  a  species 
of  oat,  besides  other  grasses. — A  romantic  in 
terest  attaches  to  this  island  through  the  story 
of  Alexander  Selkirk,  supposed  (though  prob 
ably  without  reason)  to  have  given  to  Defoe 
the  idea  of  "Robinson  Crusoe."  (See  DEFOE.) 
Selkirk,  a  Scotch  sailing  master  on  board  the 
ship  Cinque  Ports  of  Dampier's  squadron,  was 
left  on  this  island  at  his  own  request  (1704),  on 
account  of  differences  with  his  captain.  lie  re 
mained  in  solitude  four  years  and  four  months, 
and  was  finally  taken  off  in  February,  1709, 
by  Capt.  Woodes  Rogers.  After  having  ex 
hausted  his  ammunition,  he  subsisted  by  running 
down  and  catching  goats.  Tradition  points  to 
a  cave  in  the  bay  next  west  to  Cumberland 
bay  as  his  habitation.  The  summit  of  the  pass 
over  the  Yunque  range  is  called  his  lookout, 
and  a  tablet  reciting  the  principal  points  of  his 
history  has  lately  been  placed  there  by  the 
officers  of  the  British  ship  Topaz.  Previously 
to  Selkirk,  a  Mosquito  Indian  had  been  acci 
dentally  left  behind,  and  taken  away  again, 
after  the  lapse  of  three  years,  by  Dampier. 

JIAN  Y  SANTACILIA,  Jorge,  known  as  Don 
JORGE  JUAX,  a  Spanish  explorer,  born  at  Ori- 
huela,  Valencia,  in  1712,  died  in  Cadiz,  June 
21,  1774.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1733  as 
commander  of  a  frail  polacca,  explored  a  great 
portion  of  the  American  coast,  and  made  as 
tronomical  observations  which  on  his  return  to 
Madrid  led  to  his  election  to  the  academy. 
Philip  V.  appointed  him  vice  admiral,  and  ad 
joined  him  in  17-'>5  to  Ulloa's  expedition  to 
South  America  for  the  measurement  of  a  de 
gree  of  the  meridian  at  the  equator,  with  the 
assistance  of  La  Condamine  and  Bouguer  of 
the  French  academy.  In  1753  he  became  com 
mander  of  the  marine  guards  and  inspector  of 


JUAREZ 


697 


harbors,  and  promoted  the  efficiency  of  the 
Spanish  navy.  He  wrote  the  scientific  part  of 
Ulloa's  Relation  of  the  expedition  to  South 
America  and  of  the  measurement  at  the  equa 
tor  (see  ULLOA,  ANTONIO  DE),  and  jointly  with 
him  published  a  historical  and  geographical 
dissertation  on  the  Spanish-Portuguese  me 
ridian  boundary  line  (Madrid,  1749;  French, 
Paris,  1776).  His  other  works  include  a  man 
ual  of  navigation  (Madrid,  1757),  and  a  work 
relating  to  tlie  application  of  technology  to  ship 
building  (2  vols.,  Madrid,  1761-'77),  which  has 
been  translated  into  English  and  French. 

JUAREZ,  Benito  Pablo,  president  of  Mexico, 
born  in  the  village  of  San  Pablo  Guetatao, 
near  Tixtlan,  in  the  state  of  Oajaca,  March  21, 
1806,  died  in  Mexico,  July  18,  1872.  When 
very  young  he  lost  his  parents,  who  were  In 
dians  in  humble  circumstances ;  and  at  the  age 
of  12,  when  he  was  still  unable  to  speak  Span 
ish,  an  uncloistered  friar  of  Oajaca  took  him 
into  the  service  of  his  family,  and  gave  him 
his  first  education,  placing  him  afterward  at 
the  seminary  of  that  city.  Young  Juarez  soon 
abandoned  theology  for  the  law ;  and  having 
graduated  with  honors  at  the  new  college  of 
Oajaca,  where  in  addition  to  his  legal  studies 
he 'held  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  from 
1829  to  1831,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1834.  In  183G  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  con 
servatives;  but  in  1842  he  became  chief  judge 
of  the  republic,  which  post  he  held  till  1845, 
when  a  partial  triumph  of  his  party  led  to  his 
appointment  as  secretary  of  the  state  govern 
ment  of  Oajaca  under  Gen.  Leon.  He  was, 
however,  soon  obliged  to  give  up  this  office, 
and  he  acted  as  chief  justice  of  the  superior 
court  till  the  end  of  the  same  year.  When  the 
revolution  headed  by  Salas  triumphed  in  Au 
gust,  1846,  the  state  of  Oajaca  resumed  its 
sovereignty,  and  established  a  junta,  vesting 
the  executive  power  in  a  triumvirate  composed 
of  Fernandez  del  Campo,  Arteaga,  and  Juarez. 
The  junta  immediately  after  its  organization 
restored  the  constitution  of  1824;  and  Ar 
teaga  was  elected  governor,  while  Juarez  was 
sent  as  deputy  to  the  general  constituent  con 
gress  of  1846,  where  he  gave  a  vigorous  sup 
port  to  the  policy  of  the  acting  president 
Farias  in  negotiating  a  loan  of  $14,000,000  on 
church  property,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
war  against  the  United  States.  Arteaga  hav 
ing  resigned  in  1847,  Juarez  was  elected  in  his 
stead,  and  remained  governor  till  August,  1852. 
During  this  period  he  introduced  many  useful 
reforms,  and  managed  the  finances  so  well 
that,  after  over-paying  all  the  contributions 
to  the  national  government  and  liquidating  the 
state  debt,  he  left  on  retiring  a  surplus  of  $50,- 
000  in  the  treasury.  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
his  implacable  enemy  Santa  Anna,  on  seizing 
the  reins  of  government  soon  afterward,  was 
the  arrest  and  exile  of  Juarez,  who,  almost 
destitute  of  resources,  sojourned  two  years  in 
New  Orleans.  In  July,  1855,  he  returned  to 
Mexico  by  way  of  Panama,  and  landed  at  Aca- 


pulco,  where  he  joined  Gen.  Alvarez,  then 
commanding  the  revolutionary  troops  against 
Santa  Anna.  Alvarez  was  proclaimed  presi 
dent  on  Oct.  4,  and  he  at  once  appointed  Juarez 
minister  of  justice  and  religion.  Immediately 
after  the  inauguration  of  the  new  administra 
tion,  Juarez  proposed  a  bill  for  the  abolition 
of  the  special  clerical  and  military  courts,  un 
der  which  these  two  classes  had  long  enjoyed 
immunity  from  the  laws  of  the  nation,  the 
measure  received  the  unanimous  sanction  of 
the  constituent  congress.  When  Comonfort 
succeeded  Alvarez  in  the  presidency  (Dec.  11, 
1855),  he  at  once  appointed  Juarez  governor  of 
Oajaca,  in  order  to  remove  him  from  the  cabinet, 
Juarez  was  received  with  joy  in  his  native 
state,  and  his  second  administration  was  marked 
by  still  more  happy  results  than  the  first.  He 
was  reflected  as  constitutional  governor  in 
September,  1857,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
general  elections  resulted  in  his  elevation  to 
the  post  of  president  of  the  supreme  court  of 
justice,  which  in  Mexico  is  equivalent  to  the  vice 
presidency  of  the  nation.  In  October  Comon 
fort,  in  obedience  to  the  voice  of  the  whole 
liberal  press,  created  him  minister  of  the  inte 
rior.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Comonfort  ad 
ministration,  Juarez  repaired  to  Guanajuato, 
issued  a  manifesto,  formed  a  cabinet,  and,  in 
virtue  of  his  office  of  chief  justice,  was  recog 
nized  as  president  by  all  the  states  in  January, 
1858 ;  but,  unable  to  oppose  the  reactionary 
forces,  he  was  obliged  to  transfer  his  govern 
ment  first  to  Guadalajara,  afterward  to  Colima, 
and  ultimately  by  way  of  the  isthmus  of  Pan 
ama  and  New  Orleans  to  Vera  Cruz,  where  he 
arrived  on  May  4.  In  April,  1859,  he  was  rec 
ognized  as  president  by  the  United  States.  On 
Jan.  11,  1861,  after  having  defeated  Miramon, 
he  entered  the  city  of  Mexico  ;  and  in  the  fol 
lowing  March  he  was  confirmed  in  the  presi 
dential  functions  by  a  general  election,  in  which 
Don  Miguel  Lerdo  de  Tejada  was  the  opposing 
candidate.  Three  important  acts  of  the  Juarez 
administration  deserve  special  mention :  the 
suppression  of  religious  orders,  the  confisca 
tion  of  the  church  property  (June,  1861),  and 
the  suspension  for  two  years  of  payments  on 
account  of  the  foreign  debt  and  of  all  national 
liabilities.  The  decree  for  this  last  measure, 
issued  by  congress,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Juarez,  July  17,  led  to  the  formation  of  an 
alliance  of  intervention  (London,  Oct.  31)  be 
tween  England,  France,  and  Spain,  and  the  in 
vasion  of  the  republic  by  the  allied  forces, 
which  reached  Vera  Cruz  on  Dec.  8.  Juarez, 
however,  promised  to  protect  the  interests  of 
the  creditors,  and  in  consequence  England  and 
Spain  declined  to  commence  hostilities,  and 
prepared  to  evacuate  the  country ;  but  France 
insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  active  measures, 
ostensibly  for  the  protection  of  the  French 
residents,  but  really  for  the  purpose  of  estab 
lishing  an  empire  in  Mexico,  and  accordingly 
declared  war  against  Juarez  on  April  16,  1862. 
The  president,  after  the  capture  of  Puebla  by 


698 


JUARROS 


JUBILEE 


Gen.   Forey,    regarding   the    defence    of   the 
capital  as  hopeless,  abandoned  it  on  May  31, 

1803,  and  established  his  government  at  San 
Luis  Potosi  (June  10),  whence  he  was  com 
pelled  to  retreat  to  Monterey,  and  thence  to 
Chihuahua,  arriving  at  the  last  city  on  Oct.  12, 

1804.  Meantime  the  archduke  Maximilian  of 
Austria  had  assumed  the  functions  of  emperor 
at  the  capital.     Continued  reverses  of  Juarez's 
troops  rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to  with 
draw  as  far  north  as  El  Paso  del  Norte,  where 
he  fixed  his  government  on  Aug.  15,  1805. 
While  at  this  place,  his  term  of  office  having 
expired  (Xov.  30),  Gen.  Gonzalez  Ortega,  in 
virtue  of  his  position  as  president  of  the  su 
preme  court  of  justice,  asserted  his  right  to 
assume  the  executive  power ;  but  Juarez,  fore 
seeing  the  disastrous  effects  that  a  change  of 
government  might  produce  at  such  a  juncture, 
declared  his  term  of  administration  extended 
until  peace  should  be  restored  and  new  con 
stitutional  elections  take  place.     To  avoid  the 
appearance  of  abandoning  the  national  soil,  he 
frequently  refused  invitations  of  the  American 
commander   of  Fort  Bliss  to  visit  him.     In 
June,  1800,  his  arms  obtained  a  first  decided 
success ;  and  continuing  victorious,  he  left  El 
Paso  and  steadily  advanced  southward,  tarrying 
for  brief  periods  at  Chihuahua,  Durango,  Zaca- 
tecas,  and  San  Luis  Potosi  (February,  1807), 
while  the  troops  under  Maximilian  were  con 
centrated  in  the  city  of  Queretaro,  after  the 
reembarkation  for  France  of  the  forces  under 
Bazaine.      That  place  was  soon  invested  by 
the  Juarez  troops,   and  Maximilian  captured 
and  shot  (June  19).     On  July  10  Juarez  reen- 
tered  the  capital  of  the  republic,  and  in  Octo 
ber  he  was  reflected  constitutional  president. 
The  five  succeeding  years  were  marked  by  a 
series  of  revolutions,  in  which  the  principal 
actors  were  Gen.  Porfirio  Diaz  (the  unsuccess 
ful  candidate  against  Juarez  in  1807)  and  his 
partisans.     Peace  was  restored  in  1872  ;  and 
Juarez,  who  had  been  reflected  in  1871,  seemed 
likely  to  enjoy  a  season  of  tranquillity;  but 
Ms  constitution,  naturally  strong,  had  gradu 
ally  given  way  under  the  trials  which  beset  his 
stormy  administration,  and  he  died  of  anoplexy. 

JUARROS,  Domingo,  a  Central  American  ec 
clesiastic,  died  about  1820.  He  was  synodal 
examiner  to  the  archbishop  of  Guatemala,  and 
wrote  Compendia  de  la  Idstoria  de  la  ciudad 
de  Guatemala,  in  six  books  (Guatemala,  1800- 
'18).  It  embraces  accounts  of  Guatemala,  San 
Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica. 

Jl'BA  I.,  king  of  Numidia,  son  of  Hiempsal 
(who  had  been  restored  to  the  throne  by  Pom- 
pey),  died  by  his  own  hand  in  40  B.  C.  Juba 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  in  the  conflict  between  Ccesar  and 
Pompey  he  sided  with  the  latter,  both  from  ' 
enmity  to  Caesar,  with  whom  he  had  quarrelled  I 
on  an  official  visit  to  Rome  during  his  father's 
lifetime,  and  from  friendship  for  the  man  to 
Avhom  his  father  owed  his  crown.  The  mo 
ment  Curio,  Caesar's  lieutenant,  landed  in  Afri- 


ca  (49),  Juba  hastened  to  the  succor  of  Atius 
Varus,  the  commander  of  Pompey's  forces. 
Varus  had  already  been  defeated  under  the 
walls  of  Utica ;  but  on  the  approach  of  Juba, 
Curio  retreated  and  assumed  a  strong  post 
near  the  sea.  He  was  drawn  from  his  posi 
tion  by  a  stratagem,  and  overthrown,  him 
self  being  slain,  and  his  army  almost  cut  to 
pieces.  Juba  sullied  the  glory  of  this  victory 
by  cruelty,  causing  some  cohorts  of  cavalry 
who  had  surrendered  to  be  massacred.  He 
enjoyed  his  kingdom  in  peace  till  40  B.  C., 
when  Cresar  arrived  in  Africa  to  crush  the  last 
remnant  of  the  Pompeian  faction.  Bocchus, 
king  of  Mauritania,  was  incited  to  invade  Ju- 
ba's  dominions,  and  a  Roman  force  was  sent 
to  cooperate  with  him.  Juba  heard  of  their 
inroad  on  the  way  to  join  Scipio,  the  Pom 
peian  commander,  and  turned  against  them, 
but  finally  went  to  Scipio's  aid.  The  rival 
hosts  encountered  at  Thapsus,  and  the  result 
proved  fatal  to  the  Nmnidian  and  his  allies. 
Juba,  fleeing  from  the  field,  wandered  about 
for  a  few  days  as  a  fugitive,  and  then  in  de 
spair  killed  himself.  After  his  death  his  king 
dom  was  formed  into  a  Roman  province,  of 
which  the  historian  Sallust  was  the  first  gover 
nor. — His  infant  son,  JUBA  II.,  was  taken  to 
Rome  and  carefully  educated,  and  became  a 
favorite  of  Octavius,  who  in  30  B.  C.  restored 
him  to  his  father's  kingdom,  which  in  25  was 
exchanged  for  Mauritania  and  a  part  of  Gtetu- 
lia.  He  wrote  many  valuable  historical  and 
other  works,  all  of  which  are  lost.  lie  is  sup 
posed  to  have  died  about  A.  D.  18. 

JUBBULPORE,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  British 
territory  of  Saugor  and  Nerbudda,  at  the  base 
of  a  rocky  hill,  near  the  Nerbudda  river,  200 
m.  S.  W.  of  Allahabad,  and  capital  of  a  district 
of  0,237  sq.  m.,  with  about  500,000  inhabitants. 
The  population  of  the  town  is  not  stated,  but 
it  has  acquired  importance  as  a  station  on  the 
East  Indian  railway.  It  is  a  large  and  flourish 
ing  place,  with  a  renowned  school  of  industry, 
established  in  1850  in  place  of  the  former  col 
lege.  In  the  vicinity  are  many  remarkable 
geological  formations,  and  a  number  of  lakes 
and  tanks,  which  in  the  rainy  season  are  so 
swollen  as  to  make  the  place  inaccessible,  and 
to  strengthen  its  strategical  position.  A  small 
English  force  defeated  here,  Dec.  19,  1817, 
5,000  Mahratta  troops  of  the  rajah  of  Nagpore. 
The  town  has  an  English  garrison  and  a  political 
agent  subordinate  to  the  authorities  of  Saugor. 

JUBILEE,  a  festive  twelvemonth  of  the  an 
cient  Hebrews,  celebrated  every  50th  year, 
and  inaugurated  by  the  blowing  of  trumpets 
(yolel.)  According  to  the  Mosaic  law  every 
7th  year  as  well  as  every  7th  day  was  observed 
as  a  period  of  rest.  To  avoid  the  difficulty  of 
supposing  two  successive  years  to  be  thus  ob 
served,  some  critics  have  endeavored  to  prove 
that  the  year  of  jubilee  was  the  49th  instead 
of  the  50th.  During  this  year  there  was  nei 
ther  sowing  nor  reaping,  all  depending  alike 
on  the  spontaneous  products  of  the  earth  and 


JUDJEA 


JUDAS   TREE 


G99 


the  surplus  produce  of  the  preceding  years. 
Bondmen  of  Hebrew  descent  became  free,  and 
every  one  resumed  possession  of  his  inheritance, 
howsoever  it  had  been  alienated.  Unlike  the 
sabbatical  year,  however,  the  jubilee  did  not 
annul  debts.  The  design  of  this  institution  was 
to  check  the  rise  of  any  great  inequality  of  so 
cial  condition,  and  to  prevent  the  rich  from 
oppressing  and  enslaving  the  poor  or  appropri 
ating  their  lands.  It  also  strengthened  the 
bonds  of  families,  and  bound  the  people  to 
their  country,  by  leading  them  to  cherish  an 
affection  for  estates  derived  from  their  ancestors 
and  to  be  transmitted  to  their  posterity.  The 
jubilee  did  not  continue  to  be  observed  after 
the  Babylonish  captivity. — In  the  middle  ages, 
the  term  was  applied  to  the  year  in  which  all 
who  visited  the  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome 
for  a  certain  number  of  days  with  pious  offer 
ings  received  plenary  indulgence.  A  jubilee 
was  first  declared  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  in 
1300,  and  was  to  recur  in  every  100  years.  The 
time  was  limited  by  Clement  VI.,  Urban  VI., 
and  Paul  II.  respectively,  to  50,  33,  and  25  years, 
and  the  last  period  still  remains  the  ordinance 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  condition 
of  visiting  Rome  is  no  longer  in  force,  certain 
works  of  charity  or  devotion  being  substituted. 

JUDJEA.     See  JUDEA. 

JUDAII  (Ileb.  Yeliuddh\  the  fourth  of  the 
sons  of  Jacob  by  Leah.  The  tribe  named  after 
him  was  the  most  numerous  of  the  tribes  of 
Israel.  On  the  conquest  of  Palestine  it  re 
ceived  all  the  land  bounded  by  Dan,  Benja 
min,  the  Dead  sea,  Idumrca,  Simeon,  and  the 
Mediterranean.  It  became  particularly  power 
ful  under  the  dynasty  of  David,  which  origi 
nated  in  one  of  its  towns,  Bethlehem,  and,  af 
ter  the  division  of  the  Hebrew  state  into  two 
kingdoms,  the  principal  member  and  repre 
sentative  of  the  southern,  named  from  it  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  After  the  destruction  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  Israel,  by  the  Assyri 
ans,  Judah  became  the  common  name  of  the 
Hebrew  nation  in  general,  and  the  name  Jews 
(Ileb.  Yehudim,  Lat.  Judwi)  is  derived  from 
it.  Jerusalem,  the  capital  of  the  undivided 
Hebrew  state,  and  afterward  of  the  southern 
division,  was  situated  on  the  confines  of  Ju 
dah  and  Benjamin.  The  mountain  of  Judah 
was  a  range  traversing  its  centre,  and  the  desert 
of  the  same  name  near  its  southern  boundary. 

JIDAi!.  surnamed  HAKKADOSII,  "the  Holy," 
a  celebrated  rabbi  of  the  2d  century,  of  the 
house  of  Gamaliel,  one  of  his  successors  as 
nrtsi  (patriarch),  and  the  principal  author  of  the 
Mishnah.  He  was  a  friend  of  one  of  the  Ro 
man  emperors,  whom  Rapoport,  the  most  com 
petent  critic  on  the  subject,  identifies  with 
Marcus  Aurelius. 

Jl'DAH,  surnamed  HALLEVI,  "the  Levite," 
a  Spanish  rabbi  of  the  12th  century,  called  as 
an  Arabic  writer  ABUL  HASSAN.  lie  distin 
guished  himself  as  a  physician,  philosophical 
theologian,  and  poet,  in  the  last  capacity  being 
unsurpassed,  if  not  unequalled,  by  any  post- 


Biblical  writer  in  Hebrew.  Shortly  before  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  he  made  a  pilgrim 
age  to  the  land  of  his  fathers,  a  part  of  which 
he  sings  in  glowing  strains  of  pious  devotion  ; 
but  before  he  reached  the  holy  city  every 
trace  of  him  is  lost.  According  to  a  tradition, 
he  was  killed  by  a  Mussulman  before  entering 
its  gate.  His  principal  work  is  the  Kuzari 
("The  Khazar"),  a  vindication  of  the  truth 
and  exposition  of  the  principles  of  Judaism,  in 
fictitious  discourses  on  religion  between  a  king 
of  the  Khazars,  who  was  converted  to  that 
faith  about  four  centuries  before  the  time  of 
the  author,  and  a  rabbi.  It  was  translated 
from  the  Arabic  into  Hebrew  by  Judah  ben 
Tibbon,  into  Latin  by  Buxtorf,  and  also  into 
Spanish  and  German.  His  songs,  which  among 
others  contain  the  gems  of  Hebrew  liturgical 
poetry,  have  found  numerous  translators  and 
editors,  among  the  most  recent  of  whom  are 
Luzzato,  Sachs,  Dukes,  and  Geiger  (Der  Divan 
dcs  Castiliers  Abu"1 1- Hassan  Juda  ha-Levi,  Bres- 
lau,  1851).  His  elegy  on  Zion  was  translated 
into  German  by  Mendelssohn. 

JUDAS  IStARIOT,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
and  the  betrayer  of  Christ.  As  to  his  sur 
name  Iscariot  (Gr.  'IcnapiG)TT]c\  there  are  many 
theories  ;  the  most  probable  is,  that  it  is  merely 
the  Greek  form  of  writing  the  Hebrew  ish 
Kcrioth,  "man  of  Kerioth,"  a  town  of  Judah. 
He  was  the  son  of  Simon,  was  appointed  trea 
surer  of  the  apostles,  covenanted  with  the 
chief  priests  to  deliver  Jesus  up  to  them  for 
30  pieces  of  silver  (at  the  highest  computation 
about  $22,  but  in  comparative  value  probably 
equivalent  to  nearly  $500),  accomplished  this 
purpose,  repented  when  he  saw  his  Lord  con 
demned  and  buffeted,  offered  to  restore  the 
money,  confessed  that  he  had  betrayed  inno 
cent  blood,  and  in  despair  committed  suicide 
by  hanging,  according  to  Matthew,  or  fell  and 
burst  asunder,  as  related  in  Acts  in  the  words 
of  Peter.  Some  interpreters  suppose  that  the 
motive  of  his  betrayal  was  to  oblige  Jesus,  in 
self-defence,  to  announce  himself  as  the  ex 
pected  king  Messiah,  to  surmount  the  emer 
gency  by  his  miraculous  powers,  and  to  open 
to  himself,  the  apostles,  and  the  Jewish  king 
dom  the  anticipate*!  career  of  aggrandizement. 
"The  difference,"  says  Archbishop  "\Vhately, 
"  between  Iscariot  and  his  fellow  apostles  was, 
that  though  they  all  had  the  same  expectations 
and  conjectures,  he  dared  to  act  on  his  conjec 
tures,  departing  from  the  plain  course  of  his 
known  duty  to  follow  the  calculations  of  his 
worldly  wisdom  and  the  schemes  of  his  worldly 
ambition."  See  Whately's  "Discourse  on  the 
Treason  of  Judas  Iscariot,"  in  his  "  Essays  on 
some  of  the  Dangers  to  Christian  Faith  "  (Lon 
don,  1839).  That  he  was  simply  a  traitor  is 
the  impression  generally  made  by  the  narrative. 

Jl'DAS  MACCABEUS.  "See  HEBREWS,  vol.  viii., 
p.  592. 

JUDAS  TREE.  The  tradition  that  Judas 
hanged  himself  upon  a  species  of  cercis  (the 
oriental  name  for  the  tree)  has  kept  his  name 


JUDAS  TREE 


JUDEA 


attached  to  the  three  or  four  species  comprised 
in  the  genus.  In  America  the  genus  is  repre 
sented  by  C.  Canadensis,  which  also  bears  the 
popular  name  of  red-bud ;  it  is  a  small  tree, 
rarely  exceeding  30  ft.,  found  from  New  York 
southward  and  westward,  especially  on  the 
banks  of  rivers.  When  not  crowded  by  other 
trees  it  forms  a  rounded  head,  and  appears  at 
a  distance  somewhat  like  an  apple  tree ;  the 
leaves  are  round  heart-shaped,  of  a  bluish  green 
above,  with  a  grayish  green  on  the  under  sur 
face  ;  the  foliage  has  a  remarkably  clean  and 
healthy  appearance,  and  is  not  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  insects.  It  belongs  to  the  legumi- 
nosce,  in  a  suborder  in  which  the  flowers  are 
not  perfectly  papilionaceous ;  the  flowers  are 
of  a  dark  peach-blossom  color,  and  are  pro 
duced  before  the  leaves  appear  in  small  umbel- 
like  clusters,  not  only  upon  the  wood  of  the 
previous  year,  but  upon  branches  that  are  sev 
eral  years  old,  and  even  upon  the  trunk  itself ; 
though  individually  small,  the  flowers  are  in 


V  I 


Judas  Tree  (Cercis  Canadensis). 

such  profusion  as  to  quite  cover  the  tree,  which 
when  planted  for  ornament  should  be  set 
against  a  background  of  evergreens,  to  show 
to  the  best  advantage ;  the  fruit  is  a  flattened 
pod  with  numerous  seeds.  The  wood  is  hard 
and  capable  of  receiving  a  fine  polish.  Upon 
the  continent  the  flowers  of  the  European 
species  are  used  in  salads,  and  fried  in  butter 
as  fritters,  and  the  flower  buds  are  pickled  in 
vinegar ;  it  is  said  that  the  French  settlers  in 
this  country  make  a  similar  use  of  the  flowers 
of  our  species,  which  have  a  pleasantly  acid 
taste.  This  is  one  of  the  native  trees  which 
have  received  too  little  attention  from  planters, 
as  it  is  pleasing  at  all  times,  and  highly  orna 
mental  in  early  spring. — The  European  Judas 
tree,  C.  siliquastrum,  has  less  pointed  leaves 
and  darker  flowers  than  ours,  and  is  also  less 
hardy.  One  of  the  most  valuable  hardy  orna 
mental  shrubs  of  recent  introduction  is  called 
in  the  nurseries  C.  Japonica,  but  is  probably  a 
variety  of  C.  Ghinensis,  and  is  known  as  the 


Japan  Judas  tree.  It  is  of  slow  growth,  but 
blooms  profusely  when  only  a  foot  or  two 
high,  and  has  darker-colored  flowers  than  the 
others.  All  the  species  grow  from  seeds. 

JUDD,  Sylvester,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Westhampton,  Mass.,  July  23,  1813,  died  in 
Augusta,  Me.,  Jan.  20,  1853.  lie  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1836,  subsequently  embraced 
the  Unitarian  creed,  studied  theology  at  Cam 
bridge,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  East 
parish  in  Augusta,  Me.,  in  1840.  In  1843  he 
began  the  work  on  which  his  literary  reputa 
tion  chiefly  rests,  "  Margaret,  a  Tale  of  the  Real 
and  Ideal,"  &c.  (12mo,  Boston,  1845),  which 
has  been  illustrated  by  a  series  of  outline  draw 
ings  by  Barley  (New  York,  1856).  In  1850 
he  published  "  Philo,  an  Evangeliad,"  a  didac 
tic  poem  in  blank  verse,  and  in  the  same  year 
"  Richard  Edney,"  a  romance.  An  old  Indian 
tradition  suggested  to  him  a  dramatic  poem  in 
five  acts,  "  The  White  Hills,  an  American 
Tragedy."  A  volume  entitled  "  The  Church, 
in  a  Series  of  Discourses,"  was  published  post 
humously  in  1854;  and  his  "Life,"  by  Mrs. 
Arethusa  Hall,  appeared  in  the  same  year. 

JIDE  (Gr.  'lot-cfaf),  Saint,  surnamed  THAD- 
DETJS,  or  LEBBEUS,  one  of  the  apostles,  a  rela 
tive  of  Jesus,  probably  a  son  of  Alpheus  and  a 
brother  of  James  the  Less.  No  circumstances 
of  his  life  are  related.  According  to  the  tra 
ditions  of  the  West,  he  preached  and  suffered 
martyrdom  in  Persia.  According  to  eastern 
traditions,  he  labored  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
Palestine,  and  died  in  Edessa;  or,  according 
to  others,  visited  Assyria  also,  and  died  in 
Phoenicia.  He  is  commemorated  in  the  west 
ern  church  on  Oct.  8.  The  tradition  of  the 
church  regarded  him  as  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  of  Jude,  one  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  New  Testament;  but  some  recent  critics 
believe  the  apostle  Jude  Thaddeus  to  be  differ 
ent  from  Jude  the  brother  of  the  Lord  and  of 
James  the  Less,  and  the  latter  Jude  to  have 
been  the  author  of  the  epistle.  The  genuine 
ness  of  the  epistle  was  disputed  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Jerome,  chiefly  because  it  cites  the 
two  apocryphal  books  of  "Enoch"  and  the 
"  Assumption  of  Moses."  Most  critics,  how 
ever,  have  maintained  it.  It  is  written  with 
vehemence  and  fervor,  seems  to  have  been  ad 
dressed  to  converted  Jews  in  Asia  Minor  and 
beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  contends  against 
Gnostic,  Nicolaitan,  and  other  dangerous  doc 
trines.  Commentaries  on  the  epistle  have  been 
written  by  Scharling  (1841),  Rampf  (1854), 
Gardiner  (Boston,  1856),  Huther  (2d  ed.,  1859), 
Wiesinger  (1862),  and  Schott  (1863). 

JUDEA,  or  Jiuhva,  a  name  variously  used  in 
ancient  geography  to  designate  the  whole  of 
Palestine  or  the  land  of  the  Jews,  especially 
during  the  period  between  the  Babylonish  cap 
tivity  and  the  last  wars  of  the  Jews;  the 
southern  kingdom  of  the  Hebrews,  or  that  of 
Judah,  in  contradistinction  to  that  of  the  ten 
tribes  of  Israel;  or  the  southern  division  of 
Palestine  W.  of  the  Jordan  in  the  time  of  the 


JUDGES 


JUDGMENT 


701 


Asmoneans  and  Romans,  between  Samaria  on 
the  north,  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  sea  on 
the  east,  Idumsea  and  the  desert  on  the  south, 
Egypt  on  the  southwest,  and  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  west.  The  limits  of  Judea  in  each  of 
these  acceptations  were  continually  varying. 
(See  PALESTINE,  and  HEBREWS.) 

JUDGES,  Book  of,  one  of  the  historical  hooks 
of  the  Old  Testament,  narrating  the  deeds  of 
the  thirteen  judges  of  Israel  from  Othniel  to 
Samson.  It  is  a  fragmentary  rather  than  a 
complete  and  connected  history,  the  fullest  ac 
counts  being  given  of  Deborah  and  Barak, 
Gideon,  Jephthah,  and  Samson.  It  begins 
with  showing  that  the  calamities  suffered  by 
the  Hebrews  after  the  death  of  Joshua  were 
due  to  their  apostasy  from  Jehovah.  It  is  sup 
posed  by  many  that  the  first  16  and  the  remain 
ing  5  chapters  are  by  different  authors.  The 
first  portion,  believed  by  some  to  have  been 
written  before  the  time  of  David,  is  ascribed 
to  Samuel.  Most  German  critics,  however, 
believe  the  book  to  have  been  compiled  on  the 
basis  of  ancient  documents  at  a  late  period. 
According  to  Bertheau  (Schenkel's  Bibellexicon, 
art.  Richter,  Leipsic,  1873),  the  compiler  was 
Ezra.  The  same  writer  also  regards  it  as  prob 
able  that  the  book  of  Ruth  originally  formed 
a  portion  of  the  book  of  Judges.  Among  the 
most  important  commentators  on  the  book  are 
Le  Clerc,  Rosenmtiller,  Maurer,  Studer,  Bush, 
Bertheau,  Keil  (1863),  and  Bachmann  (1868). 

JUDGES  OF  ISRAEL.     See  HEBREWS. 

JUDGMENT,  in  law,  a  solemn  determination  of 
a  question,  declared  by  a  court  of  record.  The 
language  used  in  a  judgment  is,  that  "  it  is 
considered  by  the  court,"  &c.,  the  theory  be 
ing  that  the  function  of  the  court  is  not  to  give 
its  own  decision,  but  to  ascertain  and  pronounce 
the  decision  of  the  law.  To  give  validity  and 
full  force  to  a  judgment,  the  court  which  renders 
it  must  have  competent  jurisdiction  over  the 
case ;  that  is,  it  must  be  authorized  by  law  to 
entertain  and  determine  the  question  which  it 
decides,  and  the  parties,  or,  in  case  of  proceed 
ings  in  rem,  the  subject  matter  of  the  suit 
must,  by  process  or  some  substitute  there 
for,  have  been  brought  within  the  authority  of 
the  court.  "When  these  circumstances  concur, 
merely  irregular  action  of  the  court  or  its 
officers  will  not  invalidate  its  judgments.  A 
judgment  may  be  arrested  and  avoided,  if, 
within  the  time  prescribed  by  the  rules  of  the 
court,  it  can  be  shown  that  there  are  intrinsic 
defects  appearing  of  record,  which  are  of  suf 
ficient  importance.  For,  the  judgment  being 
founded  upon  the  record,  it  cannot  stand  if  the 
party  against  whom  it  is  rendered  can  show  that 
the  record  is  inconsistent  with  it  or  insufficient 
for  it.  The  more  common  instances  of  this 
are  where  there  is  an  irreconcilable  contrariety 
between  parts  of  the  record ;  as,  for  example, 
where  the  judgment  is  founded  upon  a  verdict 
which  is  essentially  different  from  the  plead 
ings  at  issue. — Judgments  are  of  many  kinds, 
for  the  reason  that  they  must  conform  to  the 


pleadings  and  issue.  They  are  usually  classed 
as  judgments  upon  demurrer,  on  a  verdict,  on 
confession,  on  default,  or  on  nonsuit.  (See 
PLEADING.)  A  judgment  is  also  interlocutory 
or  final;  and  the  best  definition  of  an  inter 
locutory  judgment  is  to  say  that  it  is  any  judg 
ment  which  is  not  final,  or  which  does  not  en 
tirely  dispose  of  the  whole  question.  A  judg 
ment  that  is  final  and  valid  is  the  highest  as 
surance  known  to  the  law.  Such  judgments 
were  formerly  extensively  used  in  England  to 
operate  as  conveyances  of  land ;  the  party  to 
whom  the  land  was  to  be  transferred  com 
mencing  an  action  for  it  against  the  party  who 
was  to  transfer  it,  and  this  being  concluded  by 
a  judgment  that  the  land  in  question  belongs 
to  the  plaintiff. — From  the  high  and  solemn 
nature  of  a  judgment,  the  doctrine  of  merger 
was  applied  to  it.  If  one  sues  another  on  his 
promise,  or  indebtedness  of  any  kind,  or  for 
wrong  of  any  kind,  and  recovers  judgment,  it 
is  a  technical  rule  of  law  that  the  original  cause 
of  action  merges  or  is  lost  in  the  judgment. 
So,  too,  it  was  formerly  thought  to  be  well 
established  that  if  one  brought  an  action 
against  another  for  depriving  him  unlawfully 
of  his  property,  and  recovered  a  judgment  for 
damages,  this  judgment  vested  in  the  defendant 
a  right  or  title  to  the  property,  although  the 
damages  were  never  paid  nor  the  judgment 
satisfied  in  any  way.  There  are  writers  who 
hold,  however,  that  the  title  does  not  pass  until 
execution  is  taken  out,  and  still  others  of  high 
authority  that  satisfaction  of  the  judgment  is 
essential;  and  this,  perhaps,  is  the  better  doc 
trine. — There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  a  judg 
ment  of  a  court  of  record  may  be  made  the 
foundation  of  a  suit.  If  it  be  the  judgment  of  a 
competent  court  in  the  same  state,  it  proves 
itself;  and  no  defence  can  be  made  which  does 
not  distinctly  impeach  it  for  fraud,  or  for  want 
of  jurisdiction.  If  it  be  the  judgment  of  a 
I  court  of  another  of  the  United  States,  it  falls 
'  within  that  clause  in  the  federal  constitution 
I  which  provides  that  "full  faith  and  credit 
I  shall  be  given  in  each  state  to  the  public  acts, 
I  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  in  every  oth- 
j  er  state,"  and  authorizes  congress  to  provide 
I  the  manner  in  which  they  shall  be  proved. 
Congress,  by  an  act  passed  May  26,  1T90,  made 
this  provision.  Under  this  it  is  held  that  a 
judgment  has  the  same  conclusive  nature  in 
'  another  state  that  it  has  in  the  state  in  which 
it  was  rendered.  The  question  how  far  a  for- 
|  eign  judgment,  proprio  rigorc,  has  force  and 
•  validity,  has  been  discussed  in  many  cases, 
j  with  some  diversity  in  the  conclusions.  On 
I  one  extreme  stand  those  who  would  make  it  a 
;  mere  prima  facie  evidence,  open  to  rebutter  by 
any  evidence  tending  to  show  that  it  ought  not 
to  have  been  rendered.  "Where  this  doctrine  is 
held,  it  is  plain  that  the  whole  case  may  be 
tried  over  again  in  the  action  on  the  judgment, 
with  the  burden  of  proof  on  the  party  who 
would  set  it  aside.  Against  this  are  those  who 
hold  the  opposite  extreme,  that  a  foreign  judg- 


JUDENBACH 


JTJDSON 


rnent  is  as  conclusive  as  a  home  judgment. 
The  law  on  this  subject  both  in  the  United 
States  and  in  England  may  now  be  considered 
as  resting  on  a  medium  ground.  First,  it  is 
certain  that  no  sovereign  state  is  bound  to  exe 
cute  a  judgment  or  decree  of  any  foreign  state. 
Next,  a  foreign  judgment  is  valid  and  conclu 
sive,  provided:  1,  that  the  court  rendering 
the  judgment  had  full  jurisdiction  of  the  case ; 
2,  that  the  case  was  properly  brought  before 
that  court  and  properly  tried ;  3,  that  there  is 
nothing  in  the  unquestionable  law  of  the  case 
which  forbids  or  contradicts  the  judgment; 
and  4,  that  it  was  not  obtained  by  fraud,  de 
ception,  or  oppression.  The  civilians  of  the 
continent  of  Europe  generally  maintain  the 
absolute  validity  of  a  foreign  judgment.  But 
the  courts  of  France  have  never  yet  recognized 
the  validity  of  a  foreign  judgment,  to  the  ex 
tent  to  which  this  is  now  admitted  in  England 
and  the  United  States ;  although  the  recent  ad 
judications  of  that  country  indicate  a  much 
nearer  approach  than  formerly  to  what  may 
be  called  the  English  view  of  "the  comity  of 
nations"  in  this  respect. — Not  only  may  a 
judgment  be  made  the  foundation  of  a  suit, 
but  a  former  judgment  may  be  relied  upon  as 
a  defence  against  a  suit  which  would  raise  the 
same  question  anew.  This  ancient  and  impor 
tant  rule  is  never  denied  in  its  general  form ; 
and  it  rests  upon  the  obvious  principle  that 
there  must  be,  at  some  time  and  by  some 
means,  an  end  of  litigation.  Therefore,  if  a 
question  be  once  tried  by  a  proper  tribunal, 
and  in  a  proper  way,  and  solemnly  decided,  it 
is  decided  for  all  time,  and  cannot  again  be 
brought  up  for  consideration.  In  other  words, 
a  judgment  rendered  is  conclusive  upon  the 
merits  of  a  question;  and  this  rule  is  now  ap 
plied,  with  the  qualitications  above  stated,  to  a 
foreign  judgment. — For  the  lien  on  the  real  es 
tate  of  the  judgment  debtor  created  by  the 
judgment,  see  LIEN. 

JUDEIVBAUI,  a  village  of  Saxe-Meiningen, 
Germany,  on  the  S.  E.  ridge  of  the  Thuringian 
Forest,  near  the  former  boundary  line  of  Thu- 
ringia  and  Franconia,  and  formerly  celebrated 
as  a  great  focus  of  trade  between  N.  and  S. 
Germany  and  of  Nuremberg  and  Augsburg 
merchants.  Luther  was  here  in  1530,  and  the 
tavern  (Wirthshaus  zur  JKast)  where  he  re 
sided,  a  decayed  old  building,  was  about  to  be 
sold  and  pulled  down  in  1873,  when  it  was 
purchased  by  Mr.  Fleischmann,  a  merchant  of 
the  neighboring  town  of  Sonnenberg,  who  put 
it  up  in  1874  on  the  Schonberg,  in  the  same 
condition  in  which  it  was  when  Luther  in 
habited  it. 

JUDITH,  daughter  of  Merari  of  the  tribe  of 
Reuben,  widow  of  Manasseh,  celebrated  for 
her  deliverance  of  her  native  city  Bethulia 
when  besieged  by  the  Assyrian  general  IIolo- 
fernes.  Mourning  the  death  of  her  husband 
during  the  siege  of  the  town,  and  noted  for 
her  beauty,  she  went  forth  in  rich  attire  to  the 
camp  of  the  enemy,  played  a  treacherous  part, 


attracted  Holofernes  by  her  charms,  and  on 
the  third  day,  when  she  was  alone  with  him  in 
his  tent,  and  he  was  intoxicated,  struck  off 
his  head  with  a  falchion,  and  bore  it  into  Be- 
thulia.  In  the  morning  the  Israelites  attack 
ed  and  discomfited  the  Assyrians,  who  were 
panic-struck  at  the  loss  of  their  general.  She 
lived  to  the  age  of  105  years,  and  the  Jews 
are  said  to  have  instituted  an  annual  festival 
in  honor  of  the  victory.  The  history  is  con 
tained  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  the  Old  Tes 
tament  which  bears  her  name.  Calmet  sup 
posed  the  narrative  to  be  a  parable  and  not  a 
real  history,  an  opinion  which  is  now  general 
ly  shared  by  critics.  According  to  Hilgenfeld, 
Lipsius,  and  others,  the  events  described  in  the 
book  took  place  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees ; 
and  by  Nebuchadnezzar  we  must  understand 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  by  Holofernes  Ni- 
canor.  They  suppose  the  book  to  have  been 
written  about  144  B.  C.  According  to  Volk- 
mar,  Hitzig,  and  others,  it  was  not  composed 
until  about  A.  D.  118,  and  the  principal  per 
sons  described  in  it  are  the  emperor  Trajan  and 
his  general  Lusius  Quietus.  The  book  appears 
to  have  been  originally  written  in  Hebrew, 
and  the  Greek  translation  to  have  been  the 
source  from  which  the  somewhat  different 
Latin  version  was  derived. 

JUDITH,  Mile.  (JULIE  BERNAT),  a  French  ac 
tress  of  Jewish  parentage,  born  in  Paris,  Jan. 
29,  1827.  She  is  a  remote  relation  of  Eachel 
Felix,  and  made  her  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  in  1842.  From  1844  to  1846  she  played 
at  the  Varietes  theatre,  her  oriental  beauty  and 
fine  voice  contributing  to  her  success,  and  sub 
sequently  at  the  Theatre  Francais,  of  the  soci 
ety  of  which  she  became  a  member  in  1852. 
In  1859  she  married  M.  Bernard-Derosne,  whom 
she  assisted  in  translations  from  the  English. 
She  afterward  left  the  Theatre  Francais  and 
performed  at  the  Gaiete  and  other  theatres. 
She  excels  as  Charlotte  Corday  and  as  Rosine 
in  the  Barbier  de  Seville,  and  unites  tragical 
power  with  sprightliness. 

JUDSON.  I.  Adoniram,  an  American  mis 
sionary,  born  in  Maiden,  Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1788, 
died  at  sea,  April  12,  1850.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  Rev.  Adoniram  Judson,  a  Congrega 
tional  clergyman,  and  descended  from  William 
Judson,  who  came  to  New  England  in  1634. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  university  in  1807, 
opened  a  private  school  in  Plymouth,  Mass., 
and  published  "Elements  of  English  Gram 
mar"  (1808)  and  "Young  Ladies'  Arithmetic" 
(1809).  His  previously  skeptical  views  having 
yielded  to  an  examination  of  the  evidences  of 
Christianity,  he  entered  the  second  class  at 
Andover  theological  seminary,  not  as  a  candi 
date  for  the  ministry,  but  as  an  inquirer  after 
truth,  and  completed  the  course  in  1810.  The 
reading  in  1809  of  Dr.  Buchanan's  celebrated 
sermon  entitled  "The  Star  in  the  East"  led 
him  to  devote  himself  to  the  missionary  enter 
prise.  Several  of  his  fellow  students  con 
curred  in  his  views,  and  a  formal  application 


JUDSON 


703 


for  counsel  and  encouragement,  addressed  by 
Adoniram  Judson,  jr.,  Samuel  Nott,  jr.,  Sam 
uel  J.  Mills,  and  Samuel  Newell,  to  the  general 
Congregational  association  of  Massachusetts, 
became  the  incipient  step  toward  the  forma 
tion  of  the  American  board  of  commissioners 
for  foreign  missions.  Impatient  at  the  slow 
progress  of  the  American  movement,  he  em 
barked  for  England,  under  invitation,  to  con 
sult  with  the  directors  of  the  London  mis 
sionary  society  in  regard  to  the  practicability  of 
cooperation  with  that  society  by  the  new7ly 
formed  American  board.  The  vessel  in  which 
he  embarked  was  captured  by  a  French  priva 
teer,  and  the  young  missionary  soon  found 
himself  in  a  prison  in  Bayonne.  Eeleased  on 
parole,  he  reembarked  for  England,  where  he 
arrived  in  May,  1811,  and  was  offered  for  him 
self  and  his  associates  appointments  and  sup 
port  from  the  London  society,  but  the  plan  of 
cooperation  was  declined  as  unadvisable.  He 
returned  to  New  York  in  August,  and  in  Sep 
tember  was  present  at  the  meeting  of  the 
American  board  at  Worcester.  Here  his  elo 
quent  importunity,  united  with  that  of  one  of 
his  colleagues,  triumphed  over  the  continued 
tendency  to  delay,  and  Judson,  Newell,  and 
Nott,  with  Gordon  Hall,  were  appointed  by 
the  board  its  missionaries  to  the  Burman  em 
pire.  Luther  Rice  was  subsequently  added  to 
their  number,  and  the  five  young  men  were 
ordained  at  Salem,  Feb.  6,  1812.  Mr.  Judson's 
marriage  with  Miss  Ann  Hasseltine  had  oc 
curred  the  day  previous  to  his  ordination,  and 
on  the  19th  of  the  same  month  they,  with 
Samuel  and  Harriet  Newell,  embarked  from 
Salem  for  Calcutta.  At  this  place,  and  at 
Madras,  they  were  subjected  for  a  full  year  to 
much  annoyance  by  the  East  India  company's 
regulations.  Finally  they  found  refuge  in 
flight  to  Kangoon,  in  the  Burman  empire,  the 
place  of  their  original  destination,  where  they 
arrived  in  July,  1813.  Meanwhile  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Judson  had  adopted  the  views  of  the  Bap 
tist  denomination,  and  having  been  baptized 
by  Dr.  Carey,  English  Baptist  missionary  at 
Serampore,  had  surrendered  their  connection 
with  the  American  board.  Mr.  Rice,  arriving 
at  Calcutta  by  another  vessel,  had  on  his  voyage 
pursued  similar  studies  with  similar  results, 
and  had  returned  to  America  to  enlist  the  Bap 
tists  of  the  United  States  in  the  support  of 
foreign  missions.  In  April,  1814,  the  Baptist 
general  convention,  called  since  1845  the  Ame 
rican  Baptist  missionary  union,  was  formed  at 
Philadelphia,  and  immediately  appointed  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Judson  its  missionaries.  Established 
in  Rangoon,  the  field  left  to  them  by  the  clo 
sing  of  the  English  Baptist  mission,  they  ap 
plied  themselves  with  great  zeal  to  the  acquisi 
tion  of  the  language,  without  grammar  or  dic 
tionary,  or  teachers  who  could  speak  English. 
Mrs.  Judson  first  attained  the  power  to  con 
verse  ;  Mr.  Judson's  habits  of  thorough  philo 
logical  inquiry  rendered  his  progress  less  rapid, 
but  made  his  mastery  of  the  language  equal  to 
VOL.  ix. — 45 


that  of  native  scholars.  In  three  or  four  years 
he  published  a  "Summary  of  the  Christian 
Religion,"  a  catechism,  and  a  translation  of  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew.  In  March,  1817,  an  in 
telligent  Burman,  accompanied  by  his  servant, 
presented  himself  to  Mr.  Judson  as  an  inquirer; 
in  April,  1819,  the  first  zayat  (an  edifice  which 
is  both  a  caravansary  and  a  place  for  public 
meetings)  was  opened  for  Christian  worship ; 
and  on  June  27  in  the  same  year  the  first  na 
tive  convert  was  baptized.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  1820  the  number  of  baptized  converts 
was  10.  Meanwhile  the  mission  had  been  re- 
enforced  by  the  arrival  of  additional  mission 
aries,  and  the  impression  which  it  was  making 
had  in  1819  excited  the  displeasure  of  the  new 
viceroy.  Mr.  Judson  determined  to  appeal  to 
the  king  for  toleration,  and,  with  his  colleague 
Mr.  Colman,  ascended  the  Irrawaddy  to  Ava 
for  that  purpose.  He  was  admitted  to  an  au 
dience,  but  the  plea  was  unavailing.  Believing 
that  they  had  made  a  mistake  in  appealing  to 
the  king,  and  fearing  that  this  measure  would 
bring  upon  the  converts  the  vengeance  of  the 
government,  they  had  well  nigh  formed  the 
purpose  of  removing  to  a  safer  place  in  Ara- 
can,  but  were  deterred  by  the  steadfast  cour- 
i  age  of  the  native  Christians.  In  1821  the  con- 
j  tinned  ill  health  of  Mrs.  Judson  compelled  her 
!  to  return  -for  a  time  to  the  United  States, 
where,  after  a  short  stay  in  England,  she 
arrived  in  September,  1822.  While  in  this 
country  she  published  her  "History  of  the 
Burman  Mission,"  and  by  her  presence  and  her 
personal  appeals  contributed  largely  to  increase 
the  missionary  zeal  of  the  American  churches. 
In  the  spring  of  1823,  wTith  her  health  but  par 
tially  restored,  she  reembarked  for  Calcutta, 
accompanied  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Wade  as  recruits 
to  the  mission,  and  rejoined  her  husband  at 
Rangoon  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year. 
During  her  absence  the  number  of  converts 
had  been  nearly  doubled,  and  Mr.  (now  Dr.) 
Judson  had  completed  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  well  as  an  epitome  of  the  Old. 
Their  residence  had  been  transferred  to  Ava 
by  request  of  the  king,  who  was  anxious  to 
command  the  medical  services  of  Dr.  Price,  a 
missionary  physician  who  was  colleague  with 
Dr.  Judson.  The  sudden  breaking  out  of  war 
however  between  the  East  India  company  and 
the  Burman  government  brought  upon  the 
missionaries,  and  other  foreign  residents  at 
Ava,  the  severest  privations,  perils,  and  suffer 
ings.  For  nearly  two  years  no  tidings  came  of 
the  fate  of  the  missionaries.  Three  Englishmen 
residing  at  Ava  having  been  arrested  by  the  na 
tive  authorities  and  examined,  it  was  found  that 
the  accounts  of  one  of  them  showed  considera 
ble  sums  of  money  paid  to  Drs.  Judson  and  Price, 
and,  ignorant  of  the  methods  of  transmitting 
funds  by  bills  of  exchange,  the  government 
saw  in  this  fact  proof  of  their  complicity  with 
the  English  in  the  war.  On  June  8  Dr.  Jud 
son  was  arrested  at  his  dwelling  by  a  posse  of 
officers,  thrown  into  the  "death  prison"  with 


704: 


JUDSON 


all  the  other  white  foreigners,  and  loaded  with 
chains.  Mrs.  Judson  was  kept  a  prisoner  in 
her  own  house,  under  the  guard  of  ten  ruffian 
ly  men  ;  but  on  the  third  day  a  message  to  the 
governor  of  the  city,  expressing  a  desire  to  ap 
pear  before  him  with  a  present,  resulted  in  an 
order  for  her  release.  Further  gifts  secured 
the  promise  of  an  amelioration  of  her  husband's 
sufferings,  and  permission  to  visit  him  in  pris 
on  ;  and  by  the  same  means  all  the  prisoners 
were  delivered  from  their  suffocating  confine 
ment,  and  placed  in  an  open  shed  within  the 
prison  enclosure.  Hither  she  sent  food  and 
mats  for  them  all,  commencing  those  angelic 
ministries  to  the  sufferers  which  have  rendered 
her  name  immortal.  Seven  months  thus  passed 
away,  during  which  she  employed  her  time  in 
devising  and  executing  measures  for  the  comfort 
of  the  prisoners,  and  especially  for  the  release 
of  her  husband,  scarcely  a  day  passing  in  which 
she  did  not  visit  some  member  of  the  govern 
ment,  or  some  branch  of  the  royal  family ;  with 
no  other  effect,  however,  than  that  she  and  the 
objects  of  her  solicitude  were  kept  from  despair 
by  the  encouraging  promises  of  a  capricious 
court.  New  miseries  were  still  in  store.  The 
hot  season  had  arrived,  and  the  sufferings  of 
the  prisoners  had  become  intolerable.  The 
birth  of  a  child  suspended  for  a  brief  period 
these  ministries  of  Mrs.  Judson.  Twenty  days 
after  this  event  she  was  again  at  the  prison, 
and  again  in  the  presence  of  the  governor 
pleading  for  ameliorations.  Returning  to  the 
prison  from  an  interview  which  the  governor 
had  requested,  she  found  the  white  prisoners 
all  removed.  She  learned  from  an  old  woman 
that  they  had  gone  toward  Amarapura,  the 
old  capital,  distant  six  miles.  She  obtained  a  | 
passport,  and  set  off  for  Amarapura,  where 
she  learned  that  the  prisoners  had  just  left  for 
Oungponla.  Here  she  found  them,  chained 
two  and  two,  and  almost  dead  from  fatigue 
and  suffering.  They  spent  the  next  six  months 
at  this  place,  subjected  to  continual  oppression 
and  extortion.  The  king  was  at  length  forced 
to  ask  conditions  of  peace  of  the  British,  and 
in  February,  1820,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson  were 
released  through  the  demand  of  Gen.  Sir  Archi 
bald  Campbell.  Descending  the  river  to  the 
territories  ceded  by  the  Burman  government 
to  the  English,  they  commenced  missionary 
operations  at  Amlierst,  a  new  town  designed  ! 
to  be  the  British  capital.  Scarcely,  however,  | 
were  they  fixed  in  this  abode,  when  urgent 
overtures  were  made  to  Dr.  Judson  to  accom-  j 
pany  an  embassy  to  Ava,  to  negotiate  a  new  ! 
treaty.  In  the  hope  that  an  article  providing  ; 
for  religious  toleration  might  be  incorporated,  ! 
he  yielded  to  the  wishes  of  the  commissioner,  | 
and  parted  with  Mrs.  Judson  on  July  5,  never  I 
to  see  her  more.  Her  constitution,  broken  by  ! 
the  intense  sufferings  and  cares  of  the  long  : 
imprisonment,  yielded  to  an  attack  of  fever,  j 
and  she  died  after  18  days1  illness.  Returning 
to  Amherst,  Dr.  Judson  applied  himself  with 
diligence  to  missionary  labors.  The  number 


of  native  converts  was  increased,  many  new 
missionaries  arrived,  and  new  branches  of 
the  mission  were  established,  that  among  the 
Karens  starting  at  once  into  importance  as 
among  the  most  successful  of  modern  times. 
Dr.  Judson  was  chiefiy  employed  in  the  transla 
tion  and  revision  of  the  Scriptures,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  a  Burmese-English  dictionary. 
In  January,  1834,  he  completed  the  translation 
of  the  Bible.  In  April  of  the  same  year  he 
married  Mrs.  Sarah  II.  Boardman,  widow  of  a 
missionary,  the  Rev.  George  Dana  Boardman. 
For  eleven  years  he  continued  his  missionary 
labors,  to  a  large  degree  Biblical  and  philo 
logical,  till  1845,  when  the  failing  health  of 
his  wife  compelled  a  voyage  to  the  United 
States.  Mrs.  Judson  died  in  the  harbor  of  St. 
Helena,  Sept.  1,  and  was  buried  on  that  island. 
Dr.  Judson  arrived  at  Boston,  Oct.  15.  The 
emotion  excited  by  his  return  spread  over  the 
whole  country,  and  was  shared  by  every  de 
nomination  of  Christians.  He  was  received 
with  distinguished  marks  of  respect  and  ven 
eration  by  public  meetings  in  many  chief  cities 
and  towns  of  the  United  States,  and  especial 
ly  by  his  Baptist  brethren  assembled  in  their 
missionary  conventions  at  New  York  and 
Richmond.  On  July  11,  1846,  he  reembarked 
for  Burmah,  having  married  Miss  Emily  Chub- 
buck.  Arriving  at  Maulmain  in  December,  he 
resumed  his  work  with  ardor,  assuming  the 
pastorship  of  the  Burman  church,  and  carry 
ing  forward  the  dictionary  on  which  he  had 
been  so  long  engaged.  In  the  autumn  of  1849 
a  severe  cold,  followed  by  a  fever,  withdrew 
him  from  his  work.  His  disease  refused  to 
yield  to  remedies,  and  on  April  3,  1850,  he  left 
his  wife  in  a  state  of  health  which  forbade  her 
accompanying  him,  and  departed  with  a  single 
attendant  for  the  isle  of  Bourbon.  He  suffered 
much  while  descending  the  river,  but  rallied 
for  a  time  on  the  open  sea.  On  April  12  he 
sank  quietly  to  rest,  and  was  buried  in  the 
ocean.  The  Burmese  and  English  dictionary, 
on  which  he  was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  was  compiled  from  his  papers  by  E. 
A.  Stevens  and  printed  at  Maulmain  in  1852'. 
— A  memoir  of  his  life  was  written  by  the 
Rev.  Francis  Wayland,  D.  D.  (2  vols.  12mo, 
Boston,  1853).  See  also  a  memoir  by  J.  Clem 
ent  (12mo,  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1852);,  "Records 
of  his  Life,  Character,  and  Achievements,"  by 
the  Rev.  D.  T.  Middleditch  (12mo,  New  York, 
1854);  and  "The  Earnest  Man:  a  Sketch  of 
the  Character  and  Labors  of  the  Rev.  Ado- 
niram  Judson,"  by  Mrs.  II.  C.  Conant  (8vo, 
Boston,  1856).  II.  Ann  Hasseltine,  first  wife  of 
the  preceding,  daughter  of  John  and  Rebecca 
Hasseltine,  born  in  Bradford,  Mass.,  Dec.  22, 
1789,  died  at  Amherst,  Burmah,  Oct.  24,  1826. 
She  was  educated  at  the  academy  of  her  na 
tive  town.  Her  mind  was  well  disciplined,  and 
her  acquisitions  were  unusually  large.  Mr.  Jud- 
son's  acquaintance  with  her  commenced  in 
1810,  and  resulted  in  an  invitation  to  share 
with  him  the  responsibilities  and  perils  of  mis- 


JTJDSON 


JUEL 


705 


sionary  life.  They  were  married  at  Bradford, 
Feb.  5,  1812,  and  on  Feb.  19  embarked  for  Cal 
cutta.  Her  subsequent  history  will  be  found 
in  connection  with  that  of  her  husband.  A 
memoir  of  her  life  was  written  by  the  Rev. 
James  D.  Knowles  (2d  ed.,  Boston,  1829 ; 
many  times  reprinted).  III.  Sarah  Hall  (Board- 
man),  second  wife  of  Adoniram  Judson,  born 
in  Alstead,  1ST.  II.,  Nov.  4,  1803,  died  at  the 
island  of  St.  Helena,  Sept,  1,  1845.  She  was 
the  eldest  child  of  Kalph  and  Abiah  Hall. 
While  she  was  a  child  her  parents  removed, 
first  to  Danvers,  Mass.,  and  then  to  Salem. 
On  July  4,  1825,  she  became  the  wife  of  the 
Rev.  George  Dana  Boardman,  and  on  July  16 
they  embarked  for  Calcutta,  arriving  there 
Dec.  15.  The  Burman  war  still  raging,  Mr. 
Boardman  accepted  temporarily  an  invitation 
to  preach  at  the  Circular  Road  Baptist  church 
in  that  city.  Here  they  remained  till  the 
spring  of  1827,  when  they  embarked  for  Bur- 
mali,  where  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
establishment  by  Mr.  Boardman  of  the  mis 
sion  station  at  Maulmain,  which  subsequent 
ly  became  the  chief  seat  of  Baptist  missions 
in  that  country.  Here  Mrs.  Boardman  made 
rapid  progress  in  the  acquisition  of  the  lan 
guage,  and  availed  herself  of  every  opportuni 
ty  and  method  in  her  benevolent  work.  This 
mission  being  fairly  established,  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Boardman  were  transferred  to  Tavoy  for  a 
similar  service,  where  was  commenced  the 
remarkable  work  of  the  propagation  of  the 
gospel  among  the  Karens,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  interior  jungles.  In  two  years  Mr.  Board 
man  died.  His  widow  continued  her  mis 
sionary  labors,  and  besides  managing  a  school 
with  great  success,  and  giving  religious  instruc 
tion  in  various  ways  at  Tavoy,  she  was  accus 
tomed  to  make  long  and  toilsome  journeys 
among  the  mountains.  In  these  excursions, 
assemblies  of  hundreds  gathered  around  her, 
and  notwithstanding  her  reluctance  to  assume 
what  seemed  like  the  office  of  a  public  teacher, 
she  was  obliged  to  conduct  their  worship,  and 
instruct  them  more  perfectly  in  the  Christian 
faith.  In  April,  1834,  she  became  the  wife  of 
Dr.  Judson.  Her  subsequent  life  was  less  event 
ful,  but  it  was  filled  with  steady,  quiet  useful 
ness.  She  was  perfectly  familiar  with  the  Bur 
mese  language,  and  skilful  in  the  use  of  it.  She 
translated  into  it  the  first  part  of  Bunyan's 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  various  tracts,  pre 
pared  a  hymn  book,  several  volumes  of  Scrip 
ture  questions  for  Sunday  schools,  and,  as  one 
of  the  last  works  of  her  life,  a  series  of  Sunday 
cards.  Before  the  Peguans  had  a  missionary, 
she  acquired  their  language,  and  translated  or 
superintended  the  translation  of  the  New  Tes 
tament  and  the  principal  Burman  tracts  into 
the  Peguan  tongue.  In  these  useful  labors  she 
continued  till  1845,  when  her  shattered  health 
compelled  her  to  attempt  a  voyage  to  America 
in  the  hope  of  its  restoration,  but  she  sank 
before  its  completion.  A  memoir  of  her  life 
was  written  by  Mrs.  Emily  C.  Judson  (18mo, 


New  York,  1850).  IV.  Emily  Clmbbnek,  third 
wife  of  Adoniram  Judson,  born  in  Eaton,  Madi 
son  co.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22,  1817,  died  June  1, 1854. 
Though  her  opportunities  of  early  culture  were 
extremely  limited,  she  made  much  progress  in 
learning.  At  the  age  of  14  she  took  charge  of 
a  district  school,  and  continued  teaching,  with 
very  brief  intervals,  until  the  age  of  23,  con 
tributing  in  the  mean  time  a  number  of  pieces 
in  prose  and  poetry  to  the  village  newspapers. 
In  1840  she  entered  the  Utica  female  seminary 
as  a  pupil,  but  was  soon  transferred  to  the  office 
of  teacher.  She  began  her  career  of  formal 
authorship  by  writing  several  Sunday  school 
books  ("Charles  Linn,"  "Allen  Lucas,"  &c.), 
which,  however,  yielded  little  pecuniary  remu 
neration.  Charged  with  the  support  of  her 
aged  parents,  she  turned  to  other  sources,  and 
in  1844  addressed  a  playful  letter,  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Fanny  Forester,  to  Messrs. 
Morris  and  Willis,  editors  of  the  New  York 
"Evening  Mirror,"  proposing  contributions  to 
that  journal.  She  soon  after  became  a  regular 
contributor  to  several  periodicals,  and  a  bril 
liant  literary  career  was  opening  before  her, 
when  a  new  direction  was  given  to  her  destiny 
by  her  marriage  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Judson,  in 
June,  1846,  and  their  departure  for  India  in 
July  following.  She  remained  in  Burmah  until 
January,  1851,  when,  learning  the  death  of  her 
husband,  she  returned  to  America.  While  in 
Rangoon  she  wrote  the  memoir  of  Mrs.  Sarah 
B.  Judson,  and  in  Maulmain  composed  some 
of  her  best  poems  connected  with  her  personal 
history.  She  returned  with  a  broken  consti 
tution,  but  devoted  herself  to  the  care  of  her 
children  and  of  her  aged  parents,  and  to  her 
literary  labors.  She  prepared  and  arranged 
the  papers  for  Dr.  Wayland's  life  of  Dr.  Jud 
son,  and  collected  her  poems,  which  were  pub 
lished  under  the  title  of  "Olio  of  Domestic 
Verses."  Her  other  works  are  "  The  Kathayan 
Slave,"  a  collection  of  missionary  writings  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  "  My  Two  Sisters."  Her 
magazine  tales  and  sketches  had  been  collected 
and  published  before  she  left  America,  under 
the  title  of  "  Alderbrook."  A  memoir  of  her 
life  was  written  by  Dr.  A.  C.  Kendrick  (12mo, 
New  York,  1858).  The  "Lives  of  the  Three 
Mrs.  Judson,"  by  Mrs.  A.  M.  Wilson,  was  pub 
lished  in  New  York  in  1851-'5. 

Jl'EL,  IViels,  a  Danish  admiral,  born  May  8, 
1629,  died  in  Copenhagen,  April  8,  1(597.  "  He 
served  under  Martin  van  Tromp  and  De  Ruy- 
ter,  and  became  captain  of  a  Dutch  frigate,  and 
subsequently  commander  of  a  Danish  squadron, 
with  which  he  cooperated  in  defending  Copen 
hagen  in  1659  against  the  Swedish  fleet.  In 

1676  he  captured  the  island  of  Gothland,  and 
repulsed  (June  4),  with  25  ships,  a  Swedish 
force  twice  as  large ;   and  he  soon  afterward 
achieved  another  victory  over  the  Swedes  in 
conjunction  with    Cornelius  van   Tromp.     In 

1677  he  was  still  more  successful  in  overwhelm 
ing  two  separate  Swedish  squadrons,  capturing 
a  great  number  of  ships,  for  which  he  subse- 


706 


JUGGERNAUT 


quently  received  the  rank  of  grand  admiral 
lieutenant,  the  order  of  the  Elephant,  and  the 
island  of  Taasing.  He  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  take  Calmar,  but  took  Riigen  in  1078. — His 
brother  JOHANX,  Baron  Julinge  (died  1700), 
shared  in  many  of  these  victories,  and  was  one 
of  the  negotiators  of  the  peace  of  Lund  (1679). 
JUGGERNAUT,  or  Jagaimath  (called  by  the 
natives  Pooree),  a  town  of  Bengal,  India,  on 
the  N.  W.  const  of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  in  the 
province  of  Orissa,  and  in  the  district  and  45  m. 
S.  of  the  city  of  Cuttack ;  pop.  about  30,000. 
The  ground  on  which  it  stands  is  esteemed 
holy,  and  is  held  free  of  rent  on  condition  of 
performing  certain  services  in  and  about  the 
temple.  The  principal  street  is  composed  chiefly 
of  religious  establishments  called  maths,  which 
consist  of  stone  build 
ings  with  low-pillared 
verandas  in  front  and 
shaded  by  trees.  At 
the  end  of  this  street, 
which  is  very  wide, 
rises  the  celebrated 
temple.  In  the  vicin 
ity  of  the  town  are 
luxuriant  groves  and 
gardens,  and  many 
tine  tanks  of  great 
antiquity.  Between 
the  S.  W.  side  of  the 
town  and  the  sea  are 
numerous  ancient  edi 
fices  nearly  buried  in 
the  drifting  sand.  Jug 
gernaut  is  the  most 
holy  of  the  shrines  of 
Hindostan,  and  is  vis 
ited  annually  by  up 
ward  of  1,000,000  pil 
grims.  The  temple 
stands  within  a  square 
enclosure,  surrounded 
by  a  lofty  stone  wall, 
each  side  of  which 
measures  650  ft,,  ma 
king  an  area  of  about 
10  acres.  On  the  E. 
side  is  a  grand  gate- 


representation  of  the  human  countenance.  The 
block  representing  Krishna  is  painted  dark  blue, 
while  Siva's  image  is  white,  and  Subhadra's 
yellow.  Each  idol  is  provided  with  a  chariot, 
which  is  a  lofty  platform  mounted. on  wheels. 
That  of  Juggernaut  or  Krishna  is  the  largest, 
43£  ft.  high,  34^-  ft.  square,  and  is  mounted  on 
16  wheels,  each  6^-  ft.  in  diameter.  The  Rath 
Jatra,  or  great  festival  of  Juggernaut,  occurs 
in  March  when  the  moon  is  of  a  certain  age, 
and  the  idols  are  then  taken  on  their  chariots 
to  visit  their  country  house,  about  1^  m.  from 
the  temple.  The  chariots  are  drawn  by  long 
ropes  held  by  enthusiastic  thousands  of  men, 
women,  and  children,  while  priests  standing  on 
the  platforms  sing  and  repeat  obscene  stories, 
accompanied  by  corresponding  gestures,  amid 


The  Principal  Gateway  of  the  Temple  of  Juggernaut. 


way  from  which  a  broad  flight  of  steps  leads 
to  a  terrace  20  ft.  high,  enclosed  by  a  second 
Avail,  each  side  of  which  measures  445  ft.  From 
this  terrace  the  great  pagoda  rises,  from  a  base 
of  30  ft.  square,  to  the  height  of  200  ft,  above 
the  ground.  It  tapers  from  bottom  to  top,  and 
is  rounded  off  in  the  upper  part.  Most  of  the 
Hindoo  deities  have  temples  within  the  enclo 
sure.  The  great  temple  is  dedicated  to  Krishna, 
considered  as  an  avatar  or  incarnation  of  Vish 
nu,  and  derives  its  name  from  his  title  Jugger 
naut  (properly  Jagannatha,  "the  lord  of  the 
world").  Siva  and  Subhadra  are  the  next 
principal  objects  of  adoration,  and  these  three 
deities  are  respectively  represented  by  three 
frightful-looking  idols  made  of  blocks  of  wood 
about  6  ft.  high,  each  surmounted  by  a  grim 


the  applauses  of  the  multitude.  In  former 
years  some  of  the  votaries  were  occasionally 
sacrificed  by  falling  accidentally  or  by  design 
before  the  chariot  wheels,  and  being  crushed 
to  death  by  the  ponderous  rolling  vehicle  ;  but 
latterly  there  have  been  no  occurrences  of  this 
sort.  The  temple  of  Juggernaut  is  of  consid 
erable  antiquity.  The  present  building  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  completed  in  1198,  at  a  cost 
of  more  than  $2,000,000.  The  British  obtained 
possession  of  the  town  in  1803.  Its  former 
masters,  the  Mahrattas,  had  levied  a  tax  upon 
the  pilgrims  resorting  -thither,  and  out  of  the 
large  sum  thus  raised  granted  a  small  allowance 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  temple.  The  Brit 
ish  continued  this  tax  and  the  provision  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  temple  till  1839,  when 


JUGGLER 


707 


the  tax  was  abolished  and  an  annual  donation 
from  the  public  treasury  given  to  the  priests. 
In  consequence  of  the  scandal  created  by  the 
spectacle  of  a  Christian  government  contribu 
ting  to  support  the  most  obscene  rites  of  heathen 
worship,  this  donation  was  suspended  about 
1855,  and  the  temple  now  depends  on  a  pilgrim 
tax  collected  by  the  native  authorities. 

JUGGLER,  one  who  practises  or  exhibits 
tricks  by  sleight  of  hand,  or  who  makes  sport 
by  tricks  of  extraordinary  and  deceptive  dex 
terity.  The  further  we  go  back  in  history,  the 
more  do  Ave  find  the  juggler  assuming  the  char 
acter  of  the  thaumaturgist  or  worker  of  serious 
marvels;  and  in  the  16th  century  men  were 
burned  alive  in  Spain  and  Italy  for  perform 
ances  which  now  excite  but  little  wonder.  In 
the  earliest  times,  when  knowledge  and  science 
were  devoted  to  strengthening  heathen  religion, 
juggling  was  a  real  power,  and  formed  the 
most  efficient  means  of  sustaining  the  dignity 
of  the  priesthood.  The  hierarchy  of  India  and 
Egypt  carried  thaumaturgy  to  an  incredible  ex 
tent,  and  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  a 
great  proportion  of  the  marvels  ascribed  by 
legend  to  magicians  were  actually  or  apparent 
ly  performed.  The  investigations  of  Salverte 
have  shown  in  what  manner  most  of  these 
could  have  been  done,  and  with  what  effect, 
especially  in  the  depths  of  temples,  before 
witnesses  filled  with  awe  and  devoid  of  doubt. 
Thus  lamblichus  (De  Mysteriis,  cap.  29)  and 
Porphyry  speak  of  those  who  showed  the  ap 
paritions  of  gods  in  the  air  ;  a  trick  explained 
by  Robertson  ("Memoirs,"  vol.  i.,  p.  354)  to 
be  of  easy  performance.  The  wonder-worker 
Maximus  probably  used  a  similar  secret  when, 
on  burning  incense  before  a  statue  of  Hecate, 
the  goddess  was  seen  to  laugh  so  plainly  as  to 
fill  all  present  with  horror.  Ordinary  jugglers 
at  the  present  day  show  the  face  of  another 
person  to  those  looking  in  a  mirror ;  a  trick 
also  used  by  fortune  tellers  to  exhibit  future 
husbands  to  superstitious  girls.  This,  which 
is  done  by  a  very  simple  optical  contrivance 
sold  in  many  shops,  perfectly  explains  the 
manner  in  which  the  Agrippas  and  Fausts  of 
the  middle  ages,  as  well  as  the  earlier  magicians, 
showed  those  who  were  supposed  to  be  absent, 
or  the  forms  of  the  departed,  as  Cleonice  ap 
peared  to  Pausanias.  Juggling,  properly  regard 
ed,  is  a  science,  the  principal  of  whose  divisions 
is  that  of  sleight  of  hand  or  substitution.  The 
commonest  tricks  performed  by  these  means 
have  been  known  to  all  cultivated  races.  The 
tosser  of  knives  and  balls,  the  marvellous  bal 
ancer,  the  producer  of  unexpected  objects  from 
strange  receptacles,  occur  in  Saxon  manuscripts 
and  on  the  walls  of  Egyptian  and  Etruscan 
tombs ;  they  amazed  the  Norseman  and  the 
Roman  ;  and  when  the  troubadour  degenerated 
to  a  vagabond,  he  became  a  jongleur  (Lat. 
joculator),  whence  the  word  juggler.  The  ty 
ing  and  untying  of  intricate  knots,  which  has 
even  in  these  days  been  attributed  to  super 
natural  agency,  yet  which  is  shown  by  every 


juggler,  leads  us  back  to  the  Scottish  warlock 
whom  no  bonds  could  hold,  and  to  the  sym 
bolic  mazes  of  Runic  and  Gordian  ties.  Not 
many  years  ago  London  was  amazed  at  a  man 
who  could  tell  one  person  in  secret  what  card 
it  was  that  another  thought  of.  Lord  Bacon 
(Syha  Sylmrum,  cent,  ix.,  9-46)  tells  of  one 
that  "did  first  whisper  the  Man  in  the  Eare, 
that  such  a  Man  shoulde  think  such  a  Card." 
Those  who  have  seen  glasses  or  chains  broken, 
and  handkerchiefs  apparently  torn  to  pieces,  and 
then  restored  to  the  owners,  may  be  amused  to 
know  that  a  learned  writer  of  the  16th  century, 
Fromann  (Tractatus  de  Fascinatione,  p.  583), 
really  believed  that  this  was  done  by  magic, 
though  he  tells  us  in  the  same  book  that  in 
his  time  many  common  jugglers  (conciliator cs 
aut  saccularii)  were  often  mistaken  for  magi 
cians.  Modern  wizards  simply  amuse  by  show 
ing  us  eggs  or  other  objects  which  dance  and 
follow  the  motion  of  the  hand,  an  invisible 
silk  thread  or  hair  being  the  medium  used ; 
but  of  old  the  king  of  Babylon  stood  at  the 
parting  of  the  ways  and  used  divination  with 
arrows  which  leaped  up  and  pointed  the  way 
he  was  to  go,  as  they  did  in  after  times  for 
the  Arabs  (Koran,  v.  99);  and  for  the  Tartar 
Genghis  Khan  the  same  trick  was  used.  Regi 
nald  Scot,  in  his  "  Disco verie  of  Witchcraft," 
explains  how  the  head  of  a  man  may  come 
through  a  table,  upon  a  plate,  and  being  duly 
whitened  like  a  corpse  may  astonish  the  world 
by  talking;  an  account  which  throws  much 
light  on  the  talking  heads  of  Arabic,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  Norse,  and  media3val  fable.  Down  to 
the  present  century  ventriloquism  was  regarded 
as  a  physiological  mystery,  and  of  old  it  seem 
ed  awful  when  the  river  Nessus  saluted  Py 
thagoras,  when  a  tree  spoke  before  Apollonius, 
and  when  a  new-born  infant,  or  animals,  or 
statues  talked.  Every  modern  juggler  allows 
himself  to  be  shot  at ;  the  first  European,  Laing, 
who  went  among  the  Sulimas,  near  the  source 
of  the  Joliba,  saw  a  native  chief  perform  the 
same  trick  on  a  grand  scale  and  in  a  curious 
manner,  the  muskets  always  Hashing  in  the 
pan  when  aimed  at  him,  but  shooting  well  when 
turned,  however  unexpectedly,  to  other  objects. 
In  all  ages,  and  especially  in  the  East,  wizards 
have  stuck  arrows  and  swords  through  their  own 
limbs,  and  driven  nails  through  their  hands ;  but 
when  in  1859  a  so-called  "India-rubber  man" 
attempted  to  astonish  by  similar  feats,  his 
secret  was  quickly  exposed  in  the  newspapers. 
Ancient  jugglers  performed  extraordinary  feats 
by  mechanism,  which  is  defined  by  Cassiodo- 
rus  ( Varia  lib.  i.,  c.  45)  as  "  the  science  of 
constructing  machines  whose  effects  shall  seem 
to  reverse  the  order  of  nature."  In  those  days 
the  floors  of  temples  heaved  like  waves,  doors 
widened  of  themselves  to  admit  portly  visitors, 
tripods  advanced  to  salute  them,  statues  wept, 
nodded,  and  bled ;  all  which  marvels  are  imi 
tated  by  modern  jugglers.  In  the  17th  century, 
by  acoustics,  invisible  sprites  called  trararmes 
rapped  audibly  on  any  object  indicated ;  in  the 


T08 


JUGGLER 


JUGURTIIA 


19th,  Ilaller,  Blitz,  and  others  summon  them 
again.     The  abbe  Mical  and  Maelzel  in  modern 
times  astonished  the  world  with   androides, 
little   speaking  figures;    the   Egyptian  priests 
made  gods  and  statues  which  prophesied  and  j 
explained  dreams.     Stone  statues  of  the  gods  | 
which  rang  like  a  bell  when  struck  (Pausanias, 
"  Attica,"  c.  42)  are  still  found  in  China  as 
the  jade-stone  images  of  Buddha.     In  optics, 
the  Chinese  jugglers  show  a  clear  metallic  mir 
ror  which,  when  it  reflects  sunshine  on  a  wall, 
exhibits  in  the  circle  of  light  an  inscription;  | 
the  secret  of  which  was  accidentally  discovered 
several  years  ago  in  Paris  by  seeing  a  letter 
stamped  in  the  back  of  a  daguerreotype  plate 
reflected  in  like  manner,  though  not  visible  on 
the  reflecting  surface.     The  magic  lantern  fully 
explains  the  images  of  the  gods  shown  in  the 
water  by  ancient  wizards,  and  the  devils  seen 
by  Benvenuto  Cellini  in  the  Colosseum.      In 
hydrostatics,  the   bottle   yielding  all  kinds  of 
wine,  which  has  often  appeared  in  romance,  as 
on  the  table  of  Faust,  has  been  realized  by  many 
wizards  of  the  present  day.     Many  tricks  per 
formed  by  modern  eastern  jugglers  have  how 
ever  never  been  fairly  explained.    Their  placing 
a  boy  in  a  basket  on  the  ground  and  stabbing 
through  it,  causing  blood  to  flow  and  the  boy  to 
vanish  and  reappear,  is  one  of  these  ;  so  too  is 
their  curious  trick  of  making  trees  grow  visibly  ! 
in  a  few  minutes.     Something  like  this  was 
shown  by  a  Neapolitan,  who  professed  to  make 
lettuce  seed    sprout    by  electricity,  and   who 
thereby  long  puzzled  the  scientific  world.     In 
modern  Egypt  (Lane,  "Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Modern  Egyptians,"  vol.  ii.)  a  naked 
juggler  is  tied  up  in  an  empty  bag,  and  comes 
out   bringing   with   him   plates    of   food    and 
lighted  candles.      The   Indian    and    Japanese  | 
jugglers  are  also  exceedingly  skilful. — Common  j 
jugglers  are  said  to  have  originated  in  Egypt,  j 
and  thence  made  their  appearance  in  Greece;  ! 
in  Rome  they  were  termed  prmtigiatores,  pi-  \ 
larii  (ball  players),  ventilatores  (tossers),  and  I 
saccularii,  "  those  who  tricked  with  bags  and  j 
into  pockets."     The  real  Faust  of  the  middle 
ages  was  a  common  juggler,  and  much  below 
the  dignity  of  black-art  scholars  like  Agrippa 
and  Paracelsus.    Of  his  class  was  the  Bohemian 
Zito.     Among  the  most  remarkable  jugglers  of 
modern  times  have  been  Pinetti,  Eckartshausen, 
Philadelphia,  and  the  famed  Katterf elto.    More 
recently  we  have  had  Bartolommeo,  Bosco  of 
Turin,  Dobler,  Prof.  Anderson,  Heller,  Iloudin,  ; 
and  Hermann.     Most  eminent  of  these  was  the 
Frenchman  Robert  Houdin,  who  applied  to  his 
art   both   genius   and  science.      His  memoirs  j 
were  published  in  Paris  in  1859.      For  other  ' 
works  on  the  subject,  see  Reginald  Scot,  "  Dis-  j 
coverie  of  Witchcraft"  (1584);  the  works  of  j 
Wiegleb,  Halle,  Funk,  and  Eckartshausen ;  Sir  j 
David  Brewster,  "Letters  on  Natural  Magic" 
(London,  1831);  and  Eusebe  Salverte,  Des  sci-  i 
encea  occultes  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1829). 

JL'GURTHA,  a  Xumidian  king,  born  before  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century  B.  C.,  died  in  Rome 


in  104.  He  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  Masta- 
nabal,  youngest  son  of  Masinissa,  king  of  Nu- 
rnidia.  Micipsa,  his  paternal  uncle,  on  succeed 
ing  to  the  throne,  adopted  him,  and  had  him 
brought  up  with  his  own  sons,  Hiempsal  and 
Adherbal.  Jugurtha's  superior  abilities  and 
skill  in  all  martial  exercises  soon  excited  the 
jealousy  of  Micipsa,  who,  to  remove  him  out 
of  the  way,  sent  him  in  134  with  an  auxiliary 
force  to  aid  Scipio  in  the  Numantine  war.  Ju 
gurtha's  courage  and  capacity  won  him  the 
friendship  of  the  Roman  commander  and  offi 
cers.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  he  return 
ed  to  Numidia,  and  was  received  with  ceremo 
nious  respect  by  Micipsa,  who,  to  purchase  his 
forbearance,  made  him  at  his  death  (118)  heir 
to  the  kingdom  in  common  with  his  two  sons. 
The  three  princes  quarrelled  on  their  first 
meeting  after  his  death,  and  a  little  later 
Hiempsal  was  assassinated  by  Jugurtha.  Ad- 
herbal  and  his  party  took  up  arms,  but  were 
defeated,  when  he  fled  for  refuge  to  Rome,  and 
submitted  his  case  to  the  senate,  which,  despite 
the  intrigues  and  bribes  of  Jugurtha,  sent  com 
missioners  to  Africa  to  divide  Numidia  be 
tween  the  rivals.  The  commissioners  took 
gifts  from  Jugurtha,  and  gave  him  the  larger 
and  better  half  of  the  kingdom.  But  he  was 
not  satisfied,  and  after  trying  in  vain  to  pro 
voke  Adherbal  to  declare  war,  he  invaded  his 
territory,  and  compelled  him  to  take  refuge 
in  Cirta,  where  on  his  surrender  in  112  he 
massacred  him  and  all  his  followers.  The  con 
duct  of  Jugurtha  now  excited  loud  indignation 
at  Rome,  and  an  army  was  despatched  to  Afri 
ca  to  depose  him.  But  the  Roman  command 
er  and  legate  suffered  Jugurtha  to  purchase 
peace  on  terms  which  involved  no  greater  sac 
rifice  on  his  part  than  30  elephants  and  an  in 
considerable  sum  of  money.  This  shameful 
transaction  so  weakened  the  confidence  of  the 
Roman  people  in  the  patricians,  that  the  pra3tor 
Cassius  was  sent  to  Numidia  to  guarantee  to 
Jugurtha  a  safe-conduct  if  he  would  go  to 
Rome  and  give  evidence  against  the  generals.. 
The  king  consented,  proceeded  to  Rome,  and 
appeared  in  the  comitia ;  but  a  tribune  in 
the  interest  of  the  generals  forbade  him  to 
testify,  and  the  attempt  to  convict  the  corrupt 
officers  proved  a  failure.  Jugurtha  remained 
at  Rome  for  some  time,  intriguing  and  adding 
to  his  influence  among  the  aristocracy.  Having 
however  procured  the  assassination  of  Massiva, 
a  Numidian  prince,  who  since  the  death  of  Ad 
herbal  had  been  a  competitor  for  that  kingdom, 
he  w^as  ordered  to  quit  Italy.  It  was  while 
leaving  Rome  on  this  occasion  that  he  uttered 
the  memorable  exclamation,  which  indicates 
how  the  Romans  had  fallen  from  their  ancient 
integrity:  "Behold  a  city  for  sale,  could  she 
but  find  a  purchaser."  The  war  was  now  re 
newed,  and  a  division  of  the  army  of  Spurius 
Albinus,  under  the  command  of  his  brother 
Aulus,  was  surprised  by  Jugurtha  in  its  camp, 
the  greater  part  cut  to  pieces,  and  the  survivors 
compelled  to  pass  under  the  yoke.  This  dis- 


JUILLERAT 


JUJUY 


709 


grace  stirred  up  the  Roman  spirit,  a  new  army 
was  raised,  and  Q.  Crecilius  Metellus  was  sent 
to  succeed  Albinus.  Metellus  was  at  once  an 
able  general  and  an  honest  man.  After  the 
tirst  campaign  Jugurtha  was  willing  to  pur 
chase  peace  on  any  conditions  short  of  surren 
dering  himself  a  prisoner  of  war.  But  Metel 
lus  was  ambitious  not  only  of  terminating  the 
war,  but  of  adorning  his  triumph  with  the 
vanquished,  and  the  contest  was  renewed. 
Jugurtha  avoided  a  general  engagement,  and 
Metellus  discontinued  offensive  operations  on 
hearing  that  Marius  was  to  supersede  him  in  the 
command.  Marius  arrived  in  Africa  in  107, 
speedily  reduced  almost  all  the  king's  strong 
holds,  and  gradually  subjected  his  territory  to 
the  dominion  of  Rome.  Jugurtha,  seeing  his 
kingdom  slipping  from  his  grasp,  had  formed  an 
alliance  with  Bocchus,  king  of  Mauritania,  and 
the  united  forces  attacked  the  army  of  Marius 
on  its  march,  but  after  a  desperate  contest  were 
totally  defeated.  The  Mauritanian  king  now 
deserted  his  ally,  and  enticed  him  into  an  am 
buscade,  where  he  was  made  prisoner,  and  de 
livered  in  chains  to  Sulla,  the  quajstor  of  Ma 
rius.  He  was  taken  to  Rome,  and,  after  adorn 
ing  the.triumph  of  his  conqueror  (Jan.  1,  104), 
was  cast  into  prison,  where  he  died  of  starva 
tion  in  six  days.  The  details  of  the  life  of  Ju 
gurtha  are  chietly  known  from  the  interesting 
history  of  the  "  Jugurthine  War"  by  Sallust. 

Jl'ILLERAT,  Clotilde  Gerard,  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Lyons  about  1810.  She  studied  under 
Delaroche,  and  exhibited  her  first  works  in 
1833.  In  1840  she  married  the  poet  and  dra 
matist  Paul  Juillerat  (born  in  Paris  about  1815). 
Her  productions  include  many  fine  portraits. 

JIMtBE,  a  name  given  to  species  of  zizyphus, 
especially  Z.  vulgaris,  a  small  tree,  native  of 


Jujube  (Zizyphus  vulgaris). 

Asia,  belonging  to  the  rhamnaccw  or  buck 
thorn  family.  The  Arabic  name  of  the  tree  is 
zizuf,  from  which  is  derived  the  generic  name, 


and  probably  also  jujube  through  the  French. 
In  its  native  country  it  is  a  tree   20   or  30 
ft.  high,   but  it  will  bear  fruit  when  only  a 
shrub;    it   has   prickly  branches,   oval,  thick, 
!  shining  leaves,  inconspicuous  greenish  flowers, 
j  and  a  fruit  of  the  shape  of  an  olive,  but  not 
quite  so  large,  which  in  ripening  turns  yellow 
i  and  then  red ;  the  fruit  contains  a  single  bony 
|  nut   surrounded   by   a  fleshy   pulp,   which   is 
somewhat  acid  when  fresh,  but  when  dried  is 
sweet  and  agreeable  to  the  taste.     In  the  East 
the  fruit  is  eaten  both  fresh  and  dried ;  it  is 
considered  as  mildly  medicinal,  and  a  sirup  and 
a  paste   of  jujubes  are  used  in  Europe  for 
coughs  and  catarrhs ;  the  true  jujube  paste  is 
j  made  of  the  pulps  of  jujubes,  gum  arabic,  and 
!  sugar,  but  that  which  is  sold  under  the  name 
I  is  merely  gelatine  and  sugar,. sometimes  with  a 
j  little  tartaric  acid  and  flavoring.     The  tree  has 
i  fruited  in   Georgia,   and   would  probably  be 
j  hardy  further  north;   aside  from  its  fruit,  it 
i  is  worth  cultivating,  where  the  climate  will 
\  allow,  on  account  of  its  graceful  habit  and  fine 
i  foliage.     The   Chinese   cultivate  several  vari- 
|  eties  of  Z.  jujiiba,  the  fruit  of  which,  known 
to  foreigners  as  Chinese  dates,  is  much  esteemed 
by  them.     Z.  lotos  is  one  of  several  plants  sup 
posed  to  be  the  lotus  of  the  lotophagi.     An 
African  species,  Z.  Baclei,  has  a  fruit  which 
tastes  like  gingerbread. 

JUJtY.  I.  A  province  of  the  Argentine  Re 
public,  bounded  N~.  by  Bolivia,  E.  by  the  Gran 
Chaco,  S.  by  the  province  of  Salta,  and  W.  by 
Bolivia;  area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.,  in 
i  1869,  including  foreigners,  40,379.  The  whole 
i  1ST.  W.  portion  is  an  elevated  plain  called  the 
I  Puna,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  great  Bo- 
;  livian  table  land,  and  which  terminates  some 
what  abruptly  to  the  south  arid  east  in  a  moun 
tain  chain  extending  due  N".  from  Salta,  and 
presenting  a'  few  snow-covered  peaks  of  about 
14,000  ft.  E.  of  these  mountains  the  territory 
gently  inclines  toward  the  plains  of  the  Cha 
co,  with  a  few  inconsiderable  mountains.  The 
valleys  bounded  by  the  several  ridges,  especial 
ly  those  of  the  east,  are  exceedingly  fertile, 
owing  to  abundant  irrigation,  an  advantage 
not  enjoyed  in  the  Puna  and  the  W.  country 
generally.  The  principal  river  is  the  San  Fran 
cisco  or  Grande,  which  flows  in  a  semicircle 
forming  the  southern  boundary  of  the  prov 
ince, -receives  numerous  tributaries,  and  joins 
the  Bermejo  25  miles  S.  of  Oran.  In  the  Puna 
are  two  lakes,  Toro  in  the  south  and  Casabindo 
in  the  north,  both  of  considerable  extent,  and 
the  second  furnishing  inexhaustible  quantities 
of  salt,  much  of  which  is  exported.  Asphalt, 
petroleum,  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  quick 
silver  abound  in  most  districts ;  but  for  want 
of  suitable  means  of  transportation  no  mines 
have  as  yet  been  worked.  Although  mostly 
comprised  within  the  tropics,  this  province  has 
a  mild  and  salubrious  climate.  The  arboreal 
vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  includes  the  mate, 
dragon's  blood,  and  Peruvian  balsam  trees, 
and  many  kinds  of  timber  and  cabinet  woods. 


710 


JULIAN" 


Rice,  maize,  the  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco  are 
largely  cultivated,  the  principal  industries  are 
agriculture,  the  rearing  of  cattle,  mules,  sheep, 
goats,  llamas,  and  vicunas,  spinning,  and  weav 
ing.  Coarse  woollen  stuffs  are  extensively 
manufactured.  There  are  schools  in  every 
town,  but  at  the  time  of  the  census,  of  6,021 
children  aged  from  6  to  14  years,  only  1,383 
attended ;  and  of  the  whole  population,  only 
4,309  read  and  3,376  wrote.  Formerly  Jujuy 
was  a  part  of  the  adjoining  province  of  Salta. 
II.  San  Salvador  de,  a  city,  capital  of  the  prov 
ince,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio 
San  Francisco,  in  a  fertile  valley  4,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  870  m.  N.  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres ; 
pop.  in  1869,  7,629.  It  has  no  edifices  worthy 
of  mention.  The  industries  of  the  place  are 
chiefly  conducted  by  Indians  and  mestizos ; 
there  is  a  weekly  fair  for  cattle  and  agricul 
tural  products.  In  the  vicinity  are  saline  hot 
springs,  the  waters  of  which  are  efficacious 
against  chronic  rheumatism. 

JULIAN  (FLAVIUS  CLAUDIUS  JULIANUS),  sur- 
named  the  Apostate,  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
in  Constantinople,  Nov.  17,  A.  D.  331,  died 
in  Persia,  June  26,  363.  lie  was  the  son  of 
Julius  Constantius,  the  grandson  of  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus,  and  the  nephew  of  Constantine 
the  Great.  When  Constantius  II.  ordered  the 
male  descendants  of  Chlorus  by  his  second 
wife  Theodora  to  be  put  to  death,  he  made  an 
exception  in  favor  of  Julian  and  his  half  broth 
er  Gallus,  whose  tender  years  did  not  excite 
his  apprehension;  but  he  banished  them  to 
certain  cities  of  Ionia  and  Bithynia,  and  ulti 
mately  confined  them  in  the  strong  castle  of 
Macellum  near  the  Cappadocian  Ca3sarea.  Du 
ring  the  period  of  their  restraint  Julian  was 
instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  was  taught  to  fast,  to  pray,  and  to 
fill  the  office  of  reader  in  the  church  of  Nico- 
media.  In  351  Gallus  was  taken  from  prison, 
invested  with  the  dignity  of  Caesar,  and  made 
prefect  of  the  East.  Through  his  mediation 
Julian  was  liberated,  and  permitted  to  fix  his 
residence  in  any  of  the  Asiatic  cities.  He  now 
first  became  acquainted  with  those  Platonic 
philosophers  who  ere  long  induced  him  to 
abandon  Christianity  for  paganism ;  but  he 
did  not  make  a  public  avowal  of  his  apostasy 
till  he  could  do  so  with  safety.  After  the  mur 
der  of  Gallus  he  again  became  an  object  of  dis 
trust  to  Constantius,  who  had  him  transported 
to  Italy  and  imprisoned  at  Milan,  whence  hav 
ing  been  liberated  by  the  intercession  of  the 
empress  Eusebia,  he  retired  to  Athens.  Con 
stantius  soon  recalled  him,  and  on  Nov.  6,  355, 
proclaimed  him  Ca3sar,  and  gave  him  his  sister 
Helena  in  marriage.  lie  was  at  the  same  time 
invested  with  the  government  of  all  the  trans 
alpine  provinces,  and  with  the  command  of  the 
forces  which  were  to  drive  the  German  inva 
ders  of  Gaul  beyond  the  Rhine.  Having  ef 
fected  this  latter  undertaking,  and  checked  the 
rapacity  of  the  local  governors,  he  acquired 
such  popularity  that  when  the  jealous  Con 


stantius  in  360  commanded  him  to  send  his 
best  soldiers  to  the  Persian  war,  the  troops 
proclaimed  him  emperor.  Julian  crossed  over 
into  Germany,  and  made  an  admirable  march 
along  the  forest-covered  valley  of  the  Danube, 
intending  to  advance  against  Constantinople ; 
but  the  sudden  death  of  Constantius  gave  him 
undisputed  possession  of  the  empire.  On  Dec. 
11,  361,  he  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  the 
capital,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  soldiers, 
the  citizens,  and  the  senate.  He  now  openly 
avowed  his  abandonment  of  Christianity,  which 
had  long  before  been  known  to  his  friends,  and 
his  Christian  subjects  apprehended  a  cruel  and 
relentless  persecution.  Shortly  after  his  ac 
cession,  however,  he  published  an  edict  which 
granted  perfect  toleration  to  all  sects  and  re 
ligions.  But  the  spirit  of  this  edict  was  not 
respected  even  by  Julian  himself.  He  excluded 
Christians  from  civil  and  military  offices,  for 
bade  them  to  teach  grammar  and  rhetoric  in 
the  schools,  compelled  them  to  contribute  to 
the  building  and  repair  of  pagan  temples,  per 
mitting  at  the  same  time  the  Jews  to  rebuild 
their  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  wrote  a  volu 
minous  treatise  against  the  assumed  errors  of 
Christianity.  Amid  the  licentious  priests  and 
lascivious  dancers  who  thronged  the  pagan 
temples,  he  was  frequently  seen  bearing  the 
wood,  kindling  the  fire,  slaughtering  the  vic 
tim,  and  divining  from  the  entrails  of  the  ex 
piring  animal.  He  was  nevertheless  worthy  in 
other  respects  to  wield  the  sceptre.  Imme 
diately  after  his  accession  he  applied  himself 
to  reform  the  luxury  and  extravagance  of  the 
imperial  court.  He  ordered  the  laws  to  be 
equitably  administered,  and  instituted  a  tribu 
nal  for  the  trial  of  such  officials  as  had  been 
guilty  of  peculation  or  oppression  in  the  for 
mer  reign.  The  incursions  of  the  Persians 
upon  Roman  territory  led  him  to  declare  war 
against  that  people,  and  in  363,  having  crossed 
the  Euphrates  at  Hierapolis,  he  advanced  with 
the  main  body  of  his  army  against  Ctesiphon. 
Under  the  walls  of  this  place  he  gained  a  bril 
liant  victory  over  a  division  of  the  enemy; 
but  having  been  induced  by  the  representa 
tions  of  a  Persian  noble,  who  affected  to  be  a 
fugitive,  to  postpone  the  siege,  and  to  march 
into  the  desert  in  search  of  Sapor,  the  Persian 
monarch,  he  was  surprised  by  the  enemy,  and 
received  a  wound  from  an  arrow  which  proved 
mortal  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  Jovian 
was  proclaimed  his  successor  on  the  battle  field. 
In  his  manner  of  life  Julian  emulated  the  tem 
perance  and  simplicity  of  the  primitive  Ro 
mans  ;  he  was  indefatigable  in  the  discharge  of 
his  public  duties,  and  in  his  intervals  of  leisure 
was  devoted  to  study  and  philosophy.  He 
possessed  rhetorical  and  literary  talents  of  a 
high  order,  and  wrote  much  and  well  on  vari 
ous  subjects.  The  ablest  if  not  the  most  im 
portant  of  his  extant  works*  are  :  "  The  Ca3- 
sars,"  or  "  The  Banquet,"  a  satirical  composi 
tion  in  which  the  different  Roman  emperors 
are  made  to  appear  at  a  celestial  banquet 


jtfLICH 


JULIUS 


711 


where  old  Silenus  censures  their  vices  and 
crimes;  and  the  uMisopogon,"  or  the  "  Beard- 
Hater,"  in  which  the  emperor  exposes  the  licen 
tiousness  and  effeminacy  of  the  citizens  of  An- 
tioch,  who  had  ridiculed  the  beard  of  their 
sovereign,  such  appendages  not  being  fashion 
able  in  that  city.  His  treatise  against  the 
Christians  has  been  lost,  except  those  extracts 
preserved  in  the  refutation  of  it  by  Cyril  of 
Alexandria.  The  best  collective  edition  of  the 
works  of  Julian  is  that  of  Spanheim  (Leipsic, 
1696).  The  most  celebrated  modern  lives  of 
Julian  are  by  Gibbon  in  his  "  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire ;"  by  the  abbe  de  la  Blet- 
terie,  Histoire  de  V empereur  Julien  VApostat 
(Paris,  1735) ;  and  by  Neander,  Ueber  den  Kai 
ser  Julianus  und  seiti  Zeitalter  (Leipsic,  1812). 

JULICH  (Fr.  Juliers),  a  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  the  Rhine,  capital  of  a  circle 
celebrated  for  fertility,  in  the  district  and  17 
m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  pop. 
in  1871,  5,244.  It  is  in  a  fertile  plain,  sur 
rounded  by  low  swampy  grounds  which  make 
it  unhealthy.  Among  its  manufactures  are 
common  and  white  leather,  soap,  and  vinegar. 
It  has  also  some  trade  in  cattle  and  in  country 
produce.  Coal  is  mined  in  its  neighborhood. — 
The  town  was  the  Juliacum  mentioned  in  the 
"  Itinerary  "  of  Antoninus.  One  of  the  impe 
rial  counts  of  Julich,  Gerhard  I.,  assisted  Henry 
the  Fowler  in  his  warfare  against  the  Hunga 
rians,  and  the  county  of  Julich  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  duchy  in  favor  of  Gerhard's  de 
scendants  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  (1357). 
For  a  long  time  afterward  Julich  was  one  of  the 
independent  duchies  on  the  Rhine,  until  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century,  when  the  male 
line  of  hereditary  dukes  became  extinct,  and 
Julich  was  united  through  the  female  line 
with  Cleves,  having  previously  been  united 
with  Berg.  After  the  expiration  of  the  house 
of  Cleves  in  1609,  the  contest  about  "the 
Jiilich  succession  "  formed  one  of  the  preludes 
to  the  thirty  years'  war.  The  dispute  was  not 
settled  before  1666,  when  Jiilich  and  Berg 
were  given  to  the  counts  palatine  of  Neuburg. 
Julich  was  annexed  by  the  French  republic, 
and  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  allotted  to 
Prussia,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  localities 
annexed  to  the  Dutch  province  of  Limburg. 
The  razing  of  the  fortress  of  Julich  Avas  be 
gun  in  1860. 

JILIEN,  Stanislas  Aignan,  a  French  orientalist, 
born  in  Orleans,  Sept.  20,  1799,  died  in  Paris, 
Feb.  14,  1873;  He  was  the  son  of  a  noted 
mechanician.  After  completing  his  classical 
studies  in  his  native  town,  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he -studied  several  living  European  lan 
guages  and  perfected  his  knowledge  of  an 
cient  Greek.  Gail,  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
college  de  France,  appointed  him  his  substi 
tute  in  1821 ;  and  to  vindicate  his  claims  to 
this  distinction,  he  published  in  1823  a  criti 
cal  edition  of  the  poem  of  Colntlius,  'EAevrjg 
'Ap-a-yq,  with  translations  in  Latin,  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  English,  and  German.  In 


1824,  under  the  title  of  La  lyre  patriotique 
de  la  Grece,  he  produced  a  French  translation 
of  the  lyrical  poems  of  the  modern  Greek 
poet  Calvos  of  Zante.  A  young  Scotchman 
inspired  him  with  a  taste  for  the  Chinese  lan 
guage,  and  introduced  him  to  Sir  William 
Drummond,  who  supplied  him  with  the  means 
of  studying  it.  He  also  attended  the  lectures 
of  Abel  RCmusat,  and  mastered  the  Chinese 
with  such  uncommon  rapidity  that  within  a 
year  he  was  able  to  translate  into  Latin  the 
writings  of  Mencius.  In  1832  he  succeeded 
Abel  Remusat  as  professor  of  the  Chinese  lan 
guage  and  literature,  and  afterward  did  much 
toward  making  the  literature  of  China  known 
in  Europe,  publishing  translations  of  many 
Chinese  tales,  poems,  dramas,  and  other  books. 
His  most  important  publication,  under  the 
general  title  Voyages  des  2)elerins  Boudhistes 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1853-'8),  throws  much  light  on 
the  early  history,  geography,  and  religion  of 
India.  In  1869  was  published  his  Syntaxe 
nomelle  de  la  langue  chinoise,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  engaged  in  the  preparation 
of  a  complete  Chinese  dictionary. 

jrLIERS.     See  JULICH. 

JILHS,  the  name  of  three  popes.  I.  Saint, 
born  in  Rome,  died  there,  April  12,  352.  He 
was  chosen  pope,  Feb.  6,  337.  He  sustained 
Athanasius  in  his  contest  with  the  Arians,  and 
summoned  a  council  in  342,  in  which  the 
course  of  Athanasius  was  approved,  and  the 
pope  addressed  a  letter  in  his  defence  to  the 
church  of  Alexandria.  At  his  instance  a  gen 
eral  council  was  held  at  Sardica  in  347,  for  the 
purpose  of  averting  the  threatened  schism  be 
tween  the  churches,  at  which  it  is  asserted 
that  the  right  of  arbitration  in  cases  of  depo 
sition  of  bishops  was  reserved  to  the  see  of 
Rome.  The  feast  of  St.  Julius  is  celebrated  on 
April  12.  Two  letters  of  his  are  given  in  the 
Epistolw  Romanorum  Pontijicvm.  II.  Ginliano 
della  Rovcre,  born  at  Albisola  Marina  in  1441, 
died  Feb.  21, 1513.  He  was  bishop  successively 
of  Carpentras,  Albano,  Ostia,  Bologna,  Avignon, 
and  Mende,  and  was  made  cardinal  by  his  un 
cle  Sixtus  IV.,  who  also  gave  him  command  of 
the  papal  troops  sent  against  the  revolted  Um- 
brians.  His  success  in  this  war  so  increased 
his  popularity,  that  Alexander  VI.  on  assuming 
the  tiara  banished  him  from  Rome.  Julius 
returned  to  the  camp,  and  contributed  an  im 
portant  part  in  the  conquest  of  Naples  by 
Charles  VIII.,  the  rising  of  the  Genoese,  and 
the  expulsion  of  Luigi  Sforza.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander,  Aug.  18,  1503..  he  caused  the 
election  of  the  aged  Pius  III.,  who  survived 
his  elevation  only  26  days,  and  Julius  himself 
was  then  chosen  on  the  first  ballot.  His  first 
care  on  coming  to  the  throne  was  to  drive  out 
Ca?sar  Borgia  from  the  Papal  States,  his  next 
to  strengthen  and  extend  the  power  of  the  holy 
see.  The  refractory  nobility  at  home  were 
soon  reduced  to  obedience,  but  the  Venetians, 
who  held  Ravenna,  Rimini,  and  other  terri 
tories  of  the  church,  were  a  more  formidable 


712 


JULIUS 


JUMNA 


enemy.  After  fruitless  negotiations,  Julius 
joined  in  1509  the  famous  league  of  Cambrai, 
formed  by  the  emperor  Maximilian,  Louis  XII. 
of  France,  and  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  for  the 
dismemberment  of  the  Venetian  republic.  The 
troops  of  the  league  were  everywhere  success 
ful;  the  doge  sued  for  peace,  and  the  pope, 
who  had  now  got  what  he  wanted,  grew  jeal 
ous  of  Louis,  and  willingly  united  with  the 
Venetians  to  expel  the  French  from  Italy. 
Ferdinand  was  also  led  to  view  the  success  of 
Louis  with  uneasiness,  and  became  a  party  to 
the  u  holy  league,"  which  was  signed  in  October, 
loll,  and  of  which  Henry  VIII.  of  England 
afterward  became  a  member.  Julius  took  the 
field  in  person,  and,  after  several  campaigns  of 
varying  success,  drove  out  the  "barbarians," 
as  he  termed  his  former  allies.  He  could  not 
so  easily  rid  himself  of  the  Swiss,  German, 
and  Spanish  troops  by  whom  lie  had  effected 
this  result,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  disorder 
raised  by  his  warlike  and  ambitious  policy,  he 
died  without  achieving  for  the  holy  see  that 
preeminence  which  had  been  the  whole  aim  of 
his  pontificate.  Julius  was  in  heart  and  action 
a  thorough  soldier.  He  "  made  his  tiara  a  hel 
met  and  his  crosier  a  sword,"  and  his  disposi 
tion  is  well  expressed  in  an  old  epigram : 

Cum  Pctri  nihil  efficiant  ad  prcelia  claves, 
Auxilio  Pauli  forsitan  ensis  erit. 

He  was  nevertheless  regarded  by  the  Italians 
as  a  friend  to  the  liberation  of  their  country, 
and  the  justice  and  wisdom  of  his  internal  ad 
ministration  gained  him  their  affection.  He 
laid  the  corner  stone  of  St.  Peter's  church,  and 
was  a  patron  of  Michel  Angelo,  Bramante,  and 
Raphael.  It  was  Julius  II.  who  granted  Henry 
VIII.  a  dispensation  to  marry  Catharine  of  Ara 
gon.  He  was  succeeded  by  Leo  X.  III.  Gian  Maria 
del  Monte,  born  in  Arezzo,  Sept.  10,  1487,  died 
March  23,  1555.  lie  belonged  to  a  noble  fam 
ily,  held  several  high  offices  under  the  papal 
government,  was  made  cardinal  in  1536,  and 
succeeded  Paul  III.  in  1550.  He  reopened  the 
sittings  of  the  council  of  Trent,  which  had 
been  discontinued  under  his  predecessor,  and 
confirmed  the  institution  of  the  Jesuits.  He 
took  part  with  Charles  V.  in  his  quarrel  with 
Ottavio  Farnese  and  the  French,  but  was  com 
pelled  to  sign  a  truce  with  his  enemies  in  April, 
1552,  soon  after  which  he  declared  the  suspen 
sion  of  the  council  of  Trent,  which  had  already 
been  broken  up  by  the  Protestants,  and  retired 
to  his  luxurious  villa  near  Rome.  He  recon 
ciled  England  under  Queen  Mary  with  the  holy 
see.  He  was  succeeded  by  Marcellus  II. 

Jl'LIl'S,  Mkolaus  Holnrirh,  a  German  physician, 
born  in  Altona,  Oct.  3,  1783,  died  in  Hamburg, 
Aug.  20,  1862.  With  a  view  of  examining  the 
condition  and  management  of  prisons,  he  ex 
plored  many  parts  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  delivered  lectures,  and  published  a  va 
riety  of  works  on  this  and  kindred  subjects, 
as  Die  Amerikaniscltcn  VeTbenserungssysteme 
(Leipsic,1837),  Nordamerikas  sittliche  Zustdnde  \ 


(1830),  and  Beitrage  zur  britischen  IrrenJieil- 
Tcunde  (1844).  He  also  edited  the  Jahrbuch  tier 
Sir  of-  und  Besserungsanstaltcn  (Berlin,  1820- 
'48),  and  in  concert  with  Gerson  the  Magazin 
der  ausldndisclien  Literatur  der  gesammten 
Heilkunde  (Hamburg,  1821-'35).  In  1849  he 
returned  to  Hamburg,  where  he  had  previously 
practised  his  profession.  His  German  trans 
lation  of  Ticknor's  "  History  of  Spanish  Lit 
erature"  appeared  in  1852  (2  vols.,  Leipsic), 
and  in  1866  a  supplementary  volume,  edited 
by  A.  Wolf,  was  published. 

JULIUS  AFRICANUS.     See  APKICAXUS. 

JULLIEN,  Louis  Georges,  a  French  composer, 
born  at  Sisteron,  Basses- Alpes,  April  23,  1812, 
died  in  Paris,  April  16,  1860.  At  six  years  of 
age  he  was  a  skilful  performer  on  the  violin, 
and  about  1830  gained  admittance  as  a  pupil 
into  the  conservatoire  at  Paris,  where  he  was 
instructed  by  Cherubim.  In  1830  he  went  to 
England,  and  for  a  number  of  years  directed 
promenade  concerts  in  London  with  great  suc 
cess.  In  1853  he  produced  at  Covent  Garden 
theatre  an  opera  entitled  Pietro  il  Grande ; 
and  in  the  same  year,  accompanied  by  a  large 
orchestra,  he  visited  the  United  States,  in  the 
chief  cities  of  which  he  gave  concerts.  His 
subsequent  career  was  less  prosperous,  and  he 
died  in  a  charitable  institution. 

JULY  (Lat.  Julius),  the  seventh  month  of  the 
year,  consisting  of  31  days.  By  the  Romans 
it  was  originally  called  Quintilis  (quintus,  fifth), 
it  being  the  fifth  month  in  the  original  Latin 
year,  which  before  Numa  began  with  March. 
The  name  was  changed  to  July,  by  proposal  of 
Mark  Antony,  in  honor  of  Julius  Caesar,  who 
was  born  on  the  12th  of  this  month.  In  the 
Athenian  calendar,  the  latter  part  of  Sciro- 
phorion  and  the  first  part  of  Ilecatombeon 
correspond  to  July.  The  Anglo-Saxons  called 
it  meed  monatJi  (mead  month),  because  the 
meads  were  then  in  bloom,  and  litlia  ceftera 
(latter  mild  month),  June  being  known  as  the 
"earlier  mild  month."  Charlemagne  gave  it 
the  name  of  IJeumonat  (hay  month).  The 
French  revolutionary  calendar  merged  it  in  the 
last  part  of  Messidor  and  the  first  of  Thermidor. 

JUMNA,  a  river  of  Hindostan,  and  the  princi 
pal  tributary  of  the  Ganges.  It  rises  in  Gur- 
whal,  near  the  S.  base  of  the  Himalaya,  in 
lat.  31°  K,  Ion.  78°  32'  E.  at  the  foot  of  a 
group  of  hills  called  the  Jumnotri  peaks,  near 
which  it  receives  the  overflow  of  several  hot 
springs.  It  is  here  a  violent  torrent,  having 
for  16  m.  an  average  descent  of  314  ft.  per 
mile.  After  a  S.  W.  course  of  about  60  m., 
during  which  it  is  joined  by  several  largo 
mountain  streams,  it  receives  the  Tonse  in  lat. 
30°  30',  Ion.  77°  53'.  About  97  m.  from  its 
source  it  enters  the  plain  of  Hindostan,  flowing 
S.,  and  divides  into  several  brandies.  It  hero 
becomes  navigable  by  rafts.  After  passing 
Delhi,  where  it  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats, 
its  general  course  is  S.  E.  It  joins  the  Ganges 
at  Allahabad,  619  m.  below  Delhi,  and  860  TO. 
from  its  source.  In  the  lower  part  of  its  courao 


JUNE 


JUNG 


713 


the  Jumna  is  sometimes  2  or  3  m.  wide.  Its 
banks  are  rocky  and  precipitous,  and  its  cur 
rent  is  rapid.  .Navigation  is  attended  with 
much  difficulty,  hut  many  of  the  most  serious 
obstructions  have  been  removed,  and  vessels 
can  now  ascend  to  Calpee.  Its  principal  afflu 
ents  are  the  Chumbul,  Sinde,  Betwa,  Cane,  and 
llindaun.  Delhi,  Agra,  Muttra,  Etawah,  Calpee, 
and  Allahabad  are  the  most  important  places 
on  its  banks. — There  are  two  extensive  sys 
tems  of  irrigation  connected  with  the  Jumna. 
The  western  Jumna  canal  comprises  the  an 
cient  canal  of  Feroze  Shah  and  the  Delhi  canal, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  which  were 
restored  between  1823  and  1843  £>y  the  British 
authorities,  who  built  many  additional  branches. 
This  system  waters  the  country  along  the  west 
ern  bank  of  the  Jumna,  from  a  point  called 
Ilatlmi  Kund,  just  north  of  the  30th  parallel, 
down  to  Delhi.  The  aggregate  length  of  its 
main  lines  is  445  m.,  and  in  1866-'7  the  area 
irrigated  comprised  447,171  acres,  in  797  vil 
lages.  The  net  receipts  from  water  rates  in 
1871-'2  were  £74,518,  being  26  per  cent,  on 
the  outlay  for  construction.  The  eastern 
Jumna  canal  irrigates  a  district  about  120  m. 
long  and  15  m.  broad  on  the  left  of  the  river, 
and  extends  from  a  point  in  the  main  stream 
near  the  head  of  the  western  system,  south 
ward  to  Delhi,  flowing  for  40  m.  between  em 
bankments,  at  a  height  of  from  6  to  12  ft. 
above  the  general  level  of  the  land.  It  was 
projected  by  Shah  Jehan,  between  1G28  and 
1659,  but  had  long  been  disused  when  it  was 
restored  by  English  engineers  in  1830.  The 
main  channel  is  itself  130  m.  long,  and  feeds 
619  m.  of  distributary  streams.  The  area  of 
irrigation  in  1871-'2  was  192,749  acres,  and  the 
net  revenue  £32,881,  being  1G'6  per  cent,  on 
the  outlay. 

JIXE.  the  sixth  month  of  the  year,  consisting 
of  30  days.      The  name  is  variously  derived 
from  juniorfs  (the  young  men),  to  whom  Ro-  ' 
mulus  is  said  to  have  assigned  it,  as  he  assigned  | 
May  to  the  elders ;  from  Juno,  whence  it  was 
sometimes  called  Junonialis ;  from  Junius  Bru 
tus,  the*first  consul;  and  fromjungo  (to  join), 
with  reference  to  the  union  of  the  Romans 
and  Sabines,  or  because  it  was  considered  the 
most  suitable  time  for  marriage.     It  was  the 
fourth  month  of  the  old  Latin  calendar,  and 
originally  had  but  26  days.     Romulus  is  said 
to  have  given  it  30  days.     Xuma  made  it  the 
fifth  month  and  deprived  it  of  one  day,  which 
was  restored  by  Julius  Ca?sar.     In  the  Athe 
nian  calendar,  the  latter  half  of  Thargelion  and  I 
the  first  half  of  Scirophorion  correspond  to  j 
June.     The  Anglo-Saxons  called  it  litlia  cerra  \ 
(earlier  mild  month),  also  sear  monath   (dry  j 
month)    and    midsumer   monath   (midsummer  I 
month).     It  was  named  by  Charlemagne  Brach-  : 
monat  (fallow  month).     In  the  French  revo-  ! 
lutionary  calendar  it  corresponds  to  the  last 
part  of  Prairial  and  the  first  of  Messidor. 

JUJVEAl',  a  S.  central  county  of  Wisconsin, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Wisconsin  river,  and  drained  j 


by  Lemonweir,  Yellow,  and  Baraboo  rivers; 
area,  about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,372. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Timber  is  abundant.  The  La  Crosse  division 
of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  rail 
road  crosses  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  192,304  bushels  of  wheat,  115,393  of 
Indian  corn,  197,005  of  oats,  97,755  of  pota 
toes,  26,904  Ibs.  of  wool,  527,027  of  hops, 
221,003  of  butter,  and  15,499  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2,04=0  horses,  2,846  milch  cows, 
3,982  other  cattle,  8,406  sheep,  and  4,959 
swine ;  3  manufactories  of  carriages,  2  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  4  flour  mills,  and  11  saw  mills. 
Capital,  New  Lisbon. 

JIJVE  BEKKY,  one  of  the  common  names  for 
amelancliier  Canadensis,  a  rosaceous  shrub  or 
small  tree,  which  botanically  differs  from  py- 
rus,  the  genus  of  the  apple  and  pear,  only  in 
the  number  of  cells  in  the  fruit.  This  species 
is  found  as  far  north  as  Hudson  bay,  and  ex 
tends  throughout  the  United  States ;  running 
through  such  a  wide  geographical  range,  it  pre 
sents  a  great  variety  of  forms ;  more  than  a 
dozen  species  were  described  by  the  early  bot 
anists,  but  Torrey  and  Gray,  in  their  "Flora 
of  North  America,"  very  properly  reduced  all 
these  to  a  single  polymorphous  species,  of 
which  there  are  half  a  dozen  forms  sufficiently 
marked  to  be  regarded  as  varieties.  These  dif 
fer  in  stature,  in  the  shape  and  pubescence  of 
the  leaves,  size  of  petals,  and  size  and  abundance 
of  the  fruit.  A  mountain  variety,  pitmila,  is 
only  3  or  4  ft.  high,  while  the  variety  l)otrya- 
pium  reaches  30  ft.  in  height.  The  leaves  in 
all  are  simple,  heart-shaped,  or  oval,  with  white 
flowers  in  pendulous  racemes,  which  appear 
just  as  the  leaves  are  opening.  In  some  parts 
of  the  country  the  different  varieties  are  known 
as  shad  flower  or  shad  bush,  as  the  flowers  ap 
pear  at  the  time  the  shad  ascends  the  streams, 
and  also  as  service  berry.  The  fruit  is  globular 
or  pear-shaped,  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  pur 
plish,  sweet  and  edible.  From  the  character 
of  the  fruit  the  bush  is  known  in  some  locali 
ties  as  the  sugar  pear,  but  more  generally,  from 
the  time  of  its  ripening,  as  June  berry.  Some 
plants  produce  fruit  abundantly,  which  is  most 
ly  eaten  by  birds.  The  dwarf  variety  has  been 
brought  into  cultivation  in  some  of  the  western 
states  as  a  market  fruit,  and  is  there  known  as 
"mountain  whortleberry;"  it  has  been  tried  by 
amateurs  at  the  east,  who  find  that  the  birds 
reap  the  harvest.  All  forms  of  the  species  are 
worthy  of  cultivation  as  ornamental  trees  or 
shrubs,  on  account  of  their  early  and  abundant 
flowering;  a  well  formed  specimen,  completely 
sheeted  with  white,  is  not  exceeded  in  beauty 
by  any  exotic.  There  is  a  European  species, 
known  in  Savoy  as  amelaricicr,  from  which 
the  name  of  the  genus  is  derived. 

Jl'XG,  or  Junjriiis,  Joachim,  a  German  philoso 
pher,  born  in  Liibeck,  Oct.  22,  1587,  died  in 
Hamburg,  Sept.  23,  1657.  lie  was  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Giessen  from  1609  to  1614. 


714 


JTOG-BUNZLAU 


JUNG-STILLING 


He  subsequently  studied  medicine  and  took  his 
degree  at  Padua  in  1618,  but  again  filled  a 
chair  of  mathematics  at  Rostock  in  1624.  He 
was  prevented  by  the  thirty  years'  war  from 
accepting  a  professorship  of  medicine  at  Helm- 
stedt,  and  lived  in  retirement  at  Brunswick  and 
Rostock  till  1629,  when  he  became  rector  of 
the  Hamburg  Johanneum.  Leibnitz  ranks  him, 
on  account  of  his  perspicacity  in  opposing  the 
scholastic  school  of  philosophy,  next  to  Coper 
nicus  and  Galileo,  and  not  far  below  Descartes. 
His  works  include  Geometria  Empirica  (Ham 
burg,  1688).  Johann  Vaget  edited  his  MS. 
Joachim  Jungius  Isagoge  Phytoscopica,  &c. 
(Hamburg,  1678),  in  which  he  anticipated  Lin- 
no3us  in  suggesting  technical  terms  relating  to 
botany  and  in  other  respects. — See  Guhrauer, 
Joachim  Jung  und  sein  Zeitalter  (Stuttgart, 
18-51),  and  Av6-Lallemont,  Des  Dr.  J.  Jungius 
aus  Lubeck  Briefweschsel  mit  seinen  Schalern 
und  Freunden  (Lubeck,  1863). 

Jl  \G-BUNZLAU,  or  Bunzlau  (Boh.  Mlada  Bo- 
leslar),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  capital  of  a  cir 
cle,  on  the  Iser,  30  m.  N.  E.  of  Prague;  pop. 
in  1869,  8,695.  It  has  16  churches  and  a  mon 
astery  of  the  Piarists,  with  a  gymnasium.  The 
ancient  castle,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built 
by  Boleslas  II.  in  the  10th  century,  is  now  used 
as  barracks.  The  town  stands  near  the  site  of 
an  older  Bunzlau,  founded  by  Boleslas  I.,  and 
destroyed  in  the  Hussite  and  thirty  years'  wars. 

JFXGERMAXMA,  a  genus  of  cryptogamous 
plants  belonging  to  the  family  hepaticce  or 
liverworts,  which  is  closely  related  to  the 
mosses;  there  are  about  20  species  in  the 
United  States,  all  small  delicate  plants,  the 
general  structure  of  which  is  described  under 
LIVERWORT. 

JlXGFRAl  (the  "Maiden"  or  "Virgin"),  a 
picturesque  mountain,  or  rather  group  of 
mountains,  in  Switzerland,  forming  one  of  the 
ridges  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  and  separating  the 
cantons  of  Valais  and  Bern.  It  is  13,671  (ac 
cording  to  others  13,718)  ft.  high,  and  derives 
its  name  either  from  the  pure  mantle  of  snow 
'which  covers  its  crest,  or  from  the  fact  that  un 
til  the  present  century  it  was  deemed  inacces 
sible.  In  1811,  however,  the  brothers  Meyer  of 
Aarau  claimed  to  have  ascended  it.  In  1828' 
the  highest  peak  was  reached  by  some  peasants 
from  Grindelwald,  and  in  1841  by  Agassiz,  ac 
companied  by  Prof.  Forbes  of  Edinburgh  and 
others.  Although  the  thermometer  fell  to  6i° 
below  zero,  lichens  were  found  'on  the  highest 
exposed  points.  The  highest  peak  rises  in  a 
sharp  point,  its  summit  being  not  more  than 
2  ft.  broad.  The  Silberhorner,  which  are  in 
ferior  peaks  on  the  W.  side,  are  remarkable 
for  their  graceful  forms. 

JIXGHIHX,  Fran/  AVilhelm,  a  German  natural 
ist,  born  at  Mansfeld,  Oct.  26,  1812,  died  at 
Lembang,  Java,  April  24,  1804.  He  studied 
medicine,  botany,  and  geology  in  Halle  and 
Berlin,  and  became  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
Prussian  army.  Having  fought  a  duel,  he  was 
sentenced  to  20  years'  imprisonment,  but  es 


caped  to  France.  He  then  received  a  pardon, 
and  went  in  1835  to  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  was 
employed  in  Batavia  for  a  year  as  military 
physician,  and  afterward  explored  the  islands, 
especially  Java  and  Sumatra,  under  the  au 
spices  of  the  government.  In  1849-'55  he 
was  in  Holland,  preparing  his  observations 
for  publication,  and  then  returned  to  Java. 
His  Topographische  und  Naturwissenschaft- 
liche  Reisen  were  edited  by  Nees  von  Esenbeck 
(Magdeburg,  1845).  German  and  Dutch  edi 
tions  of  his  Battaldnder  in  Sumatra  appeared 
in  Berlin  and  Leyden  in  1847;  and  a  German 
I  version  by  Hasskarl  of  his  Zuriickreise  vo?i 
I  Java  nach  E^iropa  in  1851.  His  most  irnpor- 
|  taut  work,  considered  by  many  the  best  on  the 
subject,  treats  of  the  botany,  geography,  and 
geology  of  Java  (Java,  seine  Gestalt,  Pflanzen- 
decke  und  innere  Bauart,  German  ed.  by  Ilass- 
karl,  3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1852-'4).  In  1853  ap 
peared  his  Landschaftsansichten  von  Java  nach 
der  Natur  auf  genommen.  In  1851  was  begun, 
under  the  supervision  of  several  distinguished 
naturalists,  a  large  work  entitled  Plantce  Jung- 
huhniance,  giving  a  description  of  the  plants  and 
fossils  discovered  by  him  in  Java  and  Sumatra. 
JUNGMANN,  Jozef  Jakob,  a  Slavic  philologist, 
born  at  Hudlitz,  Bohemia,  July  16,  1773,  died 
in  Prague,  Nov.  14,  1847.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  poor  farmer,  but  received  a  superior  educa 
tion,  and  completed  his  studies  at  the  university 
of  Prague.  He  was  teacher  at  the  gymnasium 
of  Leitmeritz  from  1799  to  1815,  and  afterward 
connected  with  the  gymnasium  and  university 
I  of  Prague  till  1845,  the  last  five  years  as  rector 
|  of  the  latter  institution.  In  1820  he  published 
I  a  Bohemian  chrestomathy  (Slowesnost,  2d  ed., 
1846) ;  in  1825  a  history  of  the  Bohemian 
language  and  literature  (2d  ed.,  1848);  and 
in  1835-'9  a  complete  Bohemian-German  dic 
tionary  (Slownilc,  Cexko-Nemecky). 

jrVG-STILLIXG  (JoiiAxx  HEIXRICH  JUXG),  a 
German  mystic,  born  at  Im-Grund,  Nassau, 
Sept.  12, 1740,  died  in  Carlsruhe,  April  2,  1817. 
After  being  successively  a  charcoal  burner, 
tailor,  and  teacher,  he  began  to  study  medicine 
at  Strasburg,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  Goethe,  who  in  his  autobiography  has 
given  a  fine  analysis  of  his  character.  He 
operated  for  cataract  with  eminent  success  at 
Elberfeld,  was  professor  of  rural  economy  at 
Lantern  (1778),  Marburg  (1787),  and  Heidel 
berg  (1804),  and  at  his  death  was  a  privy 
councillor  of  Baden.  The  best  known  of  his 
writings  is  an  autobiography,  Stilling*8  Ju- 
gend,  Junglingsjahre,  Wanderschaft,  Lehrjahre, 
hdusliches  Lehen  und  Alter  (published  in  three 
parts,  1777,  1789,  and  1817),  a  curious  work, 
containing  many  profound  thoughts,  and  mark 
ed  by  an  eccentric  religious  and  moral  enthusi 
asm.  He  wrote  several  allegorical  and  mystical 
tales,  as  the  Geschichte  des  Herrn  von  Morgen- 
thau  (1779),  Geschichte  Florentine  von  Fahlen- 
dorn  (1781),  Leben  der  Theodore  von  Linden 
(1783),  Das  Heimweh  (1794),  and  Theol<ild, 
oder  der  Schwdrmer  (1797). 


JUNIATA 


JUNIPER 


715 


raphy  he  takes  a  sentimental  delight  in  pictur 
ing  his  three  successive  wives,  and  love  and 
marriage  are  treated  with  special  enthusiasm 
in  his  romances.  In  his  later  works  he  appears 
as  a  ghost-seer  and  theosophist.  The  most  im 
portant  of  them  are:  TJieorie  dcr  Geisterkunde 
(1808),  and  Apologie  der  TJieorie  der  Geister- 
kunde  (1809J,  full  of  marvellous  but  not  care 
fully  authenticated  narratives ;  Scenen  cms  dem 
Geisterreicli  (1817),  consisting  of  conversa 
tions  in  heaven,  and  inculcating  a  sort  of  wor 
ship  of  genius ;  and  the  poem  Chrysaon,  oder 
das  goldene  Zeitalter  (1819),  descriptive  of  the 
millennium.  His  various  works  were  collected 
in  14  vols.  (Stuttgart,  1838). 

Jl'MATA,  a  river  of  Pennsylvania,  formed  in 
the  S.  central  part  of  the  state,  by  the  junction 
of  the  Little  Juniata  and  Frankstown  branch, 
which  rise  at  the  foot  of  the  Alleghany  moun 
tains,  in  Blair  and  Bedford  counties.  Its  gen 
eral  course  is  E.,  with  many  deviations;  and 
after  passing  through  a  mountainous  country, 
it  joins  the  Susquehanna  14  m.  above  Harris- 
burg.  Nearly  its  whole  course  is  celebrated  for 
its  picturesque  scenery.  Including  the  Franks- 
town'branch,  it  is  about  150  m.  long.  It  is  not 
navigable.  The  Pennsylvania  canal  and  rail 
road  follow  its  banks  throughout  its  whole  ex 
tent,  the  latter  crossing  the  river  many  times. 

JIMATA,  a  central  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
watered  by  the  Juniata  river ;  area,  3 GO  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  17,390.  It  has  a  mountainous 
surface,  with  many  fertile  valleys.  The  Penn 
sylvania  railroad  and  canal  pass  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  230,624 
bushels  of  wheat,  329,231  of  Indian  corn, 
347,054  of  oats,  69,520  of  potatoes,  10,938  Ibs. 
of  wool,  299,575  of  butter,  and  19,809  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  4,215  horses,  9,160  cattle, 
6,315  sheep,  and  7,164  swine;  4  manufactories 
of  agricultural  implements,  13  of  carriages,  8 
of  lime,  18  tanneries,  9  flour  mills,  and  2  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Mifflintown. 

J  I'M  PER  (juniperus,  the  ancient  Latin  name), 
a  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs  and  trees,  of  the 
cypress  subfamily  of  the  order  coniferce.  The 
leaves  in  this  genus  are  awl-shaped  or  scale- 
like,  rigid,  and  sometimes  of  two  shapes  in  the 
same  tree  ;  the  flowers,  mostly  dioecious,  are  in 
small  axillary  aments ;  the  sterile  arnents  con 
sist  of  shield-shaped  scales,  beneath  each  of 
which  are  three  to  six  anther  cells ;  the  fer 
tile  have  three  to  six  fleshy,  one-ovuled,  coa- 
lescent  scales,  and  in  ripening  become  a  berry- 
like  fruit.  The  common  juniper  (J.  comm  un /«), 
also  a  native  of  Europe,  is  abundant  in  the 
northern  states,  especially  on  dry  sterile  hills 
near  the  coast,  where  it  is  not  rare  to  find 
plants  only  a  foot  or  two  high  spreading  close 
to  the  ground,  and  forming  a  circular  mat  30 
ft.  in  circumference.  It  sometimes  rises  to  the 
height  of  5  to  10  ft.,  and  old  specimens  attain 
a  much  greater  size.  One  at  the  Bartram  gar 
den,  near  Philadelphia,  a  few  years  ago,  mea 
sured  35  ft.  The  leaves  are  articulated  with 
the  stem  in  whorls  of  three,  spreading  and 


prickly-pointed  ;  the  upper  surface  is  glaucous 
white,  the  under  dark  green.  The  berries  are 
about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  dark  purple ;  they 
contain  a  brownish  pulp,  with  three  seeds  ;  their 
taste  is  sweetish,  warm  and  bitterish,  with  a 
peculiar  terebinthinate  flavor ;  they  contain  a 
volatile  oil  (oil  of  juniper),  which  is  separated 
by  distillation.  The  berries  are  stimulant  and 
diuretic,  and  have  long  been  used  for  urinary 
diseases ;  they  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
gin,  and  give  to  that  liquor  its  peculiar  flavor 
and  diuretic  properties.  In  Europe  a  kind  of 
tar  is  prepared  from  the  wood,  which  under 
the  name  of  oil  of  cade  is  used  for  cutaneous 
diseases.  The  common  juniper  varies  greatly  ; 
in  a  bed  of  seedlings  it  is  difficult  to  find  two 
alike ;  some  of  its  forms  are  useful  in  orna 
mental  planting.  A  very  prostrate  form,  the 
variety  alpina,  found  along  the  great  lakes  and 
northward,  is  a  useful  plant  for  rockwork. 
The  well  known  Irish  (var.  H-ibemicd)  and 
Swedish  (var.  Suecica)  junipers  are  remark 
ably  erect  varieties  of  this  species  ;  these,  espe 
cially  the  latter,  are  much  used  in  ornamental 
planting,  where  their  columnar  forms  afford  a 
marked  contrast  to  other  trees.  They  are  lia 
ble  to  be  bent  out  of  shape  by  the  accumulation 


Pistillate  and  Staminate  Flowers. 

of  snow  among  their  dense  erect  branches ; 
this  can  be  prevented  by  winding  the  tree  with 
a  cord  or  fine  wire  at  the  approach  of  winter. 
A  related  species  from  the  south  of  Europe, 
J.  hemispJicerica,  is  remarkably  dwarf,  a  plant 
ten  years  old  being  not  over  a  foot  high  ;  this 
j  is  known  as  the  hedgehog  juniper,  and  is  a  fa- 
j  vorite  with  planters  for  the  decoration  of  small 
I  grounds. — The  section  of  savin  junipers  differs 
from  the  true  junipers,  to  which  the  fore- 
j  going  belong,  in  having  their  leaves  opposite 
|  and  not  articulate  with  the  stem.     A  prominent 
representative  of  this  section  is  the  red  cedar 
(J.   Virc/iniana),  which  is  found  from  Canada 
to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.     Few  trees  present  in 
their  wild  state  a  greater  variety  of  form  ;  in 
some  localities  every  specimen  takes  an  erect 
habit  and  forms  a  dark  green  column,  tapering 
but  slightly  from  the  base,  and  as  regular  in 
outline    as   if    artificially    pruned ;    in   other 
places,  especially  inland,  the  tree  has  a  clear 
trunk  and  handsome  open  head,  with  some 
what  pendulous  branches ;  those  which  grow 


716 


JUNIUS 


in  exposed  situations,  upon  sterile  soil  near 
the  sea,  are  of  slow  growth,  and  often  assume 
picturesque  and  even  fantastic  forms ;  along 
the  coast  it  is  rarely  more  than  30  ft.  high,  but 
at  the  west  it  reaches  60  and  even  90  ft.  Upon 
the  old  branches  the  leaves  are  small,  scale- 
like,  and  appressed;  but  those  on  the  young 
plant  and  on  the  young  shoots  of  old  trees  are 
much  longer,  sharp  and  spreading.  The  wood 
is  light,  close-grained,  and  very  durable ;  the 
sap  wood  white,  and  the  heart  wood  of  a  dark 
red,  a  fact  recognized  in  the  common  name. 
The  durable  character  of  the  wood  adapts  it 
for  fence  posts,  and  this  together  with  the 
forms  assumed  by  the  branches  makes  it  the 
most  desirable  material  for  rustic  fences,  sum 
mer  houses,  pavilions,  and  the  like  ;  it  is  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  pails  and  tubs ;  it 
is  employed  by  the  pencil  makers  in  place  of 
the  more  rare  pencil  cedar,  J.  Bermudiana. 
Much  more  use  is  made  of  the  red  cedar  as  a 
tree  for  planting  in  the  western  states  than  at 
the  east,  as  it  grows  more  rapidly  there.  It 
was  at  one  time  highly  recommended  for 
hedges  and  windbreaks  ;  but  as  it  soon  becomes 
ragged  at  the  base,  it  has  fallen  into  disrepute. 
The  true  savin  is  J.  sabina,  a  native  of  Europe ; 
it  differs  from  the  red  cedar  mainly  in  its  larger 
fruit,  which  is  nodding  upon  a  recurved  pe 
duncle-like  bractlet.  A  prostrate  form  of  this, 
var.  procuinbem,  is  found  from  Maine  to  Wis 
consin,  along  the  great  lakes,  and  northward. 
This  has  a  dense,  closely  spreading  habit,  and 
a  dark  green  color,  which  makes  it  much  prized 
as  an  ornamental  plant;  it  is  known  as  the 
prostrate  juniper,  J.  prostrata  of  the  nurse 
ries.  The  leaves  of  the  savin  have  a  limited 
use  in  medicine,  as  the  active  ingredient  in 
savin  cerate,  a  stimulant  application  to  ulcers. 
The  Rocky  mountain  juniper  is  /.  occidentalis, 
not  over  40  ft.  high,  and  found  from  the  Rocky 
mountains  westward. — There  are  several  exotic 
species  in  cultivation,  most  of  which  are  of  un 
certain  hardiness  in  the  northern  states  ;  among 
the  hardy  ones  are  J.  squamata,  a  shrub-like 
species  from  the  Himalayas,  and  the  Chinese 
juniper  (J.  Chinensis),  the  two  sexes  of  which 
have  leaves  so  unlike  that  they  appear  like  dif 
ferent  species  ;  the  sacred  juniper  of  India  («/". 
religiosa)  is  hardy  in  some  localities. 

JUXIl'S,  the  signature  of  an  English  political 
writer,  the  author  of  letters  which  appeared  in 
the  London  "Public  Advertiser"  newspaper 
between  Jan.  21,  1709,  and  Jan.  21,  1772.  As 
acknowledged  in  the  first  authorized  collection, 
the  series  consisted  of  44  letters  by  Junius  and 
15  by  Philo- Junius,  an  auxiliary  part  being  as 
sumed  under  the  second  name  for  the  purpose 
of  supporting  and  defending  the  principal  char 
acter,  but  with  the  design  of  being  ultimately 
avowed.  There  have  been  preserved  also  62 
brief  business  letters  which  he  addressed  to 
Woodfull,  the  publisher  of  the  "Public  Adver 
tiser,"  between  April  20,  17G9,  and  Jan.  19, 
1773,  and  10  letters  written  by  him  in  private 
correspondence  with  John  Wilkes  between 


Aug.  21,  and  Nov.  9,  1771.  To  the  same  hand 
are  attributed  also  113  letters,  on  various  po 
litical  subjects  and  under  different  signatures, 
as  Mnemon,  Attlcus,  Lucius,  Brutus,  and  Do- 
mitian,  published  in  the  u  Public  Advertiser  " 
between  April  28,  1767,  and  May  12,  1772. 
Some  of  these  are  of  doubtful  authenticity,  and 
few  of  them  are  so  elaborately  finished  and 
polished  as  the  letters  of  Junius,  to  which  sig 
nature  he  adhered  for  his  most  important  ad 
dresses  after  the  extraordinary  effect  produced 
by  the  first  letter  under  it,  apparently  employ 
ing  others  when  he  wrote  for  explanatory  and 
collateral  purposes.  The  utmost  period  in 

j  which  the  agency  of  Junius  can  be  traced  is 
thus  less  than  six  years,  and  the  period  in 

I  which  he  wrote  his  acknowledged  'letters  is 

•  about  three  years.  These  letters,  directed 
against  the  ministry  and  the  leading  public 
characters  connected  with  it,  contain  some  of 

I  the  most  effective  specimens  of  invective  to  be 
found  in  literature.  Their  condensed  and  lucid 

1  diction,  studied  and  epigrammatic  sarcasm,  daz 
zling  metaphors,  and  fierce  and  haughty  per- 
sonal  attacks,  arrested  the  attention  of  the  gov- 

I  ernment  and  of  the  public.  ISTot  less  -start 
ling  was  the  immediate  and  minute  knowledge 
which  they  evinced  of  court  secrets,  making  it 
believed  that  the  writer  moved  in  the  circle  of 
the  court,  and  was  intimately  acquainted  not 
only  with  ministerial  measures  and  intrigues, 
but  with  every  domestic  incident.  They  ex 
hibited  indications  of  rank  and  fortune  as  well 
as  scholarship,  the  writer  affirming  that  he  was 
"above  a  common  bribe"  and  "far  above  all 
pecuniary  views."  When  Woodfall  was  prose 
cuted  in  consequence  of  Junius's  letter  to  the 
king,  the  author  promised  to  make  restitution 
to  him  of  any  pecuniary  loss.  The  authorship 
of  Junius  was  the  greatest  secret  of  the  age. 
Every  effort  that  the  government  could  devise 
or  private  indignation  prompt  was  in  vain 
made  to  discover  it.  The  earl  of  Mansfield 
and  other  legal  advisers  of  the  crown  had 
many  consultations'  as  to  how  this  "  mighty 
boar  of  the  forest,"  as  he  was  called  by  Burke, 
could  be  most  adroitly  ensnared  in  the  net 
work  of  the  law.  The  host  of  enemies  whom 
he  aroused  in  every  direction  were  eager  in 
plotting  schemes  for  his  detection.  But,  aware 
that  his  power  and  perhaps  his  personal  safety 
depended  upon  concealment,  he  continued  to 
astonish  every  one  by  his  secret  intelligence 
and  to  assail  the  government  with  undimmished 
intrepidity  and  rancor,  revealing  his  apprehen 
sions  and  precautions  only  in  his  private  notes 
to  Woodfall.  His  security  was  doubtless  due  in 
large  measure  to  the  forbearance  and  honor  of 
this  publisher,  who  followed  strictly  the  imper 
ative  and  precise  orders  of  his  correspondent. 
In  one  of  his  letters  to  a  public  character  Junius 
gave  as  a  reason  for  his  concealment :  ' '  Though 
you  would  fight,  there  are  others  who  would 
assassinate."  In  a  letter  to  Woodfall  he  writes : 
"  I  must  be  more  cautious  than  ever.  I  am 
sure  I  should  not  survive  a  discovery  three 


JUNIUS 


TIT 


days ;  or  if  I  did,  they  would  attaint  me  by  j 
bill."     In  other  letters  he  speaks  with  the  ut-  j 
most  confidence.     "  As  to  me,  be  assured  that  it 
is  not  in  the  nature  of  things  that  they,  or  you, 
or  anybody  else  should  ever  know  me,  unless 
I  make  myself  known  ;  all  arts,  or  inquiries,  or  ; 
rewards  would  be  equally  ineffectual."     And 
in  his  dedication  to  the  English  nation  he  de-  ; 
clared :  "  I  am  th6  sole  depositary  of  my  own 
secret,  and  it  shall  perish  with  me."     Junius 
appears  to  have  written  in  a  disguised  hand. 
Various  prescribed  signals,  as  "  C.,"  "  A  let-  ; 
ter,"  or  a  scrap  of  Latin  poetry,  were  made  to  j 
him  in  the  notices  to  correspondents  in  the  ! 
"  Public  Advertiser."     Answers  and  parcels 
from  the  printer  were  left  for  him  according 
to  his  orders  in  a  great  variety  of  places,  ad-  i 
dressed  to  different  names.     Who  the  person  ; 
was  who  thus  foiled  the  scrutiny  of  his  own 
age  has  been  the  subject  of  more  than  100  vol-  , 
nines  or  pamphlets,  and  of  a  vast  number  of  j 
essays  in  periodicals.     Efforts  have  been  made  j 
at  different  times  to  identify  him  with  Sergeant  ; 
James  Adair,  Col.  Isaac  Barre,  Hugh  Macaulay  j 
Boyd,   Edmund  Burke,  Bishop  John  Butler,  ! 
Lord  Camden,  Lord  Chatham,  Lord  Chester-  ! 
field,  J.  L.  De  Lolme,  John  Dunning  (Lord 
Ashburton),  Samuel  Dyer,  Henry  Flood,  Dr. 
Philip   Francis,   Sir    Philip   Francis,    Edward 
Gibbon,  Richard  Glover,  Henry  Grattan,  Wil 
liam    Greatrakes,    George    Grenville,    James 
Grenville,  William   Gerard  Hamilton,   James 
Hollis,  Sir  William  Jones,  John   Kent,  Gen. 
Charles  Lee,  Charles  Lloyd,  Thomas  Lord  Lyt-  ; 
telton,  Laughlin  McLean,  the  duke  of  Port-  i 
land,  Gov.  Thomas  Pownall,  Sir  Robert  Rich,  j 
John   Roberts,    the   Rev.  Philip  Rosenhagen, 
Lord  George  Germaine  (Viscount  Sackville), 
the  earl  of  Shelburne,  Earl  Temple,  John  Home  I 
Tooke,   Horace  Walpole,   John  Wilkes,  Alex-  j 
ander  Wedderburn  (Lord  Loughborough),  Dr.  i 
James  Wilmot,  and  Daniel  Wray.     Several  of  j 
these  laid  claim  to  the  honor  of  which  they  j 
were   ambitious,    while  the  real  author  may 
have  declined    to   accept  a  brilliant  literary 
fame  with  the  stigma  of  an  almost  fiendish 
malignity  of  character.     The  first  attempt  to 
fix  the  authorship  upon  Sir  Philip  Francis  was 
made  in  1816  by  John  Taylor,  in  his  "Identity 
of  Junius  with  a  Distinguished  Living  Charac 
ter  Established,"  and  it  has  from   that  time  ; 
been  more  generally  ascribed  to  him  than  to  j 
any  other.     According  to  Macaulay,  "  the  case  ! 
against  Francis,  or,  if  you  please,  in  favor  of 
Francis,  rests  on  coincidences  sufficient  to  con-  I 
vict  a  murderer."     Besides  numerous  and  con-  | 
stant  coincidences  in  dates  and  circumstances, 
and  resemblance  of  character  and  handwriting, 
it  should  be  observed  that  he  never  directly  ! 
denied  the  charge.     In   answer  to  an  inquiry, 
he  wrote  evasively  :   "  Whether  you  will  assist 
in  giving  currency  to  a  silly  malignant  false-  ; 
hood  is  a  question  for  your  own  discretion."  \ 
Lady  Francis  affirms  that  his  first  gift  to  her  | 
after  marriage  was  an  edition  of  Junius,  which  ' 
he  bade  her  take  to  her  room,  keep  from  sight,  i 


and  never  to  speak  on  the  subject;  and  he 
made  a  posthumous  present  to  her  of  a  sealed 
copy  of  Taylor's  "Identity  of  Junius,"  found 
in  his  bureau.  According  to  her  statement, 
also,  Sir  Philip  made  himself  known  as  Junius 
to  the  king,  Lord  North,  and  Lord  Chatham, 
under  an  engagement  of  secrecy,  and  received 
in  consequence  his  Indian  appointment;  and 
the  secret  was  faithfully  kept  by  each  of  the 
contracting  parties,  who  were  equally  inter 
ested  in  not  divulging  it.  Since  the  publi 
cation  of  the  facsimiles  of  the  feigned  hand 
writing  of  Junius,  facts  have  come  to  light 
which  seem  to  prove  conclusively  the  identity 
of  Francis  with  him.  A  lady  recognized  the 
handwriting  as  the  same  as  that  of  an  anony 
mous  note  which  she  received  in  1770  at  Bath, 
enclosing  a  copy  of  verses  written  in  a  differ 
ent  hand.  When  the  life  of  Francis  was  pub 
lished  (1867),  two  lines  of  these  verses  were 
found  quoted  in  a  letter  from  Richard  Tilgh- 
man  of  Philadelphia,  dated  Sept.  29,  1773,  in 
a  manner  implying  that  Francis  would  recog 
nize  them.  Renewed  examination  proved  that 
the  lady's  copy  of  verses  was  in  Tilghman's 
handwriting.  Tilghman,  who  was  a  law  stu 
dent  in  the  Temple  in  1709  and  L770,  was  a 
near  relative  and  intimate  friend  of  Francis, 
and  was  with  him  at  Bath  when  the  verses 
were  delivered.  This  led  to  a  careful  exami 
nation  of  the  note  in  which  the  verses  were 
enclosed  by  experts,  who  unhesitatingly  pro 
nounced  it  to  be  written  in  the  feigned  hand  of 
Junius.  Now  Tilghman  could  not  have  been 
Junius,  for  the  letters  were  begun  before  he 
left  America,  and  continued  after  his  return 
home.  It  follows  then  that  Francis  was  the 
writer  of  the  note  and  consequently  Junius. — 
Complete  editions  of  his  letters  were  published 
by  George  Woodfall,  son  of  the  original  print 
er  of  them  (3  vols.,  London,  1812  and  1814), 
to  which  an  elaborate  preliminary  essay  was 
prefixed  by  Dr.  John  Mason  Good.  A  new 
edition  (1850-'55),  by  John  Wade,  forming 
two  volumes  in  Bonn's  "Standard  Library," 
contains  the  whole  of  Woodfall's  edition.  The 
most  complete  bibliography  of  Junius  is  given 
in  Lowndes's  "  Bibliographer's  Manual,"  vol. 
iii.  (London,  1860).  Merivale's  "Memoir  of 
Sir  Philip  Francis "  (2  vols.  8vo,  London, 
1H67)  contains  much  new  evidence  concerning 
the  authorship.  See  also  Chabot  and  Twistle- 
ton's  "  Handwriting  of  Junius  Professionally 
Investigated"  (4to,  London,  1871).  Sir  Alex 
ander  Cockburn,  lord  chief  justice  of  Eng 
land,  in  a  work  announced  for  publication  in 
1874,  is  said  to  prove  almost  conclusively  the 
identity  of  Sir  Philip  Francis  with  Junius. 

JUNKS.  I.  Franeiscns  (FnAxgois  DU  Jox),  a 
Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Bourges,  France, 
in  1545,  died  in  Leyden  in  1602.  He  was  de 
signed  for  the  law,  but  having  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformation,  he  went  in  1562 
to  Geneva,  where  he  studied  theology.  lie 
became  minister  of  a  Walloon  congregation  in 
Antwerp  in  1565,  and  took  a  prominent  part 


718 


JUNO 


JUPITER 


in  the  early  history  of  the  reformation  in 
the  Netherlands,  hut  was  ohliged  to  seek  ref 
uge  in  Germany.  In  1573  lie  was  invited  by 
the  elector  palatine  to  Heidelberg,  where,  in 
conjunction  with  Tremellius,  he  made  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  is 
highly  esteemed  by  critics  (5  parts,  Frankfort, 
15 75-' 9  ;  many  times  reprinted,  last  in  Zurich, 
1764).  Subsequently  he  became  professor  at 
Leyden.  He  wrote  many  theological  books, 
and  an  autobiography  (1595).  His  Opera  The- 
ologica  were  published  in  2  vols.  fol.  (Geneva, 
1607).  II.  Franciscns,  a  philologist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Heidelberg  in  1589,  died  in 
Windsor,  England,  Nov.  19,  1677.  He  studied 
at  Heidelberg  and  Leyden  with  a  view  to  the 
profession  of  a  military  engineer,  and  in  1603, 
after  the  death  of  his  father,  joined  the  army ; 
but  leaving  it  on  the  truce  of  1609,  he  devoted 
himself  to  study  and  literature.  In  1620  he 
went  to  England,  and  for  30  years  filled  the 
office  of  librarian  to  the  earl  of  Arundel.  Du 
ring  this  period  he  studied  the  Teutonic  lan 
guages,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
Gothic  was  the  parent  of  them  all.  He  pub 
lished  an  edition  of  the  Gothic  Gospels  of  Ul- 
filas,  with  a  commentary ;  but  his  greatest 
work  was  his  Glossarium  Gothicum,  in  five 
languages',  the  Saxon  department  of  which  has 
since  been  issued  separately  under  the  title  of 
Etymologicum  Anglicanum.  He  also  wrote  a 
treatise  De  Pictura  Veterum,  which  he  trans 
lated  into  English  himself.  In  1650  he  visited 
Germany,  and  remained  there  for  some  years. 
He  died  while  residing  in  the  house  of  his 
nephew,  Isaac  Vossius.  He  bequeathed  all  his 
MSS.  to  the  Bodleian  library  at  Oxford. 

JUNO,  called  by  the  Greeks  HERA,  in  ancient 
mythology,  a  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Rhea, 
and  the  sister  and  wife  of  Jupiter.  She  bore 
the  same  relation  to  wromen  that  Jupiter  did  to 
men,  and  was  treated  with  the  same  reverence 
by  the  Olympians  as  the  father  of  gods  and 
men  himself,  and  styled  the  queen  of  heaven. 
She  was  surnamed,  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
respectively,  BaaiAeia  and  Regina,  as  the  celes 
tial  queen ;  Tap  fata  and  Pronuba,  as  the  pat 
roness  of  marriage ;  EileiOvia  and  Lucina  as 
presiding  over  childbirth.  She  was  not,  ac 
cording  to  Homer,  a  very  amiable,  obedient,  or 
devoted  wife,  and  her  jealousy,  obstinacy,  and 
violence  often  caused  Jupiter  to  tremble  on  his 
throne.  Having  conspired  with  Neptune  and 
Minerva  to  dethrone  and  confine  him,  Jupiter 
bound  her  with  chains  and  hung  her  up  in  the 
clouds.  Juno  was  the  mother  of  Mars,  Hebe, 
and  Vulcan.  The  chief  seats  of  her  worship 
were  Argos,  Samos,  Sparta,  and  Rome.  Her 
most  celebrated  Hellenic  temple,  situated  near 
Argos,  contained  a  colossal  statue  of  the  god 
dess,  made  of  ivory  and  gold.  At  Rome  her 
principal  temple  was  on  the  Capitoline  hill,  and 
her  great  festival,  the  matronalia,  was  celebra 
ted  on  the  1st  of  March  by  the  wives  and  ma 
trons  of  the  city.  Juno  is  usually  represented 
in  works  of  art  as  a  woman  of  majestic  mien, 


crowned,  and  sitting  in  a  chariot,  with  a  pea 
cock  beside  her.  She  was  the  great  goddess  of 
nature,  the  impersonation  of  maternity. 

JUNOT.     See  ABE  ANTES. 

JUPITER  (Lat.  gen.  Jovis,  whence  the  English 
form  Jove),  called  ZEUS  by  the  Greeks,  the 
greatest  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  gods,  son  of 
Saturn  and  Rhea,  and  brother  of  Neptune,  Pluto, 
Vesta,  Ceres,  and  Juno.  As  Saturn  was  wont 
to  devour  his  children  as  soon  as  they  were 
born,  his  wife  Rhea,  when  she  found  herself 
pregnant  with  Jupiter,  entreated  Ccelus  and 
Terra  (Uranus  and  Ge)  to  save  the  life  of 
the  child.  On  their  advice  she  fled  to  Crete, 
and  concealed  him  in  a  cave  of  Mt.  ^Egason. 
As  he  approached  maturity  Jupiter  gave  evi 
dence  of  the  divinity  of  his  nature.  He  deliv 
ered  the  Cyclops  from  the  bonds  with  which 
they  had  been  fettered  by  Saturn ;  gave  liberty 
to  the  hundred-handed  giants  Briareus,  Cottys, 
and  Gyes;  subdued  the  Titans,  and  shut  them 
up  in  Tartarus ;  and  finally  dethroned  his 
father,  and  obtained  the  empire  of  the  uni 
verse,  wThich  he  shared  with  his  brothers  Nep 
tune  and  Pluto,  assigning  the  dominion  of  the 
sea  to  the  former,  that  of  the  lower  regions  to 
the  latter,  and  reserving  for  his  own  peculiar 
realm  the  heavens  and  the  atmosphere  ;  while 
over  the  earth  and  earthly  beings  the  whole 
three  exercised  a  joint  rule.  Jupiter  fixed  his 
residence  on  the  summit  of  Olympus,  and  took 
successively  to  wife  Metis,  by  whom  he  became 
the  father  of  Minerva ;  Themis,  who  bore  him 
the  Horas  and  the  Parca3  ;  Eurynome,  who 
was  the  mother  of  the  Graces;  Ceres  and  Mne 
mosyne,  whose  offspring  were  Proserpine  and 
the  muses ;  Latona,  who  became  the  mother 
of  Apollo  and  Diana;  and  Juno,  whose  chil 
dren  by  him  were  Mars,  Hebe,  and  Vulcan. 
Jupiter  was  the  most  powerful  of  the  gods, 
the  supreme  ruler  both  of  mortals  and  immor 
tals.  Everything  good  or  bad  proceeded  from 
him,  and  at  his  pleasure  he  assigned  a  happy 
or  an  unhappy  destiny  to  earthly  beings.  He 
was  armed  with  thunder  and  lightning,  and  at 
the  shaking  of  his  shield  the  tempest  raged, 
and  the  rain  and  the  hail  descended.  His 
most  distinctive  epithets  were  'QAVJUTTI^C,  or 
Olympian,  Capitolinus,  from  his  principal  tem 
ple  at  Rome  on  the  Capitoline  hill,  and  Kepav- 
woc,  or  Tonans,  "the  thunderer."  The  most 
celebrated  Hellenic  temples  of  Jupiter  were 
those  of  Dodona  and  Olympia,  the  latter  of 
which  contained  the  famous  colossal  statue  of 
the  god  by  Phidias.  The  eagle,  the  oak,  and 
the  summits  of  mountains  were  sacred  to  Ju 
piter,  and  his  favorite  sacrifices  were  goats, 
bulls,  rams,  and  cows.  Jupiter  is  generally 
represented  sitting  on  a  throne  with  a  thunder 
bolt  in  his  right  hand,  a  sceptre  in  his  left,  and 
an  eagle  standing  by  him. 

JUPITER,  the  largest  member  of  our  planetary 
system,  and  the  fifth  in  order  of  distance  from 
the  sun,  so  far  as  the  primary  members  of  the 
system  (omitting  the  asteroids)  are  concerned. 
It  is  designated  by  the  sign  2£ .  Jupiter  travels 


JUPITER 


719 


at  a  mean  distance  of  475,692,000  m.  from  the 
sun,  his  greatest  distance  being  41)8,631), 000  m., 
and  his  least  452,745,000  m.  When  he  is  in 
opposition,  his  distance  from  the  earth  is  re 
duced  by  the  whole  amount  of  the  earth's  dis 
tance  from  the  sun  at  the  time;  and  as  it 
chances  that  the  perihelion  and  aphelion  of  his 
orbit  lie  almost  directly  opposite  the  parts  of 
the  earth's  orbit  where  she  is  at  her  mean  dis 
tance  (91,430,000  m.),  it  follows  that  when  in 
opposition  Jupiter's  distance  from  the  earth 
varies  between  407,209,000  m.  (498,639,000 
—91,430,000)  and  361,315,000  m.  (452,745,000 
— 91,480,000),  a  very  noteworthy  difference. 
It  may  be  mentioned  that  Jupiter's  perihelion 
lies  in  about  Ion.  12°,  so  that  oppositions  occur 
ring  when  the  earth's  heliocentric  longitude 
is  about  12°  (in  other  words,  during  the  first 
week  in  October)  are  under  ordinary  circum 
stances  the  most  favorable  occasions  for  the 
study  of  this  planet.  Nor  is  the  advantage  so 
slight  that  the  oversight  of  the  circumstance 
in  our  ordinary  text  books  of  astronomy  can  be 
readily  understood.  At  an  opposition  of  this 
kind  the  apparent  area  of  Jupiter's  disk  ex 
ceeds  the  apparent  area  at  an  opposition  early 
in  April,  roughly  in  the  proportion  of  (407)2  to 
(361  )2,  or  as  430  to  338— say  as  5  to  4 ;  and  in 
addition,  Jupiter  is  more  fully  illuminated  by 
the  sun  in  the  proportion  (still  roughly)  of 
(499)a  to  (453)2,  or  as  522  to  430— say  as  6  to 
5  ;  and  as  the  comparatively  small  illumination 
of  Jupiter  limits  the  magnifying  power  which 
can  be  applied  with  any  given  telescope  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions,  we  may  fairly 
combine  these  two  ratios,  and  regard  3  to  2  as 
representing  the  proportion  in  which  an  Octo 
ber  observation  of  Jupiter  surpasses  an  April 
observation,  the  planet  being  in  either  case  in 
opposition.  Jupiter  circles  round  the  sun  in 
a  mean  period  of  4,332-5848  days ;  and  his 
mean  synodical  period  (that  is,  the  interval 
separating  his  successive  returns  to  opposition) 
has  a  mean  value  of  31)8-867  days.  Various 
estimates  have  been  obtained  of  Jupiter's  di 
mensions;  but  we  may  take  85,000  m.  as  the 
most  probable  extent  (in  round  numbers)  of 
his  equatorial  diameter.  His  polar  diameter  is 
considerably  less,  the  compression  of  the  planet 
being  variously  estimated  at  from  TV  to  -jV. 
We  may  assume  TV  as  approximately  correct, 
according  to  which  estimate  his  polar  axis 
would  be  about  5,700  m.  less  than  an  equatorial 
diameter.  His  volume  is  about  1,235  times  as 
great  as  the  earth's ;  but  his  density  being  only 
about  one  fourth  of  the  earth's,  his  mass  does 
not  exceed  that  of  the  earth  in  so  considerable 
a  proportion.  Nevertheless,  the  disproportion 
still  remains  very  great,  since  the  mass  of  the 
planet  exceeds  the  earth's  more  than  301  times. 
It  must  be  remarked  that  this  number  301, 
being  deduced  from  the  observed  motions  of 
the  planet's  satellites,  may  be  relied  on  as  ap 
proximately  exact,  whereas  the  number  1,235, 
representing  Jupiter's  volume  (the  earth's  be 
ing  1),  depends  only  on  the  estimated  diam- 
VOL.  ix. — 46 


eter  and  compression  of  tho  planet,  and  there 
fore  cannot  be  regarded  as  exactly  determined. 
The  estimated  density  is  necessarily  affected 
by  any  inaccuracy  which  may  exist  in  the  de 
termination  of  the  volume;  but  a  moment's 
consideration  will  show  that  the  probable 
limits  of  error  in  the  determination  of  the 
density  are  not  wide.  Jupiter  rotates  on  his 
axis  in  rather  less  than  10  hours.  The  period 
given  by  Beer  and  Madler  (see  their  Beitrage 
zur  pJiysischen  Kenntniss  der  Mmmlisclten 
Kdrper  im  Sonnen-systeme,  Weimar,  1841)  is 
9  h.  55  m.  26'5324  s. ;  but  no  reliance  can  be 
placed  on  the  last  four  digits  in  this  result : 
lirst,  because  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  mark 
ings  exist  on  Jupiter  which  can  be  recognized 
after  the  lapse  of  long  intervals  of  time ;  and 
secondly,  because  if  such  marks  exist,  none 
have  been  observed  during  periods  long  enough 
to  insure  that  even  the  seconds  in  the  rotation 
period'  should  be  rightly  assigned. — Jupiter  is 
the  centre  of  a  noble  scheme  of  dependent 
bodies,  called  his  satellites,  which  circle  round 
him  at  the  distances  indicated  in  the  accom 
panying  table,  which  presents  the  chief  ele 
ments  of  this  interesting  system  : 

ELEMENTS    OF   JLTITEK'S    SATELLITES. 


Sidereal 
Iv  O.                .     . 
revolution. 

Distance  In 
raJli  of  2f. 

Inclination 
of  orbit  to 
V  's  equator. 

DIAMETER. 

Mass,  that  of 
Jupiter  being  1. 

Appa 
rent. 

In 
miles. 

n'.'.! 

in.... 

IV.... 

1  IS  20 
3  13    4 
7    3  43 
19  16  82 

C-05 
9-02 
15-35 
20-99 

O/    7" 

1       C 
5     3 
0    24 

1  -02" 
0'91 
1-49 
1-27 

2.352 

2,099 
3.436 
2,929 

0-000017328 
Q-000023'235 
O-OOOOSMDT 
0-000042059 

Density 
(earth',  «',  l). 

Density 
(water  as  l). 

Satelli 

te    I 

0-198 
0-374 
0-825 
0-2,r;3 

1-148 
2-107 

1-883 
1-408 

II  

III...                
IV 

The  densities  of  the  satellites  have  usually  been 
stated  incorrectly  in  the  text  books  of  astrono 
my  at  respectively  0-114,  0-171,  0-396,  and 
1-468  (where  the  density  of  water  is  unity). 
Whence  these  values  were  originally  derived 
we  do  not  know  ;  but  they  are  unquestionably 
incorrect.  The  following  values  of  the  densities 
have  been  calculated  by  the  present  writer  from 
Laplace's  estimates  of  the  masses,  combined 
with  the  values  of  the  diameters  above  stated: 


Thus  all  the  satellites  have  a  greater  mean 
density  than  Jupiter.  Probably  their  real  den 
sities  are  greater  than  those  here  tabulated, 
since  irradiation  would  increase  their  apparent 
diameters.  The  motions' of  the  satellites  of  Ju 
piter  have  been  studied  with  scrupulous  care 
by  astronomers,  from  the  time  when  Galileo 
in  1610  first  discovered  these  bodies.  They 
had  not  been  long  observed  in  this  way  before 
a  peculiarity  was  recognized  which  Homer  was 
the  first  to' interpret.  It  was  found  that  pre- 


720 


JUPITER  AMMON* 


JURA 


dieted  phenomena  of  the  satellites  occurred 
earlier  when  Jupiter  was  in  opposition  than 
when  he  was  in  quadrature,  and  that  in  fact 
the  further  Jupiter  was  from  opposition  up  to 
the  time  when  he  was  so  near  conjunction  that 
his  satellites  could  no  longer  be  observed,  the 
later  these  phenomena  occurred.  It  was  at 
length  suggested  by  Romer  that  the  discrepancy 
was  due  to  the  increase  of  distance,  the  light  ' 
which  brings  to  our  earth  information  of  the 
phenomena  taking  longer  in  reaching  the  earth 
when  the  planet  is  further  away.  Repeated 
observations  confirmed  this  theory,  which  at 
first  astronomers  of  repute  ridiculed  as  too 
fanciful  for  serious  consideration.  Bradley's 
discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light  placed  the 
theory  beyond  the  possibility  of  question. — The 
appearance  of  Jupiter's  disk  is  such  as  to  sug 
gest  the  idea  that  the  planet  is  enveloped  in  a 
deep  vaporous  atmosphere,  heavily  laden  with 
cloud  masses.  A  series  of  broad  bands  or  belts, 
alternately  dark  and  light,  and  differing  in 
color,  lie  across  the  disk,  agreeing  generally 
in  position  with  the  latitude  parallels  of  the 
planet.  On  a  close  study  with  telescopic 
power,  these  belts  are  found  to  present  pecu 
liarities  of  structure  exceedingly  interesting. 
Rounded  clouds  appear  to  float  separately  with 
in  the  deep  atmosphere,  and  from  time  to  time 
changes  of  shape  and  of  color  are  noticed  which 
seem  to  imply  the  action  of  forces  of  great 
intensity.  Theoretical  investigations  applied 
to  the  subject  of  an  atmosphere  of  great  depth, 
attracted  by  the  strong  gravity  of  Jupiter,  sug 
gest  that  conditions  of  pressure  would  exist  in 
compatible  with  the  gaseity  of  the  envelope. 
And  the  known  small  density  of  the  planet, 
combined  with  the  result  just  mentioned,  sug 
gests  that  in  the  case  of  Jupiter,  as  in  that  of 
the  sun,  the  increase  of  pressure  and  therefore 
of  density,  which  we  should  expect  from  the 
mere  mass  of  the  planet,  is  counteracted  by  the 
expansive  effects  of  intense  heat.  This  view 
of  the  planet's  condition  has  been  adopted 
recently  by  Prof.  Benjamin  Peirce  on  inde 
pendent  mathematical  grounds,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  altogether  more  probable  than  the 
old-fashioned  but  quite  unsupported  opinion 
that  the  planet's  condition  resembles  generally 
that  of  our  own  earth. 

J I  PITER  A3IMOX.     See  AMMOX. 

JURA,  an  island  off  the  W.  coast  of  Argyle- 
shire,  Scotland,  one  of  the  inner  Hebrides ; 
area,  about  85  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  761.  It 
is  separated  from  the  mainland  on  the  east  by 
the  sound  of  Jura,  about  5  m.  wide,  from  the 
island  of  Islay  on  the  southwest  by  a  narrow 
strait  If  m.  wide,  and  from  the  island  of  Scar- 
ba  on  the  north  by  the  gulf  and  strait  of  Cor- 
ryvrecken.  Its  length  is  27  in.,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  7  m.  On  the  west  the  coast  line  is 
broken  by  a  narrow  deep  indentation,  called 
Loch  Tarbert,  which  nearly  cuts  the  island  in 
two,  penetrating  to  within  a  mile  of  Tarbert 
bay  on  the  east.  The  western  shores  are  bleak 
,and  rugged,  but  the  eastern  are  more  pleasing, 


having  green  slopes  and  a  belt  of  plain.  A 
ridge  of  rugged  mountains  traverses  the  entire 
length  of  the  island,  rising  at  three  points,  into 
high  conical  peaks,  called  the  Paps  of  Jura, 
the  highest  of  which  is  2,566  ft.  There  is 
little  arable  land,  only  600  acres  being  under 
cultivation.  Oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and  flax  are 
raised,  and  large  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  are 
fed  upon  the  mountains.  From  1,000  to  1,200 
head  of  cattle  are  exported  annually.  There 
are  excellent  slate  quarries  and  a  very  fine  sand 
for  glass  making.  The  island  is  famous  for  its 
red  deer,  and  for  remarkable  caverns  on  its  E. 
coast.  With  some  adjacent  islands  it  forms 
the  united  parish  of  Jura  and  Colonsay. 

JURA,  a  range  of  mountains  between  Switz 
erland  and  France,  extending  about  180  m.  in 
length,  from  the  waters  of  the  Rhone  in  the 
department  of  Ain  on  the  S.  W.  to  those  of 
the  upper  Rhine  in  a  N.  E.  direction.  The 
great  valley  of  Switzerland  and  the  lake  of 
Neufchatel  lie  along  its  S.  E.  base,  and  over 
these  from  its  summits  may  be  seen  Mont 
Blanc  and  the  principal  peaks  of  the  Alpine 
chain.  The  Jura,  like  the  Appalachian  chain 
of  the  United  States,  consists  of  parallel  ridges 
including  narrow  longitudinal  valleys,  along 
which  the  rivers  flow  in  one  or  the  other  di 
rection,  occasionally  passing  through  a  break 
in  the  mountains  into  the  next  valley.  In 
their  external  form,  and  the  wave-like  arrange 
ment  of  the  stratified  rocks  of  which  they  are 
composed,  the  resemblance  is  still  more  stri 
king.  They  occupy  a  belt  of  country  averaging 
about  30  m.  in  width  ;  and  the  highest  summits, 
which  are  mostly  in  the  S.  part  of  the  range, 
attain  nearly  the  same  elevation  as  the  White 
mountains  in  New  Hampshire.  The  principal 
summits  are  Cret  do  la  Neige,  Reculet  de  Toiry, 
Mont  Tendre,  Dole,  Pie  de  Marmiers,  Chasse- 
ron,  Chasseml,  Credoz,  and  Colomby ;  the  first 
named  of  which  is  5,653  ft.,  and  the  last  5,200 
ft.  high.  The  principal  strata  are  limestones 
of  the  oolite  formation,  named  the  Jura  from 
their  abundance  in  this  range,  and  with  them 
are  associated  shales  and  sandstones,  including 
beds  of  gypsum.  The  highest  summits  of  the 
Jura  lose  their  snowy  winter  covering  in  the 
summer,  and  are  then  green  with  dense  forests 
of  fir.  The  growth  below  is  in  great  part  of 
walnut,  groves  of  which  surround  almost  every 
village.  In  the  valleys  are  found  some  of  the 
richest  pasture  lands  in  Switzerland,  where 
are  produced  the  Gruyere  and  other  cheeses 
famed  throughout  Europe.  Great  numbers  of 
cattle  are  reared  and  fed  on  the  mountains. 
The  Jura  and  the  intermediate  undulating  coun 
try  abound  in  wooded  hills,  among  which 
rocky  masses  project  at  intervals  above  the 
fertile  slopes,  which  by  the  aid  of  irrigation 
yield  three  crops  of  grass  annually.  The  most 
picturesque  scenery  is  presented  by  the  Val 
Moutiers,  or  Minister  Thai,  between  Basel  and 
Bienne,  the  pass  of  Klus  at  the  foot  of  the 
Ober-Hauenstein,  and  the  lac  de  Joux. — The 
name  Jura  has  also  a  wider  application  than 


JURA 


JURY 


721 


to  the  mountain  range  above  described ;  the 
continuation  of  the  same  limestone  country 
through  Swabia  and  Franconia  being  distin 
guished  as  the  German  Jura,  situated  between 
the  Rhine  and  Main,  and  divided  by  the  rivers 
Danube  and  Altmiihl  into  three  parts,  viz. : 
the  Black  Forest  Jura  (der  Schwarz^cald-Jura\ 
situated  between  the  Rhine  arid  Danube ;  the 
Swabian  Jura  (der  Schwabische  Jura),  on  the 
Danube  and  Altmiihl,  and  designated  by  va 
rious  names  in  various  localities,  as  Ober-IIo- 
henberg,  Rauhe  Alp,  &c. ;  and  the  Franconian 
Jura  (der  Frarikische  Jura),  between  the  Alt 
miihl  and  Main,  traversed  by  the  Ludwig's 
canal,  and  noted  for  its  bone  caves. 

.11  HA,  an  E.  department  of  France,  in  Franche 
Comte,  bordering  on  Switzerland  and  on  the 
departments  of  Ilaute-Saone,  Doubs,  Ain, 
Saone-et-Loire,  and  Cote  d'Or ;  area,  1,926 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1872,  287,634.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  mountains  which  cover  two 
thirds  of  the  department.  The  surface  pre 
sents  three  divisions,  viz. :  the  western  part, 
consisting  of  a  low  plain  about  7  m.  in  width ; 
the  first  mountain  elevation  rising  suddenly 
from  the  plain  and  forming  a  plateau  nearly 
10  m.  wide;  and  the  high  mountain  district, 
consisting  of  lofty  summits  and  deep  valleys. 
"The  highest  summits  are  Reculet,  La  Dole,  and 
Mont  Poupet,  which  rise  between  5,000  and 
6,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Among  the  numerous 
rivers  are  the  Ain,  Loue,  and  Doubs,  which  are 
navigable.  The  Bienne  is  the  most  important 
of  the  smaller  rivers.  There  are  many  marsh 
es  and  lakes.  The  Rhone  and  Rhine  canal 
traverses  the  N.  part  of  the  department,  and 
there  are  several  lines  of  railway.  Large 
quantities  of  squared  timber  are  floated  in 
rafts  down  the  small  rivers  into  the  Saone  and 
thence  to  Lyons.  The  forests  abound  with 
pine  and  oak  timber.  Agriculture  is  highly 
advanced,  and  dairy  farming  is  extensively 
carried  on,  one  of  the  chief  productions  being 
Gruyere  cheese.  The  annual  production  of 
wine  amounts  to  8.500,000  gallons ;  the  best 
wines  are  those  of  Lons-le-Saulnier  and  Poli- 
gny.  Coal  and  iron  mines  are  worked.  Litho 
graphic  stone,  marble,  and  alabaster  are  quar 
ried,  and  there  are  extensive  salt  works  at 
Montmorot  and  Salins.  The  department  is 
divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Lons-le- 
Saulnier,  Poligny,  Sainte-Claude,  and  Dole. 
Capital,  Lons-le-Saulnier. 

JIRIEU,  Pierre,  a  French  theologian,  born 
at  Mer,  Orteanais,  Dec.  24,  1637,  died  in  Rot 
terdam,  June  11,  1713.  He  was  sent  to  Eng 
land  to  complete  his  education  under  his  ma 
ternal  uncle,  Peter  Du  Moulin,  and  while  in 
that  country  was  ordained.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  pastorship  of  the  Reformed  church 
at  Mer,  and  afterward  was  made  professor  of 
divinity  and  Hebrew  at  the  academy  of  Sedan. 
When  that  institution  was  suppressed  in  1681 
he  retired  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  became 
minister  of  the  Walloon  church.  lie  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  there,  engaged  in 


bitter  controversy  with  friends  and  enemies, 
j  especially  Bayle.  Jurieu  got  the  better  of  the 
)  philosopher,  and  caused  his  dismissal  from  his 
|  professorship.  He  was  the  author  of  various 
works,  highly  esteemed  in  their  day,  several 
of  which  have  been  translated  into  English. 
Among  these  are  :  Histoire  du  Calvinisme  et 
du  papi&me  (2  vols.,  Rotterdam,  16*2);  Lct- 
tres  pastorales  (3  vols.,  1686-'7);  Accomjjlisse- 
ment  des propJieties,  ou  la  delivrance  prochaine 
de  VEglixe  (2  vols.,  1685)  ;  Apologie  pour  Vac- 
complissement  (1687)  ;  Tableau  du  Socinia- 
nisme  (the  Hague,  1691);  and  La  pratique  de 
la  devotion  (2  vols.,  Rotterdam,  1700).  His 
principal  work  is  Ilistoire  critique  des  doymes 
et  des  cultes  Ions  et  mauvais  qui  out  etc  dans 
VEglise  depuis  Adam  jusqiC a  Jesus- Christ  (Am 
sterdam,  1704;  with  supplement,  1705;  Eng 
lish  translation,  2  vols.,  London,  1705). 

Jl'KY,  a  chosen  body  of  men  whose  duty  it  is 
either  to  judge  or  determine  certain  questions 
of  fact  submitted  to  them,  or  to  inquire  into 
the  existence  of  certain  alleged  facts.  Upon 
the  jury  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  whole 
procedure  for  the  trial  of  actions  in  England 
and  America  rests.  Its  intrinsic  importance 
has  made  the  inquiries  into  its  early  origin  and 
history  interesting ;  and  they  are  the  more  so, 
because  they  are  found  to  be  closely  interwoven 
with  investigations  into  the  political,  legal,  and 
social  institutions  of  many  nations.  Different 
writers  have  come  to  very  different  conclusions, 
perhaps  because  they  began  from  different 
points  of  departure,  and  viewed  their  facts 
under  different  aspects.  In  almost  all  the  re 
sults  thus  presented  there  is  some  truth ;  but 
we  apprehend  that  they  have  erred  in  attribu- 
I  ting  the  institution  of  juries  to  some  one  or  two 
j  only  of  the  many  origins  from  which  it  has 
arisen,  and  the  many  influences  which  have 
combined  to  give  to  it  its  present  form  in  Eng 
land  and  in  the  United  States.  Its  principal 
source  has  been  found  in  the  6iKaor?/piov  of 
Athens,  or  in  the  judices  of  Rome,  or  in  the 
compurgators  of  the  Saxons,  or  in  the  trial  by 
the  vicinage  of  the  Romans,  or  in  the  Nor 
wegian  Gulathing.  We  apprehend  that  it 
would  be,  if  not  impossible,  at  least  so  difficult 
to  determine  which  among  all  these  things  may 
be  considered  as  having  contributed  most  to 
form  the  trial  by  jury,  that  the  inquiry  is  not 
worth  the  time  and  labor  it  costs  ;  for  it  must 
end  in  the  conclusion  that  all  have  contributed, 
and  importantly,  to  this  result.  The  essence 
of  the  trial  by  jury  is  the  determination  of 
questions  arising  in  actions  at  law  by  a  select 
body  of  persons,  who,  without  holding  per 
manent  judicial  offices,  come  from  among  the 
people  for  this  purpose,  and,  after  their  work 
is  done,  return  to  them.  In  Asia  we  find  no 
thing  of  this  at  any  time ;  and  nothing  of  it  in 
history,  until  the  diKac-yptov  of  Athens  was 
regulated  if  not  introduced  by  Solon.  The  di- 
casts  were  a  large  body  of  men,  numbering 
some  thousands,  who  were  selected  or  appoint 
ed  from  among  the  freemen  of  Athens,  in  some 


722 


JURY 


way  under  if  not  by  the  archons.  From  tins 
large  body  a  smaller  number  was  selected,  per 
haps  by  lot,  for  each  case,  to  hear  and  deter 
mine  the  questions  which  might  arise  in  that 
case,  under  the  direction  of  a  presiding  archon 
or  other  magistrate.  Before  proceeding  to  hear 
any  case,  they  were  sworn  to  discharge  their 
duty  faithfully.  After  hearing  the  case,  they 
gave  their  votes  by  depositing  them  in  urns  or 
vases,  from  which  the  presiding  magistrate  took 
them  and  announced  the  verdict.  In  this  there 
i*  much  resemblance  to  the  jury  of  our  own 
day ;  the  principal  difference  being  in  the 
large  number  who  sat  in  each  case,  which  ap 
pears  to  have  been  sometimes  as  many  as  500. 
This  body  the  advocates  addressed,  beginning 
their  speeches  with  'Avdpeg  diKaarai  (as  we  see 
in  Demosthenes,  ^Eschines,  and  Lysias),  in  the 
same  manner  as  our  advocates  say,  "  Gentle 
men  of  the  jury."  It  cannot  be  doubted,  we 
think,  that  the  judicial  procedure  of  Rome 
was,  to  a  great  extent,  derived  from  and  formed 
by  that  of  Athens.  We  are  accustomed  to 
translate  the  word  judex  by  "judge,"  but  there 
was  no  officer  or  magistrate  known  to  the 
Romans  who  discharged  precisely  the  duties 
which  with  us  belong  to  the  judge ;  the  praetor 
came  nearest  to  it ;  but  judex  would  be  much 
better  translated  by  the  word  juryman.  When 
the  plaintiff  (actor)  came  before  the  prretor  or 
other  magistrate  having  jurisdiction,  he  made 
his  complaint,  and  the  defendant  (reus)  an 
swered  it.  The  praetor  then  referred  the  case 
to  the  judices  to  determine  the  facts ;  usually 
stating,  in  this  reference,  that  such  or  such 
conclusions  of  law  would  follow  from  such 
or  such  conclusions  of  fact.  The  number  of 
judices  usually  sitting  is  not  known,  and  some 
times  even  an  important  case  was  tried  be 
fore  a  single  judex ;  as  we  know  that  Cicero 
delivered  his  oration  Pro  Quintio  before  one 
judex,  assisted  by  a  consilium.  The  judices 
generally  were  aided  by  jurisconsults  who  sat 
with  them.  The  whole  number  of  persons 
from  whom  could  be  selected  the  judices  of 
each  case  was  in  Rome  as  in  Athens  large, 
amounting  to  some  thousands ;  but  by  whom 
or  on  what  principle  it  was  appointed,  or  how 
or  by  whom  the  smaller  number  was  appointed 
for  each  case,  is  not  certainly  known.  There 
was  sometimes  an  agreement  of  the  parties 
as  to  the  judex  or  judices,  who  were  sometimes 
called  arbitri,  and  who  then  answered  to  our 
arbitrators ;  and  there  was  a  method  of  object 
ing  to  judices  appointed  by  lot  or  otherwise 
(recusatio  judicifi),  which  answered  very  ex 
actly  to  our  challenges.  As  we  know  that,  as 
soon  as  Rome  conquered  a  province,  it  intro 
duced  at  once  the  provisions  and  the  forms  of 
its  own  law  (its  jura  et  institutcf),  in  part  per 
haps  because  the  province  might  be  thus  most 
effectually  bound  to  the  empire,  and  in  part 
also  because  they  were  always  better  than  those 
of  the  conquered  nation ;  and  as  we  know 
therefore  that  institutions,  which  resembled  in 
so  many  particulars  our  jury,  were  in  full  force 


in  England  for  more  than  three  centuries,  it 
would  seem  to  be  unreasonable  to  deny  them 
an  important  influence  in  creating  the  trial  by 
jury.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Saxons 
brought  into  England  the  trial  by  compurga- 
tors.  Then  the  party  accused,  or  in  later  times 
the  party  plaintiff  or  defendant,  appeared  with 
his  friends,  and  they  swore,  he  laying  his  hand 
on  theirs  and  swearing  with  them,  to  the  in 
nocence  of  the  accused,  or  to  the  claim  or  de 
fence  of  the  party.  Little  is  certainly  known 
either  of  the  origin  or  of  the  extent,  in  point 
of  time  or  of  country,  over  which  the  trial 
by  compurgators  prevailed ;  but  it  must  have 
had  great  influence  upon  the  subsequent  forms 
of  procedure.  If  in  nothing  else,  it  fixed  the 
number  of  the  traverse  jury  at  12,  that  being 
the  common  number  of  compurgators,  whence 
the  old  mediaeval  phrase  jurare  duodecimo, 
manu ;  and  this  was  a  great  improvement  on 
the  varying  and  sometimes  very  large  number 
in  Greece  and  Rome.  Besides  this,  however, 
recent  investigation  has  shown,  among  the 
Norman  legal  usages,  traces  of  trial  by  jury, 
more  numerous  and  more  nearly  resembling 
that  trial  as  now  conducted,  than  anything 
known  to  have  existed  among  the  Anglo-Sax 
ons.  Moreover,  it  is  now  known  that,  with 
much  variety  of  form,  modes  of  trial  essentially 
similar  to  that  by  jury  prevailed  among  both 
the  Teutonic  and  Scandinavian  nations,  from  a 
very  remote  antiquity.  We  regard  it  there 
fore  as  certain  that  all  these  influences  con 
tributed  to  establish  this  mode  of  trial  in  Eng 
land,  and  to  shape  it  as  we  know  it  to  exist 
there.  Indeed,  it  was  not  until  all  of  them  had 
had  an  opportunity  of  completing  their  work, 
that  we  find  what  we  should  now  call  a  jury 
certainly  existing.  Glanville  represents  it,  in 
one  of  its  most  important  forms  and  purposes, 
as  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. ;  he 
calls  it  "  a  royal  benefit  conferred  upon  the 
people  by  the  goodness  of  the  sovereign,  with 
the  advice  of  the  nobilit}r."  So  many  of  the 
attendant  circumstances  indicate  that  it  was 
a  Norman  institution,  bestowed  upon  his  Eng 
lish  subjects  by  a  Norman  king,  that  Sir 
Francis  Palgrave  has  not  hesitated  to  consider 
our  jury  trial  as  derived  directly  from  Norman 
law. — One  mistake  in  regard  to  a  clause  in 
Magna  Charta  is  so  common,  and  perhaps  so 
important,  that  it  should  be  corrected.  The 
great  charter  says  that  no  freeman  shall  be  ar 
rested  or  imprisoned,  or  exiled,  or  otherwise 
destroyed,  nisi  per  legalc  judicium  parium 
suorum,  vel  per  legem  terrw.  This  has  been 
held  to  mean,  "  unless  by  lawful  trial  by  jury ;" 
and  an  argument  has  been  drawn  from  it 
against  the  legality  of  any  conclusive  proce 
dure  against  any  person  but  on  the  finding  of 
a  jury.  But  the  judicium  parium  of  Magna 
Charta  did  not  mean  a  judgment  or  verdict  of 
a  jury.  Even  in  Magna  Charta  itself  we  read 
of  juratores ;  and  the  phrase  Tcredictum  lega- 
lium  hominum,  and  others  by  which  a  jury  is 
indicated,  are  common  in  the  law  language  of 


JURY 


723 


that  day.  But  the  judicium  parium  was  the  j 
peculiar  and  well  known  feudal  process,  by  j 
which  the  lord  with  his  vassals  sat  to  try 
questions  of  title  between  others'  of  his  vassals. 
It  is  quite  probable,  however,  that  the  alterna 
tive  phrase,  per  legem  terrce,  was  intended  to 
include  trial  by  jury. — In  Greece  and  Rome, 
in  the  Teutonic  and  Scandinavian  nations,  and 
probably  among  the  Normans,  the  agreement 
of  a  majority  of  a  jury,  or  of  the  body  which 
represented  a  jury,  was  sufficient;  but  from 
the  earliest  times  unanimity  has  been  required 
in  an  English  traverse  jury,  and  also  in  this 
country.  The  origin  of  this  peculiarity  is  quite 
unknown.  The  most  plausible  conjecture,  for 
which  indeed  there  is  some  authority,  is,  that 
originally  there  were  or  might  be  more  than 
12  jurymen,  but  the  agreement  of  that  number 
was  required;  and  when  the  number  of  the 
jury  finally  settled  down  at  12  and  no  more, 
unanimity  became  requisite.  There  have  been, 
in  perhaps  all  ages,  doubts  whether  the  advan 
tages  of  this  rule  were  sufficient  to  compensate 
for  the  mischiefs  which  sometimes  result  from 
it ;  but  no  very  strenuous  effort  has  ever  been 
made  to  change  it.  In  Scotland,  however,  by 
statute  22  and  23  Victoria,  the  verdict  of  nine 
or  more  of  the  jurors  may  be  received  if  una 
nimity  is  found  impossible  after  three  hours1  de 
liberation. — There  is,  in  respect  to  the  evidence 
on  which  a  jury  acts,  a  circumstance  striking 
ly  illustrative  of  the  change  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  constitution  and  in  the  functions 
of  a  trial  jury.  Now,  they  have  nothing  to  do 
but  to  hear  and  weigh  the  evidence  offered  to 
them  in  open  court;  and  anything  beyond  this 
is  a  departure  from  their  duty;  and  if  one  of 
their  number  happens  to  know  anything  about 
the  facts  of  the  case,  he  ought  not  to  commu 
nicate  it  to  the  others,  and  they  ought  not  to  be 
influenced  by  it,  unless  he  is  sworn  as  a  witness 
and  examined  as  a  witness ;  so  anxious  is  the 
law  to  keep  from  the  jury  all  evidence  which 
does  not  rest  upon  an  oath,  and  has  not  been 
submitted  to  examination.  It  is  however  cer 
tain  that,  in  the  beginning  of  jury  trials,  and 
until  the  loth  century,  the  jury  themselves  were 
the  witnesses,  and  the  only  witnesses,  they  be 
ing  selected  to  determine  the  questions  of  the 
case  because  they  were  supposed  to  know  the 
facts,  and  no  other  witnesses  being  examined, 
and  no  evidence  whatever  being  offered  to 
them.  Nor  was  it  until  about  the  middle  of 
the  10th  century  that  there  is  any  trace  of  any 
process  known  to  the  law  for  the  summon 
ing  of  witnesses.  (See  Summers  r.  Mosely,  2 
Crompton  and  Meeson,  p.  485.) — As  the  jury 
must  not  pay  any  attention  to  any  evidence  not 
lawfully  before  them,  so  they  must  not  go  be 
yond  the  evidence,  and  inquire  into  the  law, 
for  that  is  the  exclusive  province  of  the  court. 
In  civil  cases,  no  one  has  ever  doubted  this; 
that  is,  no  one  has  ever  doubted  that  in  civil 
cases  it  was  the  duty  of  the  court  to  state  the 
law  to  the  jury,  and  the  duty  of  the  jury  to 
receive  and  obey  the  law  thus  given  to  them. 


But  of  late  a  question  has  arisen  in  regard  to 
criminal  trials,  which  has  assumed,  at  least 
in  many  of  the  United  States,  an  aspect  of 
much  importance.  There  are  those  who  in 
sist  that  in  all  criminal  cases  the  juries  shall 
be  judges  of  the  law  as  well  as  of  the  fact; 
and  such  is  the  rule  by  decision  in  some 
states  and  by  statute  in  some  others,  and  it 
prevails  generally  in  prosecutions  for  libel  by 
express  constitutional  or  statutory  provisions. 
— Juries  are  either  grand  juries  or  petit  juries. 
Nearly  all  that  has  been  said  in  this  article  re 
lates  only  to  petit  juries,  which  are  sometimes 
called  traverse  juries,  and  sometimes  trial  ju 
ries.  A  grand  jury  tries  no  question,  and  finds 
no  verdict.  The  proper  authority  of  the  state, 
usually  the  attorney  for  the  government,  brings 
before  the  grand  jury  a  case  of  supposed  crime 
or  wrong,  with  a  bill  of  indictment,  and  the 
evidence  on  the  subject.  This  they  consider 
ex  parte,  or  without  hearing  the  accused ;  and 
if  they  think  that  the  evidence  is  sufficient, 
they  approve  or  "find "the  bill,  and  present 
the  accused  to  the  court.  If  they  do  not  think 
it  sufficient,  they  "  ignore "  the  bill  (as  it  is 
termed),  and  no  indictment  is  presented.  The 
usual  method  of  "finding"  a  bill  is  for  the 
foreman  (whom  the  jury  choose)  to  write  on 
the  back  of  the  bill,  "A  true  bill,"  with  his 
signature  and  the  date ;  and  when  a  bill  is 
rejected,  the  foreman  writes  upon  it:  "Igno 
ramus"  with  signature  and  date.  Sometimes 
the  government  attorney  prepares  no  bill,  but 
brings  before  them  the  case  and  evidence,  and 
prepares  a  bill  only  when  they  direct  him  to 
do  so.  The  grand  jury  are  the  exclusive  judges 
of  the  weight  and  force  of  the  testimony  of 
fered  before  them.  The  grand  jury  is  gener 
ally  more  numerous  than  the  petit  jury.  The 
more  usual  number  is  23  ;  originally  it  was  24, 
but  as  unanimity  is  not  necessary,  although  at 
least  12  must  agree  to  an  indictment,  to  avoid 
the  inconvenience  of  having  12  for  and  12  against 
a  bill,  one  less  than  24  is  the  common  number. 
Besides  bills  of  indictment,  and  specific  offend 
ers,  the  grand  jury  may  present  to  the  court 
any  public  wrongs  they  think  should  be  brought 
to  its  notice,  and  sometimes  exercise  a  wide 
liberty  in  this  respect.  None  are  present  with 
the  grand  jury  during  their  deliberations  but 
the  officer  of  the  government;  and  it  is  a  part 
of  their  oath  that  they  shall  keep  secret  u  the 
commonwealth's  counsel,  their  fellows',  and 
their  own."  But  there  is  a  reasonable  limit  to 
this,  for  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  grand 
juror  to  take  the  witness  stand  in  a  trial  of 
a  case,  and  testify  as  to  what  some  person 
has  said  as  a  witness  before  the  jury.  A  grand 
jury  constitute  a  regular  body,  recognized  as 
such  by  the  law,  having  what  may  be  called  a 
jurisdiction  coextensive  with  that  of  the  court 
to  which  they  make  presentments. — Jurors, 
both  grand  and  petit,  are  returned  by  the 
sheriff  of  each  county  (or,  for  the  United  States 
courts,  by  the  marshal  of  each  district),  in  obe 
dience  to  a  writ,  called  a  venire,  which  coin- 


JUSSIEU 


mands  him  to  summon  to  come  (ut  facias  ve 
nire,  in  the  old  law  Latin)  to  the  court  at  the 
appointed  time  the  proper  number  of  persons. 
The  authorities  of  every  city  and  town,  or 
sometimes  county,  put  into  a  box  the  names 
of  all  persons  therein,  or  a  certain  proportion 
thereof,  qualified  and  bound  to  serve  as  jurors. 
Usually  these  are  all  persons  qualified  to  vote, 
•with  some  special  exemptions.  From  the 
number  so  returned  the  requisite  number  for 
grand  and  petit  jurors  is  drawn  by  lot,  and 
the  persons  so  selected  are  then  summoned  by 
the  sheriff  or  marshal.'  The  whole  list  or 
schedule  of  a  jury  is  called  the  "panel."  (In 
the  Scotch  law,  the  word  "pannel"  means  the 
accused,  or  the  party  on  trial.)  The  grand 
jury  is  "impanelled"  when  sworn  and  organ 
ized.  A  petit  jury  is  impanelled  when  the 
names  are  called  over,  and  the  first  12  who  are 
present,  and  are  not  excused  or  objected  to, 
are  sworn,  and  set  apart  as  the  jury.  It  is 
common  in  most  of  our  courts  having  much 
business  to  impanel  two  juries ;  that  sitting  on 
the  right  hand  of  the  court  being  called  "the 
first  jury,"  and  that  on  the  left  hand  "the 
second  jury."  Sometimes,  when  the  urgent 
pressure  of  business  requires  it,  a  third  jury  is 
impanelled.  The  purpose  in  impanelling  more 
than  one  jury  is,  that  while  one  is  charged 
with  a  case  and  is  deliberating,  another  case 
may  be  tried  before  another  jury.  Upon  trials 
before  a  jury,  the  court  are  the  exclusive 
judges  of  the  admissibility  or  competency  of 
evidence ;  but  if  it  be  admitted,  the  jury  are 
the  judges  of  its  value.  For  about  a  quarter 
of  a  century  changes  of  an  important  nature 
have  been  gradually  creeping  into  the  system 
of  jury  trial  in  the  United  States  by  statutory 
modifications.  One  of  these  very  generally 
adopted  is  the  trial  of  cases  by  fewer  than 
12  in  all  courts  not  of  record;  usually  six, 
but  sometimes  a  still  smaller  number.  One 
more  important,  however,  is  the  trial  of  all 
questions  of  fact  as  well  as  of  law  in  all  civil 
cases  by  the  judge  without  a  jury,  unless  a 
jury  is  demanded  by  one  of  the  parties  or  spe 
cially  ordered  by  the  court.  Where  this  change 
has  been  introduced  it  is  found  that  in  the  large 
majority  of  cases  the  parties  are  satisfied  to 
submit  their  disputes  to  the  court. — We  may 
remark  that  the  institution  of  the  grand  jury 
certainly  existed,  substantially  the  same  or 
nearly  the  same  as  at  present,  among  the  Sax 
ons  ;  and  it  is  from  this  grand  jury  that  some 
suppose  the  petit  or  trial  jury  to  be  derived ; 
and  doubtless  this  is  in  some  degree  true. 

Jl'SSIEU,  De,  a  French  family  of  natural  phi 
losophers  who  have  been  styled  the  "  botanical 
dynasty  "  of  France.  The  most  celebrated  are 
the  following.  I.  Antoine,  born  in  Lyons,  July 
8,  1686,  died  in  Paris,  April  22, 1758.  He  took 
the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Montpellier,  and  went 
to  Paris  in  1708,  where  he  commenced  practice, 
was  appointed  professor  of  botany  at  the  jardin 
du  roi,  entered  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1711, 
and  contributed  several  papers  to  its  Memoires, 


the  most  curious  of  which  is  perhaps  his  Ee- 
cherches  physiques  sur  les  petrijications  qui  se 
trouvent  en  France  de  diverses  par  ties  deplantes 
et  d'animaux  etrangers.  In  the  course  of  a 
journey  through  southern  France  and  Spain  he 
made  a  valuable  collection  of  plants  previously 
very  imperfectly  known.  Among  his  published 
essays  is  a  Discours  sur  les  progres  de  la  ~bota~ 
nique  (Paris,  1718).  He  edited  Barrelier's  post 
humous  work  on  the  plants  of  France,  Spain, 
and  Italy,  and  published  a  new  edition  of  Tour- 
nefort's  Institutiones  Rei  Herbaria,  with  an 
appendix  (Lyons,  1710).  His  Traite  des  vertus 
des  plantes,  a  synopsis  of  his  lectures  at  the 
faculty  of  medicine,  was  published  in  1772. 
II.  Bernard,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Lyons,  Aug.  17,  1699,  died  in  Paris,  Xov.  6, 
1777.  In  1722  he  was  appointed  assistant  de 
monstrator  of  botany  at  the  jardin  du  roi. 
A  man  of  contemplative  disposition,  abstemious 
habits,  and  no  ambition,  he  never  rose  above 
this  subordinate  office,  but  gradually  obtained 
the  reputation  of  one  of  the  first  botanists  in 
Europe.  In  1725  he  edited  Tonrnefort's  His- 
toire  des  plantes  des  environs  de  Paris,  with 
additions  and  annotations,  which  were  consid 
ered  so  valuable  that  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences,  although  he  was 
only  26  years  of  age.  To  its  Memoires  he  con 
tributed  very  few  papers,  and  these  on  subjects 
of  secondary  importance,  but  remarkable  for 
precision,  ingenuity,  and  thorough  method, 
lie  devised  a  system  of  classification  based  upon 
the  natural  affinities  of  plants,  and  applied  it  in 
1759  to  the  arrangement  of  a  botanical  garden 
at  Trianon,  which  had  been  ordered  by  Louis 
XV.  His  catalogue  has  been  regarded  as  the 
foundation  of  the  "natural  system," afterward 
expounded  by  his  nephew  Antoine  Laurent. 
Linnaeus  entertained  the  highest  opinion  of  his 
acquirements.  Ill*  Antoine  Laurent,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Lyons,  April  12,  1748, 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  17,  1836.  lie  was  called 
to  the  metropolis  in  1765  by  his  uncle  Bernard, 
and  studied  medicine,  but  ultimately  devoted 
himself  to  botany.  As  early  as  1773  he  pre 
sented  to  the  academy  of  sciences  a  Memoire 
sur  les  renonculacees,  in  which  the  first  prin 
ciples  of  the  "  natural  system"  are  clearly  per 
ceptible  ;  and  the  next  year  he  reduced  the 
system  to  practice  in  the  replanting  of  the  bo- 
tanicaj  division  in  the  jardin  du  roi.  In  1778 
he  commenced  the  publication  of  his  great 
work,  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Ordincs 
Naturales  dixposita,  juxta  Methodum  in  Horto 
Reqio  Parisiensi  exaratum,  anno  1774,  which 
was  not  completed  till  1789.  To  bring  together 
all  those  plants  which  are  allied  in  all  essential 
points  of  structure,  and  to  take  into  account 
the  true  affinities  of  plants  on  a  comparison 
of  all  their  organs,  is  the  leading  feature  of  the 
"  Jussieuan  system,"  which  has  finally  super 
seded  the  artificial  or  sexual  system  of  Linnaeus. 
In  1790  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  muni 
cipal  council  of  Paris,  and  intrusted  with  the 
supervision  of  the  hospitals  and  charities,  which 


JUSSIEU 


JUSTICE   OF  THE  PEACE       795 


office  he  held  for  two  years.  In  1793,  when 
the  jar  din  du  roi  was  reorganized  as  the  mu 
seum  of  natural  history,  he  was  raised  to  a  pro 
fessorship,  and  while  director  of  that  institu 
tion  he  laid  the  foundation  of  its  library,  which 
is  one  of  the  best,  if  not  actually  the  best  of 
its  kind  in  Europe.  In  1804  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  materia  medica  at  the  faculty  of 
medicine,  and  life  member  of  the  council  of 
the  university,  but  was  deprived  of  both  these 
offices  after  the  restoration.  In  1826  his  fail 
ing  health  and  partial  blindness  caused  him 
to  resign  his  chair  of  botany  in  favor  of  his 
son  Adrien.  From  1804  to  1820  he  published 
in  the  Annales  du  Museum  a  series  of  valuable 
papers  prepared  with  reference  to  a  new  edition 
of  his  Genera  Plantarum.  Besides  the  works 
above  mentioned,  he  wrote  several  historical 
notices  of  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and 
a  number  of  valuable  articles  on  botany  in  the 
Dictionnaire  des  sciences  naturelles,  among 
which  the  one  upon  the  "  Natural  Method  of 
Plants"  deserves  special  notice.  IV.  Adrien, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  Dec.  23, 
1797,  died  June  29,  1853.  On  taking  his  degree 
of  M.  I),  in  1824,  he  defended  a  thesis  De  Eu- 
phorbiacearum  Generibus.  lie  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  at  the  museum  in  1826,  and 
soon  achieved  a  distinguished  rank  among  bot 
anists  by  his  lectures  and  publications.  In  1831 
he  was  elected  to  the  academy  of  sciences,  and 
in  1845  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  the  or- 
ganography  of  plants  at  the  Sorbonne  ;  his  lec 
tures  there,  which  he  continued  till  his  death, 
were  both  brilliant  and  attractive.  His  most 
important  work  is  a  Cours  elementaire  d'his- 
toire  naturelle  :  Partie  botan ique  (Paris,  1 848  ; 
translated  by  I.  II.  Wilson,  u  Elements  of  Bot 
any,"  London,  1849),  which  is  a  most  valuable 
elementary  treatise  on  botany.  His  treatise  on 
botanical  taxonomy,  in  the  Dictionnaire  uni- 
versel  d'histoire  naturelle  (1848),  is  also  very 
valuable.  Among  his  papers  printed  either  in 
the  Annales  du  Museum  or  the  Comptes  rcndus 
de  V academic  des  sciences,  one  of  the  best  is  his 
Monographic  des  malpighiacees  (1843).  A  very 
interesting  essay.  Lie  la  methode  naturelle  et 
des  Jussieu,  was  published  by  P.  Flourens  in 
his  Eloges  historiques,  second  series.  V.  Lau 
rent  Pierre,  cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  in  the 
department  of  Isere,  Feb.  7,  1792.  lie  was  a 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  from  1839 
to  1842,  and  became  known  by  educational  and 
other  popular  works,  including  Simon  de  Nan- 
tua,  ou  le  march  and  fora  in  (1818),  which  has 
been  translated  into  many  languages  and  passed 
through  upward  of  30  editions;  that  of  1800 
contained  also  his  (Euvres  posthumes  de  Simon 
deNantua,  for  which  he  received  the  Monty  on 
prize,  and  similar  honors  were  accorded  by 
various  institutions  to  the  former  and  other 
works.  New  editions  of  his  Les  petits  lirres 
du  Pere  Lami  (6  vols.)  appeared  in  1853,  and 
of  his  Fables  et  contes  en  Ters  in  1864. — His 
brother  ALEXIS,  a  political  writer  and  func 
tionary,  born  in  1802,  died  in  1806. 


JUSTE,  Theodore,  a  Belgian  historian,  born  in 
Brussels  in  1818.  He  is  secretary  of  the  Bel 
gian  board  of  education,  and  member  of  many 
learned  societies.  His  principal  works  are : 
Histoire  elementaire  et  populaire  de  la  Belgique 
(Brussels,  1838;  3d  and  enlarged  ed.,  1848); 
Histoire  de  la  revolution  beige  de  1790  (3  vols. 
12mo,  1846) ;  Precis  de  Vhistoire  du  moyen  age 
(5  vols.  12mo,  1848);  Les  Pays-Has  sous  Phi 
lippe  II.  (2  vols.  8vo,  1855) ;  Charles-Quint  et 
Marguerite  d'Autriclie  (8vo,  1858);  Les  Pays- 
Bas  an  XVIe  siecle  (2  parts,  1858-'63);  His 
toire  du  soulevement  des  Pays-Bas  contre  la 
domination  espagnole  (1862-'3) ;  Histoire  des 
Etats  generaux  des  Pays-Bas  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1864);  Les  fondateurs  de  la  monarchic  beige 
(1865  and  1871) ;  Lesoulevementde  la  Uollande 
en  1813,  et  la  fondation  du  royaume  des  Pays- 
Bas  (1869) ;  and  Notes  Jiistoriqucs  et  biogra- 
phiques  (1871). 

Jl'STI,  Karl  AYilhelni,  a  German  author,  born 
in  Marburg,  Jan.  14,  1767,  died  there,  Aug.  7, 
1846.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Mar 
burg,  wrote  the  Nationalgcsilnge  der  Hebracr 
(5  vols.,  Leipsic,  1803-'18),  published  an  en 
larged  edition  of  Herder's  Geist  der  Elrdischen 
Poesie  (2  vols.,  1829),  several  historical  and  mis 
cellaneous  writings,  including  a  life  of  St.  Eliz 
abeth,  and  some  volumes  of  poetry. 

JUSTICE  OF  THE  PEACE.  In  the  English 
law,  justices  of  the  peace  are  "judges  of  record 
appointed  by  the  king's  commission  to  be  jus 
tices  within  certain  limits,  for  the  conservation 
of  the  peace  and  the  execution  of  divers  things 
comprehended  within  their  commission  and 
within  divers  statutes  committed  to  their 
charge."  Before  the  institution  of  this  office 
there  existed  in  England  by  the  common  law 
certain  officers  appointed  for  the  maintenance 
of  good  order,  and  called  conservator es  pads, 
I  keepers  of  the  peace.  Some  of  them  exercised 
j  their  functions  by  virtue  of  their  tenures,  and 
I  some  by  virtue  of  their  offices ;  others  were 
!  chosen  by  the  freeholders  of  their  counties.  The 
I  period  at  which  this  office  ceased,  and  justices 
of  the  peace  were  first  created,  has  been  dis 
puted  ;  but  the  better  opinion  seems  to  fix  it 
at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
At  that  time  the  new  king,  fearing  that  some 
risings  or  other  disturbances  might  take  place 
in  protest  against  the  manner  of  his  accession  to 
the  crown,  sent  writs  to  all  the  sheriffs  in  Eng 
land  commanding  that  peace  be  kept  through 
out  their  bailiwicks  on  pain  and  peril  of  disin 
heritance  and  loss  of  life  and  limb  ;  and  in  a 
few  weeks  after  the  date  of  these  writs  it  was 
ordained  in  parliament  that,  for  the  better 
maintaining  and  keeping  of  the  peace  in  every 
county,  good  men  and  lawful  which  were  no 
maintainers  of  evil  or  barrators  in  the  county 
should  be  assigned  to  keep  the  peace.  (Black. 
Com.,  i.  350.)  From  that  time  the  election  of 
the  conservators  of  the  peace  was  taken  from 
the  people,  and  their  creation  resided  thence 
forth  in  the  assignment  of  the  crown.  It  was 
only,  however,  by  subsequent  statutes  that  the 


726       JUSTICE   OF  THE   PEACE 


JUSTIN 


conservators  of  the  peace  acquired  a  judicial 
character  and  functions.  By  4  Edward  III.  c. 
2,  they  were  empowered  to  "  take  indictment," 
and  by  34  Edward  III.  c.  2,  they  were  commis 
sioned  to  "hear  and  determine"  in  cases  of 
felonies  and  trespasses.  It  is  probable  that  not 
until  then  were  these  officers  called  justices. 
The  office,  as  constituted  and  defined  by  these 
and  later  statutes,  occupies  an  important  place 
in  the  English  judicial  system.  It  was  adopted 
in  the  several  states  of  this  country  at  their 
settlement,  and  may  be  considered  to  possess 
here  the  general  character  and  functions  al 
lowed  to  it  in  England  by  force  of  statutes. 
But  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  all  the  states 
legislative  enactments  have  so  fully  enumerated 
the  powers  and  duties  of  justices  of  the  peace, 
both  in  civil  and  criminal  affairs,  as  perhaps  to 
preclude  reference  to  the  English  law  on  the 
subject. — Justices  of  the  peace  are  in  some 
states  elected  by  the  people,  and  in  others  re 
ceive  their  appointment  from  the  executive. 
Their  jurisdiction  is  determined  by  their  com 
missions  and  the  provisions  of  various  statutes. 
These  are  to  be  strictly  construed,  and  no  au 
thority  can  be  implied.  Without  attempting 
a  recital  of  all  the  particular  functions  exer 
cised  by  these  officers,  it  will  suffice  for  our 
present  purpose  to  mention,  under  their  crimi 
nal  jurisdiction,  that  when  they  are  not  limited 
by  the  existence  of  special  courts,  they  possess 
still  their  ancient  common  law  powers  as  con 
servators  of  the  peace,  and  as  such  may  sup 
press  riots  and  affrays  and  apprehend  all  dis 
turbers  of  the  peace.  Then  they  may  punish 
them  by  fine,  and  take  recognizances  for  their 
future  good  behavior.  By  virtue  of  their  crimi 
nal  authority  they  may  also  issue  their  warrants 
for  the  arrest  of  offenders.  If  the  offence  be 
a  trifling  one,  they  may  themselves  determine 
in  the  matter.  If,  however,  it  be  of  an  aggra 
vated  nature,  they  commit  or  bind  over  the 
criminal  for  trial  in  a  regular  court.  They  may 
judge  in  civil  suits  when  but  a  small  amount 
is  involved,  but  not  generally  in  cases  of  li 
bel,  slander,  or  malicious  prosecution,  or  when 
title  to  real  property  comes  in  question.  As 
further  examples  of  their  usual  powers,  it  may 
be  added  that  they  may  issue  summonses  for 
witnesses  to  appear  in  their  own  courts,  and 
to  answer  in  civil  suits  pending  before  other 
courts  ;  they  may  administer  oaths  in  all  cases 
in  which  an  oath  is  required ;  they  may  cele 
brate  marriages  ;  and  may  make  examinations 
and  issue  warrants  in  cases  of  bastardy.  They 
also  exercise  certain  functions  under  the  pool- 
laws.  The  justice  must  have  jurisdiction  of 
the  parties  and  of  the  matter,  or  his  interfe 
rence  is  a  trespass.  But  when  he  acts  within 
his  jurisdiction  and  by  color  of  his  office,  he  is 
responsible  in  a  civil  suit  only  when  he  has  act 
ed  from  corrupt  or  malicious  motives.  lie  may 
be  impeached,  and  in  some  states  removed  by 
petition  and  hearing  of  the  charges  made  against 
him  before  a  higher  court.  A  justice  must 
keep  a  record  of  his  proceedings,  and  may  ad 


journ  his  court  from  day  to  day.  The  plead 
ings  before  him  are,  for  the  benefit  of  suitors, 
treated  with  great  liberality. — In  the  decree 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  judicial  system 
of  France  (Aug.  24,  1790)  juges  de  paix  were 
created  in  imitation  of  the  English  officers  of 
the  same  name.  They  were  to  decide  sum 
marily,  without  expense  to  suitors  and  without 
the  intervention  of  counsel,  affairs  of  slight 
importance,  and  especially  those  which  involv 
ed  disputed  facts  rather  than  contested  points 
of  law.  The  decree  of  September,  1791,  con 
cerning  criminal  procedure,  invested  the  juges 
de  paix  with  police  functions ;  at  a  later  period 
they  were  called  to  the  presidency  of  those  po 
lice  tribunals  which  took  cognizance  of  minor 
offences.  Under  the  law  of  May  25,  1838,  the 
French  justices  are  empowered  to  decide  finally 
in  all  causes  purely  personal,  and  involving  no 
more  than  100  francs,  but  subject  to  appeal  in 
all  such  causes  involving  from  100  to  200  francs. 
With  similar  limitations  they  have  jurisdiction 
in  actions  between  landlords  and  tenants;  in 
suits  for  damages  to  fields,  fruits,  and  harvests  ; 
between  laborers  and  their  employers,  and 
between  servants  or  apprentices  and  their  mas 
ters  ;  and  in  civil  suits  for  verbal  defamation, 
and  in  those  breaches  of  the  peace  and  assaults 
which  are  not  expressly  provided  for  in  the 
criminal  law.  Their  decrees  are  subject  to  ap 
peal  in  all  possessory  actions,  in  cases  involving 
questions  of  boundaries,  and  in  those  arising 
out  of  the  use  of  mill  privileges  and  streams 
applied  to  irrigation.  As  officers  of  the  judi 
cial  police  and  auxiliary  to  the  prosecuting  offi 
cer  of  the  government  (pro  cur  cur  du  roi),  they 
receive  informations  and  make  examinations 
into  charges  of  flagrant  crime  committed  with 
in  their  jurisdiction. 

JUSTIN  (FLAVIUS  AXICIUS  JUSTINUS).  I.  The 
Elder,  Byzantine  emperor,  born  of  a  family  of 
barbarian  peasants  at  Tauresium,  a  village  near 
Sardica  (now  Sophia),  in  Bulgaria,  in  450,  died 
in  527.  He  went  with  two  other  youths  on 
foot  to  the  capital  to  enter  the  army,  and  on 
account  of  his  strength  and  stature  was  placed 
among  the  guards  of  the  emperor  Leo  I.  Under 
the  reigns  of  Zeno  and  Anastasius  he  emerged 
to  wealth  and  honors.  Having  served  in  the 
Isaurian  and  Persian  wars,  and  been  promoted 
successively  to  the  ranks  of  tribune,  count,  and 
general,  and  the  dignity  of  senator,  he  was 
commander  of  the  imperial  guards  at  the  time 
of  the  death  of  Anastasius  (518).  The  eunuch 
Amantius,  who  then  reigned  in  the  court,  be 
ing  bent  on  setting  one  of  his  creatures,  Theo- 
datus,  on  the  throne,  intrusted  an  ample  dona 
tive  to  Justin,  with  which  to  gain  the  suffrage 
of  the  guards  for  his  purpose.  Justin  employ 
ed  the  bribe  in  his  own  favor,  and  was  pro 
claimed  emperor  at  the  age  of  08.  Brave,  but 
ignorant,  according  to  Procopius,  even  of  the 
alphabet,  he  intrusted  the  quaestor  Proclus  with 
the  affairs  of  the  state,  and  adopted  Justinian, 
his  nephew,  and  a  native  of  his  village,  who, 
however,  was  educated  in  Constantinople. 


JUSTIN 


JUSTINIAN 


'27 


There  are  some  dark  stains  on  Justin's  charac 
ter.  Amantius  was  executed  on  charges  of 
conspiracy  and  heresy,  Theodatus  was  mur 
dered  in  prison,  and  Vitalian,  a  Gothic  chief, 
who  had  become  popular  by  his  civil  war 
against  Anastasius  in  defence  of  the  orthodox 
faith,  was  treacherously  murdered  at  a  ban 
quet.  Both  Justin  and  his  successor  Justinian 
(during  part  of  his  reign)  were  defenders  of  the 
orthodox  creed.  II.  The  Younger,  nephew  of 
Justinian  I.,  succeeded  him  in  565,  and  died 
Oct.  5,  578.  He  was  of  a  very  crafty  disposi 
tion,  and  while  his  cousins  Justin  and  Justini 
an,  the  sons  of  Germanus,  were  absent  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Persians,  he  remained  in 
Constantinople  and  courted  the  aged  emperor. 
On  assuming  the  imperial  authority  after  the 
death  of  Justinian,  he  won  popular  favor  by 
the  expression  of  virtuous  and  generous  senti 
ments.  He  granted  a  general  pardon  to  offend 
ers,  liquidated  all  the  debts  of  Justinian,  and 
issued  an  edict  of  universal  religious  toleration. 
But  he  soon  showed  his  true  character.  He 
instigated  the  murder  of  his  cousin  Justin,  of 
whom  he  had  become  jealous,  sold  offices  and 
positions  without  disguise,  and  recovered  by 
rapacity  and  oppression  the  sums  used  in  satis 
fying  the  creditors  of  his  predecessor.  While 
he  was  thus  arousing  the  indignation  of  the 
Greeks  at  home,  Italy  was  in  a  deplorable  state. 
Narses,  who  had  been  removed  from  the  ex- 
archy  through  the  hatred  of  the  empress  So 
phia,  revenged  himself  by  inviting  an  invasion 
of  the  Longobards,  who  overran  the  country. 
At  the  same  time  Justin  was  involved  in  a 
war  with  the  Persians,  who  ravaged  Syria  and 
took  Dara.  On  the  receipt  of  this  news  he  ex 
hibited  symptoms  of  insanity,  and  the  govern 
ment  devolved  on  the  empress  Sophia,  who 
persuaded  the  emperor  (574)  to  adopt  Tiberius, 
the  captain  of  his  guards.  The  latter  became 
virtually  the  ruler  from  that  time,  although 
Justin  did  not  create  him  Augustus  until  Sept. 
26,  578. 

JUSTIN  (JrsTixrs),  a  Latin  historian,  of 
•whose  personal  history  nothing  is  known.  It 
is  probable  that  he  lived  at  Rome  in  the  3d  or 
4th  century.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work  enti 
tled  Hixtoriarum  PhiUppirarum  Libri  XLIV., 
founded  on  a  lost  work  of  Trogus  Pompeius,  a 
historian  of  the  Augustan  age.  The  original 
work,  though  professing  to  give  only  an  ac 
count  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy,  was  hardly 
less  than  a  universal  history,  and  was  of  great 
value.  Justin  seems  rather  to  have  compiled 
selections  from  it  than  to  have  abridged  it  sys 
tematically,  and  his  history  contains  a  great  va 
riety  of  information  that  would  not  otherwise 
have  been  preserved,  carelessly  arranged,  but 
written  in  a  clear  and  sometimes  elegant  style. 
The  first  edition  of  Justin  was  printed  at  Yen-  j 
ice  by  Jensen  in  1470.  The  latest  editions  are 
those  of  Gutschmid  (Leipsic,  1857),  Hartwig 
(Brunswick,  I860),  Pierrot  and  Boitard  (Paris, 
1862).  and  Domke  and  Eitner  (Breslau,  1865). 
The  English  translations  are  by  Codrington 


(1664),  Brown   (1712),    Bayley   (1732),  Clark 
(1732),  and  Turnbull  (1746). 

JISTLMAN.  I.  (FLAVIUS  AXIOIUS  JUSTINIA- 
NUS),  surnamed  the  Great,  a  Byzantine  empe 
ror,  born  at  Tauresium,  a  village  near  Sardica 
(now  Sophia),  in  Bulgaria,  in  482  or  483,  died 
Nov.  14,  565.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor  bar 
barian  family,  but  his  elevation  was  promoted 
by  his  uncle  Justin  I.,  who  shortly  before  his 
death  in  527  adopted  him  as  co-emperor  at  the 
request  of  the  senate.  Justinian,  who  had 
effectively  and  unscrupulously  promoted  his 
uncle's  elevation,  was  possessed  long  before 
the  decease  of  the  latter  of  all  power  in  the 
state,  as  well  as  of  a  large  private  fortune.  He 
shared  both  his  power  and  wealth  with  Theo 
dora,  a  beautiful,  crafty,  and  unscrupulous  wo 
man,  the  daughter  of  a  keeper  of  wild  beasts, 
who  had  been  long  known  as  a  comedian  and 
prostitute,  and  despised  by  the  people  of  the 
capital  as  one  of  the  vilest  of  her  sex.  Having 
married  her  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  he  not 
only  seated  her  on  his  throne,  but  made  her 
an  equal  colleague ;  and  her  demoralizing,  cor 
rupting,  and  despotic  influence  remained  pow 
erful  till  her  death  in  the  22d  year  of  their 
reign.  In  the  questions  of  creed  in  the  church 
and  of  color  in  the  games  of  the  charioteers  in 
the  hippodrome,  then  distracting  the  empire, 
Justinian  and  his  wife  were  agreed  in  zealously 
supporting  the  orthodox  and  the  blue  parties. 
In  the  capital  and  most  of  the  provinces  heresy 
was  totally  powerless,  but  the  faction  of  the 
greens  was  often  able  to  resist  by  open  violence 
the  arrogance  of  their  opponents  and  oppres 
sors.  In  532,  after  a  fierce  contest  between 
the  factions,  in  which  Constantinople  was 
almost  laid  in  ashes,  they  momentarily  com 
bined  their  forces  against  the  government,  and 
proclaimed  Hypatius,  a  nephew  of  the  emperor 
Anastasius,  emperor.  The  resolute  spirit  of 
Theodora  and  the  bravery  of  Belisarius  tri 
umphed.  The  blues  returned  to  allegiance,  the 
greens  were  crushed  with  dreadful  slaughter, 
Hypatius  and  his  principal  accomplices  were 
executed,  and  tranquillity  was  restored.  Jus 
tinian  now  turned  his  chief  attention  to  the 
external  interests  of  his  vast  empire.  Purchas 
ing  at  an  immense  sum  a  truce  from  Chosroes 
I.  of  Persia,  after  a  war  of  a  few  years  waged 
with  varying  success,  he  sent  Belisarius  with 
a  fleet  and  an  army  against  Gelimer,  who  had 
usurped  power  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals 
of  Africa,  and  as  an  Arian  ruler  oppressed  his 
Catholic  subjects.  A  series  of  victories  soon 
brought  Carthage  and  the  person  of  Gelimer 
himself  into  the  power  of  the  Byzantines. 
Gelimer  was  sent  a  captive  to  Constantinople, 
the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  destroyed,  and  the 
Arian  Avorship  suppressed.  The  conquest  of 
the  province  of  Africa  and  the  adjoining  prov 
inces  procured  new  influence  and  some  strong 
stations  in  Spain,  and  paved  the  way  for  the 
reestablishment  of  the  Roman  imperial  pow 
er  in  Italy,  where  Tlieodatus  had  succeeded 
(535)  the  regent  Amalasontha,  who  usurped  tho 


'28 


JUSTINIAN 


JUSTIN  -MARTYR 


power  on  the  death  of  her  son  Athalaric,  the 
profligate  grandson  of  Theodoric  the  Great. 
Belisarius  successively  reduced  Sicily  and  con 
quered  Naples ;  Theodatus  was  deposed  by  his 
people  and  assassinated  ;  and  Rome  opened  its 
gates  to  the  army  which  fought  in  its  name 
(530).  In  539  Ravenna  was  reduced,  but  Jus 
tinian  from  envy  recalled  the  conqueror.  Chos- 
roes,  king  of  Persia,  was  driven  from  Syria  in 
541,  and  Belisarius,  after  a  short  period  of  dis 
grace,  was  again  sent  into  Italy  to  prevent  the 
capture  of  Rome  by  Totila.  The  attempt  to 
relieve  it  was  unsuccessful,  and  Belisarius  was 
finally  succeeded  in  the  command  by  Narses. 
In  552  Justinian  once  more  received  the  keys 
of  the  ancient  capital,  which  in  his  reign  had 
been  five  times  taken  and  recovered.  Totila 
had  fallen  in  the  battle  of  Tagina,  and  his  suc 
cessor  Teias,  the  last  of  the  Ostrogothic  kings, 
shared  the  same  fate  on  the  Sarnus  in  the  fol 
lowing  year.  Another  great  victory  of  Narses 
over  the  Franks  and  Alemanni,  who  then  in 
vaded  Italy,  secured  the  possession  of  that 
country,  which  he  governed  as  exarch,  resi 
ding  in  Ravenna.  In  the  East,  Justinian  ter 
minated  a  protracted  war  with  the  Persians  by 
a  peace  (561),  in  which  Chosroes  extorted  the 
ignominious  promise  of  an  annual  tribute. 
The  northern  frontiers  of  the  empire  were  in 
part  secured  against  the  invasions  of  the  bar 
barians  by  similar  treaties,  and  a  vast  line  of 
fortifications,  especially  along  the  Danube,  was 
added  from  a  feeling  of  precaution  which  the 
degeneracy  of  the  empire  made  but  too  natu 
ral.  The  imperial  armies  themselves  consisted 
mainly  of  barbarian  hirelings.  In  the  interior 
the  reign  of  Justinian  was  marked  by  tyranny, 
extortion,  and  lavish  expenditure,  especially  in 
the  erection  of  sumptuous  buildings,  of  which 
the  rebuilt  church  of  St.  Sophia  was  the  most 
magnificent;  by  a  continual  meddling  in  the 
affairs  of  the  church,  and  the  severe  persecu 
tion  of  heretics,  Samaritans,  Jews,  and  pagans, 
involving  the  dissolution  of  the  Athenian  school 
of  philosophy  ;  and  by  uninterrupted  intrigues 
at  the  court,  which,  among  others,  finally  suc 
ceeded  in  ruining  Belisarius.  Justinian,  how 
ever,  who  was  fond  of  studies  as  well  as  of 
arts,  has  the  great  merit  of  having,  through 
Tribonian  and  other  lawyers,  prepared  that 
code  of  Roman  laws  which  bears  his  name  and 
is  the  great  monument  of  his  reign.  (See  CIVIL 
LAW.)  The  introduction  of  silkworms  from 
China  through  some  missionaries,  who  brought 
the  eggs  in  hollow  sticks,  is  another  of  its  last 
ing  merits.  Justinian  was  patient,  frugal,  and 
diligent,  but  vain,  selfish,  and  ungrateful.  "  He 
was  neither  beloved  in  his  life  nor  regretted  at  | 
his  death."  He  was  succeeded  by  Justin  II.,  his  | 
nephew.  II.  Surnamed  RHIXOTMETUS  (Shorn  '< 
Nose),  a  Byzantine  emperor,  born  in  669,  died  j 
in  December,  711.  He  succeeded  his  father  I 
Constantine  IV.  (Pogonatus)  in  685.  His  reign  ! 
was  marked  chiefly  by  wars  with  the  Saracens, 
persecutions  Of  the  Manichreans,  and  the  rapa-  I 
city  and  exactions  of  his  ministers.  In  088  he  j 


broke  the  peace  which  his  father  had  made  with 
the  Bulgarians,  and,  although  at  first  success 
ful,  was  finally  routed  by  them  in  the  defiles  of 
Mount  Rhodope,  and  narrowly  escaped  with 
his  life.  The  Arabs,  equally  provoked,  inva 
ded  Africa  and  ravaged  Cyprus,  subsequently 
overran  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopotamia,  and  con 
quered  Armenia.  In  695  his  general  Leontius 
drove  him  from  the  throne,  cut  off  his  nose, 
and  banished  him  to  the  Crimea.  Leontius  was 
soon  after  deposed  by  Tiberius  Apsimerus,  who 
reigned  seven  years.  In  V05  Justinian  recovered 
his  throne  through  the  assistance  of  the  Bul 
garians,  and  put  to  a  cruel  death  Leontius  and 
Tiberius,  and  many  others.  His  atrocities  at 
last  aroused  a  new  rebellion,  and  he  was  de 
throned  and  killed  by  Philippicus  Bardanes, 
who  succeeded  him. 

JISTI1V  MARTYR  (FLAvirs  JUSTIXUS),  the  ear 
liest  of  the  church  fathers  after  the  apostolic 
age,  born  at  Flavia  Neapolis  (the  modern  Na- 
blus),  in  Samaria,  about  105,  died  in  Rome  about 
165.  His  parents  were  Greeks  who  had  joined 
the  colony  sent  by  Vespasian  to  the  desolated 
city  of  Shechem,  which  was  now  called  after 
him  Flavia.  He  appears  to  have  been  educa 
ted  in  the  schools  of  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and 
Egypt,  and  to  have  studied  first  under  a  Stoic, 
whose  teaching  on  the  nature  of  God  left  him 
unsatisfied.  He  then  attached  himself  to  a 
Peripatetic,  who  disgusted  him  by  his  greed 
for  money;  and,  unwilling  to  undergo  the 
mathematical  course  exacted  by  the  Pythago 
reans,  he  finally  embraced  the  Platonic  phi 
losophy.  The  objections  raised  by  an  aged 
Christian  against  its  doctrines  led  him  to  study 
the  Old  Testament  writings,  and  the  heroism 
of  the  Christian  confessors  and  martyrs  induced 
him  to  profess  Christianity  (about  132).  He 
appears  to  have  continued  to  wear  his  philoso 
pher's  mantle  after  his  conversion.  About 
145  he  composed  a  polemical  work  against 
heretics,  particularly  against  Marcion.  During 
the  persecution  of  Antoninus  Pius  he  ad 
dressed  a  first  plea  (a-o7.oyia)  for  the  Chris 
tian  cause  to  that  emperor  and  the  Roman 
people.  About  150  he  met,  probably  at  Ephe- 
sus,  but  according  to  some  at  Corinth,  with  a 
learned  Jew  named  Tryphon,  who  was  attract 
ed  by  Justin's  philosophical  garb,  and  bad  a 
discussion  with  him  on  the  divinity  of  the 
Christian  religion,  which  was  soon  afterward 
published.  The  persecution  of  the  Christians 
being  renewed  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  Justin 
addressed  to  that  emperor  a  second  and  supple 
mentary  plea.  At  this  time  his  usual  residence 
appears  to  have  been  at  Rome ;  and  his  zeal  in 
unmasking  the  hypocrisy  of  one  Crescentius, 
a  prominent  persecutor  of  the  Christians,  is 
thought  by  Eusebius  to  have  been  the  occasion 
of  his  imprisonment  and  death.  Besides  tho 
two  "Apologies"  and  the  "Dialogue  with 
Tryphon,"  the  authenticity  of  which  is  gener 
ally  acknowledged,  three  other  works  have 
been  attributed  to  him,  an  "  Address  to  the 
Greeks,"  an  "Admonition  to  the  Greeks,"  and 


JUTE 


729 


a  "Letter  to  Diognetus"  on  the  characteristics 
of  the  Christian  worship  compared  with  pa 
ganism  and  with  Judaism.     His  feast  is  cele 
brated  by  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches. 
The  principal  editions  of  his  works  are  those 
of  Robert  Stephens  (Paris,  1551,  completed  by 
Henry  Stephens,  1592  and   1595);    Friedrich 
Sylburg,  with  a  Latin  translation  (Basel,  1565) ;  j 
and  Prudent  Maran  (Paris,  1742).     The  best 
modern  collection  of  all  his  works,  with  the 
acts  of  'his  martyrdom,  is  found  in  the  first 
five  volumes  of  Otto's  Corpus  Apologetarum 
Christianorum  Sceculi  Secundi  (Jena,   1842  ;  j 
2d  ed.,  1847-'50).     His  apologies  were  transla-  j 
ted  into  English   by  William   Reeves  ("The  j 
Apologies  of  the  Christian  Fathers,"  London,  j 
1709),  and  they  are  also  included  in  a  collec- 
tion  of  translations  published  at  Cambridge  j 
(2d  ed.,  1851);  his  "Dialogue  with  Trypho  " 
by  Henry  Brown  (London,   1755 ;    new  ed., 
Cambridge,  1846). — See  Justin  der  Marty  rer, 
by  Karl  Semisch  (2  vols.,  Breslau,  1840-'42 ; 
translated  into  English  by  J.  E.  Ryland,  Ed 
inburgh,  1843) ;  "  Some  Account  of  the  Life 
and  Writings  of  Justin  Martyr,"  by  Bishop 
Kaye  (London,    1836);   and   St.  Justin,  phi- 
losophe  et  martyr,  by  L.  Aube  (Paris,  1861). 

JITE,  the  fibre  of  corchorus  capsularis  and 
other  species  ;  the  name  is  also  applied  to  the 
plant  which  furnishes  the  fibre.  The  genus 
corchorus  belongs  to  the  order  tiliacece,  of 
which  the  linden  or  basswood  is  a  familiar  rep 
resentative  ;  the  species  furnishing  the  fibre 
are  annuals,  natives  of  Asia,  and  grow  about 
10  or  12  ft.  high.  C.  capsularis  has  straight 
stems  about  as  large  as  the  little  finger,  branch 
ing  only  near  the  summit ;  the  lanceolate  leaves 


Jute  (Corchorus  capsularis). 

are  about  6  in.  long,  nearly  2  in.  broad  at  the 
base,  sharply  serrate  on  the  margin,  with  the 
lower  serrature  on  each  side  prolonged  into  a  i 
thread-like  point ;  the  yellow  flowers  have  five  ! 
sepals  and   petals,  numerous   stamens,  and   a  j 
single  pistil  which  becomes  a  globular,  flat-  j 


topped  capsule.  Another  species,  C.  olitorius, 
has  a  general  resemblance  to  the  preceding,  but 
differs  in  its  fruit,  which  is  cylindrical,  and 
about  2  in.  long ;  its  specific  name  has  reference 
to  the  use  of  the  young  shoots  as  a  pot  herb, 
for  which  purpose  the  plant  is  cultivated  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  and  has  thus  become  natural 
ized  in  most  parts  of  the  East  as  far  ns  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  known  as  the  Jews'  mal 
low,  and  yields  a  portion  of  the  jute  fibre.  The 
fibre  is  contained  in  the  bark  of  the  stems, 
which  are  cut  when  the  plant  begins  to  blos 
som,  as  it  is  then  of  finer  quality  than  when 
the  plant  is  older  ;  the  stems  are  macerated  in 
water  until  the  fibre  readily  separates ;  the 
latter  is  from  8  to  12  ft.  long,  appearing  like 
hemp,  but  much  more  soft  and  silky;  it  is 
capable  of  minute  subdivisions,  and  when  used 
with  silk  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  fabrics 
it  readily  escapes  detection.  Jute  does  not 
stand  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  hence  is 
not  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  cordage  ;  yet 
it  is  said  to  be  sometimes  mixed  with  hemp  for 
this  use,  and  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  adul 
teration.  Coarse  cloth,  like  burlaps,  matting, 
and  cheap  carpeting,  are  made  of  the  fibre ;  and 
when  large  chignons  were  in  vogue,  no  incon 
siderable  quantity  of  jute  was  consumed  in  the 
manufacture  of  "  switches."  The  great  use 
for  the  fibre,  however,  is  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  coarse  bagging  known  as  gunny ;  bags 
made  of  this  are  largely  used  in  packing  rice, 
coffee,  and  other  eastern  merchandise  for  ship 
ment,  and  they  are  scarcely  less  in  demand  in 
this  country  for  the  transportation  of  our 
agricultural  products.  Cotton  is  largely  baled 
in  gunny  cloth,  and  as  it  requires  seven  yards 
to  the  bale,  the  consumption  for  this  product 
alone  is  very  great.  In  India  the  spinning  of 
the  fibre  to  form  gunny  twist  is  done  by  men, 
women,  and  children,  the  material  being  kept 
at  hand,  to  occupy  the  spare  moments  of  the 
household ;  and  boatmen  and  others  who  are 
likely  to  have  intervals  of  leisure  engage  in  the 
occupation.  Jute  butts,  which  are  the  thick 
ends  of  the  stems,  about  9  in.  long,  are  used 
for  paper  making,  and  are  also  worked  into  a 
coarse  fabric ;  the  refuse  fibre  as  well  as  old 
gunny  bags  furnish  stock  for  the  manufacture 
of  coarse  paper.  The  value  of  jute  and  its  va 
rious  products  imported  into  the  United  States 
in  1873  was  nearly  $4,500,000.  The  experi 
ments  in  jute  culture  that  have  been  made  in 
some  of  the  southern  states  show  that  fibre 
of  a  fine  quality  can  be  produced  there,  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  when  proper  re 
lations  are  established  between  producer  and 
manufacturer,  this  will  become  an  important 
item  in  our  agriculture.  In  California,  where 
the  demand  for  bags  to  transport  the  immense 
grain  crops  is  large,  the  experiments  in  rais 
ing  jute  have  been  encouraging.  In  India,  the 
stems  after  stripping  are  utilized  for  making 
enclosures  to  gardens,  for  coarse  basket  work, 
and  even  for  producing  a  fine  charcoal  for 
gunpowder  and  fireworks. 


730 


JUTLAND 


JUXON 


JUTLAND  (Dan.  Jylland},  an  irregular  penin 
sula,  forming  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Denmark,  lying  between  lat.  55°  18'  and  57° 
45'  N.,  and  Ion.  8°  5'  and  10°  57'  E.,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Skager  Rack,  E.  by  the  Cattegat  and 
the  Little  BeltJ  S.  by  Schleswig,  and  W.  by  the 
North  sea;  area,  9,738  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870, 
788,119.  It  is  the  main  part  of  the  ancient  Cim- 
bric  Chersonese,  and  the  country  of  the  Jutes. 
The  Jutes  were  a  Germanic  or  Scandinavian 
tribe,  of  whose  presence  in  this  quarter  we  have 
evidence  as  early  as  the  5th  century.  Accord 
ing  to  Mannert,  they  were  identical  in  race 
with  the  Guthi  of  Ptolemy,  and  came  from  the 
opposite  Scandinavian  coast.  They  were  the 
earliest  Teutonic  invaders  of  Britain  after  the 
departure  of  the  Romans.  Jutland  is  divided 
into  four  districts  called  Stiffs :  Aalborg  in  the 
north,  Aarhuus  in  the  east,  Viborg  in  the  cen 
tre,  and  Ribe  in  the  south  and  west.  The  capi 
tal  is  Viborg.  The  N.  and  part  of  the  W.  coast 
are  low,  flat,  and  sandy,  presenting  long  lines  of 
dangerous  banks,  broken  on  the  west  by  sev 
eral  large  fiords  which  may  be  said  to  form  la 
goons.  The  E.  shores  are  more  rocky  and  have 
some  good  harbors.  The  Liirn  or  Lym  fiord 
entirely  insulates  the  X.  part  of  the  peninsula. 
There  are  many  ponds  and  marshes  scattered 
over  the  surface,  but  few  rivers.  The  largest 
streams  are  the  Guden,  which  flows  into  the 
Cattegat,  the  Lonborg,  which  enters  the  Ring- 
kiobing  fiord,  and  the  Konge,  which  partly  sep 
arates  Jutland  from  Schleswig.  There  are  no 
mountains,  and  the  hills  are  little  more  than 
accumulations  of  sand,  seldom  exceeding  100 
ft.  in  height.  The  Ilimmeljberg,  the  highest 
point,  is  only  550  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  soil 
on  the  east  and  west  is  fertile,  but  the  central 
districts  are  sandy  and  sterile,  and  the  N. 
coast  is  covered  with  drifting  sands,  which  are 
planted  with  reeds  to  prevent  them  from  being 
borne  by  the  wind  over  the  cultivated  lands. 
On  the  east  there  are  considerable  forests  of 
oak,  fir,  and  birch,  but  the  province  has  been 
nearly  stripped  of  its  timber,  with  which  it 
was  covered  in  the  llth  century.  Agriculture 
is  in  a  very  low  state,  but  efforts  have  been 
made  with  some  success  to  improve  it.  The 
chief  products  are  corn,  hemp,  flax,  and  to 
bacco.  The  climate  is  temperate  but  variable, 
with  frequent  fogs  and  rains.  The  industry  of 
the  inhabitants  is  directed  chiefly  to  husbandry, 
the  coast  fisheries,  and  domestic  manufactures. 
There  are  manufactories  of  woollen  goods,  fire 
arms,  and  earthenware.  Commerce  is  active, 
and  is  much  facilitated  by  the  long  fiords.  The 
principal  commercial  emporium  is  Aarhuus, 
which  is  connected  by  railway  with  Viborg, 
Ilolstebro,  Aalborg,  and  Veile. 

JUVENAL  (JUVENALIS),  Denmns  Junins,  a  Ro 
man  satirical  poet,  flourished  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  1st  century  A.  D.  and  in  the  first  quar 
ter  of  the  2d.  The  only  certain  facts  in  his 
personal  history  are  that  Aquinum  was  either 
the  place  of  his  nativity  or  his  chosen  residence, 
and  that  he  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Martial, 


who  addresses  him  in  three  of  his  epigrams. 
According  to  the  oldest  memoir  of  him,  ascrib 
ed  with  little  probability  to  Suetonius,  he  was 
either  the  son  or  the  alumnus  of  a  wealthy 
freedman,  occupied  himself  till  middle  age  as 
a  pleader,  and  was  led  to  devote  himself  to 
satirical  composition  by  the  success  of  some 
verses  which  he  wrote  upon  a  pantomimist 
named  Paris  ;  after  much  hesitation  he  recited 
his  satires  before  numerous  audiences,  which 
were  received  with  so  much  favor  that  he 
ventured  to  insert  in  one  of  them  his  attack  on 
Paris  ;  this  was  construed  into  an  attack  on  an 
actor  at  that  time  in  high  favor  at  court,  and  he 
was  therefore,  although  80  years  of  age,  ap 
pointed  to  command  a  cohort  of  infantry  in 
Egypt,  and  soon  died  of  vexation  and  grief  in 
this  honorable  exile.  The  pantomimist  Paris, 
a  favorite  of  Doinitian,  was  put  to  death  in 
A.  D.  83 ;  and  as  it  is  established  that  one  of  the 
satires  of  Juvenal  was  written  not  earlier  than 
96  and  another  not  earlier  than  100,  he  could 
not  have  been  sent  to  Egypt  in  the  lifetime  of 
Paris,  unless  he  afterward  returned,  in  which 
case  it  is  strange  that  his  works  contain  no 
allusion  to  his  exile.  The  story  of  his  banish 
ment  is  therefore  questioned  by  some  critics. 
Juvenal  disputes  with  Horace  the  honor  of 
being  the  greatest  Roman  satirist.  Living 
amid  the  vices  of  a  declining  state,  under  the 
tyranny  of  Nero  and  Domitian,  and  seeing  the 
humiliation  of  his  countrymen,  his  compositions 
are  much  more  purposely  and  formally  severe 
than  the  easy  and  good-humored  satires  of 
Horace.  Each  of  them  is  an  elaborate  and 
sonorous  piece  of  declamation,  which  confirms 
the  statement  of  some  of  his  biographers  that 
in  youth  he  diligently  attended  the  schools  of 
the  rhetoricians,  and  that  he  was  accustomed 
to  declaim  at  the  forum  during  many  years  of 
his  life.  His  extant  works  are  15  satires,  and 
a  fragment  of  doubtful  authenticity,  all  in 
heroic  hexameters.  There  are  numerous  very 
early  editions,  six  of  which  may  claim  to  be 
the  princeps.  Among  the  most  complete  edi 
tions  are  those  of  Ruperti  (Leipsic,  1819), 
Ileinrich  (Bonn,  1839),  and  Otto  Jahn  (Berlin, 
1851).  Jahn  holds  that  only  the  first  9  satires 
and  the  llth  are  Juvenal's,  and  that  these  con 
tain  many  interpolations;  see  also  Ribbeck's 
Der  cclite  und  der  unecJite  Juvenalis  (Berlin, 
1865).  The  English  metrical  translators  are 
llolyday,  Stapleton,  Dryden  (of  five  satires), 
Gifford,  Hodgson,  Badham,  and  Evans;  there 
is  also  a  literal  prose  translation,  with  notes, 
by  J.  D.  Lewis  (London,  1873). 

JUXON,  William,  an  English  prelate,  born  in 
Chichester  in  1582,  died  June  4,  1663.  He  was 
educated  at  the  merchant  taylors'  school,  and  at 
St.  John's  college,  Oxford.  Originally  destined 
for  the  law,  he  studied  theology,  and  became 
vicar  of  St.  Giles's,  Oxford,  in  1609,  and  rec 
tor  of  Somerton  in  1614.  He  was  president 
of  his  college  in  1621,  and  vice  chancellor  in 
1626  and  1627.  He  became  successively  dean 
of  Worcester  and  prebendary  of  Chichester, 


KAFFA 


731 


bishop  of  Hereford,  and  in  the  same  year,  1G33, 
bishop  of  London.  In  1035  he  was  appointed 
lord  high  treasurer,  but  in  1640  earnestly  so 
licited  leave  to  resign  the  office,  and  returned 
to  the  charge  of  his  diocese,  lie  was  attached 
to  the  king,  whom  he  attended  in  the  isle  of 


"Wight,  at  his  trial,  and  to  the  last  upon  the 
scaffold.  After  the  king's  execution  he  was 
deprived  of  his  bishopric,  and  imprisoned  for 
refusing  to  disclose  his  last  conversation  with 
the  king.  After  the  restoration  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1660). 


K 


KTIIE  llth  letter  of  the  Phoenician  and 
?  other  Semitic  graphic  systems,  named 
Jcaph  (hollow  of  the  hand),  is  also  the  llth  of 
the  English  and  many  other  European  alphabets, 
although  the  letters  preceding  it  do  not  exact 
ly  coincide  in  both  systems.  Jt  is  the  10th 
(/carr-a)  in  Greek.  In  ancient  Latin,  as  long 
as  C  was  used  as  the  sign  of  G,  it  was  the  9th ; 
but  after  the  innovation  of  C  for  the  hard  gut 
tural  in  all  positions,  and  the  introduction  of 
G  as  its  corresponding  soft  guttural,  it  became 
the  10th  letter,  though  used  only  in  a  few  ab 
breviations,  such  as  K.  for  Cceso,  kal.  for  ca- 
lendce,  etc.  It  is  erroneously  said  to  be  the 
llth  in  some  modern  Latin  grammars.  Sallust, 
a  grammarian  of  Rome,  attributes  its  introduc 
tion  into  the  Latin  to  one  Salvius.  Quintilian 
denies  it  a  place  in  the  Latin,  and  blames  its 
use  even  before  a,  as  in  kalendce,  kalumnia, 
although  it  was  burnt  in  upon  the  forehead  of 
slanderers.  It  was  represented  by  qu  in  an 
cient  French,  in  all  positions,  though  in  modern 
French  only  in  qite  and  qui  ;  while  in  the  same 
language  the  K  is  maintained  only  in  a  few  for 
eign  words,  and  in  proper  nouns.  The  sound 
of  K  is  produced  like  that  of  G,  with  this  dif 
ference,  that  the  larynx  does  not  oscillate  du 
ring  the  sudden  explosion  of  the  sound. — Some 
proper  nouns  are  written  either  with  K  or  C ; 
as,  for  instance,  in  German,  Carl,  Coin,  or  Karl, 
Koln ;  or  in  French,  Goran,  Colocotroni,  or  Ko 
ran,  &c.  In  German,  ck  is  written  for  kk  (in 
Polish  it  is  pronounced  tsk,  as  in  Potocki),  and 
the  initial  k  before  consonants  is  frequently  the 
hardened  particle  ge  deprived  of  e,  as  in  the 
words  Knecht,  servant,  from  ge-neigt,  bent, 
subject  to ;  and  king,  prudent,  from  gc-lvg, 
looking  out. — As  a  numeral  sign,  K  denotes  20 
in  the  Semitic,  Greek,  Georgian,  and  Cyrillic 
(and  hence  in  the  Russian)  systems ;  40  in  the 
Glagolitic;  60  in  the  Armenian;  250  (along 
with  E)  in  the  period  of  Rome's  decline.  A 
dash  over  it  raises  these  values  to  as  many 
thousands.  In  rubrication  it  marks  10,  the  j 
not  being  counted.  On  Roman  coins  and 
other  monuments  it  stands  for  Jfaixar,  I\ar- 
tliago,  kaput,  and  many  other  words  beginning 
with  Ca  in  the  later  Latin.  On  French  coins 
it  designates  Bordeaux ;  on  those  of  Austria,  K. 
B.  signify  Kormocz-Banya  or  Kremnitz  mine. 

KAABA,  or  Caaba.     See  MECCA. 

KABBALAH.     See  CABALA. 

KAB1LES.     See  ALGERIA. 


RAF.     See  CAF. 

KAFFA,  or  Kafa,  a  country  of  E.  Africa,  lying 
S.  of  Abyssinia  and  W.  of  Somauli.  It  con 
sists  of  an  extensive  table  land,  between  two 
branches  of  the  river  Gojeb  or  Godafo,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  5,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
country  is  under  the  sway  of  an  absolute  king, 
or  fata,  who  it  is  said  can  raise  10,000  horse 
men,  and  who  is  frequently  at  war  with  his 
neighbors.  The  inhabitants  are  of  an  Abys 
sinian  type,  and  profess  to  be  Christians ; 
their  language  belongs  to  the  Ilamitic  group  of 
tongues.  They  cultivate  the  soil,  which  is  fer 
tile  in  palms,  cotton,  and  coffee.  The  staple 
food  of  the  people  is  the  ensete,  a  plant  resem 
bling  the  banana.  The  cereals  are  not  raised, 
and  the  appellation  of  "grain-eater"  is  used  as 
a  term  of  contempt.  Trade  is  carried  on  with 
the  merchants  of  Enarea,  who  exchange  rock 
salt,  copper,  horses,  cattle,  and  silks  for  coffee, 
cotton,  and  slaves.  Coffee,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  received  its  name  (Turk.  ikaJire)  from 
this  country,  is  indigenous,  as  is  a  species  of 
tea  plant  called  khat.  The  brothers  Abbadie, 
in  1843,  were  the  first  Europeans  who  pene 
trated  into  the  country.  The  chief  town  is 
Bonga,  hit.  7°  12'  30"  K,  Ion.  36°  4'  E. ;  it 
contains  6,000  or  7,000  inhabitants. 

KAFFA,  Cafla,  or  Feodosia  (Theodosia),  a  sea 
port  of  S.  Russia,  on  the  S.  E.  coast  of  the 
Crimea,  60  in.  E.  by  K.  of  Simferopol ;  pop. 
about  10,000,  exclusive  of  the  garrison.  It  is 
built  on  a  wide,  open  bay  of  the  Black  sea. 
The  inhabitants,  consisting  of  Russians,  Tartars, 
Greeks,  Armenians,  Germans,  and  Jews,  are 
mostly  engaged  in  fishing  and  the  manufacture 
of  salt.  Caviare  is  made  there.  Wool  and 
hides  are  exported.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop,  and  has,  besides  Greek  churches, 
a  Roman  Catholic  church,  two  synagogues,  two 
mosques,  a  public  library,  museum,  botanic 
garden,  theatre,  custom  house,  and  quarantine 
buildings.  It  is  near  the  site  of  ancient  Theo 
dosia,  which  was  founded  by  the  Milesians, 
and  was  one  of  the  towns  of  the  ancient  king 
dom  of  Bosporus.  The  Genoese  established  a 
colony  here  in  the  13th  century,  and  its  com 
merce  became  so  important  that  the  Italians 
called  the  Crimean  peninsula  "Isola  di  Caffa." 
In  the  14th  century  it  was  surrounded  by  for 
midable  fortifications,  the  remains  of  which 
are  still  to  be  seen.  The  Turks  captured  it  in 
1475,  and  although  it  declined  under  their  rule 


732 


KAFFRARIA 


KAIILENBERG 


in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  it  had  a 
population  of  80,000,  and  400  ships  were  to  be 
seen  in  its  harbor.  It  was  taken  by  the  Rus 
sians  in  1 770,  and  was  ceded  to  them  by  the 


Kaffa. 

treaty  of  Jassy  in  1792.  Recently  the  place 
has  obtained  considerable  importance  for  its 
sea  bathing,  and  it  is  a  favorite  resort  of  the 
higher  classes  of  Simferopol. 

KAFFRARIA,  or  Kafirland.     See  CAFFKAEIA. 

KAFIRISTABT,  a  country  of  central  Asia, 
lying  between  lat.  35°  and  36°  1ST.,  and  Ion.  69° 
20'  and  71°  20'  E.,  bounded  N".  by  Badakhshan, 
E.  by  Chitral,  and  S.  and  W.  by  Cabool ;  area, 
about  7,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  unknown.  The  sur 
face  is  very  rugged,  and  the  climate  exhibits 
great  extremes  of  temperature.  In  the  north 
the  snow-crested  spurs  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh 
range  divide  the  country  into  narrow  valleys 
and  rocky  chasms,  which  form  the  beds  of  tor 
rents  ;  but  in  the  south  it  is  more  level.  There 
are  no  roads  but  narrow  foot  paths,  and  the 
two  passes  through  the  mountains  into  Ba 
dakhshan  are  open  only  during  the  summer 
months.  This  wild  and  almost  inaccessible 
region  derives  its  name  from  the  epithet  Tca- 
firs  or  infidels  applied  by  the  surrounding  Mo 
hammedans  to  its  people.  They  assert  that 
they  are  descendants  of  the  troops  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  differ  in  features,  customs,  and 
creed  from  the  neighboring  tribes.  They  are 
fair  in  complexion,  blue-eyed,  of  regular  fea 
tures,  intelligent,  social,  kind,  and  hospitable. 
They  believe  in  one  God,  but  worship  various 
intercessory  idols.  Their  language  is  a  dialect 
of  the  Persian.  Domestic  slavery  is  practised, 
the  slaves  being  sometimes  those  taken  in  feuds 
with  hostile  tribes  and  sometimes  orphans  of 
their  own  tribe.  In  the  working  of  metals, 
which  abound  in  their  mountains,  they  exhibit 
much  skill,  and  their  silver  drinking  cups  are 
often  of  elaborate  and  tasteful  designs.  They 
are  almost  continually  at  war  with  their  Moham 


medan  neighbors,  who  make  annual  incursions 
into  their  territory  for  slaves.  Their  weapons 
are  bows  and  barbed  arrows,  which  are  some 
times  poisoned,  and  for  close  conflict  daggers 
and  knives  ;  but  they 
have  recently  begun  to 
use  firearms.  Their  prin 
cipal  occupation  is  the 
raising  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  of  which  large 
herds  are  fed  on  the 
hills.  In  the  valleys  are 
raised  wheat  and  mil 
let,  and  various  kinds 
of  fruit,  particularly 
grapes.  They  make  ex 
cellent  wine,  and  both 
sexes  indulge  in  it  to 
excess.  Their  favorite 
amusement  is  dancing  to 
the  music  of  the  pipe 
and  tabor.  It  is  not 
•known  that  they  have 
any  regular  government, 
nor  have  they  any  gen 
eral  name  for  their  na 
tion  ;  but  they  are  di 
vided  into  tribes,  each 

with  its  separate  name,  and  all  matters  affect 
ing  the  common  welfare  are  settled  by  con 
sultation  among  the  chief  men.  They  are 
sometimes  distinguished  as  black  Kafirs  and 
white  Kafirs,  from  peculiarities  in  their  cos 
tume,  the  former  being  clad  in  black  goat 
skins  with  the  hair  outside,  the  latter  wearing 
a  dress  of  white  cotton. 

KAGOSHDIA,  or  Kagosima,  a  town  of  Japan, 
in  the  S.  part  of  the  island  of  Kiushia,  renown 
ed  for  its  landlocked  harbor,  40  m.  long  and 
from  10  to  12  m.  wide  at  the  upper  part,  and 
about  5  m.  at  the  entrance.  Kagoshima  is  the 
capital  of  the  feudal  prince  Satsuma,  and  it 
was  bombarded  in  1863  by  the  English,  to 
whom  reparation  had  been  denied  for  the 
murder  of  Mr.  Richardson,  a  British  subject. 
Three  of  Satsuma's  steamers  were  sunk  during 
the  engagement,  and  much  damage  was  inflict 
ed  upon  the  town  before  the  prince  submitted 
to  pay  an  indemnity  of  £25,000,  and  to  exe 
cute  the  murderers.  The  fortifications  have 
since  been  repaired,  and  the  manufactory  of 
arms  and  munitions  has  been  restored. 

KAIILENBERG,  a  mountain  of  Austria,  on  the 
Danube,  between  Vienna  and  Klosterneuburg, 
consisting  of  the  Kahlenberg  proper,  or  Josephs- 
berg,  and  the  Leopoldsberg,  and  rising  to  a 
height  of  about  1,000  ft.  above  the  river.  It 
is  also  known  as  the  Wiener  "Wald,  and  is  the 
most  N".  E.  continuation  of  the  Noric  Alps. 
On  the  Leopoldsberg  is  a  ruined  castle,  with  a 
church  where  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Sobieski, 
and  other  warriors  prayed  for  success  in  the 
battle  against  the  Turks,  in  September,  1683. 
At  the  foot  of  the  same  mountain,  6  in.  above 
Vienna,  is  the  Kahlenberger  Dorfcl,  associated 
with  the  humorous  priest  Wigand  (der  Pfaffc 


KAHXIS 


KALAMATA 


T33 


vom  Kahhnlerg),  who  is  said  to  have  lived 
here  in  the  first  part  of  the  14th  century. 

KAHXIS,  Karl  Friedrieh  August,  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Greitz,  Dec.  22,  1814.  He 
studied  at  Halle,  graduated  in  Berlin,  and  be 
came  professor  in  Breslau,  and  in  1850  in  Lcip- 
sic.  He  was  regarded  as  a  leader  of  the  ortho 
dox  Lutherans  until  the  publication  of  his 
Lutherische  Dogmatik  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1861- 
'4),  which  placed  him  in  antagonism  with  the 
views  of  Hengstenberg  and  other  orthodox 
theologians,  and  in  nearer  relation  with  the 
Reformed  church.  His  works  are  numerous. 

RAIETEIR  FALL.     See  GUIANA. 

RAIRWAtf,  Kairvan,  or  El  Kinvan,  a  city  of 
Tunis,  Africa,  80  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Tunis ; 
pop.  estimated  at  15,000.  It  is  situated  on 
a  height  commanding  a  large  sandy  plain,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  crenellated  wall  having  four 
gates.  It  is  well  built  and  contains  many  ele 
gant  structures,  including  numerous  mosques 
and  tombs  of  marabouts.  The  Akbar  mosque 
is  a  magnificent  edifice,  covering  nearly  the 
whole  of  one  of  the  quarters.  Its  roof  is  sup 
ported  by  312  columns  of  marble,  granite,  and 
porphyry,  of  the  Roman  period.  The  town 
is  badly  supplied  with  water,  the  main  depen 
dence  being  a  capacious  open  reservoir  of  Sara 
cenic  origin,  called  the  cistern  of  Ibrahim  ben 
Aglab,  a  polygon  of  64  sides,  each  of  six  yards. 
Kairwan  was  founded  by  the  Arabs  about  A.  D. 
670,  and  was  from  802  to  970  the  capital  of 
their  independent  African  dominions.  It  is 
regarded  by  the  Mohammedans  as  the  most 
holy  city  of  Africa,  and  no  Christian  or  Jewish 
merchant  is  permitted  to  take  up  his  residence 
there.  According  to  Arabian  historians,  its 
population  was  once  60,000.  It  is  noted  chiefly, 
in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  for  the  manu 
facture  of  yellow  morocco  boots  and  slippers. 

RAISARIYEII,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  vilayet  and 
160  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Angora;  pop.  vari 
ously  estimated  from  25,000  to  50,000.  It  is 
situated  in  a  recess  of  the  Arjish  mountains, 
at  an  elevation  of  3,200  ft.  above  the  sea.  An 
extensive  plain,  watered  by  the  river  Kara-su, 
and  fertile  in  cotton,  fruits,  and  wine,  stretches 
N.  from  the  hills.  The  town  is  walled,  and 
the  houses  are  mostly  of  stone,  but  the  streets 
are  narrow  and  dirty.  It  is  the  emporium  of 
an  extensive  export  trade.  The  chief  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  cotton  yarn,  cloth,  and 
yellow  morocco  leather. — This  place,  ancient 
ly  called  Mazaca,  was  the  capital  of  Cappado- 
cia  until  that  country  was  formed  into  a  Ro 
man  province,  when  the  name  of  the  city 
was  changed  to  Cresarea  (whence  its  modern 
name),  under  which  latter  appellation  it  gave 
title  to  a  Christian  bishop  from  the  early  times 
of  the  church.  (See  C.ESAREA,  II.) 

RAISERSLAUTERtf,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the 
Palatinate,  on  the  Lauter,  32  m.  W.  N.  W.  of 
Spire ;  pop.  in  1871, 17,867.  It  has  a  Catholic 
and  two  Protestant  churches,  a  Latin  school,  a 
Protestant  normal  school,  several  other  educa 


tional  institutions,  and  a  richly  endowed  hospi 
tal.  There  are  manufactories  of  tobacco,  cot 
ton,  and  hosiery,  and  several  iron  works.  On 
Nov.  30,  1793,  the  duke  of  Brunswick  gained 
here  a  victory  over  Hoche.  The  French  also  suf 
fered  defeats  here  in  May  and  September,  1794. 

RAISERSWERTH,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  the  Rhine,  on  the  river  Rhine, 
6  m.  N.  K  W.  of  Diisseldorf ;  pop.  in  1871, 
2,223.  It  is  noted  for  the  house  of  evangeli 
cal  deaconesses  founded  by  Pastor  Fliedner, 
which  has  now  branches  in  all  countries  of 
the  Protestant  world.  (See  DEACONESS.) 

RAROD1LE,  or  Caeodylc  (As2C4IIia),  a  coupled 
compound  of  arsenic  and  methyle,  expressed 
by  the  name  arsendimethyle.  The  substance 
is  a  highly  poisonous  liquid,  heavier  than 
water,  gives  forth  vapors  of  specific  gravity 
7'1,  which  have  a  most  disgusting  odor,  and 
takes  fire  spontaneously  on  exposure  to  the 
air.  It  boils  at  338°  F.,  and  solidifies  in  square 
prisms  at  43°  F. ;  it  is  soluble  in  alcohol  or 
ether,  but  scarcely  so  in  water.  It  unites  as  a 
base  directly  with  oxygen,  and  probably  with 
sulphur  and  chlorine  also ;  and  it  furnished 
the  first  instance  of  the  isolation  of  an  organic 
metallic  basyle.  It  is  obtained  by  decompo 
sing  its  chloride  by  granulated  zinc,  or  its  sul- 
phuret  by  means  of  mercury.  The  prepara 
tion  of  the  compounds  of  kakodyle  is  difficult 
and  dangerous.  The  oxide  obtained  by  distil 
ling  equal  parts  of  dried  acetate  of  potash  and 
arsenious  acid  is  an  impure  quality  of  the 
fetid  liquid  formerly  known  as  Cadet's  fuming 
liquor,  or  alkarsine,  which  inflames  spontane 
ously  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

RALAFAT,  a  walled  town  of  Roumania,  in 
Little  Wallachia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dan 
ube  opposite  "\Vidin,  155  m.  W.  S.  AV.  of  Bu 
charest  ;  pop.  about  2,500.  It  has  a  town  hall, 
a  custom  house,  a  quarantine,  and  cavalry  bar 
racks.  The  town  is  built  on  a  plain  of  the 
same  name,  skirted  by  hills.  Its  fortifications 
describe  an  arc  of  a  circle  around  the  town, 
the  Danube  forming  the  chord.  It  is  impor 
tant  in  a  strategic  point  of  view,  and  lias  fig 
ured  more  than  once  in  Turkish  military  an 
nals.  Here  the  Russians  in  1829  lost  10,000 
men  in  their  operations  against  the  Turks. 
Severe  engagements  took  place  in  its  vicinity 
in  the  early  part  of  January,  1854;  and  an 
assault  of  the  Russians  was  repulsed  by  the 
Turks  on  April  19. 

RALAMATA,  a  town  of  Greece,  capital  of  the 
nomarchy  of  Messenia  and  of  an  eparchy  of  the 
same  name,  about  1  in.  from  the  gulf  of  Koron 
in  the  south  of  the  Peloponnesus;  pop.  about 
6,200.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Messe 
nia,  and  of  a  court  of  the  first  resort,  and  has 
a  busy  trade.  Its  chief  exports  are  wool,  oil, 
cheese,  raw  silk,  and  figs.  A  kind  of  hand 
kerchief  is  manufactured  here,  which  is  in 
great  demand  in  the  Levant.  Kalamata  is 
supposed  to  be  built  on  the  site  of  Pherre,  one 
of  the  maritime  cities  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war.  During  the  crusades  it  was  one  of  the 


734 


KALAKAUA 


KALCKREUTH 


most  important  places  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  was  annexed  to  the  possessions  of  Venice. 
It  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  at  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century.  It  was  among 
the  first  towns  delivered  by  the  Greeks  in 
1821,  and  the  first  where  a  Grecian  legislative 
assembly  was  convened.  In  1825  it  suffered 
from  the  attack  of  the  Egyptians  under  Ibra 
him  Pasha,  but  the  damage  then  inflicted  upon 
the  town  has  been  gradually  repaired. 

KALAKAUA,  David,  seventh  king  of  the  Ha 
waiian  Islands,  born  in  Honolulu,  Nov.  16, 
1836.  lie  is  the  son  of  C.  Kapaakea  and  Keo- 
hokalole,  and  is  descended  on  his  mother's  side 
from  Keawe,  an  ancient  king  of  the  island  of 
Hawaii.  lie  received  an  English  education, 
with  Prince  Lunalilo  and  about  15  other  hered 
itary  chiefs,  in  the  royal  school  at  Honolulu. 
In  I860  he  visited  California.  On  Dec.  19, 
1863,  he  married  the  chief tainess  Kapiolani. 
On  the  death  of  Lunalilo,  Feb.  3,  1874,  with 
out  proclaiming  a  successor,  both  Kalakaua 
and  the  queen  dowager  Emma,  relict  of  Kame- 
hameha  IV.,  announced  themselves  as  candi 
dates  for  the  throne.  The  legislature  was  sum 
moned  in  extra  session  to  elect  a  king.  On 
Feb.  12  Kalakaua  received  39  electoral  votes 
out  of  45,  the  remaining  6  being  given  to 
Queen  Emma ;  and  the  former  was  consequent 
ly  declared  king.  On  hearing  the  result  a  mob 
of  Queen  Emma's  partisans  broke  into  the 
court  house  and  attacked  the  legislature  still 
sitting  there.  The  authorities  asked  help  from 
the  American  and  British  ships  of  war  then 
lying  in  port,  and  the  insurgents  were  prompt 
ly  dispersed  by  parties  of  marines  from  the 
Tuscarora,  Portsmouth,  and  Tenedos.  Kala 
kaua  was  installed  as  king  on  the  same  day. 
On  the  14th  he  proclaimed  his  brother,  Prince 
William  Pitt  Leleiohoku,  heir  apparent. 

KALAMAZOO,  a  S.  W.  county  of  the  S.  penin 
sula  of  Michigan,  drained  by  the  Kalarnazoo 
and  affluents  of  St.  Joseph's  river;  area,  576 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  32,054.  The  surface  is 
level  or  undulating,  with  rich  prairies,  fertile 
plains  dotted  with  oak  timber,  and  thick  for 
ests.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Michigan  Central 
and  its  South  Haven  division,  the  Grand  Rap 
ids  and  Indiana,  the  Kalamazoo  division  of  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  and  the 
Peninsular  railroads,  the  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  844,284  bushels  of  wheat,  143,817 
of  Indian  corn,  22(1,942  of  oats,  312,777  of  po 
tatoes,  299,532  Ib.s.  of  wool,  29,392  of  hops, 
714,909  of  butter,  and  40,784  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  8,583  horses,  7,182  milch  cows, 
7,634  other  cattle,  76,699  sheep,  and  18,748 
swine ;  5  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple 
ments,  5  of  brick,  15  of  carriages,  10  of  coo 
perage,  4  of  iron  castings,  2  of  engines  and 
boilers,  2  of  musical  instruments,  1  of  printing 
paper,  12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  1  of  woollen  goods,  4  breweries, 
5  planing  mills,  15  saw  mills,  10  flour  mills, 
and  4  tanneries.  Capital,  Kalamazoo. 


KALAMAZOO,  a  village  and  the  county  seat 
of  Kalamazoo  co.,  Michigan,  on  the  left  or  W. 
bank  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  about  65 
m.  from  its  mouth  in  Lake  Michigan,  60  m. 
S.  W.  of  Lansing,  and  143  m.  W.  of  Detroit ; 
pop.  in  1850,  2,507;  in  1860,  6,070  ;  in  1870, 
9,181.  It  is  pleasantly  situated,  in  the  midst 
of  a  beautiful  and  fertile  country,  and  is  regu 
larly  built  with  broad  streets  shaded  by  fine 
oak,  maple,  and  elm  trees.  It  contains  many 
elegant  residences  and  fine  business  structures. 
The  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana  railroad,  the 
main  line  and  South  Haven  division  of  the 
Michigan  Central,  and  the  Kalamazoo  division 
of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  rail 
roads  intersect  here.  The  manufactories,  which 
are  run  partly  by  water  power  furnished  by 
the  river  and  partly  by  steam,  include  two 
founderies,  an  extensive  paper  mill,  two  marble 
works,  two  carriage  factories,  a  wagon  shop,  a 
piano  and  billiard-table  leg  factory,  a  fanning 
mill  factory,  three  planing  mills,  a  plough  and 
cultivator  factory,  manufactories  of  furniture, 
steel  springs,  burial  caskets,  washing  machines, 
and  morocco,  tanneries,  &c.  There  are  two 
national  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $400,000,  and 
a  state  bank.  Kalamazoo  is  the  seat  of  the 
state  insane  asylum ;  of  Kalamazoo  college 
(Baptist),  organized  in  1855;  and  of  Michigan 
female  seminary  (Presbyterian),  organized  in 
1866.  Kalamazoo  college  has  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department,  the  latter  inclu 
ding  classical  and  scientific  courses,  and  in 
1872-'3  had  three  professors,  6  instructors,  and 
192  students,  of  whom  116  were  males  and  76 
females,  26  collegiate  and  166  preparatory,  and 
a  library  of  2,000  volumes.  Michigan  female 
seminary  is  a  collegiate  institution,  having  in 
1873-'4  10  instructors  and  57  students.  There 
are  six  public  schools,  employing  more  than  40 
teachers,  a  private  school  for  young  ladies,  a 
daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly 
periodical,  and  16  churches. — The  village  was 
first  settled  in  1829,  and  was  organized  in 
1831.  It  was  known  as  Bronson,  from  the 
first  settler,  till  1836. 

KALAMAZOO  RIVER,  a  river  of  Michigan, 
which  rises  in  Hillsdale  co.,  in  the  S.  part  of  the 
state,  and  after  a  circuitous  course  of  nearly 
200  m.  flows  into  Lake  Michigan,  in  Allegan 
co.,  98  in.  in  a  direct  line  from  its  source.  Its 
general  direction  is  W.  N.  W.  It  is  300  or  400 
ft.  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  navigable  at  all  sea 
sons  by  vessels  of  50  tons  to  Allegan,  38  m. 
from  the  lake.  It  drains  a  rich  level  country, 
affording  extensive  water  power. 

KALCKREUTH,  Friedrith  Adolf  von,  count,  a 
German  general,  born  at  Sottershausen,  Feb. 
22,  1737,  died  in  Berlin,  June  10,  1818.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1752,  and  in  reward  of 
distinguished  services  was  made  a  count  in 
1788.  In  1793  he  compelled  Mentz  to  capitu 
late,  and  shared  in  the  victories  at  Kaiserslau- 
tern  (1793-'4)  and  in  subsequent  successes.  In 
1807  he  defended  Dantzic  against  the  French, 
was  allowed  to  surrender  under  the  same  hon- 


KALEIDOSCOPE 


KALIDASA 


735 


orable  conditions  which  he  had  accorded  at 
Mentz,  and  was  made  field  marshal.  In  the 
same  year  he  concluded  a  truce  with  Berthier 
at  Tilsit,  preliminary  to  the  treaty  of  peace 
which  he  and  Goltz  negotiated  in  July  with 
Talleyrand.  In  1810  he  became  governor  of 
Berlin,  which  office  he  resumed  in  1814,  after 
having  been  governor  of  Breslau. — His  son, 
Count  FRIEDBICH,  published  in  1825  Drama- 
tische  I)  id  it  ung  e  n  ;  and  a  nephew  of  the  latter, 
Count  STANISLAUS  (born  Dec.  25,  1820),  be 
came  a  landscape  painter  and  director  of  the 
school  of  art  at  Weimar. 

KALEIDOSCOPE  (Gr.  Kal.6s,  beautiful,  eWo?,  a 
form,  and  cvco-fZv,  to  see),  an  optical  instru 
ment  for  multiplying  the  reflected  images  of 
small  colored  objects,  producing  by  the  sym 
metry  of  their  arrangement  patterns  of  great 
beauty.  An  instrument  on  this  principle  was 
originally  described  by  Battista  della  Porta  and 
Kircher ;  and  in  a  work  by  R.  Bradley,  pub 
lished  in  1717,  entitled  "New  Improvement  of 
Planting  and  Gardening,"  it  was  recommended 
for  aiding  in  the  production  of  designs  for 
garden  plots  and  fortifications.  Its  true  prin 
ciples  were  first  developed,  however,  by  Sir 
David  Brewster,  who  devised  the  proper  method 
of  its  construction,  and  in  1817  took  out  a 
patent  for  it. — "When  two  oblong  mirrors  of 
the  same  dimensions  are  placed  so  as  to  hinge 
together  along  an  edge  of  each,  their  reflecting 
surfaces  facing  each  other,  and  are  then  opened, 
so  as  to  make  an  angle  which  is  an  aliquot  part 
of  180°,  an  object  placed  between  the  planes 
of  the  mirrors,  or  in  contact  with  one  of  the 
extremities  of  the  pair,  is  reflected  from  one 
mirror  to  the  other,  and  produces  as  many 
images  as  the  angle  of  the  opening  is  contained 
in  300°.  These  images  are  arranged  in  sym 
metrical  order  around  a  circular  area,  the  ra 
dius  of  which  is  the  width  of  the  mirror,  and 
the  centre  the  point  of  meeting  in  the  two 
planes.  The  perfect  symmetry  of  their  ar 
rangement  depends  on  the  angle  of  the  open 
ing  being  an  aliquot  part  of  two  right  angles, 
and  that  usually  employed  is  either  18°  or  20°. 
Another  requisite  is,  that  the  line  of  junction 
of  the  two  mirrors  should  be  fine  and  smooth, 
as  any  irregularities  would  produce  imperfec 
tions.  As  usually  constructed,  the  mirrors  are 
strips  of  glass  blackened  on  one  side.  They 
are  kept  together  by  a  piece  of  cloth  glued 
over  the  edges  in  contact,  and  the  proper  an 
gle  ?s  preserved  by  securing  them  in  a  tube  of 
suitable  shape.  The  open  side  of  the  triangu 
lar  prism  formed  by  the  two  mirrors  is  closed 
by  a  strip  of  black  velvet  of  suitable  width 
glued  to  the  backs  of  the  two  mirrors.  The 
cylindrical  tube  is  of  the  diameter  of  the  larger 
end  of  the  prism,  and  the  angle  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  the  two  planes  at  the  other  extrem 
ity  is  nearly  coincident  with  the  centre  of  the 
circular  end  of  the  tube.  Through  the  cover 
of  this  a  small  aperture  is  made  exactly  in  the 
angle,  to  which  the  eye  is  to  be  applied  in 
using  the  instrument.  At  the  other  extremity  a 
VOL.  ix. — 47 


plain  disk  of  thin  transparent  glass  is  fitted  close 
to  the  ends  of  the  mirrors,  and  outside  of  this 
is  another  disk,  the  two  kept  apart  by  a  ring 
set  in  between  them.  In  the  intervening  space 
the  objects  to  be  reflected  are  placed.  These 
may  be  small  fragments  of  colored  transparent 
glass  intermixed  with  a  variety  of  other  small 
bright  objects.  But  care  must  be  taken  not  to  fill 
the  case  too  full  for  the  objects  to  move  freely 
among  themselves  while  the  tube  is  made  to 
turn  in  the  hand  upon  its  axis.  By  looking 
into  the  circular  aperture  made  for  the  eye, 
the  most  gorgeous  figures  are  perceived  sym 
metrically  arranged,  and  all  forming  one  com 
plete  pattern. — Kaleidoscopes  are  also  made 
with  three,  four,  five,  or  more  mirrors,  and  are 
then  termed  polyccntral.  To  produce  symme 
try  and  regularity  of  form  in  the  images  of 
these  kaleidoscopes,  the  angles  which  the  mir 
rors  make  with  each  other  must  necessarily  be 
aliquot  parts  of  180°;  and  as  their  number  is 
increased,  the  range  of  the  instrument  in  the 
variation  of  these  angles  is  diminished.  Thus 
three  mirrors  only  should  be  arranged  to  make 
the  three  angles  of  60°  each,  or  two  of  45°  each 
and  one  of  "90°,  or  one  of  30°,  one  of  CO0, 
and  one  of  90°.  By  the  first  arrangement,  the 
images  appear  in  groups  of  three  repeated 
throughout  the  pattern.  This  instrument  is 
called  the  triascope.  By  the  second  arrange 
ment,  the  instrument,  called  the  tetrascope, 
produces  a  pattern  divided  into  square  com 
partments.  By  the  third  arrangement,  the  pat 
tern,  of  hexagonal  form,  presents  a  remarkable 
symmetry,  and  the  instrument  is  termed  a  hex- 
ascope.  The  last  two  forms  arc  especially 
useful  to  the  draughtsman. 

KALERGIS,  Demetrius,  a  Greek  soldier,  born 
in  Candia  about  1803,  died  in  Athens,  April 
24,  1867.  lie  was  educated  in  Russia,  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  war  of  Grecian  inde 
pendence,  was  one  of  the  promoters  of  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1843,  into  which 
he  entered  as  a  partisan  of  Russia,  and  subse 
quently  became  general  and  adjutant  of  King 
Otho,  but  regigned  in  1845.  In  London  he 
became  acquainted  with  Louis  Napoleon,  which 
led  to  his  being  appointed  Greek  ambassador 
at  Paris  in  1861,  after  having  in  the  interval 
acted  for  some  time  as  minister  of  war. 

KALGAN,  or  Chan^kiakan,  a  town  of  China, 
in  the  province  of  Chihli,  110  m.  N.  "W.  of  Pe 
king,  renowned  as  a  commercial  station  be 
tween  Russia  and  China,  and  as  one  of  the 
great  market  towns  of  the  empire.  It  extends 
several  miles  along  the  W.  bank  of  a  tributary 
of  the  Yangho,  the  stream  breaking  through  a 
narrow  gorge  and  forming  a  natural  outlet  for 
the  highway  of  N.  Asia.  Remains  of  a  gate 
of  the  great  wall  are  visible  on  either  side  of 
the  gorge,  and  the  scenery  is  fine. 

KALEVALA,  the  national  epic  of  Finland. 
See  FINLAND,  vol.  vii.,  p.  203. 

KALIDASA,  an  Indian  poet,  who,  according  to 
tradition,  lived  at  the  court  of  King  Vikraina- 
ditya,  in  the  1st  century  B.  C.  He  was  one 


73G 


KALISCII 


KALKBREXNER 


of  the  poets  called  the  nine  precious  stones  of 
the  court.  Vikraraaditya  (sun  of  strength)  is 
a  title  given  to  several  Hindoo  monarchs,  and 
many  scholars  helieve  Kalidasa  to  have  flour 
ished  in  the  llth  century  A.  D.  at  the  court  of 
King  Bhoja.  The  works  attributed  to  him  are 
so  various  that  the  existence  of  several  poets 
of  his  name  at  different  periods  has  been  sup 
posed.  His  best  production  is  the  drama  Sd- 
kuntald,  Avliich  was  translated  into  English  by 
Sir  William  Jones  in  1789,  and  immediately  ex 
cited  in  Europe  a  lively  interest  in  Sanskrit 
literature.  It  was  translated  into  German  by 
Forster  (1790),  Herder  (1803),  and  others,  and 
into  French  by  Chezy  (published  with  the  San 
skrit  original,  1830).  He  is  the  author  also  of  the 
drama  Vikramurvasi  (translated  into  English 
by  H.  II.  Wilson ;  published  with  a  Latin  trans 
lation  by  Lentz,  Berlin,  1833);  the  comedy 
"Malavika  and  Agnimitra"  (published  with  a 
Latin  translation  by  Fallberg,  Bonn,  1840) ;  the 
epical  poem  RagJiuransa  (published  in  San 
skrit  and  Latin  by  Stenzler,  London,  1832); 
the  liumdra-SamMdca  (also  edited  by  Stenzler, 
London,  1838);  the  Megha-duta,  or  "Cloud 
Messenger  "  (translated  into  English  verse  by 
H.  II.  Wilson,  Calcutta,  1813,  and  London, 
1843) ;  and  other  dramatic  and  lyrical  pieces. 

KALISCII.     See  KALISZ. 

KALISCII,  David,  a  German  humorist  of  Jew 
ish  parentage,  born  in  Breslau,  Feb.  23,  1820, 
died  in  Berlin,  Aug.  21,  1872.  He  began  his 
literary  activity  in  Paris,  and  in  1848  founded 
in  Berlin  the  KladderadatscJi,  the  German 
''Punch,"  which  toward  the  close  of  his  life 
he  edited  jointly  with  Dohm.  He  was  the  au 
thor  of  several  popular  plays,  among  the  best 
known  of  which  are  Hundcrttausend  Thaler, 
Berlin  Itei  Naclit,  Doctor  Peschke,  and  Berlin 
wie  es  weint  und  laclit.  His  pieces  have  been 
played  with  great  success.  There  is  a  collec 
tion  of  his  works,  entitled  Berliner  LeierJcasten. 

KALISPELS,  or  Pends  d'Oreilles,  a  tribe  of  In 
dians,  of  the  Selish  family,  living  in  Montana, 
Idaho,  Washington  territory,  and  British  Amer 
ica.  They  are  a  brave  but  peaceable  and  good- 
tempered  race,  willing  to  work,  and,  though 
originally  a  miserable  half-starved  race,  have 
made  great  improvement,  chiefly  under  the  in 
fluence  of  the  missions  founded  among  them 
by  Father  P.  J.  De  Smet  in  1844.  They  have 
been  exposed  to  inroads  of  less  civilized  tribes, 
and  have  been  forced  from  lands  which  they 
had  cultivated  and  deemed  secured  to  them. 
A  treaty  made  in  July,  1855,  ceded  the  lands 
of  the  Montana  band,  but  no  consideration  was 
paid;  this  treaty  was  approved  in  1859,  and 
the  Kalispels  were  left  on  a  reservation  in  Bit 
ter  Root  valley  till  1871,  when,  under  a  clause 
in  the  treaty  of  1855,  President  Grant  ordered 
them  to  be  removed  to  Jocko  reservation. 
His  action  was  approved  by  act  of  congress, 
June  5j  1872.  The  houses  for  chiefs  promised 
by  the  treaty  of  1855,  and  an  agricultural 
school  also  promised,  were  never  begun.  In 
1872  this  band  numbered  1,000.  They  had  70 


farms  under  cultivation  in  Bitter  Root  valley, 
had  800  cattle,  2,000  horses,  and  many  hogs, 
raised  large  quantities  of  wheat,  oats,  potatoes, 
and  corn,  and  had  to  a  considerable  extent 
adopted  the  dress  of  the  whites.  The  band  in 
Idaho  numbered  700,  and  were  alternately  on 
British  and  on  American  soil.  The  band  in 
Washington  territory,  numbering  about  400, 
were  in  Kalispel  valley,  east  of  the  Cascade 
mountains,  and  were  reported  as  the  most 
peaceable  and  quiet  tribe  in  the  territory,  cul 
tivating  about  400  acres,  and  having  numerous 
horses,  cattle,  and  poultry.  An  executive  order 
of  July  2,  1872,  directed  their  removal  to  a 
reservation  north  and  west  of  the  Columbia, 
although  they  remonstrated  against  it. 

KALISZ  (Ger.  Kaliscli).  I.  A  W.  govern 
ment  of  European  Russia,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Poland,  bordering  on  the  governments  of 
Plock,  Warsaw,  and  Piotrkow,  and  the  Prus 
sian  province  of  Posen ;  area,  4,200  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1867,  601,029.  II.  One  of  the  oldest 
towns  of  Russian  Poland,  capital  of  the  gov 
ernment,  between  two  branches  of  the  Pros- 
na,  on  the  Prussian  frontier,  130  m.  S.  W.  of 
Wrarsaw ;  pop.  in  1867,  13,602,  of  whom  one 
fifth  were  Jews.  It  has  several  higher  schools, 
a  theatre,  and  a  fine  promenade.  It  was  con 
spicuous  during  the  wars  of  the  Polish  and 
Silesian  princes  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was 
taken  in  1656  by  the  Swedes.  The  Russians 
and  Saxons  gained  a  victory  here  over  Charles 
XII.  in  1706,  and  the  Russians  over  the  French 
in  February,  1813.  A  few  days  after  the  latter 
event  an  alliance  was  formed  here  between  the 
czar  and  the  king  of  Prussia. 

KALKASKA,  a  K  W.  county  of  the  S.  penin 
sula  of  Michigan,  drained  by  the  Manistee  and 
Grand  Traverse  rivers  ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  424.  Capital,  Clear  water. 

KALKBRENNER.  I.  Christian,  a  German  com 
poser,  born  in  Minden,  Sept.  22,  1755,  died  in 
Paris,  Aug.  10,  1806.  He  was  for  a  number  of 
years  in  the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of  Prus 
sia,  the  brother  of  Frederick  the  Great,  as 
composer;  and  subsequently  he  officiated  as 
singing  master  in  the  academy  of  music  in  Pa 
ris.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  operas 
and  pianoforte  pieces,  and  of  a  history  of  mu 
sic,  not  completed  at  his  death,  which  is  con 
sidered  valuable  authority  on  whatever  relates 
to  Hebrew  and  Greek  music.  II.  Friedrifh, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Cassel  in  1784, 
died  at  Enghien-les-Bains,  near  Paris,  June 
10,  1849.  His  musical  education  commenced 
at  an  early  age,  and  was  completed  in  Paris, 
where  in  1802  he  gained  two  prizes  at  the 
conservatory.  As  a  pianoforte  performer  he 
was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  his  time,  and 
his  compositions  for  that  instrument  arc  still 
in  great  estimation.  During  several  years  he 
resided  in  England  as  a  teacher,  but  in  1823 
he  fixed  himself  permanently  in  Paris.  Among 
his  works  are  many  pieces  of  chamber  music 
for  a  variety  of  instruments.  He  arranged  the 
symphonies  of  Beethoven  for  the  pianoforte. 


KALM 


KALOCSA 


737 


KALM,  Peter,  a  Swedish  botanist,  born  at 
Osterbotten  in  1715,  died  in  Abo,  Nov.  16, 
1779.  lie  was  educated  at  Upsal,  and  on  the 
suggestion  of  Linna3us  he  was  selected  in  1745 
by  the  Swedish  government  to  make  a  botani 
cal  tour  of  North  America.  He  arrived  in 
Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1748,  and  re 
mained  in  America  till  1751.  travelling  and 
gathering  specimens  of  plants  in  Canada,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania.  On  returning  to 
S  \veden  he  published  En  renn  til  A'orra 
America  (3  vols.,  Stockholm,  1753-'61),  trans 
lated  into  English  by  John  Reinhold  Forster 
under  the  title  of  "  Travels  in  North  America" 
(2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  London,  1772)  ;  it  was  also 
translated  into  German  and  Dutch.  He  was 
made  professor  of  natural  history  at  Abo,  and 
published  numerous  dissertations  covering  a 
wide  range  of  botanical  subjects. 

KALMAR.     See  CALMAE. 

KALMIA,  a  genus  of  handsome  flowering, 
evergreen,  North  American  shrubs  of  the 
order  cricaccce,  named  in  honor  of  Peter 
Kalm.  They  are  popularly  known  as  laurels, 
but  are  not  related  to  laurm,  the  true  laurel. 
The  best  known  and  most  conspicuous  species 
is  the  mountain  laurel  (A",  latifolia),  a  fine 
shrub,  sometimes  forming  a  small  tree  15  or  20 
ft.  high  ;  it  is  found  upon  rocky  hills,  in  moun 
tain  ravines,  as  well  as  in  damp  rocky  pastures, 
from  Canada  to  Florida.  The  leaves  are 
scattered,  or  in  whorls  or  tufts,  2  to  4  in.  long, 


Kalmia  latifolia. 

ovate-lanceolate,  pctioled,  somewhat  reflexed 
on  the  margins,  of  a  bright  green  color  and 
a  leathery  texture.  The  flowers,  which  vary 
from  pure  white  to  deep  rose  color,  are  borne 
in  large  terminal  heads,  and  are  externally  so 
viscid  as  to  adhere  to  each  other  when  care 
lessly  plucked.  The  corolla  is  beautiful  both 
before  and  after  it  opens;  in  its  unexpanded 
state  it  has  been  compared  to  a  "  ten-angled 
casket ;"  it  is  monopetalous  and  salver-shaped 
or  shallow  bell-shaped.  There  are  ten  stamens, 
the  long  filaments  of  which  are  arched  by  each 
anther  being  caught  in  and  held  by  a  depression 


;  in  the  corolla;  a  slight  disturbance,  such  as  the 
•  entrance  of  an  insect,  dislodges  the  anthers 
j  from  their  niches,  and  the  bowed  stamens 
;  spring  violently  upward,  the  jerk  scattering 
j  the  pollen,  which  is  in  this  genus  liberated  from 
|  a  hole  or  pore  in  the  apex  of  each  anther  cell. 
I  This  is  one  among  the  many  contrivances 
i  for  securing  cross  fertilization.  The  stems  and 
roots  afford  a  favorite  material  for  rustic  work ; 
the  wood  is  close-grained  and  hard,  and  is  used 
|  for  turning  handles  for  tools  and  other  small 
wares ;  from  its  use  in  carving,  it  is  in  some 
places  called  spoonwood,  and  it  is  also  some 
times  called  calico  bush.  The  mountain  laurel 
is  in  Europe  one  of  the  most  highly  prized  of 
American  plants,  but  is  rarely  seen  in  our 
gardens.  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  im 
possible  to  transplant  it ;  but  if  the  head  of  the 
tree  be  severely  cut  back  so  that  nothing  but 
naked  branches  are  left,  and  the  plant  removed 
to  good  garden  soil  in  early  spring,  it  will  soon 
throw  out  new  shoots  and  by  autumn  be  well 
clothed  with  foliage.  The  flowers  may  be  had 
late  in  winter  by  placing  bud-bearing  branches 
in  water  in  a  warm  room.  The  other  species 
have  the  same  structure  in  the  flowers  as  the 
one  already  described.  The  low  laurel,  sheep 
laurel,  or  lamb-kill  (/f.  angustifolia)  is  equally 
widely  distributed,  but  is  much  smaller,  not 
growing  above  3  ft.,  and  often  forming  tufts  in 
low  grounds.  Its  leaves  are  opposite  or  in 
threes,  light  green  above,  and  pale  or  whitish 
below  ;  the  small  deep  crimson  flowers  are  in 
corymbs,  which  appear  lateral  by  the  growth  of 
the  present  season's  shoots.  As  indicated  by  its 
common  names,  this  shrub  has  the  reputation 
among  farmers  of  being  poisonous  to  sheep ; 
some  have  attributed  the  ill  effects  upon  sheep 
to  the  indigestibility  of  the  leaves;  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  foliage  of  this 
and  the  preceding  species  produces  poisonous 
effects  on  man,  including  nausea  and  temporary 
blindness,  and  similar  symptoms  are  observed 
in  sheep,  which  arc  relieved  by  an  emetic. 
The  pale  laurel  (K.  ghtuc(f)  is  found  in  cold 
peat  bogs,  usually  on  mountains  from  Penn 
sylvania  northward.  It  is  about  one  foot  high, 
with  a  straggling  stem,  opposite,  nearly  sessile 
leaves,  which  are  very  glaucous  beneath,  and 
few-flowered  corymbs  of  lilac-purple  flowers. 
A  species  peculiar  to  the  southern  states  from 
Virginia  to  Florida  is  popularly  called  wicky 
(K.  hirsute?) ;  it  differs  from  the  others  in  hav 
ing  solitary  axillary  flowers;  it  does  not  grow 
over  18  in.  high,  and  has  very  small  leaves, 
a  decoction  of  which  is  used  by  the  negroes 
to  cure  diseases  of  the  skin.  The  only  other 
species  is  K.  cimeata,  a  rather  uncommon  low 
shrub  found  in  North  and  South  Carolina. 

KALOCSA,  a  town  of  Hungary,  near  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Danube,  in  the  county  and  69  m. 
|  S.  of  the  city  of  Pcsth;  pop.  in  1869,  16,302. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
and  has  an  episcopal  seminary  and  a  gymna 
sium.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
agriculture  and  the  cultivation  of  wine. 


738 


KALUGA 


KAMEHAMEHA 


KALUGA.  I.  A  central  government  of  Rus 
sia,  bordering  on  Smolensk,  Moscow,  Tula, 
and  Orel;  area,  11,927  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  18G7, 
984,255.  The  surface  is  in  general  very  level. 
It  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  the  principal 
of  which  is  the  Oka.  The  soil  is  of  a  sandy 
or  strong  clayey  nature,  and  only  moderately 
fertile.  More  than  half  of  this  province  is  un 
der  forest.  The  climate  is  one  of  the  mildest 
in  Russia.  Iron,  coal,  chalk,  and  gypsum  are 
found.  Woollens,  linens,  sail  cloth,  &c.,  are 
manufactured.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  gov 
ernment,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oka,  95  m. 
S.  W.  of  Moscow  ;  pop.  in  1867,  36,080.  It  is 
irregularly  built,  being  7  m.  in  circumference, 
though  not  containing  more  than  4,000  houses, 
chiefly  of  wood.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  ram 
part  which  has  been  converted  into  a  public 
promenade.  It  contains  23  churches,  a  theo 
logical  college,  nunnery,  hospital,  gymnasium, 
government  house,  orphan  asylum,  public  li 
brary,  and  theatre.  It  is  a  place  of  consider- 
able^trade,  and  the  chief  seat  of  the  manu 
factures  of  the  province.  A  commercial  bank 
was  founded  here  by  a  public-spirited  citizen 
in  1859,  the  profits  to  be  applied  to  charita 
ble  purposes.  Political  offenders  of  high  rank 
have  been  banished  to  Kaluga  for  many  years 
past.  Shamyl  was  removed  to  Kaluga  in  1859. 

KALW.     See  CALW. 

KAMA,  a  river  of  Russia,  the  principal  affluent 
of  the  Volga.  It  rises  in  a  branch  of  the  Ural 
mountains  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  government 
of  Yiatka,  runs  first  N.  and  N.  E.,  then  takes 
a  S.  and  S.  W.  direction  through  the  govern 
ments  of  Perm  and  Kazan,  forming  interme 
diately  the  boundary  between  Viatka  and  Ufa, 
and  joins  the  Volga,  after  a  course  of  about 
1,200  in.,  40  m.  from  the  city  of  Kazan, 
almost  doubling  the  volume  of  the  Arolga.  It 
receives  in  its  course  the  tributary  rivers  Vi- 
shera,  Tchusovaya,  Bielaya,  and  Ik  on  the 
left,  and  the  Obva  and  Viatka  on  the  right. 
The  Kama  is  navigated  by  barges  to  Perm,  and 
by  flatboats  much  higher.  Its  waters  at  Perm 
have  a  depth  of  23  ft.  less  at  the  end  of  sum 
mer  than  in  the  freshets  of  spring.  It  is  con 
nected  with  a  branch  of  the  Dwina  by  a  canal 
12  m.  long,  establishing  water  communication 
between  the  Caspian  and  White  seas. 

KAMEELA,  or  Kamala,  the  glandular  powder 
and  hairs  obtained  from  the  capsules  of  JKott- 
lera  tinctoria,  a  small  tree  of  the  order  eupTior- 
biacece  growing  in  the  East  Indies.  The  finest, 
consisting  of  roundish  three-celled  capsules,  is 
gathered  in  February  and  March,  and  the  light, 
mobile,  brownish  red  powder  formed  by  the 
glands  and  hairs,  brushed  off.  This  consists  in 
a  large  proportion  (78  per  cent.)  of  resins,  one 
or  more  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  active 
principle.  Kameela  is  actively  purgative  in 
full  doses,  sometimes  acting  violently,  and  occa 
sionally  causing  nausea,  but  seldom  vomiting. 
It  has  been  long  used  in  India  in  the  treatment 
of  tapeworm,  and  seems  to  have  been  found 
very  efficient  by  the  British  practitioners  in 


that  country.  It  has,  however,  only  within  a 
few  years  been  used  in  Europe  and  America. 
It  is  given,  without  previous  preparation  of 
the  patient,  in  the  dose  of  from  one  to  three 
drams,  suspended  in  water,  mucilage,  or  sirup. 
A  tincture  has  been  employed.  The  bark  of 
another  species  of  the  genus,  R.  Schimperi, 
growing  in  Abyssinia,  has  been  supposed  also 
to  possess  anthelmintic  properties.  When  ka- 
meela  is  administered  in  cases  of  tapeworm,  the 
worm  is  usually  expelled  with  the  third  or 
fourth  stool. 

KAMEHAMEHA,  the  name  of  a  line  of  sov 
ereigns  of  the  Hawaiian  islands.  I.  Called 
Nui  (the  Great),  born  in  1753,  died  at  Kailua, 
on  the  island  of  Hawaii,  May  8,  1819.  lie  was 
the  son  of  Keoua,  a  powerful  chief  among  the 
different  leaders  of  tribes  who  governed  the 
islands  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century. 
He  was  at  first  ruler  of  the  western  part  of 
Hawaii,  and  conceiving  the  idea  of  a  united 
government,  he  conquered  the  remainder  of 
that  island,  and  ultimately  the  whole  group, 
the  last  island  submitting  to  him  in  1809.  Hav 
ing  established  his  authority  in  1796,  lie  adopt 
ed  liberal  measures,  such  as  the  partial  aboli 
tion  of  the  tabu  system  and  of  human  sacri 
fices,  the  introduction  of  many  reforms,  and  the 
encouragement  of  agriculture  and  commerce. 
Some  of  these  measures  were  owing  to  the  sug 
gestions  of  Vancouver,  the  explorer,  who  gain 
ed  the  king's  friendship  and  exercised  great  in 
fluence  over  him.  II.  Son  of  the  preceding, 
called  lolani  or  Liholiho,  born  on  Hawaii  in 
1797,  died  in  London,  July  14,  1825.  When  he 
came  to  the  throne  the  old  native  religion  and 
customs  were  fast  giving  way  before  foreign 
ideas  and  innovations ;  and  the  American  mis 
sionaries,  who  arrived  in  the  islands  March  31, 
1820,  met  with  immediate  success.  During  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  he  completed  the  aboli 
tion  of  the  tabu  and  of  idolatry,  accorded  many 
privileges  to  the  missionaries,  and  encouraged 
their  endeavor  to  educate  the  people.  On  Nov. 
27,  1823,  Kamehameha,  who  had  long  desired 
to  visit  foreign  countries,  sailed  for  England 
with  his  queen  Kamehamalu  and  suite.  They 
received  much  attention  in  London,  and  met 
with  a  cordial  reception  from  George  IV.  As 
they  were  about  to  return,  however,  several 
members  of  the  party  were  attacked  by  a 
malignant  form  of  measles,  to  which  both 
the  king  and  queen  succumbed.  Their  bodies 
were  carried  to  the  islands  by  II.  M.  S.  Blonde, 
arriving  at  Honolulu  May  6,  1825.  Kame 
hameha  II.  not  having  appointed  a  successor, 
a  council  of  chiefs  elected  his  younger  brother 
to  the  vacant  throne.  Ill*  Called  Kauikeaouli, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  March  17, 
1814,  died  in  Honolulu,  Dec.  15,  1854.  From 
his  accession,  June  6,  1825,  he  reigned  under 
the  regency  of  Kaahumanu,  queen  dowager  of 
Kamehameha  I.  She  died  in  1832,  and  in  the 
early  part  of  1833  he  assumed  full  control  of 
the  kingdom.  He  granted  a  liberal  constitu 
tion  to  his  subjects,  and  greatly  encouraged 


KAMENETZ 


KAMES 


739 


the  advancement  of  education  and  civilization  ' 
among  them.     During  his  reign,  however,  the  j 
Roman    Catholic   missionaries  were   banished  ! 
from  the  islands.      He  suffered  greatly  from  | 
the  efforts  made  by  officers  of  several  foreign  j 
powers,  especially  by  the  English  Capt.  Belcher  | 
and  the  French  admi 
ral   du  Petit  -  Thouars, 
to  intimidate  him,  and 
force  him  to  consent  to 
measures  favorable   to 
their  own  nationalities ; 
but  he  successfully  re 
sisted    their    attempts. 
IV.  Son  of  Kekuanaoa, 
governor  of  Oahu,  and 
adopted  son  of  the  pre 
ceding  under  the  name 
of  Alexander  Liholiho, 
born  Feb.  9,  1834,  died 
in  Honolulu,  Nov.  30, 
18G3.    In  1850  he  visit 
ed  Europe  with  his  el 
der  brother,  afterward 
Kamehameha  V. ;    and 
soon  after  his  return  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne 
(1854).  In  1850  he  mar 
ried  Emma,  the  daugh 
ter   of    a    high   native 
chief  by  an  English  woman,  and  the  adopted  ! 
daughter  of  an  English  physician  at  the  islands,  j 
Dr.  Rooke.      Both  the  king    and  queen  had 
thus  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  a  good  education 
by  Americans,  and  were  of  much  greater  re 
finement  and  broader  culture  than  their  pre 
decessors.     A  son  was  born  to  them  May  20, 
1858,  but  he  died  when  but  four  years  old. 
In  a  fit  of  intoxication  the  king  wounded  one 
of  his  companions  by  a  pistol  shot.     Remorse 
for  this  act,  and  grief  at  the  death  of  his  son, 
hastened  the  progress  of  his  last  illness.     Du- 
ing  his  later  years  he  translated  the  "Book  of 
Common  Prayer"  into  Hawaiian,  omitting  the 
Athanasian  creed.    V.  Called  Lot,  elder  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  Dec.  11,  1830,  died  in  j 
Honolulu,  Dec.  11, 1872.    Succeeding  his  broth-  | 
er  in  1863,  he  made  great  changes  in  the  affairs  [ 
of  the  kingdom.     In  1 804  he  set  aside  the  con-  | 
stitution  given  by  Kamehameha  III.,  and  pro 
claimed  instead  of  it  a  more  absolute   one, 
which  was  accepted  only  after  much  parliamen 
tary  opposition.     His  reign  was  prosperous,  but 
comparatively  uneventful,      lie  died   unmar-  , 
ried,  and  the  direct  line  of  the  Kamehamehas  \ 
ended  with  him.     He  failed  to  nominate  a  sue-  I 
cessor,  as  provided  by  the  constitution;    and 
after  his  death  Prince  Lunalilo,  of  a  high  fain-  | 
ily  of  native  chiefs,  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  ; 

KAMENETZ,  Ramieniec,  or  Kanifnetz-Podolskoi, 
a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government 
of  Podolia,  12  in.  X.  of  the  Dniester,   on  the 
left  bank  of  its  confluent  the  Smotritza,  235 
m.  N.  W.  of  Odessa;  pop.  in  1807,  22,41)0,  of  i 
whom  half  are  Jews.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  | 
eparchy  and  a  Roman  Catholic  see.     The  prin 


cipal  buildings  are  the  cathedral  of  Peter  and 
Paul  and  four  other  Greek  churches, several  con 
vents,  one  Armenian  and  three  Roman  Catho 
lic  churches,  a  Greek  theological  seminary,  a 
gymnasium,  two  public  schools,  and  a  govern 
ment  library.  The  town  has  some  rnanufac- 


Kauienutz. 


tures  and  a  considerable  trade,  especially  in 
peltries  with  Moldavia.  Its  fortifications  were 
razed  in  1812;  it  has  still  a  citadel  and  a  de 
tached  fort.  This  place  was  the  strongest  bul 
wark  of  the  Poles  toward  their  Turkish  fron 
tier.  The  Turks  took  it  in  1072,  and  held  it 
till  the  peace  of  Carlovitz  in  1699. 

KAMEXZ.     See  CAMENZ. 

KAMES,  Henry  Home,  lord,  a  Scottish  jurist, 
born  at  Kames,  Berwickshire,  in  1696,  died 
Dec.  27,  1782.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Edinburgh,  and,  after  nearly  30 
years'  practice  at  the  bar,  was  in  1752  elevated 
to  the  bench  as  a  judge  of  the  court  of  session. 
In  1703  he  was  made  a  lord  of  justiciary.  Un 
der  the  title  of  Lord  Kames  he  filled  both  of 
fices  with  ability  and  integrity  until  the  close 
of  his  life.  As  an  author  he  is  known  by  nu 
merous  works  on  law,  metaphysics,  criticism, 
agriculture,  &c.,  covering  a  period  of  more 
than  50  years.  To  legal  literature  he  contrib 
uted  a  series  of  reports,  consisting  of  an  abridg 
ment  of  the  "Decisions  of  the  Court  of  Ses 
sion  "  from  its  foundation,  arranged  like  a  dic 
tionary  (2  vols.  fol.,  1741),  "Remarkable  De 
cisions  of  the  Court  of  Session"  (2  vols.  fol., 
1728-'06),  covering  nearly  the  whole  period 
between  1716  and  1752,  and  "Select  Decisions 
of  the  Court  of  Session  from  1752  to  1768" 
(1  vol.  fol.,  1780);  "Statute  Law  of  Scotland 
abridged,  witli  Historical  Notes"  (8vo,  1757); 
"Principles  of  Equity"  (fol.,  1760),  &c.  In 
1747  lie  published  "Essays  on  several  Subjects 
concerning  British  Antiquities,"  and  in  1751 
appeared  his  "Essays  on  the  Principles  of  Mo 
rality  and  Natural  Religion,"  a  work  of  ability, 


740 


KAMIENIEO 


KAMTCHATKA 


but  which  gave  offence  to  the  Scottish  church 
from  the  supposed  irreligious  tendency  of  som£ 
of  the  author's  views.  The  work  upon  which 
hii 
Criticism 


lis  reputation  chiefly  rests  is  his  "  Elements  of 
Criticism  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1762),  which  was  great 


ly  admired  at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  pos 
sessing,  in  the  opinion  of  Dngald  Stewart,  ''in 
finite  merits,"  but  of  which  Goldsmith  once 
said,  ''  It  is  easier  to  write  that  book  than  to 
read  it."  He  also  published  "Sketches  of  the 
History  of  Man"  (2  vols.  4to,  1774);  "The 
Gentleman  Farmer,  being  an  Attempt  to  im 
prove  Agriculture  by  submitting  it  to  the  Test 
of  Rational  Principles"  (1776);  and  "Loose 
Hints  on  Education  "  (8vo,  1781),  written  the 
year  before  his  death.  As  a  member  of  the 
board  of  trustees  for  the  encouragement  of 
manufactures,  fisheries,  and  arts,  and  a  com 
missioner  for  the  management  of  forfeited  es 
tates,  he  labored  earnestly  to  promote  the 
material  prosperity  of  Scotland.  In  1807  ap 
peared  an  account  of  his  life,  by  Lord  Wood- 
houselee  (2  vols.  4to). 

RAMIMIEC.     See  KAMEXETZ. 

KAMMItf.     See  CAMMIX. 

KAMOFRASKA,  an  E.  county  of  Quebec,  Can 
ada,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  state  of  Maine  and 
X.  W.  by  the  river  St.  Lawrence;  area,  1,017 
sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1871,  21,254,  of  whom  21,038 
were  of  French  descent.  It  is  drained  by  Du 
Lonp,  Kamouraska,  and  Ouele  rivers,  and  other 
small  tributaries  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  by 
some  affluents  of  the  St.  John.  The  surface 
is  diversified,  and  in  the  south  mountainous. 
Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  the 
principal  productions.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Riviere  dii  Loup  division  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway.  Capital,  Kamarouska. 

KAMPEIV,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  Overyssel,  on  the  Yssel,  8  m.  "W. 
X.  W.  of  Zwolle ;  pop.  in  1809,  15,653.  It  has 
a  gymnasium  and  an  industrial  school,  machine 
shops,  iron  founderies,  and  manufactories  of 
stockings  and  cigars.  It  is  traversed  by  a  ca 
nal,  and  its  river  trade  is  rapidly  increasing. 
There  is  regular  connection  by  steamship  with 
Amsterdam,  Zutphen,  Nimeguen,  Arnhem, 
Emmerich,  and  Cologne. 

KAMPE>,  Mkolaas  Godfried  van,  a  Dutch  his 
torian,  born  in  Haarlem,  May  15,  1776,  died 
March  14,  1839.  As  a  youth  he  acquired  in  a 
book  store,  where  he  was  employed,  a  knowl 
edge  of  literature,  and  mastered  several  lan 
guages,  lie  then  became  teacher  of  German, 
editor  of  the  "Leyden  Gazette,"  and  finally 
professor  of  the  Dutch  language,  literature, 
and  history,  first  at  the  university,  and  then  at 
the  athenaeum  in  Leyden.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  works,  many  of  which,  translated 
intoMGerman,  have  a  European  reputation. 

KAMPFER,  or  Kaempfor,  Engelbrecht,  a  Ger 
man  traveller,  born  in  Lemgo,  Lippe-Detmold, 
in  1651,  died  in  Detmold,  Nov.  2,  1716.  lie 
studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  accompanied  as 
secretary  a  Swedish  ambassador  to  Persia.  In 
1685  he  entered  as  surgeon  the  naval  service 


of  the  Dutch  East  India  company,  and  sailed 
for  Batavia,  whence  in  1690  he  was  despatched 
to  Japan  as  physician  to  the  embassy,  lie 
remained  in  Japan  two  years,  and  gathered 
materials  for  his  great  work  on  the  history, 
resources,  &c.,  of  that  empire.  In  1693  he 
returned  to  Europe.  He  was  the  author  of 
various  valuable  works,  but  published  nothing 
himself,  save  his  Amaenitatea  Exotica  (1712), 
which  contains  much  curious  matter  touching 
the  natural  history,  antiquities,  &c.,  of  Persia 
and  other  countries  of  western  Asia.  His  ac 
count  of  the  Japanese  empire  has  never  been 
published  in  the  original,  but  an  English  trans 
lation  of  it,  under  the  title  of  "  History  of 
Japan  and  Description  of  Siam,"  appeared  in 
London  in  1727,  and  from  this  the  French 
and  German  versions  have  been  taken. 

KAMPTZ,  Karl  Albeit  Cliristoph  Heinrich  von,  a 
Prussian  jurist,  born  in  Schwerin,  Sept.  16, 
1769,  died  in  Berlin,  Nov.  3,  1849.  He  ac 
quired  renown  as  minister  of  justice  and  as 
one  of  the  most  voluminous  and  best  writers 
on  law.  His  works  include  Die  Provinzial- 
und  statuarischen  Rechte  in  der  preussischen 
Monarchic  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1826-'8),  and  Zu- 
sammenstellnng  der  drei  Entwarfe  des  preus- 
sischen  Strafgcsctzbucns  (in  3  parts,  1844-'5). 

KAMTCHATKA,  a  large  peninsula  of  the  Rus 
sian  empire,  in  the  N.  E.  of  Asia,  about  800  m. 
long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  of  irregular  breadth,  the 
maximum,  along  the  56th  parallel  of  latitude, 
being  about  250  m. ;  area,  about  100,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  country  of  the  Tchuktchis,  E.  by  the  sea  of 
Ivamtchatka,  S.  by  a  strait  separating  it  from 
the  Kurile  islands,  and  W.  by  the  sea  of 
Okhotsk.  Since  1856  it  has  been  united  with 
the  Trans-Yablonic  district  and  the  recently 
acquired  Amoor  territory  to  form  the  maritime 
province  of  Eastern  Siberia.  The  coasts  are 
dangerous  of  approach  on  account  of  outlying 
reefs.  A  lofty  range  of  volcanic  mountains 
traverses  the  country  in  a  S.  W.  direction,  with 
many  peaks  between  7,000  and  16,000  ft.  high. 
The  snow  line,  in  lat.  56°  40',  is  at  an  elevation 
of  5,260  ft.  This  range  is  a  portion  of  the 
great  volcanic  chain  extending  from  the  Ya- 
blonnoi  mountain  range  to  the  Kurile  islands. 
Dittmar,  a  Russian  traveller  (1851-'3),  traced 
five  successive  formations  and  found  17  volca 
noes  still  in  active  operation.  Numerous  rivers 
rise  in  the  heights.  The  Kamtchatka,  with  its 
affluent  the  Yelovka,  is  navigable  for  150  m. 
The  most  fertile  portion  of  the  peninsula  for 
agricultural  purposes  lies  along  the  valley  of 
this  river.  The  Russian  settlers  here  raise 
oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  and  garden  vege 
tables,  but  the  rest  of  the  country  is  little 
adapted  for  culture.  '  The  climate  is  very  se 
vere  ;  the  winter  lasts  nine  months,  and  frost 
is  common  at  all  seasons.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Petropavlovsk  on  the  E.  coast 
is  28-5°,  while  at  Tigil  on  the  W.  it  is  43°. 
1  The  average  temperature  of  summer  at  the 
i  former  place  is  55*5°,  and  that  of  winter  19°, 


KAXABEO 


KAXE 


but  the  thermometer  has  been  known  to  fall  as 
low  as  — 25°.  Earthquakes  are  frequent  and 
violent.  Animal  life  is  very  abundant,  and 
until  recently  the  inhabitants  supported  them 
selves  wholly  on  the  products  of  the  chase ; 
but  since  the  game  has  diminished  they  flnd 
plenty  of  aliment  in  fish,  which  swarm  in  the 
seas  and  rivers.  The  wild  animals  yet  abun 
dant  in  the  more  sequestered  localities  are  bears, 
wolves,  reindeer,  argalis  or  wild  sheep,  black, 
red,  and  gray  foxes,  ermines,  sables,  and  otters. 
Wild  fowl  are  very  numerous.  The  principal 
varieties  of  fish  are  herrings,  cod,  and  salmon. 
Whales  are  often  seen  in  the  adjacent  seas.  The 
mountains  are  covered  with  forests  of  birch, 
larch,  pine,  and  cedar,  of  considerable  size  in 
the  south,  but  diminishing  northward  until  the 
northernmost  portion  of  the'  territory  is  cov 
ered  only  with  reindeer  moss. — The  Kamtchat- 
dales,  the  principal  native  tribe,  are  of  diminu 
tive  stature,  but  stout,  with  flat  features,  small 
eyes,  thin  lips,  lank  black  hair,  and  scarcely 
any  beard.  They  are  a  peaceable,  honest,  lazy, 
and  intemperate  race.  In  winter  they  live  in 
sunken  huts,  in  summer  in  huts  raised  on  poles 
some  13  ft.  from  the  ground.  Their  dress  is 
equally  adapted  to  the  changes  of  temperature, 
being  of  fur  in  winter  and  nankeen  in  summer. 
They  are  nominally  governed  by  their  own 
toions  or  chiefs,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Russian  ispravnik,  or  chief  commissary.  Dog 
trains  are  used  as  the  means  of  transport.  The 
other  principal  tribe  are  the  Koriaks,  who  live 
north  of  lat.  58°.  While  the  Kamtchatdales  are 
hunters  and  fishermen,  with  fixed  habitations, 
the  Koriaks  are  a  wandering  tribe,  subsisting  on 
the  produce  of  the  reindeer,  and  differing  from 
them  in  language  and  mode  of  life.  The  com 
merce  of  Kamtchatka  is  chiefly  with  Okhotsk. 
Its  exports  are  furs,  oil,  &c.  Its  imports  are 
flour,  sugar,  dry  goods,  whiskey,  rice,  and  cof 
fee,  almost  all  passing  through  the  port  of  Pe- 
tropavlovsk,  the  capital,  on  Avatcha  bay.  The 
other  ports  are  Bolsheretsk,  on  the  W.  coast, 
and  Lower  Kamtchatka,  on  Kamtchatka  river, 
with  220  inhabitants.  Kamtchatka  is  one  of 
the  principal  places  of  deportation  in  the  Rus 
sian  empire. — See  Kennan,  "  Tent  Life  in  Sibe 
ria"  (New  York,  1870),  and  Bush,  "Reindeer, 
Dogs,  and  Snow  Shoes"  (New  York,  1872). 

RAXABEC',  an  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  drained 
by  Snake  river,  a  branch  of  the  St.  Croix  ;  area, 
540  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  93.  The  surface  is 
uneven  and  partly  covered  with  forests.  Capi 
tal,  Brunswick. 

RAXAGAWA,  a  town  of  Japan,  on  the  W.  side 
of  a  harbor  in  the  bay  of  Yedo,  and  10  m.  S. 
S.  W.  of  Tokio  (Yedo)";  pop.  about  4,000.  In 
the  town  and  vicinity  are  several  famous  tem 
ples  and  remains  of  old  fortifications.  Its  for 
mer  military,  ecclesiastical,  and  strategic  im 
portance  arose  from  the  fact  of  its  situation  at 
the  point  \vhere  the  great  highway  of  Japan, 
the  Tokaido  (East  Sea  road),  strikes  the  bay 
of  Yedo.  Along  this  road  the  daimios,  or  ter 
ritorial  nobles,  and  the  envoys  of  the  mikado 


made  their  official  journeys  to  and  from  Yedo, 
prior  to  1868.  Kanagawa  was  to  have  been 
opened  as  a  treaty  port,  July  1,  1859  ;  but  the 
shogun's  officials,  not  wishing  to  have  foreign 
ers  live  on  the  Tokaido,  chose  Yokohama, 
and  had  jetties,  custom  houses,  storehouses, 
&c.,  already  built  when  the  foreign  merchants 
and  diplomats  arrived.  A  few  missionaries, 
consuls,  and  merchants  lived  for  a  short  time 
at  Kanagawa,  but  finally  the  entire  foreign 
settlement  was  made  at  Yokohama.  Hence 
arose  the  official  fiction  that  the  consulates  of 
the  treaty  powers  are  at  Kanagawa.  Kanagawa 
gives  its'name  to  the  ken  or  prefecture  which 
includes  the  country  round  Yokohama,  the  25- 
mile  circuit  in  which  foreigners  are  allowed  to 
travel.  Like  many  Japanese  towns,  Kanagawa 
consists  chiefly  of  one  long  street.  It  has  a 
fort,  military  barracks,  and  telegraph  and  rail 
way  station.  A  causeway  connects  it  with 
Yokohama.  It  has  lost  its  former  importance. 

RANAWHA,  a  S.  W.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
intersected  by  the  Great  Kanawha  and  drained 
by  Elk,  Coal,  and  Pocatalico  rivers  ;  area,  about 
1*100  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  22,349,  of  whom 
2,184  were  colored.  The  surface  is  mountain 
ous,  and  the  uplands  are  mostly  covered  with 
timber.  The  valleys  are  fertile.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  46,000  bushels 
of  wheat,  400,826  of  Indian  corn,  90,208  of 
oats,  44,300  of  Irish  and  7,905  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  412,409  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  20,457  of  wool, 
163,142  of  butter,  and  2,840  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  2,420  horses,  3,400  milch  cows.  1,078 
working  oxen,  4,011  other  cattle,  9,879  sheep, 
and  15,714  swine  ;  4  manufactories  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  9  of  salt,  1  of  woollen  goods,  1  of 
iron  castings,  39  of  cooperage,  3  of  flour  mills, 
and  11  saw  mills.  Capital,  Charleston,  which 
is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 

RANAV.HA  RIYKK.     See  GREAT  KAXAWIIA. 

KAMUIOHI,  a  S.  W.  central  county  of  Min- 
I  nesota;  area,  804  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,921. 
Since  the  census  the  former  county  of  Monon- 
galia  has  been  united  with  it.  The  statistics 
are  for  the  county  as  at  present  constituted. 
The  surface,  which  is  dotted  with  numerous 
small  lakes,  is  undulating  or  level ;  the  soil  is 
productive.  The  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad 
passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  97.315  bushels  of  wheat,  5,418  of 
Indian  corn,  56,831  of  oats,  27,744  of  potatoes, 
93,030  of  butter,  and  14,032  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  788  horses,  1,864  milch  cows, 
2.924  other  cattle,  3,210  sheep,  and  821  swine. 
Capital,  Kandiyohi. 

RAKE.  I.  A  X.  E.  county  of  Illinois,  drained 
by  Fox  river;  area,  540  sq.  in.,  pop.  in  1870, 
39,091.  The  surface  consists  chiefly  of  rolling 
prairie,  diversified  by  numerous  small  tracts  of 
timber.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  rests  on  a  bed 
of  limestone.  The  Chicago  and  Northwestern, 
the  Chicago  and  Io\va.  and  the  Chicago,  Bur 
lington,  and  Quincy  railroads  pass  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  189,151 


742 


KANE 


bushels  of  wheat,  074,333  of  Indian  corn,  785,- 
608  of  oats,  137,407  of  barley,  211,048  of  po 
tatoes,  173,264  Ibs.  of  wool,  758,893  of  butter, 
124,928  of  cheese,  945,351  of  flax,  and  73,255 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  8,923  horses,  16,034 
milch  cows,  13,312  other  cattle,  36,186  sheep, 
and  14,942  swine;  7  manufactories  of  car 
riages,  1  of  cars,  10  of  cheese,  1  of  nails  and 
spikes,  9  of  iron  casting's,  8  of  machinery,  3  of 
paper,  9  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  tin,  cop 
per,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  watches,  3  of 
woollen  goods,  12  flour  mills,  2  tanneries,  1 
currying  establishment,  and  1  distillery.  Cap 
ital/ Geneva.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Utah, 
bounded  E.  by  Colorado,  and  S.  by  Arizona ; 
area,  7,500  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,513.  It 
contains  a  portion  of  the  great  canon  of  the 
Colorado  river,  which  crosses  the  county  and 
is  joined  within  its  borders  by  the  San  Juan 
river.  There  is  some  arable  land  at  the  base 
of  the  Wasatch  mountains  in  the  west,  and  in 
the  valley  of  the  Virgin  river.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  1,663  bushels  of  wheat, 
5,188  of  Indian  corn,  and  6,225  of  potatoes. 
There  were  308  horses,  557  milch  cows,  828 
other  cattle,  909  sheep,  and  103  swine.  Cap 
ital,  Toquerville. 

KANE,  Elislia  Rent,  an  American  arctic  explo 
rer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  3,  1820,  died  in 
Havana,  Feb.  16,  1857.  He  was  the  son  of 
Judge  John  K.  Kane  of  Philadelphia.  In  1836 
he  entered  the  Virginia  university,  and  was 
rapidly  qualifying  himself  for  the  profession  of 
a  civil  engineer,  when  in  1838  he  left  the  in 
stitution  owing  to  a  disease  of  the  heart,  from 
which  he  never  fully  recovered.  He  began  in 
1839  the  study  of  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  and 
on  Oct.  19,  1840,  he  was  elected,  while  still  an 
undergraduate  and  not  of  age,  resident  phy 
sician  in  the  Pennsylvania  hospital.  His  health 
still  continuing  bad,  his  father  obtained  for  him 
the  post  of  surgeon  in  the  navy,  and  he  sailed 
in  the  frigate  Brandywine  with  Commodore 
Parker,  in  May,  1843,  as  physician  to  the  em 
bassy  to  China.  The  American  legation  being 
delayed  for  several  months  at  Bombay,  Dr. 
Kane  visited  the  cave  temples  of  Ellora  and 
Carlee,  and  travelled  in  Ceylon.  While  the 
expedition  remained  for  nearly  seven  months 
at  Macao,  Dr.  Kane  crossed  the  China  sea  to 
Luzon,  where  he  made  a  more  complete  exam 
ination  of  the  Philippines  than  any  foreigner 
had  at  that  time  effected,  lie  traversed  Luzon 
from  Manila  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  descended 
the  crater  of  the  great  volcano  of  Tael.  "  Only 
one  European  had  attempted  this  before,  and 
he  without  success."  He  afterward  displayed 
great  courage  and  remarkable  activity  in  visiting 
Chinese  cities  and  their  environs.  He  remained 
after  the  legation  had  left  China,  and  was  en 
gaged  for  six  months  in  successful  practice  as  a 
physician  at  Whampoa,  but  at  the  close  of 
1844  he  resolved  on  account  of  his  health  to 
return  home.  Before  doing  so  he  visited  Bor 
neo,  Sumatra,  and  Ceylon,  and  spent  several 
months  in  travelling  through  India,  including 


the  Himalaya  mountains.  lie  afterward  passed 
through  Persia  and  Syria,  traversed  Egypt  as 
far  south  as  Sennaar,  and  became  acquainted 
with  Lepsius.  lie  lost  his  baggage  and  papers, 
was  wounded  in  fighting  with  Bedouin  rob 
bers,  and  returned  to  Alexandria,  where  he  had 
an  attack  of  the  plague.  Scarcely  recovered, 
he  set  out  for  Greece,  which  he  traversed  on 
foot,  and  then  passed  from  Patras  to  Trieste. 
He  now  travelled  through  Germany  and  Switz 
erland,  making  in  the  latter  country  careful 
studies  of  the  glaciers,  which  he  afterward 
found  of  service  in  illustrating  his  theories  of 
the  arctic  regions.  From  Switzerland  he  went 
to  Italy,  France,  and  England,  and  from  Eng 
land  returned  home.  On  May  25,  1846,  he 
sailed  in  the  frigate  United  States  for  the  coast 
of  Africa.  Having  in  Brazil  in  1843  obtained 
letters  of  introduction  from  the  famous  slave 
dealer  Da  Souza  to  his  agents  in  Africa,  Dr. 
Kane  was  enabled  to  inspect  the  factories,  and 
joining  a  caravan  visited  Dahomey,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  sovereign.  But  in 
returning  to  the  coast  he  was  attacked  by  the 
fever  of  that  region,  and  finally  reached  Phila 
delphia,  April  6, 1847,  much  weakened  in  health. 
Having  obtained  a  transfer  from  the  naval  to 
the  military  staff,  he  set  out  on  Nov.  6  for 
Mexico.  Being  desirous  of  reaching  the  Amer 
ican  army  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  war,  he 
went  from  Perote  with  a  guerilla  spy  company. 
On  the  way  he  was  concerned  in  a  desperate 
encounter  with  a  Mexican  party,  performing 
feats  of  heroism  in  defence  of  prisoners  against 
his  own  men  after  the  victory.  Generals  Gao- 
na  and  Torre jon  were  among  the  persons  thus 
saved.  Kane  received  a  lance  wound  and  had 
his  horse  killed  under  him.  He  was  most 
kindly  tended  by  the  family  of  Gaona,  and 
having  been  carried  to  Mexico  on  a  hospital 
ambulance  was  there  invalided  and  returned 
home.  In  January,  1849,  he  sailed  in  a  store 
ship  to  Rio  Janeiro,  Lisbon,  and  the  Mediter 
ranean,  returning  in  October.  In  May,  1850, 
he  sailed  from  New  York  as  surgeon  and  nat 
uralist  to  the  expedition  under  Lieut.  De  Haven, 
fitted  out  at  the  cost  of  Mr.  Henry  Grinnell, 
to  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin.  (See  ARCTIC 
DISCOVERY,  vol.  i.,  p.  674.)  Of  this  expedi 
tion  he  published  an  account,  "Narrative  of 
the  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Frank 
lin  "  (New  York,  1854).  The  disappointment 
which  had  attended  the  return  of  the  unsuc 
cessful  English  and  American  expeditions  had 
only  increased  the  public  desire  to  ascertain 
the  fate  of  Franklin.  More  vigorous  efforts 
were  to  be  made,  and  Dr.  Kane  was  desirous 
of  taking  part  in  them.  When  so  ill  as  to  be 
incapable  of  writing  a  long  letter,  he  wrote 
to  Mr.  Grinnell,  offering  his  services.  Final 
ly,  through  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Grinnell  and 
Mr.  George  Peabody,  $10,000  and  a  brig  (the 
Advance)  were  secured.  Kane  contributed 
his  own  pay  (about  $3,000)  and  the  proceeds 
of  the  lectures  which  he  delivered  in  1852-'3. 
The  Advance  sailed  from  New  York  under  Dr. 


KANE 


KANGAROO 


743 


Kane's  command,  May  30,  1853,  and  the  sur 
viving  officers  and  crew  reached  home  again 
in  October,  1855,  having  been  forced  to  aban 
don  the  brig  in  the  ice,  and  to  travel  with 
sledges  and  boats  for  84  days  to  the  Danish 
settlements  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  where 
they  met  the  expedition  sent  out  for  their  re 
lief  under  Capt.  Hartstene.  No  traces  of  Sir 
John  Franklin's  party  had  been  found.  The 
most  striking  result  of  the  voyage  was  the 
discovery  of  what  was  supposed  to  be  an  open 
polar  sea,  the  existence  of  which  Dr.  Kane 
had  maintained  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  geographical  society,  Oct.  14,  1852. 
The  story  of  the  sufferings  and  discoveries  of 
this  heroic  band  of  explorers  was  told  by  Kane 
in  his  "  Second  Grinnell  Expedition  in  Search 
of  Sir  John  Franklin"  (2  vols.  8vo,  Philadel 
phia,  1856).  Gold  medals  were  awarded  to 
him  by  congress,  by  the  legislature  of  New 
York,  and  by  the  royal  geographical  society  of 
London.  He  also  received  the  queen's  medal 
given  to  arctic  explorers  between  the  years  1818 
and  1856,  and  a  testimonial  from  the  British 
residents  of  New  York  city.  Dr.  Kane's  health 
now  gave  way  again,  and  soon  after  completing 
his  narrative  he  sailed  for  England.  In  London 
he  grew  rapidly  worse.  Finding  himself  sink 
ing,  he  sailed  on  Feb.  17  for  St.  Thomas, 
whence  he  went  to  Havana,  suffering  during 
the  voyage  a  paralytic  stroke.  On  Dec.  25  he 
reached  Havana,  where  he  died  as  he  was  about 
to  be  removed  to  the  United  States. — See 
"Life  of  Dr.  E.  K.  Kane,"  by  William  Elder, 
M.  D.  (Philadelphia,  1857). 

KANE,  Sir  Robert,  an  Irish  chemist,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1810.  He  was  early  appointed 
chemical  clerk  to  the  Meath  hospital,  and  in 
1830  obtained  a  prize  for  the  best  essay  "On 
the  Pathological  Condition  of  the  Fluids  in 
Typhus  Fever."  In  1831  he  published  "  Ele 
ments  of  Practical  Pharmacy."  In  1832  he 
received  the  title  of  M.  D.  from  Trinity  col 
lege,  Dublin,  and  in  the  same  year  projected 
the  "  Dublin  Journal  of  Medical  Science."  In 
1841  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Irish  col 
lege  of  physicians,  and  published  the  first  part 
of  his  "Elements  of  Chemistry;"  the  third 
part,  completing  the  work,  appeared  in  1842. 
This  was  for  many  years  a  text  book  in  col 
leges.  An  edition  by  Prof.  John  AV.  Draper 
was  immediately  published  in  New  York.  In 
1844  he  published  a  work  on  "  The  Industrial 
Resources  of  Ireland."  He  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  to  the  royal  Dublin  society 
from  1844  to  1847,  and  in  the  latter  year  the 
royal  academy  awarded  him  the  Cunningham 
gold  medal  for  useful  discoveries  in  chemistry, 
especially  for  researches  on  the  coloring  mat 
ter  of  lichens.  In  1845  he  was  appointed,  in 
conjunction  with  Professors  Lindley  and  Tay 
lor,  to  investigate  the  cause  and  means  of  pre 
vention  of  the  potato  disease,  but  their  labors 
were  unsuccessful.  In  1846  he  was  knighted 
by  the  lord  lieutenant,  and  was  appointed 
one  of  the  Irish  relief  commissioners.  In  the 


same  year  the  measures  recommended  by  him 
for  the  formation  of  a  museum  of  Irish  industry 
were  carried  out,  the  museum  at  St.  Stephen's 
Green  was  established,  and  he  was  appointed 
a  director.  A  second  edition  of  his  "  Chemis 
try  "appeared  in  1849.  He  received  the  ap 
pointment  of  president  of  Queen's  college, 
Cork,  and  delivered  the  inaugural  address  at 
the  opening,  Nov.  7,  1849,  but  resigned  in  1864. 
KA\GAROO,  a  marsupial  animal,  whose  nu 
merous  species  constitute  the  family  macro- 
podidw,  peculiar  to  Australia  and  the  neigh 
boring  islands.  (See  MARSUPIALS.)  The 
dentition  is  as  follows :  incisors  f ,  canines 
none  or  one  on  each  side  in  the  upper  jaw, 
'premolars  \1.\,  molars  |-i| ;  the  upper  inci 
sors  are  large  and  broad,  some  of  them  resem 
bling  those  of  man,  often  arched,  grooved,  and 
dilated  at  the  end ;  the  lower  incisors  are  hori 
zontal,  compressed,  lanceolate,  with  cutting 
margins ;  the  molars  are  broad,  tuberculated, 
with  nearly  quadrangular  crowns ;  in  many  of 
the  species  the  lower  incisors  may  be  separa 
ted  by  means  of  the  loose  connection  of  the 
branches  of  the  jaw  at  the  chin.  The  head  is 
elongated,  the  upper  lip  cleft,  the  muffle  en 
tirely  or  nearly  naked,  ears  large,  eyelashes 
springing  directly  from  the  lids ;  the  clavicles 
weak  and  slender,  especially  in  the  large  spe 
cies  ;  fore  limbs  usually  very  small  in  propor 
tion  to  the  hind ;  the  hands  naked  beneath, 
with  five  well  developed  fingers,  each  armed 
with  a  strong  curved  claw ;  the  hind  legs  large 
and  powerful ;  the  foot  long,  four-toed,  the 
first  or  inner  toe  being  absent,  the  second  and 
third  long,  slender,  and  so  united  by  integu 
ment  as  to  resemble  a  single  toe  with  a  double 
nail ;  nails  distinct  and  hollow  beneath ;  fourth 
hind  toe  much  developed,  with  a  large  solid 
claw,  the  fifth  smaller  with  a  strong  claw  ;  tail 
long,  thick  at  the  base,  and  usually  very  pow 
erful  ;  the  marsupial  pouch  well  developed 
and  opening  forward;  mammre  usually  four; 
stomach  complex,  and  cnecum  long  and  simple. 
Kangaroos  are  vegetable  feeders,  browsing 
like  ruminants,  and  like  these,  according  to 
Owen,  occasionally  chew  the  cud ;  they  vary 
in  height  from  that  of  a  man  to  that  of  a  hare, 
but  when  browsing  apply  the  fore  feet  to  the 
ground ;  at  other  times  they  rest  upon  the 
tripod  formed  by  the  hind  legs  and  powerful 
tail,  with  the  fore  part  of  the  body  inclining 
slightly  forward.  They  are  the  only  marsu 
pials  which  are  not  of  nocturnal  habits. — Of 
the  30  species  described,  the  largest  and  the 
best  known  is  the  great  kangaroo  (macropus 
f/iyanteus,  Shaw),  discovered  in  1770  on  the 
coast  of  New  South  Wales  during  Cook's  first 
voyage ;  an  adult  male  in  the  British  museum 
measures  5^  ft.  from  tip  of  nose  to  root  of  tail, 
the  latter  being  3^  ft.  additional,  the  head  8£ 
in.  to  the  ears,  ears  about  5  in.,  length  of  fore 
arm  and  hand  (without  the  claws)  17  in.,  and 
of  tarsus  alone  15£  in. ;  the  female  is  about 
one  third  smaller.  The  hair  is  moderately 
long  and  soft,  of  a  general  gray  brown  above 


KANGAROO 


KANKAKEE 


and  paler  below,  toes  and  end  of  tail  black. 
It  prefers  lo\v  grassy  hills  and  plains  and  open 
districts,  where  it  browses  upon  the  herbage 
and  low  bushes,  retiring  from  the  heat  of  mid 
day  under  the  shelter  of  the  ferns  and  tall 
grasses.  At  the  least  alarm  it  raises  itself 
on  the  hind  legs  and  tail,  its  height  enabling  it 
to  command  a  very  extensive  view ;  exceed 
ingly  timid,  with  acute  senses  of  smell  and 
sight,  it  is  difficult  to  approach,  but  occasional 
ly  falls  a  victim  to  the  spears  and  traps  of  the 
natives  who  hunt  it  for  food ;  the  English  colo 
nists  pursue  it  so  successfully  with  hound  and 
gun  that  it  is  now  rarely  seen  except  in  the  in 
terior.  The  kangaroo  sometimes  turns  upon 
his  canine  enemies,  and  will  either  rip  them 
open  with  the  sharp  hind  feet,  or  clasping  one 
in  his  fore  paws  leap  to  some  water  hole  and 
drown  it ;  the  unwary  human  hunter  may 
meet  a  similar  fate.  One  of  the  principal  uses 
of  the  peculiar  Australian  weapon,  the  boome- 


Great  Kangaroo  (Macropus  giganteus). 

rang,  which  may  be  made  to  fall  in  advance  of 
or  behind  the  thrower,  is  to  destroy  the  timid 
and  wary  kangaroo.  Though  nearly  as  awk 
ward  as  a  bat  when  browsing,  it  is  a  most  fleet 
and  graceful  animal  when  making  its  enormous 
bounds,  sometimes  clearing  a  rod  at  a  leap. 
The  fore  feet  are  prehensile,  and  are  used  in 
the  various  offices  connected  with  the  care  of 
the  young.  Kangaroos  are  not  generally  gre 
garious.  The  skin  is  valuable  for  leather, 
which  is  esteemed  for  shoes  and  gloves  ;  the 
flesh  is  also  considered  a  delicacy.  Prof.  Owen 
has  ascertained  that  the  gestation  in  the  M.  gi 
ganteus  is  29  days ;  the  young  when  first  born 
resemble,  according  to  observations  made  at 
the  London  zoological  gardens  by  him,  earth 
worms  in  color  and  semi-transparencv,  the 
body  being  bent  upon  itself,  the  short  tail 
tucked  in  between  the  hind  legs,  and  these  last 
one  third  shorter  than  the  fore  legs  ;  the  whole 
length,  when  stretched  out,  was  1^  in.  As 
soon  as  born,  the  young  are  placed  in  the 


mother's  pouch,  which  is  held  open  by  her 
fore  paws  while  they  are  taken  up  by  her 
mouth.  There  is  no  vascular  connection  be 
tween  the  young  kangaroo  and  the  nipple; 
when  separated  by  force  the  milky  secretion  is 
seen  oozing  out;  the  young  seem  unable  to  re 
gain  the  nipple,  which  is  sometimes  replaced 
in  the  mouth  by  the  mother ;  the  teat  has  a 
circular  enlargement  at  the  tip,  which  makes 
it  easy  to  be  retained.  Though  the  young  can 
firmly  grasp  the  nipple  by  the  lips,  it  cannot 
draw  the  milk  without  the  aid  of  the  mother, 
which  by  the  action  of  a  muscle  in  the  mam 
mary  gland  can  inject  this  fluid  into  the  mouth 
of  the  suckling;  lest  the  act  of  injection,  when 
not  coinciding  with  that  of  suction,  should  en 
danger  the  life  of  the  foetus  from  suffocation, 
the  cartilages  of  the  larynx  are  so  arranged 
that  the  opening  of  the  glottis  is  placed  at  the 
top  of  a  cone  which  projects,  as  in  whales, 
into  the  posterior  nostrils,  so  that  the  stream 
of  milk  passes  on  each  side  into  the  gullet 
|  without  the  possibility  of  entering  the  wirid- 
{  pipe. — The  subgenus  lagorchestes  (Gould)  in- 
j  eludes  a  few  small  kangaroos  with  the  muffle 
|  clothed  with  velvet-like  hairs  ;  lialmaturus  (F. 
j  Cuv.)  comprises  those  in  which  the  muffle  is 
j  naked  in  front;  heteropus  (Jourdan)  contains 
I  the  rock  kangaroos,  with  compact  body,  hind 
feet  comparatively  short  and  rough  beneath, 
hairy  tail,  and  naked  muffle.  In  the  tree  kan 
garoos  (dendrolagus,  Muller)  the  fore  legs  are 
almost  as  long  and  strong  as  the  hind  legs, 
with  pointed  claws,  and  the  tail  is  long,  bushy, 
and  cylindrical ;  they  ascend  trees  with  facility. 
The  rat  kangaroos  constitute  the  genus  hypsi- 
prymnus  (Illiger),  called  also  potoroos ;  they 
are  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  with  upper  ca 
nines,  compact  body  less  elongated  anteriorly, 
and  with  the  toes  of  the  fore  feet  unevenly  de 
veloped,  the  three  central  ones  the  longest, 
with  solid  nails  compressed  and  broadest 
above  ;  they  feed  on  roots  which  they  dig  up 
with  their  fore  paws. — Fossil  kangaroos  have 
been  found  in  the  limestone  caverns  and  allu 
vial  deposits  of  Australia,  of  which  the  M.  At 
las,  Titan,  and  Goliah  (all  of  Owen)  were  at 
least  one  third  larger  than  any  living  species. 
The  fossil  genera  diprotodon  and  nototheriwn 
of  Owen,  the  former  superior  and  the  latter 
equal  to  the  rhinoceros  in  bulk,  found  in  the 
alluvial  deposits  of  the  Australian  Condamine 
river,  are  considered  to  have  been  marsupials 
coming  near  the  kangaroos  and  the  wombats. 

KANKAKEE,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Illinois,  bound 
ed  E.  by  Indiana,  and  drained  by  Kankakee 
and  Iroquois  rivers;  area,  about  590  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  24,352.  It  has  a  level  sur 
face,  and  consists  chiefly  of  prairie  with  some 
swamps.  Coal  and  limestone  are  found.  The 
Chicago  branch  of  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
Chicago,  Danville,  and  Vincennes,  the  Cincin 
nati,  La  Fayette,  and  Chicago,  and  the  Chicago 
and  Alton  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  103,94(5  bushels  of 
wheat,  037,309  of  Indian  corn,  772,408  of  oats, 


KANO 


KANSAS 


745 


118,451  of  potatoes,  122,891  Ibs.  of  flax,  36,760 
of  wool,  714,600  of  butter,  and  73,585  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  13,514  horses,  12,075  milch 
cows,  17,100  other  cattle,  4,397  sheep,  and 
10,158  swine;  11  manufactories  of  carriages, 
1  of  cheese,  2  of  iron  castings,  3  of  machinery, 
1  of  linseed  oil,  1  of  paper,  7  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  1  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
1  of  woollen  goods,  and  5  flour  mills.  Capital, 
Kankakee  City. 

KANO,  a  city  of  central  Africa,  capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name  in  Iloussa,  situ 
ated  on  a  fertile  plain  in  lat.  12°  0'  19"  N.  and 
Ion.  8°  40'  E. ;  pop.  about  40,000,  nearly  half 
of  whom  are  slaves.  In  busy  times  the  influx 
of  foreigners  and  merchants  swells  the  popula 
tion  to  upward  of  00.000.  The  city  is  sur 
rounded  by  a  well  built  clay  wall  30  ft.  high, 
having  14  gates  defended  by  guard  houses, 


and  making  a  circuit  of  more  than  15  miles; 
but  not  more  than  a  third  of  the  space  en 
closed  by  the  walls  is  occupied  by  houses,  the 
remainder  being  appropriated  to  gardens  and 
cultivated  fields.  It  has  large  markets  well 
supplied  with  all  the  necessaries  of  life.  The 
principal  article  of  commerce  is  the  cotton 
cloth  woven  and  dyed  here  of  various  colors, 
and  which  is  exported  to  many  parts  of  central 
and  northern  Africa.  The  fine  cotton  fabrics 
in  such  extensive  demand  in  Timbuctoo,  and 
which  have  been  supposed  to  be  produced 
there,  are  derived  chiefly  from  Kano.  Tan 
ning  and  the  manufacture  of  leathern  jars  and 
sandals  are  also  carried  on  to  a  considerable 
extent.  Among  other  articles  of  export  are 
hides,  dyed  sheepskins,  the  kola  nut,  ivory,  &c. 
The  slave  trade  is  an  important  branch  of  na 
tive  commerce,  and  about  5,000  slaves  are  an- 


Kano. 


nually  exported,  besides  many  sold  for  domestic 
use.  The  principal  European  goods  imported 
are  printed  muslins  and  calicoes  from  Manches 
ter,  silks,  beads,  sugar,  needles,  razors,  sword 
blades,  and  various  other  kinds  of  hardware. 
— The  province  of  Kano  comprises  a  large  and 
fertile  district,  with  a  population  of  more  than 
500,000,  of  whom  about  one  half  are  slaves. 

KANSAS,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the  Dakota 
family,  who  have  given  their  name  to  one  of 
the  states  of  the  Union.  They  are  an  offshoot 
of  the  Osages,  and  resemble  them  in  per 
son,  character,  customs,  and  language.  They 
were  first  heard  of  by  Marquette,  who  lays 
them  down  on  his  map  in  1673  as  on  the  Mis 
souri,  beyond  the  Missouris  and  Osages.  They 
soon  opened  friendly  intercourse  with  the 
French,  who  in  1700  prevented  the  Illinois  and 
their  allies  from  attacking  them.  They  were 


visited  in  July,  1724,  by  De  Bourgmont,  who 
was  on  his  way  to  the  Comanches,  and  was 
well  treated  by  the  Kansas.  A  Jesuit  mission 
among  them  is  spoken  of  in  1728.  They  finally 
made  peace  with  the  Osages  in  1806.  After 
Louisiana  was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  gov 
ernment  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Kan 
sas,  Oct.  28,  1815.  They  were  at  this  time 
on  the  river  Kansas  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saline, 
having  been  forced  from  the  right  bank  of  the 
Missouri  by  the  Sioux.  They  numbered  about 
1,500  in  130  earthen  lodges.  They  had  been 
hostile,  but  were  then  friendly.  They  defend 
ed  themselves  bravely  against  the  Pawnees 
and  Ottoes,  but  in  1819,  at  the  instance  of  Ma 
jor  Long,  their  chief  Ilerochshe  made  peace 
with  the  Ottoes  and  other  tribes.  Some  chiefs 
accompanied  Major  OTallen  to  "\Yashington 
about  1820.  By  the  treaty  of  June  3,  1825, 


746 


KANSAS 


Nampawarrah,  or  White  Plume,  and  other 
chiefs,  ceded  all  their  lands  in  Missouri  and 
some  west  of  that  state,  retaining  a  reserva 
tion  30  m.  wide  on  the  Kansas  river.  Thirty- 
six  sections  of  good  land  were  to  be  sold, 
and  the  proceeds  invested  as  a  school  fund. 
In  return  government  was  to  give  them  an 
annuity  of  $3,500  for  20  years,  and  aid  them 
with  domestic  animals  and  farming  imple 
ments  to  adopt  an  agricultural  life.  They 
were  at  this  time  uncontaminated  with  the 
vices  of  the  whites,  but  were  indolent  and 
averse  to  all  improvement.  The  buffalo  was 
their  great  dependence,  although  game. of  all 
kinds  was  beginning  to  diminish  rapidly.  Their 
houses  were  conical,  40  ft.  in  circumference 
arid  10  ft.  high,  formed  of  poles,  covered  with 
bark,  and  then  with  sods  a  foot  thick.  The 
frame  was  supported  by  wooden  posts.  Their 
features  were  nearly  European ;  they  shaved 
the  head,  except  the  scalp  lock,  which  passed 
through  a  bone  ring,  and  was  adorned  with  a 
crest  of  deer's  hair.  They  had  discarded  buf 
falo  robes  for  blankets,  and  were  expert  with 
the  rifle.  The  Methodists  began  a  mission 
among  them  in  1835,  and  labored  many  years, 
but  failed  to  produce  any  impression,  or  to  make 
their  school  successful.  In  1838  the  Kansas 
had  divided  into  three  towns,  two  on  the  north 
bank  and  one  on  the  south.  They  could  not 
be  induced  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  being  con 
stantly  at  war  with  the  Pawnees,  and  in  their 
hunts  frequently  attacked  by  other  tribes,  they 
lost  rapidly  in  numbers.  By  the  treaty  of 
January,  1846,  they  ceded  certain  lands  for 
$200,000,  5  per  cent,  on  which  amount  was  to 
be  paid  annually,  and  a  reservation  of  20  m. 
square  was  assigned  to  them  on  the  head  waters 
of  the  Neosho,  S.  of  the  Shawnees  and  W.  of 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes.  In  1849  they  had  gath 
ered  on  the  Neosho,  began  to  use  liquor  freely, 
and  to  plunder  the  trains  on  the  Santa  Fe  road. 
As  Kansas  began  to  be  settled  their  reserva 
tions  were  invaded  by  whites.  In  1856  the 
half-breeds,  who  were  all  Catholics,  were  forced 
from  their  reservation  by  the  squatters,  aided 
by  officials.  Neither  the  Kansas  nor  the  half- 
breeds  took  any  part  in  the  Kansas  troubles. 
Railroad  companies,  by  a  treaty  of  1854,  ob 
tained  a  right  of  way  through  the  reservation. 
During  the  civil  war  80  or  90  entered  the 
United  States  army,  and  did  good  service.  In 
1862  stone  houses  were  erected,  a  school  was 
begun  by  the  society  of  Friends,  and  an  at 
tempt  was  made  again  to  induce  them  to  cul 
tivate  the  soil ;  but  these  efforts  proved  inef 
fectual.  Peace  was  indeed  made  with  the 
Pawnees,  but  their  reservations  were  now  over 
run,  and  out  of  80,000  acres  they  had  only  225 
in  cultivation ;  the  Indians,  with  the  annual  ap 
propriation  of  $10,000,  were  actually  starving. 
They  sought  to  move  to  Indian  territory.  A 
treaty  was  made  with  commissioners  at  Wash 
ington  in  1867,  and  another  in  March,  1869; 
but  by  the  act  of  May  8,  1872,  government 
directed  their  reservation  of  80,000  acres,  and 


their  trust  lands  of  137,000  acres,  to  be  sold, 
half  the  proceeds  to  be  invested  for  their  ben 
efit,  half  to  be  spent  in  providing  and  improv 
ing  new  homes  for  them  within  the  Usage 
reservation  in  Indian  territory.  Besides  the 
money  to  arise  from  this  source,  they  have  5 
per  cent,  on  $200,000  under  the  treaty  of  1846, 
and  the  interest  on  $27,485  stocks  held  for 
them  by  government.  The  tribe  about  1850 
numbered  1,300  ;  in  1860,  803  ;  in  1872,  593. 

KANSAS,  a  western  state  of  the  American 
Union,  the  21st  admitted,  Iving  between  lat.  37° 
and  40°  N.,  and  Ion.  94°  40' and  102°  W.,  bound 
ed  N.  by  Nebraska,  E.  by  Missouri,  S.  by  Indian 
territory,  and  W.  by  Colorado.  A  portion  of 
the  boundary  on  the  northeast,  adjoining  Mis 
souri,  is  formed  by  the  Missouri  river.  The 
state  has  the  general  form  of  a  rectangle,  extend 
ing  410  m.  E.  and  W.  and  about  210  m.  N.  and 
S.,  and  containing  81,318  sq.  m.  It  is  divided 
into  104  counties,  of  which  31  in  1874  were 
unorganized,  as  follows :  Allen,  Anderson,  Ara- 
pahoe,  Atchison,  Barbour,  Barton,  Bourbon, 
Brown,  Buffalo,  Butler,  Chase,  Cherokee,  Chey 
enne,  Clark,  Clay,  Cloud,  Coffey,  Comanche, 
Cowley,  Crawford,  Davis,  Decatur,  Dickinson, 
Doniphan,  Douglas,  Edwards,  Ellis,  Ellsworth, 
Foote,  Ford,  Franklin,  Gore,  Graham,  Grant, 
Greeley,  Greenwood,  Hamilton,  Harper,  Har 
vey,  Hodgeman,  Howard,  Jackson,  Jefferson, 
Jewell,  Johnson,  Kansas,  Kearney,  Kingman, 
Kiowa,  Labette,  Lane,  Leavenworth,  Lincoln, 
Linn,  Lyon,  Marion,  Marshall,  McPherson, 
Meade,  Miami,  Mitchell,  Montgomery,  Morris, 
Nemaha,  Neosho,  Ness,  Norton,  Osage,  Os- 
borne,  Ottawa,  Pawnee,  Phillips,  Pottawatta- 
mie,  Pratt,  Rawlins,  Reno,  Republic,  Rice, 
Riley,  Rooks,  Rush,  Russell,  Saline,  Scott,  Sedg- 
wick,  Sequoyah,  Seward,  Shawnee,  Sheridan, 
Sherman,  Smith,  Stafford,  Stanton,  Stevens, 
Sumner,  Thomas,  Trego,  Wabaunsee,  Wallace, 
Washington,  Wichita,  Wilson,  Woodson,  Wyan- 
dotte.  The  cities  of  Kansas,  as  reported  by 
the  federal  census  of  1870,  were:  Atchison, 
which  had  7,054  inhabitants;  Baxter  Springs, 
1,284;  Emporia,  2,168;  Fort  Scott,  4,174;  Law 
rence,  8,320;  Leavenworth,  17.873;  Ottawa, 
2,941 ;  Paola,  1,811 ;  Topeka,  the  capital,  5,790; 
and  Wyandotte,  2,940.  Kansas  had  8,501  in 
habitants  in  1855,  107,206  in  1860,  and  364,399 
in  1870.  Township  and  city  assessors  are  re 
quired  to  make  every  year  an  enumeration  of 
inhabitants.  According  to  the  state  census  of 
1873,  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  organ 
ized  counties  was  605,063  ;  the  population  in 
the  unorganized  counties  was  estimated  at 
5,800,  making  the  total  population  of  the  state 
610,863,  a  gain  of  246,464,  or  67'63  per  cent, 
in  three  years.  Of  the  total  population  in 
1870,  202, 224  were  males  and  162,175  females; 
316,007  were  native  and  48,392  foreign  born  ; 
346,377  were  white,  17,108  colored,  and  914 
Indians.  Of  those  of  native  birth,  63,321  were 
born  in  the  state,  35,558  in  Illinois,  13,073  in 
Iowa,  16,918  in  Kentucky,  29,775  in  Missouri, 
18,557  in  New  York,  38,205  in  Ohio,  and  19,- 


KANSAS 


747 


287  in  Pennsylvania.  Of  the  foreigners,  5,324 
were  natives  of  British  America,  G,161  of  Eng 
land,  10,940  of  Ireland,  1,274  of  France,  12,- 
774  of  Germany,  4,954  of  Sweden,  and  1,328 
of  Switzerland.  The  density  of  population 
was  4'48  persons  to  a  square  mile.  There  were 


/   I'  ..*•*>/  T?  I  i  /  -,.-V\  : :  -   T? 

i|  ^4^^C^S^^ 

I  hi;  —i  ^v^4**^^^?^  _j:^^S 

iii^.4*^^ 


State  Seal  of  Kansas. 

72,493  families,  with  an  average  of  5'03  per 
sons  to  each,  and  71,071  dwellings,  with  an 
average  of  5'13  persons  to  each.  In  the  S.  "W. 
part  of  the  state  is  a  settlement  of  Mennonites. 
The  increase  of  population  from  1860  to  1870 
was  239-9  per  cent.,  a  much  larger  gain  during 
that  period  than  is  shown  in  any  other  state ; 
the  relative  rank  rose  from  33  to  29.  The 
number  of  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  up 
ward  was  99,069.  There  were  in  the  state  108,- 
710  persons  from  5  to  18  years  of  age,  and  95,- 
002  males  from  18  to  45.  The  total  number 
attending  school  was  63,183;  16,369  persons 
10  years  of  age  and  over  were  unable  to  read, 
and  24,550  could  not  write.  Of  the  105,680 
male  adults  in  the  state,  8,894,  or  S'42  per  cent., 
were  illiterate ;  and  of  the  69,645  female  adults. 
9,195,  or  13 '2  per  cent.,  were  illiterate.  The 
number  of  paupers  supported  during  the  year 
ending  June  1,  1870,  was  361.  at  a  cost  of  $46,- 
475.  Of  the  total  number  (336)  receiving  sup 
port  June  1,  1870,  190  were  natives  and  146 
foreigners.  Tiie  number  of  persons  convict 
ed  of  crime  during  the  year  was  151.  Of  the 
total  number  (329)  in  prison  June  1,  1870,  262 
were  of  native  and  67  of  foreign  birth.  The 
state  contained  128  blind,  121  deaf  and  dumb, 
13 i  insane,  and  109  idiotic.  Of  the  total  popu 
lation  10  years  of  age  and  over  (258,051),  there 
were  engaged  in  all  occupations  123,852  per 
sons;  in  agriculture,  73,228,  including  21,714 
agricultural  laborers  and  50,820  farmers  and 
planters ;  in  professional  and  personal  services, 
20,736,  of  whom  538  were  clergymen,  4,481 
domestic  servants,  72  journalists,  7,871  laborers 
not  specified,  682  lawyers,  906  physicians  and 
surgeons,  and  6,012  teachers  not  specified ;  in 
trade  and  transportation,  11,762;  in  manufac 
tures  and  mechanical  and  mining  industries, 
18,126,  including  4,138  blacksmiths,  625  boot 


and  shoe  makers,  5,064  carpenters,  and  1,466 
brick  and  stone  masons.  The  total  number  of 
deaths  returned  by  the  census  of  1870  was 
4,596;  there  were  413  deaths  from  consump 
tion,  or  one  death  from  that  disease  to  11  from 
all  causes;  599  from  pneumonia,  354  from 
scarlet  fever,  240  from  intermittent  and  remit 
tent  fevers,  and  204  from  enteric  fever.  The 
Indians  remaining  in  Kansas,  not  enumerated 
in  the  census  of  1870,  are  the  Kickapoos,  290 
in  number,  on  a  reservation  of  19,200  acres  in 
the  X.  E.  part  of  the  state ;  the  prairie  band  of 
the  Pottawattamies,  about  400,  on  a  reserva 
tion  of  77,357  acres  14  m.  N.  of  Topeka;  and 
about  56  Chippewas  and  Munsees,  who  own 
5,760  acres  of  land  about  35  m.  S.  of  Lawrence. 
— The  general  surface  of  Kansas  is  an  undu 
lating  plateau,  which  gently  slopes  from  the 
western  border,  where  the  altitude  above  the 
sea  is  about  3,500  ft.,  to  the  eastern  line,  which 
is  elevated  about  750  ft.  above  the  sea  at  the 
mouth  of  Kansas  river.  The  river  bottoms  are 
generally  from  one  fourth  of  a  mile  to  3  m. 
wide,  but  toward  the  western  part  of  the  state, 
on  the  Arkansas  and  Republican  rivers,  they 
are  from  2  to  10  m.  wide.  Back  from  the 
bottom  lands,  bluffs  rise  to  a  height  of  from 
50  to  300  ft.,  with  a  slope  of  20°  to  30°.  From 
the  summits  of  these  bluffs  may  be  seen  a  suc 
cession  of  rolls,  or  upland  prairies,  whose  tops 
are  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  a  mile  apart, 
and  from  20  to  80  ft.  above  the  intervening 
valley.  The  general  inclination  of  the  ridges 
is  N.  and  8.  There  is  no  portion  of  the  state 
which  is  flat  or  monotonous.  The  surface 
of  eastern  Kansas  is  chiefly  undulating,  and 
presents  a  succession  of  rich  prairies,  grass- 
covered  hills,  and  fertile  valleys,  with  an 
abundance  of  timber  on  the  streams.  The 
western  half  is  not  so  diversified  in  its  scenery, 
but  it  has  a  rolling  and  varied  surface,  with 
every  requisite  for  a  fine  grazing  country. 
Kansas  is  well  supplied  with  rivers.  On  the 
E.  border  of  the  state  the  navigable  Missouri 
presents  a  water  front  of  nearly  150  m.  The 
Kansas  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Re 
publican  and  Smoky  Hill  rivers  near  Junction 
City,  whence  it  flows  in  anE.  course  about  150 
m.  to  the  Missouri  near  Kansas  City.  It  is  not 
navigable,  though  steamboats  have  ascended  to 
|  Junction  City  on  the  Smoky  Hill.  The  latter 
has  its  source  near  the  Rocky  mountains  in 
Colorado  ;  it  receives  from  the  north  in  Kan 
sas  the  Saline  river,  about  200  m.  long,  and  the 
Solomon,  300  m.  The  Republican  river  rises 
1  in  Colorado,  and  after  flowing  through  X.  W. 
I  Kansas  into  Nebraska,  enters  Kansas  again 
j  about  150  m.  "W.  of  the  E.  border  of  the  state; 
I  it  is  more  than  400  m.  long  from  its  source. 
|  The  Kansas  receives  from  the  north  the  Bjg 
i  Blue  river,  which  rises  in  Nebraska  and  is 
i  about  125  m.  long,  and  the  Grasshopper,  about 
,  75  m. ;  on  the  south,  it  receives  near  Lawrence 
|  the  Wakarusa,  which  is  nearly  50  m.  long. 
!  About  two  thirds  of  the  state  lies  S.  of  the 
Kansas  and  Smoky  Hill  rivers,  and  is  there- 


748 


KANSAS 


fore  called  southern  Kansas,  the  remainder 
being  kno\vn  as  northern  Kansas.  The  Osage 
river  rises  in  the  E.  part  of  the  state,  and  after 
a  S.  E.  course  of  about  125m.  enters  Missouri. 
The  most  important  rivers  having  a  southerly 
course  are  the  Neosho,  which  rises  in  the  cen 
tral  part  of  the  state,  and  after  a  S.  E.  course 
of  about  200  in.,  during  which  it  receives 
the  Cottonwood  and  other  streams,  enters  the 
Indian  territory  about  25  m.  W.  of  the  S.  E. 
corner  of  Kansas  ;  the  Verdigris,  which  flows 
nearly  parallel  with  the  Neosho  into  the  Indi 
an  territory,  receiving  Fall  river  on  the  west ; 
and  the  Arkansas,  which  has  its  sources  in 
the  Rocky  mountains  in  Colorado.  This  river 
runs  through  nearly  three  fourths  of  the  length 
of  Kansas,  first  E.  and  then  S.  E.,  and  with 
its  tributaries  waters  two  thirds  of  the  south 
ern  part  of  the  state.  Its  windings  in  Kansas 
have  been  estimated  at  500  m.  Its  tributaries 
on  the  N.  or  E.  side  include  the  Walnut,  the 
Little  Arkansas,  and  Cow  creek.  In  the  S.  W. 
corner,  the  Cimarron  flows  for  a  considerable 
distance  in  the  state.  The  above  constitute 
only  the  most  important  of  the  rivers  of  Kan 
sas  ;  there  are  numerous  tributaries  of  these 
from  25  to  75  m.  long,  which  with  the  main 
streams  make  Kansas  one  of  the  best  watered 
of  the  western  states;  but  none  of  them 
are  navigable. — Xo  thorough  geological  sur 
vey  of  Kansas  has  yet  been  undertaken ;  but 
preliminary  examinations  have  been  made  by 
Professors  G.  C.  Swallow  and  B.  F.  Mudge. 
The  eastern  portion  of  the  state  belongs  to  the 
carboniferous  system,  in  which  are  found  all 
the  bituminous  coal  measures  of  the  state.  The 
greater  part  of  this  area  is  the  upper  carbon 
iferous,  the  lower  carboniferous  only  coming 
to  the  surface  in  the  S.  E.  corner.  This  forma 
tion  is  composed  of  many  different  strata  of 
limestone,  sandstone,  coal,  marls,  shales,  fire 
clay,  slate,  selenite,  &c.,  varying  in  thickness, 
and  occurring  irregularly.  The  carboniferous 
system  is  divided  by  Prof.  Swallow  into  the 
following  series :  upper  coal,  391  ft.  thick ; 
chocolate  limestone,  79  ;  cave  rock,  75  ;  Stan- 
ton  limestone,  74;  spring  rock,  80  ;  well  rock, 
238 ;  Marais  des  Cygnescoal,  303 ;  Pawnee  lime 
stone,  112;  Fort  Scott  coal,  142;  Fort  Scott 
marble,  22  ;  lower  coal,  350 ;  lower  carbonifer 
ous,  120  ;  total,  1,98(3  ft.  Some  of  these  series, 
however,  are  only  local.  Further  west  is  the  up 
per  and  lower  Permian  system,  having  a  depth 
of  about  700  ft.,  and  containing  numerous  strata 
of  magnesian  limestone  and  beds  of  gypsum. 
This  system  is  supposed  to  extend  across  the 
state  from  N".  to  S.  in  an  irregular  belt  about 
50  m.  wide.  Adjoining  it  on  the  west  is  a 
tract  belonging  to  the  triassic  system,  the 
strata  of  which  have  a  thickness  of  338  ft,  and 
are  composed  of  limestone,  sandstone,  thin 
coal  veins,  gypsum,  selenite,  and  magnesian 
marls  and  shales.  West  of  this  is  the  creta 
ceous  formation,  extending  to  the  foot  hills  of 
the  Rocky  mountains.  It  crosses  the  state  in 
a  JS".  E.  and  S.  W.  direction  near  the  mouths 


of  the  Saline  and  Solomon  rivers,  thence 
covering  the  whole  western  portion  of  the 
state.  Prof.  Mudge  says :  "  This  is  one  of 
the  richest  deposits  of  the  United  States  in 
its  fossils,  and  possesses  great  geological  in 
terest.  It  not  only  abounds  in  well  preserv 
ed  fossils,  similar  to  those  of  other  parts 
of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  of  Europe, 
but  contains  many  species  new  to  science. 
The  predominant  fossils  of  the  eastern  portion 
of  this  formation  are  dicotyledonous  leaves, 
of  which  about  50  species  have  been  found,  a 
dozen  of  which  are  new  to  science.  Among 
these  is  the  cinnamon,  now  growing  only  in 
torrid  climes.  More  westerly  are  quantities  of 
the  remains  of  sharks  and  other  fish,  equalling 
in  size  the  largest  now  known ;  also  saurians 
and  other  amphibians,  of  large  size  and  pecu 
liar  forms."  Fifteen  specimens  of  marine  shells, 
three  of  reptiles,  and  five  of  fishes,  previously 
unknown,  were  obtained  here.  The  coal-bear 
ing  region  of  Kansas  occupies  the  entire  E. 
portion  of  the  state,  having  a  general  width 
from  E.  to  W.  of  about  120  m.,  and  embracing 
an  area  of  about  17,000  sq.  m.  Throughout 
this  region  outcroppings  of  bituminous  'coal 
appear.  Many  of  the  veins  are  thin,  but 
some  of  them  are  7  ft.  thick  and  produce  a 
good  quality  of  bituminous  coal ;  mining  is 
extensively  carried  on  at  several  points.  Coal 
is  also  found  in  the  W.  part  of  the  state,  but 
of  inferior  quality.  In  this  region  salt  also 
exists  in  large  quantities  in  numerous  springs 
and  extensive  salt  marshes.  The  salt  district 
embraces  a  tract  about  80  by  35  m.,  cross 
ing  the  Republican,  Solomon,  and  Saline  val 
leys.  Salt  is  also  found  S.  of  the  Arkansas 
river.  On  the  W.  border  of  the  state  there  is 
an  extensive  deposit  of  crystallized  salt  in  beds 
from  6  to  28  in.  thick.  It  has  not,  however, 
been  made  available  for  commercial  purposes, 
in  consequence  of  the  difficulty  of  access. 
Analyses  of  Kansas  salt  show  it  to  be  of  re 
markable  purity,  entirely  free  from  chloride 
of  calcium.  Iron  ores  have  been  found  in 
various  localities,  but  not  of  a  character  to 
be  profitably  worked.  Lead,  alum,  limestone 
suitable  for  hydraulic  cement,  petroleum,  de 
posits  of  paints,  lime,  excellent  building  stone, 
and  brick  and  other  clays  are  found. — Perhaps 
no  other  western  state  has  so  pleasant  and 
beautiful  a  climate  as  that  of  Kansas,  or  so 
many  bright  sunny  days.  The  winters  are 
milder  than  in  the  same  latitude  further  east, 
the  temperature  rarely  falling  below  zero. 
According  to  observations  covering  five  years 
made  by  Prof.  Snow,  Kansas  had  more  rain 
during  the  seven  months  from  March  1  to  Oct. 
1  than  any  other  of  19  northern  and  western 
states  with  which  comparison  was  made  ;  and 
less  during  the  winter  months  than  any  other 
except  one.  In  summer  the  temperature  ranges 
from  80°  to  100°,  but  the  air  is  dry  and  pure, 
while  the  nights  are  invariably  cool  and  refresh 
ing.  The  extraordinary  clearness  of  the  atmos 
phere  is  remarked  by  all  strangers.  The  most 


KANSAS 


749 


disagreeable  feature  of  the  climate  is  the  severe 
winds  which  sweep  over  the  prairies  during 
the  \vinter  months  from  the  northwest ;  during 
summer,  pleasant  S.  W.  breezes  prevail.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  for  live  years  was 
52'8° :  spring,  52'2° ;  summer,  75*5°  ;  autumn, 
54-3°;  winter,  29'1°.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  was  44*09  in. :  spring,  10*82  ;  summer, 
18*6;  autumn,  9'79 ;  winter,  5'42;  from  March 
1  to  Oct.  1,  34-15.  The  climate  of  Kansas  is 
said  to  be  highly  favorable  to  consumptives 
and  those  suffering  with  asthmatic  or  bron 
chial  complaints;  the  central  and  W.  portions 
are  singularly  free  from  the  diseases  which 
prevail  in  miasmatic  regions  and  mountain  dis 
tricts,  such  as  fever  and  ague,  and  rheumatic 
and  acute  febrile  diseases. — The  soil  of  Kansas 
is  highly  favorable  to  agriculture.  On  the  bot 
tom  lands  it  is  from  2  to  10  ft.  deep,  and  on 
the  uplands  from  1  to  3  ft.  In  the  E.  half  of 
the  state  it  is  a  black  sandy  loam  intermixed 
with  vegetable  mould.  In  the  "W.  part  the  soil 
is  light-colored,  and  is  deeper  than  that  of 
eastern  Kansas,  being  from  2  to  10  ft.,  but  it 
contains  less  vegetable  mould.  The  soil  of  the 
entire  state  is  rich  in  mineral  constituents; 
this  feature,  together  with  an  unusually  good 
drainage,  gives  to  it  valuable  qualities  for  the 
growth  of  vegetation.  Reports  covering  nine 
years  show  that  the  average  production  of 
Indian  corn  per  acre  was  18  to  48*4  bushels, 
wheat  11-0  to  21 '4,  rye  17  to  25 '8,  oats  25  to 
42,  barley  23  to  38,  potatoes  85  to  149.  Fine 
grazing  and  good  hay  are  afforded  by  the 
prairie  grasses  which  everywhere  abound, 
growing  from  1  to  0  ft.  high.  The  plains  in 
the  "\V.  part  of  the  state  are  covered  with  a 
small  grass,  which  has  a  short  curled  leaf  and 
spreads  on  the  ground  like  a  thick  mat.  It 
is  known  as  buffalo  grass,  and  is  extremely 
sweet  and  nutritious.  Good  timber  is  well 
distributed  throughout  the  E.  part  of  the  state, 
being  generally  found  along  streams  and  adja 
cent  ravines.  The  abundance  of  coal  and  stone, 
however,  diminishes  the  need  of  wood  for  fuel 
or  building  purposes.  The  most  abundant 
kinds  of  trees  are  oak,  elm,  black  walnut, 
cottonwood,  box  elder,  honey  locust,  willow, 
hickory,  sycamore,  white  ash,  and  hackberry. 
The  buffalo,  elk,  deer,  antelope,  prairie  dog, 
squirrel,  horned  frog,  prairie  hen,  grouse,  wild 
turkey,  wild  goose,  and  many  varieties  of 
small  birds  are  found.  The  rearing  of  cattle 
is  o  prominent  industry,  and  the  W.  part  of 
the  state  presents  unusual  advantages  for  sheep 
raising.  —  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
there  were  5,056,879  acres  of  land  in  farms, 
including  1,971,003  acres  of  improved  land, 
635,419  of  woodland,  and  3,050,457  of  other 
unimproved  land.  The  total  number  of  farms 
was  38,202 ;  there  were  5,478  containing  be 
tween  10  and  20  acres,  13,744  between  20  and 
50,  8,732  between  50  and  100,  5,346  between 
100  and  500,  42  between  500  and  1,000,  and 
13  over  1,000.  The  cash  value  of  farms  was 
$90,327,040;  of  farming  implements  and  ma- 


j  chinery,  $4,053,312;    total  amount  of  wages 

I  paid  during  the  year,  including  value  of  board, 

!  $2,519,452  ;  total  (estimated)  value  of  all  farm 

;  productions,  including  betterments  and  addi- 

j  tions  to  stock,  $27,630,651 ;  value  of  orchard 

{  products,    $158,046;     of    produce   of    market 

!  gardens,  $129,013;  of  forest  products,  $368,- 

1947;    of    home   manufactures,    $156,910;    of 

i  animals    slaughtered    or    sold   for   slaughter, 

!  $4,156,386;    of    all    live    stock,    $23,173,185. 

The   number  of  acres  under  cultivation  was 

returned   at    2,476,862    in    1872,    and    2,982,- 

599  in  1873  ;   the  value  of  farm  productions 

in   the   former   year    was   $25,265,109.      The 

chief  agricultural  productions  in  1870  and  1873 

were  as  follows: 


PRODUCTIONS. 


Wheat,  spring,  bushels 

"        winter 

Indian  corn 

Rye 

Oats 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Peas  and  beans 

Potatoes :  2.892.521 

Grass  seed :         8.023 


i  1.314.522  I 
I  1,<7G.67G  I 
17,025.525  i 

85.207  I 
1  4,097.925  • 

98,405  ! 

27,826  i 

18.101)  i 


29.6S8.S48 

301.H57 
9,337.581 

5HS.002 


Flax  seed 

Hay,  tons 

Hemp,  Ibs 

Flax 

Cotton 

Tobacco 

Wool . . . 


1,558 

490.289 
78.400 
1.040 
3.500 
33.241 
335.005 

Butter 5.022.753 

Cheese,  farm 226.607 

"        factory 

Honey , 

Wax 

Wine,  pallons 

Milk  sold 

Orchard  products,  bushels. .  . . 

"         value 

Grapes,  Ibs 

"       value... 


110,s27 

2.208 

14.889 

11/6,662 


1,410,304 

251.222 
31(3,352 

6,804*693 
143,982 

151,172 
135.3-4(1^72) 
3,6^8  (ls>72> 
34,505 

'  7l'8.954 

$356.977 

828,120(1^72) 

$42,441 


The  number  of  domestic  animals  on  farms  re 
ported  by  the  census  of  1870,  and  the  number 
and  value  of  all  in  the  state  as  reported  by  the 
state  authorities  in  1873,  were: 


ANIMALS. 

1S70.            1873.        Value  in  1873. 

Horses 
Mules  n 
Milch  c( 
Sheep.. 

Swine. 

117,786    176.161      $10.893.499 
11.786  i    17,816  i        1,362.971 
123.440  |      
109.088  !    51.166             119.728 
2(16.587    880.701  !        2.01I3.NV2 
250,527  ;  634.021        13.314,441 

)WS  

Ci.ttle 

—Though  having  an  abundance  of  water  pow 
er,  Kansas  has  not  yet  attained  a  high  rank  in 
manufacturing  industry,  the  people  being  de 
voted  chiefly  to  agriculture,  stock  raising,  and 
fruit  growing.  According  to  the  census  of 
1870,  the  total  number  of  manufacturing  es 
tablishments  was  1,477,  having  254  steam  en 
gines  of  6,360  horse  power,  and  62  water 
wheels  of  1,7S9  horse  power,  and  employing 
6,844  hands,  of  whom  6.51M)  were  adult  males, 
118  adult  females,  and  127  youth.  The  capital 
invested  amounted  to  $4,319,060;  wages  paid 
during  the  year,  $2,377,511;  value  of  mate- 


750 


KANSAS 


rials,  $6,112,103;  of  products,  $11,775,833. 
The  chief  industries  were:  195  carpentering 
and  building  establishments,  capital  $146,678, 
products  $1,725,433  ;  106  flouring  and  grist 
mills,  capital  $1,056,800,  products  $2,938,215; 
123  founder ies,  capital  $135,986,  products 
$326,420;  195  lumber  mills,  capital  $642,955, 
products  $1,736,381 ;  76  saddlery  and  harness 
establishments,  capital  $217,205,  products 
$425,928;  6  woollen  mills,  capital  $92,000, 
products  $141,750.  Assessors  are  required  to 
collect  every  year  statistics  of  agriculture,  man 
ufactures,  minerals,  &c.,  and  the  state  board  of 


agriculture  to  publish  annually  a  detailed  state 
ment  of  the  various  industries.  Transporta 
tion  facilities  are  afforded  by  the  Missouri  river 
and  the  numerous  railroads.  In  1865  there 
were  but  40  m.  of  railroad  in  Kansas.  In  1873 
the  entire  mileage  had  increased  to  2,131,  and 
was  being  rapidly  extended.  The  railroad  as 
sessors  in  the  latter  year  returned  2,062  m., 
assessed  at  $11,704,154.  The  railroads  lying 
wholly  or  partly  within  the  state  in  1873,  to 
gether  with  their  termini  and  their  assessed 
value  in  Kansas,  are  represented  in  the  follow- 
in";  statement : 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 


Total  length    ! 

of  line  when    !  As£essed  value 


Atchison  and  Nebraska 

Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe , 

Branch 

Central  branch  of  the  Union  Pacific. 

Doniphan  and  Wathen.i 

•Junction  City  and  Fort  Kearney 

Kansas  Central * 

Kansas  Pacitic , 


Branches 


Lawrence  and  Southwestern 

*  Leavenworth,  Atchison,  and  Northwestern 
Leavenworth,  Lawrence,  and  Galveston 

Branches -j 

Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas 

Neosho  division 

Sedalia         "       

Osage  "       

Cherokee  "  

Missouri  River 

Missouri  River,  Fort  Scott,  and  Gulf 

St.  Joseph  and  Denver  City 

:;:  St.  Louis,  Lawrence,  and  Denver 


Atchison  and  Lincoln,  Neb 

Atchison  and  state  line 

Newton  to  Wichita 

Atchison  and  Watervillc 

Doniphan  and  Wathena 

Junction  City  and  Clay  Centre , 

Leavenworth  and  Denver,  Col 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  Denver,  Col . . . 

Lawrence  to  Leavenworth 

Junction  City  to  Clay  Centre 

Lawrence  and  Carbondale , 

Leavenworth  and  Atchison 

Lawrence  and  Coff'eyville 

Olathe  to  Ottawa , 

Cherry  vale  to  Independence 


Junction  City  to  Parsons 

Sedalia,  Mo.,  to  Parsons 

Holden,  Mo.,  to  Paola 

Parsons  to  Arkansas  river,  Indian  Ter. 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  Leavenworth. . . 

'•         Baxter 

Elwood  and  Hastings.  Neb 

Pleasant  Hill,  Mo.,  and  Carbondale 


461) 
•27 

100 
13 
83 
56 

476 
34 
33 
30 
21 

144 
82 
10 


156 

50 

19 

28 

23 

159 

133 

39 


147 


500 
639 


159 

54 

116 


227 
93 


2.128 


$182.619 
2.480,teOO 

'  4o'o".66o 

40.500 

&9.0UO 

165.810 

3,764,745 


107.100 
158.878 

9111,630 


I,ls9,00(5 


177.952 

1,147.474 

647,143 

157,000 


$11,704,152 


In  1873  there  were  in  the  state  26  national 
banks,  with  a  paid-in  capital  of  $1,975,000, 
and  an  outstanding  circulation  of  $1,537,496. 
The  entire  bank  circulation  was  $1,825,496, 
being  $5*01  per  capita;  ratio  of  circulation  to 
wealth,  one  per  cent. ;  ratio  of  circulation  to 
bank  capital,  77'8  per  cent.  In  1874  there 
were  34  lire  and  marine  and  20  life  insurance 
companies  doing  business  in  the  state. — The 
executive  department  of  the  government  con-  j 
sists  of  a  governor,  whose  annual  salary  is  j 
$3,000 ;  lieutenant  governor  ;  secretary  of 
state,  $2,000 ;  auditor,  $2,000  ;  treasurer,  $2,- 
000;  attorney  general,  $1,500;  and  superin 
tendent  of  public  instruction,  $2,000.  All  of 
these  are  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  The  legislature  at  present  (1874) 
comprises  33  senators,  who  are  elected  for 
two  years,  and  105  representatives,  elected 
for  one  year.  Their  compensation  is  fixed 
by  the  constitution  at  $3  a  day  for  actual  ser 
vice,  and  15  cents  a  mile  for  travel  to  and 
from  the  capital ;  the  entire  per  diem  compen 
sation  for  each  member  being  limited  to  $150 
for  a  regular  and  $90  for  a  special  session.  The 
sessions  are  annual,  beginning  on  the  second 

*  Leased  by  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad  company. 


Tuesday  of  January.  A  two-thirds  vote  of  all 
the  members  elected  in  each  branch  of  the  legis 
lature  is  required  to  pass  a  measure  over  the 
governor's  veto.  The  judicial  power  is  vested 
in  a  supreme  court,  consisting  of  a  chief  jus 
tice  and  two  associate  justices,  elected  by  the 
people  for  a  term  of  six  years;  15  district 
courts,  of  one  judge  each,  elected  by  the  people 
of  the  district  for  four  years ;  a  probate  court 
in  each  county  consisting  of  one  judge  elected 
for  two  years ;  and  justices  of  the  peace  elect 
ed  in  each  township  for  two  years.  General 
elections  are  held  annually  on  the  Tuesday  suc 
ceeding  the  first  Monday  in  November.  The 
right  of  suffrage  is  limited  by  the  constitution 
to  white  males  21  years  old  and  over,  who  are 
either  citizens  of  the  United  States  or  have 
declared  their  intention  to  become  such,  and 
who  have  resided  in  Kansas  six  months  next 
preceding  the  election  and  in  the  township  or 
ward  in  which  the  vote  is  offered  at  least  30 
days.  Persons  who  have  engaged  in  a  duel 
are  made  ineligible  to  any  office  of  trust  or 
profit.  The  property  owned  by  a  married 
woman  at  the  time  of  marriage,  and  any  which 
may  come  to  her  afterward  except  from  her 
husband,  remains  her  separate  property,  not 
subject  to  the  disposal  of  her  husband,  or  liable 


KANSAS 


751 


for  his  debts.  She  may  convey  her  property, 
or  make  contracts  concerning  it.  She  may  sue 
and  be  sued,  in  the  same  manner  as  an  unmar 
ried  woman,  jmd  may  carry  on  any  trade  or 
business  and  have  full  control  over  her  earn 
ings.  Xeither  husband  nor  wife  may  bequeath 
more  than  one  half  of  his  or  her  estate  away 
from  the  other  without  written  consent.  Di 
vorces  may  be  granted  by  the  district  court, 
among  other  causes,  for  abandonment  for  one 
year,  adultery,  impotency,  extreme  cruelty, 
drunkenness,  gross  neglect  of  duty,  and  im 
prisonment  in  the  penitentiary  subsequent  to 
marriage.  The  plaintiff  must  have  resided  a 
year  in  the  state.  In  actions  for  libel,  the 
truth  published  with  good  motives  and  for 
justifiable  ends  may  constitute  a  good  defence. 
The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  limited  to  12  per 
cent.  Kansas  is  represented  in  congress  by 
two  senators  and  three  representatives,  and  has 
therefore  live  votes  in  the  electoral  college. 
The  total  state  debt,  Jan.  1,  1874,  was  $701,- 
550;  bonded  school  debt  of  counties,  $1,928,- 
585;  municipal  debt,  $10,899,445;  aggregate, 
$13,529,580.  The  income  and  disbursements 
of  the  various  funds  were  as  follows  : 


SOURCES. 

Receipt*. 

Disbursements.  !      Balance. 

General  revenue  
Interest  fund  
Sinkinir  fund  
Annual  school  fund  .  .  . 
Permanent  school  fund 
Military  fund 

$744,856  99 
146.775  11 
47.229  96 
249.771  82 
28i;i<54  61 
7,516  89 

$658,855  83 
93.403  00 
8,905  00 
287,220  23 
229,025  97 
8,500  00 

$86.001  16 
53.372  11 
38.324  90 
1'2.551  59 
1,538  64 
4,016  89 
20 
2,150  57 
8,272  00 

Eailroad  fund  

8,210  8S 

6,060  81 

Int.  on  municipal  bonds 
Total  

58,339  10 
$1,493,365  42 

54,289  79 
$1,291,860  18 

4,049  37 
$205,277  49 

The  value  of  taxable  property,  as  fixed  by  the 
state  board,  and  the  amount  and  rate  of  taxa 
tion  since  Kansas  became  a  state,  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


YEARS. 

Taxable 
property. 

Rate. 

Tax  levied. 

1801 

$24  744  333 

3  mills. 

$74.238 

1>62  .  .              
1868 

19,285,749 
25  460.400 

5      '; 
5      " 

101.409 
127.302 

1804  

1  M)5                    

30.502.791 
36,227,'?00 

5      " 
5      " 

152.884 
181,136 

1  ,8»><i 

50  439  634 

4      " 

201,7«W) 

1807  
1868 

56.276.300 
60  949.549 

5      " 
VI    " 

281.3^1 

435.407 

1  N)9    

70.8-8.C9  7 

10       " 

703.S36 

1870  
1S7,  

1872 

92.528.099 
108,758.575 
1-27  090  937 

1}    « 

()            U 

bi     " 

809.020 
652,521 
1,085.372 

1S73  

125,684,176 

0       " 

754,105 

The  state  government  is  supported  chiefly  by  a 
tax  directly  upon  the  people,  the  assessment 
being  made  upon  a  cash  valuation  of  all  the 
real  and  personal  estate,  including  the  proper 
ty  of  railroad  companies  and  other  corpora 
tions.  The  asylums  for  the  insane,  deaf  and 
dumb,  •  and  blind  are  each  controlled  by  a 
board  of  six  trustees  appointed  by  the  gover 
nor  and  senate.  The  asylum  for  the  insane  at 
VOL.  ix. — 48 


1  Osawatomie  is  greatly  inadequate  to  the  needs 
of  the  state.  The  number  of  patients  at  the 

;  close  of  1873  was  121  ;  the  current  expenses 
for  the  year  amounted  to  $28,221.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  asylum  in  1863,  378  per 
sons  have  been  admitted,  of  whom  161  have 
been  discharged  recovered,  38  improved,  26 
stationary,  and  19  died.  The  asylum  for  the 
deaf  anof  dumb  at  Olathe,  organized  by  the 
legislature  in  1866,  is  intended  to  afford  in 
struction,  without  charge  for  board  or  tuition, 
to  all  the  deaf  and  dumb  of  the  state  between 
the  ages  of  10  and  21  years.  The  course  of 

|  instruction  covers  six  years,  but  may  be  ex- 

i  tended  in  certain  cases.  Students  are  also  re 
quired  to  devote  time  to  industrial  pursuits 
with  a  view  of  being  able  to  obtain  a  liveli 
hood  after  leaving  the  institution.  By  this 
means  a  considerable  income  is  created  for  the 
asylum.  In  1873  there  were  5  instructors  and 
77  pupils,  of  whom  52  were  in  attendance  at 
the  close  of  the  year.  The  amount  appropria 
ted  by  the  legislature  was  $36,604,  Deluding 
$20,000  for  additional  buildings.  The  institu 
tion  for  the  blind,  founded  in  1867,  is  at  "Wy- 
andotte.  It  comprises  educational  and  indus 
trial  departments,  and  in  1873  had  4  instruc 
tors  and  33  pupils.  The  cost  of  the  institution 
in  that  year  was  $11,590.  The  state  peniten 
tiary  at  Leavenworth  at  the  end  of  1873  had 
340  convicts,  of  whom  19  had  been  sentenced 
by  the  United  States  and  49  by  military  courts; 
25  had  been  convicted  of  murder,  11  of  man 
slaughter,  10  of  assault  with  intent  to  kill,  173 
of  larceny,  32  of  burglary,  15  of  robbery,  and 
15  of  rape.  The  disbursements  for  1873  were 
$126,267;  the  resources  amounted  to  $139,- 
607,  including  $70,000  appropriated  by  the 

|  legislature  and  $54,232  received  from  prison 
ers'  labor,  boarding  United  States  prisoners, 
&c.  Some  of  the  convicts  are  employed  in 
various  industrial  pursuits  within  the  prison, 
while  others  are  employed  under  contract  out 
side.  Convicts  may  receive  a  percentage  of 
their  earnings.  In  1873,  for  want  of  a  state 
reform  school,  75  boys  from  15  to  20  years  of 
age  were  confined  in  the  penitentiary. — The 
constitution  requires  the  legislature  to  "  en 
courage  the  promotion  of  intellectual,  moral, 
scientific,  and  agricultural  improvement,  by 
establishing  a  uniform  system  of  common 
schools,  and  schools  of  a  higher  'grade,  embra- 

|  cing  normal,  preparatory,  collegiate,  and  uni 
versity  departments."  The  proceeds  of  all 
lands  granted  by  the  United  States  to  the  state 
for  schools,  and  of  the  500,000  acres  granted 
to  each  of  the  new  states  by  congress  in  1841, 
all  estates  of  persons  dying  without  heir  or 
will,  and  such  percentage  as  may  be  granted 
by  congress  on  the  sale  of  lands  in  this  state, 
are  made  a  perpetual  school  fund.  The  in 
come  of  the  state  school  funds  is  required  to 
be  disbursed  annually  among  the  school  dis- 

I  tricts  ;  but  no  district  is  entitled  to  receive  any 

!  portion  of  such  funds  in  which  a  common 
school  has  not  been  maintained  at  least  three 


752 


KANSAS 


months  in  each  year.  General  educational  in 
terests  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  state  su 
perintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  there  is 
a  superintendent  in  each  county.  The  board 
of  education  consists  of  the  state  superinten 
dent,  the  chancellor  of  the  state  university, 
the  president  of  the  state  agricultural  college, 
and  the  principals  of  the  state  normal  schools 
at  Emporia  and  Leavenworth.  A  prominent 
duty  of  the  board  is  to  issue  diplomas  to  such 
teachers  as  pass  the  examination.  The  state 
institutions  of  learning  are  governed  by  a  board 
of  seven  regents,  of  whom  one  is  an  ex  officio 
member  and  six  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  senate.  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
the  whole  number  of  schools  was  1,089,  having 
1,955  teachers,  of  whom  872  were  males  and 
1,083  females,  and  attended  by  59,882  pupils. 
Of  these,  1,663  were  public  schools,  with 
1,864  teachers  and  58,030  pupils;  5  were  col 
leges,  with  27  teachers  and  489  students;  6 
were  academies,  with  36  teachers  and  415 
pupils ; « and  4  were  private  schools,  with  4 
teachers  and  115  students.  The  total  income 
of  all  the  educational  institutions  was  $787,- 
226,  of  which  $19,604  was  from  endowment, 
$678,185  from  taxation  and  public  funds,  and 
$89,437  from  tuition  and  other  sources.  In 
1873  there  had  been  organized  4,004  school 
districts,  in  which  there  were  3,133  school 
houses.  The  entire  school  population  of  the 
state  (between  5  and  21  years  of  age)  num 
bered  184,957,  of  whom  121,690  were  enrolled 
in  the  public  schools,  the  average  daily  atten 
dance  being  71,062.  There  were  1,880  male 
teachers,  receiving  an  average  monthly  salary 
of  $38  43,  and  2,143  female  teachers,  whose 
average  monthly  salary  was  $30  64.  The  per 
manent  school  fund  was  $1,013,982,  including 
$1,003,682  interest-bearing  securities.  The  in 
come  from  various  sources  for  public  schools 
amounted  to  $1,657,318,  including  $931,958 
from  district  tax  and  $231,917  received  from 
state  fund.  The  total  expenditures  for  schools 
were  $1,488,676,  including  $716,056  for  teach 
ers,  $51,504  for  rent  and  repair  of  buildings, 
$160,723  for  furniture,  apparatus,  &c.,  $515,- 
071  for  buildings  and  sites,  and  $79,812  for 
miscellaneous  items.  The  total  value  of  school 
houses  was  $3,408,956;  of  apparatus,  $33,873. 
Kansas  ^has  four  state  normal  schools  for  the 
free  training  of  public  school  teachers :  one  at 
Emporia,  organized  in  1865;  one  at  Leaven- 
worth,  in  1870;  one  at  Quindaro,  in  1871; 
and  one  at  Concordia,  in  1874.  The  first 
named  has  a  normal  department,  which  affords 
a  two  years'  and  a  four  years'  course  of  study, 
and  a  model  department.  The  number  of  stu 
dents  in  1873  was  218,  the  disbursements  $17,- 
829.  The  school  at  Leavenworth  comprises  a 
normal  department,  which  affords  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  subjects  taught  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  state,  and  a  model  school  in 
which  the  art  of  teaching  may  be  practised. 
This  model  school  comprises  13  grades  or  de 
partments,  in  which  in  1873  there  were  1,100 


pupils  receiving  instruction  from  15  teachers. 
In  the  normal  department  there  were  7  teach 
ers  and  63  students.  The  Quindaro  normal 
school  is  for  colored  persons,  and  was  attended 
in  1873  by  82  pupils.  The  state  university  is 
at  Lawrence.  The  plan  of  the  institution 
comprises  six  departments :  1,  science,  litera 
ture,  and  the  arts ;  2,  law ;  3,  medicine ;  4, 
theory  and  practice  of  elementary  instruction ; 
5,  agriculture ;  6,  normal  department.  In. 
1874  only  one  of  these  departments  had  been 
organized ;  this  comprised  a  classical  course,  a 
scientific  course,  and  a  course  in  civil  and  to 
pographical  engineering.  There  were  then  12 
instructors  and  272  pupils,  of  whom  73  were 
in  the  collegiate  and  199  in  the  preparatory 
department.  No  charge  is  made  for  tuition. 
The  university  already  has  valuable  collec 
tions  in  natural  history,  and  a  considerable  li 
brary.  The  magnificent  building  of  the  insti 
tution,  246  ft.  long,  98  ft.  wide  in  the  centre 
and  62  in  the  wings,  contains  54  rooms,  inclu 
ding  an  immense  hall,  to  be  devoted  to  purpo 
ses  of  instruction.  The  state  agricultural  col 
lege  at  Manhattan  has  received  the  national 
grant  of  lands  made  for  the  establishment  of 
colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
The  aim  of  the  institution  is  to  afford  an  in 
dustrial  rather  than  a  professional  education. 
Four  general  courses  of  instruction  are  pro 
vided  :  the  farmer's,  the  mechanic's,  the  com 
mercial,  and  the  woman's.  The  farm  contains 
200  acres  of  prairie  upland,  so  arranged  as  to 
afford  the  best  facilities  for  teaching  the  appli 
cations  of  science  to  agriculture  and  making 
practical  experiments.  The  nursery  of  67 
acres  contains  the  largest  and  most  valuable 
assortment  of  fruit  and  forest  trees  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river.  The  mechanical  department 
embraces  carpenter,  wagon,  blacksmith,  paint, 
and  harness  shops.  "Women  are  taught  sew 
ing,  printing,  telegraphy,  photography,  and 
other  branches.  Tuition  in  all  departments  is 
free.  The  principal  colleges  are  St.  Benedict's 
(Roman  Catholic),  at  Atchison,  founded  in 
1859,  which  in  1873  had  7  instructors  and  94 
pupils  ;  Washburn-  college  (Congregational),  at 
Topeka,  founded  in  1865,  having  5  instructors 
and  93  students ;  Highland  university  (Presby 
terian),  with  4  instructors  and  137  students; 
Baker  university  (Methodist  Episcopal),  at 
Baldwin  City,  with  8  instructors  and  65  stu 
dents  ;  college  of  the  sisters  of  Bethany  (Epis 
copal),  at  Topeka,  with  10  instructors  and  83 
pupils ;  and  Ottawa  university  (Baptist),  at 
Ottawa.  The  Kansas  academy  of  science  was 
organized  in  1868  as  a  society  of  natural  his 
tory,  but  was  enlarged  in  its  scope  in  1871,  and 
incorporated  by  the  legislature  the  following 
year.  In  its  present  form  it  comprehends  ob 
servers  and  investigators  in  every  line  of  scien 
tific  inquiry,  and  aims  to  increase  and  diffuse  a 
knowledge  of  science  particularly  in  its  rela 
tion  to  Kansas.  The  society  has  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  state  in 
geology,  botany,  ornithology,  ichthyology,  en- 


KANSAS 


753 


tomology,  and  meteorology,  and  designs  in 
time  to  make  a  complete  scientific  survey  of 
the  state. — According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
there  were  in  the  state  57-4  libraries,  having 
218,076  volumes;  364,  with  126,251  volumes, 
were  private,  and  190,  with  92,425,  were  other 
than  private,  including  4  circulating  libraries 
with  6,550  volumes,  the  state  library  in  1874 
contained  about  10,000  volumes.  The  number 
of  newspapers  and  periodicals  in  1870  was  97, 
with  an  aggregate  circulation  of  96,803 ;  copies 
annually  issued,  9,518,176;  12  were  daily,  cir 
culation  17,570 ;  4tri-weekly,  circulation  1,840 ; 
78  weekly,  circulation  71,393  ;  and  3  month 
ly,  circulation  6,000.  The  number  of  religious 
organizations  of  all  denominations  was  530, 
having  301  edifices,  with  102,135  sittings,  and 
property  valued  at  $1,722,700.  The  denomi 
nations  were  represented  as  follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

1" 

i 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular  

91 

56 

18,540 

$247,900 

Christian  
Congregational  

35 
48 

16 
9,6 

4.550 
8,350 

45,300 
152.000 

Episcopal,  Protestant  
Evangelical  Association  
Friends  .  .  .  .*  
Jewish 

14 
2 

1 
2 

9 
1 
7 
1 

3,230 

300 
1.600 
300 

57,500 
0,000 
18.300 
1  500 

Lutheran  

9 

5 

1,400 

12,500 

Methodist  

166 

74 

23525 

816  600 

Presbyterian,  regular  
Presbyterian,  other  

84 
10 

55 

7 

20,660 
2,150 

277.900 
24500 

Reformed  Church  in  the  Uni 
ted   States   (late    German 
Reformed). 

1 

275 

8000 

Roman  Catholic        

87 

34 

14,605 

513,200 

Unitarian 

2 

1 

400 

20  000 

United  Brethren  in  Christ.  . 

24 

8 

2,200 

81,500 

— Kansas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States  in 
1803  as  part  of  the  territory  bought 'from 
France  under  the  general  designation  of  Loui 
siana.  By  the  Missouri  compromise  bill  of 
1820  it  was  provided  "that  in  all  the  territory 
ceded  by  France  to  the  United  States  under 
the  name  of  Louisiana  which  lies  N.  of  lat.  36° 
30'  N".,  excepting  only  such  part  thereof  as  is 
included  within  the  limits  of  the  state  [Mis 
souri]  contemplated  by  this  act,  slavery  and 
involuntary  servitude,  otherwise  than  in  the 
punishment  of  crime  whereof  the  party  shall 
have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  be  and  is  here 
by  for  ever  prohibited."  By  an  act  of  con 
gress  passed  in  May,  1854,  the  territories  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  organized,  and  in 
section  14  of  this  act  it  was  declared  that  the 
constitution  and  all  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  should  be  in  force  in  these  territories 
except  the  Missouri  compromise  act  of  1820, 
"which  ...  is  hereby  declared  inoperative 
and  void."  The  question  of  slavery  was  thus 
left  to  the  decision  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
territory.  This  formed  the  leading  topic  of 
discussion  in  congress,  and  caused  a  great  agi 
tation  throughout  the  country.  About  a  month 
previously  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  had 
incorporated  the  Massachusetts  emigrant  aid 
company,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  emi 


grants  to  settle  in  the  new  territories,  by  giving 
them  useful  information,  procuring  them  cheap 
passage  over  railroads,  and  establishing  mills 
and  other  conveniences  at  central  points  in  the 
new  settlements.  In  July  the  legislature  of 
Connecticut  granted  a  charter  to  a  similar 
company.  A  largS  immigration  into  Kansas 
from  the  northwestern  states  had  already  taken 
place,  and  emigrants  in  considerable  numbers 
from  the  free  states  and  a  few  from  the  slave 
states  now  availed  themselves  of  the  oppor 
tunities  for  cheap  transportation  offered  by 
these  companies  to  settle  in  Kansas.  A  party 
of  30  men  led  by  Mr.  Branscomb  founded  the 
town  of  Lawrence,  and  were  soon  after  joined 
by  60  or  70  more  led  by  Mr.  Charles  Robinson 
and  S.  C.  Pomeroy.  Settlers  from  Missouri 
were  at  the  same  time  passing  into  Kansas,  in 
many  cases  taking  their  slaves  with  them.  On 
July  29,  1854,  a  public  meeting,  called  by  the 
"Platte  County  Defensive  Association,"  was 
held  at  Weston,  Mo.,  and  resolutions  were 
adopted  and  published  declaring  that  the  asso 
ciation  would  hold  itself  in  readiness,  when 
ever  called  upon  by  any  of  the  citizens  of  Kan 
sas,  "to  assist  in  removing  any  and  all  emi 
grants  who  go  there  under  the  auspices  of 
northern  emigrant  aid  societies."  On  Aug.  12 
another  meeting  was  held  at  Weston,  at  which 
resolutions  were  adopted,  declaring  in  favor  of 
the  extension  of  slavery  into  Kansas.  It  also 
appears  from  a  congressional  investigation  or 
dered  in  1856,  that  before  any  elections  were 
held  in  the  territory  a  secret  society  was 
formed  in  Missouri  for  the  purpose  of  extend 
ing  slavery  into  Kansas  and  other  territories. 
This  was  to  be  done  by  sending  voters  into  the 
territory.  Andrew  II.  Reeder  of  Pennsylvania 
had  been  appointed  governor  by  President 
Pierce,  and  arrived  in  Kansas  Oct.  6.  An  elec 
tion  for  a  territorial  delegate  to  congress  was 
held  Nov.  29.  The  polls  were  taken  possession 
of  by  armed  bands  from  Missouri,  and  out  of 
2,843  votes  cast  it  was  subsequently  estimated 
by  a  congressional  investigating  committee  that 
1,729  were  illegal.  On  March  30,  1855,  another 
election  for  members  of  the  territorial  legisla 
ture  was  held,  and  the  polls  were  again  taken 
possession  of  by  large  bodies  of  armed  men 
from  Missouri,  who,  after  electing  pro-slavery 
delegates  from  every  district,  returned  to  their 
own  homes  in  the  adjacent  state.  From  the 
investigation  by  the  congressional  committee 
it  appeared  that  out  of  6,218  votes  cast  at  this 
election,  only  1,410  were  legal,  of  which  791 
were  given  for  the  free-state  or  anti-slavery 
candidates.  From  six  of  the  districts,  evi 
dence  of  the  illegal  nature  of  the  proceedings 
having  been  laid  before  Gov.  Reeder,  he  set 
aside  the  returns  and  ordered  new  elections  in 
those  districts,  which  resulted  in  the  choice 
of  free-state  delegates,  except  at  Leavenworth, 
where  the  polls  were  again  seized  by  Missou- 
rians.  Gov.  Reeder  soon  after  visited  Wash 
ington  to  confer  with  the  federal  authorities, 
and  after  his  return  Iris  removal  from  the  office 


KANSAS 


of  governor  was  announced,  July  20,  for  the 
alleged  reason  of  irregular  proceedings  in  the 
purchase  of  Indian  lands.  The  territorial  legis 
lature  assembled  at  Pawnee,  July  3,  but  two 
davs  afterward  adjourned  to  Shawnee  mission, 
near  the  Missouri  line,  where  they  reassembled 
July  16,  and  remained  in  Ifession  till  Aug.  30. 
One  of  their  first  acts  was  to  expel  the  free- 
state  men  chosen  at  the  second  elections  or 
dered  by  Gov.  Reeder,  and  to  give  their  seats 
to  the  pro-slavery  men  originally  returned. 
They  also  passed  an  act  making  it  a  capital  of 
fence  to  assist  slaves  in  escaping  either  into 
the  territory  or  out  of  it ;  and  felony,  punish 
able  with  imprisonment  at  hard  labor  from 
two  to  five  years,  to  conceal  or  aid  escaping 
slaves,  to  circulate  anti-slavery  publications,  or 
to  deny  the  right  to  hold  slaves  in  the  terri 
tory  ;  also  an  act  requiring  all  voters  to  swear 
to  sustain  the  fugitive  slave  law ;  and  they  also 
adopted  in  a  body  the  laws  of  Missouri,  and 
passed  an  act  making  Lecompton  the  capital 
of  the  territory.  Wilson  Shannon  of  Ohio 
was  appointed  governor  in  place  of  Mr.  Keeder, 
and  assumed  office  Sept.  1.  A  few  days  later 
a  convention  of  the  free-state  party  was  held 
at  Big  Springs,  and,  after  protesting  against 
the  acts  of  the  legislature,  nominated  ex-Gov 
ernor  Reeder  as  delegate  to  congress,  and  ap 
pointed  Oct.  9  as  the  time  for  holding  the  elec 
tion,  when  Gov.  Reeder  received  about  2,400 
votes.  Delegates  were  subsequently  chosen 
to  a  constitutional  convention,  which  assem 
bled  at  Topeka  Oct.  23,  and  sat  till  Nov.  12, 
when  they  promulgated  a  constitution  for  the 
state  of  Kansas  in  which  slavery  was  pro 
hibited.  The  contest  between  the  free-state 
and  pro-slavery  parties  now  grew  to  such  a 
pitch  of  violence  that  several  men  were  killed 
on  each  side,  and  the  people  of  Lawrence  be 
gan  to  arm  for  self-defence.  The  governor 
called  out  the  militia,  A  large  number  of  Mis- 
sourians  enrolled  themselves  as  Kansas  militia, 
and  Lawrence  for  some  days  was  in  a  state  of 
siege ;  but  the  difficulty  was  temporarily  ad 
justed  by  negotiation,  and  the  Missourians  re 
tired  to  their  own  state.  On  Dec.  15  the  peo 
ple  voted  upon  the  question  of  accepting  the 
Topeka  constitution,  and  the  pro-slavery  men 
abstaining  from  participation,  it  was  accepted 
with  only  45  votes  against  it,  exclusive  of 
Leavenworth,  where  the  polling  was  prevented 
by  an  inroad  from  Missouri.  On  Jan.  15,  1856, 
an  election  was  held  for  state  officers  and  a 
legislature  under  the  Topeka  constitution,  and 
Charles  Robinson  was  chosen  governor.  The 
legislature  met  at  Topeka  March  4,  and,  after 
organizing  and  inaugurating  the  governor  and 
other  officers,  adjourned  to  July  4.  Early  in 
April  a  considerable  body  of  armed  men  from 
Georgia,  Alabama,  and  other  southern  states, 
led  by  Major  Buford,  arrived  in  Kansas.  On 
the  17th  of  the  same  month  a  special  commit 
tee  of  the  United  States  house  of  representa 
tives,  appointed  about  a  month  before,  and 
charged  to  investigate  the  troubles  in  the  ter 


ritory  of  Kansas,  arrived  at  Lawrence.  The 
result  of  their  investigations  was  a  report  by 
the  majority  of  the  committee,  Messrs.  How 
ard  of  Michigan  and  Sherman  of  Ohio,  in 
which  they  said:  "Every  election  has  been 
controlled,  not  by  the  actual  settlers,  but  by 
citizens  of  Missouri;  and,  as  a  consequence, 
every  officer  in  the  territory  from  constable  to 
legislators,  except  those  appointed  by  the  pres 
ident,  owe  their  positions  to  non-resident  vo 
ters.  None  have  been  elected  by  the  settlers, 
and  your  committee  have  been  unable  to  find 
that'  any  political  power  whatever,  however 
unimportant,  has  been  exercised  by  the  people 
of  the  territory."  Mr.  Oliver  of  Missouri,  the 
third  member  of  the  committee,  made  a  mi 
nority  report,  in  which  he  said  that  there  was 
no  evidence  that  any  violence  was  resorted  to, 
or  force  employed,  by  which  men  were  pre 
vented  from  voting.  On  May  5  the  grand  jury 
of  Douglas  county  found  indictments  against 
Reeder,  Robinson,  Lane,  and  other  free-state 
leaders,  for  high  treason,  on  the  ground  of  their 
participation  in  the  organization  of  a  state 
government  under  the  Topeka  constitution. 
Reeder  and  Lane  escaped  from  the  terri 
tory,  but  Robinson  was  arrested  and  kept 
in  prison  for  four  months.  The  United  States 
marshal  took  Buford's  men  into  pay,  and 
armed  them  with  government  muskets.  Law 
rence  was  again  besieged  by  a  large  force, 
and  on  May  21,  under  a  promise  of  safety 
to  persons  and  protection  to  property,  the 
inhabitants  gave  up  their  arms  to  the  sheriff. 
The  invaders  immediately  entered  the  town, 
blew  up  and  burned  the  hotel,  burned  Mr.  Rob 
inson's  house,  destroyed  two  printing  presses, 
and  plundered  several  stores  and  houses.  A 
state  of  civil  war  now  spread  through  the  ter 
ritory,  the  free-state  party  being  furnished  with 
contributions  of  arms  and  money  from  non- 
slaveholding  states.  On  May  26  a  fight,  in 
which  five  men  were  killed,  occurred  at  Pot- 
taw  attamie,  where  John  Brown  with  a  band 
of  free-state  men  was  encamped ;  and  on  June 
2  there  was  another  at  Black  Jack,  which  re 
sulted  in  the  capture  of  Capt.  Pate  togeth 
er  with  80  of  his  men.  Similar  affairs,  at 
tended  with  loss  of  life,  continued  to  occur 
for  three  or  four  months.  Parties  of  emi 
grants  from  the  free  states  on  their  way 
through  Missouri  were  in  many  cases  stopped 
and  turned  back.  The  free-state  legislature 
met  at  the  appointed  time  (July  4)  at  Topeka, 
and  was  forcibly  dispersed  by  United  States 
troops  under  Col.  Sumner.  On  Aug.  14  the 
free-state  men  assailed  and  took  a  fortified  post 
near  Lecompton,  occupied  by  Col.  Titus  with 
a  party  of  pro-slavery  men,  and  captured  Titus 
and  20  other  prisoners.  On  Aug.  17  a  trea 
ty  was  agreed  to  between  Gov.  Shannon  and 
the  free-state  men,  by  which  Shannon  restored 
the  cannon  taken  at  Lawrence,  and  received 
in  exchange  Titus  and  the  other  prisoners.  A 
few  days  later  Shannon  received  notice  of  his 
removal  from  office,  John  "W.  Geary  of  Penn- 


KANSAS 


755 


sylvania  being  appointed  in  his  stead.  Mr.  | 
Woodson,  the  secretary  of  the  territory,  and  ' 
acting1  governor  hefore  Geary's  arrival,  on  Aug.  I 
25  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the  terri-  ! 
tory  to  be  in  a  state  of  rebellion.  lie  collect 
ed  a  considerable  armed  force  at  Lecompton, 
while  another  body,  amounting  to  1,150  men, 
assembled  under  the  Hon.  David  R.  Atchison, 
late  U.  S.  senator  from  Missouri,  at  a  point 
called  Santa  Fe.  On  Aug.  29  a  detachment 
from  Atchison's  army  attacked  Osawatomie, 
which  was  defended  by  a  small  band  under 
John  Brown,  Avho  made  a  vigorous  resistance, 
but  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  two  killed, 
five  wounded,  and  seven  prisoners.  Five  of 
the  assailants  were  killed,  and  30  buildings 
\vere  burned.  The  next  day  a  body  of  free- 
state  men  inarched  from  Lawrence  to  attack 
Atchison's  army.  On  their  approach  the  lat 
ter  retired  with  his  forces  into  Missouri.  On 
Sept.  1  the  annual  municipal  election  took 
place  at  Leaven  worth.  A  party,  chiefly  from 
Missouri,  killed  and  wounded  several  of  the 
free-state  men,  burned  their  houses,  and  forced 
about  150  to  embark  for  St.  Louis.  On  Sept. 
8  Gov.  Geary  arrived  at  Lecompton,  and  Rob 
inson  and  the  other  prisoners  held  on  a  charge 
of  treason  were  released  on  bail.  The  governor 
on  assuming  office  issued  a  proclamation  call 
ing  upon  all  bodies  of  armed  men  to  disband. 
He  also  promised  protection  to  tire  free-state 
men,  who  accordingly  laid  down  their  arms. 
But  the  Missouri  men  immediately  assembled 
to  the  number  of  upward  of  2,000,  forming 
three  regiments  with  artillery,  and  marched  to 
attack  LaAvrence,  under  command  of  a  member 
of  the  Missouri  legislature.  Gov.  Geary  with 
a  force  of  United  States  soldiers  interposed  be 
tween  them  and  Lawrence,  and  finally  pre 
vailed  upon  them  to  retire.  During  their  re 
treat  a  free-state  man  named  Buffum  was  shot 
down  by  a  man  named  Hanes  almost  in  the 
presence  of  the  governor,  who  subsequently 
caused  the  arrest  of  Hanes  on  a  charge  of 
murder.  The  United  States  district  judge  Le- 
compte,  who  was  noted  as  an  active  parti 
san,  liberated  Ilanes  on  bail,  and  afterward  on 
habeas  corpns.  Thereupon  Gov.  Geary  for 
warded  a  representation  tc  Washington  demand 
ing  the  judge's  removal,  and  about  the  middle 
of  December  James  G.  Harrison  of  Kentucky 
was  appointed  in  his  place.  Gov.  Geary  now 
reported  to  the  president  that  peace  and  order 
were  completely  reestablished  in  Kansas.  On 
Jan.  fi,  1857,  the  legislature  elected  under  the 
Topeka  constitution  met  at  Topeka,  and  organ 
ized  next  day.  The  United  States  marshal  im 
mediately  arrested  the  president  of  the  senate, 
the  speaker  of  the  house,  and  about  a  dozen  of 
the  leading  members,  whom  he  carried  prison 
ers  to  Tecumseh  on  the  charge  of  "  having 
taken  upon  themselves  the  office  and  public 
trust  of  legislators  for  the  state  of  Kansas, 
without  lawful  deputation  or  appointment." 
The  houses,  being  left  without  a  quorum,  met 
the  next  day  and  adjourned  till  June.  Shortly 


afterward  the  territorial  legislature,  composed 
entirely  of  pro-shivery  men,  chosen  at  an  elec 
tion  in  which  the  free-state  men  had  declined 
to  participate  on  the  ground  of  its  illegality, 
met  at  Lecompton,  and  among  other  acts  pass 
ed  one  providing  for  the  election  of  a  conven 
tion  to  frame  a  state  constitution  for  Kansas. 
Meanwhile  the  house  of  representatives  at 
Washington  had  passed  a  bill  declaring  void 
all  the  enactments  of  the  territorial  legislature, 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  "  cruel  and  op 
pressive,"  and  that  "the  said  legislature  was 
not  elected  by  the  legal  voters  of  Kansas,  but 
was  forced  upon  them  by  non-residents."  The 
senate  refused  to  pass  the  bill,  and  also  to  con 
firm  the  appointment  of  Harrison  in  place  of 
Lecompte,  who  thus  remained  chief  justice  of 
Kansas,  never  having  been  actually  dismissed. 
Upon  this  Gov.  Geary  resigned  his  office  and 
quitted  the  territory.  Robert  J.  Walker  of 
Mississippi  was  appointed  by  President  Bu 
chanan  his  successor,  with  Frederick  P.  Stan- 
ton  of  Tennessee  for  secretary.  The  election 
for  delegates  to  the  constitutional  convention 
was  held  on  June  15.  The  free-state  men  gen 
erally  took  no  part  in  it,  on  the  ground  that  the 
legislature  which  ordered  it  had  no  legal  au 
thority,  and  that  if  they  attempted  to  vote  they 
would  be  defrauded  and  overborne  by  intru 
ders  from  Missouri.  About  2,000  votes  were 
cast,  while  the  legal  voters  in  the  territory 
by  a  recent  census  numbered  about  10,000. 
At  the  territorial  election  held  a  few  months 
later,  the  free-state  men,  being  assured  by  Gov. 
Walker  of  protection  from  intruders,  went  to 
the  polls  and  cast  about  7,000  votes,  to  3,700 
votes  thrown  by  the  opposite  party,  electing 
Marcus  J.  Parrott  delegate  to  congress,  together 
with  9  of  the  17  councilmen  and  27  of  the  39 
representatives.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
change  this  result  by  means  of  a  false  return 
from  Oxford,  Johnson  co.,  a  place  containing 
11  houses.  It  was  alleged  that  at  this  place 
1,624  persons  had  voted,  and  a  corresponding 
roll  of  names  was  sent  in,  which  on  examina 
tion  proved  to  have  been  copied  in  alphabetical 
order  from  a  Cincinnati  directory.  This  re 
turn,  which  if  accepted  would  have  changed 
the  party  character  of  the  legislature  by 
transferring  from  the  free-state  to  the  pro- 
slavery  side  eight  representatives  and  three 
councilmen,  was  rejected  by  Gov.  Walker  as 
a  manifest  falsification.  Soon  after  the  ter 
ritorial  election  the  constitutional  convention 
met  at  Lecompton  and  adopted  a  constitution, 
four  sections  of  which  related  to  slavery,  de 
claring  the  right  of  owners  to  their  slaves  to 
be  inviolable,  and  prohibiting  the  legislature 
from  passing  acts  of  emancipation.  This  pro 
vision  alone  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  electors 
at  an  election  to  be  held  on  Dec.  21.  The  bal 
lots  cast  were  to  be  endorsed  "  Constitution 
with  slavery "  or  "  Constitution  with  no  sla 
very,"  thus  securing  in  any  event  the  adoption 
of  the  constitution,  several  clauses  of  which, 
besides  those  thus  submitted,  were  highly  ob- 


756 


KANSAS 


KANSAS  CITY 


jectionablo  to  a  majority  of  the  people.  A 
provision  was  inserted  in  the  schedule  annexed 
to  the  constitution  preventing  any  amendment 
of  that  instrument  previous  to  1864.  The 
promulgation  of  this  constitution  caused  great 
excitement  in  Kansas.  Gov.  Walker  condemned 
it  in  the  strongest  manner,  and  proceeded  at 
once  to  Washington  to  remonstrate  against  its 
adoption  by  congress;  but  before  his  arrival 
there  the  act  had  received  the  approval  of  the 
president.  Gov.  Walker  soon  after  his  arrival 
in  Washington  resigned,  and  J.  W.  Denver  of 
California  became  governor.  At  the  election 
of  Dec.  21  for  the  adoption  or  rejection  of  the 
slavery  clause,  the  vote  returned  was  6,220, 
more  than  half  of  which  was  from  counties 
along  the  Missouri  border,  whose  total  num 
ber  of  voters  by  the  census  did  not  exceed 
1,000.  Against  the  slavery  clause  there  were 
569  votes,  the  free-state  men  generally  abstain 
ing  from  voting.  The  constitution  being  thus 
nominally  adopted,  an  election  for  officers  un 
der  it  was  to  be  held  on  Jan.  4.  The  territo 
rial  legislature  at  a  special  session  passed  an 
act  submitting  the  Lecompton  constitution  to 
the  direct  vote  of  the  people  on  the  same  day 
with  the  Lecompton  state  election,  and  the 
result  was  a  majority  of  10,226  votes  against 
it.  Congress  after  long  discussion  referred  the 
matter  to  the  people  of  Kansas  at  an  election 
on  Aug.  3,  1858,  when  the  Lecompton  consti 
tution  was  again  rejected  by  10,000  majority. 
Meanwhile  the  territorial  legislature  had  called 
another  convention  to  meet  in  April  to  frame 
a  new  constitution,  which  was  submitted  to  the 
people  and  ratified  by  a  large  majority,  though 
by  a  small  total  vote.  Shortly  after  the  re 
jection  of  the  Lecompton  constitution  by  the 
people,  Gov.  Denver  resigned,  and  Samuel 
Medary  of  Ohio  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
The  territorial  legislature  met  in  January,  1859, 
and  passed  an  act  submitting  to  the  people  the 
question  of  calling  still  another  constitutional 
convention.  The  election  was  held  April  4, 
and  the  result  was  a  majority  of  3,881  in  favor 
of  holding  a  convention.  An  election  was  ac 
cordingly  held  for  delegates,  and  the  conven 
tion  thus  chosen  met  at  Wyandotte  July  5,  and 
adjourned  July  27,  after  adopting  a  constitution 
by^a  vote  _  of  34  to  13,  prohibiting  slavery. 
This  constitution  was  submitted  to  the  popu 
lar  vote  Oct.  4,  and  was  ratified  by  a  vote  of 
10,421  to  5,530.  The  first  election  under  it  was 
held  Nov.  8,  when  a  delegate  to  congress  and 
members  of  the  territorial  legislature  were 
elected.  On  Dec.  6,  1859,  a  representative  in 
congress,  state  officers,  and  members  of  a  state 
legislature  were  chosen,  the  governor  being 
Charles  Robinson.  On  Jan.  29,  1861,  Kansas 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  under  the  Wy 
andotte  constitution,  which  with  the  several 
amendments  since  passed  is  still  the  supreme 
law  of  the  state.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
civil  war  eastern  Kansas  suffered  much  from 
the  irregular  warfare,  known  there  as  "jay- 
hawking,"  which  was  carried  on  by  confed 


erate  raiders  from  Missouri  and  Arkansas  and 
the  unionists  who  opposed  them.  The  most 
prominent  of  these  disorders  was  the  attack 
made  upon  Lawrence,  Aug.  21,  1863,  by  a 
band  of  confederate  guerillas  under  Col.  Quan- 
trell,  which  resulted  in  the  loss  of  many  lives 
and  much  property.  During  the  war  Kansas 
furnished  to  the  federal  army  upward  of  20,- 
000  men. — See  "  Resources  of  Kansas,"  by 
C.  C.  Hutchinson  (Topeka,  1871). 

KANSAS  CITY,  a  city  of  Jackson  co.,  Missouri, 
the  second  in  the  state  in  population  and  im 
portance,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Missouri  river,  just  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Kansas  river,  and  near  the  Kansas  border, 
135  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Jefferson  City,  and  235 
m.  W.  by  N.  of  St.  Louis  ;  pop.  in  1860,  4,418 ; 
in  1870,  32,260,  of  whom  3,770  were  colored 
and  7,679  foreigners;  in  1874,  estimated  by 
local  authorities  at  40,000.  The  site,  which 
was  originally  very  rough  and  uneven,  has 
been  levelled,  and  now  presents  a  moderately 
even  appearance,  except  where  a  high  bluff 
divides  the  upper  or  hill  part  of  the  city  from 
the  "  bottom  "  or  low  lands  where  the  railroad 
depots  are.  It  is  not  regularly  laid  out,  but 
the  streets  are  wide,  and  are  graded  and  sew 
ered,  provided  with  sidewalks,  and  lighted 
wTith  gas.  The  buildings  are  chiefly  of  brick. 
Waterworks  are  in  process  of  construction. 
The  Missouri  is  here  spanned  by  a  bridge 
1,387  ft.  long,  resting  on  seven  piers,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  Four  lines  of  street 
railroad,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  13^-  m., 
run  to  various  parts  of  the  city  and  to  the  sub 
urbs  of  Wyandotte,  Kan.,  and  Westport.  The 
surrounding  country  is  fertile,  and  abounds  in 
coal,  lead,  iron,  zinc,  salt,  gypsum,  fire  clay, 
and  building  stone.  By  means  of  seven  rail 
roads  the  city  commands  the  trade  not  only 
of  W.  Missouri  and  Kansas,  but  also  of  N. 
Texas  and  part  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 
These  lines,  which  centre  at  a  common  pas 
senger  depot,  are  the  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  ; 
Kansas  Pacific ;  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  and 
Council  Bluffs  ;  Leavenworth,  Lawrence,  and 
Galveston;  Missouri  River,  Fort  Scott,  and 
Gulf ;  Missouri  Pacific  ;  and  St.  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  and  Northern.  The  Kansas  City  and 
Memphis  and  the  Kansas  City,  Wyaiidotte,  and 
Northwestern  railroads  are  in  progress  from 
the  city,  and  the  Kansas  Midland  line  is  ex 
pected  to  reach  this  point  in  1874.  The  number 
of  arrivals  of  steamboats  in  1873  was  65.  The 
organization  of  a  system  of  barge  navigation 
has  been  much  discussed,  and  promises  success. 
The  sales  of  merchandise  at  wholesale  in  1872 
amounted  to  $13,844,440  ;  in  1873  to  $15,695,- 
000;  at  retail  in  the  latter  year,  to  $5,555,000. 
The  trade  in  cattle  (chiefly  from  Texas)  and  in 
hogs  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches. 

j  The  receipts  of  cattle  in  1871  were  120,827 
head;  in  1872,  236,802;  in  1873,  227,669, 

!  valued  at  $3,415,035;  of  hogs  in  1871,  41,- 
036  ;  in  1872, 104,639 ;  in  1873,  220,956,  valued 
at  $2,131,177  60.  The  receipts  of  horses  in 


KANSUII 


KANT 


757 


1873  were  4,202;  of  sheep,  5,975.  The  pack 
ing  business  is  extensive,  and  has  increased 
with  great  rapidity.  The  number  of  hogs  pack 
ed  in  1868  was  13,000 ;  in  1809,  23,000 ;  in  1870, 
36,000  ;  in  1871,  83,000;  in  1872,  180,000  ;  and 
in  1873,  194,9-44,  the  products  being  valued  at 
$2,339,358.  The  number  of  cattle  packed  in 
1872  was  20,500,  value  of  products  $615,000; 
in  1873,  26,549,  value  of  products  $796,470. 
There  are  four  large  packing  houses,  with  ca 
pacity,  during  the  season  from  Nov.  1  to 
March  1,  for  packing  480,000  hogs,  and  during 
the  year  700,000.  The  receipts  of  grain  in 
1872  were  1,001,293  bushels;  in  1873,  1,718,- 
280,  including  750,400  of  wheat,  836,300  of 
Indian  corn,  and  105,200  of  oats.  The  ship 
ments  in  the  latter  year  were  1,130,380  bush 
els  ;  products  of  the  mills,  98,500  barrels  of 
flour  and  100,000  bushels  of  corn  meal. 
Manufacturing  industry  is  limited,  and  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  branches  is  confined  to 
a  single  establishment  of  a  kind.  The  principal 
items  are  cigars,  tobacco,  ale  and  beer,  saddles 
and  harness,  furniture,  brass  castings,  scales, 
soap,  types,  roofing,  lightning  rods,  cooperage, 
carriages  and  wagons,  crackers,  bricks,  and 
blank  books.  There  are  12  banks  and  branches, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,257,500.— The 
city  is  divided  into  six  wards,  and  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  a  board  of  aldermen.  It  has 
a  well  organized  fire  department  and  an  efficient 
police  force.  The  valuation  of  property  in 
1872  was  $11,993,060  ;  in  1873,  $12,687,875  ; 
taxation  in  the  latter  year,  $348,916  56;  ex 
penditures,  $336,387  97.  There  are  a  city 
hospital  and  a  workhouse,  an  orphan  asylum, 
a  woman's  home,  and  a  Catholic  hospital  with 
a  large  building  in  process  of  erection.  The 
public  schools  are  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
The  number  of  school  houses  in  1873  was  14, 
of  which  9  were  owned  by  the  city  and  5 
rented;  number  of  schools,  14  (1  high,  10  dis 
trict,  and  3  colored) ;  rooms  occupied,  59 ; 
sittings,  3,056  ;  teachers,  59  ;  children  of  school 
age  (5  to  21),  6,636;  number  enrolled,  4,259  ; 
average  attendance,  2,224.  There  are  two 
medical  colleges  (the  Kansas  City  college  of 
physicians  and  surgeons  and  the  medical  col 
lege  of  Kansas  City),  a  Catholic  female  college 
(St.  Teresa's  academy),  an  opera  house,  2  the 
atres,  4  daily  (1  German),  2  tri-weekly,  and 
8  weekly  (1  German)  newspapers,  and  1  bi 
monthly  periodical.  The  number  of  churches 
is  28,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  1  Christian,  1  Congrega 
tional,  2  Episcopal,  1  German  Evangelical,  2 
Jewish,  2  Lutheran  (1  German),  6  Methodist, 
6  Presbyterian,  3  Roman  Catholic,  1  Spiritual 
ist,  and  1  Unitarian. — Kansas  City  was  laid  out 
in  1830,  but  its  growth  was  slow  till  1856.  Its 
progress  was  retarded  by  the  civil  war,  but  has 
since  been  remarkably  rapid.  Improved  trade 
relations  have  recently  been  formed  with  Gal- 
veston  and  Houston,  Texas,  which  are  expected 
to  enhance  greatly  the  prosperity  of  the  city. 

KANSUH,  a  X.  TV.  province  of  China,  bounded 
K".  and  1ST.  E.  by  the  desert  of  Gobi  and  Mon 


golia,  E.  by  Shensi,  S.  by  Szechuen,  and  TV.  by 
the  mountainous  districts  adjoining  the  Koko 
Nor;  area,  86,608  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  15,- 
;  000,000.  It  comprises  a  large  portion  of  the 
|  ancient  kingdom  of  Tangut.  The  lloang-ho 
traverses  the  province  in  a  N.  E.  direction,  and 
receives  many  affluents.  The  Peling  and  Sin- 
ling  mountains  are  in  some  places  10,000  ft. 
high,  and  on  the  S.  border  line  of  Kansuh  and 
Szechuen  are  the  Kiu-long-shan  mountains. 
Coal  exists  in  the  E.  part,  and  gold,  silver,  cop 
per,  and  jade  are  said  to  be  found  in  the  moun 
tains.  The  climate  is  cold,  and  the  soil  is  not 
generally  fertile  excepting  E.  of  the  Iloang-ho, 
where  the  cereals  are  cultivated  to  some  ex 
tent.  The  Tartars  in  this  province  maintain 
large  flocks  and  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle,  and 
wild  animals  abound.  Capital,  Lanchow. 

RANT,  ImmanuH,  a  German  metaphysician, 
born  in  Konigsberg,  April  22,  1724,  died 
there,  Feb.  12,  1804.  lie  was  of  Scotch  de 
scent  ;  his  grandfather  probably  emigrated 
from  Scotland  near  the  close  of  the  17th  cen 
tury,  and  settled  at  Tilsit.  His  father,  John 
George  Cant,  came  to  Konigsberg  in  early  life, 
and  'followed  the  trade  of  a  saddler.  His 
mother,  AnnaRegina  Reuter,  of  German  stock, 
was  a  woman  of  a  refined  and  elevated  charac 
ter,  and  of  deep  religious  feeling.  The  philoso 
pher  was  the  fourth  of  their  11  children.  He 
tells  us  that  when  a  boy  he  was  idle  and  a 
truant;  yet  he  also  showed  zeal  in  acquiring 
knowledge,  and  his  parents  gave  him  the  best 
education  their  slender  means  would  allow. 
Like  Schelling  and  Hegel,  he  was  first  destined 
to  the  theological  career.  From  his  8th  to  his 
16th  year  he  was  a  student  in  the  Collegium 
fredericianum  of  his  native  city,  under  the 
care  of  Dr.  Schulz.  Ruhnken  the  philologist 
was  a  fellow  student,  and  they  pursued  together 
the  study  of  the  classics.  Here,  too,  he  felt  the 
influence  of  pietism,  then  predominant  in  the 
college  ;  and  also  learned  the  rudiments  of  the 
abstract  philosophy  of  "Wolf,  which  had  the 
speculative  ascendancy  in  philosophical  and 
theological  schools.  But  as  yet  he  showed  no 
metaphysical  talent,  though  he  was  an  indom 
itable  worker.  His  character  was  influenced 
by  the  rigid  morality  and  independence  of  his 
father  and  the  piety  of  his  mother.  In  1740 
he  entered  the  university  as  a  student  of  theolo 
gy  ;  but  his  first  attempts  at  preaching  met 
with  such  poor  success,  that  he  concluded  that 
he  was  destined  for  a  different  career,  and  ap 
plied  himself  with  earnestness  to  mathemat 
ics  and  the  physical  sciences.  His  first  essay, 
written  in  1746,  at  the  age  of  22,  was  on  "  The 
True  Measure  of  Living  Forces,"  and  con 
tained  an  acute  criticism  of  the  arguments  of 
Leibnitz  and  Descartes,  with  an  attempt  to 
mediate  between  the  German  and  French 
schools,  by  distinguishing  between  dead  and 
living  powers.  His  father  died  in  1746;  he 
had  lost  his  mother  11  years  before;  and,  that 
he  might  not  be  a  burden  upon  his  uncle,  who 
had  already  aided  him,  he  was  compelled  from 


758 


KANT 


that  time  until  1755  to  become  a  tutor  in 
private  families.  In  the  last  of  these,  that  of 
llerr  von  Kaiserling  of  Konigsberg,  his  great 
talents  and  acquisitions  were  recognized,  espe 
cially  by  the  lady  of  the  house ;  and  here  he 
was  introduced  into  cultivated  society,  wearing 
off  the  bashf  ulness  and  reserve  of  a  poor  stu 
dent.  At  length,  in  1755,  he  was  able  to  enter 
upon  the  career  of  academic  instructor,  for 
which  he  had  been  preparing  himself  by  assid 
uous  study  and  multifarious  reading.  His  in 
augural  dissertations,  as  magister  legens,  were 
De  Igne  and  on  the  ''First  Principles  of  Meta 
physical  Science."  In  the  same  year  he  pub 
lished  anonymously  a  treatise  on  the  theory  of 
the  heavens,  dedicated  to  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  written  in  a  clear  and  animated  style. 
Here  he  prophesied  the  discovery  of  new  plan 
ets,  and  that  the  nebulae  would  be  resolved 
into  stars,  besides  advocating  the  position  that 
a  mechanical  construction  of  nature  was  not 
adverse  to  the  belief  in  a  God.  Lambert  in 
17G1  advanced  similar  views,  which  led  (1765- 
'70)  to  a  correspondence  between  them.  From 
the  first  Kant  was  a  popular  lecturer ;  several  of 
his  courses  were  always  attended  by  many  of 
the  citizens  of  the  active  and  thriving  city  of 
Konigsberg,  which  had  a  high  commercial  and 
political  as  well  as  literary  rank.  His  course 
on  physical  geography  was  begun  in  1757,  and 
continued  to  the  close  of  his  academic  career, 
receiving  fresh  additions  at  each  repetition. 
Kant  himself  never  went  beyond  his  native 
province,  and  as  seldom  as  possible  away  from 
the  city ;  but  he  was  an  eager  student  of  voy 
ages  and  travels,  and  extracted  all  possible  in 
formation  from  every  traveller  he  could  come 
across.  He  also  lectured  on  practical  anthro 
pology,  the  theory  of  teaching,  natural  law, 
the  philosophy  of  religion,  ethics,  logic,  and 
mathematics.  In  1762  he  published  a  treatise 
on  the  "  False  Subtlety  of  the  four  Syllogistic 
Figures,"  maintaining  that  only  the  first  is 
"pure,"  the  others  being  ratiocinia  hybrida. 
The  next  year  he  wrote  an  essay  for  a  prize 
proposed  by  the  Berlin  academy  on  the  "  Prin 
ciples  of  Natural  Theology  and  Ethics ;"  but 
Mendelssohn  received  the  first  and  Kant  the 
accessit  prize.  lie  here  says  that  a  "real  sys 
tem  of  metaphysics  "  had  never  yet  been  writ 
ten  ;  he  was  already  busy  with  this  task.  In 
the  same  year  appeared  his  work  on  the  "Only 
Possible  Ground  of  Demonstrating  the  Being 
of  God,"  proposing  a  new  form  of  the  onto- 
logical  proof,  and  rejecting  the  other  three 
arguments.  Existence,  he  says,  is  not  a  pred 
icate  conception,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
proved  ;  but  the  non-existence  of  God  contains 
a  logical  contradiction.  The  new  mode  of 
proof  which  he  advocates,  says  Erdmann  (Ge- 
schichte  der  Philosophic,  vol.  iii.,  p.  31),  reverses 
the  positions  of  the  schools  of  Descartes  and 
Leibnitz ;  instead  of  inferring  the  existence  of 
God  as  a  consequence  from  the  possibility,  he 
takes  the  possibility  as  a  consequence,  and  rea 
sons  back  to  the  existence  as  the  ground;  if 


anything  is  possible,  there  is  some  real  being, 
the  seat  and  source  of  all  that  is  conceivable. — 
The  year  1770  is  made  by  Kosenkranz  (Ge- 
schichte  der  Kantischeti  Philosophic,  1840,  vol. 
xii.  of  Kant's  works)  the  dividing  line  between 
the  earlier  or  tentative  period  of  his  specula 
tions  and  the  speculative  and  systematic  period. 
In  this  year  he  became  a  professor  in  full  in 
the  university.  For  15  years  the  subtlest  and 
boldest  thinker  of  Germany  had  been  strug 
gling  along  in  obscurity,  filling  subordinate 
posts ;  for  example,  that  of  a  subaltern  in  the 
royal  library  for  $50  a  year,  conferred  on  him 
in  1756,  as  an  "accomplished"  and  "learned" 
person.  He  was  indeed  offered  the  professor 
ship  of  poetry  in  1764;  but  this  does  not  seem 
to  have  suited  him.  The  professorship  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  was  given  him  after  he  had  de 
clined  invitations  to  Jena  and  Erlangen ;  and 
his  salary  was  to  be  $300  per  annum.  He  was 
content  with  his  native  city  and  university; 
he  wanted  to  labor  in  quiet,  and  work  out  the 
great  problems  which  were  stirring  his  mind. 
His  inaugural  dissertation,  De  Mundi  Sensibilis 
atque  IntelligUnlis  Forma,  et  Principles,  con 
tains  germs  of  his  metaphysical  system.  He 
protests  against  the  position  that  the  knowl 
edge  of  sense  and  that  gained  by  the  under 
standing  are  to  be  distinguished  as  respectively 
obscure  and  clear.  There  is,  he  says,  a  knowl 
edge  of  sensible  phenomena  which  is  distinct, 
as  there  may  be  conceptions  of  the  understand 
ing  which  are  confused.  We  must  distinguish 
between  the  matter  and  the  form  of  our  knowl 
edge  of  sensible  objects ;  the  form  is  given  by 
the  ideas  of  space  and  time,  which  are  not  ob 
jectively  real,  but  pure  intuitions;  and  these 
give  us  the  basis  of  the  sciences  of  mathemat 
ics  and  geometry.  Intellectual  knowledge  is 
made  up  of  pure  or  universal  conceptions ;  not 
such  as  are  abstracted  from  the  phenomena  of 
sense,  but  principles  by  which  the  understand 
ing  is  guided,  as  those  of  necessity,  possibility, 
causality,  &c.  Such  are  some  of  the  positions 
in  which  he  already  arrays  himself  against  ma 
terialism  on  the  one  hand  and  dogmatism  on 
the  other.  In  1772  (Erdmanri,  loc.  cit.  37)  he 
wrote  about  his  scheme  of  a .  transcendental 
philosophy,  which  life  hoped  to  finish  in  three 
months;  in  1776  it  was  to  be  completed  the 
next  summer;  but  not  till  1781  did  the  Kritik 
der  reinen  Vernunft  ("Criticism  of  the  Pure 
Reason")  make  its  appearance.  For  11  years 
he  had  been  writing  and  rewriting ;  the  final 
draft  was  composed  in  a  few  months.  He 
was  already  57  years  old.  His  system  had 
been  very  slow  in  its  growth;  for  a  long  time 
he  was  hardly  conscious  of  what  he  was  aim 
ing  at.  lie  was  pressed  on  the  one  hand  by 
the  abstract  metaphysics  of  the  idealism  of 
Leibnitz  as  developed  by  Wolf ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Hume's  skepticism,  as  he  says,  "awoke 
him  from  his  dogmatic  slumbers."  His  own 
work  was  intended  to  give  their  respective 
rights  to  both  idealism  and  realism,  to  meta 
physics  and  materialism ;  yet,  at  the  same  time. 


KANT 


759 


to  serve  as  a  new  basis  on  which  the  archi 
tectonics  of  the  whole  world  of  knowledge 
might  be  constructed.  This  system  produced 
a  revolution  in  the  world  of 'speculation.  Part 
ly  from  its  profoundness,  partly  on  account  of 
its  novel  nomenclature,  it  was  at  first  slight 
ly  noticed,  and  seemed  in  danger  of  lapsing 
into  oblivion.  But  Kant  was  now  thoroughly 
aroused,  and  eager  in  pressing  the  scheme, 
which  was  the  product  not  only  of  his  own 
life,  but  also  of  the  chief  systems  which  had 
gone  before.  His  philosophical  productivity 
became  as  remarkable  as  had  been  his  previous 
reserve.  In  1783  appeared  his  "  Prolegomena 
to  every  future  System  of  Metaphysics  claim 
ing  to  be  a  Science;"  a  more  popular  exposi 
tion,  and  also  a  more  complete  analysis,  of  the 
questions  and  problems  mooted  in  the  "  Criti 
cism."  He  then  endeavored  to  counteract  the 
negative  results  of  the  system  of  pure  reason 
by  his  Grundlegung  der  Metaphysik  der  Sitten 
("  Metaphysics  of  Ethics,"  1785),  and  Metaphy- 
sische  Anfangsgrunde  der  Naturwissenschaft 
("Metaphysical  Elements  of  Natural  Science," 
1786),  completing  the  exposition  of  his  views 
in  these  two  branches  of  philosophy.  In  1787 
the  second  edition  of  the  "Criticism  of  the 
Pure  Reason "  was  published,  omitting  the 
preface  to  the  first  edition,  and  altering  it  so 
as  to  avoid  the  charge  of  idealism  which  had 
been  generally  preferred  against  his  specula 
tions,  identified,  or  rather  confounded,  by  some 
opponents  with  the  system  of  Berkeley.  This 
second  edition  was  afterward  reprinted,  with 
only  verbal  alterations,  though  considered  as 
somewhat  compromising  the  logic  of  his  spec 
ulations  ;  but  in  the  two  later  editions  of 
Kant's  works,  by  Hartenstein  and  Rosenkranz, 
the  contents  of  the  first  edition  are  also  in 
serted.  The  Kritik  der  praktischen  Vernunft 
("Criticism  of  the  Practical  Reason,"  1788) 
was  intended  to  give  the  positive  aspect  of 
the  new  philosophy  in  relation  to  God,  free 
dom,  and  immortality ;  it  is  a  further  exposi 
tion  and  application  of  what  was  given  in  out 
line  in  the  "  Metaphysics  of  Ethics,"  and  it  con 
tributed  to  give  currency  to  his  system  among 
those  who  had  been  repelled  by  the  apparent 
ly  negative  conclusions  of  the  "Criticism  of 
the  Pure  Reason."  Such  was  the  rigor  and 
such  the  vigor  of  the  ethical  scheme  propound 
ed,  that  for  a  time  it  swept  away  the  unmanly 
eadfemonistic  ethics  and  the  sentimental  sys 
tems  of  morality.  Even  those  who  thought 
they  detected  an  inconsistency  between  the 
principles  of  Kant's  "  Pure  Reason "  and  of 
his  "Practical  Reason,"  hailed  the  latter  work 
as  containing  solid  proofs  of  the  real  being 
of  those  supersensible  objects  which  the  crit 
ical  idealism  seemed  to  have  reduced  to  sub 
jective  ideas.  Its  principles  were  made  the 
basis  of  systems  of  divinity  by  such  theolo 
gians  as  Tieftrunk,  Staudlin,  Ammon,  and  i 
somewhat  later  by  Gabler  and  Wegscheider. 
The  ethical  element,  the  "categorical  impera 
tive,"  was  held  as  the  one  fixed  and  saving 


point  in  the  midst  of  the  jarring  and  opposite 
principles  of  the  different  schools  in  philoso 
phy  and  theology;  and  this  led  to  that  ration 
alism,  on  a  moral  basis,  which  for  a  long  time 
characterized  German  theology,  a  very  different 
form  of  rationalism  from  the  one  which  sub 
sequently  prevailed.  To  these  works,  in  1790, 
Kant  added  his  "Criticism  of  the  Judgment," 
which  developed  more  fully  the  principles  of 
the  metaphysics  of  the  natural  sciences,  and 
supplemented  many  positions  in  his  other 
treatises,  besides  giving  hints,  and  opening 
points  of  view,  which  were  afterward  used  by 
those  disposed  to  go  beyond  the  principles  of 
the  critical  philosophy. — With  this  work  closed 
the  productive  metaphysical  period  of  Kant's 
philosophic  career.  lie  was  now  GO  years  old. 
In  nine  years  he  had  put  forth,  in  rapid  suc 
cession,  a  series  of  works  which  revived  the 
slumbering  activity  of  German  philosophy; 
combated  equally  the  abstractions  of  the 
dogmatist  and  the  doubts  of  the  skeptic ;  set 
forth  the  transcendental  grounds  and  elements 
of  knowledge,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  for 
a  new  metaphysics ;  and  planted  moral  science 
upon  a  definite  basis,  giving  it  fixed  and  uni 
versal  formulas,  which  already  began  to  affect 
the  construction  of  the  science  of  Christian 
theology.  His  subsequent  writings  form,  ac 
cording  to  his  own  statement,  the  practical 
period  of  his  career,  applying  to  different  spe 
cial  sciences  the  principles  he  had  elaborated. 
His  philosophy  was  already  expounded  by 
Kiesewetter  in  Berlin,  Schmid  in  Jena,  Jakob 
in  Halle,  Born  in  Leipsic,  and  many  others  in 
different  parts  of  Germany.  Its  more  definite 
conflict  with  the  orthodox  theology  was  aroused 
by  the  publication  of  his  essays  on  "  Religion 
within  the  Bounds  of  Mere  Reason,"  contrib 
uted  to  the  Berlin  Monatsschrift,  then  pro 
hibited  by  the  censor  (reestablished  in  1788), 
and  issued  in  a  volume  in  1793.  Political  in 
fluences  were  also  concerned,  for  Kant  was  in 
sympathy  with  the  French  revolution.  Frede 
rick  William  II.  sent  to  him  a  missive  indicating 
his  displeasure,  and  the  philosopher  was  obliged 
to  give  a  pledge  that  he  would  not  lecture  on 
religious  subjects  "  so  long  as  he  should  be  a 
subject  of  his  majesty,"  the  promise  being  so 
worded  that  he  considered  himself  released 
from  it  on  the  death  of  that  monarch.  But 
he  was  so  irritated  by  this  governmental  inter 
ference,  that  in  1794  he  gave  up  all  his  private 
lectures,  and  after  1797  no  longer  read  in  the 
university.  In  1797  appeared  his  "Metaphys 
ics  of  Ethics,"  in  two  parts,  viz.  :  the  "  Meta 
physical  Elements  of  Right"  (law),  and  "of 
Virtue."  The  "  Strife  of 'the  Faculties  "  (1798) 
is  a  review  of  the  controversy  about  his  reli 
gious  opinions,  with  the  documents  concerning 
it.  His  AntJiropologle  in  pragmatischer  Jlin- 
sicht  ("Anthropology  in  a  Pragmatic  Point  of 
View")  was  published  the  same  year.  After 
this  his  friends  and  pupils  became  the  editors 
of  his  writings  :  Jasche  of  his  "  Logic  "  (1800)  ; 
Rink  of  his  "Physical  Geography"  (1802)  and 


760 


KANT 


"Pedagogics"  (1803).  After  his  death  Politz 
published  his  lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  re 
ligion  (1817)  and  on  metaphysics  (1831),  and 
Starke  those  on  the  human  race  (1831).  He  was 
disturbed  in  his  later  years  by  the  symptoms  of 
a  new  phase  of  speculation  in  the  writings  of 
Fichte  (whom  he  had  at  first  warmly  welcomed, 
and  whose  work  on  revelation  had  been  at 
tributed  to  him),  and  sent  forth  an  ineffectual 
protest  in  17i»9 ;  this  showed  a  defect  which 
he  himself  acknowledged  in  his  power  of  ap 
preciating  other  systems.  An  essay  on  which, 
in  the  decline  of  his  faculties,  he  was  for  a  long 
time  employed,  was  found  to  be  unintelligible, 
or  only  a  repetition  of  what  he  had  previously 
said  upon  the  relation  of  physics  to  metaphys 
ics.  Speculation  was  already  sweeping  past 
the  monuments  he  had  reared. — To  appreciate 
the  character  and  position  of  the  critical  or 
transcendental  philosophy  of  Kant,  we  must 
start  with  his  own  view  of  what  philosophy 
had  previously  accomplished,  and  what  he  ex 
pected  from  his  new  method.  In  his  own  'in 
terpretation  of  the  matter,  it  was  the  critical 
method  which  he  instituted  that  formed  the 
primary  peculiarity  of  his  scheme.  All  previous 
systems  had  led  to  dogmatism  (Leibnitz  and 
Wolf),  or  to  skepticism  (Hume).  Dogmatism 
asserts  the  equal  objective  and  subjective  valid 
ity  of  its  principles ;  metaphysical  truths,  like 
mathematical,  hold  both  in  reason  and  in  fact. 
Skepticism,  on  the  other  hand,  denies  the  ob 
jective  validity  of  a  priori  truths ;  thus,  for 
example,  Hume  could  not  find  in  experience 
anything  corresponding  to  the  principle  of 
causality,  for  sense  gives  only  succession  of 
phenomena ;  and  this  truth  of  causality,  says 
Kant,  is  only  one  of  a  class,  to  all  of  which 
Hume's  criticism  is  equally  applicable.  Both 
the  dogmatist  and  the  skeptic  examine  ideas 
or  truths  directly,  and  can  never  agree.  Is 
there  no  other  way  of  approaching  the  matter  ? 
Yes,  says  Kant,  there  is  also  the  critical  method ; 
instead  of  assuming  that  our  knowledge  is  de 
termined  by  the  objects,  let  us  see  how  far  the 
objects  are  determined  by  our  knowledge.  He 
compared  this  method,  with  a  proud  conscious 
ness,  to  that  of  Copernicus,  who,  finding  that 
he  could  not  explain  the  motion  of  the  heav 
enly  bodies  by  supposing  that  they  revolved 
around  himself,  tried  whether  he  could  not  do 
better  by  supposing  that  he  moved  and  the  stars 
stood  still.  The  true  way,  then,  is  to  start  with 
a  criticism  of  man's  power  of  knowing.  And 
since  man  has  three  prime  faculties,  reason, 
will  (or  impulse  to  action),  and  feeling,  this 
criticism  must  be  divided  into  three  main  parts : 
the  criticism  of  the  pure  reason,  the  criticism 
of  the  practical  reason  (desire  and  will),  and  the 
criticism  of  judgment  (having  respect  to  feel 
ing,  or  pleasure  and  pain).  The  first  of  these, 
however,  contains  the  regulating  principles 
for  both  the  others,  and  gives  the  key  to  the 
system.  The  "  Criticism  of  the  Pure  Reason  " 
was  not  originally  intended  to  be  a  system  of 
metaphysics,  but  rather  an  inquiry  into  the 


possibility  of  metaphysics  ;  that  is,  it  was  criti 
cal.  As  against  the  skeptic,  it  was  designed 
to  show  that  there  are  in  the  human  mind  a 
priori  or  transcendental  elements  of  knowl 
edge,  and  that  these  are  found  even  in  the  per 
ceptions  of  sense  and  the  laws  of  the  under 
standing.  As  against  the  dogmatist,  it  was 
also  intended  to  prove  that  even  this  transcen 
dental  knowledge  does  not  attain  with  absolute 
certainty  to  the  nature  of  things ;  it  can  neither 
demonstrate  nor  disprove  the  reality  of  objects 
corresponding  to  the  ideas  of  reason.  ("  Trans 
cendental  "  is  used  by  Kant,  not  in  respect  to 
the  objects  of  knowledge,  but  to  the  nature  of 
the  knowledge,  as  a  priori.}  Another,  and  the 
strictest  mode  of  stating  the  question  and  prob 
lem,  is  this :  Are  a  priori  synthetical  judgments 
possible  ?  An  analytical  judgment  is  one  which 
simply  explicates,  in  respect  to  any  subject, 
what  is  contained  in  its  very  notion  ;  it  reposes 
on  the  principle  of  identity.  But  such  judg 
ments  give  us  no  new  knowledge.  In  a  syn 
thetical  judgment,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
thing  is  contained  or  asserted  in  the  predicate, 
which  is  not  necessarily  implied  in  the  subject ; 
and  such  judgments  extend  the  bounds  of  our 
knowledge.  All  a  posteriori  knowledge  is  of 
this  character ;  and  the  metaphysical  question 
is :  Are  such  synthetical  judgments  also  possi 
ble  a  priori  ?  If  they  are,  in  any  sphere  (e.  g., 
mathematics),  sensualism  is^  refuted;  if  they 
are  not  in  the  highest  sphere  (metaphysics), 
dogmatism  is  refuted.  In  conducting  this  in 
quiry  Kant  divides  the  human  mind  into  the 
three  functions  of  sense,  understanding,  and 
reason,  and  subjects  each  to  a  careful  criticism. 
The  general  scheme,  as  carried  out,  is : 

I.  Doctrine  of  the  transcendental  elements  of  knowledge. 

A.  Transcendental  aesthetics  (i.  e.,  perceptions  of  sense). 

B.  Transcendental  logic. 

a.  Transcendental  analytics  (the  understanding). 
&.  Transcendental  dialectics  (reason,  metaphysics). 
II.  The  transcendental  method. 

1.  The  Transcendental  ^Esthetics,  or  the  trans 
cendental  knowledge  involved  in  the  percep 
tions  of  sense.  In  all  knowledge  there  are  two 
elements,  the  matter  and  the  form.  The  one 
is  given  by  experience,  the  other  by  the  mind. 
Sensatiops  without  ideas  are  blind  ;  ideas  with 
out  sensations  are  empty.  The  dogmatist  ig 
nores  the  former,  the  materialist  the  latter. 
What  is  given  us  in  sensation  is  ordered  or 
arranged  by  the  mind  under  the  two  ideas  of 
space  and  time,  which  ideas  are  not  the  product 
but  the  regulators  of  the  sensations.  That  is, 
even  in  respect  to  the  objects  of  sense,  we  find 
the  a  priori  ideas  of  space  and  time  controlling 
them ;  and  this  knowledge  too  gives  us  the  pos 
sibility  of  a  science,  viz.,  mathematics.  But  yet 
this  space  and  time  are  not  forms  of  the  objects 
of  sensation,  but  the  subjective  framework  in 
which  we  put  and  must  put  all  our  sensations. 
We  cannot,  then,  attain  objectively  to  the 
knowledge  of  things  as  they  are  in  themselves 
(Dinge  an  sich),  because  those  forms  by  which 
we  know  them  are  subjective.  This  denial 


KANT 


7G1 


of  the  objective  validity  of  space  and  time  is 
the  starting  point  in  the  negative  results  of  the 
"  Criticism  of  the  Pure  Reason."  In  the  first 
edition  Kant  threw  out  aji  intimation,  with 
drawn  in  the  second,  that  the  subject  (ego) 
and  things-in-themselves  are  possibly  one  and 
the  same  substance ;  this  led  to  the  subjective 
idealism  of  Fichte.  2.  Transcendental  Ana 
lytics.  We  pass  here  from  the  sense  to  the 
understanding,  or  the  power  of  forming  general 
notions.  It  is  by  such  notions  that  we  com 
bine  and  connect  what  is  given  in  experience. 
So  that  the  fundamental  question  here  is  this  : 
Is  a  pure  science  of  nature  possible  ?  In  order 
to  show  the  possibility  of  experience,  so  far  as 
it  rests  upon  pure  conceptions  of  the  under 
standing  a  priori,  we  must  first  represent  what 
belongs  to  judging  generally,  and  the  various 
states  of  understanding  in  the  act  of  judging, 
in  a  complete  table.  For  the  pure  conceptions 
of  the  understanding  must  necessarily  run  par 
allel  to  these  states ;  because  such  conceptions 
are  nothing  more  than  pure  conceptions  of  in 
tuitions  in  general,  so  far  as  intuitions  are  de 
termined  by  one  or  other  of  these  ways  of  judg 
ing  (states  of  understanding)  in  themselves 
(that  is,  necessarily  and  universally).  Hereby 
also  the  a  priori  principles  of  the  possibility 
of  all  experience,  as  of  an  objectively  valid 
empirical  cognition,  will  be  precisely  deter 
mined.  These  a  priori  principles  Kant  called 
categories  of  the  understanding  (applying  Aris 
totle's  term  in  a  different  sense).  These  cate 
gories,  which  he  brought  into  connection  with 
(or  rather  transferred  and  transformed  from) 
the  purely  logical  categories,  are  as  follows : 


Logical. 

{Universal. 
Particular. 
Singular. 
(  Affirmative. 
II.  Quality.    1  Negative. 
(  Indefinite. 


III.  Eolation 


{Categorical. 
Hypothetical. 
Disjunctive. 


(  Problematical. 
IV.  Modality. -<  Assertory. 
(  Apodictic. 


Transcendental. 

Unity. 

Plurality. 

Totality. 

Reality. 

Negation. 

Limitation. 

Substance. 

Cause. 

Eeciprocity. 

Possibility. 

Necessity. 

Existence. 


Under  these  12  categories,  or  a  priori  notions 
of  the  understanding,  we  are  compelled  to  bring 
all  our  sensible  experience.  Empty  in  them 
selves,  they  are  filled  up  by  phenomena ;  and 
they  reduce  the  "  rhapsody "  of  phenomena 
into  order.  But  what  warrants  us  in  pursuing 
this  process — in  bringing  together  such  differ 
ent  things  as  the  obscure  experience  of  sensible 
phenomena  and  the  clear  dicta  of  the  under 
standing?  We  derive  this  warrant,  says  Kant, 
from  the  pure  intuitions  of  space  and  time,  in 
which  there  is  an  element  common  to  both. 
All  objective  phenomena,  and  all  subjective 
notions,  equally  fall  under  the  dominion  of 
these  two  intuitions,  which  thus  become  the 
schemata  by  and  through  which  the  mind  in 
terprets  nature.  Thus,  the  world  does  not 
give  laws  to  the  mind,  but  the  mind  rules  the 


world.  We  cannot  even  know  the  external 
world  excepting  by  and  through  these  a  priori 
conceptions  (e.  g.,  substance  and  time).  But 
at  the  same  time  Kant  holds  with  equal  tena 
city  to  the  position  that  these  judgments  of  the 
understanding  do  not,  and  cannot,  disclose  to 
us  the  supersensible  world ;  we  cannot  through 
them  come  to  the  knowledge  of  things  as  they 
are  in  themselves.  He  does  not  deny  their 
real  objective  being,  but  says  that  all  we  can 
know  about  them  is  through  our  subjective 
notions.  He  even  attributes  to  them  activity 
and  efticiency ;  they  force  the  mind  to  distin 
guish  and  divine ;  but  still,  these  objects  and 
what  the  mind  says  about  them  are  totally 
diverse.  (This  is  one  of  the  chief  points  in 
which  subsequent  criticism  and  speculation 
have  modified  the  position  of  the  Kantian  the 
ory  of  knowledge,  making  a  more  close  and  vital 
correspondence  between  the  laws  of  thought 
and  being  in  order  to  avoid  the  irresistible 
negative  results  of  this  theory.)  The  general 
result  then  of  the  analytics,  as  of  the  ajsthet- 
ics,  is,  that  what  is  not  in  time  and  space  can 
not  be  known  by  or  through  the  categories; 
that  is,  it  leads  to  that  form  of  transcendental 
idealism  which  maintains  that  things-in-them 
selves  cannot  be  known,  that  only  phenomena 
are  known  (i.  e.,  known  through  and  by  the 
categories).  At  the  same  time  Kant  is  careful 
to  assert  that  those  things-in-themselves  have 
a  real  existence;  and  he  distinguishes  clearly 
between  his  system  and  the  idealism  of  Berke 
ley  on  the  one  hand  and  that  of  Leibnitz  on 
the  other.  Berkeley  asserted  that  we  have  a 
knowledge  merely  of  "ideas;"  Kant  asserts 
that  we  have  not  merely  ideas,  but  ideas  of* 
something  which  is  real  and  independent. 
Berkeley  said  that  ideas  were  connected  em 
pirically  ;  Kant  says,  by  a  necessity,  by  law 
(and  hence  there  can  be  a  science  of  nature). 
Kant  made,  as  Berkeley  did  not,  a  thorough 
distinction  between  the  noumena  and  the  phe 
nomena.  3.  Transcendental  Dialectics.  Here 
we  enter  upon  the  proper  criticism  of  the  pure 
or  theoretical  reason;  and  here  come  up  the 
real  metaphysical  questions.  The  understand 
ing  gives  us  general  notions ;  the  reason,  ideas. 
The  three  grand  ideas  with  which  metaphysics 
has  to  do  are  those  of  the  soul,  of  the  world, 
and  of  God,  which  respectively  form  the  basis 
of  the  three  sciences,  rational  psychology,  ra 
tional  cosmology,  and  theology.  By  an  unnat 
ural  method,  Kant  makes  these  three  ideas 
correspond  respectively  with  the  categorical, 
hypothetical,  and  disjunctive  syllogisms.  He 
takes  a  similar  course,  as  we  have  seen,  with 
the  categories  of  the  understanding.  The 
question  of  the  identity  of  logic  and  meta 
physics  is  inevitably  suggested.  The  general 
conclusion  of  this  part  of  the  system  is,  that 
these  sciences,  in  the  sense  of  the  older  dog 
matism,  are  impracticable  to  reason ;  but  there 
is  still  for  man  a  supersensible  sphere  to  be 
reached  and  explored  in  other  ways.  In  re 
spect  to  rational  psychology,  it  is  the  aim  of 


'62 


KANT 


Kant  to  show  that  we  are  not  warranted  in 
transferring  to  the  soul,  as  an  objective  and 
immortal  existence,  those  predicates  which  we 
apply  to  it  as  a  matter  of  subjective  conscious 
ness;  or,  that  the  abstract  demonstration  of 
immortality,  from  the  nature  of  the  soul,  in 
volves  paralogisms.  Rational  cosmology  (or 
the  sum  total  of  the  phenomena  of  the  world, 
reduced  to  unity)  leaves  us  in  kindred  contra 
diction  as  to  the  external  world.  On  purely 
rational  grounds  (applying  the  four  categories), 
we  land  in  absolute  antinomies,  or  contradic 
tions  :  1,  as  to  quantity,  we  can  equally  prove 
that  the  world  is  limited  and  unlimited ;  2,  as 
to  quality,  that  its  elements  are  both  simple  and 
infinitely  divisible;  3,  as  to  relation,  that  it  is 
caused  by  a  free  act,  or  by  an  infinite  series  of 
mechanical  causes;  4,  as  to  modality,  that  it 
has  an  independent  cause,  and  that  its  parts 
are  only  mutually  dependent.  These  antino 
mies,  as  thus  developed  by  Kant,  bring  out 
distinctly  the  contrast  between  the  infinite  and 
the  finite,  between  the  absolute  and  the  rela 
tive.  The  force  of  them  consists  in  viewing 
the  world,  on  the  one  hand,  as  related  to  the 
infinite  and  absolute;  on  the  other  hand,  as 
related  to  the  finite  and  relative.  Kant's  solu 
tion  of  them  is  found  in  his  position,  that  the 
categories  have  subjective  but  not  objective 
validity.  But  the  antinomy  in  each  case  re 
sults  from  applying  to  one  and  the  same  sub 
ject  (viz.,  the  world)  at  the  same  time  both 
infinite  and  finite  properties,  making  it  both 
absolute  and  relative,  which  of  course  involves 
us  in  contradictions.  These  antinomies  show 
us  that  reason  is  weak  in  constructing  the  rela 
tion  between  the  infinite  and  finite,  between 
the  absolute  and  relative;  but  not  that  reason 
may  not  know  the  real  being  of  both.  In  the 
same  manner,  in  his  "Rational  Theology,"  the 
various  proofs  of  the  being  of  God  are  dis 
cussed,  and  shown  to  be  invalid,  viz.,  the  onto- 
logical,  the  cosmological,  and  the  physico-theo- 
logical.  The  ontological  argument  confounds 
an  analytic  with  a  synthetic  judgment;  the 
cosmological  is  only  another  form  of  the  onto 
logical;  and  the  physico-theological  does  not 
prove  the  perfection  or  infinitude  of  the  Deity. 
Thus  on  grounds  of  pure  reason,  in  relation  to 
our  highest  ideas,  we  are  left  in  the  position 
of  being  unable  to  demonstrate  their  objective 
validity.  Yet  still  they  are  "  postulates,"  "  ne 
cessary  illusions;"  we  are  obliged  to  take  them 
as  "  regulative  "  principles.  We  cannot  prove 
them,  nor  yet  can  the  materialist  or  skeptic 
disprove  them;  that  is,  theoretically,  we  can 
neither  admit  nor  deny  them.  This  criticism 
does  not  lead,  he  claims,  to  skepticism ;  it  only 
shows  us  the  bounds  of  reason ;  in  fact,  it  car 
ries  us  over  into  that  sphere  where  reason  has 
an  authentic  and  decisive  voice,  that  is,  the 
sphere  of  the  practical  reason-,  the  sphere  of 
final  causes  or  ends.  Thus  may  be  solved,  for 
practical  purposes,  the  problems  which  to  the 

Sure  reason  are  simply  insoluble.     The  metho- 
ology,  which  forms  the  second  chief  part  of 


this  "  Criticism  of  the  Pure  Reason,"  gives  the 
rule  by  which  reason  may  and  ought  to  be 
guided,  so  that  it  shall  not,  for  example,  apply 
mathematics  to  incongruous  subjects,  nor  con 
found  the  theoretical  and  the  practical. — In 
the  second  of  Kant's  criticisms,  that  of  the 
"  Practical  Reason,"  the  unsolved  problems 
are  taken  up  under  a  different  and  positive 
point  of  view.  His  works  on  the  "Metaphys 
ics  of  Morals "  and  the  "  Metaphysical  Ele 
ments  of  Law  and  of  Virtue "  are  devoted  to 
the  same  general  theme.  His  general  position 
is  this :  theoretical  or  pure  reason  gives  us 
certain  postulates,  which  on  merely  theoretical 
grounds  cannot  be  proved  to  have  a  valid  be 
ing  ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  gives  certain  prob 
lems  as  to  the  soul  and  its  immortality,  as  to 
the  unity  of  the  cosmos,  and  as  to  the  being  of 
God,  which  it  cannot  itself  resolve.  But  where 
theoretical  reason  is  silent,  practical  reason 
speaks  with  authority.  The  sphere  of  this 
practical  reason  is  the  will ;  and  here  is  where 
reason  unfolds  its  whole  power  and  signifi- 
cancy.  The  practical  reason  is  thus  the  high 
est  spiritual  power  in  man ;  it  has  the  "  pri 
macy  "  over  all  the  others,  even  over  the  pure 
reason.  This  practical  reason  or  will  now 
acts,  and  must  act,  according  to  certain  laws 
or  principles.  Some  of  these  principles  are 
merely  subjective,  or  "maxims;"  others  have 
an  imperative  character  or  universal  validity. 
These  make  the  "  categorical  imperative," 
which  is  the  decisive  word  in  Kant's  ethical 
theory.  The  moral  law  is  such  a  categorical 
imperative ;  and  this  is  a  dictate  of  reason  it 
self  ;  the  so-called  moral  sense  is  not  the  source, 
but  the  product,  of  this  superior  moral  law. 
The  formula  of  this  moral  law  is :  "  Act  only 
on  such  a  maxim  as  may  also  be  a  universal 
law;"  or,  "Act  in  reference  to  rational  beings 
(thyself  and  others)  as  if  they  were  ends  in 
and  for  themselves,  and  not  as  if  they  were 
mere  means  to  an  end."  If,  now,  we  know 
and  are  under  such  an  absolute  laAv,  then  we 
must  be  free;  such  a  law  is  possible  for  us 
only  as  we  are  free  in  the  strictest  or  trans 
cendental  sense.  This  is  the  "autonomy"  of 
the  will;  it  is  a  law  unto  itself;  what  I  ought 
to  do  I  must  be  able  to  do.  If  the  moral  law- 
be  real,  freedom  must  be  real ;  and  that  free 
dom  which  the  pure  reason  left  as  a  problem  is 
thus  proved  to  be  a  reality.  Still  further  :  if 
there  be  such  a  moral  law,  there  must  be  a 
moral  world,  and  in  that  world  the  highest 
good  must  be  brought  about  by  means  of  the 
moral  law.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  find 
that  each  individual  is  still  imperfect,  under  the 
dominion  of  sense ;  that  virtue  is  never  fully 
realized  here.  But  it  ought  to  be,  it  must  be 
realized ;  and  this  realization  can  only  be  ef 
fected  in  an  endless  duration  of  the  soul ;  the 
soul,  then,  must  be  immortal.  Yet  again,  per 
fect  happiness  is  essential  to  the  highest  good  ; 
but  this  happiness  can  only  be  realized  when 
nature  and  morality  are  in  entire  harmony  and 
unison.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  are  not  so  ; 


KANT 


763 


but  yet  they  ought  to  be,  and  they  must  be. 
There  must  then  be  some  power  above  both 
nature  and  moral  agents,  to  connect  the  two 
together,  to  make  virtue  and  happiness  coin 
cide.  That  is,  there  must  be  a  God.  What 
ever  may  be  thought  of  the  validity  of  these 
arguments,  the  results  contributed  to  give  cur 
rency  to  the  Kantian  system  among  those  who 
were  repelled  by  the  negative  character  of  the 
deductions  on  the  grounds  of  pure  reason.  A 
basis  seemed  to  be  laid  for  a  practical  and  liv 
ing  faith  in  God,  freedom,  and  immortality. 
The  moral  element  attained  such  supremacy  as 
in  no  antecedent  system.  But  we  must  pass  to 
another  work  of  Kant's  to  see  the  use  which 
he  makes  of  these  positions  in  relation  to  the 
highest  objects  of  belief;  that  is,  his  "Religion 
within  the  Bounds  of  Mere  Reason."  Moral 
ity  leads  to  religion.  The  three  "Criticisms" 
of  Kant  all  end  with  the  idea  of  God.  But 
religion  as  given  in  history  contains  elements 
which  cannot  be  directly  deduced  from  ethics. 
How  much,  now,  of  revelation  (which  he 
grants  to  be  possible)  can  be  confirmed  by 
reason?  1.  There  is  a  "radical  evil"  in  hu 
man  nature  ;  and  this  is  not  physical  but  moral. 
This  precedes  all  actual  sin.  How  can  this  be 
explained  ?  All  sin  must  be  one's  own  act ; 
and  yet  this  moral  evil  is  before  act.  The  dif 
ficulty  can  be  solved  only  by  assuming  a 
"  timeless  and  intelligible  act."  This  is  the  in 
born,  radical,  yet  still  self-produced  and  guilty 
corruption  of  man.  (Here  is  the  basis  for  the 
subsequent  speculations  of  Schelling  on  free 
dom,  and  of  Julius  Miiller  and  others  on  the 
origin  of  sin.)  As  there  is  this  evil  in  us,  so  in 
order  to  have  virtue  there  must  also  be  "  a  to 
tal  revolution,"  which  "may  be  called  a  new 
birth  or  a  new  creation;"  though  that  this 
must  strictly  be  of  grace  cannot  be  shown.  2. 
A  reconciliation  of  man  with  God  can  be  ef 
fected  only  through  such  a  change  of  heart ; 
this  reconciliation  is  symbolized  in  the  person 
and  work  of  Christ.  In  Scripture,  Christ  rep 
resents  the  agony  of  repentance;  to  put  on 
Christ  is  equivalent  to  the  new  life  ;  justifica 
tion  means  that  God  accepts  this  change  of 
heart  in  view  of  its  future  fruits.  3.  The  vic 
tory  of  the  good  over  the  evil  principle  is  seen 
in  .the  kingdom  of  God;  in  the  church  as  a 
visible  institution.  This  church  has  the  four 
characteristics  of  unity,  purity,  freedom,  and 
immutability.  The  positive  rites  of  this 
church  are  valuable  as  aids  to  human  weak 
ness.  But  in  the  progress  of  the  race  the  faith 
of  the  church  will  be  supplanted  by  a  purely 
rational  faith.  The  essence  of  the  Christian 
revelation  is  found  in  its  moral  precepts;  all 
else  has  only  a  partial  and  transient  worth. 
The  mysteries  of  religion  are  valuable  so  far 
as  they  help  the  life ;  but  they  make  no  real 
addition  to  knowledge.  The  Trinity  means 
that  God  should  be  worshipped  in  view  of  his 
threefold  moral  qualities,  holiness,  goodness, 
and  justice,  which  are  specifically  different 
from  each  other.  Thus,  in  this  allegorizing 


method,  Christianity  as  a  rational  religion  is 
reduced  to  a  mere  theory  of  morals.  Kant 
first  began  that  construction  of  the  truths  of 
religion  which  in  the  later  transcendentalism 
produced  so  many  philosophies  of  religion  of  a 
much  more  comprehensive  character.  Schlei- 
ermacher  disentangled  the  proper  religious 
from  the  merely  moral  element;  and  Hegel, 
even  in  the  mysteries  of  Christianity,  found 
the  same  truths  in  the  form  of  faith  which  his 
speculative  system  expounded  in  the  form  of 
philosophy. — In  the  third  of  Kant's  "  Criti 
cisms,"  that  on  the  "  Power  of  Judgment,"  he 
attempts  an  investigation  of  the  feelings,  cor 
responding  to  that  of  the  reason  in  his  "  Criti 
cism  of  the  Pure  Reason,"  and  to  that  of  the 
desires  (or  will)  in  the  "Practical  Reason." 
Here,  too,  he  advances  beyond  the  limits  of 
transcendental  idealism,  and  hence  this  treatise 
became  a  starting  point  for  subsequent  ex 
plorers.  The  object  of  the  work  is  to  span 
the  chasm  between  metaphysics  (theoretical 
reason)  and  ethics  (practical  reason).  Just  as 
feeling  (or  pleasure  and  pain)  stands  between, 
mediates  between  reason  and  the  will,  so  the 
faculty  of  judgment,  which  relates  to  the  feel 
ings,  is  to  mediate  between  the  theoretical  and 
practical  reason.  This  reconciliation  is  effected 
by  means  of  the  idea  of  a  final  cause  or  design. 
This  idea  is  found  equally  in  the  two  spheres 
subjected  to  the  faculty  of  judgment,  viz. : 
that  of  esthetics,  and  that  of  teleology,  or 
final  causes  in  nature.  1.  Esthetics  has  to 
do  with  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime.  The 
beautiful  has  no  real  existence  in  nature  ;  it  is 
the  harmony  between  the  imagination  and  the 
understanding.  The  sublime  is  an  attempt  to 
lay  hold  of  the  vast  in  nature  ;  it  does  not  ex 
ist  in  nature,  but  in  the  soul,  struggling  to 
ward  the  infinite.  The  highest  aspect  of  aesthet 
ics  is  as  a  symbol  of  moral  good.  2.  Teleology. 
The  objects  of  nature  are  all  shaped  for  some 
design  or  end.  Such  instances  of  design  are 
of  two  kinds,  external  and  internal.  Mere  ex 
ternal  adaptations  might  be  the  result  of  mech 
anism  ;  not  so  the  adaptations  or  designs 
which  we  find  in  organized  beings.  Here  all 
the  parts  are  both  means  and  ends ;  no  me 
chanical  law,  but  only  a  rational  designer,  can 
explain  this.  Nature  cannot  be  understood  ex 
cepting  on  this  principle.  By  this  principle  of 
a  design  immanent  in  nature,  Kant  passed  the 
boundaries  of  a  merely  subjective  idealism,  to 
which  other  parts  of  his  system  were  always 
tending.  Fichte  developed  it  on  the  subjective 
side ;  Schelling  restored  nature,  or  the  objective, 
to  its  rights.  The  latter  (Ph  ilosoph  ische  Scltrif- 
tcn,  i.  114)  says  that  "  there  were  perhaps  never 
so  many  deep  thoughts  compressed  in  so  few 
leaves  as  in  §  70  of  the  '  Criticism  of  the  Judg 
ment.'  " — Besides  his  larger  works  and  essays, 
Kant  also  wrote  many  minor  treatises,  suffi 
cient  to  have  made  a  literary  reputation  for 
most  men.  In  1784  he  published  an  essay  enti 
tled  "Ideas  about  Universal  History  in  a  Cos 
mopolitan  Point  of  View;"  and  in  1795  a 


KANT 


"Project  of  Perpetual  Peace."  A  severe  re 
view  in  1785  of  Herder's  "Philosophy  of  His 
tory,"  called  out  the  Metakritik  of  that  phi 
losopher  ;  Herder  was  too  cautious,  courtly,  and 
vague  to  suit  the  views  of  the  rigid  moralist 
and  metaphysician.  The  end  of  the  history' of 
the  world,  according  to  Kant,  is  the  forma 
tion  of  the  most  perfect  state  constitution. 
Man,  though  free,  is  still  bound  to  nature,  and 
exists  as  a  race.  Every  generation  is  a  means 
of  educating  and  developing  the  next  genera 
tion  ;  and  man  in  the  use  of  his  freedom  makes 
the  powers  of  nature  subservient  to  humanity. 
Perpetual  peace  among  the  nations  can  be  in 
sured  only  by  a  federation  of  free  states.  Pub 
licity  is  necessary  to  political  life  and  the 
highest  good  and  progress  of  the  state.  The 
human  race,  as  a  whole,  he  contends,  is  in  a 
constant  progress  to  a  better  state.  In  later 
times  this  is  proved  by  the  general  sympathy 
in  the  French  revolution.  (This  is  contained 
in  his  work  on  the  "  Strife  of  the  Facul 
ties.")  Morals  will  penetrate  more  and  more 
into  political  life,  and  shape  the  destiny  of  the 
race. — This  rapid  and  condensed  outline  of 
the  works  of  Immanuel  Kant,  though  necessa 
rily  imperfect,  may  be  sufficient  to  show  the 
comprehensiveness  and  subtlety  with  which  he 
penetrated  into  the  most  abstruse  regions  of 
thought.  The  influence  of  his  speculations  be 
gan  to  be  felt  at  the  same  time  that  the  French 
revolution  was  changing  the  face  of  Europe, 
and  when  old  chaos  seemed  to  have  again  re 
visited  the  earth.  Materialism  was  predomi 
nant  in  France ;  in  Scotland,  Reid  was  com 
bating  skepticism  on  the  principles  of  com 
mon  sense  ;  and  an  abstract  dogmatism  ruled 
the  German  mind.  Here  was  a  philosopher 
who,  with  unmatched  analytic  and  synthetic 
powers,  came  forward  to  show  to  each  previous 
and  prevalent  system  its  metes  and  bounds. 
Against  the  materialist  and  the  skeptic,  he 
proved  that  the  mind  had  its  a  priori  princi 
ples  of  knowledge ;  against  the  dogmatist,  he 
maintained  that  the  sphere  of  the  supersensi 
ble,  though  a  reality,  is  not  disclosed  to  posi 
tive  thought.  He  proved  that  empiricism  is 
right  so  far  as  it  asserts  that  the  matter  of  our 
ideas  is  drawn  from  without,  but  wrong  so  far 
as  it  implies  that  their  form  can  also  there  be 
found.  And  he  is  allied  with  the  principle  of 
the  common-sense  philosophy  in  ascribing  an 
absolute  validity  to  those  moral  ideas  by  which 
life  is  and  must  be  guided.  The  utterances  of 
this  practical  reason  are  true  and  valid,  what 
ever  may  be  the  difficulties  of  the  theoretical 
reason.  We  must  live  and  act  in  view  of  God, 
freedom,  and  immortality.  His  philosophy  be 
came  the  starting  point  for  the  most  remark 
able  development  of  speculation  since  the 
days  of  the  Greeks.  German  speculation  was 
thoroughly  quickened.  Those  who  opposed 
Kant  and  those  who  espoused  his  views  equal 
ly  acknowledged  his  greatness.  Reinhold  at 
first  defended,  and  then  modified  his  system. 
Schulze,  Beck,  and  Bardili  tried  to  bring  it 


into  more  popular  forms.  Krug  wrote  a  new 
"  Organon,"  and  Fries  a  new  "  Criticism  of 
the  Reason."  Hamann,  Herder,  and  Jacobi 
developed  their  systems,  which  made  faith  the 
basis  of  philosophy,  with  constant  reference 
to  the  principles  of  Kant.  Herbart's  positive 
philosophy  claimed  to  have  the  true  key  to 
the  Kantian  metaphysics.  Fichte  unfolded 
his  subjective  idealism  as  the  only  logical  re 
sult  of  the  critical  philosophy.  And  even  in 
some  of  the  latest  products  of  German  specu 
lation  there  are  not  wanting  attempts  to  show 
that  Kant  has  not  been  superseded  by  any  of  his 
successors. — As  a  teacher  of  philosophy  in  the 
university,  the  object  of  Kant  was,  as  he  him 
self  declares,  not  so  much  to  give  a  system  as 
to  habituate  his  pupils  to  self -reflection.  The 
teacher  should  not  give  thoughts,  but  lead  to 
thought;  he  should  not  carry,  but  guide,  his 
hearers ;  and  hence  the  profounder  parts  of 
his  system  were  rarely  expounded  to  his  classes. 
He  was  very  simple  in  his  whole  style  of  lec 
turing.  His  voice  was  feeble,  and  only  gradu 
ally  rose  with  his  subject.  A  few  notes  on 
bits  of  paper,  or  text  books  marked  in  the 
margin,  were  his  materials.  He  always  began 
on  a  subject  as  if  thinking  it  out  for  himself ; 
announced  his  topic,  gave  provisional  explana 
tions,  illustrated  it  in  a  great  variety  of  aspects, 
and  thus  led  his  hearers  along  with  him.  He 
despised  all  the  arts  of  the  rhetorician.  In 
developing  his  ethical  theory  he  often  rose  to 
the  highest  degree  of  moral  earnestness,  speak 
ing  to  the  soul  against  all  selfishness  and  in 
favor  of  liberty ;  and  then  he  seemed,  says 
one  of  his  hearers,  "as  if  inspired  by  a  divine 
flame."  To  aid  his  thoughts  he  would  fix  his 
attention  closely  on  some  one  auditor,  and 
judge  by  him  whether  he  was  understood. 
Once  a  button  on  a  student's  coat,  which  he 
had  made  his  fixed  point  of  vision,  being  lost, 
disconcerted  the  philosopher  and  interrupted 
the  lecture.  A  tower  on  which  he  used  to 
gaze  in  his  reveries  at  home  having  become 
hidden  by  the  growth  of  trees,  he  could  not 
rest  until  the  foliage  was  cut  away.  He  was 
always  kind  to  the  students,  but  from  principle 
would  not  remit  their  fees,  lest  they  might 
lose  their  sense  of  independence.  Tempting 
offers  were  made  to  him  to  quit  Konigsberg 
(a  double  salary  at  Halle  in  1778  by  his  friend 
the  minister  Von  Zedlitz),  but  he  did  not  care 
for  the  money,  and  disliked  all  change.  In 
fact,  he  never  went  more  than  40  miles  from 
his  native  city.  In  his  person  he  was  slight 
ly  built,  not  much  over  five  feet  in  height ;  his 
chest  was  hollow,  and  his  right  shoulder,  like 
that  of  Schleiermacher,  projected  much  above 
the  other.  His  features  were  fine  and  deli 
cate  ;  his  complexion  was  light ;  his  blue  eyes 
expressed  animation  and  kindness ;  a  high  and 
broad  forehead  indicated  his  thoughtful  and 
speculative  turn ;  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
countenance  showed  a  tenacious  vitality. — The 
external  life  of  the  philosopher,  who  was  thus 
probing  the  depths  of  human  consciousness, 


KANT 


765 


was  one  of  the  utmost  regularity  and  simplicity. 
The  "sage  of  Konigsberg"  pursued  his  daily 
avocations  in  as  fixed  a  routine  as  that  of  the 
humblest  artisan  or  workman.  In  fact,  it  al 
most  seems  as  if  his  definite  theory  of  morals 
shaped  his  whole  career.  He  was  never  mar 
ried  ;  metaphysics  was  the  passion  of  his  soul. 
Summer  and  winter  he  rose  at  5  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  not  once  failing  to  do  so  for  30  years. 
Two  hours  were  spent  in  study,  and  two  in 
lectures ;  and  then  he  studied  and  wrote  till 
his  early  dinner  at  1  o'clock.  This  meal  was 
the  great  event  of  the  day;  and  he  ate  it 
leisurely,  almost  always  in  the  society  of 
friends.  After  dinner  he  would  walk  for  an 
hour  or  two,  spend  the  evening  in  society  or 
lighter  reading,  revise  his  lectures  for  the  next 
day,  and  be  in  bed  before  10  o'clock.  In  gen 
eral  society  in  his  earlier  life  he  was  sometimes 
odd,  but  also  genial  and  animated.  He  was 
a  capital  listener,  and  dexterous  in  drawing 
out  the  knowledge  of  others ;  but  he  could 
tell  a  good  story,  and  commented  on  all  mat 
ters  of  literary,  philosophical,  or  political  in 
terest,  with  freedom  and  thoughtf ulness.  Often 
a  curt  phrase,  a  satirical  remark,  or  a  sally  of 
wit  would  prevent  or  close  a  long  discussion. 
In  general  literature  his  reading  was  very 
large;  the  English  and  French  classics  were 
familiar  to  him ;  and  of  all  writers  perhaps  he 
was  most  fond  of  Rousseau,  whose  portrait 
was  the  only  one  that  adorned  his  plain  man 
sion.  Of  poetry  he  was  never  enamored, 
though  a  great  admirer  of  Milton's  "  Paradise 
Lost."  In  the  history  of  philosophy  he  was 
less  versed  than  in  many  other  parts  of  litera 
ture;  considering,  in  fact,  dogmatism,  skepti 
cism,  and  his  own  system  to  contain  about  all 
that  could  be  well  said  on  speculative  matters. 
Kant  was  warmly  enlisted  in  all  that  concerned 
the  general  interests  of  humanity  and  of  jus 
tice.  In  his  political  views  he  sympathized 
with  the  most  thoughtful  spirits  of  the  age. 
"  Liberty,  law,  and  public  power  are  the  ele 
ments  of  all  social  life.  Law  and  liberty  with 
out  power  are  anarchy ;  law  and  force  without 
liberty  make  a  despotism ;  force  alone  is  bar 
barism  ;  liberty  and  law,  joined  with  force, 
make  the  republic,  the  only  good  civil  consti 
tution,  which  is  not  necessarily  a  democracy." 
He  was  opposed  to  involuntary  servitude,  and 
to  a  hereditary  nobility.  Man,  he  says,  is 
born  free.  His  great  political  idea  was  that 
there  must  be  a  separation  of  the  powers  in  the 
state  in  order  to  a  true  social  order.  Princes 
he  held  to  be  for  the  people,  and  not  the  people 
for  princes.  He  was  also  a  zealous  advocate 
of  the  freedom  of  opinion  and  the  freedom 
of  the  press.  "  Liberty  of  thought  is  nothing 
without  the  liberty  of  speech  and  of  writing. 
...  To  take  away  the  power  of  freely  express 
ing  opinions  is  to  deprive  us  of  the  only  remedy 
for  the  evils  which  afflict  humanity.  .  .  .  The 
prohibition  of  books  of  science  and  of  pure 
theory  is  an  offence  against  mankind."  In 
his  religious  views,  the  feeling  of  pure  obliga 


tion,  of  an  inexorable  duty,  was  paramount ;  in 
fact,  the  sense  of  duty  was  so  strong  as  to  leave 
little  room  for  the  religious  sentiments.  His 
ethical  theory  made  obligation  supreme,  and  left 
to  the  affections  a  subordinate  place.  His  mor 
al  formulas  are  abstract ;  love  was  not  to  him 
the  chief  of  the  virtues.  He  was  the  stoic  of 
the  18th  century.  His  general  theory  of  reli 
gion,  too,  was  abstract ;  nor  did  the  positive 
truths  of  Christianity  as  a  redemptive  system 
modify  either  his  metaphysical  or  ethical  the 
ories.  He  gave  to  German  rationalism  a  strong 
impulse,  in  making  the  merely  moral  element 
supreme.  So  far  as  he  could,  he  modelled  his 
own  life  upon  the  principles  of  a  rigid  code  of 
ethics.  lie  abhorred  all  deceit  and  lying;  he 
was  upright  and  honest  in  the  minutest  mat 
ters  ;  every  day,  every  hour  had  its  appointed 
work.  "  Whoever  will  tell  me  of  a  good  action 
left  undone,  him  will  I  thank,  though  it  be  in  the 
last  hour  of  life."  And  in  the  last  hour  of  his 
life  he  could  say:  "My  friends,  I  do  not  fear 
death ;  I  assure  you  before  God,  that  if  I  was 
sure  of  being  called  away  this  night,  I  could 
raise  my  hands  to  heaven,  and  say,  God  be 
praised ! '  No  one  who  has  lived  long  in  the 
world,  he  used  to  say,  would  be  willing  on  any 
account  to  begin  and  live  his  life  over  again. 
He  was  benevolent  from  principle,  often  giving 
away  nearly  as  much  as  the  sum  required  by  his 
own  frugal  household.  Strict  economy  enabled 
him  to  lay  up  enough  for  a  comfortable  old  age. 
Though  a  warm  friend,  he  did  not  like  to  visit 
those  who  were  sick,  nor  to  talk  about  the  dead. 
He  was  most  careful  of  his  own  life  and  health ; 
by  rigid  rules  he  kept  his  frail  body  in  tolerable 
health,  never  having  had  a  severe  illness  till 
worn  out  by  advanced  age.  In  1 802  his  powers 
began  to  fail  rapidly,  and  he  permitted  a  physi 
cian  to  be  summoned.  He  had  frequent  falling 
fits ;  his  sight  gradually  became  dim ;  his  conver 
sation  was  often  incoherent.  A  few  days  before 
his  death,  he  thanked  his  medical  adviser,  add 
ing,  "  I  have  not  yet  lost  my  feeling  for  human 
ity." — The  best  editions  of  Kant's  works  are 
that  of  Hartenstein  (10  vols.,  Leipsic,  1838-'9), 
of  which  a  second  improved  edition  in  8  vols. 
appeared  in  1867-'9 ;  that  of  Schubert  and  Ro- 
senkranz  (11  vols.,  Leipsic,  1840-'42) ;  and  that 
of  J.  H.  von  Kirchmann,  forming  part  of  the 
PhilosopJiwcJie  Bibliothelc  (Berlin,  1868-'74). 
The  second  contains  a  full  biography  by  Schu 
bert,  and  a  "  History  of  the  Kantian  Philoso 
phy"  by  Rosenkranz.  Kirchmann's  edition 
also  contains  a  biography,  and  an  able  analysis 
of  the  whole  Kantian  system,  with  introducto 
ry  dissertations  on  each  of  Kant's  works.  His 
life  was  written  in  1804  by  Borowsky,  and  by 
Jachmann  in  letters ;  his  last  years  were  de 
scribed  by  Wasiansky  (1804).  G.  S.  A.  Mellin 
published  an  "  Encyclopaedic  Dictionary  of  the 
Kantian  Philosophy  "  (6  vols.,  1797).  His  phi 
losophy  was  introduced  into  Holland  in  1792 
by  Paulus  van  Hemert,  and  there  elucidated 
by  Van  Bosch  in  1798,  and  Kirker  in  1800. 
Schmid  and  Phiseldek  published  an  exposition 


766 


KANT 


KAPP 


of  it  at  Copenhagen,  1796-U  It  was  also 
taught  in  Hungary  and  Poland.  In  Italy  it 
was  criticised  by  Galuppi  in  1819,  and  later 
by  both  Rosmini  and  Gioberti.  Montoyani 
published  in  1822  a  Traduzione  della  Critica 
della  rag'wne  pvra  di  Kant;  Testa,  in  1843-'9, 
an  Esnme  e  discussione  of  the  same  ;  Roggero, 
an  analysis  in  his  Storia  della  filosofia  da  Car- 
te*io  a  Kant  (1869);  and  Villa  another,  in  his 
Kant  e  Rosmini  (1869).  Spaventa's  Filosofia 
di  Kant  e  sua  relazione  colla  filosqfia  italia- 
na  (1860)  is  also  an  able  work.  Charles  Vil- 
lers  published  a  valuable  essay  on  Kant  in 
French  in  1801 ;  Destutt  de  Tracy  commented 
on  his  metaphysics  before  the  academy;  De 
Gerando  in  his  "  Comparative  History  "  (1804), 
and  Mine,  de  Stael  in  her  "  Germany"  (1813), 
gave  a  fuller  account  of  it.  The  best  French 
account  is  in  J.  Willm's  "  History  of  German 
Philosophy1'  (4  vols.,  1846-'9),  a  work  crowned 
by  the  French  academy ;  the  first  volume  and 
half  of  the  second  are  taken  up  with  the  crit 
ical  philosophy.  Charles  de  Remusat  in  1847 
wrote  a  valuable  report  on  this  "  History " 
for  the  academy  of  moral  and  political  sci 
ences.  Victor  Cousin's  analysis,  which  ap 
peared  in  1842  under  the  title  Lecons  de  phi 
losophic  sur  Kant,  and  since  the  fourth  edition 
(1863)  as  Philosophic  de  Kant,  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Henderson  (London,  1853 ; 
new  ed.,  1871).  J.  Tissot  has  translated  into 
French  the  "Pure  Reason"  (2d  ed.,  1845), 
"Logic"  (1840),  "Metaphysics  of  Law"  (2d 
ed.,  1853)  and  "of  Morals"  (3d  ed.,  1854),  the 
"  Metaphysics,"  edited  by  Politz  (1843),  and 
"Anthropology"  (1854).  Trullard  in  1841 
gave  a  French  version  of  "  Religion  within  the 
Bounds  of  Reason;"  Barm  in  1846  of  the 
"  Criticism  of  the  Judgment,"  and  in  1848  of 
that  of  the  "Practical  Reason,"  besides  a  criti 
cal  examination  of  these  works  (1850  and  1851), 
and  the  "  Metaphysical  Elements  of  Law," 
with  the  "  Project  on  Perpetual  Peace  "  (1855). 
Born  published  in  Latin  Kantii  Opera  (3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1796);  Kunhardt,  a  Latin  version  of 
the  "  Prolegomena  to  every  future  System  of 
Metaphysics"  (Ilelmstedt,  1797);  and  G.  L. 
KGnig,  Elemcnta  Ethica  (Gotha,  1800).  The 
first  English  work  on  Kant  was  a  "General 
and  Introductory  View,"  by  Nitzsch  (Lon 
don,  1796).  Others  are:  J.  S.  Beck  (trans 
lated  by  an  auditor),  "  Principles  of  the  Criti 
cal  Philosophy"  (London,  1798);  Willich's 
"  Elements  of  the  Critical  Philosophy  "  (Lon 
don,  1798);  "Kant's  Essays  and  Treatises" 
(2  vols.,  1798);  Wirgman's  "Principles  of  the 
Kantesian  Philosophy  "  (1824);  J.  W.  Semple, 
"  Kant's  Metaphysics  of  Ethics  "  (1837)  ;  John 
Richardson,  "Metaphysical  Works  of  Kant" 
("  Logic,"  "  Prolegomena  to  Metaphysics," 
"Proofs  of  God's  Existence,"  and  "Theod 
icy,"  8vo,  London,  1836;  printed  in  1819);  an 
"  Analysis  of  Kant's  Critick  of  Pure  Reason," 
by  the  translator  of  that  work  (8vo,  London, 
1844;  the  translation  appeared  in  1841).  An 
other  and  better  version  of  the  "  Critique  of 


the  Pure  Reason,"  by  M.  D.  Meiklejohn,  was 
published  in  Bonn's  "  Philosophical  Library  " 
(1855).  An  account  of  his  system  is  given  in 
J.  D.  Morell's  "  Historical  and  Critical  View  of 
the  Speculative  Philosophy  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  "  (last  ed.,  1856),  with  which  may  be 
compared  Wirgman  in  the  "Encyclopaedia 
Londinensis,"  and  the  article  in  the  "  Encyclo- 
pasdia  Britannica."  Among  recent  German 
works  may  be  mentioned  Kuno  Fischer's  1m- 
manuel  Kant:  Entwickelungsgeschichte  und 
System  der  Tcritischen  Philosophic  (Mannheim, 
1860) ;  Paul,  Kant's  LeJire  i)om  idealen  Chris- 
tits  (Kiel,  1869);  Grapengiesser,  Kanfs  Lehre 
von  Eaum  und  Zeit  (Jena,  1870);  Wolf,  Die 
Metaphysische  Grundanschauung  Kanf  s  (Leip 
sic,  1870)  ;  Zimmermann,  Ucber  Kant's  mathe- 
matisches  Vorurtheil  (Vienna,  1871);  Witte, 
Beitrage  zur  Verstdndniss  Kants  (Berlin, 
1874);  and  H6lder,  Darstellung  der  Kanti- 
scJien  Erkenntnisstheorie,  mit  hesonderer  Be- 
riicksichtigung  der  verschicdenen  Fassungen 
der  transscendentalen  Deduction  der  Katego- 
rien  (Tubingen,  1874).  An  excellent  collection 
of  the  most  striking  passages  in  Kant's  works, 
designed  for  general  readers,  is  Frauenstedt's 
Immanuel  Kant :  Lichtstrahlen  aus  seinen  Wer- 
Jcen,  mit  einer  Biographic  und  Cliarakteristik 
Kant's  (Leipsic,  1872).  Among  general  histo 
ries  of  philosophy  containing  adequate  accounts 
are  those  by  Mirbt,  Rosenkranz,  Chalybuus, 
Ritter,  Erdmann,  and  the  more  recent  ones, 
Ueberweg's  Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Phi 
losophic  (Berlin,  1862-'6;  Eng.  translation, 
New  York,  1871-'3),  and  Kirchner  and  Diih- 
ring's  Kritische  Geschichte  der  Philosophic 
(Berlin,  1869).  The  most  recent  works  of 
special  value  to  English  students  are  Mahaffy's 
"  Kant's  Critical  Philosophy  for  English  Read 
ers"  (London,  1871  et  seq.),  Abbott's  "Kant's 
Theory  of  Ethics,  or  Practical  Philosophy" 
(London,  1873),  and  Monck's  "  Introduction  to 
the  Critical  Philosophy  "  (Dublin,  1874). 

KANTEMIR.     See  CAXTEMIR. 

KAOLIN.     See  CLAY. 

KAPNIST,  Vasili  Vasilieyitch,  a  Russian  poet, 
born  in  1756,  died  Oct.  28,  1823.  He  was  a 
councillor  of  state,  and  a  member  of  the  acad 
emy  of  St.  Petersburg ;  translated  Horace  into 
Russian ;  wrote  in  that  language  and  in  French 
ingenious  though  not  profound  criticisms  of 
the  Odyssey;  and  exposed  official  corruption 
in  his  comedy  Yabedy  (1799).  His  lyric  po 
ems  appeared  in  1806,  and  his  tragedy  "Anti 
gone"  in  1815. — His  granddaughter,  the  coun 
tess  Salias,  has  published  stories  under  the 
name  of  Eugenia  Tur  (4  vols.,  Moscow,  1859). 

RAPP,  Friedrich,  a  German  author,  horn  in 
Hamm,  Westphalia,  April  13,  1824.  He  studied 
law,  and  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  of 
1848  went  in  1850  to  New  York,  where  he 
practised  his  profession,  attached  himself  to 
the  republican  party,  became  a  presidential 
elector  in  1860,  and  subsequently  was  commis 
sioner  of  emigration.  He  returned  to  Germany 
in  1870,  and  was  elected  in  1872  to  the  Ger- 


KAPPEL 


KARAKORUM 


767 


man  Reichstag.  lie  has  published  Die  Sklaven- 
fr<(fje  in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten  (Gottingen, 
1854);  Lcben  des  amer ikanischen  Generals  F. 
W.  Ton  Steuben  (Berlin,  1858;  English  ed., 
New  York,  1859) ;  Geschichte  tier  Sklarerei 
in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten  (Hamburg,  1860); 
Lebcn  des  amerikanischen  Generals  Jolt  aim 
K«U)  (Stuttgart,  1862 ;  English  ed.,  New  York, 
1870) ;  Der  Soldatenhandel  deittscher  Filrsten 
nach  America  (Berlin,  1804;  2d  revised  and 
enlarged  ed.,  1874);  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Auswanderung  in  America  (vol.  i.,  Leipsic, 
1868) ;  and  Fried-rich  der  Grosse  und  die  Ver 
einigten  Staaten  Ton  America  (1871). 

KAPPEL,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  can 
ton  and  10  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Zurich,  noted 
for  a  great  defeat  of  the  Protestant  army  in 
October,  1531,  when  Zwingli  was  slain  by  a 
mercenary  of  Unterwalden,  and  his  remains 
were  burnt  by  the  common  hangman.  A  mon 
ument  to  him  was  erected  here  in  1838,  on  the 
spot  where  he  fell. 

KARA  GEORGE.     See  CZERXY  GEORGE. 

KARAHISSAR.     See  AFIUM  KARAIIISSAR. 

KARAITES,  or  Caraites  (Ileb.  Karaim,  read 
ers,  scripturists),  a  Jewish  sect,  existing  in 
Russia  (chiefly  in  the  Crimea),  Austria  (Gali- 
cia),  Turkey,  and  other  countries  of  the  East, 
whose  distinguishing  tenet  is  a  strict  adherence 
to  the  Biblical  books,  and  the  rejection,  except 
as  exegetical  aids,  of  all  oral  traditions  and 
Talmudical  interpretations.  They  themselves 
retrace  their  origin  to  the  time  of  Shalmaneser ; 
and  as  that  king  of  Assyria  carried  the  ten 
tribes  of  Israel  to  the  north,  they  hold  that 
they  must  worship  with  the  face  turned  toward 
the  south.  Xon-Karaite  historians,  however, 
disregard  their  representations,  and  Maimoni- 
des  and  others  have  attempted  to  show  that 
they  were  the  same  sect  as  that  once  known  as 
Sadducees ;  but  it  seems  that  some  of  the  doc 
trines  of  the  latter  were  directly  antagonistic 
to  those  of  the  Karaites.  Others,  especially 
Wolf,  attribute  their  origin  to  a  massacre  among 
the  Jewish  doctors  under  Alexander  Jannreus, 
about  100  B.  C.  Others  again,  among  them 
Steinsclmcider,  regard  Karaism  as  a  literary 
and  theological  development  of  Judaism  which 
had  its  origin  in  Babylonia  about  A.  D.  760, 
and  Anan  ben  David  as  the  founder  of  the 
'sect;  but  Firkovitch  has  endeavored  to  prove 
from  archaeological  and  numismatic  evidences 
that  Karaites  occupied  the  Crimea  about  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  century.  The  Karaites 
have  produced  a  valuable  literature,  not  only  on 
Biblical  interpretation,  dogmatics,  and  other 
subjects  connected  with  religion,  but  also  on 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  written  partly  in 
Hebrew  or  Arabic,  partly  in  a  mixture  of  Tar- 
taric  and  Turkish  which  is  a  peculiar  idiom  of 
their  own  in  the  regions  bordering  on  the 
Black  sea,  and  partly  in  the  languages  of  the 
several  countries  which  they  inhabit.  Their 
literature  is,  however,  little  known  to  the  oc 
cidental  world.  Several  of  their  principal 
writings,  such  as  Eshkol  hakkopher,  by  Judah 
VOL.  ix. — 49 


Iladasi  (of  the  12th  century),  and  Mil/bar,  by 
Aaron  ben  Joseph  (13th),  have  recently  been 
published  at  Eupatoria,  in  the  Crimea. — See 
Fiirst,  Geschichte  des  Karaerthums  (Leipsic, 
1865),  and  Rule,  "  History  of  the  Karaite 
Jews"  (London,  1870). 

KARAJITCH,  Vuk  Stefanovitch,  a  Servian  schol 
ar,  born  Nov.  7,  1787,  died  in  February,  1864. 
j  He  was  educated  in  Carlovitz,  and  in  the  war 
for  Servian  independence  served  as  secretary 
to  various  national  chiefs,  most  of  whom  were 
ignorant  of  the   art  of  writing,   and  also  aj 
secretary  of  the  national  senate  at  Belgrade. 
When  Servia  was  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  sultan 
j  by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest,  Karajitch  sought 
1  refuge  in  Austria   (1813).      He  collected  the 
popular  songs  of  the  Illyrian  tongue,  travelling 
for  the  purpose  in  Bosnia  and  Montenegro,  and 
published  Narodne   srpske  pjesme   ("Popular 
Serb  Songs,"  4  vols.,  Vienna,'  1814-'33 ;  3d  ed. 
enlarged,  1841-'6).     They  were  translated  by 
"  Talvj  "  (Mrs.  Robinson,  Volkslieder  der  Ser- 
len,  Halle,  l825-'6),  and  by  Bowring  ("  Servian 
Popular  Poetry,"  London,  1827).      Karajitch 
also  published  a  Serb  grammar  (translated  by 
Jacob  Grimm),  a  Serbo-German  dictionary,  a 
|  literary  almanac  under  the   title  of   Danitza 
("Dawn,"   1826-'34),    a  collection  of   "Serb 
|  Popular    Proverbs,"   and   another    of    "  Serb 
Popular   Tales."      He  was  a  member  of  the 
j  academies  of  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  Vienna, 
I  and  the  university  of  Jena  conferred  upon  him 
I  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.     The  Rus 
sian  government  bestowed  on  him  a  pension 
and  other  honors. 

KARAK,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the  Persian 
gulf,  in  lat.  29°  14'  N.,  Ion.  50°  20'  E.,  about 
15  in.  in  circumference,  and  40  m.  N.  W.  of 
Bushire  ;  pop.  about  3,000.  It  affords  a  safe 
anchorage,  especially  during  the  prevailing 
N.  W.  gales.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  water 
is  good,  but  there  is  no  timber.  The  Dutch 
erected  a  fort  here  in  the  middle  of  .the  18th 
century,  but  were  soon  compelled  to  evacuate 
the  island.  From  1839  to  1841  it  was  occu 
pied  by  the  English,  and  in  December,  1856, 
the  English  expedition  against  Persia  landed 
on  its  S.  E.  coast. 

KARAKORIM,  or  Mnstaff  Mountains,  also  called 
Tsung  Ling,  a  range  of  central  Asia,  extending 
S.  E.  from  about  lat.  37°  N.  and  Ion.  73°  E.  to 
lat.  34°  N.  and  Ion.  79°  E.,  and  separating  the 
:  British  province  of  Cashmere  from  Chinese 
Tartary.  The  N.  W.  extremity  reaches  'the 
Hindoo  Koosh,  and  the  S.  E.  ridges  separate 
the  western  spurs  of  the  Kucn-lun  on  the  north 
from  those  of  the  Himalaya  on  the  south.  One 
of  their  peaks,  the  Dapsjmg,  is  28,278  ft.  high, 
and  several  others  exceed  27,000  ft.  The  aver 
age  height  of  the  principal  ridges  is  25,000 
ft.,  and  even  the  lowest  valleys  are  10,000  ft. 
above  the  sea.  The  researches  of  the  brothers 
Schlagintweit  and  of  George  W.  Hayward,  who 
was  murdered  in  1870  in  the  Karakorum  valley, 
have  demonstrated  that  the  Karakorum  moun 
tains  constitute  the  watershed  of  High  Asia. 


768 


KARAMAN 


KARENS 


KARAMAN.     See  CARAMAN. 

KARAMSIN  (properly  KARAMZIN),  Nikolai  Mi- 
khailovitdi,  a  Russian  liistorian,  born  in  eastern 
Russia  in  December,  1705,  died  in  the  Tauridan 
palace  near  St.  Petersburg,  June  3,  1826.  He 
studied  in  Moscow,  served  for  about  two  years 
in  the  imperial  guards,  travelled  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  France,  and  England  during 
the  tirst  period  of  the  French  revolution,  suc 
cessively  edited  the  "Moscow  Journal,"  the 
u  Aglaia,"  a  "  Poetical  Almanac,"  a  "  Pantheon 
of  Foreign  Literature,"  and  a  "  Pantheon  of 
Russian  Literature,"  and  was  an  active  contrib 
utor  to  the  "  European  Messenger."  His  "  Let 
ters  of  a  Russian  Traveller"  (1797-1801)  were 
received  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  in  1803 
Alexander  I.  appointed  him  historiographer 
of  Russia.  He  now  produced  his  "History  of 
Russia  "  from  the  earliest  period  down  to  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Romanoff,  in  12  vol 
umes,  the  last  completed  after  his  death.  This 
publication,  which  occupied  the  last  ten  years 
of  Karamsin's  life,  met  with  unprecedented 
success  in  Russia,  and  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages.  Alexander  appointed  him 
imperial  councillor  in  1824 ;  and  in  1825  Nich 
olas  bestowed  on  him  an  annual  pension  of 
50,000  rubles,  revertible  to  his  widow  and  chil 
dren,  and  put  an  imperial  frigate  at  his  disposal 
to  carry  him  to  Italy  for  the  restoration  of  his 
shattered  health,  of  which  however  he  was 
unable  to  avail  himself. 

KARASU-BAZAR,  a  town  of  the  Crimea,  in  the 
government  of  Taurida,  and  in  the  circle  and  28 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Simferopol ;  pop.  in 
1867,  14,397,  chiefly  Tartars,  but  including  also 
Armenians,  Jews,  and  other  nationalities.  It 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  valley  near  the  source  of 
the  Karasu  river,  but  there  are  many  morasses 
in  the  vicinity.  It  resembles  Levantine  towns 
by  the  crookedness  of  the  streets  and  the  mean 
ness  of  the  buildings  ;  but  it  is  one  of  the  most 
thriving  places  in  the  Crimea,  with  nearly  50 
khans.  The  national  church  is  a  fine  building 
in  the  shape  of  a  cross,  with  a  dome  which 
lights  the  centre  ;  and  there  are  places  of  wor 
ship  for  Catholics,  Armenians,  and  Jews,  and 
more  than  20  mosques.  The  cemeteries  outside 
of  the  town  are  very  extensive.  The  large  es 
tates  of  the  Shirin  family  extend  from  this 
town  almost  all  the  way  to  Kertch,  and  ad 
joining  the  town  are  several  settlements  of 
Germans  who  are  as  advanced  in  agriculture 
as  the  Tartars  are  backward.  Wine,  fruit,  tal 
low,  wool,  and  hides  are  the  staple  articles  of 
trade;  and  morocco,  leather,  shoes,  saddles, 
and  shaggy  felt  cloaks  are  manufactured  in  a 
superior  style. — The  Tartars  made  Karasu-Ba- 
zar  their  capital  in  1736,  but  it  was  captured 
and  burned  by  the  Russians  in  1737. 

KARDSZAG,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  in 
the  district  and  formerly  the  capital  of  Great 
Cumania,  on  the  Pesth  and  Debreczin  railway, 
88  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Pesth  ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,486. 
It  has  a  castle,  and  the  inhabitants  are  engaged 
in  the  cultivation  of  corn,  wine,  and  melons. 


KARELIANS.     See  FINNS. 

KARENS,   Kayrcns,    Karians,    or    Karrans,    a 

rude  people  of  Burmah,  Siarn,  and  parts  of 
China,  supposed  to  extend  from  lat.  10°  to  28° 
N.  They  inhabit  the  jungles  and  mountainous 
districts,  and  number  from  200,000  to  400,000, 
the  majority  of  whom  live  in  British  Burmah. 
The  number  of  the  Karens  in  Siam  is  estimated 
at  50,000.  Those  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Brit 
ish  possessions  are  called  Red  Karens  from  the 
usual  color  of  their  dress.  They  reckon  them 
selves  by  families,  and  each  family,  though  it 
should  number  200  or  300  souls,  has  but  one 
house.  Their  dwellings  are  built  of  stout  posts 
and  bamboo,  and  thatched  with  palm  leaf.  The 
floor  consists  of  a  matting  of  split  bamboo, 
stretched  over  a  strong  timber  framework 
which  is  raised  6  or  7  ft.  above  the  ground. 
The  immense  edifice  is  divided  into  compart 
ments  for  eating,  sleeping,  and  other  purposes, 
and  the  inmates  are  under  a  regular  patriarchal 
discipline,  which  is  the  only  form  of  govern 
ment  recognized  by  this  people.  They  are  de 
scribed  as  industrious  husbandmen  ;  they  raise 
hogs  and  poultry,  and  hunt  game  in  the  forests. 
A  long,  loose,  sleeveless  shirt  of  coarse  cotton 
is  their  principal  article  of  dress,  but  they  are 
fond  of  ornaments,  which  they  wear  on  their 
necks,  arms,  and  ankles.  Women  among  them 
are  treated  with  respect,  and  they  are  said  to 
be  hospitable,  frank,  and  more  virtuous  than 
their  neighbors.  The  Sgau  or  Chegaws,  and 
the  Pgho  or  Pgwos,  are  their  principal  tribes. 
These  are  pagans,  but  some  of  the  other  tribes 
are  Buddhists.  There  are  evidences  that  at 
some  remote  period  they  received  ideas  of  Scrip 
tural  history.  They  have  a  tradition  of  white 
messengers  from  the  sea  coming  to  teach  them ; 
they  believe  in  one  eternal  Supreme  Being; 
and  besides  the  story  of  the  creation  and  the 
deluge,  they  have  an  account  of  "  the  fruit  of 
trial "  appointed  by  God,  of  which  two  persons, 
deceived  by  the  bad  spirit,  ate,  and  thereby 
became  subject  to  age,  disease,  and  death  ;  and 
of  a  confusion  of  languages  in  consequence 
of  disbelief  in  God.  The  labors  of  American 
missionaries  among  the  Karens,  which  were 
commenced  in  1828  by  Messrs.  Boardrnan  and 
Judson,  have  been  remarkably  fruitful.  In 
1865  the  numerous  native  churches  were  formed 
into  a  "  Burmah  Baptist  Convention,"  which 
has  since  met  once  a  year.  At  the  convention 
held  in  Rangoon  in  November,  1872,  the  num 
ber  of  churches  in  connection  with  the  con 
vention  was  reported  as  365,  all  Karen,  with 
the  exception  of  19  Burman,  1  Shan,  and  2 
English  ;  the  Karen  members  numbered  about 
18,000.  At  Rangoon  there  is  a  Karen  theologi 
cal  seminary,  and  since  1872  a  Baptist  Karen 
college. — The  origin  of  the  Karens  is  unknown. 
Some  suppose  them  to  be  aborigines ;  others, 
immigrants  from  India ;  and  others  again  derive 
them  from  the  north,  which  opinion,  according 
to  Latham,  is  the  most  probable.  The  same 
authority  calls  their  language  Burmese  with 
notable  Singhpo  affinities. 


KARLI 


KARSCII 


760 


KARLI.     See  CARLEE. 

KARLSBAD.     See  CARLSBAD. 

KARLSBIRG.     See  CARLSBURG. 

KARLSKROM.     See  CARLSCRONA. 

KARLSRUIE.     See  CARLSRUIIE. 

KARLSTAD.     See  CARLSTAD. 

KARLSTADT,  &  fortified  town  of  Croatia,  in 
the  county  and  30  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Agram,  on  the  Kulpa,  which  is  here  navigable ; 
pop.  in  1870,  5,175.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
bishop,  and  has  a  castle,  a  Franciscan  mon 
astery,  a  gymnasium,  and  several  Catholic 
churches.  It  was  built  in  1579  by  the  arch 
duke  Charles  of  Austria  as  a  bulwark  against 
the  Turks,  and  has  a  citadel  and  an  extensive 
armory.  It  is  an  important  trading  place,  sev 
eral  fine  roads  and  the  Agram  railway  con 
necting  it  with  the  ports  of  the  Adriatic. 

KARMK.     See  THEBES. 

KASJNES,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  drained  by 
San  Antonio  and  Cibolo  rivers,  and  by  several 
smaller  streams ;  area,  830  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,705,  of  whom  279  were  colored.  It 
has  a  diversified  surface,  in  most  places  undu 
lating,  and  thinly  timbered.  The  soil  is  a  fer 
tile  sandy  loam  or  black  mezquite,  and  is  suita 
ble  for  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  potatoes.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  35,965  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  and  24  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  8,380  horses,  57,599  cattle,  4,255  sheep, 
and  3,163  swine.  Capital,  Helena. 

KARPINSKI,  Franciszek,  a  Polish  poet,  born 
in  the  palatinate  of  Brzesc  Litewski  about  1760, 
died  at  Karpinczyn,  in  the  palatinate  of  Lublin, 
in  September,  1823.  lie  was  conspicuous  in 


the  literary  circles  of  the  Czartoryskis  at  Pu- 
lawy,  and  wrote  various  original  works,  in 
cluding  the  tragedy  Judyta,  and  translations. 
His  fame  rests  chiefiy  on  his  idyls,  and  on 
his  poetical  translation  of  the  Psalms.  His 
u  Works"  (Dziela)  have  been  published  in  War 
saw,  Breslau,  and  Leipsic. 

KARR,  Jean  Baptiste  Alphonse,  a  French  au 
thor,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  24, 1808.  He  studied 
and  taught  in  the  Bourbon  college,  Paris,  af 
terward  attached  himself  to  the  staff  of  tho 
Figaro,  and  in  1832  published  his  first  prose 
work,  Sous  Ics  tilleuls.  This  was  followed  by 
Une  heure  trop  tard  (1833),  Fa  Licze  (1834), 
Vendredi  soir  (1835),  Le  chemin  le  plus  court 
(1836),  &c.,  the  last  two  being  revelations  of 
his  private  history.  His  Voyage  autour  de  mon 
jardin  (1845)  and  La  famille  Alain  (1861) 
have  been  translated  into  English.  Among  his 
other  works  is  La  peche  en  eau  douce  et  en  can 
salee  (1860).  In  1860  a  collection  of  his  com 
plete  works  was  commenced.  In  1839,  while 
he  was  editor  in  chief  of  the  Figaro,  he  estab 
lished  a  monthly  magazine  of  a  satirical  char 
acter  entitled  Les  Guepcs,  the  freedom  of  the 
literary  criticisms  in  which  excited  the  displea 
sure  of  several  of  his  contemporaries,  one  of 
whom,  an  authoress,  in  revenge  made  an  at 
tempt  upon  his  life  in  1844.  He  has  for  many 
years  resided  in  Nice,  devoting  himself  chiefly 
to  horticulture. 

KARS,  a  fortified  city  of  Turkish  Armenia, 
seat  of  a  pasha,  situated  on  a  rugged  plain, 
6,000  to  7,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  Ears,  a 
branch  of  the  Arpatchai,  a  tributary  of  the 


^^^Jtg&£&^' 


Kars. 


Aras  or  Araxes,  100  m.  X.  E.  of  Erzerum  ; 
pop.  12,000,  mostly  Armenians.  It  is  defended 
by  ramparts  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  and  has  a 
strong  citadel,  and  some  works  on  the  hills  N. 
of  the  city.  It  is  a  place  of  transit  for  goods 
and  produce  to  and  from  the  interior  and  east 
ward.  Formerly  it  contained  6,000  houses,  but 
now  has  not  over  half  that  number.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Russian  general  Paskevitch  in 


having  been  strongly  fortified  under  the  direc 
tion  of  English  engineers,  it  was  strenuously 
defended  by  Gen.  Williams  and  Ismail  Pasha 
(the  former  Hungarian  general  Kniety)  against 
the  Russians  under  Muravieff.  An  attempt  to 
capture  it  by  assault  (Sept.  29)  failed  after  a 
bloody  struggle,  but  the  place  finally  surren 
dered  from  famine  at  the  end  of  November. 
KARSCII  (improperly  KARSCHIN),  Anna  Lnise, 


1828,  and  occupied  for  two  years.     In  1855,     a  German  poetess,  born  Dec.  1,  1722,  died  in 


770 


KARSTEX 


KASIIGAR 


Berlin,  Oct.  12,  1791.  She  was  a  servant, 
showed  talent  for  improvisation  which  at 
tracted  notice,  and  her  poverty  was  relieved 
by  the  sale  of  her  select  poems  (1764).  Fred 
erick  William  II.  presented  her  with  a  small 
house  in  Berlin.  She  was  called  the  German 
Sappho.  She  was  divorced  from  her  first  hus 
band,  who  had  ill-treated  her.  By  the  sec 
ond,  Karsch,  an  intemperate  tailor  and  spend 
thrift,  she  had  a  daughter  (K.  L.  von  Klenke, 
died  in  1812),  who  became  known  in  litera 
ture,  as  did  also  her  granddaughter  (died  in 
1856),  the  wife  of  the  French  orientalist  Chezy. 

RARSTEN,  Karl  Johann  Bernhard,  a  German 
mineralogist,  born  at  Biitzow,  Nov.  26,  1782, 
died  near  Berlin,  Aug.  22,  1853.  Like  many 
of  his  relatives,  he  acquired  scientific  promi 
nence.  He  was  for  over  40  years  chief  of  the 
mining  department  in  the  Prussian  ministry 
of  the  interior,  and  published  manuals  and 
other  works  relating  to  mining,  mineralogy, 
and  chemistry. — His  sons  HERMANN  (born  in 
1800)  and  GUSTAV  (born  in  1820)  attained 
high  rank  in  astronomy  and  physics,  and  his 
nephew  HERMANN  the  younger  (born  in  1817) 
as  a  naturalist  and  traveller.  The  latter  gradu 
ated  at  Berlin  in  1843,  explored  South  Amer 
ica  during  13  years,  and  subsequently  became 
professor  of  botany  at  the  Berlin  university. 
Among  his  works  are :  Flora  Columbian  (2 
vols.,  Berlin,  1857-'66) ;  Die  geognostischen 
Verhdltnisse  Neu-Granadas  (Vienna,  1856); 
Gesammclte  Beitrage  zur  Anatomic  und  Physi 
ologic  der  PJlanzen  (Berlin,  1865)  ;  and  Che- 
mismus  der  PJlanzenzelle  (Vienna,  1869). 

KASAN.     See  KAZAN. 

KASBIN.     See  CASEIN. 

KASCHAU  (Hun.  Kassa),  a 
town  of  N.  Hungary,  capital 
of  the  county  of  Abauj,  133 
m.  N.  E.  of  Pesth;   pop.  in 
1870.  21,742,  consisting  of 
Slovaks,  Magyars,  Germans, 
and   Jews.      It   is    situated 
on  the  Hernad,  in  a  beau 
tiful   valley   enclosed    with 
sloping  vineyards.     It  is  the 
seat   of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  is  one  of  the  best 
built  towns  of  Hungary,  has 
important  schools  and  other 
institutions,  and  is  the  chief 
commercial     link     between 
Pesth  and  Debreczin  on  one 
side  and  Cracow  and  Lem- 
berg  on  the  other,  with  all 
of  which   places   it  is  con 
nected  by  railway  lines.     Its 
manufactures   are  unimpor 
tant.     The  cathedral  of  Kaschau,  a  large  struc 
ture  in  old  Gothic,  is  the  finest  building  of  the 
country  in  that  style.     Kaschau  was  surround 
ed  with  walls  in  the  latter  half  of  the  13th 
century,  and  subsequently  played  an  important 
part  in  the  wars  of  Hungary,  especially  during 
the  struggles  of  the  Protestants  against  Aus- 


tria.  In  the  last  war  two  battles  were  fought 
before  the  town  on  Dec.  11.  1848,  and  Jan.  4, 
1849,  in  both  of  which  Gen.  Schlick  defeated 
the  Hungarian  troops,  who  were  mostly  undis 
ciplined  militia. 

KASHAN,  a  city  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 
Irak-Ajemi,  about  90  m.  N.  by  "NV.  of  Ispahan, 
on  the  route  to  Teheran ;  pop.,  according  to 
Mounsey  (1866),  about  15,000.  It  stands  in 
the  midst  of  a  barren  but  stoneless  plain  near 
the  western  extremity  of  the  Great  Salt  desert. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Zobeidah, 
the  favorite  sultana  of  Ilaroun  al-Rashid. 
Mosques  and  public  baths  are  the  chief  build 
ings,  though  none  of  these  are  especially  beau 
tiful  or  noteworthy.  The  principal  manufac 
tures  are  silk  brocades  and  copper  kettles  and 
pans.  The  town  has  an  unpleasant  reputation 
throughout  western  Persia  for  its  scorpions, 
by  which  its  houses  are  everywhere  infested. 
Four  miles  W.  of  Kashan,  at  the  foot  of  some 
mountains  which  here  project  into  the  plain, 
is  a  beautiful  palace  surrounded  by  gardens, 
which  has  been  at  various  times  a  place  of  re 
tirement  for  Persian  officials. 

KASHGAR.  I.  A  province  of  East  Turkis- 
tan,  between  lat.  36°  30'  and  41°  N.,  and  Ion. 
72°  and  77°  30'  E. ;  area,  about  57,000  sq.  m. 
It  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Kizil  Darya  and  its 
tributaries.  This  river  flows  eastward  500  m. 
along  the  southern  slope  of  the  Thian-shan 
range,  into  the  Yarkand  river.  Some  parts  of 
Kashgar  are  very  fertile,  and  produce  large 
crops  of  wheat,  barley,  rice,  cotton,  and  hemp, 
while  cultivated  fruits  are  abundant.  The 


^ 


Kashgar. 

province  was  anciently  included  in  the  great 
Tartar  kingdom  of  central  Asia.  When  that 
was  dismembered,  Kashgar,  together  with  the 
rest  of  East  Turkistan,  came  under  the  govern 
ment  of  a  local  Mohammedan  dynasty,  whence 
sprang  numerous  factions  which  disputed  the 
supremacy  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  centu- 


KASIIGAR 


KATER 


71 


ry,  when  the  Chinese  conquered  the  country. 
It  remained  a  part  of  the  Chinese  empire  108 
years.  About  1863  a  revolt  of  the  Tunganis  or 
Dungenes,  Mohammedan  inhabitants  of  mixed 
Tartar  and  Chinese  descent,  broke  out,  and  was 
followed  by  a  rising  of  the  Kirghiz  Tartars, 
which  in  a  few  years  resulted  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Chinese  and  the  subjection  of  the  prov 
inces  of  Kashgar,  Yarkand,  Khoten,  and  Aksu 
to  Mohammed  Yakub  Beg,  a  military  chief 
from  Khokan,  who  became  sovereign  of  East 
Turkistan.  (See  TUKKISTAX.)  II.  A  city  of 
East  Turkistan,  capital  of  that  country  and 
of  the  province  described  above,  in  lat.  39° 
29'  N.,  Ion.  76°  12'  E.,  about  135  m.  N.  AV.  of 
Yarkand;  pop.  estimated  at  from  60,000  to 
TO, 000,  mostly  Tartars.  It  is  situated  in  an 
angle  between  two  branches  of  the  Kazul  river 
or  Kizil  Darya.  The  northern  branch,  called 
the  Tumaun,  runs  close  to  the  walls,  and  is 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  55  boats ;  the  southern 
branch,  over  which  there  is  a  bridge  of  eight 
boats,  flows  between  Kashgar  and  the  fortress. 
The  latter,  which  is  known  as  the  Yang-shahr, 
and  is  sometimes  called  the  new  city,  is  about 
5  ni.  from  the  old  city.  Its  elevation  above  the 
sea  has  been  variously  stated,  as  low  as  4,165 
ft.  and  as  high  as  5,200  ft.  Kashgar  is  built 
on  a  plain  bounded  N.  and  N.  AV.  by  lofty 
mountains,  connected  with  the  Pamir  plateau, 
while  level  tracts  stretch  far  toward  the  east. 
A  fortified  earthen  wall  of  considerable  height 
and  thickness  surrounds  the  city ;  it  is  pierced 
by  five  gates,  and  overlooked  by  numerous 
towers  about  50  yards  apart.  There  are  said 
to  be  28,000  houses  within  the  enclosure, 
mostly  flat  -  roofed  and  made  of  sun  -  dried 
bricks.  The  people  are  industrious,  peaceful, 
and  intelligent,  and  have  attained  a  compara 
tively  high  degree  of  civilization.  They  are 
Mohammedans.  Kashgar  has  been  notorious 
since  the  days  of  Marco  Polo  for  the  tem 
porary  marriages  which  the  rules  of  Shiah 
Mohammedanism  permitted,  as  perfectly  law 
ful,  between  young  women  of  the  city  and  trav 
ellers,  for  a  month,  a  week,  or  even  a  day. 
This  practice  has,  however,  lately  been  pro 
hibited.  There  are  eight  colleges,  eleven  cara 
vansaries,  and  many  spacious  bazaars.  A  con 
siderable  trade  is  carried  on  in  tea,  chintz, 
cloths,  and  Russian  manufactured  goods.  A 
coarse  gunpowder  is  manufactured.  Fuel  and 
timber  are  very  scarce.  The  climate  is  dry  in 
winter,  and  so  cold  that  the  rivers  freeze  over 
and  snow  falls  frequently.  The  city  was  visit 
ed  by  Marco  Polo,  who  describes  it  under  the 
name  of  Cascar.  The  name  is  written  and  pro 
nounced  Kashkar  by  the  inhabitants. — Among 
the  first  Europeans  to  explore  the  province  in 
modern  times  were  Adolf  Schlagintweit,  who 
was  murdered  there  in  August,  1857,  and  the 
English  travellers  Robert  B.  Shaw  and  George 
AV.  Hay  ward,  who  reached  the  new  city  in 
18(59.  For  accounts  of  these  and  other  recent 
expeditions,  see  "Journal  of  the. Royal  Geo 
graphical  Society,"  vols.  xl.  and  xli.  (Lon 


don,  1870  and  1871),  and  Shaw's  "Visits  to 
High  Tartary,  Yarkand,  and  Kashgar  "  (Lon 
don,  1871). 

KASTNER,  Abraham  Gotthelf,  a  German  mathe 
matician,  born  in  Leipsic,  Sept.  27,  1719,  died 
in  Gottingen,  June  20,  1800.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  professor,  embraced  in  his  studies  almost 
all  branches  of  learning,  and  exerted  a  power 
ful  influence  in  delivering  mathematical  and 
natural  sciences  from  the  bondage  of  antiquated 
text  books.  lie  was  professor  at  Leipsic,  and 
afterward  at  Gottingen.  His  Anfangagrunde 
der  Mathematik  (Q\h  ed.,  1800),  and  his  various 
other  writings,  inaugurated  a  more  enlightened 
era  of  scientific  study  in  Germany.  He  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
celebrated  union  of  Gottingen  poets.  His 
popularity  was  chiefly  due  to  his  Sinngedichte. 
His  colleague,  Heyne,  pronounced  a  eulogium 
on  him  in  1804.  A  portion  of  his  epigram 
matic  poems  were  included  in  his  "Miscel 
laneous  writings"  (2  vols.,  1783). 

RATAHDIN,  or  Ktaadn,  the  highest  mountain 
in  Maine,  situated  in  the  central  part  of  the 
state,  about  80  m.  K.  by  AV.  of  Bangor,  and  6  m. 
N.  E.  of  the  Penobscot  river.  It  is  in  a  region 
difficult  of  access  except  by  birch  canoes,  the 
river  being  the  only  thoroughfare  through  this 
rough  territory,  and  its  course  being  inter 
rupted  by  frequent  shoals  arid  falls.  The 
mountain  is  composed  entirely  of  granite, 
which  stands  in  abrupt  walls,  and  is  exposed 
in  naked  floors  covering  acres  of  surface. 
Down  its  sides  bare  spots  caused  by  slides  of 
rock  extend  from  near  the  summit  almost 
to  the  base.  The  height  of  the  mountain  is 
5,385  ft.  above  the  sea.  L'pon  its  summit 
are  found  only  lichens  and  a  few  dwarfish 
plants ;  and  half  way  down,  the  birch  and 
other  forest  trees  are  but  of  diminutive  size. 
It  is  remarkable  that  over  the  granite  rocks, 
even  to  the  summit,  are  found  bowlders  of 
trap  and  of  other  rocks  not  belonging  to  the 
mountain,  and  among  them  pieces  of  sandstone 
containing  fossil  shells,  such  as  are  met  with  in 
place  many  miles  further  N.  From  the  sum 
mit  in  clear  weather  the  view  extends  over  a 
country  singularly  rough  and  wild,  composed 
of  scattered  mountains  which  rise  in  the  conical 
form  of  granitic  peaks,  and  among  which  are 
interspersed  hundreds  of  lakes,  many  of  large 
size,  and  streams  without  number.  Most  of 
these  are  navigable  by  the  birch  canoe,  and 
are  made  by  temporary  dams  to  drift  down 
the  pine  logs  which  are  cut  by  the  lumber 
men  in  the  winter,  and  hauled  down  upon  the 
ice  in  readiness  to  be  floated  as  this  breaks  up 
in  the  spring. 

RATER,  Henry,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  Bristol,  April  16,  1777,  died  in  Lon 
don,  April  26,  1835.  In  his  youth  he  spent 
some  time  in  a  lawyer's  office,  but  upon  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1794  he  procured  a  com 
mission  in  a  regiment  stationed  in  India,  and 
was  for  some  years  employed  in  the  trigonomet 
rical  survey  of  that  country,  when  he  returned 


772 


KATIF 


KATYDID 


to  England  and  devoted  himself  to  scientific 
pursuits.  He  became  a  captain,  and  retired  on 
half  pay  in  1814.  Among  his  most  important 
discoveries  were  the  determination  of  the  pre 
cise  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum,  the  in 
vestigation  of  the  diminution  of  terrestrial 
gravity  from  the  pole  to  the  equator,  and  his 
employment  of  the  pendulum  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  the  minute  variations  of  the  force 
of  gravity  in  different  parts  of  a  country 
whose  substrata  consist  of  materials  having 
different  degrees  of  density.  In  the  "  Philo 
sophical  Transactions"  of  1825-'8  appeared  de 
scriptions  of  his  "  floating  collirnator,"  an  in 
strument  of  great  importance  to  trigonometers, 
employed  to  determine  the  position  of  the  line 
of  collimation  in  the  telescope  attached  to  an 
astronomical  circle.  He  also  made  some  inge 
nious  experiments  on  the  relative  merits  of  the 
Oassegrain  and  Gregory  telescopes.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  "  Treatise 
on  Mechanics  "  in  Dr.  Lardner's  "  Cabinet  Cy 
clopaedia,"  and  published  "An  Account  of  the 
Construction  and  Verification  of  certain  Stand 
ards  of  Linear  Measure  for  the  Russian  Gov 
ernment "  (4to,  London,  1832). 

KATIF,  a  seaport  town  of  Arabia,  in  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  the  sultanate 
of  Xedjed,  on  the  Persian  gulf,  lat.  26°  25'  N., 
Ion.  50°  10'  E. ;  pop.  about  6,000.  The  town 
stands  at  the  AV.  extremity  of  a  bay  formed  by 
two  long  promontories,  at  the  extremity  of 
each  of  which  is  a  fortress.  Between  these 
points,  where  the  bay  is  20  m.  wide,  lies  the 
island  of  Tarut,  which  is  well  watered  and 
covered  with  date  palms.  The  castle  of  Katif 
stands  on  the  curve  of  a  little  inner  bay. 
The  town  is  crowded,  damp,  dirty,  and  un 
healthy.  It  has  a  weekly  market,  well  sup 
plied.  Katif  has  now  but  little  trade,  the  isl 
and  of  Bahrein,  about  30  m.  S.  E.  of  it,  having 
absorbed  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  coast. 

KATKOFF,  Mikhail  Nikiforovitch,  a  Russian 
publicist,  born  in  Moscow  in  1820.  He  stud 
ied  in  Moscow,  Konigsberg,  and  Berlin,  and 
was  for  a  short  time  professor  of  philosophy, 
and  subsequently  became  the  most  influential 
journalist  in  Russia,  especially  since  1861  in 
connection  with  the  Mo*liov*kiya  Viedomosti 
("Moscow  Gazette").  His  wife  is  a  member 
of  a  princely  family. 

KATMANDU,  or  Catmandoo,  a  town  of  India, 
capital  of  Nepaul,  150  m.  1ST.  of  Patna;  pop. 
estimated  at  from  20,000  to  50,000.  It  is 
situated  in  a  large  plain,  and  surrounded  by 
ranges  of  the  Himalaya  mountains.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  rajah,  and  is  a  place  of  con 
siderable  importance,  with  many  temples  and 
good  houses,  and  a  fine  square  containing  a 
royal  palace  and  Chinese  pagoda.  A  consider 
able  trade  is  carried  on  with  Thibet  and  the 


Ganges.     The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Newars, 
the  vicinity  reside  the  Parbutiyas  in 
straggling  villages. 


and   in 


KATRINE,  Loch,  a  lake  of  Perthshire,  Scot 
land,  0^-m.  from  Callander.     It  is  of  serpentine 


form,  about  10  m.  in  length,  and  in  some  places 
nearly  2  m.  in  breadth,  and  is  surrounded  with 
lofty  mountains  and  rocky  ravines,  displaying 
scenery  of  much  grandeur  and  beauty.  From  its 
E.  extremity  flows  a  stream,  which,  after  pass 
ing  through  the  rugged  defile  of  the  Trosachs, 
widens  into  the  two  minor  lakes  of  Achray 
and  Vennachar,  and  becomes  the  river  Teith, 
a  tributary  of  the  Forth.  This  lake  was  for 
merly  a  favorite  resort  of  robbers,  or  cater ans, 
and  at  a  little  distance  from  its  shore  is  a 
small  island  called  Eilan  Varnoch,  whither  the 
freebooters  used  to  bring  their  plunder,  and 
which  is  the  famous  "  Ellen's  isle  "  of  Scott's 
"  Lady  of  the  Lake."  From  this  lake  the  city 
of  Glasgow  is  supplied  with  water,  which  is 
carried  26  m.  in  pipes  over  a  rugged  and  moun- 
Jainous  district,  with  70  tunnels  aggregating  13 
m.  in  length,  several  aqueduct  bridges  in  the 
form  of  iron  troughs,  and  siphon  pipes  across 
wide  and  deep  valleys.  The  works  were  com 
pleted  in  1859,  at  a  cost  of  £1,500,000,  and  can 
supply  50,000,000  gallons  daily. 

KATYDID  (crytophyllus  concavus,  Scudd.),  an 
American  grasshopper,  named  from  the  sound 
of  its  note.  It  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
long,  the  body  being  an  inch,  pale  green,  with 
darker  wings  and  wing  covers ;  the  thorax  is 
roughened,  and  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  sad 
dle  ;  the  wing  covers  are  longer  than-the  wings, 
and  enclose  the  body  in  their  concavity, 
meeting  above  and  below  like  the  valves  of  a 
pea  pod.  This  "  testy  little  dogmatist,"  ren 
dered  familiar  by  the  verses  of  Holmes,  is  one 
of  the  loudest  and  most  persevering  of  our 
native  musicians ;  silent  and  concealed  among 
the  leaves  during  the  day,  at  night  it  mounts 
to  the  highest  branches  of  the  trees,  where  the 
male  commences  his  sonorous  call  to  the  noise 
less  females.  The  sound  is  produced  by  the 
friction  of  the  taborets  in  the  triangular  over 
lapping  portion  of  each  wing  cover  against 


Katydid  (Crytophyllus)  concavus). 

each  other,  and  is  strengthened  by  the  escape 
of  air  from  the  sacs  of  the  body,  reverberating 
so  loudly  as  to  be  heard  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
a  still  night.  These  insects  are  now  com 
paratively  rare  in  the  Atlantic  states,  but  in 
some  parts  of  the  west  their  incessant  noise 


KATZBACII 


KAUFMAKN" 


773 


is  almost  insupportable  to  those  unaccustomed  [ 
to  it.  The  perfect  insect  lays  her  eggs  in  Sep 
tember  and  October,  depositing  them  in  two 
contiguous  rows  along  the  surface  of  a  twig 
previously  prepared  by  her  curved  piercer ; 
they  resemble  tiny  bivalve  shells,  of  a  slate 
color,  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and 
are  eight  or  nine  in  each  row ;  the  young 
escape  through  a  cleft  in  one  end  ;  the  eggs  are 
sometimes  placed  in  nests  in  the  earth,  where 
they  remain  till  spring ;  they  are  eaten  by 
beetles,  earwigs,  crickets,  ants,  &c.  The  young 
are  said  to  be  injurious  to  roots  of  grasses  and 
grains;  the  adults  eat  the  interior  of  flower 
buds  and  the  germs  of  fruit.  Though  found 
on  almost  all  trees,  the  balsam  poplar  is  a 
special  favorite.  They  are  called  grasshopper 
birds  by  the  Indians,  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
roasting  and  grinding  them  into  a  flour,  from 
which  they  make  cakes,  considered  by  them 
as  delicacies.  The  katydid  is  interesting  in 
captivity,  and  will  live  thus,  if  fed  on  fruit, 
for  several  weeks;  like  other  grasshoppers, 
after  the  warm  season  they  rapidly  become 
old,  the  voice  ceases,  and  all  soon  perish. 

RATZBACH,  a  small  river  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
which  joins  the  Oder  on  its  left  bank,  29  in. 
N.  TV.  of  Breslau,  after  a  course  of  35  m.  It 
is  noted  for  a  victory  of  the  Prussians  and  Rus 
sians  under  Bliicher  over  the  French  command 
ed  by  Macdonald,  achieved  on  its  banks  near 
Liegnitz,  Aug.  26,  1813. 

RAUAI,  the  principal  N".  TV.  island  of  the 
Hawaiian  group,  in  lat,  22°  N.,  Ion.  159°  30' 
TV. ;  area,  527  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  4,901.  It 
is  irregularly  circular,  about  28  m.  in.  diameter, 
and  mountainous.  TVaialeale,  the  highest  peak 
(about  6,000  ft.),  is  a  little  E.  of  the  centre. 
TVest  of  this  summit  is  a  table  land  of  nearly 
40  sq.  m.  and  about  3,000  ft.  high;  it  termi 
nates  in  a  steep  precipice  on  the  coast.  At 
other  parts  of  the  island  the  shore  is  generally 
a  sandy  beach  interrupted  by  basaltic  cliffs  from 
10  to  IoO  ft.  high.  The  rock  of  the  mountain 
is  a  compact  ferruginous  basalt.  The  shore 
ridges  contain  less  iron  and  are  more  cellular ; 
they  vary  in  their  structure  from  a  compact 
phonolite  to  a  heavy  basaH.  Crystals  of  quartz 
and  iron  pyrites  are  found  in  various  parts. 
On  the  TV.  coast  is  a  steep  sand  bank  about  60 
ft,  high,  known  as  the  "barking  sands,"  formed 
bTr  the  action  of  the  wind,  and  constantly  ad 
vancing  on  the  land.  Visitors  slide  their  horses 
down  the  face  of  the  bank,  when  a  noise  as  of 
subterranean  thunder  is  heard.  The  valleys 
are  deep  and  numerous,  and  every  ravine  is  a 
watercourse.  Kauai  has  a  larger  proportion 
of  arable  land  than  any  other  of  the  Hawaiian 
islands,  its  lowlands  being  mostly  on  the  wind 
ward  or  rainy  side.  In  the  valleys  the  soil  is 
sometimes  10  ft.  deep.  Ilanalei,  on  the  N. 
side,  is  reputed  to  have  a  larger  rainfall  than 
any  other  place  in  the  group.  The  leeward  or 
S.  TV.  districts  are  comparatively  dry  and  bar 
ren.  The  largest  river,  the  Ilanalei,  empties 
into  a  tolerable  harbor  of  the  same  name ;  Ko- 


loa  (the  principal  town)  and  Nawiliwili  have 
also  good  anchorage.  Kauai  is  regarded,  on 
account  of  the  greater  decomposition  of  its 
lavas,  the  degradation  of  its  ridges,  and  the  ab 
sence  of  recent  volcanic  products,  as  the  oldest 
member  of  the  Hawaiian  group.  The  whole 
island,  however,  bears  dear  traces  of  its  vol 
canic  origin.  In  most  parts  the  scenery  is  of 
extreme  beauty.  The  chief  product  of  Kauai 
is  sugar;  the  raising  of  cattle  is  also  a  con 
siderable  business,  hides,  tallow,  and  wool 
being  exported.  Breadfruits,  kalo,  bananas, 
cocoanuts,  oranges,  and  other  tropical  fruits 
grow  abundantly.  The  native  population  of 
the  island  is  decreasing. 

RAIFFMANN,  Maria  Angelica,  a  Swiss  painter, 
born  in  Coire,  Oct.  30,  1741,  died  in  Rome, 
Nov.  5,  1807.  At  the  age  of  15  she  was  ta 
ken  to  Milan  and  put  under  the  best  masters 
in  music  and  painting,  and  in  1763  she  accom 
panied  her  father  to  Rome.  TVinckelmann, 
whose  portrait  she  painted,  in  a  letter  written 
in  1764,  speaks  in  the  warmest  terms  of  her 
many  accomplishments,  and  of  her  intimate 
acquaintance  with  modern  languages.  TVhile 
in  Rome  she  painted  many  portraits  of  distin 
guished  people.  In  1705  she  accompanied 
Lady  TVentworth  to  England,  where  she  was 
received  with  every  mark  of  attention.  Upon 
the  establishment  of  the  royal  academy  she 
was  chosen  one  of  the  36  original  members. 
In  1781  she  married  Signer  Antonio  Zucchi,  an 
artist,  and  the  following  year  returned  to  Rome, 
where  she  passed  the  rest  of  her  life.  Some 
years  previous  to  this  she  had  been  betrayed 
into  marriage  with  an  impostor  who  assumed 
the  title  of  Count  Horn,  from  whom  she  pro 
cured  a  divorce.  Many  of  her  works  were  en 
graved  by  Bartolozzi.  She  retained  her  maid 
en  name  until  her  death. 

KAITMAN,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded 
S.  TV.  by  Trinity  river,  and  drained  by  the  E. 
fork  of  that  stream  ;  area,  950  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  6,895,  of  whom  838  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  mostly  undulating,  and  the  S.  E.  part 
is  well  timbered,  while  the  N.  TV.  is  occupied 
by  prairies.  The  soil  is  generally  good.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  179,658  bush 
els  of  Indian  corn,  11,700  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  1,910  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  2,005 
horses,  25,643  cattle,  2,448  sheep,  and  8,406 
swine.  Capital,  Kaufman. 

RAIFMAM,  Constants  Petrovitrh,  a  Russian 
general,  born  in  the  Baltic  provinces  about 
1817.  He  is  of  humble  origin,  but  early  ac 
quired  distinction  as  a  military  engineer,  and 
served  for  some  time  as  chief  of  staff  in  the 
Caucasus.  At  a  later  period  he  held  a  post  in 
the  ministry  of  war,  and  cooperated  in  the 
thorough  reform  of  the  army.  In  1864  he  wr.s 
appointed  governor  general  of  the  military  di 
vision  of  TVilna,  including  Lithuania,  Livonia, 
and  Courland;  and  in  1S07  of  the  newly  es 
tablished  division  of  Turkistan,  which  post  he 
<  continued  to  hold  in  1874  with  the  rank  of 
,  lieutenant  general.  The  progress  of  Russia  in 


774 


KAUFMANN 


KAULBACII 


central  Asia  is  mainly  due  to  his  efforts.  In 
1X73  he  conducted  the  successful  campaign  in 
Khiva,  which  virtually  placed  that  territory 
under  Russian  control  hy  the  treaty  of  peace 
which  lie  slimed  with  the  khan  on  Aug.  25. 

KAIFJIAXN,  Theodor,  an  American  painter, 
horn  at  Uelsen,  Hanover,  Dec.  18,  1814.  He 
served  for  several  years  as  a  mercantile  appren 
tice,  and  studied  painting  in  Hamburg,  and 
under  Hess  in  Munich.  Implicated  in  the  rev 
olutionary  movement  of  1847-'9,  he  left  Ger 
many,  and  in  1850  settled  in  the  United  States, 
lie  served  in  the  army  during  the  civil  war, 
and  afterward  resided  in  Boston.  His  works 
include  "General  Sherman  near  the  Watch- 
lire,"  "On  to  Liberty,"  and  "A  Pacific  Rail 
way  Train  attacked  by  Indians."  His  "  Ameri 
can  Painting  Book  "  was  published  at  Boston 
in  1871. 

KAl'LBACH,  Willielm  von,  a  German  painter, 
born  in  Arolsen,  Oct.  15,  1805,  died  in  Munich, 
April  7,  1874.  His  mother  was  a  superior 
woman,  and  his  father  was  a  skilful  goldsmith 
and  engraver.  But  the  family  was  so  poor 
that  he  and  his  sister  were  glad  to  accept  even 
stale  bread  from  the  peasantry  in  exchange  for 
the  father's  engravings ;  and  this  is  said  to  have 
suggested  to  him  his  earliest  work,  "  The  Fall 
of  Manna  in  the  Wilderness."  The  sculptor 
Ranch  procured  his  admission  to  the  academy 
of  Diisseldorf.  He  became  the  most  distin 
guished  pupil  of  Cornelius,  and  in  1825  follow 
ed  him  to  Munich,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life,  the  last  25  years  as  director  of  the 
academy.  Under  the  direction  of  Cornelius  he 
designed  (1825-'8)  many  frescoes  for  the  new 
buildings  at  Munich,  including  "  Apollo  and  the 
Muses,"  for  the  ceiling  of  the  Odeon;  designs 
from  Klopstock's  "  Battle  of  Hermann,"  and 
from  Goethe's  and  Wieland's  poems,  for  the 
royal  palace;  purely  classical  illustrations  of 
the  story  of  Amor  and  Psyche,  for  the  palace  of 
Duke  Max ;  and  many  allegorical  figures  for  the 
arcades  of  the  palace  garden.  These  works 
established  his  reputation  as  the  most  admira 
ble  exponent  of  the  idealistic  school,  while  his 
"Lunatic  Asylum,"  commenced  at  Diisseldorf, 
where  he  had  taken  a  morbid  delight  in  watch 
ing  the  insane,  made  him  famous  as  an  equally 
great  master  of  realism.  His  next  great  work, 
the  "  Battle  of  the  Huns,"  or  "  Spectre  Battle," 
representing  the  legend  of  the  continued  com 
bat  in  rnid-air  between  the  spirits  of  the  Huns 
and  of  Romans  who  had  fallen  before  the  walls 
of  Rome,  exhibited  on  the  largest  scale  his  ge 
nius  for  the  symbolical  and  allegorical.  Count 
Raczynski  commissioned  him  to  paint  the  work 
in  sepia,  and  he  finished  it  in  1837.  The  king 
of  Saxony  now  offered  him  the  direction  of 
the  academy  of  Dresden,  with  a  salary  of  2,000 
thalers;  but  Kaulbach  preferred  to  remain  in 
Munich,  although  he  received  only  800  fiorins 
from  the  king  of  Bavaria.  In  i83H  he  fin 
ished  his  masterpiece,  the  "Destruction  of  Je 
rusalem  by  Titus,"  a  colossal  cartoon  giving  the 
fullest  scope  to  his  imaginative  power  and  to 


his  wonderful  capacity  for  idealizing  history. 
It  illustrates  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies 
by  the  Roman  eagle  on  the  high  altar  of  the 
temple,  and  by  woe-stricken  women  and  dis 
tracted  priests  committing  suicide ;  the  tri 
umph  of  Christianity  by  angels  who  rescue 
the  faithful  from  the  scene  of  terror ;  and  the 
punishment  inflicted  upon  unbelievers  by  the 
wandering  Jew  pursued  by  demons.  Having 
hitherto  worked  almost  exclusively  in  fresco, 
he  spent  some  time  in  Venice  and  a  year  in 
Rome  to  prepare  himself  for  painting  the  car 
toon  in  oil  for  the  new  Pinakothek,  completing 
it  in  1846.  About  the  same  time  he  com 
menced  his  famous  designs  illustrative  of  the 
history  of  mankind  for  the  new  museum  at 
Berlin,  which  were  executed  by  his  pupils  and 
completed  in  1860.  They  consist  of  six  fres 
coes,  representing  the  "Tower  of  Babel," 
"Homer  and  the  Greeks,"  the  "Destruction 
of  Jerusalem,"  the  "  Battle  of  the  Huns,"  the 
"  Crusaders  at  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,"  and  the 
"  Age  of  the  Reformation."  Allegorical  pic 
tures  of  the  progress  of  the  various  nations  and 
figures  of  sages  and  heroes  fill  the  surrounding 
compartments,  and  an  extensive  frieze  running 
round  the  whole,  with  countless  lovely  boys, 
symbolizes  in  their  childish  sports  the  varied 
incidents  of  humanity  since  the  dawn  of  time. 
A  complete  set  of  engravings  of  these  frescoes, 
chiefly  by  Eichens,  was  published  in  1874.  To 
the  same  period  belong  his  cartoons  in  the  new 
Pinakothek  of  Munich,  showing  the  progress 
of  art  during  the  present  century,  for  which  he 
incurred  the  censure  of  several  artists,  especial 
ly  Schnorr,  on  account  of  its  satirical  tendency. 
His  overflowing  humor  and  sarcasm  appear  in 
many  of  his  other  works,  especially  in  his  de 
signs  for  Reineke  Fuclis,  in  which  he  also  proves 
himself  to  be  an  excellent  painter  of  animals. 
But  the  grotesque,  though  not  unsuitable  to 
this  subject,  was  often  mixed  up  with  the  sub 
lime  in  his  productions ;  and  for  this  he  was 
much  blamed  by  rigid  purists,  while  others 
compare  his  irrepressible  disposition  to  present 
a  comprehensive  view  of  all  the  various  phases 
of  human  character  to  the  similar  tendency  in 
Shakespeare.  His  designs  to  Shakespeare  in 
dicate  his  sympathy  with  his  genius,  and  his 
careful  study  of  Hogarth  is  also  attested  in 
these  illustrations,  and  in  many  others,  inclu 
ding  Favst  and  Schiller's  Verbrecher  cms  rer- 
lorener  Ehrc.  Among  his  other  works,  besides 
many  portraits,  are  the  "  Assassination  of  Cee- 
sar,"  the  "Battle  of  Salamis,"  for  the  Maxi- 
milianeum  at  Munich,  and  the  "  Opening  of  the 
Tomb  of  Charlemagne  by  Otho  the  Great," 
Avhich  he  presented  to  the  Germanic  museum 
at  Nuremberg.  His  paintings  in  private  Amer 
ican  galleries  include  a  "  Caritas,"  in  possession 
of  the  Longworth  family  in  Cincinnati,  and  the 
"  Meeting  of  Queen  Elizabeth  with  Mary  Stu 
art,"  in  that  of  Mr.  George  C.  Wetmore  of 
New  York.  His  fervent  Protestantism,  which 
alienated  him  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  from 
Cornelius,  who  was  as  decided  a  Catholic,  is 


KAUNITZ 


KAYE 


775 


most  strongly  expressed  in  his  "  Don  Pedro 
de  Arbuez,  the  Inquisitor,"  which,  appearing  at 
the  time  of  the  oecumenical  council  (1869-'TO), 
produced  a  great  sensation,  and  gave  rise  to 
many  controversies.  Shortly  before  his  death 
he  was  at  work  upon  a  large  cartoon  of  "  The 
Deluge ;"  and  he  had  finished  his  "  St.  Michael, 
the  Patron  Saint  of  Germany,"  in  the  garb  of  a 
heavenly  messenger  with  a  radiant  air  of  tri 
umph,  and  with  Napoleon  III.  and  his  son  and 
several  Jesuits  cowering  at  his  feet.  This 
work  has  been  characterized  as  a  grand  memo 
rial  of  his  nation's  and  of  his  own  greatness. 
His  death  was  mourned  as  a  national  calamity, 
and  measures  have  been  taken  for  the  erec 
tion  of  a  monument  in  his  honor. — His  cousin 
FRIEDKICII  excels  as  a  portrait  painter  ;  and  he 
has  also  painted  "Adam  and  Eve  finding  the 
Corpse  of  Abel,"  the  "  Coronation  of  Charle 
magne,"  u  Mozart  performing  his  Requiem 
shortly  before  his  Death,"  and  other  historical 
pictures. 

KAUNITZ,  Wcnzel  Anton,  prince,  count  of  Riet- 
berg,  an  Austrian  statesman,  born  in  Vienna 
in  1711,  died  June  27,  1794.  One  of  19  chil 
dren,  he  was  destined  for  the  church ;  but  after 
the  death  of  some  of  his  'elder  brothers,  he 
chose  a  secular  career,  studying  at  Vienna, 
Leipsic,  and  Leyden.  He  became  a  chamber 
lain  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  travelled  for 
some  years  in  Germany,  Italy,  France,  and 
England,  and  in  1735  was  appointed  aulic  coun 
cillor  of  the  empire.  By  marriage  he  became 
the  proprietor  of  the  county  of  Rietberg.  His 
influence  rose  under  the  daughter  and  succes 
sor  of  Charles,  Maria  Theresa,  when,  after  va 
rious  and  successful  diplomatic  missions  to 
Rome,  Turin,  and  Brussels,  and  a  short  admin 
istration  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  till  their 
occupation  by  the  French  in  1746,  he  signed 
for  Austria  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748).  Shortly  after  he  became  minister  of 
state,  but  soon  left  this  post,  being  sent  as 
ambassador  to  France,  where  he  secured  the 
influence  of  Mme.  de  Pompadour  for  an  alli 
ance  with  Maria  Theresa.  This  was  effected 
in  1750,  and  the  seven  years'  war  began,  after 
the  conclusion  of  which  Kaunitz,  who  in  1753 
had  been  appointed  chancellor,  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  prince  of  the  empire.  He  ac 
companied  Joseph  II.  to  the  interview  at  Neu- 
stadt  in  Moravia  with  Frederick  the  Great,  I 
when  the  two  monarchs  concerted  the  scheme  j 
of  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  but  against  the 
opinion  of  the  minister.  Frederick  speaks  dis 
paragingly  of  him  in  his  memoirs;  and  Joseph, 
Avhom  he  served  without  success  in  his  schemes 
for  the  annexation  of  Bavaria,  gradually  with 
drew  his  favor  from  the  old  statesman  during 
his  actual  reign  (1780-'90).  Kaunitz  gained 
new  influence  during  the  short  reign  of  Leo 
pold  II.,  but  after  the  accession  of  his  son  Fran 
cis  (1792)  he  resigned  his  offices.  A  taciturn  i 
and  scheming  diplomatist,  Kaunitz  was  cere-  I 
moniously  grave  with  his  equals,  fond  of  the  i 
French  language,  literature,  and  fashions,  and  j 


with  much  frivolity,  vanity,  and  self-love  united 
probity,  affability  toward  inferiors,  and  fidelity 
to  the  interests  of  the  empire. 

KAVANAtiH,  Julia,  a  British  authoress,  born 
in  Thurles,  Ireland,  in  1824.  At  an  early  age 
she  accompanied  her  parents  to  France,  where 
she  was  educated.  In  1844  she  took  up  her 
residence  in  London.  She  published  in  1847 
a  tale  for  children  entitled  "  The  Three  Paths." 
This  was  followed  by  "Madeleine"  (1848), 
a  story  of  peasant  life  in  France,  and  in  1850 
by  a  series  of  historical  sketches,  "  Woman  in 
France  in  the  18th  Century."  In  1851  ap 
peared  "Nathalie,"  a  novel,  in  which  the 
scene  is  also  laid  in  France.  Among  her  other 
works  are :  "  Women  of  Christianity  exem 
plary  for  Piety"  (1852),  "Daisy  Burns"  (1853), 
"Grace  Lee"  (1854)  "Rachel  Gray"  (1855), 
"The  Hobbies"  (1857),  "Adele"  (1858), 
"French  Women  of  Letters"  (1801),  "Eng 
lish  Women  of  Letters"  (1802),  "  Queen  Mab  " 
(1803),  "Sibyl's  Second  Love"  (1867),  and 
"Sylvia"  (1870). 

KAVANAl'GH,  Hubbard  Hinde,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  Clark  co.,  Ky.,  Jan.  14,  1802. 
At  the  age  of  15  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  print 
er,  was  licensed  as  a  local  preacher  of  the 
Methodist  church  in  1822,  and  printed  a  sec 
ular  journal  at  Augusta,  Ky.  lie  joined  the 
Kentucky  annual  conference  in  1823,  and  was 
employed  on  very  extensive  and  laborious  cir 
cuits,  riding  on  horseback  200  miles,  and 
preaching  at  25  regular  appointments,  every 
28  days.  After  five  years  given  to  this  circuit 
service,  he  was  engaged  from  1828  to  1848  in 
the  pastorate,  in  the  superintending  of  public 
instruction,  and  in  college  agencies.  In  1854, 
at  the  general  conference  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  south,  he  was  elected  bishop, 
which  office  he  continued  to  hold  in  1874. 

KAYE,  John,  an  English  bishop,  born  in  Ham 
mersmith,  London,  in  17^3,  died  in  Lincoln, 
Feb.  19,  1853.  He  graduated  at  Christ's  col 
lege,  Cambridge,  in  1804,  was  elected  master 
of  the  college  in  1814,  and  in  1815  was  made 
D.  I),  by  royal  mandate.  In  1816  he  became 
regius  professor  of  divinity.  He  was  made 
bishop  of  Bristol  in  1820,  and  was  translated 
to  Lincoln  in  1827.  His  writings  include  "Ec 
clesiastical  History  of  the  Second  and  Third 
Centuries  illustrated  from  the  Writings  of  Ter- 
tullian"  (1826);  "Some  Account  of  the  Wri 
tings  and  Opinions  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  " 
(1835) ;  "  Some  Account  of  the  Writings  and 
Opinions  of  Justin  Martyr"  (1830;  3d  ed., 
1853) ;  and  "  Account  of  the  Government  of  the 
Church  during  the  First  Three  Centuries" 
(1855).  He  also  published  anonymously  "Re 
marks  on  Dr.  Wiseman's  Lectures,"  and  "  Re 
ply  to  the  Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman." 

KAYE,  Sir  John  William,  an  English  author, 
born  in  1814.  After  serving  for  some  time  as 
lieutenant  in  the  army  in  India,  he  returned  to 
England  in  1845,  and  devoted  himself  to  lit 
erature.  In  1H56  he  entered  the  home  civil  ser 
vice  of  the  East  India  company,  and  upon  the 


776 


KAZAN 


KAZINCZY 


transfer  to  the  crown  of  the  government  of  In 
dia,  he  was  made  secretary  to  the  political  and 
secret  department  of  the  India  office.  He  was 
knighted  in  1871.  lie  has  written  "History 
of  the  War  in  Afghanistan"  (4  vols.,  1851 -'3; 
new  ed.,  1874);  "History  of  the  Administra 
tion  of  the  East  India  Company"  (1853); 
"  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Lord  Metcalfe  " 
(1854) ;  "  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Sir  John 
Malcolm"  (1856);  "Christianity  in  India" 
(1859) ;  "  History  of  the  Sepoy  War  "  (2  vols., 
1860-71);  and  "Essays  of  an  Optimist"  (1870). 
KAZAX,  or  Kasan.  I.  An  E.  government  of 
European  Russia,  bordering  on  Viatka,  Ufa, 
Simbirsk,  and  Nizhegorod;  area,  23,727  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1867,  1,670,337.  The  surface  is  gen 
erally  flat,  but  in  parts  undulating  and  hilly, 
the  S.  portion  being  traversed  by  inconsider 
able  branches  of  the  Ural  mountains.  The 


principal  rivers  are  the  Volga  and  its  affluent 
the  Kama.  The  forests  are  very  extensive, 
covering  nearly  half  the  surface.  The  woods 
abound  in  bears,  wolves,  and  feathered  game. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  yields  large  crops  of 
grain,  hemp,  flax,  &c.,  but  is  not  generally  well 
cultivated.  The  fisheries  are  productive,  and 
there  are  numerous  distilleries,  tanneries,  weav 
ing  and  spinning  establishments,  &c.  The  Rus 
sians  form  nearly^one  half  of  the  population ; 
the  Tartars  number  about  300,000  ;  the  rest  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Tchuvashes  of  Finnish  ori 
gin,  Tcheremisses,  &c.  Kazan,  with  the  neigh 
boring  governments  of  Pensa,  Simbirsk,  Viat 
ka,  and  Perm,  formerly  constituted  part  of  the 
so-called  Golden  Horde,  or  the  Kiptchak  khan 
ate,  the  country  having  successively  been  oc 
cupied  by  Finns,  Bulgarians,  and  Tartars.  The 
khanate  was  for  centuries  the  terror  of  Russia, 


= 

-M 


Jiff'" 


Senriozernoi  Convent,  Kazan. 


and  resisted  that  power  until  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Czar 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  and  annexed  as  a  kingdom  to 
Russia.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  government 
and  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  situated  on 
the  Kazanka,  about  3  m.  above  its  confluence 
with  the  Volga,  430  m.  E.  of  Moscow ;  pop.  in 
18(17,  78,602,  about  one  fourth  of  whom  were 
Mohammedans.  It  consists  of  the  fortified 
town  (Kreml)  and  the  town  proper.  It  con 
tains  over  30  churches,  9  convents,  and  16 
mosques,  and  is  renowned  for  its  numerous 
educational  and  literary  institutions,  including 
a  university,  opened  in  1814,  which  has  a  spe 
cial  importance  from  the  attention  given  in  it 
to  the  study  of  living  Asiatic  languages.  It 
possesses  many  important  manufactories  of 
cloth,  woollen,  leather,  soap,  and  iron,  and  an 
extensive  trade,  being  the  great  emporium  of 


the  commerce  between  Russia  and  Siberia. 
Near  Kazan  is  the  Semiozernoi  convent,  with 
a  miracle-working  madonna,  the  patroness  of 
the  city,  which  is  annually  in  July  brought  in 
procession  to  the  city  and  exhibited  in  the 
Kreml.  Kazan  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1815 
and  again  in  1842,  but  it  has  risen  from  its  ash 
es  more  prosperous  and  better  built  than  ever. 
KAZINCZY,  Ferenc/,  a  Hungarian  author,  born 
in  the  county  of  Bihar,  Oct.  27,  1759,  died  in 
that  of  Zemplen,  Aug.  22,  1831.  He  pursued 
his  classical  studies  from  1769  to  1779  at  the 
college  of  Patak,  and  subsequently  studied  law 
at  Kaschau.  On  the  recommendation  of  Count 
Torok  he  was  made  inspector  of  schools,  but 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  literature,  and  es 
pecially  to  the  restoration  of  the  Magyar  lan 
guage  in  its  purity,  and  the  development  of  all 
its  literary  capabilities.  With  Szabo  and  Ba- 


KEAN 


777 


csanyi  he  edited  the  "  Magyar  Museum,"  and 
subsequently  alone  the  "  Orpheus,"  both  liter 
ary  magazines  published  at  Kasehau.  Having 
become  implicated  in  the  democratic  conspiracy 
of  the  abbot  Martinovics,  he  was  suddenly  ar 
rested  at  the  house  of  his  mother  in  Lower 
Regmecz,  on  Dec.  14,  1794,  carried  to  Buda, 
tried,  and  condemned  to  death ;  his  sentence 
was  commuted  to  imprisonment,  lie  was  kept 
in  the  dungeons  of  Buda,  Brunn,  Kufstein,  and 
Munkacs,  and  released  in  1801.  He  married 
the  daughter  of  his  former  protector,  Count 
Torok,  and  retired  to  a  country  residence  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Satoralja-Ujhely,  which 
he  named  Szephalom  (Fairhill),  and  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  continuing  to 
labor  for  the  literary  progress  of  his  country. 
His  works,  which  have  twice  been  collected 
(Pesth,  1814,  1836),  contain  original  epistles, 
epigrams,  sketches  of  travel,  a  tragedy,  &c., 
besides  translations  from  Goethe,  Lessing,  La 
Rochefoucauld,  Sterne,  and  others.  He  also 
edited  the  works  of  Zrinyi  the  poet,  Baroczi, 
Dajka,  and  Kis,  and  a  volume  of  u  Hungarian 
Antiquities  and  Rarities"  on  grammatical  sub 
jects.  In  1859  the  centennial  birthday  of  Ka- 
zinczy  was  celebrated  throughout  Hungary. 

KEAX.  I.  Edmund,  an  English  actor,  born  in 
London,  March  17,  1787  (according  to  the  sug 
gestion  of  his  biographer  Mr.  Procter,  although 
other  accounts  make  the  year  1789  or  1790), 
died  in  Richmond,  May  15,  1833.  His  father 
was  a  stage  carpenter,  and  his  mother,  whose 
name  he  retained  during  his  childhood,  was 
Miss  Ann  Carey,  by  profession  an  actress,  and 
a  descendant  of  Henry  Carey  the  poet.  At 
t\vo  years  of  age  he  was  taken  in  charge  by  a 
Miss  Tidswell,  who  put  him  to  school  in  Lon 
don.  A  few  years  later  his  mother,  who  occa 
sionally  followed  the  business  of  an  itinerant 
vender  of  perfumery,  took  him  with  her  in  her 
peregrinations,  and  brought  him  under  the  no 
tice  of  a  Mrs.  Clarke.  He  had,  almost  as  soon 
as  he  could  walk,  appeared  at  Drury  Lane 
theatre  as  Cupid  in  the  opera  of  "Cymon," 
and  had  subsequently  taken  children's  parts  on 
the  stage.  He  made  so  favorable  an  impression 
upon  Mrs.  Clarke,  that  he  remained  for  two 
years  under  her  protection,  and  received  in 
struction  in  dancing,  fencing,  and  various  other 
accomplishments.  When  about  12  years  of  age 
lie  enrolled  himself  in  a  strolling  troop  of  which 
his  mother  was  a  member,  and  on  one  occasion 
at  Windsor  recited  in  the  presence  of  George  I II. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  century  to  the  pe 
riod  of  his  first  appearance  in  London  in  1814, 
he  was  connected  with  strolling  companies  or 
provincial  theatres,  assuming  every  variety  of 
character,  from  the  leading  parts  in  tragedy 
to  harlequin  in  the  pantomime,  and  by  very 
slow  degrees  forcing  his  talents  into  notice. 
In  1808  he  was  married,  and  during  several 
years  experienced  many  vicissitudes  of  fortune, 
being  frequently  reduced  with  his  family,  con 
sisting  of  his  wife  and  two  children,  to  the 
verge  of  starvation.  In  1813  Dr.  Drury,  the 


master  of  Harrow  school,  saw  him  act  at  Teign- 
mouth,  and  was  so  impressed  with  his  dramatic 
abilities  that  he  procured  him  an  introduction 
to  the  manager  of  Drury  Lane  theatre,  by 
whom  he  was  engaged  for  three  years  at  a 
salary  of  £8,  £9,  and  £10  per  week  for  each 
successive  year.  He  made  his  first  appearance 
Jan.  26,  1814,  as  Shylock,  before  a  meagre 
audience,  not  particularly  predisposed  in  his 
favor ;  but  so  great  were  his  powers  and  the 
vigor  of  his  personation,  that  at  the  fall  of  the 
curtain  he  was  greeted  by  applause  such  as 
had  not  for  many  years  been  heard  in  Drury 
Lane,  his  appearance,  according  to  Ilazlitt,  be 
ing  "  the  first  gleam  of  genius  breaking  athwart 
the  gloom  of  the  stage."  After  his  third  per 
formance  of  Shylock,  a  new  engagement  at  a 
far  higher  salary  was  offered  to  him ;  and  not 
long  after  he  received  from  the  committee  of 
Drury  Lane  theatre  a  present  of  £500,  besides 
numerous  valuable  gifts  from  private  persons. 
He  subsequently  appeared  as  Richard  III., 
Hamlet,  Othello,  lago,  Macbeth,  Sir  Giles 
Overreach,  Sir  Edward  Mortimer,  Lear,  and  in 
various  other  characters,  with  undiminished 
success,  and  for  several  years  was  the  most 
eminent  and  popular  actor  on  the  British  stage. 
In  1820  he  made  a  professional  tour  in  the 
United  States,  which  at  first  was  attended  with 
great  success;  but  in  May,  1821,  his  refusal  to 
complete  an  engagement  in  Boston,  in  conse 
quence  of  the  thinness  of  the  houses,  created 
an  excitement  which  led  to  his  abrupt  depart 
ure  from  the  city.  U"pon  returning  to  Eng 
land,  he  played  his  usual  round  of  characters ; 
but  after  the  developments  respecting  his  crim 
inal  connection  with  the  wife  of  Alderman  Cox, 
in  the  action  of  Cox  r.  Kean,  January,  1825, 
in  which  a  verdict  of  £800  damages  was  pro 
nounced  against  him,  he  was  hissed  from  the 
stage  in  Edinburgh  and  London.  In  1825  he 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  was  at  first 
received  with  riot  and  confusion  wherever  he 
attempted  to  act.  Having  tendered  an  apology, 
he  appeared  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia, 
but  was  not  permitted  to  perform  in  Boston  or 
Baltimore.  During  this  visit  he  was  elected  a 
!  chief  of  the  Tuscarora  Indians  by  the  name  of 
Alantenouidet.  Subsequent  to  his  return  to 
England  in  1826  his  health  and  spirits,  under 
mined  by  habits  of  drinking,  gave  way  rapidly, 
i  and  it  was  only  by  the  use  of  stimulants  that 
I  he  could  still  act  his  old  parts.  He  was  unable 
to  master  a  new  one,  forgetting  the  words 
almost  as  soon  as  he  acquired  them.  In  Feb 
ruary,  1833,  he  was  announced  to  appear  in 
u  Othello  "  with  his  son  Charles.  On  the  night 
of  the  performance  he  succeeded  with  diffi 
culty  in  getting  through  two  acts  of  the  play, 
but  in  the  third  act.  while  uttering  the  words, 
|  "  Villain,  be  sure,"  etc.,  he  fell  exhausted  into 
!  the  arms  of  his  son,  who  acted  lago,  and  was 
i  borne  from  the  stage.  This  was  his  last  ap- 
1  pearance  before  the  public.  Kean  was  short 
of  stature,  but  well  formed  and  graceful,  and 
i  his  eyes  were  singularly  black  and  brilliant. 


778 


KEAN 


His  countenance  was  capable  of  wonderful 
variety  and  intensity  of  expression,  and  his 
action',  which,  as  well  as  his  conceptions  of 
character,  was  the  result  of  deep  study,  lifted 
him  far  above  the  ordinary  heroes  of  the  stage. 
He  possessed  vigor,  pathos,  sarcasm,  and  the 
power  of  communicating  terror  in  the  highest 
degree;  and  his  intensity  in  expressing  all  the 
passions  has  never  been  excelled.  His  biogra 
phy  was  written  by  B.  W.  Procter  (Barry  Corn 
wall)  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1835).  II.  Charles 
John,  an  English  actor,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Waterford,  Ireland,  Jan.  18,  1811,  died 
in  London,  Jan.  22,  1868.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton,  whence  he  was  withdrawn  at  the  age  of 
16  in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  his  father  to 
maintain  him  longer  at  school,  the  son  hav 
ing  incurred  his  displeasure  by  declining  the 
offer  of  a  cadetship  in  India  in  order  to  look 
after  the  wants  of  his  mother.  In  this  emer 
gency  Charles  Kean  determined  to  adopt  the 
stage  as  a  profession,  and  on  Oct.  1,  1827,  made 
his  debut  at  Drury  Lane  in  the  character  of 
Young  Norval.  His  success  was  not  striking, 
and  for  several  years  he  made  no  impression 
upon  the  public.  In  1830  he  visited  the  United 
States,  and  after  his  return  to  England  in  1833 
began  by  degrees  to  assume  the  position  of  a 
leading  actor  in  London.  In  1839  he  revisited 
America,  returning  to  England  in  the  follow 
ing  year;  and  in  1842  he  was  married  to  the 
actress  Ellen  Tree.  In  1845  he  made  a  third 
visit  to  the  United  States,  performing  with  his 
wife  in  the  chief  cities  for  upward  of  two 
years.  For  several  years  after  his  return  he 
played  engagements  at  the  principal  theatres 
in  London  and  the  provinces,  and  in  1850  he 
became  the  sole  lessee  of  the  Princess's  thea 
tre,  where  for  a  number  of  seasons  he  produced 
splendid  revivals  of  "  Macbeth,"  "King  John," 
"  Richard  III.,"  "  Richard  II.,"  the  "  Tempest," 
and  other  Shakespearian  plays.  As  an  actor  he 
held  a  respectable  position.  As  a  stage  mana 
ger  he  exhibited  good  taste  and  abundant  re 
sources,  and  was  for  several  years  the  director 
of  the  theatrical  performances  at  Windsor  cas 
tle.  In  1803  he  made  with  his  wife  a  profes 
sional  tour  to  Australia,  returning  in  1866  by 
way  of  California.  In  1859  appeared  the  "  Life 
of  Charles  Kean,"  by  J.  W.  Cole  (2  vols.  8vo, 
London).  III.  Ellen  (Tree),  an  English  actress, 
wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London  in  1805. 
She  first  appeared  upon  the  stage  at  Covent 
Garden  theatre,  London,  in  1823,  and  within  a 
few  years  became  one  of  the  leading  members 
of  her  profession,  excelling  both  in  comedy  and 
tragedy.  In  December,  1836,  she  made  her 
debut  upon  the  American  stage  at  New  York, 
and  subsequently  acted  with  success  in  the  chief 
cities  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In 
1842  she  was  married  to  Charles  Kean,  with 
whom  she  continued  to  appear  down  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  when  she  retired  from  the 
stage.  Among  her  most  popular  characters 
were  Beatrice  in  "  Much  Ado  about  Nothing," 
Rosalind  in  "  As  You  Like  It,"  Portia  in  the 


KEARNY 

"Merchant  of  Venice,"  Viola  in  "Twelfth 
Night,"  Julia  in  "The  Hunchback,"  and  Mrs. 
Haller  in  "  The  Stranger." 

KEANE,  John,  first  Lord  Keane,  a  British 
general,  born  at  Belmont,  county  Waterford, 
Ireland,  in  1781,  died  at  Burton  Lodge,  Hamp 
shire,  England,  Aug.  24,  1844.  He  entered 
the  British  army  as  ensign  in  his  13th  year, 
and  during  the  campaign  in  Egypt  acted  as 
aide-de-camp  to  Lord  Cavan.  He  served  in 
Spain,  where  he  gained  the  rank  of  major  gen 
eral.  In  the  autumn  of  1814  he  was  appoint 
ed  to  command  the  land  forces  destined  to 
attack  New  Orleans,  but  was  superseded  by 
Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  under  whom  however 
he  continued  to  serve,  and  was  twice  severely 
wounded.  From  1823  to  1830  he  was  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  West  Indian  army,  and 
during  a  part  of  that  period  administered  also 
the  civil  government  of  Jamaica.  In  1833  he 
was  sent  to  India,  and  in  1839  captured  the 
fortress  of  Ghuznee  in  Afghanistan,  till  then 
deemed  impregnable.  For  this  exploit  lie  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Keane,  in  De 
cember,  1839,  and  received  from  the  East  India 
company  a  pension  of  £2,000. 

KEARNEY,  a  S.  county  of  Nebraska,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Platte  river ;  area,  about  525  sq.  in. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  58.  A  large  portion  is  occupied 
by  prairies.  The  Burlington  and  Missouri  River 
railroad  traverses  it.  Capital,  Fort  Kearney. 

KEARNY.  I.  Lawrence,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  30, 
1789,  died  there,  Nov.  29,  1868.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1807.  When  the 
war  with  Great  Britain  broke  out  he  was  first 
lieutenant  of  the  Enterprise,  and  in  her  he  was 
wrecked  while  on  a  cruise  from  New  Orleans 
in  1812.  After  the  war  he  distinguished  him 
self  in  clearing  the  West  Indies  and  the  gulf 
coast  of  pirates.  In  1827  he  sailed  as  command 
er  in  the  ship  Warren  for  the  Mediterranean, 
where  he  attacked  the  Greek  pirates,  broke  up 
their  rendezvous,  and  dispersed  them.  At  one 
time  he  had  more  than  109  pirates  in  chains  on 
board  his  ship.  Becoming  a  captain  in  1832, 
he  took  command  of  the  East  India  squadron 
in  1841,  greatly  promoted  American  interests 
in  China,  and  returned  home  in  1844.  He 
was  made  a  commodore  in  1866.  II.  Stephen 
Watts,  an  American  soldier,  born  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  Aug.  30,  1794,  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
Oct.  31,  1848.  He  entered  the  army  in  1812, 
in  1833  became  lieutenant  colonel  of  dragoons, 
in  1836  colonel,  and  in  June,  1846,  a  brigadier 
general.  At  the  commencement  of  the  Mex 
ican  war  he  commanded  the  "  army  of  the 
WTest,"  which  marched  from  Bent's  fort  on  the 
Arkansas  westward,  and  conquered  New  Mex 
ico.  Having  established  a  provisional  civil 
government  in  Santa  Fe,  he  proceeded  to  Cali 
fornia,  and  in  December  participated  with  his 
command  in  the  battle  of  San  Pascual,  where 
he  was  twice  wounded.  He  subsequently  com 
manded  the  sailors  and  marines  and  a  detach 
ment  of  dragoons  in  the  battles  of  San  Gabriel 


KEATS 


779 


and  the  plains  of  Mesa,  Jan.  8  and  9,  1847.  He 
was  appointed  brevet  major  general,  and  was 
governor  of  California  from  March  to  June, 
1847.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  "  Ma 
noeuvring  of  Dragoons"  (1837),  and  of  "'Laws 
for  the  Government  of  New  Mexico"  (1846). 
III.  Philip,  an  American  soldier,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  New  York,  June  2,  1815, 
killed  near  Chantilly,  Ya.,  Sept.  1,  18G2.  He 
studied  law,  but  in  1837  accepted  a  commission 
as  second  lieutenant  in  the  1st  dragoons,  com 
manded  by  his  uncle.  Being  soon  afterward 
sent  to  Europe  by  the  government  to  study 
and  report  upon  the  French  cavalry  tactics,  he 
entered  the  military  school  at  Saumur,  then 
went  to  Algeria,  joined  the  chasseurs  d'Afrique 
as  a  volunteer,  and  received  the  cross  of  the 
legion  of  honor  for  his  bravery.  On  his  re 
turn  home  in  1840  he  was  appointed  aide-de 
camp  to  Gen.  Macomb,  and  the  next  year  to 
Gen.  Scott,  which  appointment  he  held  till 
1844.  In  1846  he  was  made  captain  of  dragoons. 
He  furnished  his  men  with  equipments  and 
horses  from  his  private  means,  and  his  com 
pany  formed  the  escort  of  Gen.  Scott  when  he 
entered  Vera  Cruz.  He  was  brevetted  major  for 
gallant  conduct  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco. 
In  a  charge  on  the  San  Antonio  gate  at  the  city 
of  Mexico  he  lost  his  left  arm.  At  the  close 
of  the  Mexican  Avar  he  was  ordered  to  Califor 
nia,  and  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Indians  of  Columbia  river.  In  1851  he  resigned 
and  went  to  Europe,  where  he  continued  to 
pursue  military  studies.  In  the  Italian  war  of 
1859  he  served  as  a  volunteer  aide  on  the  staff 
of  the  French  general  Maurier,  was  in  the  bat 
tles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  and  received  from 
Napoleon  III.  for  the  second  time  the  cross 
of  the  legion  of  honor.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  American  civil  war  he  hastened  home, 
and  was  placed  in  command  of  a  brigade,  and 
afterward  of  a  division  in  the  army.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  at  the  battles  of  Williams- 
burg,  Seven  Pines,  and  Frazier's  Farm,  and 
was  made  a  major  general  of  volunteers  July 
4,  1862.  He  was  prominent  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run.  During  the  action  at 
Chantilly  he  rode  forward  in  advance  of  his 
men  to  reconnoitre,  and  fell  in  with  a  confed 
erate  soldier,  of  whom  he  inquired  the  position 
of  a  regiment.  Discovering  his  mistake,  he 
turned  to  ride  away,  when  the  soldier  tired, 
and  Kearny  fell  mortally  wounded. 

KEATS,  John,  an  English  poet,  born  in  Lon 
don  in  1795  or  1796,  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  27, 
1821.  He  was  sent  at  an  early  acre  with  his 
two  brothers  to  a  school  in  Enfield,  where  he  re 
mained  until  his  15th  year.  He  seems  to  have 
been  careless  of  the  ordinary  school  distinctions, 
but  read  whatever  authors  attracted  his  fancy. 
He  never  advanced  in  his  classical  studies  be 
yond  Latin,  and  his  knowledge  of  Greek  my 
thology  was  derived  from  Lempriere's  diction 
ary  and  Tooke's  "Pantheon;"  a  singular  fact 
considering  the  thoroughly  Hellenic  spirit  which 
imbues  some  of  his  works.  In  1810  he  wasre- 


I  moA*ed  from  school,  and  apprenticed  for  five 
j  years  to  a  surgeon  in  Edmonton.     His  earliest 
known  verses  are  the  lines  "  In  Imitation  of 
Spenser."     About  the  same  time  he   became 
I  acquainted   with   Homer   through    Chapman's 
!  translation,  and  commemorated   his   emotions 
in  the  sonnet,  "  On  first  looking  into   Chap- 
I  man's  Homer."     Upon  the  completion  of  his 
apprenticeship  he  removed  to  London  to  "walk 
the  hospitals,"  and  made   the  acquaintance  of 
Leigh  Hunt,   Haydon,    Ilazlitt,   Godwin,    and 
other  literary  men,  incited  by  whose  praise  he 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  comprising  son 
nets,  poetical  epistles,  and  other  small  pieces, 
Avhich  excited  little  attention.     He  soon  per 
ceived  that  the  profession  of  a  surgeon  Avas  un 
fitted  for  him,  both  on  account  of  his  extreme 
nervousness  in  the  performance  of  operations, 
I  and  of  the  state  of  his  health ;  and  in  the  spring 
of  1817  he  Avas  induced  by  symptoms  of  con 
sumption  to  make  a  A'isit  to  the  country.     Du 
ring  this  absence  he  commenced  his  "  Endymi- 
on,"  which,  Avith  some    miscellaneous   pieces, 
was  published  in  the  folloAving  year.      Keats 
had  allied  himself  with  a  political  and  literary 
coterie  obnoxious  to  the  "Quarterly  Review" 
and  "BlackAvood's  Magazine,"  and  the  appear- 
|  ance  of  a  volume  of  poems  by  a  neAv  writer  of 
the  "  cockney  school "  was  the  signal  for  an 
attack  upon  him  by  these  periodicals,  the  bit 
terness  of  which  savored  more  of  personal  ani 
mosity  than  of  critical  discernment.     The  in- 
|  suiting  allusions  to  his  private  affairs  and  his 
I  family  aroused  in  the  poet  no   other   feeling 
j  than  contempt  or  indignation;  and  if  AVC  may 
!  judge  from  his  letters,  far  from  being  crushed 
I  in  spirit  by  the  virulence  of  his  reviewers,  he 
!  would  have  been  much  more   inclined  to  in- 
|  flict  personal  chastisement  upon  them  if  he  had 
I  met  them.     Byron  in  "Don  Juan,"  and  Shel 
ley  in  "  Adonais,"  have  apparently  confirmed 
the  notion  that  his  sensitive  nature  on  this  oc 
casion  received  a  shock  from  which  it  never 
recoA'ered;  but  the  effect  of  the  criticism  has 
been   greatly    exaggerated.      His    health    was 
failing  rapidly,   but  from   other   causes.     II  is 
younger  brother's  death  in  the  autumn  of  1818 
affected  him  deeply,  and  about  the  same  time 
he  experienced  a  passion  for  a  lady  of  remark 
able  beauty,  the  effect  of  which  upon  a  frame 
j  Avorn  by  disease  was  fatal.     His  little  patri 
mony  became  exhausted,  and  he  began  to  think 
of   making   literature   his    profession.     AVhile 
preparing  a  third  volume  for  the  press  he  was 
1  attacked   Avith    a   violent    spitting    of    blood. 
After  a  long  illness  he  recovered  sufficiently  to 
think  of  resuming  his  literary  avocations,  but 
:  found  his  mind  too  unstrung  by  sickness  and 
|  the  passion  which  had  such  an  influence  over 
him.     In  this  emergency  he  had  nearly  deter 
mined  to  accept  the  berth  of  surgeon  in  an  In- 
diaman,  when  a  return  of  the  previous  alarm 
ing  symptoms  made  it  apparent  that  nothing 
;  but  a  \vinter  in  a  milder  climate  would  offer 
!  a  chance  of  saving   his  life.     Before  his  de- 
1  parture  he  published  a  volume  containing  his 


780 


KEBLE 


KEECIIIES 


odes  on  the  "Nightingale"  and  the  "Grecian 
Urn,"  the  poems  of  "  Lamia,"  "The  Eve  of  St. 
Agnes,"  "  Isabella,"  &c.,  and  the  magnificent 
fragment  of  "  Hyperion."  In  September,  1820, 
Keats  left  England  with  Mr.  Severn,  a  young 
artist  and  a  devoted  friend,  who  never  left  his 
bedside.  He  lingered  a  few  months  at  Naples 
and  Rome,  and  died  at  the  latter  place  after 
much  suffering.  A  few  days  before  his  death 
he  said  that  he  "  felt  the  daisies  growing  over 
him."  He  was  buried  in  the  Protestant 
cemetery  in  Rome,  near  the  spot  where  Shel 
ley's  ashes  were  afterward  interred  ;  and  upon 
his  tomb  was  inscribed  the  epitaph,  dictated 
by  himself :  "  Here  lies  one  whose  name  was 
writ  in  water."  His  modest  hope  that  "  after 
his  death  he  would  be  among  the  poets  of  Eng 
land,"  has  been  more  fully  realized  than  he 
could  have  anticipated  ;  and  his  influence  can 
be  traced  in  the  poetic  development  of  many 
later  writers. — See  "  Life,  Letters,  and  Literary 
Remains,  of  John  Keats,"  by  R.  M.  Milnes 
(Lord  Houghton)  (2  vols.,  London,  1848). 

KEBLE,  John,  an  English  poet,  born  near 
Fairford,  Gloucestershire,  April  25,  1792,  died 
at  Bournemouth,  Hampshire,  March  29,  1866. 
He  graduated  at  Oriel  college,  Oxford,  in  1810, 
obtaining  a  double  first  in  classics  and  mathe 
matics,  a  distinction  never  gained  before  that 
time,  except  in  the  instance  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
in  1808.  For  some  years  afterward  he  was  a 
fellow,  master  of  the  schools,  examiner,  and 
college  tutor.  In  1815  he  was  ordained,  and  in 
1823  he  resigned  his  Oxford  employments  to 
accept  the  curacies  of  Eastleach,  Burthorpe, 
and  Southrop,  the  united  receipts  of  which  did 
not  amount  to  more  than  £100  a  year.  In  1824 
he  refused  an  archdeaconry  in  the  West  Indies, 
worth  £2,000  a  year,  which  was  pressed  upon 
him  by  William  Hart  Coleridge,  bishop  of  Bar- 
badoes ;  and  a  year  afterward  he  accepted  the 
curacy  of  Ilursley.  In  1832  he  was  made  pro 
fessor  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  and  he  held  that 
post  for  two  periods  of  five  years  each.  His 
lectures  were  in  Latin,  and  were  published 
under  the  title  of  Pro&lectionen  Academical  (2 
vols.,  1832-'40).  In  1833  he  was  appointed  to 
deliver  the  summer  assize  sermon  at  Oxford, 
which  was  subsequently  published  under  the 
title  of  "National  Apostasy,"  and  was  me 
morialized  by  Dr.  Newman  in  his  "Apologia" 
as  "the  start  of  the  religious  movement"  of 
that  time.  Of  the  "Tracts  for  the  Times" 
(Oxford,  1833-'41),  Keble  wrote  Nos.  4,  13, 
40,  and  89.  In  1835  he  became  vicar  of  Hurs 
ley  and  rector  of  Otterbourne,  which  livings  he 
held  till  his  death.  His  principal  works  are: 
"The  Christian  Year:  Thoughts  in  Verse  for 
the  Sundays  and  Holidays  throughout  the 
Year"  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1827);  "The  Psalter, 
or  Psalms  of  David  in  English  Verse"  (1839) ; 
"  Lyra  Innocentium :  Thoughts  in  Verse  on 
Children,"  &c.  (1846);  and  several  volumes  of 
academical  and  occasional  sermons.  He  edited  ! 
and  annotated  the  complete  works  of  Richard 
Hooker  (4  vols.,  1836) ;  in  1837,  with  Dr.  New-  j 


man,  he  edited  "Fronde's  Remains;"  in  1838, 
with  Dr.  Newman  and  Dr.  Pusey,  he  began 
the  editing  and  annotation  of  the  Oxford  edi 
tion  of  the  "Library  of  the  Fathers,"  which  in 
a  few  succeeding  years  grew  into  a  series  of  39 
octavo  volumes.  He  is  author  of  the  much 
commended  article  on  "  Sacred  Poetry  "  in  vol. 
xxxii.  of  the  London  "  Quarterly  Review." 
"  The  Christian  Year  "  is  the  most  remarkable 
of  his  works.  It  was  first  published  anony 
mously,  and  within  25  years  108,000  copies 
had  been  printed  in  43  editions.  Nine  months 
after  the  author's  death  the  100th  edition  was 
reached,  with  a  total  circulation,  in  English 
editions  and  American  reprints,  of  not  less  than 
500,000  copies.  It  has  appeared  in  all  sizes, 
and  some  editions,  and  separate  poems,  like 
the  "  Evening  and  Morning  Hymns,"  have  been 
profusely  illustrated  and  illuminated.  In  1867 
M.  Fyler  produced  in  a  quarto  volume  686  illus 
trations  of  poetic  imagery  from  "The  Chris 
tian  Year."  A  comprehensive  and  minute 
"  Concordance  "  has  been  published.  Char 
lotte  Mary  Yonge  published  "Musings  on  The 
Christian  Year"  (London,  1870).  Keble  re 
tained  his  copyright  till  his  death,  and  from 
the  profits  of  the  book,  in  1846-'8,  the  ancient 
cumbrous  brick  church  of  Hursley  was  re 
placed  by  one  of  the  most  beautiful  parish 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  The  copyright  ex 
pired  March  29,  1873,  and  within  five  weeks 
ten  different  editions  were  issued  by  London 
publishers.  Since  his  death  Keble  college, 
Oxford,  has  been  founded  in  his  honor.  The 
best  biography  of  Keble  is  by  Sir  John  Tay 
lor  Coleridge  "(London,  1868  ;  4th  ed.,  1874). 

KECSKEMET,  or  Ketskemet,  a  city  of  Hungary, 
in  the  county  and  50  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Pesth,  on  the  railway  to  Szegedin ;  pop.  in 
1870,  41,195.  It  contains  churches  for  the 
Roman  Catholics,  Protestants,  and  Greeks,  a 
synagogue,  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  a  Reformed 
lyceum,  and  various  other  educational  institu 
tions.  It  has  soap  manufactories  and  tan 
neries,  a  lively  trade  in  horses  and  cattle,  and 
five  annual  fairs. 

KEECIIIES,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  originally  in 
Texas,  apparently  the  same  mentioned  by  Span 
ish  authorities  about  1780  as  the  Quitzeis,  and 
then  north  of  Bucareli.  They  were  a  small 
tribe  numbering  less  than  100  men  able  to  bear 
arms.  In  1822  they  were  on  Trinity  river  to 
the  number  of  261.  After  Texas  became  part 
of  the  United  States,  the  Keechies  and  other 
Indians  were  placed  on  a  state  reservation,  and 
remained  there  quietly  till  1859,  when  organi 
zations  were  formed  to  destroy  the  Indians  on 
the  reservations.  To  save  them  the  United 
States  government  removed  them  to  lands 
leased  from  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws. 
The  Keechies  settled  on  the  Canadian  river, 
and  had  just  begun  to  prosper  when  the  civil 
war  broke  out,  and  they  were  again  exposed 
to  their  enemies,  and  removed  to  the  Little 
Arkansas  in  great  destitution.  They  were  re 
stored  to  the  leased  lands  in  1867.  In  1872 


KEEXE 


KEILL 


781 


they  were  wUh  the  Wichitas  on  Wasliita  river, 
near  old  Fort  Cobb,  to  the  number  of  126. 
Their  language  shows  that,  like  the  "Wichitas, 
they  are  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Pawnees. 

KEEXE,  a  city,  capital  of  Cheshire  co.,  Xew 
Hampshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ashuelot 
river,  at  the  junction  of  the  Cheshire  and  Ash 
uelot  railroads,  43  in.  W.  S.  W.  of  Concord, 
and  80  m.  X.  W.  of  Boston ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,971. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated,  well  built,  and  laid  out 
with  great  regularity,  the  principal  streets  ra 
diating  from  a  central  square,  near  which  stands 
a  handsome  court  house.  An  active  trade  is 
carried  on  with  the  surrounding  country,  and 
there  is  a  large  number  of  manufacturing  es 
tablishments,  including  woollen  mills,  machine 
shops,  tanneries,  and  establishments  for  manu 
facturing  carriages,  chairs,  furniture,  sashes, 
doors,  and  blinds,  earthenware,  &c.  The  rail 
road  repair  shops  employ  a  large  number  of 
workmen.  There  are  three  national  banks  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $500,000,  two  savings 
banks,  graded  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school,  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  seven 
churches.  Keene  was  settled  about  1735,  and 
called  Upper  Ashuelot.  It  received  its  present 
name  in  1753,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1874.  The  population  is  rapidly  increasing. 

KEENE,  Laura,  an  American  actress,  born  in 
England  in  1820,  died  at  Montclair,  X.  J.,  Nov. 
4,  1873.  She  was  distinguished  on  the  London 
stage  in  light  comedy,  and  excelled  particularly 
as  Pauline  in  "  The  Lady  of  Lyons."  She  first 
appeared  in  New  York,  Sept.  20,  1852,  played 
in  San  Francisco  in  1854,  and  afterward  in 
Australia.  In  1855  she  assumed  the  manage 
ment  of  the  Varieties  theatre  in  Xew  York, 
and  soon  afterward  of  a  new  one  called  Laura 
Keene's  theatre  (now  the  Olympic) ;  and  in 
October,  1858,  she  brought  out  "  Our  Ameri 
can  Cousin,"  with  Jefferson  as  Asa  Trenchard 
and  Sothern  as  Dundreary.  From  1800  to 
1870  she  managed  a  travelling  company,  reap 
peared  in  Xew  York  in  1870,  and  was  last  on 
the  stage  shortly  before  her  death.  Among  her 
marked  personations  were  Marco  in  '%  The  Mar 
ble  Heart "  and  Becky  Sharp  in  "  Vanity  Fair." 

KEFF,  or  EI-Keff,  a  town  of  north  Africa,  in 
the  regency  and  88  in.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Tunis ;  pop.  about  6,000.  It  is  the  key  of 
Tunis  on  the  Algerian  frontier,  from  which  it 
is  distant  27  m.  It  is  built  on  an  elevated 
plateau,  and  is  surrounded  by  mountains  and 
by  forests  of  cedar  and  chestnut.  The  walls  i 
are  kept  in  good  repair,  and  the  fortress 
mounts  more  than  1:30  cannon.  The  in 
habitants  include  many  warlike  and  occasion 
ally  troublesome  mountaineers.  The  adjacent 
country  is  very  fertile,  and  the  scenery  is  beau 
tiful.  Keff  possesses  a  Roman  well  and  a  statue 
of  Venus.  Inscriptions  from  here  led  to  the 
supposition  that  it  occupies  the  site  of  Sicca 
Veneria,  a  Numidian  town,  originally  Phoeni 
cian,  subsequently  a  Roman  colony. 

KEHL,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Alsace-Lor 
raine,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  its  j 


junction  with  the  Kinzig,  opposite  Strasburg; 
pop.  about  4,000.  It  was  fortified  by  the 
French  toward  the  close  of  the  17th  century, 
and  was  restored  to  Germany  by  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick  (1697).  Subsequently  the  fortifica 
tions  were  razed,  and  it  became  a  thriving 
manufacturing  and  commercial  place.  During 
the  revolution  the  fortifications  were  restored, 
and  in  1815  again  demolished,  the  town  having 
been  in  the  interval  alternately  in  German  and 
French  possession,  and  endured  many  sieges 
and  other  vicissitudes.  A  new  bridge  over  the 
Rhine,  completed  in  1861,  placed  Ivehl  in  direct 
communication  with  the  French  railways,  and 
trade  prospered  till  1870,  when  the  Franco- 
German  war  injured  the  place.  On  July  22 
the  Germans  began  to  blow  up  the  railway 
bridge,  and  the  French  subsequently  opened 
fire,  destroying  the  handsome  Gothic  church, 
the  custom  house,  the  railway  depot,  and  40 
private  houses.  Kelil  belonged  to  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden  till  1874,  when  it  became  part 
of  Alsace-Lorraine. 

KEIGHLEY,  a  town  of  England,  on  the  Aire, 
and  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Liverpool  and  Leeds  canal  and  the  Preston  and 
Leeds  railway,  15  m.  W.  X.  AY.  of  Leeds ;  pop. 
in  1871,  15,965.  It  has  a  Latin  school,  a  me 
chanics'  institute,  and  manufactories  of  paper, 
linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods. 

KEIGHTLEY,  Thomas,  a  British  author,  born 
in  Dublin  in  October,  1789,  died  near  Erith, 
Kent,  in  December,  1872.  He  took  his  bache 
lor's  degree  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  in  1808, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature  in  London. 
He  assisted  T.  Crofton  Croker  in  the  "Fairy 
Legends  of  Ireland,"  published  histories  of 
Rome,  Greece,  and  England,  "  Fairy  Mytholo 
gy,"  ''Outlines  of  History."  "Mythology  of 
Ancient  Greece  and  Italy,"  ''History  of  India," 
"Scenes  and  Events  of  the  Crusades,"  and 
other  works,  and  edited  the  writings  of  Virgil, 
Horace,  Ovid,  and  Sallust,  and  the  "  Life  and 
Poems  of  Milton."  Among  his  latest  works 
was  "  The  Shakespeare  Expositor  "  (1867).  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  pensioned  by 
the  government. 

KKILL,  John,  a  Scottish  mathematician,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  1,  1671,  died  in  Oxford, 
Sept.  1,  1721.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Oxford,  became  assistant  Sedleian  professor 
of  physics  at  Oxford  in  1700,  and  was  subse 
quently  chosen  fellow  of  the  royal  society  of 
London.  In  1709  he  was  appointed  treasurer 
to  the  Palatines,  German  emigrants  whom  the 
government  was  sending  to  Xew  England.  On 
his  return  in  1710  he  became  Savilian  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Oxford.  In  1711  he  was  ap 
pointed  by  Queen  Anne  decipherer  of  state 
pape'rs.  He  was  a  tierce  assailant  of  Burnet, 
Leibnitz,  and  the  other  opponents  of  the  Xew- 
tonian  theories.  The  most  important  of  his 
many  learned  works  are  In  trod  net  io  ad  Veram 
Physicam  (1701),  and  Introductio  ad  Vcram 
Astronomiam  (1718).  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Milan  (1742). 


782 


KEIM 


KELAT 


KEIM,  Thcodor,  a  German  theologian,  born 
in  Stuttgart,  Dec.  17,  1825.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  and  was  connected  with  that  uni 
versity  from  1851  to  1855,  after  having  spent 
a  year  in  Bonn.  In  1857  he  became  deacon 
at  Esslingen,  in  1859  archdeacon,  and  in  1860 
professor  of  theology  at  Zurich.  He  is  promi 
nent  among  liberal  Protestant  theologians. 
Among  his  works  are  several  relating  to  the 
history  of  the  reformation,  and  Dcr  gcscliicht- 
licJie  Christus  (3d  ed.,  Zurich,  1806). 

KEITH,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Nebraska,  recently 
formed,  and  not  included  in  the  census  of 
1870;  area,  2,016  sq.  m.  It  borders  on  Colo 
rado,  and  is  intersected  by  the  forks  of  the 
Platte  river.  The  Union  Pacific  railroad 
passes  through  it. 

KEITH,  Alexander,  a  British  author,  born  at 
Keith  Hall,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1791.  He  was 
educated  in  Scotland,  and  was  a  minister  of  the 
established  church  of  Scotland,  and  after  1843 
of  the  Free  church,  till  ill  health  compelled 
his  retirement  from  the  pulpit.  His  principal 
work,  "Evidences  of  the  Truth  of  the  Chris 
tian  Religion,  derived  from  the  Literal  Fulfil 
ments  of  Prophecy "  (Edinburgh,  1823),  be 
came  a  text  book,  passed  through  numerous 
editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  foreign 
languages ;  the  later  editions  embody  his  per 
sonal  investigations  in  the  Holy  Land. 

KEITH.  I.  George,  a  Prussian  diplomatist, 
born  at  Kincardine,  Scotland,  in  1685,  died 
near  Potsdam,  Prussia,  May  25,  1778.  He  was 
the  tenth  earl  marischal,  and  the  descendant  of 
a  race  who  had  long  been  grand  marischals  of 
Scotland.  Being  outlawed  and  his  estates  con 
fiscated  for  participation  in  the  rebellion  of 
1715,  he  fled  to  Spain,  and  thence  to  Prussia, 
where  he  became  a  friend  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  appointed  him  ambassador  at  Paris 
in  1751,  governor  of  Neufchatel  in  1754,  and 
envoy  to  Madrid  in  1759.  His  estates  were 
subsequently  restored  to  him,  and  he  also  in 
herited  in  1761  the  entailed  estates  of  the  earls 
of  Kintore.  lie  died  unmarried,  and  his  eldest 
sister,  wife  of  the  earl  of  Wigtown,  transmitted 
the  Kefth  title  to  her  daughter,  who  married 
Lord  Elphinstone,  and  was  the  mother  of  Ad 
miral  Keith.  II.  James,  brother  of  the  prece 
ding,  born  in  Scotland,  June  11,  1696,  killed  at 
Hochkirch,  Oct.  14,  1758.  He  was  likewise  at 
tainted  of  high  treason  on  account  of  the  re 
bellion  of  1715,  fled  to  France,  where  he  studied 
mathematics  under  Maupertuis,  and  was  admit 
ted  to  the  academy.  In  1717  he  went  to  Spain 
to  serve  the  cause  of  the  pretender,  but  the 
enterprise  was  unsuccessful,  and  he  did  not  re 
turn  to  Madrid  till  1720.  He  failed  of  obtain 
ing  employment,  as  he  refused  to  abjure  Prot 
estantism.  Subsequently  he  accompanied  the 
duke  of  Leiria,  the  Spanish  ambassador,  to 
Russia,  where  he  became  a  general,  especially 
distinguishing  himself  in  the  war  against  Tur 
key  (173 6 -'7),  and  was  severely  wounded  at 
the  storming  of  Otchakov.  He  afterward  aid 
ed  in  the  victories  over  the  Swedes,  and  after  j 


the  peace  of  Abo  (1743)  became  Russian  am 
bassador  at  Stockholm,  and  on  his  return  to 
St.  Petersburg  was  made  field  marshal.  The 
service  was  made  so  irksome  to  him  that  he 
tendered  his  resignation,  which  was  accepted 
on  condition  of  his  never  fighting  against  Rus 
sia.  He  went  to  Hamburg  (1747)  and  ten 
dered  his  services  to  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
grasped  eagerly  at  the  offer.  He  became  gov 
ernor  of  Berlin  in  1749,  and  accompanied  the 
king  in  many  memorable  campaigns,  distin 
guishing  himself  on  various  occasions,  espe 
cially  in  the  retreat  from  Olmutz,  and  at  Hoch 
kirch.  His  success  was  the  more  remarkable 
as  he  was  ignorant  of  the  German  language. — 
See  Leben  des  Feldmarsclialls  Jakol)  Keith,  by 
Varnhagen  von  Ense  (Berlin,  1844). 

KEITH,  George  Keith-EIphinstone,  viscount,  a 
British  admiral,  born  at  Elphinstone,  East  Lo 
thian,  Scotland,  Jan.  12,  1746,  died  at  his  seat 
of  Tulliallan,  Perthshire,  March  10,  1823.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  the  tenth  Baron  El 
phinstone,  and  entered  the  navy  at  an  early 
age.  He  received  the  commission  of  post  cap 
tain  in  1775,  and,  in  command  of  the  frigate 
Perseus,  participated  in  the  British  attack  on 
Bunker  Hill,  and  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Mifflin 
on  the  Delaware,  in  November,  1777.  In 
1793  he  served  under  Lord  Hood  at  Toulon, 
and  in  1795,  as  rear  admiral  of  the  white,  took 
possession  of  Cape  Town,  and  subsequently 
conquered  Ceylon,  Cochin,  Malacca,  and  the 
Moluccas.  He  completed  his  services  in  the 
East  by  capturing,  in  August,  1796,  off  Sal- 
danha  bay,  a  Dutch  squadron,  which  had  been 
despatched  for  the  recovery  of  the  Cape  Col 
ony.  Upon  his  return  to  England  in  1797  he 
was  created  an  Irish  peer  as  Baron  Keith  of 
Stonehaven  Marischal.  In  1799  he  took  com 
mand  of  the  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
in  March,  1800,  blockaded  Genoa,  then  occu 
pied  by  a  French  army  under  Massena,  until  its 
surrender  to  the  Austrians.  He  subsequent 
ly  cooperated  with  Abercroinbie  in  the  mili 
tary  operations  in  Egypt.  He  continued  in  ac 
tive  service  until  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
and  for  several  years  held  command  of  the 
channel  fleet  as  admiral  of  the  white.  It  was 
owing  to  his  disposition  of  his  cruisers  along 
the  coast  of  France  that  Napoleon  was  in 
duced  to  surrender  himself  a  prisoner.  In 
1814  he  was  created  Viscount  Keith  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  having  been  a  baron  since 
1801.  Previous  to  his  elevation  to  the  peer 
age  he  was  on  several  occasions  a  member  of 
the  house  of  commons.  His  second  wife,  born 
in  1762,  was  the  eldest  daughter  and  co-heir 
of  Henry  Thrale,  the  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
from  whom  she  received  her  education.  She 
died  March  31,  1857.  He  left  no  sons,  but  his 
title  descended  to  his  elder  daughter  by  his 
first  wife,  Baroness  Keith,  wife  of  Count  Fla- 
haut.  (See  FLAHAUT  DE  LA  BILLAEDERIE.) 

KELAT,  the  capital  city  of  Beloochistan,  and 
of  a  province  of  its  own  name,  situated  on  the 
declivity  of  a  hill  called  Shah  Mirdan,  about 


KELLERMANN 


KELUNG 


TS3 


6,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  195  m.  S.  byE.  of  Can- 
dahar  ;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  surrounded  by 
an  earth  wall  18  ft.  high,  flanked  with  bastions. 
In  the  vicinity  is  a  district  that  produces  large 
quantities  of  fruit.  A  number  of  Afghan  mer 
chants  reside  at  Kelat,  and  carry  on  a  consid 
erable  trade  with  Sinde,  Bombay,  and  Canda- 
har.  The  chief  manufactures  are  muskets, 
swords,  and  spears.  Kelat  was  captured  by 
the  British  in  1839,  and  again  in  1840,  and  was 
evacuated  by  them  in  1841. 

KELLERMA1VN.  I.  Francois  Christophe,  duke 
of  Valmy,  a  French  soldier,  born  in  Strasburg, 
May  30,  1735,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  12,  1820. 
Enlisting  as  a  private  in  1752,  he  served  during 
the  seven  years'  war  and  obtained  the  rank  of 
captain.  In  1771  he  was  among  the  French 
officers  sent  to  Poland  to  assist  the  confederates 
of  Bar,  and  fought  bravely.  In  1785  he  had 
reached  the  rank  of  brigadier  general.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  he  espoused 
the  popular  cause,  and  in  1791  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  army  in  Alsace.  He 
succeeded  in  keeping  the  Austrians  from  that 
province  and  Lorraine;  and  having  joined  Du- 
mouriez,  he  shared  in  the  victory  of  Valmy 
(Sept.  20,  1792),  by  which  the  Prussians  were 
expelled  from  the  French  territory.  In  1793 
he  commanded  the  army  of  the  Alps,  and  de 
feated  the  Piedmontese,  thus  bringing  about 
the  surrender  of  Lyons.  Becoming  unaccept 
able  to  the  commissioners  of  the  convention, 
he  was  dismissed  from  his  command,  arrested, 
and  imprisoned  for  13  months.  After  the  9th 
Thermidor,  being  reinstated  in  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Alps,  which  amounted  to 
but  47,000  men,  he  successfully  opposed  the 
repeated  attacks  of  150,000  Piedmontese  and 
Austrian  troops.  In  the  following  year  he 
received  an  appointment  in  the  military  bu 
reau  at  Paris.  Bonaparte,  after  the  18th  Bru- 
maire,  made  him  a  senator  ;  and  on  the  estab 
lishment  of  the  empire  he  was  made  a  mar 
shal,  received  the  title  of  duke  of  Valmy,  and 
held  important  commands  from  1804- to  1813. 
On  the  restoration  he  evinced  his  readiness  to 
serve  the  Bourbons,  and  took  a  seat  in  the 
chamber  of  peers,  where  he  favored  liberal 
measures.  II.  Francois  Etieiine,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Metz  in  1770,  died  June  2, 
1835.  He  early  received  a  commission  in  a 
cavalry  regiment.  In  17(.»1  he  was  attached  to 
the  embassy  of  the  chevalier  de  Ternant  in  the 
United  States,  where  he  spent  two  years.  He 
returned  to  France  to  become  aide-de-camp  to 
his  father,  and  lost  his  post  after  the  siege  of 
Lyons;  but  his  well  known  patriotism  saved 
him  from  imprisonment,  and  he  reentered  the 
army  as  a  private.  On  the  9th  Thermidor  he 
resumed  his  former  rank,  served  as  adjutant 
general  under  Bonaparte  in  1796,  and  after 
ward,  under  Massena,  distinguished  himself  at 
Bassano,  Arcole,  and  elsewhere,  was  sent  to 
Paris  to  present  the  standards  taken  from  the 
enemy  to  the  directorial  government,  and  was 
appointed  brigadier  general.  In  IbOO  he  ac- 
VOL.  ix. — 50 


companied  the  first  consul  to  Italy  at  the  head 
of  a  brigade  of  cavalry,  and  participated  in 
the  battle  of  Marengo,  where  by  a  well  timed 
charge  he  decided  the  victory ;  he  was  reward 
ed  by  promotion  to  the  rank  of  general  of  di 
vision.  In  1805  he  fought  brilliantly  at  Auster- 
litz,  where  he  was  severely  w.ounded.  He  served 
in  Portugal  and  Spain  from  1807  to  1812,  in 
Germany  in  1813,  and  in  France  in  1814,  and 
finally  distinguished  himself  in  the  engage 
ments  that  preceded  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  he  withdrew 
from  the  service.'  He  succeeded  his  father  as 
a  peer,  and  like  him  inclined  to  liberal  opinions. 
He  wrote  two  pamphlets  about  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  and  left  Memoires,  upon  which  his  son 
constructed  a  history  of  the  campaign  of  1800. 
KELLOGG,  Clara  Louisa,  an  American  singer, 
born  in  Sumter,  S.  C.,  of  New  England  parents, 
in  1842.  At  the  age  of  seven  she  was  able  to 
read  difficult  music  at  sight.  She  was  educated 
in  this  country,  and  at  the  age  of  18  sang  at  a 
private  morning  performance  of  II  Poliuto  in 
the  New  York  academy  of  music.  Her  first 
public  appearance  was  made  at  the  same  place, 
Feb.  27,  1861,  in  the  role  of  Gilda  in  Verdi's 
Eirjoletto ;  and  on  March  19  she  made  her 
debut  in  Boston  in  Linda  di  Chamoitnix.  Her 
merits  were  quickly  recognized,  and  her  career 
almost  from  the  first  was  one  of  assured  suc 
cess.  In  1865  she  entered  into  an  engagement 
for  three  years  with  the  manager  of  the  Italian 
opera  in  New  York,  and  during  this  period 
added  constantly  to  her  fame.  The  most  notable 
of  her  impersonations  were  in  the  operas  of 
Crispino,  Fra  Diarolo,  and  Faust.  She  sang 
in  the  first  performance  of  the  last  named 
opera  in  America.  On  Xov.  2,  1867,  she  ap 
peared  successfully  at  Her  Majesty's  opera, 
London,  in  Faust.  Returning  to  America  in 
1868,  she  remained  here  for  four  years,  ap 
pearing  again  at  the  Drury  Lane  opera  in  the 
spring  of  1872.  In  the  winter  of  1873-'4  she 
organized  a  company  and  appeared  in  Engli^i 
opera  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United 
Stated.  Her  voice  is  a  pure  high  soprano, 
pleasing  in  quality,  remarkably  firm  and  cor 
rect  in  intonation,  and  of  considerable  power. 
Though  she  has  appeared  in  tragic  as  well  as 
in  comic  opera,  and  though  Marguerite  in  Gou 
nod's  Faust  is  one  of  the  best  of  her  roles, 
it  is  in  comic  opera  that  her  talents  as  a  singer 
and  as  an  actress  find  their  best  expression. 

KELIJNG,  a  town  of  the  Chinese  empire,  in 
the  N.  part  of  the  island  of  Formosa,  situated 
near  the  head  of  the  harbor,  and  important 
only  for  the  trade  carried  on  with  other  Chi 
nese  ports,  chiefly  in  rice,  camphor,  and  tea. 
Coal,  which  is  found  in  the  neighborhood,  was 
exported  in  1870-'71  to  the  extent  of  $500,000, 
chiefly  to  Shanghai.     Ivelung  and  Tanshui,  or 
Tamsui,  are  the  X.  ports  of  the  Chinese  por- 
(  tion  of  the  island  which  have  been  opened  to 
i  foreign  trade.     There  is  also  an  island  of  Ke- 
I  lung,  important  as  a  landmark  to  the  harbor, 
!  consisting  of  a  mass  of  black  rock  GOO  ft.  high. 


KEMBLE 


KEMBLE,  the  name  of  a  family  of  British 
actors.  I.  Roger,  the  founder  of  the  family, 
born  in  Hereford,  March  1,  1721,  died  in  1802.  ' 
He  was  during  a  great  portion  of  his  life  an 
actor  and  the  manager  of  provincial  companies. 
He  had  12  children,  of  whom  the  eldest  was 
the  celebrated  Mrs.  Siddons.  (See  SIDDONS, 
SARAH.)  II.  John  Philip,  eldest  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Prescot,  Lancashire,  Feb.  1, 
1757,  died  in  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  Feb.  26, 
1823.  He  was  educated  at  a  Roman  Catholic 
seminary  in  Staffordshire  and  at  the  English 
college  in  Douai,  France,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  upon  the  stage,  for  which  he  showed 
a  remarkable  inclination,  in  the  tragedy  of 
"  Theodosius,"  Jan.  8,  1776.  In  1783  he  first 
acted  at  Drury  Lane,  of  which  theatre  he  be 
came  manager  in  1790.  From  this  time  until 
his  retirement  he  stood  at  the  head  of  his  pro 
fession.  In  1803  he  became  a  part  owner  of 
Covent  Garden  theatre,  which  he  managed 
prosperously  until  its  destruction  by  fire  in 
1808.  The  opening  of  the  new  theatre  in  the 
succeeding  year  under  his  management  was 
the  signal  for  a  series  of  tumults,  known  as 
the  O.  P.  ("old  price")  riots,  excited  by  the 
increased  prices  required  for  admission.  For 
upward  of  60  nights  Kemble  and  the  members 
of  his  family  were  obliged  to  endure  every 
species  of  insult ;  but  a  compromise  was  final 
ly  effected,  and  the  theatre  was  liberally  and 
successfully  managed  until  Kemble's  retirement 
from  the  stage,  June  23,  1817,  an  occasion 
commemorated  by  the  poet  Campbell  in  one 
of  his  most  finished  odes.  The  latter  part  of 
his  life  was  passed  in  Lausanne,  whither  he 
had  retired  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  In 
the  personation  of  the  dramatic  heroes,  Cato, 
Coriolanus,  King  John,  Wolsey,  Macbeth,  and 
Lear,  he  had  no  rival  among  contemporaneous 
actors ;  and  in  characters  of  a  reflective  cast 
generally  he  is  probably  still  unequalled  on  the 
English  stage.  As  a  manager  he  distinguished 
himself  by  many  splendid  revivals  of  Shake 
speare's  plays.  In  private  life  he  was  highly 
esteemed.  III.  George  Stephen,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Kington,  Herefordshire, 
May  3,  1758,  died  near  Durham,  June  5,  1822. 
lie  was  intended  for  the  medical  profession, 
but,  following  his  inclination,  went  upon  the 
stage,  and  made  his  debut  in  London  in  Sep 
tember,  1783.  For  many  years  subsequently 
he  was  the  manager  of  a  provincial  company. 
He  was  a  good  actor,  but  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  became  so  corpulent  as  to  be  almost  in 
capacitated  for  any  other  part  than  Falstaff, 
which  he  frequently  acted.  IV.  Elizabeth  (Mrs. 
Whitlock),  sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Warrington,  Lancashire,  April  2,  1761,  died 
Feb.  27,  1836.  She  first  appeared  at  Drury 
Lane  theatre  in  February,  1783,  as  Portia. 
In  1785  she  was  married  to  Charles  Edward 
Whitlock,  a  provincial  manager  and  actor,  and 
seven  years  later  accompanied  her  husband  to 
the  United  States,  where  they  performed  for 
many  years  in  the  principal  cities.  Mrs.  Whit- 


lock  became  the  most  popular  actress  of  the 
day  in  America,  and  in  Philadelphia  frequently 
performed  before  President  Washington  and 
other  distinguished  persons.  She  returned  to 
England  in  1807  with  a  competency,  and  retired 
from  the  stage.  In  personal  appearance  and 
voice  she  is  said  to  have  strongly  resembled  her 
sister  Mrs.  Siddons.  V.  Charles,  the  llth  child 
of  Roger  Kemble,  born  in  Brecon,  South  Wales, 
Nov.  27,  1775,  died  in  London.  Nov.  12,  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  the  English  college  in 
Douai,  and  upon  returning  to  England  in  1792 
received  a  situation  in  the  general  post  office. 
He  soon  abandoned  this  for  the  stage,  and, 
after  several  trials  in  the  provinces,  made  his 
first  appearance  at  Drury  Lane  in  April,  1794, 
playing  for  the  occasion  Malcolm  to  John 
Kemble's  Macbeth  and  Mrs.  Siddons's  Lady 
Macbeth.  For  several  years  he  took  only  sec 
ondary  parts,  and  by  comparatively  slow  de 
grees  indicated  that  he  possessed  the  dramatic 
genius  of  the  family.  In  1800  he  first  ap 
peared  as  a  writer  for  the  stage  in  an  adapta 
tion  of  Mercier's  Deserteur,  entitled  "  The 
Point  of  Honor,"  and  subsequently  he  furnish 
ed  many  similar  pieces  from  the  German  and 
French  for  the  London  theatres.  He  began 
meanwhile  to  acquire  considerable  repute  in 
his  profession,  and  was  accounted  one  of  the 
best  genteel  comedians  of  his  time,  excelling 
in  such  parts  as  Benedick,  Petruchio,  Archer, 
Ranger,  Charles  Surface,  &c. ;  and  also  in 
that  numerous  class  of  serious  characters  rep 
resented  by  Faulconbridge,  Edgar,  Cassio, 
Mark  Antony,  &c.,  for  all  of  which  his  hand 
some  person  eminently  qualified  him.  In  1832 
he  made  a  successful  tour  in  the  United  States 
with  his  daughter,  Miss  Fanny  Kemble,  and  in 
1840  closed  his  career  as  an  actor.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  appointed  examiner  of  plays 
in  England.  VI.  Frances  Anne  (Mrs.  Butler), 

|  best  known  as  Fanny  Kemble,  daughter  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  London  in  1811.  Her 
mother,  long  known  on  the  English  stage  as 
Mrs.  Charles  Kemble,  was  originally  a  dan- 
seuse  at  the  opera  house,  London,  as  Miss  De 
Camp.  She  manifested  no  special  predilection 
for  the  stage,  but  was  induced,  in  consequence 
of  the  embarrassed  circumstances  of  her  fami 
ly,  to  make  her  debut  at  Covent  Garden,  then 
under  the  management  of  her  father,  in  Octo 
ber,  1829.  On  this  occasion  she  played  Juliet, 
her  father  taking  the  part  of  Romeo  and  her 
mother  that  of  the  nurse,  with  complete  suc 
cess,  notwithstanding  that  six  weeks  previous 
she  had  no  thought  of  embarking  in  a  dramatic 
career.  For  the  three  succeeding  years  she 
performed  leading  parts  in  tragedy  and  comedy 
with  great  applause,  distinguishing  herself  par 
ticularly  in  Juliet,  Portia,  Bianca  in  "Fazio," 
Julia  in  "The  Hunchback"  (the  latter  being 
originally  personated  by  her),  Bclvidera,  Isabel 
la,  Lady  Teazle,  and  Louise  de  Savoy,  in  her 

i  own  play  of  "  Francis  the  First,"  written  when 
she  was  17  years  old,  and  received  with  great 

i  approbation.     In  1832   she  accompanied  her 


KEMBLE 


KEMENY 


'85 


father  to  the  United  States,  and  met  with  an 
enthusiastic  reception  in  the  chief  cities.  In 
1834  she  was  married  to  Mr.  Pierce  Butler  of 
Philadelphia,  and  at  the  same  time  retired  de 
finitively  from  the  stage.  Incompatibility  of 
tastes  and  temperament  having  rendered  the 
union  an  unhappy  one,  a  separation  took  place 
at  the  end  of  a  few  years,  and  Mrs.  Butler  sub 
sequently  fixed  her  residence  in  Lenox,  Berk 
shire  co.,  Mass.  Previous  to  this  she  had  pub 
lished  her  first  work  in  prose,  "  A  Journal  of 
a  Residence  in  America"  (2  vols.,  London, 
1835),  chiefly  devoted  to  a  description  of  her 
tour  through  the  United  States.  It  was  followed 
in  1837  by  a  drama  entitled  "  The  Star  of  Se 
ville,"  which  was  acted  with  success ;  and  in 
1844  she  published  a  collection  of  her  poems,  a 
portion  of  which  only  had  previously  appeared. 
In  1840  she  visited  Europe,  extending  her  trav 
els  as  far  as  Italy,  where  her  sister,  Mrs.  Sarto- 
ris,  resided,  and  in  1847  published  an  account  of 
her  tour  under  the  title  of  "A  Year  of  Conso 
lation."  Shortly  afterward  steps  were  taken 
to  procure  a  divorce  from  her  husband,  which 
was  granted  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1849,  after  which  she  resumed  the  name  of 
Kemble.  In  the  winter  of  1848-'9  she  com 
menced  in  Boston  a  series  of  Shakespearian 
readings,  which  drew  crowded  audiences  ;  and 
during  the  next  two  years  she  repeated  the 
course  in  some  of  the  principal  American 
cities.  In  1851  she  returned  to  England,  reap 
peared  for  a  brief  period  on  the  stage,  and 
after  giving  readings  in  London  and  other 
parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  made  another 
long  continental  tour.  In  1856  she  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  continued  at  intervals 
to  give  readings  in  Boston  and  elsewhere,  till 
February,  1860.  She  then  returned  to  Eng 
land,  arid  while  residing  there  in  1863  she  pub 
lished  "Residence  on  a  Georgian  Plantation 
in  1838-'9,"  in  which  she  gives  from  personal 
observation  her  impressions  of  the  system  of 
slavery.  In  1866  she  returned  to  her  former 
residence  in  Lenox,  Mass.,  in  1868  gave  pub 
lic  readings  in  various  places,  and  in  1869  went 
to  Europe.  She  returned  in  1873,  and  has 
since  resided  near  Philadelphia.  VII.  Adelaide, 
younger  sister  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Lon 
don  about  1820,  made  .T,  brilliant  debut  at 
Covent  Garden  as  an  opera  singer ;  but  upon 
being  married  in  1843  to  Mr.  Edward  Sartoris, 
she  retired  from  the  stage.  In  1867  she  pub 
lished  "A  Week  in  a  French  Country  House." 
Her  son,  Algernon  Charles  Sartoris,  was  mar 
ried  at  Washington  in  May,  1874,  to  the  daugh 
ter  of  President  Grant. 

KEMBLE,  John  Mitchell,  an  English  historian, 
eldest  son  of  Charles  Kemble,  born  in  London 
in  1807,  died  in  Dublin,  March  26,  1857.  He 
was  educated  by  Dr.  Richardson,  author  of  the 
"English  Dictionary,"  and  afterward  at  Bury 
St.  Edmund's  grammar  school,  and  Trinity  col 
lege,  Cambridge.  In  1820  he  visited  Germany, 
and  at  this  time  commenced  his  study  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  kindred  Teutonic  dialects. 


He  became  acquainted  with  Thiersch,  the  bro 
thers  Grimm,  and  other  leading  philologists 
and  antiquaries  of  Germany.  In  1830  he  vis 
ited  Spain  in  order  to  cooperate  with  the  Span 
ish  liberals  against  the  government  of  King 
Ferdinand.  Returning  to  England,  he  began 
to  explore  everywhere,  in  the  British  museum 
and  in  cathedral  and  collegiate  libraries,  for 
manuscripts  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  which 
he  deciphered  with  remarkable  skill.  His  first 
public  effort  was  his  lectures  at  Cambridge  on 
the  Anglo-Saxon  literature  and  language  in 
1834-'5.  About  this  time  he  published  "The 
Anglo-Saxon  Poems  of  Beowulf,  the  Travel 
ler's  Song,  and  the  Battle  of  Finnesburgh,  with 
a  Glossary  and  Historical  Preface,"  to  the  sec 
ond  edition  of  which  he  added  a  translation  of 
Beowulf  with  a  glossary  and  notes.  From 
1835  to  1844  he  edited  the  "  British  and  For 
eign  Review,"  to  which  he  contributed  many 
valuable  anonymous  articles,  as  he  did  also  to 
the  Archceologia,  the  "  Cambridge  Philological 
Museum,"  the  "Foreign  Quarterly,"  and  lat 
terly  to  "Fraser's  Magazine."  The  article  on 
"  Jilkel's  Comparative  Philology  "  in  the  "  For 
eign  Quarterly  "  is  the  best  known  of  his  con 
tributions  to  periodical  literature.  In  1839  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  his  collection 
of  Anglo-Saxon  charters,  the  Codex  Diploma- 
ticus  ^Evi  Saxonici.  For  some  years  he  su 
perintended  the  publication  of  several  of  the 
archaeological  works  of  the  ^Elfric  and  Cam- 
den  societies.  In  1849  appeared  his  "  Saxons 
in  England,"  a  work  which  caused  Jakob 
Grimm  to  say  that  Kemble  was  the  first  of  his 
disciples.  From  July,  1849,  to  May,  1855,  he 
resided  in  the  north  of  Germany,  where  he 
prosecuted  his  studies,  and,  as  he  wrote  Ger 
man  with  as  much  facility  as  his  native  lan 
guage,  contributed  many  essays  to  the  "Trans 
actions  "  of  the  archaeological  society  of  Han 
over.  In  1854  he  was  employed  by  the  an 
tiquarian  society  of  Hanover  to  excavate  the 
sepulchral  barrows  of  pagan  times  on  the 
heath  of  Luneburg,  resulting  in  large  acces 
sions  to  the  Hanoverian  museum.  In  1857  ap 
peared  his  last  work,  "  State  Papers  and  Cor 
respondence  illustrative  of  the  Social  and  Po 
litical  State  of  Europe  from  the  Revolution 
(1688)  to  the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Han 
over."  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  en 
gaged  by  the  managers  of  the  Manchester  ex 
hibition  to  form  a  department  of  Celtic  and 
Anglo-Saxon  art.  His  unexpected  demise 
caused  the  abandonment  of  this  design. 

KEMEM,  Zsigmond,  baron,  a  Hungarian  au 
thor,  born  in  Transylvania  in  1816.  He  was  a 
liberal  member  of  the  upper  house  of  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  diet,  and  in  1X48  a  representative  in 
the  diet  of  Pesth.  After  editing  several  other 
journals,  he  became  in  1855  the  editor  of  the 
Pexti  Naplo,  which  since  the  restoration  of  the 
Hungarian  constitution  has  been  the  leading 
organ  of  the  Deak  party.  Among  his  princi 
pal  novels  are  Gyulai  Pal  ("Paul  Gynlai,"  5 
vols.,  Pesth,  1846)  and  Zord  ido  ("  Rough 


786 


KEMPELEN 


KEMPIS 


Times,"  4  vols.,  1861-'2).  Ho  is  also  the  au 
thor  of  several  political  pamphlets  and  bio 
graphical  sketches. 

KEMPELEN,  Wolfean?,  baron,  a  Hungarian 
mechanician,  born  in  Presburg,  Jan.  23,  1734, 
died  in  Vienna,  March  26,  1804.  He  entered 
at  first  upon  an  administrative  career,  and  be 
came  aulic  councillor.  He  was  an  excellent 
chess  player,  and  was  frequently  invited  to 
play  with"  Maria  Theresa,  who  was  a  passion 
ate*  lover  of  the  game.  Having  a  great  me 
chanical  genius,  he  in  1769  astonished  Europe 
with  his  automaton  chess  player.  Taken  to 
Paris  in  1784,  and  afterward  exhibited  by  Mr. 
Malzel  in  England  and  the  United  States,  the 
chess  player  caused  an  extraordinary  excite 
ment,  and  the  problem  was  not  explained  for 
many  years.  (See  AUTOMATON.)  Kempelen 
also  invented  an  automatic  speaking  human  fig 
ure,  which  pronounced  very  distinctly  several 
words;  a  curiosity  several  times  successfully 
imitated,  and  of  which  the  maker  published  an 
explanation  in  Le  mecanisme  de  la  parole,  sui- 
m  de  la  description  (Tune  machine  parlante, 
et  enrichi  de  27  planches  (1791).  He  wrote 
several  German  poems,  Perseus  und  Andro 
meda,  a  drama,  and  Der  uribekannte  Wohltha- 
ter,  a  comedy.  He  was  also  councillor  of 
finance  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  director  of 
the  salt  mines  of  Hungary,  and  referendary  of 
the  Hungarian  chancery  at  Vienna.  Full  de 
tails  of  the  mystery  of  the  automaton  chess 
player,  with  its  later  history,  are  given  in  an 
article  by  Prof.  G.  Allen  of  Philadelphia  in 
u  The  Book  of  the  First  American  Chess  Con 
gress"  (New  York,  1859). 

KEMPER,  an  E.  county  of  Mississippi,  bor 
dering  on  Alabama,  and  drained  by  affluents 
of  the  Tombigbee  and  other  streams;  area, 
750  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870,  12,920,  of  whom 
7,214  were  colored.  The  soil  is  mostly  fertile. 
The  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad  and  its  Gaines 
ville  branch  pass  through  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  218,350  bushels  of  In 
dian  corn,  36,995  of  sweet  potatoes,  64,010 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,964  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,140  horses,  902  mules  and  asses, 
2,118  milch  cows,  4,475  other  cattle,  3,174 
sheep,  and  10,316  swine.  Capital,  De  Kalb. 

KEMPER,  Reuben,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  died  in  Natchez,  Miss.,  in 
1826.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Baptist  preacher, 
who  emigrated  with  his  family  to  Ohio  in  1800. 
Reuben  subsequently  removed  with  two  of  his 
brothers  to  the  territory  of  Mississippi,  where 
they  engaged  in  land  surveying.  They  were 
the  leaders  in  the  movement  to  rid  West  Flori 
da  of  its  Spanish  rule,  and  got  up  an  expedi 
tion  to  Baton  Rouge  in  1808  from  the  adjacent 
counties  of  Mississippi,  which  failed.  The 
Spanish  authorities  caused  the  Kempers  to  be 
kidnapped,  but  they  were  rescued  by  the  com 
mander  of  the  American  fort  at  Pointe  Coupee. 
The  Kempers  pursued  with  great  ferocity  all 
who  were  engaged  in  this  wrong  upon  them, 
inflicting  severe  personal  chastisement  and  mu 


tilation  upon  the  parties.  After  these  occur 
rences  Reuben  Kemper  devoted  himself  to  the 
task  of  driving  the  Spaniards  from  the  Ameri 
can  continent.  He  was  engaged  in  an  attempt 
to  capture  Mobile,  which  failed ;  and  on  the 
fitting  out  of  the  formidable  expedition  of  Gu 
tierrez  and  Toledo,  in  1812,  against  the  Span 
ish  authority  in  Mexico,  he  was  assigned  the 
rank  of  major,  and  afterward  chosen  colonel 
of  the  force,  500  or  600  in  number,  which  co 
operated  with  the  Mexican  insurgents.  The 
expedition  advanced  into  Texas,  fought  several 
battles,  in  which  Kemper  and  his  Americans 
performed  feats  of  valor,  and  won  brilliant 
victories.  Dissensions  followed  between  the 
Mexicans  and  Americans,  and  the  Spaniards 
taking  advantage  of  them  put  the  republicans 
to  rout.  The  Americans,  disgusted  with  their 
allies,  then  returned  home.  Kemper  was  en 
gaged  under  Jackson  in  the  defence  of  New 
Orleans,  was  detached  for  important  and  peril 
ous  duty,  and  added  greatly  to  his  reputation 
by  his  activity  and  efficiency.  At  the  conclu 
sion  of  the  war  he  settled  in  Mississippi. 

KEMPIS,  Thomas  a,  a  German  ascetic  writer, 
born  at  Kempen,  near  Cologne,  in  1379  or  1380, 
died  at  Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwolle,  July 
26,  1471.  His  family  name  was  llammerken, 
"  Little  Hammer  "  (Lat.  Malleolus,  a  surname 
bestowed  on  him  by  several  writers).  At  the 
age  of  13  he  entered  the  school  conducted  at 
Deventer  by  the  "Brothers  of  the  Common 
Life,"  and  in  1396  became  an  inmate  of  the 
house  of  Brother  Florentius  Radewin,  superior 
general  of  the  order.  In  1400  he  began  his  nov- 
iceship  at  the  monastery  of  Mount  St.  Agnes, 
near  Zwolle,  of  which  his  brother  John  was 
prior,  and  in  1413  was  ordained  priest.  It  is 
thought  that  he  composed  about  this  time  the 
short  treatise  on  the  eucharist  which  now 
forms  the  fourth  book  of  the  "  Imitation  of 
Christ."  In  1425  he  was  elected  sub-prior  of 
the  monastery,  and  was  charged  with  the  spir 
itual  direction  of  the  novices.  In  1429  he  and 
his  brethren  were  forced  to  migrate  to  Lune- 
kerke,  in  Friesland ;  but  they  returned  to  Mount 
St.  Agnes  in  1432,  when  Thomas  became  trea 
surer  of  the  monastery.  In  1448  he  was  again 
elected  sub-prior,  and  held  this  post  till  his 
death.  Like  all  his  brethren,  Thomas  devoted 
himself  in  a  special  manner  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures  and  the  transcription  of  Biblical 
manuscripts.  Besides  his  most  famous  work, 
De  Imitation e  Christi,  and  several  ascetic  trea 
tises,  he  wrote  the  chronicle  of  the  monastery  of 
Mount  St.  Agnes  down  to  1471.  The  continu- 
ator  of  this  chronicle  says  of  him:  "Brother 
Thomas  a  Kempis  endured  great  poverty,  la 
bors,  and  trials  from  the  foundation  of  this 
monastery.  He  transcribed  the  whole  of  our 
Bible,  with  many  other  books  for  our  own  use 
i  and  for  strangers.  He  also  wrote  for  thebcne- 
!  fit  of  young  people  several  little  treatises,  in  a 
j  plain  and  simple  style,  but  rich  in  practical 
wisdom.  During  several  years  he  applied  him 
self  lovingly  to  the  contemplation  of  Christ's 


KEMPTEN 


KENAIANS 


787 


passion,  and  was  a  great  comforter  of  persons 
distressed  or  tempted."  He  owes  his  world-  J 
wide  fume  to  the  hook  entitled  De  Imitatione  \ 
Christ  i,  which  has  heen  many  times  translated  | 
into  every  civilized  language,  including  Greek  j 
and  Hebrew;  there  are  upward  of  60  different  j 
versions  in  French  alone,  and  500  different 
editions  of  it  issued  within  the  present  century 
are  found  in  a  library  at  Cologne.  The  most 
remarkable  modern  edition  is  one  in  seven  lan 
guages,  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  German, 
English,  and  Greek  (Sulzbach,  1837).  Its  au 
thorship  has  been  ascribed  to  Jean  Gerson,  chan 
cellor  of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  to  Gersen 
or  Gesen,  an  Italian  abbot ;  and  the  question 
has  been  debated  somewhat  writh  reference  to 
national  honor  and  the  interests  of  ecclesiasti 
cal  orders.  The  external  evidences  in  favor  of 
A  Kempis  are  the  facts  that  he  is  mentioned 
as  the  author  by  three  writers  nearly  his  con 
temporaries,  that  copies  exist  written  in  his 
own  hand,  and  that  in  one  ancient  copy  he  is 
stated  to  be  the  author.  There  is  said  also  to 
be  a  striking  likeness  in  style  and  refined  piety 
between  this  and  the  devotional  works  of  which 
he  is  certainly  the  author.  The  first  volume 
of  the  Prolegomena  of  a  new  edition  of  De 
Imitatio  Christ  i,  after  the  autograph  of  Thomas 
a  Kempis,  by  Ilirsche  (Berlin,  1873),  was  fol 
lowed  in  1874  by  the  Latin  edition  itself;  and 
a  second  volume  of  the  Prolegomena,  with  fac 
similes  of  documents,  is  in  course  of  publica 
tion.  This  edition  is  regarded  as  finally  set 
tling  the  question  of  the  authorship  of  the  work 
in  favor  of  A  Kempis.  The  only  complete  edi 
tion  of  the  writings  of  Thomas  a  Kempis  is  by 
the  Jesuit  Sommalius  (3d  ed.,  Antwerp,  1615). 
There  is  a  German  translation  of  his  complete 
works  by  Silbert  (4  vols.,  Vienna,  1834).  The 
best  biography  is  that  of  Mooren,  Nachrichten 
ulier  Thomas  d  Kempis  (Crefeld,  1855).  See 
also  Silbert,  Gersen,  Gerson  oder  Kempis  ? 
(Vienna,  1828).  (See  GEKSOX.) 

KEMPTEV,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  district 
of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  on  the  Iller,  G4  m.  S. 
W.  of  Munich;  pop.  in  1871,  10,982.  It  con 
sists  of  the  Lutheran  Altstadt,  which  is  situated 
in  a  valley  and  was  formerly  a  free  imperial 
town,  and  the  Catholic  Xeustadt,  on  a  hill.  It 
has  a  castle,  a  gymnasium,  a  Latin  school,  an 
agricultural  and  an  industrial  school,  and  man 
ufactories  of  paper  and  cotton. 

K.EX,  Thomas,  an  English  bishop,  born  at 
Berkhamstead,  Hertfordshire,  in  July,  1037, 
died  at  Longlcat,  Wiltshire,  March  19,  1711. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford, 
took  orders,  visited  Rome  in  1674  in  company 
with  his  nephew,  Izaak  Walton,  jr.,  and  after 
his  return  in  1679  was  nominated  chaplain  to 
Mary  princess  of  Orange,  whom  he  accompa 
nied  to  Holland.  He  was  chaplain  to  Lord  Dart 
mouth  during  the  expedition  against  Tangier, 
and  in  1684  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II., 
who  subsequently  made  him  bishop  of  Bath 
and  Wells.  Ken  attended  the  king  in  his  last 
illness.  Having  refused  to  read  in  his  church 


!  the  declaration  of  indulgence  issued  by  the 
J  government  of  James  II.,  he  was  writh  the 
;  other  six  recusants  committed  to  the  tower. 
When,  however,  after  the  revolution,  Ken  was 
required  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  new  sov 
ereign,  rather  than  do  so  he  suffered  himself  to 
be  deprived  of  his  bishopric,  and  retired  into 
obscurity  and  comparative  poverty.  lie  was 
the  author  of  many  devotional  writings,  the 
most  popular  of  which  are  his  morning  and 
evening  hymns.  An  edition  of  his  works,  in 
4  vols.  8vo,  was  published  in  1721. — See  his 
uLife,"  by  G.  L.  Duyckinck  (Xew  York,  1859). 
KE1VAIAINS,  the  name  generally  given  to  the 
division  of  the  great  Athabascan  family  living 
in  Alaska.  The  name  is  derived  from  Kenai, 
the  peninsula  between  Cook's  inlet  and  Prince 
William  sound,  but  has  been  extended  from 
the  tribe  dwelling  there  to  include  all  the  In 
dians  N.  W.  of  Copper  river  and  W.  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  except  the  Aleuts  and  the  Esqui 
maux.  They  have  lost  greatly  in  numbers  by 
wars  with  the  Esquimaux,  but  as  late  as  1869 
were  estimated  at  25,000.  They  resemble  the 
Tartars  in  the  practice  of  the  Shaman  religion, 
scarification,  burning  the  dead,  infanticide, 
caste,  <fec.  As  in  many  other  nations,  each 
tribe  is  divided  into  clans  or  families,  there 
being  among  the  Kenaians  three,  Chitsa,  Matesa, 
and  Ateetsa ;  no  man  can  marry  in  his  own 
clan,  and  his  children  belong  to  the  mother's 
clan.  They  wear  leather  tunics,  or  pointed 
shirts  (from  which  the  term  Chipeweyan  is 
said  to  be  derived),  with  trousers  and  shoes 
attached.  The  tunic  of  the  women  is  rather 
longer,  rounded  in  front,  and  trimmed  with 
hyaqua  shells.  The  men  paint  their  faces  and 
wear  hyaqua  shells  in  the  nose,  while  the  wo 
men  tattoo  lines  on  the  chin.  They  collect 
wealth  and  have  a  system  of  barter,  using 
hyaqua  shells  or  beads  as  money.  The  men 
are  fewer  in  number  than  the  women,  but  bet 
ter  looking.  On  arriving  at  puberty  girls  are 
separated  from  the  rest  for  a  year,  and  wear 
a  peculiar  bonnet  with  fringes  over  the  face. 
They  generally  burn  their  dead,  collecting  the 
ashes  in  a  leathern  bag,  which  is  suspended  on 
a  painted  pole,  planted  in  a  clear  elevated  spot ; 
but  some  of  the  tribes  now  bury  the  dead  or 
place  them  on  elevated  stages.  The  Kenaians 
embrace:  1,  the  Nehaunees,  on  the  Lewis, 
Tahco,  and  Pelly,  ignorant,  barbarous,  cow 
ardly,  and  treacherous ;  including  the  Chil- 
kahtena,  the  Abbatitena,  and  the  Dahotena, 
the  Sicanees  of  the  voyagevrs  and  the  Mauvais 
Monde  or  Slav6  at  Francis  lake;  2,  the  Tut- 
chonekutchin,  which  means  Crow  Indians, 
called  also  Gens  des  Foux,  Caribous,  or  Moun 
tain  Indians,  on  both  sides  of  the  Yukon ;  3, 
the  Ahtena,  S.  W.  of  them,  on  the  Atna  or 
Copper  river;  4,  the  Kenai,  called-by  the  Rus 
sians  Ugalentzi,  who  use  birch  canoes,  bury 
their  dead,  and  place  wooden  tombs  over  them  ; 
5,  the  Hunkutchin.  next  to  the  Crows  on  the 
Yukon ;  6,  the  Tukkuthkutchin,  south  of  Por 
cupine  river;  7,  the  Vuntakutchin,  that  is, 


788 


KENDAL 


KENDALL 


Rat  Indians,  north  of  the  Porcupine,  called  also 
Loucheux,  Lake  Indians,  and  Quarrellers ;  8, 
the  Natchekutchin,  that  is,  strong  people,  mi 
gratory  hunters,  called  also  Gens  de  Large  and 
Loucheux ;  9,  the  Kutchakutchin,  near  the 
Porcupine  and  Yukon,  called  also  Lowland 
people ;  10,  the  Tenanakutchin  or  Gens  de 
Butte,  on  Tenana  river;  and  on  the  lower 
Yukon  the  Unokhotana,  Coyukkhotana,  and 
Karyukkhotana,  a  large  tribe  called  by  the  Rus 
sians  Ingaliks,  probably  an  Esquimaux  name. 
These  three  tribes  cannot  converse  with  the 
Kutchins,  though  their  language  is  similar. 

KENDAL,  or  Kirkby-Kendal,  a  market  town 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Westmoreland, 
England,  40  m.  S.  of  Carlisle,  situated  in  a 
pleasant  valley  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Ken ; 
pop.  in  1871,  13,442.  Queen  Catharine  Parr 
was  born  here.  Kendal  is  an  important  manu 
facturing  town,  and  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
kingdom,  the  woollen  manufacture  having  been 
established  there  by  Flemish  weavers,  on  the 
invitation  of  Edward  III.,  in  the  14th  century. 
Its  green  cloth  seems  to  have  been  celebrated 
in  the  time  of  Shakespeare.  On  an  eminence 
E.  of  the  town  is  the  ruined  castle  of  the  an 
cient  barons  of  Kendal. 

KENDALL.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  in 
tersected  by  the  Guadalupe  river  ;  area,  1,400 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,536,  of  whom  101  were 
colored.  Two  thirds  of  the  surface  is  covered 
with  timber,  and  the  remainder  is  prairie.  It- 
is  one  of  the  best  counties  for  sheep  raising  in 
the  state.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
51,245  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  8,781  Ibs.  of 
wool,  26,458  of  butter,  and  381  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,345  horses,  2,337  milch  cows, 
10,074  other  cattle,  4,293  sheep,  and  1,734 
swine.  Capital,  Boerne.  II.  A  1ST.  E.  county 
of  Illinois,  drained  by  Fox  river  and  the 
sources  of  the  Au  Sable ;  area,  324  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,399.  It  has  an  undulating 
surface,  diversified  by  woodland  and  prairie. 
The  soil  is  uniformly  fertile.  The  Chicago, 
Burlington,  and  Quincy  railroad  passes  through 
it,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific 
touches  the  S.  E.  corner.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  91,930  bushels  of  wheat, 
681,267  of  Indian  corn,  468,890  of  oats,  79,365 
of  potatoes,  39,884  Ibs.  of  wool,  386,050  of 
butter,  and  23,740  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
7,275  horses,  5,988  milch  cows,  8,835  other 
cattle,  12,236  sheep,  and  14,892  swine;  12 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  9  of 
carriages,  1  of  printing  paper,  5  flour  mills, 
and  1  tannery.  Capital,  Oswego. 

KENDALL,  Amos,  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Dunstable,  Mass.,  Aug.  1 6, 1789,  died  in  Wash 
ington,  D.  C.,  Nov.  11,  1869.  Until  the  age  of 
16  he  worked  on  his  father's  farm,  and  in  1807, 
after  a  little  more  than  a  year's  preparation,  he 
entered  Dartmouth  college,  where  in  1811  he 
graduated  the  first  in  his  class,  although  a  large 
part  of  his  time  had  been  occupied  with  teaching 
for  a  support.  Having  studied  law  and  been 
admitted  to  the  bar,  in  the  spring  of  1814  he 


emigrated  to  Lexington,  Ky.  Finding  his  pro 
fessional  labors  not  immediately  remunerative, 
he  again  resorted  to  teaching,  and  for  several 
months  was  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Henry 
Clay.  Subsequently  he  established  himself  in 
Georgetown,  where  he  was  appointed  postmas 
ter,  and  in  the  intervals  of  his  practice  edited 
a  local  newspaper.  In  1816  he  was  attached 
to  the  staff  of  the  state  journal  at  Frankfort, 
called  the  "Argus  of  Western  America,"  and 
showed  himself  an  able  political  writer.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  friends  of  common 
schools  in  Kentucky,  and  succeeded  in  procu 
ring  the  passing  of  an  act  to  district  the  state, 
and  to  set  apart  one  half  the  profits  of  the  bank 
of  the  Commonwealth  to  constitute  a  school 
fund.  He  was  a  firm  supporter  of  the  election 
of  Gen.  Jackson,  who  in  1829  appointed  him 
fourth  auditor  of  the  treasury  department.  In 
1835  he  was  made  postmaster  general,  and  in 
one  year  reorganized  tjie  financial  system  of 
the  department,  and  freed  it  from  the  debt 
with  which  it  had  been  embarrassed.  In  1836 
he  procured  from  congress  a  reorganization  of 
the  department  on  a  plan  suggested  by  himself, 
which  has  undergone  no  essential  alteration 
since.  He  was  retained  in  office  by  Mr.  Vim 
Buren,  but  retired  from  the  cabinet  in  June, 
1840,  in  order  to  further  the  interests  of  the 
democratic  party  in  the  presidential  election  of 
that  year.  He  never  afterward  entered  public 
life,  although  a  foreign  mission  was  offered  to 
him  by  President  Polk,  but  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  his  profession.  For  many  years  he 
was  embarrassed  by  a  suit  instituted  against 
him  by  certain  mail  contractors,  which  was  ul 
timately  decided  in  his  favor  in  the  supreme 
court.  In  1845  he  assumed  the  entire  manage 
ment  of  Prof.  Morse's  interest  in  the  Ameri 
can  electro-magnetic  telegraph.  In  1865-'6  he 
travelled  through  Europe  and  visited  Egypt  and 
Palestine.  He  is  the  author  of  "Life  of  An 
drew  Jackson,  Private,  Military,  and  Civil,"  be 
gun  in  1843,  but  never  completed.  He  founded 
and  was  first  president  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum  in  Washington,  and  was  a  liberal  bene 
factor  to  other  religious  and  educational  in 
stitutions.  His  "Autobiography,"  edited  by 
William  Stickney,  was  published  in  1872. 

KENDALL,  George  Wilklns,  an  American  jour 
nalist,  born  in  Amherst,  now  Mount  Vernon, 
N.  H.,  about  1807,  died  at  Oak  Spring,  near 
Bowie,  Texas,  Oct.  21,  1867.  He  travelled  ex 
tensively  through  the  southern  and  western 
states,  working  at  his  trade  as  a  journeyman 
printer.  In  1835  he  went  to  New  Orleans,  and 
not  long  afterward  established  there,  in  part 
nership  with  Mr.  F.  A.  Lumsden,  the  "  Pica 
yune,"  the  first  cheap  daily  newspaper  issued 
in  New  Orleans,  which  under  his  direction  be 
came  a  leading  southern  journal.  He  joined 
the  Santa  Fe  expedition  which  in  1841  set  out 
from  Austin,  Texas,  and  of  which  he  published 
an  account,  embracing  his  own  captivity  and 
sufferings  in  Mexico,  entitled  "Narrative  of 
the  Texan  Santa  Fe  Expedition  "  (2  vols.  12mo, 


KENDRICK 


KENILWORTH 


789 


1844).  During  the  Mexican  war  he  accompa 
nied  the  American  forces  under  Taylor  and 
Scott,  and  witnessed  the  chief  contiicts  during 
the  contest.  After  its  termination  he  passed 
two  years  in  Europe,  superintending  the  publi 
cation  of  a  costly  illustrated  work,  which  ap 
peared  in  1851  in  a  folio  volume  under  the  ti 
tle  of  "  The  War  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  embracing  12  Colored  Plates  of 
the  Principal  Conflicts,  by  Carl  Nebel."  In 
1852  he  established  a  large  grazing  farm  in  Co- 
mal  co.,  central  Texas,  where  he  resided  until 
his  death. 

KEiXDRICK,  Isabel  Clark,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Poultney,  Vt.,  Dec.  7,  1809.  He  went 
when  about  13  years  of  age  to  Hamilton,  N.  Y., 
and  in  1831  graduated  at  Hamilton  college, 
Clinton.  He  was  immediate 
ly  appointed  tutor  in  the  lit 
erary  and  theological  institu 
tion  at  Hamilton  (nojv  Madi 
son  university),  and  the  next 
year  was  made  professor  of 
Greek  and  Latin.  Released 
after  a  few  years  from  the  Lat 
in  department,  he  remained 
the  Greek  professor  till  1850, 
when,  on  the  establishment 
of  the  university  of  Roches 
ter,  he  was  called  to  the  Greek 
professorship  in  that  institu 
tion,  where  he  still  remains. 
In  1852  he  visited  Europe, 
attending  the  lectures  in  the 
university  at  Athens,  and  vis 
iting  several  Italian  and  Ger 
man  universities,  returning 
home  in  1854.  Though  in 
clerical  orders,  he  has  never 
had  a  pastoral  charge.  In  ad 
dition  to  the  studies  of  his 
own  department,  he  has  paid 
much  attention  to  oriental 
learning.  Besides  numerous 
contributions  to  magazines 
and  reviews,  and  several  ser 
mons,  he  has  published  a  re 
vised  edition  of  Olshausen's 
"  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament "  (0 
vols.,  New  York,  1853  -'8),  translating  some 
portions  for  the  first  time;  "Echoes,"  a  small 
volume  of  translations  from  the  French  and 
German  poets  (Rochester,  1855);  "Life  and 
Letters  of  Emily  C.  Judson "  (New  York, 
1860) ;  "  Our  Poetical  Favorites  "  (New  York, 
1870);  and  numerous  Greek  text  books,  the 
last  of  which  is  an  edition  of  Xenophon's 
Anabasis,  with  notes  and  vocabulary  (New 
York,  1873).  In  1867  he  translated  and  anno 
tated  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  for  Lange's 
"Commentary."  In  1868  he  made  a  second 
visit  to  Europe.  During  the  years  1865-'8,  in 
addition  to  his  duties  in  the  university,  he  filled 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  and  New  Testament  in 
terpretation  in  the  Rochester  theological  semi 
nary.  He  is  now  (1874)  one  of  the  board  of 


New  Testament  revisers  working  in  connec 
tion  with  the  British  committee  appointed  by 
the  convocation  of  Canterbury. 

KENEH,  or  Gheneh  (anc.  Ccenopolis\  a  city  of 
Upper  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile, 
33  m.  N.  of  the  ruins  of  Thebes ;  pop.  about 
10,000.  It  is  an  emporium  of  trade  with  the 
Arabian  coast,  and  manufactures  famous  water 
jars  and  bottles. 

KENILWORTH,  a  parish  and  village  of  War 
wickshire,  England,  about  equidistant  (5  m.) 
from  Leamington,  Warwick,  and  Coventry, 
containing  the  splendid  ruins  of  Kenilworth 
castle.  Of  the  original  structure  only  a  mas 
sive  tower  called  Caesar's  tower  is  now  stand 
ing  ;  but  there  are  considerable  remains  of  sub 
sequent  additions.  Among  these  is  part  of  the 


Caesar's  Tower,  Kenilworth. 

great  hall  erected  by  John  of  Gaunt,  86  ft.  in 
length  by  45  in  width,  with  windows  on  both 
sides,  and  fireplaces  at  either,  end.  The  walls 
of  Caesar's  tower  are  in  some  places  16  ft. 
thick.  Kenilworth  was  founded  by  Geoffrey 
de  Clinton,  treasurer  to  Henry  I.,  and,  having 
passed  to  the  crown,  was  bestowed  by  Henry 
III.  on  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester. 
When  De  Montfort  was  defeated  and  killed, 
his  adherents  held  it  for  six  months  against  the 
king,  and  at  length  made  favorable  terms  of 
capitulation.  Edward  II.  was  prisoner  in  it 
for  some  time.  Edward  III.  bestowed  it  on 
John  of  Gaunt,  who  built  large  additions  to 
it.  When  his  son  Henry  Bolingbroke  became 
king,  it  was  again  vested  in  the  crown,  until 
Queen  Elizabeth  bestowed  it  on  her  favorite, 
Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester.  Elizabeth  visited  it 


'90 


KENNEBEC 


KENNEDY 


three  times,  the  last  in  1575,  being  the  occasion 
so  graphically  narrated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in 
his  novel  of  "Kenihvorth."  The  castle  was 
dismantled  in  the  time  of  Cromwell.  After 
the  restoration  it  belonged  to  the  family  of 
Clarendon,  and  is  now  the  property  of  the 
family  of  Eardley-Wilmot. 

KENNEBEC,  a  S.  county  of  Maine,  traversed 
from  N.  to  S.  by  Kennebec  river,  and  touched 
on  the  west  by  the  Androscoggin ;  area,  1,050 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  58,021.  It  has  an  undu 
lating  surface,  diversified  by  numerous  small 
lakes,  and  a  very  fertile  soil.  The  Maine  Cen 
tral  railroad  and  the  Augusta  division  pass 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  25,822  bushels  of  wheat,  111,246  of  In 
dian  corn,  170,371  of  oats,  122,027  of  barley, 
733,026  of  potatoes,  137,231  Ibs.  of  wool, 
1,176,423  of  butter,  154,727  of  cheese,  and 
113,153  tons  of  hay.  There  were  7,563  horses, 
13,252  milch  cows,  5,4<S1  working  oxen,  12,- 
163  other  cattle,  31,975  sheep,  and  4,086 
swine  ;  11  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple 
ments,  33  of  carriages,  2  of  cars,  4  of  cotton 
goods,  4  of  edge  tools  and  axes,  6  of  iron  cast 
ings,  14  of  machinery,  7  of  marble  and  stone 
work,  5  of  oil  cloth,  3  of  printing  paper,  13  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  11  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  2  of  steel  springs,  3  of  stone  and  earth 
en  ware,  14  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  4  of  woollen  goods,  35  saw  mills,  6  flour 
mills,  19  tanneries,  and  10  currying  establish 
ments.  Capital,'  Augusta,  which  is  also  the 
capital  of  the  state. 

KENNEBEC,  a  river  of  Maine,  and  next  to  the 
Penobscot  the  most  important  in  the  state.  Its 
principal  source  is  Moosehead  lake  in  the  N.  W. 
part  of  the  state,  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Somerset  and  Piscataquis  counties.  It  issues 
from  the  lake  on  its  S.  Wr.  shore,  and  after  a 
course  of  20  m.  receives  Dead  river  from  the 
right.  Its  direction  is  then  changed  from  S. 
W.  to  S.,  and  from  this  course  it  has  but  one 
considerable  deviation,  namely,  in  the  S.  part 
of  Somerset  co.,  where  it  flows  12  m.  E.  It 
enters  the  Atlantic  in  Sagadahoc  co.,  through 
Sheepscott  bay,  an  irregular  indentation  of  the 
coast  studded  with  many  islands.  The  largest 
tributary  of  the  Kennebec  is  the  Androscog 
gin,  which  joins  it  18  m.  from  the  ocean  at 
Merrymeeting  bay.  The  outlets  of  a  number 
of  small  ponds,  and  Sebasticook  and  Sandy 
rivers,  also  flow  into  it.  The  most  important 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Bath,  Richmond,  Gar 
diner,  Hallowell,  Augusta,  Waterville,  and 
Norridgewock.  It  has  falls  at  Waterville  and 
at  three  points  above,  which  afford  excellent 
motive  power.  Its  whole  length  is  about  150 
m.,  in  which  it  has  a  descent  of  1,000  ft. 
Large  ships  can  ascend  it  to  Bath,  12  m., 
steamboats  to  Hallowell,  40  m.,  and  small  craft 
to  Waterville,  54  m.  The  influence  of  the  tide 
extends  to  Augusta,  42  m.  from  the  sea.  A 
dam  with  locks  has  been  constructed  at  Au 
gusta  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  navi 
gation  above  that  point,  and  increasing  the 


water  power.  The  river  is  closed  by  ice  at 
Hallowell  from  the  middle  of  December  to 
about  the  1st  of  April ;  below  Bath  it  is  open 
at  all  seasons  except  during  severe  winters. 

KENNEDY.  I.  Benjamin  Hall,  an  English  cler 
gyman,  born  at  Summer  Hill,  near  Birming 
ham,  Nov.  6, 1804.  He  graduated  at  St.  John's 
college,  Cambridge,  in  1827,  was  elected  fellow 
and  classical  lecturer  in  1828,  became  assistant 
master  at  Harrow  in  1830,  and  was  appointed 
head  master  of  Shrewsbury  school  in  1836. 
In  1841  he  became  prebendary  of  Lichfield, 
and  in  1860  was  appointed  select  preacher  to 
the  university.  He  resigned  his  head  master 
ship  in  1866,  and  was  appointed  regius  profes 
sor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge,  and  the  next  year 
canon  of  Ely.  He  has  published  "The  Psalter 
in  English  Verse  "  (1860),  "Elementary  Greek 
Grammar"  (1862),  and  "Public  School  Latin 
Grammar"  (1871).  II.  Charles  Rann,  an  Eng 
lish  barrister,  brother  oi  the  preceding,  born 
in  Birmingham,  March  1,  1808,  died  in  1867. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  was  elected  fellow,  entered  Lincoln's  Inn, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1835,  and  settled  at 
Birmingham.  Besides  several  law  books,  he 
published  "Poems,  Original  and  Selected" 
(1843);  in  conjunction  with  his  father,  the 
Rev.  Rann  Kennedy,  the  u  Works  of  Virgil," 
in  blank  verse  (2  vols.,  1850);  "Specimens  of 
Greek  and  Latin  Verse  "  (1853) ;  "  Orations  of 
Demosthenes,"  translated  into  English,  with 
notes,  appendices,  &c.  (5  vols.,  1841-'63) ;  and 
"Hannibal,"  a  poem,  part  i.  (1866). 

KENNEDY,  Grace,  a  Scottish  authoress,  born 
in  Ayrshire  in  1782,  died  Feb.  28,  1825.  She 
passed  the  greater  part  of  her  life  in  Edin 
burgh,  and  subsequent  to  1811  was  an  indus 
trious  writer  of  works  of  fiction  of  a  moral 
and  religious  character,  which  were  greatly 
esteemed  at  home  and  abroad.  Among  the 
most  successful  were  "Decision,"  "Father  Cle 
ment,"  "Anna  Ross,"  "  Dunallan,"  "Jessie 
Allan,"  &c.,  nearly  all  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  the  French  and  other  languages. 
Her  works  were  all  published  under  an  as 
sumed  name. 

KENNEDY,  John  Pendleton,  an  American  au 
thor,  born  in  Baltimore,  Oct.  25,  1795,  died  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  Aug.  18,  1870.  He  graduated 
at  Baltimore  college  in  1812,  and  in  1816  was 
admitted  to  the  practice  of  the  law,  which  he 
followed  successfully  for  20  years.  In  1818-'20, 
in  connection  with  his  friend  Peter  Hoffman 
Cruise,  he  published  the  "Red  Book,"  a  serial 
in  prose  and  verse  issued  about  once  a  fort 
night.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland 
house  of  delegates  in  1820-'23.  He  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  President  J.  Q.  Adams, 
and  strongly  advocated  the  protective  policy. 
In  1832  he  published  "Swallow  Barn,  or  a 
Sojourn  in  the  Old  Dominion,"  descriptive  of 
plantation  life  in  Virginia;  and  in  1835  "  Horse 
shoe  Robinson,  a  Tale  of  the  Tory  Ascendancy," 
the  most  successful  of  his  writings.  In  1838 
he  published  "  Rob  of  the  Bowl,  a  Legend  of 


KENNET 


KENOSHA 


791 


St.  Inigoe's,"  relating  to  the  Maryland  province 
in  the  days  of  Cecilius  Calvert.  All  three 
works,  revised  and  illustrated,  were  repub- 
lished  in  New  York  in  1852.  Mr.  Kennedy 
was  elected  to  congress  in  1838,  and  one  of  the 
whig  presidential  electors  in  1840.  He  was  re- 
elected  to  congress  in  1841  and  1843,  was  de 
feated  by  a  small  vote  in  1845,  and  in  1846 
was  returned  to  the  Maryland  house  of  dele 
gates,  and  chosen  speaker.  In  1849  appeared 
his  "Life  of  William  Wirt,  Attorney  General 
of  the  United  States."  In  1852  President  Fill- 
more  appointed  him  secretary  of  the  navy,  in 
which  position  he  warmly  favored  Perry's  Ja 
pan  expedition  and  Kane's  second  arctic  voyage 
in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  retired  in 
March,  1853.  Of  his  occasional  writings  and 
addresses,  the  best  known  are  "  Quodlibet " 
and  "Defence  of  the  Whigs."  During  the 
civil  war  he  wrote  "Mr.  Ambrose's  Letters 
on  the  Rebellion  "  (New  York,  18G5).  At  his 
death  he  was  provost  of  the  university  of 
Maryland,  vice  president  of  the  Maryland  his 
torical  society,  chairman  of  the  trustees  of  the 
Peabody  academy,  and  a  member  of  various 
literary  and  scientific  institutions.  His  "  Life," 
by  II.  T.  Tuckerrnan,  was  published  in  1871. 

RENNET,  White,  an  English  bishop,  born  in 
Dover  in  1600,  died  in  Peterborough  in  1728. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  made 
bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1718.  He  left  a 
number  of  works,  among  which  are:  "Eccle 
siastical  Synods  and  Convocations  historically 
stated  and  vindicated  against  Dr.  Atterbury  " 
(London,  1701);  "  The  Case  of  Irnpropriations, 
and  of  the  Augmentation  of  Vicarages  and 
other  insufficient  Cures,  stated  by  History  and 
Law  "  (1704) ;  "  History  of  England,  from  the 
Accession  of  Charles  I.  to  that  of  Queen 
Anne,"  published  in  the  collection  of  English 
histories  compiled  by  John  Hughes  (1706) ; 
"Bibliothecm  American®  Primordia,  an  attempt 
toward  laying  the  Foundation  of  an  American 
Library"  (1713) ;  and  "  A  Register  and  Chron 
icle,  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil"  (172S).  His 
"  Life  "  was  published  in  1730.  He  left  a  valu 
able  collection  of  manuscripts,  purchased  by 
Lord  Shelburne,  and  now  part  of  the  "  Lans- 
downe  manuscripts"  in  the  British  museum. 

REXXICOTT,  Benjamin,  ru  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Totness,  Devonshire,  April  4,  1718, 
died  in  Oxford,  Sept.  18,  1783.  He  was  of 
humble  parentage,  and  certain  gentlemen  con 
tributed  funds  to  send  him  to  Oxford  in  1744. 
Here  he  so  distinguished  himself  by  the  publi 
cation  of  two  dissertations  on  the  "  Tree  of 
Life"  and  the  "  Oblations  of  Cain  and  Abel," 
that  he  obtained  his  degree  of  B.  A.  before  the 
regular  time.  Soon  afterward  he  was  chosen 
fellow  of  Exeter  college,  and  in  1767  he  be 
came  keeper  of  the  Radcliffe  library  at  Oxford. 
He  undertook  to  purify  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Old  Testament,  maintaining,  in  an  essay  en 
titled  "  The  State  of  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the 
Old  Testament  considered,"  that  the  extant 
MSS.  contained  important  errors,  and  that  the  | 


text  of  the  standard  Hebrew  Bible  was  in  many 
parts  corrupt.  The  publication  of  this  dis 
sertation  excited  a  violent  controversy.  Among 
his  opponents  were  Rutherford,  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  Bishop  Warburton,  and 
Home,  afterward  bishop  of  Norwich.  At 
Kennicott's  suggestion  a  subscription  of  £10,- 
000  was  raised  to  defray  the  cost  of  making  a 
collation  of  all  extant  MSS.  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment.  Several  eminent  scholars  engaged  in 
the  work,  Kennicott  himself  examining  and 
collating  all  the  MSS.  of  Great  Britain  and 
France,  and  Prof.  Brims  those  of  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy.  The  task  occupied 
nine  years,  during  which  16  Samaritan  and 
over  600  Hebrew  MSS.'were  either  wholly  or 
in  part  collated  ;  and  the  materials  resulting 
from  this  investigation  filled  when  transcribed 
30  folio  volumes.  As  the  result  of  this  labor, 
Kennicott  published  his  Vetus  Testamcntum 
Heltraicum  cum  Variis  Lcctionibus  (2  vols. 
fol.,  Oxford,  1776-'80),  founded  chiefly  on  the 
text  of  Van  der  Hooght. 

REXOSIIA,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Wisconsin, 
bounded  E.  by  Lake  Michigan  and  S.  by  Illi 
nois,  and  drained  by  Des  Plaines  and  Fox 
rivers;  area,  306  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  13,147. 
It  has  a  level  and  thinly  timbered  surface,  with 
a  fertile  soil  resting  on  beds  of  limestone.  The 
Kenosha  and  Milwaukee  divisions  of  the  Chi 
cago  and  Northwestern  railroad  pass  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  ls7o  were  214,- 
567  bushels  of  wheat,  269,036  of  Indian  corn, 
359,343  of  oats,  45,473  of  barley,  134,403  of 
potatoes,  13,377  of  flax  seed,  3!)5,070  Ibs.  of 
flax,  242,611  of  wool,  480,599  of  butter,  308,- 
000  of  cheese,  and  44,404  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  4,707  horses,  7,109  milch  cows,  7,150 
other  cattle,  49,277  sheep,  and  0,290  swine ;  8 
manufactories  of  carriages,  4  of  cheese,  2  of 
iron  castings,  1  of  machinery,  2  of  malt,  3  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  2  breweries,  3  tanneries, 
3  currying  establishments,  and  2  flour  mills. 
Capital,  Kenosha. 

REXOSIIA,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Kenosha  co.,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Michigan  and 
on  the  Kenosha  and  Milwaukee  divisions  of  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad,  30  m.  S. 
of  Milwaukee;  pop.  in  1870,  4,3(>9.  It  is  built 
on  a  bluff,  and  has  a  good  harbor  with  piers 
extending  into  the  lake.  It  has  an  extensive 
trade  in  the  products  of  the  surrounding 
country,  which  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
The  manufactures  are  important.  The  princi 
pal  establishments  are  two  founderies,  three 
tanneries,  two  breweries,  three  malt  houses, 
marble  works,  a  flax  mill,  a  planing  mill,  a 
machine  shop,  three  manufactories  of  hard 
ware,  one  of  telegraph  insulators,  one  of 
cheese  boxes,  two  of  ploughs,  eight  of  boots 
and  shoes,  one  of  fanning  mills,  three  of 
cabinet  ware,  three  of  sash  and  doors,  and  one 
of  pumps.  There  are  a  national  bank,  three 
public  schools  including  a  high  school,  a  fe 
male  seminary,  two  weekly  newspapers,  and 
10  churches.  Kenosha  was  settled  in  1836. 


792 


KENRICK 


RENRICK.  I.  Francis  Patrick,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  Dublin,  Dec. 
3,  1797,  died  in  Baltimore,  July  8,  1863.  He 
received  a  classical  education  in  the  schools  of 
his  native  city,  and  at  the  age  of  18  was  sent 
to  Rome  to  study,  lie  spent  two  years  in  the 
house  of  the  Lazarists  and  four  at  the  college 
of  the  Propaganda,  where  he  was  ordained 
priest.  In  1821  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
having  been  chosen  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Propaganda  to  conduct  an  ecclesiastical 
seminary  just  established  at  Bardstown,  Ky. 
In  the  duties  of  this  office  he  passed  nine  years, 
visiting  also  from  time  to  time  the  scattered 
missions  of  the  diocese.  He  published  in  1828 
u  Letters  of  Omicron  to  Omega,"  in  reply  to 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Blackburn,  who  had  attacked, 
under  the  signature  of  Omega,  the  Roman 
Catholic  doctrine  of  the  eucharist.  On  June 
G,  1830,  he  was  consecrated  at  Bardstown 
bishop  of  Arath  in  partibus  infidelium,  and 
coadjutor  to  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  Conwell,  bishop 
of  Philadelphia,  with  powers  of  administrator. 
On  Dr.  ConwelPs  death  in  1842  Bishop  Ken- 
rick  became  his  successor.  During  the  anti- 
Catholic  riots  in  1844,  he  caused  an  address  to 
be  posted  up  throughout  the  city  calling  upon 
the  Catholics  to  preserve  peace  and  charity, 
and  made  every  exertion  to  calm  the  agitation 
of  both  parties.  He  founded  the  theological 
seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  in  Phila 
delphia,  and  in  1849  introduced  into  his  dio 
cese  the  sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  who  de 
vote  themselves  to  the  care  of  Magdalen  asy 
lums.  In  1851  Bishop  Kenrick  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Baltimore,  in  place  of  Arch 
bishop  Eccleston,  deceased.  The  pope  named 
him  "  apostolic  delegate "  to  preside  over  the 
lirst  plenary  council  of  the  United  States,  con 
vened  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1852,  and  in  1859 
conferred  upon  him  and  his  successors  the 
"primacy  of  honor,"  which  gives  them  prece 
dence  over  all  other  Roman  Catholic  prelates 
in  this  country.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
war  Archbishop  Kenrick  labored  earnestly  to 
inculcate  peace  and  submission  to  the  laws  and 
the  constituted  authorities.  Until  his  death  he 
read  publicly  in  his  cathedral  the  prayer  for 
the  president  of  the  United  States.  His  theo 
logical  works  are  regarded  as  classical  in  Ame 
rica,  and  used  as  text  books  in  several  semi 
naries.  In  Europe  they  are  also  held  in  great 
esteem,  and  referred  to  as  standard  authorities 
in  all  religious  questions  that  are  purely  Ame 
rican.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  en 
gaged  on  a  revised  English  translation  of  the 
Bible,  with  copious  notes,  and  had  published 
the  whole  of  the  New  Testament  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  Old.  His  principal  works 
are :  Theologia  Dogmatica  (4  vols.  8vo,  Phila 
delphia,  1839-'40;  2ded.,  3  vols.  8vo,  Mechlin, 
1858,  with  valuable  additions);  Theologia  Mo- 
ralis  (3  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1841-'3;  2d  ed., 
Mechlin,  1859);  "The  Primacy  of  the  Apos 
tolic  See  Vindicated"  (4th  ed.,  Baltimore, 
1865);  "The  Catholic  Doctrine  on  Justifica 


tion  explained  and  vindicated "  (Philadelphia, 
1841);  "Treatise  on  Baptism"  (New  York, 
1843) ;  "  Vindication  of  the  Catholic  Church  " 
(Baltimore,  1855);  "  The  New  Testament "  (« 
vols.,  New  York,  1849-'51) ;  "  The  Psalms,  Book 
of  Wisdom,  and  Canticle  of  Canticles  "  (Balti 
more,  1857);  "Job  and  the  Prophets"  (Balti 
more,  1859);  and  "The  Pentateuch"  (Balti 
more,  1860).  He  also  wrote  the  article  on  the 
"  Roman  Catholic  Church  "  in  the  "  New  Amer 
ican  Cyclopaedia."  II.  Peter  Richard,  arch 
bishop  of  St.  Louis,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1806.  He  was  educated  at 
Maynooth,  and,  having  been  ordained  priest  in 
Ireland,  he  came  to  Philadelphia,  where  his 
brother  was  already  coadjutor.  Mr.  Kenrick 
was  there  employed  in  pastoral  and  literary 
labor;  the  "  Catholic  Herald,"  at  the  period  of 
its  highest  reputation,  was  under  his  charge, 
and  he  wrote  a  number  of  translations  and 
original  works.  He  was  also  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  vicar  general,  and  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Drasa  in  partibus  infidelium,  and  co 
adjutor  of  St.  Louis  with  right  of  succession, 
Nov.  30, 1841.  By  the  death  of  Bishop  Rosati 
two  years  after  (1843),  Dr.  Kenrick  became 
bishop  of  St.  Louis;  and  in  1847  he  became 
the  first  archbishop  of  that  city.  At  the  com 
mencement  of  his  administration  Bishop  Ken 
rick  found  the  finances  of  his  diocese  in  a  de 
plorable  condition  ;  but  by  skilful  measures  he 
gradually  extricated  the  diocese  from  this  situa 
tion,  and  finally  rendered  it  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  in  the  United  States  in  a  financial 
point  of  view.  The  archbishop  also  received 
in  1858  a  large  bequest,  which  has  enabled  him 
to  accomplish  many  beneficial  enterprises.  The 
hospital  under  the  care  of  the  sisters  of  chari 
ty,  by  his  munificence,  has  been  made  free, 
and  dispenses  its  benefits  alike  to  all,  without 
distinction  of  faith,  creed,  or  color.  The  or 
phanage  of  St.  Philomena,  the  convents  of 
the  Visitation  and  the  Good  Shepherd,  and 
numerous  other  institutions  either  of  charity 
or  education,  attest  the  prosperity  of  the  church 
under  his  government.  He  has  adorned  the 
environs  of  St.  Louis  with  a  cemetery  which 
in  beauty  and  extent  of  the  grounds  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world.  Archbishop  Kenrick 
was  present  at  the  Vatican  council,  and  was 
one  of  the  foremost  of  the  American  prelates 
in  maintaining  the  inopportuneness  of  defi 
ning  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility.  The 
speech  which  he  had  prepared  was  published 
in  Naples  in  1870,  and  in  New  York  in  1872. 
He  however  acquiesced  in  the  definition,  and 
promulgated  it,  together  with  the  other  de 
crees  of  the  council,  in  his  diocese.  Besides  a 
number  of  translations,  and  editions  of  devo 
tional  works,  he  has  published  "The  Holy 
House  of  Loreto,  or  an  Examination  of  the 
Historical  Evidence  of  its  Miraculous  Transla 
tion  "  (12mo),  and  "Anglican  Ordinations" 
(8vo).  The  latter  work  elicited  several  rejoin 
ders;  by  Roman  Catholics  it  is  generally  re 
garded  as  conclusive  in  the  controversy. 


KENSETT 


KENT 


'93 


KENSETT,  John  Frederick,  an  American  artist, 
born  in  Cheshire,  Conn.,  March  22,  1818,  died 
in  New  York,  Dec.  10,  1872.  He  studied  en 
graving  under  his  uncle  Alfred  Daggett  of  New 
York,  and  for  several  years  executed  vignettes 
for  bank  notes,  occasionally  attempting  painting 
as  a  recreation.  In  1840  he  visited  England,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1845  exhibited  in  the  royal 
academy,  London,  his  first  picture,  a  distant 
view  of  Windsor  castle,  the  purchase  of  which 
by  a  prize  holder  of  the  London  art  union  en 
couraged  him  to  persevere  in  his  new  profes 
sion,  lie  subsequently  passed  two  winters  in 
Rome,  sending  home  occasionally  pictures  of 
Italian  scenery,  several  of  which  became  the 
property  of  the  American  art  union.  His 
"View  on  the  Anio"  and  "Shrine,"  exhibited 
at  the  academy  of  design  in  New  York  in  1848, 
first  brought  him  prominently  before  the  pub 
lic,  and  established  his  reputation.  After  an 
absence  of  about  seven  years  he  returned  to 
America,  and  settled  in  New  York.  He  pro 
duced  many  representations  of  American  sce 
nery  under  various  aspects,  those  in  which 
rocks,  trees,  or  water  are  prominent  features 
being  among  his  most  characteristic  and  suc 
cessful  works.  The  mountainous  regions  of 
New  England  and  New  York,  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  the  middle  states,  and  the  sea 
shore  furnished  him  with  frequent  subjects. 
Among  his  most  popular  works  are  his  "View 
of  Mt.  Washington  from  North  Conway " 
(1849),  "Franconia  Mountains"  (1853),  "Oc 
tober  Day  in  the  White  Mountains"  (1855), 
"  Hudson  River  from  Fort  Putnam  "  (1856), 
"Falls  of  the  Bashpish,"  "Sunset  on  the 
Coast"  (1858),  "Eagle  Cliff,  Manchester, 
Mass."  (1859),  "  Sunset  in  the  Adirondacks  " 
(1860),  and  subsequently  numerous  views  on 
the  Genesee  and  Hudson  rivers  and  Lake 
George,  and  several  taken  in  the  vicinity  of 
Newport,  R.  I.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  national  art  commission  having 
the  direction  of  the  ornamentation  of  the  capi- 
tol  at  Washington,  and  the  superintendence  of 
the  works  of  art  deposited  there.  In  1848  he 
was  elected  an  associate  and  in  1849  a  member 
of  the  national  academy  of  design. 

KENT.  I.  A  central  county  of  Rhode  Island, 
bounded  E.  by  Narragansett  bay,  and  W.  by 
Connecticut;  area,  186  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
18,595.  It  has  a  diversified  surface  and  a 
good  soil,  and  is  drained  by  Flat,  Pawtuxet, 
Moosup,  and  Wood  rivers.  The  Hartford, 
Providence,  and  Fishkill,  and  the  Stonington 
and  Providence  railroads  pass  through  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,152  bushels 
of  rye,  31,707  of  Indian  corn,  4,955  of  oats, 
94,035  of  potatoes,  103,227  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
10.234  tons  of  hay.  There  were  on  farms 
1,081  horses,  2,380  milch  cows,  1,882  other 
cattle,  1,509  sheep,  and  2,001  swine;  9  manu 
factories  of  clothing,  23  of  cotton  goods,  9  of 
drugs  and  chemicals,  2  of  iron  castings,  4  of 
cotton  and  woollen  machinery,  5  of  tin,  cop 
per,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4  of  woollen  goods, 


4  print  works,  2  bleaching  and  dyeing  estab 
lishments,  17  saw  mills,  and  5  Hour  mills. 
Capital,  East  Greenwich.  II.  A  central  county 
of  Delaware,  bounded  E.  by  Delaware  bay, 
and  W.  by  Maryland ;  area,  640  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  29,804,  of  whom  7,164  were  colored. 
It  has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  fertile  soil, 
and  is  drained  by  Choptank  and  Marshy  Hope 
rivers.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Delaware,  the 
Delaware  and  Maryland,  the  Smyrna  branch, 
and  the  Junction  and  Breakwater  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  321,954 
bushels  of  wheat,  885,178  of  Indian  corn, 
145,238  of  oats,  81,788  of  Irish  and  25,418  of 
sweet  potatoes,  15,195  Ibs.  of  wool,  221,212  of 
butter,  and  7,239  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
5,232  horses,  1,436  mules  and  asses,  6,222 
milch  cows,  1,274  working  oxen,  5,235  other 
cattle,  5,316  sheep,  and  11,421  swine  ;  6  manu 
factories  of  agricultural  implements,  4  of  bas 
kets,  6  of  bricks,  21  of  carriages,  3  of  canned 
and  preserved  fruits,  6  of  iron  castings,  1  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  3  tanneries,  2  currying  estab 
lishments,  13  saw  mills,  and  6  flour  mills. 
Capital,  Dover,  which  is  also  the  capital  of  the 
state.  III.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Maryland, 
bounded  E.  by  Delaware  and  W.  by  Chesa 
peake  bay,  and  drained  by  Sassafras  and  Ches 
ter  rivers;  area,  240  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
17,102,  of  whom  7,732  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  slightly  diversified,  and  the  soil  moder 
ately  fertile.  The  Kent  County,  railroad  passes 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  473,601  bushels  of  wheat,  723,824  of 
Indian  corn,  143,653  of  oats,  44,003  of  pota 
toes,  26,550  Ibs.  of  wool,  155,974  of  butter, 
and  4,380  tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,535 
horses,  3,518  milch  cows,  5,218  other  cattle, 
6,154  sheep,  and  12,866  swine;  2  manufac 
tories  of  packing  boxes,  5  of  carriages,  3  Hour 
mills,  and  1  saw  mill.  Capital,  Chestertown. 
IV.  A  W.  county  of  the  S.  peninsula  of  Michi 
gan,  drained  by  Grand,  Rouge,  and  Thornapple 
rivers;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  50,403. 
The 'surface  is  moderately  uneven,  and  the  soil, 
which  is  very  fertile,  consists  of  deep  vege 
table  loam  on  a  substratum  of  clay.  It  is  well 
timbered,  and  contains  limestone,  gypsum,  and 
salt.  It  is  traversed  by  six  railroads.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  704,08!)  bushels 
of  wheat,  405,281  of  Indian  corn,  343,550  of 
oats,  480,999  of  potatoes,  251,721  Ibs.  of  wool, 
25,944  of  hops,  86,336  of  maple  sugar,  862,309 
of  butter,  and  47,983  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
8,386  horses,  9,095  milch  cows,"  2,009  working 
oxen,  8,586  other  cattle,  63,360  sheep,  and  13,- 
199  swine.  There  were  45  saw  mills,  18  flour 
mills,  7  iron  founderies,  and  many  other  man 
ufacturing  establishments,  chiefly  in  Grand 
Rapids,  the  capital. 

KENT.  I.  A  S.  W. 'county  of  Ontario,  Can 
ada,  bounded  S.  E.  and  S.  by  Lake  Erie,  W. 
by  Lake  St.  Clair,  and  N.  W.  by  Big  Bear 
creek;  area,  951  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  40,634, 
of  whom  12,531  were  of  English,  8,893  of 


794. 


KENT 


Irish,  7,452  of  Scotch,  3,693  of  French,  3,909 
of  African,  and  2,788  of  German  descent.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Great  Western  and  Canada 
Southern  railways,  and  intersected  by  the  river 
Thames.  The  surface  is  generally  level,  and 
the  soil,  especially  in  the  river  bottoms,  is  fer 
tile.  Wheat,  maize,  oats,  and  tobacco  are  the 
principal  productions.  Capital,  Chatham.  II. 
An  E.  county  of  New  Brunswick,  Canada,  bor 
dering  on  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  North 
umberland  strait;  area,  1,720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  19,101,  of  whom  10,701  were  of  French, 
3.041  of  Scotch,  2,504  of  Irish,  and  2,480  of 
English  descent.  The  Richibucto  and  Cocagne 
or  Cocayne  are  the  principal  rivers.  The 
coasts  are  broken  by  several  good  harbors, 
which  afford  excellent  opportunities  for  ship 
building.  Nearly  half  the  county  is  unsettled, 
and  the  most  valuable  production  is  timber, 
which  is  exported  in  large  quantities  to  Eng 
land.  Capital,  Richibucto. 

KENT,  a  maritime  county  of  England,  form 
ing  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  Great  Britain,  bor 
dering  on  Essex  (from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Thames  and  its  estuary),  Middlesex,  Surrey, 
Sussex,  the  North  sea,  and  the  strait  of  Dover ; 
area,  1,624  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  847,507.  The 
northern  border  is  skirted  by  broad  marshes ; 
and  the  N.  E.  coast  is  made  very  irregular  in 
outline  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Thames  and 
Medway.  A  large  peninsula  projects  between 
the  two,  its  northern  portion  forming  the  dis 
trict  called  the  Isle  of  Grain.  A  branch  of 
the  Medway,  called  the  Swale,  cuts  off  from 
the  mainland  a  large  tract  known  as  the  Isle  of 
Sheppey.  The  E.  end  of  the  county,  separated 
from  the  rest  by  the  narrow  river  Stour,  forms 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  terminating  in  the  North 
Foreland,  and  having  an  area  of  about  40  sq. 
m.  The  surface  of  the  county  is  hilly,  the 
range  terminating  at  many  points  on  the  E. 
and  S.  E.  coast  in  high  chalk  cliffs.  Else 
where  (especially  in  Pegwell  bay  and  at  Rom- 
ney  marsh,  near  the  S.  end  of  the  county)  the 
shore  is  low.  Both  the  N.  E.  and  S.  E.  coasts 
are  rendered  dangerous  by  outlying  sand  banks, 
the  best  known  and  most  dreaded  being  the 
celebrated  Goodwin  Sands,  lying  off  the  shore 
between  the  Isle  of  Thanet  and  the  South 
Foreland,  a  cape  projecting  into  the  strait  of 
Dover.  The  county  has  several  important 
ports,  the  chief  of  which  are  Dover,  Folke 
stone,  and  Gravesend.  The  Downs,  between 
the  Goodwin  Sands  and  the  mainland,  fur 
nishes  the  most  frequented  roadstead  of  the 
English  coast.  Several  of  the  minor  coast 
towns  are  well  known  watering  places,  among 
them  Margate  and  Ramsgate.  The  Medway  is 
the  principal  river  having  its  entire  course  in 
the  county;  of  the  smaller  streams,  the  Swale 
and  Stour  are  important  from  their  positions. 
Kent  is  mainly  an  agricultural  county,  its  allu 
vial  soil  and  pleasant  climate  insuring  a  large 
production.  Hops  are  raised  to  a  great  ex 
tent.  Estates  are  small,  and  are  mostly  in 


j  under  the  Saxon  law  of  gavelkind,  now  nearly 
1  peculiar  to  this  county.     The  chief  towns,  be 
sides  the  ports  already  named,  are  Canterbury, 
Rochester,  Greenwich,  Maidstone,   and  Chat- 
I  ham. — The  authentic  history  of  Kent  extends 
|  further  back  than  that  of   almost  any  other 
i  part   of   England.     The   Romans   made   their 
I  first  landing  on  the  coast  of  this  county,  and 
I  the  region,  called  by  them  by  the  Latinized 
j  form  (Cantium)  of  its  name,  was  regarded  with 
I  special  favor   and  included  their  earliest  set- 
|  tlements.     Later,  the  legendary  Saxon  chiefs 
Hengist  and  Horsa  are  said  to  have  landed  in 
Pegwell  bay;    and  the  earliest  battles  of  the 
Saxon  invasion  were  undoubtedly  fought  in 
Kent,  which  afterward  constituted  one  of  the 
kingdoms  of  the  heptarchy.     It  was  again  the 
scene  of  important  battles  at  the  Norman  in 
vasion,  against  which  the  Kentish  men  made  a 
desperate  and  long  continued  resistance.     The 
insurrections   of   Wat   Tyler   and  Jack   Cade 
broke  out  in  Kent;  it  was  the  scene  of  impor- 
!  tant  events  during  the  wars  of  the  roses  ;  and 
j  a  third  rebellion,  that  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt, 
j  arose  here  under  Queen  Mary.     The  county  is 
very  rich  in  Roman   and   Saxon   antiquities, 
historic  buildings,  and  ruins ;    and  its   eccle 
siastical  edifices,  including  Canterbury  cathe 
dral,  Aylesford  priory,  and  others,  are  of  great 
|  celebrity  and  beauty. 

RENT,  Edward  Augastns,  duke  of,  fourth  son 
of  George  III.  of  England,  and  father  of  Queen 
|  Victoria,  born  Nov.  2,  1767,  died  Jan.  23, 1820. 
|  He  joined  the  army,  and  was  under  the  com- 
|  mand  of  Sir  Charles  Grey  in  the  attack  on  the 
|  French  West  India  islands,  where  he  was  no- 
[  ticed  for  his  bravery;  and  in  compliment  to 
I  him  the  name  of  Fort  Royal  in  Martinique  was 
j  changed  to  Fort  Edward.     Soon  afterward  he 
was  made  governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  created 
duke  of  Kent  and  Strathearne,  with  a  seat  in 
the  house  of  lords,  and  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  North  Amer 
ica.     The  island  of  St.  John  changed  its  name 
in  his  honor  to  Prince  Edward  island,  which 
it  still  retains.     In  May,  1818,  he  married  the 
j  widow  of  the  prince  of  Leiningen,  youngest 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.     Alex- 
andrina   Victoria,   now  queen,   was   the   only 
child  of  this  union. 

RENT,  James,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Philippi,  Putnam  co.,  N.  Y.,  July  31,  1763, 
died  in  New  York,  Dec.  12,  1847.  "  His  grand 
father,  the  Rev.  Elisha  Kent,  whose  family 
was  early  established  at  Suffolk,  Conn.,  became 
in  1740  the  Presbyterian  clergyman  of  Philippi. 
His  father,  Moss  Kent,  Esq.,  was  a  lawyer,  and 
for  some  years  surrogate  of  Rensselaer  co. 
James  Kent  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1781, 
studied  law,  was  admitted  in  1785  as  an  at 
torney,  and  in  1787  as  a  counsellor,  and  com 
menced  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Pough- 
keepsie.  He  soon  became  remarkable  among 
!  his  contemporaries  for  his  legal  learning  and 
literary  attainments.  He  was  elected  succes- 


herited  equally  by  all  the  sons  of  intestates,  j  sively  in  1790  and  1792  a  member  of  the  legis- 


KENT 


95 


lature  for  Dutchess  co.  The  country  was  then 
excited  by  political  discussions,  arising  from 
the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  and 
Mr.  Kent  became  an  active  and  leading  fede 
ralist,  attracting  the  notice  and  contidence  of 
Hamilton  and  Jay.  It  was  by  Hamilton's  coun 
sel  that  the  reading  of  the  young  lawyer  was 
directed  to  the  doctrines  of  the  civil  law,  and 
the  treatises  of  the  jurists  of  continental  Eu 
rope  ;  and  thus  he  acquired  the  deep  knowl 
edge  of  the  works  of  Pothier,  Emerigon,  and 
other  civilians,  which  is  to  be  traced  through 
out  his  own  writings.  In  1793  he  was  an  un 
successful  candidate  for  a  seat  in  congress  for 
Dutchess  co.,  and  in  the  same  year  removed  to 
New  York,  and  was  appointed  by  Gov.  Jay 
one  of  the  two  masters  in  chancery  for  that 
city.  In  1796  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
legislature,  and  also  professor  of  law  in  Co 
lumbia  college.  Three  of  his  lectures  in  the 
latter  capacity,  forming  together  an  introduc 
tion  to  his  general  course,  were  published  in 
1797,  and  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of  the 
legal  profession.  In  1797  he  was  appointed 
recorder  of  the  city,  an  officer  then  administer 
ing  a  court  of  civil  jurisdiction  ;  and  the  extra 
ordinary  ability  he  exhibited  in  the  office  in 
duced  Gov.  Jay  in  1798  to  nominate  him  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state.  He 
continued  a  member  of  this  tribunal  till  1814, 
having  been  from  1804  chief  justice.  The  su 
preme  court  at  that  time  was  formed  after  the 
model  of  the  English  king's  bench,  being  com 
posed  of  live  judges,  who  rode  the  circuits  to 
try  jury  cases,  and  convened  during  the  year 
at  four  appointed  terms  to  decide  reserved 
questions  of  law.  Both  the  court  and  the  law 
itself  were  in  a  rudimental  state.  There  were 
no  American  law  books,  and  no  reports  of 
American  decisions,  except  those  of  Mr.  Dallas, 
which  were  just  commenced.  The  proceed 
ings  of  the  court  were  languid  and  dilatory  ; 
and  resort  was  had  for  rules  of  procedure  and 
principles  of  law  almost  exclusively  to  English 
precedents  and  decisions.  The  accession  to  the 
bench  of  a  young,  energetic,  and  able  judge 
produced  a  striking  change.  It  was  the  diffi 
cult  task  of  the  court  to  expound  the  prin 
ciples  of  the  common  law  as  applicable  to 
American  institutions;  to  define  and  limit  our 
new  constitutional  provisions ;  to  construe  re 
cent  statutes;  to  bring  the  principles  of  com 
mercial  law  to  bear  upon  transactions  of  trade 
and  commerce ;  to  devise  rules  of  practice;  and 
in  short  to  adapt  to  a  young  and  rising  nation 
a  complicated  yet  practical  code  of  laws.  That 
"this  work  was  well  accomplished,  and  that  a 
large  portion  of  its  success  must  be  attributed 
to  the  unremitting  energy  and  talent  of  the 
chief  justice,  will  appear  from  the  reports  of 
Mr.  Parsons,  and  the  14  volumes,  entitled 
"Johnson's  Cases"  and  "Johnson's  Reports," 
of  the  decisions  of  the  supreme  court  during 
the  time  of  Mr.  Justice  Kent.  By  the  consti 
tution  of  New  York  as  it  then  existed  an  im 
portant  political  duty  was  imposed  on  the  ju 


diciary  of  the  state.  The  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  and  the  chancellor  formed  with  the  gov 
ernor  a  council  of  i;e vision,  possessing  a  quali 
fied  veto  on  the  acts  of  the  legislature.  This 
council  was  abolished  by  the  constitutional 
convention  of  1822,  the  judges  themselves  ac 
quiescing  in  the  change.  They  felt  that,  though 
the  council  was  often  a  salutary  check  upon 
hasty  and  unwise  legislation,  the  effect  upon 
the  judiciary  was  unfavorable,  as  exposing  it 
to  the  influence  and  excitements  of  political 
parties.  The  subsequent  publication  of  the  pro 
ceedings  of  the  council  of  revision  displays  Mr. 
Kent  as  prominent  and  efficient  in  the  discharge 
of  his  political,  as  he  had  been  in  performing 
his  judicial  duties.  In  1814  Chief  Justice  Kent 
was  appointed  chancellor.  Up  to  that  time 
the  court  of  chancery  had  been  of  secondary 
importance  in  the  jurisprudence  of  the  state. 
This  was  partly  owing  to  the  nature  of  its  busi 
ness.  Complicated  trusts  and  intricate  settle 
ments  of  property,  which  form  the  peculiar 
subjects  of  chancery  jurisdiction,  belong  to  an 
advanced  period  of  national  growth.  But  the 
|  proceedings  of  the  court  had  been  dilatory  ;  its 
mode  of  practice  was  circuitous  and  expensive, 
and  the  court  was  regarded  with  disfavor  both 
by  the  profession  and  the  community.  The 
change  effected  by  Chancellor  Kent  was  aptly 
described  in  an  address  presented  to  the  chan 
cellor  by  the  members  of  the  bar,  on  his  retire 
ment  from  the  office  after  nine  years'  admin 
istration  of  its  duties.  They  compared  him  to 
Lord  Nottingham,  the  English  chancellor,  who 
|  was  described  by  Blackstone  as  the  founder  of 
|  the  equity  system  of  England,  and  who  was 
"enabled  in  the  course  of  nine  years  to  build  a 
system  of  jurisprudence  and  jurisdiction  upon 
wise  and  national  foundations.''  The  seven 
I  volumes  of  Johnson's  "Chancery  Reports" 
|  contain  the  decisions  of  Chancellor  Kent,  and 
:  present  a  profound  and  extended  exposition 
|  of  the  whole  system  of  equity  law.  In  1822 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  convention 
-called  to  revise  the  constitution  of  the  state. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussions  of 
this  body,  and  displayed  a  power  of  debate 
remarkable  for  one  so  long  retired  from  foren 
sic  discussions.  His  opinions  were  strongly 
conservative.  He  opposed  without  success  the 
extension  of  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  other 
democratic  innovations  ;  but  his  personal  in 
fluence  and  character  preserved  for  the  time 
the  court  of  chancery,  which  he  believed  to  be 
a  useful  means  of  administering  justice.  In 
1823  his  official  term  ended  ;  and,  having  at 
tained  the  age  of  (50,  he  found  himself,  by  tho 
then  existing  constitution  of  the  state,  prevent 
ed  from  holding  judicial  office.  iStill  in  vigor 
ous  health,  he  soon  formed  for  himself  new 
!  occupations.  Returning  to  the  city  of  New 
York,  whence  he  had  removed  on  becoming 
a  judge,  he  was  reflected  professor  of  law  in 
!  Columbia  college,  and  for  several  years  he  de- 
I  livered  courses  of  lectures  on  law  to  numerous 
'  classes,  which  were  embodied  in  his  k'  Com- 


796 


KENT 


KENTUCKY 


mentaries  on  American  Law"  (4  vols.  8vo, 
1826-'30).  This  work  has  since  passed  through 
many  editions,  and  has  acquired  a  world-wide 
celebrity.  It  has  assumed  in  the  United  States 
the  position  long  filled  in  England  by  Black- 
stone's  "  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Eng 
land."  It  embraces  not  merely  the  jurispru 
dence  of  the  federal  Union,  but  the  municipal 
law,  written  and  unwritten,  of  the  several 
states.  Vast  and  comprehensive  in  plan,  elab 
orate  and  minute  in  research,  the  beauties  of 
its  style  and  its  historical  learning  commend  it 
to  the  general  reader,  while  it  has  been  proved 
to  be  the  best  guide  to  the  law  student,  and  a 
valuable  aid  to  the  practical  lawyer.  The  last 
years  of  Chancellor  Kent's  life  were  passed 
in  tranquil  pursuits,  in  enlarging  and  correct 
ing  his  "  Commentaries,"  in  giving  opinions 
on  legal  subjects,  in  advising  and  deciding  on 
controversies  submitted  to  him,  and  performing 
all  the  duties  of  an  active  and  patriotic  citizen. 
In  1836  he  wrote  and  published,  at  the  request 
of  the  common  council  of  the  city,  a  compen 
dious  treatise  on  the  charter  of  New  York  and 
the  powers  of  the  municipal  officers. — His  son 
WILLIAM,  born  in  1802,  was  prominent  as  a 
lawyer  and  judge  in  New  York,  and  in  1846-'7 
was  professor  of  law  in  Harvard  university. 
He  died  at  Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  4,  1861. 

RENT,  William,  an  English  artist,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1685,  died  April  12, 1748.  He 
was  apprenticed  to  a  coach  painter,  but  found 
patrons  who  enabled  him  to  study  in  Rome, 
where  in  1716  he  met  the  earl  of  Burlington, 
with  whom  he  returned  to  England,  and  whose 
guest  he  remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  was  much  employed  as  an  artist,  but  neither 
as  a  painter  nor  sculptor  rose  above  mediocrity. 
He  became,  however,  the  founder  of  modern 
landscape  gardening  in  England,  by  laying  out 
Kensington  gardens  in  accordance  with  prin 
ciples  of  perspective  and  light  and  shade,  thus 
putting  an  end  to  the  bad  taste  which  had  up 
to  that  time  disfigured  English  pleasure  grounds. 
As  an  architect  he  is  said  to  have  designed  the 
admirable  structures,  Ilolkham  house  and  the 
temple  of  Venus  at  Stowe. 

KENTON,  a  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  separated 
from  Ohio  by  the  Ohio  river,  and  bounded  E. 
by  Licking  river ;  area,  140  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  36,096,  of  whom  1,657  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  very  uneven,  but  the  soil  is  fer 
tile.  Much  of  it  is  laid  out  in  market  gardens, 
whose  products  are  sold  in  Cincinnati.  The 
Kentucky  Central  and  the  Louisville  and  Cin 
cinnati  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  33,564  bushels  of 
wheat,  30,870  of  rye,  374,165  of  Indian  corn, 
69,489  of  oats,  80,545  of  potatoes,  360,983  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  16,538  of  wool,  226,128  of  butter, 
and  3,875  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,847 
horses,  2,698  milch  cows,  2,558  other  cattle, 
5,598  sheep,  and  13,838  swine ;  2  manufactories 
of  agricultural  implements,  7  of  brick,  5  of  car 
riages,  9  of  cooperage,  2  of  cordage  and  twine, 
1  of  glass  \vare,  4  of  iron  forged  and  cast,  3  of 


marble  and  stone  work,  5  of  saddlery  and  har 
ness,  2  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  5  of  tin,  cop 
per,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  9  of  tobacco  and  snuff, 
1  of  wire  work,  4  distilleries,  4  breweries,  1 
saw  mill,  and  2  flour  mills.  Capitals,  Indepen 
dence  and  Covington. 

KENTON,  Simon,  an  American  pioneer,  born 
in  Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  April  3,  1755,  died  in 
Logan  co.,  O.,  April  29,  1836.  At  the  age  of 
16  he  had  an  affray  with  a  young  man  arising 
out  of  a  love  affair ;  and  believing  he  had  killed 
his  adversary,  he  fled  beyond  the  Alleghanies 
and  became  a  companion  of  Boone  and  the 
other  early  pioneers  of  Kentucky.  For  a  time 
he  acted  as  a  spy  of  Gov.  Dunmore,  and  sub 
sequently  participated  in  the  warfare  waged 
against  the  British  and  the  Indians  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  showing  remarkable  courage,  saga 
city,  and  endurance.  In  1782,  learning  that 
his  rival  was  living,  he  returned  to  his  native 
place,  arid  soon  after  removed  with  his  father's 
family  to  Kentucky.  He  was  frequently  en 
gaged  in  Indian  warfare,  until  the  expedition 
under  Wayne  in  l793-'4  restored  tranquillity 
to  the  western  frontier.  As  the  country  began 
to  fill  up  with  settlers,  his  lands,  to  which,  in 
consequence  of  his  ignorance  of  or  indifference 
to  legal  forms,  he  had  never  secured  perfect 
titles,  were  taken  from  him,  and  by  repeated 
lawsuits  he  was  reduced  to  penury.  He  never 
theless  took  up  arms  in  the  war  of  1812,  and 
fought  with  the  Kentucky  troops  at  the  battle 
of  the  Thames.  In  1824  he  appeared  in  Frank 
fort  in  tattered  garments  to  petition  the  legis 
lature  of  Kentucky  to  release  the  claim  of  the 
state  upon  some  mountain  land  owned  by  him. 
His  appearance  at  first  excited  ridicule,  but 
upon  being  recognized  he  was  treated  with 
much  distinction  ;  his  lands  wrere  released,  and 
a  pension  of  $240  was  procured  for  him  from 
congress.  He  died  near  the  spot  where,  58 
years  previous,  he  had  narrowly  escaped  death 
at  the  hands  of  the  Indians. 

KENTUCKY,  an  interior  state  of  the  Ameri 
can  Union,  and  the  second  admitted  under  the 
federal  constitution,  between  lat.  36°  30'  and 
39°  6'  N.,  and  Ion.  82°  2'  and  89°  40'  W.  It  is 
bounded  N.  W.  and  N.  by  the  Ohio  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio ; 
E.  by  West  Virginia  and  Virginia,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Big  Sandy  river  and  the 
Cumberland  mountains ;  S.  by  Tennessee,  along 
a  conventional  line  mostly  on  the  parallel  of 
36°  35'  N. ;  and  W.  by  the  Mississippi,  sepa 
rating  it  from  Missouri;  greatest  length  E. 
and  W.  350m.,  greatest  breadth  178  m. ;  area, 
37,680  sq.  m.,  being  1'28  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
surface  of  the  United  States  (excluding  Alaska). 
The  state  is  divided  into  116  counties,  viz.: 
Adair,  Allen,  Anderson,  Ballard,  Barren,  Bath, 
Bell,  Boone,  Bourbon,  Boyd,  Boyle,  Bracken, 
Breathitt,  Breckenridge,  Bullitt,  Butler,  Cald- 
well,  Calloway,  Campbell,  Carroll,  Carter, 
Casey,  Christian,  Clarke,  Clay,  Clinton,  Crit- 
tenden,  Cumberland,  Daviess,  Edmonson,  El 
liott,  Estill,  Fayette,  Fleming,  Floyd,  Franklin, 


KENTUCKY 


79T 


Fulton,  Gallatin,  Garrard,  Grant,  Graves, 
Grayson,  Green,  Greenup,  Hancock,  Ilardin, 
Harlan,  Harrison,  Hart,  Henderson,  Henry, 
Ilickman,  Hopkins,  Jackson,  Jefferson,  Jessa 
mine,  Johnson,  Kenton,  Knox,  Laurel,  La 
Rue,  Lawrence,  Lee,  Letcher,  Lewis,  Lincoln, 
Livingston,  Logan,  Lyon,  McCracken,  McLean, 
Madison,  Magotiin,  Marion,  Marshall,  Martin, 
Mason,  Meade,  Menifee,  Mercer,  Metcalfe, 
Monroe,  Montgomery,  Morgan,  Muhlenburg, 
Nelson,  Nicholas,  Ohio,  Oldham,  Owen,  Ows- 
ley,  Pendleton,  Perry,  Pike,  Powell,  Pulaski, 
Robertson,  Rock  Castle,  Rowan,  Russell,  Scott, 
Shelby,  Simpson,  Spencer,  Taylor,  Todd,  Trigg, 
Trimble,  Union,  Warren,  Washington,  Wayne, 
Webster,  Whitley,Wolf,  and  Woodford.  Louis 
ville  (pop.  in  1870,  100,753)  is  the  largest  city 
and  the  commercial  emporium  of  the  state ; 
Frankfort  (5,396)  is  the  capital;  Lexington 
(14,801)  is  the  most  important  inland  city. 
Maysville  (4,705),  Covington  (24,505)  and  New- 


state  Seal  of  Kentucky. 

port  (15,087),  on  opposite  sides  of  the  mouth 
of  Licking  river,  and  facing  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
Henderson  (4,171),  and  Paducah  (f>,8(>6)  are 
the  most  important  cities  on  the  Ohio  riv 
er,  all  of  which  are  the  termini  of  railroads 
from  the  interior.  The  other  cities  of  the 
state,  according  to  the  census  of  1870,  are 
Franklin,  with  1,808  inhabitants;  Hopkinsville, 
3,136;  Owensboro,  3,437;  and  Paris,  2,655. 
Ilarrodsburg  and  Boonesborough  are  the  oldest 
towns.— The  population  of  the  state  at  decen 
nial  periods  has  been  as  follows: 


U.  S.  CENSUS. 

White. 

Free 
colored. 

Slave. 

Total. 

| 

Rank. 

1700  

1^00 

61.133 
179  871 

114 

741 

11.830 
40.343 

73.077 

220.51)5 

14 
9 

1810 

3-24  237 

1  713 

80  561 

406  51  1 

7 

1820  

434.  C44 

2.941 

126.782 

564.817 

6 

1S30  

517,787 

4.917 

165.213 

68~.!»17 

6 

1840 

5!)0  253 

7317 

1  82.258 

779  v2S 

6 

1850  
1-.60        

761.418 
919.4S4 

10.011 
10.684 

210.981 
225,483 

9x2.405 

1.155.6841 

8 
9 

1870 

1  098  692 

222.210 

1.321,011 

8 

Of  the  total  population  in  1870,  665.675  were 
males   and   655,336  females;    1,257,613   were 


native  and  63,398  foreign-born.  Of  the  col 
ored,  177,499  were  blacks  and  44,711  mulat- 
toes,  and  there  were  108  Chinese.  Of  the  na 
tives,  875,415  whites,  205,583  colored,  and  83 
Indians  were  born  in  the  state,  12,877  in  North 
Carolina,  19,533  in  Ohio,  49,952  in  Tennessee, 
and  44,102  in  Virginia  and  West  Virginia. 
The  foreign-born  comprised  30,318  born  in 
Germany,  21,642  in  Ireland,  4,173  in  England, 
2,052  in  France,  1,147  in  Switzerland,  and 
1,019  in  Scotland.  The  density  of  population 
was  35*33  to  a  square  mile.  There  were  232,- 
797  families,  with  an  average  of  5*67  persons 
to  each,  and  224,969  dwellings,  each  contain 
ing  an  average  of  5*87  persons.  The  increase 
in  the  aggregate  population  from  1860  to  1870 
was  14'30  per  cent.,  while  there  was  a  loss  of 
5-91  per  cent,  in  the  colored  population.  The 
number  of  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  up 
ward  was  282,305.  There  were  249,567  per 
sons  10  years  old  and  upward  who  were  un 
able  to  read,  and  332,176  could  not  write.  Of 
the  201,077  white  illiterates,  57,766  were  from 
10  to  15  years  of  age,  36,760  were  from  15  to 
21,  and  106,551  were  21  years  old  and  over, 
of  whom  43,826  were  males  and  62,725  were 
females.  There  were  131,050  colored  illiter 
ates,  of  whom  24,958  were  from  10  to  15  years 
old,  24,926  were  from  15  to  21,  and  81,166 
were  21  and  over,  of  whom  37,889  were  males 
and  43,277  females.  There  were  also  49  In 
dian  illiterates.  Among  male  adults  the  per 
centage  of  illiterates  to  the  total  number  was 
28-23  ;  among  female  adults,  37'08.  The  num 
ber  of  paupers  supported  during  the  year  end 
ing  June  30,  1870,  was  2,059,  at  a  cost  of 
$160,717.  Of  the  total  number  (1,784)  receiv 
ing  support  June  1,  1870,  1,080  were  white 
and  704  colored.  The  number  of  persons  con 
victed  of  crime  during  the  year  was  603.  Of 
the  total  number  (1,067)  in  prison  June  1, 
1870,  624  were  white  and  443  colored.  The 
state  contained  978  blind,  723  deaf  and  dumb, 
1,245  insane,  and  1,141  idiotic.  Of  the  total 
population  10  years  of  age  and  over  (930,136), 
there  were  engaged  in  all  occupations  414,593  ; 
in  agriculture,  261,080,  of  whom  127,911  were 
agricultural  laborers,  and  131,598  farmers  and 
planters;  in  professional  and  personal  services, 
84,024,  including  1,080  clergymen,  41,368  do 
mestic  servants,  24,981  laborers  not  specified, 
1,552  lawyers,  2,414  physicians  and  surgeons, 
2,961  teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade  and 
transportation,  25,292  ;  and  in  manufactures 
and  mechanical  and  mining  industries,  44,197. 
The  total  number  of  deaths  from  all  causes  in 
1870  was  14,345;  there  were  2,500  deaths  from 
consumption,  the  number  of  deaths  from  all 
causes  to  one  from  consumption  being  5'7; 
the  deaths  from  pneumonia  numbered  1,514, 
there  being  11 '7  deaths  from  all  causes  to  one 
from  that  disease ;  334  deaths  resulted  from 
intermittent  and  remittent  fever,  6(il  from  en 
teric  fever,  and  880  from  diarrhoea,  dysentery, 
and  enteritis. — The  western  part  of  Kentucky 
is  nearly  level,  the  broad  plains  being  varied 


798 


KENTUCKY 


by  gentle  undulations.  The  southeast  is  broken 
by  the  Cumberland  mountains  and  their  off 
shoots.  Narrow,  deep,  and  gloomy  valleys  in 
tervene  between  the  ridges.  None  of  the  sum 
mits  attain  a  greater  altitude  than  3,000  ft., 
and  their  mean  elevation  does  not  exceed  2,000 
ft.  The  whole  of  this  region  is  well  wooded, 
especially  the  foot  hills  and  valleys.  N.  and 
"VV.  of  the  hilly  region  lies  what  may  be  called 
an  upland,  which  extends  from  the  Big  Sandy 
river  to  Ion.  86°  AV.,  and  comprehends  more 
than  half  the  whole  area  of  the  state.  Its  sur 
face  is  gen,tly  undulating,  but  it  is  intersected 
by  numerous  narrow  and  deep  valleys  in  which 
the  rivers  run.  Though  this  upland  is  sparing 
ly  provided  with  spring  water,  its  soil  is  of  the 
first  quality  and  equal  to  any  in  the  Union. 
It  is  included  in  the  tract  of  blue  limestone 
which  extends  from  the  Ohio  river,  between  a 
point  about  40  m.  above  Louisville  and  the 
eastern  limits  of  Mason  co.,  about  10  m.  above 
Maysville,  southwardly  to  the  Cumberland  riv 
er,  "and  is  known  as  the  "blue  grass  region." 
The  W.  portion  of  the  state  is  divided  between 
the  "barrens"  and  a  country  which  is  partial 
ly  hilly.  The  barrens,  which  occupy  chiefly 
the  tract  between  the  Green  and  Cumberland 
rivers,  in  their  natural  state  are  generally  des 
titute  of  trees,  resembling  in  this  respect  the 
prairies  N.  of  the  Ohio  river ;  but  the  level  sur 
face  is  diversified  by  low  round-topped  hills, 
called  "oak  knobs  "on  account  of  the  trees 
which  cover  them.  This  tract  was  formerly 
considered  the  least  fertile  portion  of  the  state, 
but  the  value  of  its  red  calcareous  soils  has 
greatly  increased.  The  alluvial  bottoms  be 
tween  these  hills  and  the  Ohio  and  its  afflu 
ents  are  exceedingly  rich.  On  the  north  and 
west,  the  barrens  are  margined  by  a  more 
broken  and  hilly  country,  which  gradually  pass 
es  to  the  low  flats  which  skirt  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers.  This  tract  is  superior  in 
fertility  to  the  barrens,  but  cannot  be  compared 
with  the  upland  country. — Kentucky  is  amply 
provided  with  noble  streams.  The  Mississippi 
forms  its  W.  limit  for  80  m.  Along  the  N.  W. 
and  X.  boundary  runs  the  Ohio  in  a  winding 
course  for  nearly  600  m.,  navigable  through 
out,  and  affording  with  its  chief  affluents  water 
communication  to  all  parts  of  the  state.  The 
Mississippi  receives  from  Kentucky  only  a 
few  inconsiderable  tributaries.  Of  the  streams 
which  flow  into  the  Ohio,  the  most  eastern  is 
the  Big  Sandy,  which  has  its  sources  in  Vir 
ginia  and  West  Virginia;  where  it  approaches 
Kentucky  it  turns  nearly  due  X.,  and  continues 
in  tli at  direction  to  its  outlet,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Kentucky  and  West  Vir 
ginia;  it  is  navigable  only  for  a  short  distance, 
owing  to  falls  which  occur  where  it  issues 
from  the  mountain  region.  The  Licking  rises 
in  Floyd  co.,  flows  with  many  windings  in  a 
N.  W.  direction  for  more  than  200  m.,  and 
falls  into  the  Ohio  between  Covington  and 
Newport,  opposite  Cincinnati;  in  winter  and 
spring  it  is  navigable  for  about  70  m.  The  dif 


ferent  branches  of  the  Kentucky  river  rise  in 
the  Cumberland  mountains,  and  form  by  their 
union  a  considerable  stream,  which  flows  first 
N.  W.,  then  S.  W.,  and  at  last  N.  N.  W.;  its 
course  is  about  260  m.,  and  though  very  rapid 
it  may  be  navigated  by  steamboats  80  m.  to 
a  point  20  m.  above  Frankfort,  and  by  small 
boats  for  100  m.  higher.  Green  river  rises 
in  the  W.  districts  of  the  upland  region,  and 
flows  W.  for  a  great  part  of  its  course,  to  its 
junction  with  its  chief  affluent,  the  Big  Bar 
ren,  where  it  turns  N.  W.  and  finally  N.,  join 
ing  the  Ohio  about  50  m.  above  the  Cumber 
land  ;  its  length  is  about  300  m.,  and  it  is  navi 
gable  for  steamboats  to  Greensburg,  200  m., 
and  for  boats  nearly  to  the  heads  of  the  stream. 
Navigation  was  obstructed  by  falls  about  50  m. 
above  its  mouth,  but  a  lock  and  dam  at  that 
point  has  obviated  the  difficulty.  Cumber 
land  river  rises  in  the  valley  between  the  Cum 
berland  and  Laurel  mountains ;  it  traverses 
both  the  mountain  and  the  upland  regions, 
generally  in  a  westerly  direction,  but  on  ap 
proaching  the  barrens  it  turns  S.  and  enters 
Tennessee,  where  it  makes  a  large  bend  and 
then  reenters  Kentucky  with  a  N.  W.  course, 
and  so  continues  to  the  Ohio,  which  it  enters 
about  10  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  Tennes 
see  ;  it  is  nearly  600  m.  long,  and  as  its  current 
is  comparatively  gentle  it  offers  an  easy  navi 
gation  for  sloops  and  steamboats  as  far  up  as 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  200  m.  from  its  mouth,  and 
at  high  water  to  Burkesville,  Ky. ;  for  boats 
of  15  tons  it  is  navigable  for  300  m.,  and  for 
river  boats  much  higher.  The  Tennessee  flows 
only  about  70  m.  through  Kentucky  ;  it  admits 
steamboats  to  Florence,  Ala.,  300  m.  from  its 
mouth. — Kentucky  lies  wholly  in  the  great 
region  of  stratified  rocks  of  the  west.  These 
traverse  the  state  in  layers  so  nearly  hor 
izontal,  that  often  over  broad  districts  no 
dip  is  perceptible  to  the  eye.  Through  the 
central  portion  of  the  state,  from  N.  to  S., 
the  Silurian  groups,  which  are  here  almost 
exclusively  calcareous,  thus  overspread  the 
surface  for  nearly  100  m.  in  width,  and  form 
the  great  central  axis  of  the  lowest  rocks.  At 
Louisville  they  disappear  by  reason  of  their 
very  gentle  westward  dip,  and  pass  beneath 
the  limestones  of  the  Devonian  age,  which 
here  lie  exposed  in  horizontal  strata,  forming 
the  bed  of  the  river  and  the  reefs  which  occa 
sion  the  falls  at  this  place.  They  are  succeeded 
by  the  carboniferous  limestone ;  and  still  fur 
ther  W.  the  coal  measures,  commencing  at 
Rome  on  the  Ohio  river,  are  traced  almost  to 
the  mouth  of  this  river.  This  is  the  southern 
end  of  the  coal  field  of  Illinois  and  Indiana, 
which  extends  S.  nearly  across  the  western 
portion  of  Kentucky.  (See  COAL.)  In  this 
portion  occurs  the  Breckenridge  coal,  former 
ly  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  kero 
sene.  To  the  east,  about  100  m.  from  Louis 
ville,  the  same  repetition  of  the  formations  is 
encountered,  as  the  Silurian  rocks  dip  E.  on 
|  this  side  of  the  axis ;  and  the  coal  measures 


KENTUCKY 


799 


which  occupy  the  whole  eastern  portion  of  the 
state  are  a  part  of  the  great  Appalachian  coal 
field  which  overspreads  western  Virginia  and 
Pennsylvania.  The  limestones  abound  in  fos 
sil  remains,  and  those  of  the  falls  at  Louisville 
are  especially  famous  for  their  remarkably  tine 
coralline  productions.  The  hydraulic  lime 
stone  is  found  here,  and  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cements.  TVhen  the  river  is  low 
the  rocks  in  its  bed  appear  like  the  coral  reefs 
produced  by  living  zoophytes,  the  softer  por 
tions  being  worn  away,  so  that  the  hard  cal 
careous  corals  stand  out  in  relief  precisely  as 
if  they  were  living.  Fine  selected  specimens 
being  placed  in  juxtaposition  with  others  of 
recent  growth,  none  but  a  zoologist  would 
be  able  to  guess  which  were  ancient  and 
which  modern.  These  limestones  also  abound 
in  caves,  some  of  which  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  curiosities.  Upon  their 
walls  are  found  incrustations  of  saltpetre,  which 
in  some  instances  have  been  profitably  collect 
ed.  The  Mammoth  cave,  near  Green  river,  in 
Edmonson  co.,  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  It 
has  been  explored  through  winding  passages 
more  than  10  in.  (See  MAMMOTH  CAVE.)  In 
some  of  the  superficial  depressions  of  the  lime 
stone  are  found  the  low  swamps  known  as 
"licks,"  frequented  by  deer  and  elk,  and  in 
ancient  times  by  the  buffalo,  and  in  a  still  more 
distant  epoch  by  the  extinct  species  of  ele 
phant,  horse,  mastodon,  megalonyx,  &c.,  whose 
bones  are  occasionally  found  near  the  saline 
springs  of  these  quagmires.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  localities  is  the  Big  Bone 
lick,  23  m.  S.  TV.  of  Cincinnati.  Lead  ores 
have  been  worked  to  a  small  extent  heretofore, 
but  considerable  efforts  are  now, in  progress 
for  their  development.  Salt  springs  occur  in 
many  places  among  the  sandstone  rocks,  and 
sulphur,  saline,  and  chalybeate  springs  are  nu 
merous.  On  Goose  creek  in  Clay  co.,  and  in 
Meade  co.,  salt  is  largely  manufactured  from 
brine  procured  by  boring.  The  "  hanging 
rock  "  iron  region  comprises  a  portion  of  N.  E. 
Kentucky  and  of  S.  Ohio;  it  is  about  15  m. 
wide,  and  extends  about  30  m.  from  the  Ohio 
river  into  Kentucky,  and  about  50  m.  N.  into 
Ohio.  The  ores  of  this  region  are  mostly  brown 
hematite ;  they  lie  in  strata  which  dip  to  the 
east  with  a  slight  deviation  to  the  south.  There 
are  two  clearly  defined  strata,  the  lower  being 
from  10  to  30  in.  thick  and  yielding  block  ore. 
Above  this,  at  distances  varying  from  30  to  75 
ft.,  lies  the  stratum  known  as  the  limestone  ore, 
which  is  from  12  to  50  in.  thick.  These  ores 
contain  from  40  to  05  per  cent,  of  iron,  which 
is  found  to  be  remarkably  well  adapted  for  the 
manufacture  of  car  wheels.  Numerous  iron 
furnaces  are  in  operation  in  this  region.  Be 
sides  iron  ores,  large  deposits  of  superior  coal, 
fire  clay,  moulding  sand,  limestone,  building 
stone  of  superior  quality,  potter's  clay,  and  sand 
suitable  for  making  glass  are  found.  Exten 
sive  deposits  of  hyd rated  oxides  of  iron  exist 
in  the  S.  TV.  counties,  bordering  on  the  Ten- 
VOL.  ix. — 51 


1  nessee  and  Cumberland  rivers;  and  different 
ores  of  iron  are  found  all  through  the  coal 
1  fields  and  in  the  slate  and  subcarboniferouo 
;  limestone  regions. — The  blue  limestone  region, 
which  was  originally  covered  with  forests  of 
large  trees  and  a  dense  undergrowth  of  reeds, 
contains  the  richest  soil  in  the  state,  and  that 
part  of  it  between  the  Ohio  and  the  vicinity  of 
Lexington  is  commonly  called  the  "  garden  of 
Kentucky."  The  barrens  are  thinly  wooded 
with  trees  which  have  grown  up  almost  wholly 
since  the  settlement  of  the  state,  but  produce 
good  pasturage,  so  that  the  average  fertility  of 
Kentucky  may  be  considered  equal  to  that  of 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  The  climate  is 
remarkably  pleasant,  but  variable.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  about  55°  F. ;  in  winter 
the  thermometer  frequently  falls  to  20°  or  15°, 
and  occasionally  below  zero,  and  in  summer 
rises  to  94°  or  100°.  "Winter  sometimes  con 
tinues  from  late  November  to  early  April, 
but  snow  seldom  lies  long  on  the  ground,  and 
cattle  and  sheep  are  abroad  throughout  the 
coldest  seasons.  In  spring  and  summer  S.  TV. 
winds  prevail,  and  the  weather  is  delightful. 
The  N.  TV.  wind  produces  the  greatest  winter 
cold.  Rain  falls  abundantly  in  winter  and 
spring,  but  is  sometimes  scanty  in  summer  and 
autumn,  the  weather  in  those  seasons  being 
characteristically  dry  and  constant. — There  are 
still  extensive  forests  in  Kentucky.  In  the 
mountain  and  upland  region  are  found  chiefly 
tulip  trees,  elm,  oak,  ash,  hickory,  walnut, 
cherry,  &c. ;  those  of  the  barrens  are  chiefly 
oaks,  chestnuts,  and  elms.  Among  the  most 
useful  trees  are  the  sugar  maple,  black  and 
honey  locust,  wild  cherry,  and  the  several 
varieties  of  oak  and  walnut,  which  in  the 
early  settlement  of  the  state  furnished  house 
hold  staples  of  great  value.  The  principal 
fruit  trees  are  the  apple  and  peach.-  Be 
sides  being  a  great  grain-growing  state,  Ken 
tucky  produces  more  than  half  of  the  hemp 
grown  in  the  Union,  and  four  sevenths  of  the 
flax.  In  the  S.  TV.  districts,  along  the  Ten 
nessee,  Cumberland,  and  Mississippi  rivers, 
some  cotton  is  raised  ;  and  the  tobacco  grown 
in  these  regions  and  in  the  rich  soil  further  E. 
supplies  a  valuable  material  to  the  commerce  of 
the  state.  As  an  agricultural  state  Kentucky 
holds  a  very  high  rank.  Of  the  total  produc 
tion  of  hemp  (12,746  tons)  in  the  United  States 
in  1870,  as  reported  by  the  federal  census, 
7,777  tons  were  contributed  by  Kentucky ; 
while  of  the  entire  yield  of  tobacco  in  the 
United  States  (262,735,341  Ibs.)  105,305,869 
Ibs.  were  the  product  of  this  state.  In  the 
same  year  only  five  states  produced  more  In 
dian  corn,  four  more  rye,  two  more  honey, 
and  three  more  wax,  and  only-  three  contained 
more  swine.  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
there  were  in  the  state  118,422  farms;  of 
these,  38,939  contained  between  20  and  50 
acres,  29,731  between  50  and  100,  25,490  be 
tween  100  and  500,  616  between  500  and  1,000, 
and  104  contained  1,000  acres  and  over.  The, 


800 


KENTUCKY 


average  size  of  farms  was  158  acres.  The  total 
amount  of  land  in  farms  was  18,600, 106  acres,  of 
which  8,103,850  were  improved  and  10,556,256 
unimproved,  9,134,658  acres  of  the  latter  being 
woodland ;  the  percentage  of  unimproved  to 
total  land  in  farms  was  56'6.  The  cash  value 
of  farms  was  $311,238,916;  farming  imple 
ments  and  machinery,  $8,572,896 ;  total  amount 
of  wages  paid  daring  the  year,  including  value 
of  board,  $10,709,382  ;  total  (estimated)  value 
of  all  farm  productions,  including  betterments 
and  additions  to  stock,  $87,477,374;  of  or 
chard  products,  $1,231,385;  of  produce  of 
market  gardens,  $527,329;  of  forest  products, 
$574,994;,  of  home  manufactures,  $1,683,972; 
of  all  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter, 
$24,121,861  ;  of  all  live  stock,  $66,287,343. 
The  chief  agricultural  productions  were  38,532 
bushels  of  spring  and  5,690,172  of  winter  wheat, 
1,108,933  of  rye,  50,091,006  of  Indian  corn, 
6,620,103  of  oats,  238,486  of  barley,  3,443  of 
buckwheat,  119,926  of  peas  and  beans,  2,391,- 
062  of  Irish  and  802,114  of  sweet  potatoes, 
2,551  of  clover  and  35,896  of  grass  seed,  14,- 
657  of  flaxseed,  204,399  tons  of  hay,  and  7,777 
of  hemp,  1,080  bales  of  cotton,  105,305,869 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  2,234,450  of  wool,  237,268  of 
flax,  11,874,978  of  butter,  115,219  of  cheese, 
1,345,779  gallons  of  milk  sold,  49,073  of  ma 
ple  and  1,740,453  of  sorghum  molasses,  62,360 
of  wine,  269,416  Ibs.  of  maple  sugar,  1,171,500 
of  honey,  and  32,557  of  wax.  There  were  on 


farms  317,034  horses,  99,230  mules  and  ass 
es,  247,615  milch  cows,  69,719  working  oxen, 
382,993  other  cattle,  936,765  sheep,  and  1,838,- 
227  swine.  In  1870  16  states  ranked  higher 
I  than  Kentucky  in  the  total  value  of  manufac 
tured  products.  In  distilled  liquors,  the  state 
ranked  first  in  the  number  of  establishments, 
second  in  the  amount  of  capital  invested,  and 
fourth  in  the  value  of  products,  as  appears 
from  the  f ollowino;  statement : 


STATES. 

No.  of 
establishments. 

Capital. 

Products. 

Kentucky  
Illinois 

141 
45 

$2,670,700 
2  513  000 

$4,532,730 

7  888  751 

Ohio 

63 

2  8~>(J  700 

7  022  656 

Pennsylvania  

108 

2,504,657 

4,618,223 

The  manufacture  of  distilled  liquors  is  almost 
wholly  confined  to  whiskey,  the  amount  of 
highwines  made  being  very  small.  The  total 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments  re 
ported  by  the  census  was  5,390,  using  1,147 
steam  engines  of  31,928  horse  power,  and  459 
water  wheels  of  7,640  horse  power,  and  em 
ploying  30,636  hands,  mostly  male  adults.  The 
total  amount  of  capital  employed  was  $29,- 
277,809  ;  wages  paid  during  the  year,  $9,444,- 
524 ;  materials  consumed,  $29,497,535  ;  pro 
ducts,  $54,625,809.  The  chief  industries  are 
shown  by  the  following  table  : 


INDUSTRIES. 

Number 
of 
establish, 
ments. 

Steam 
engines, 
horse 
power. 

Hands 

employed. 

Capital. 

Wases 
paid. 

Value  of 
materials. 

Value  of 
products. 

Agricultural  implements  . 

44 

270 

624 

$633  025 

$287  590 

$073176 

$1  3^4917 

]>a"r"pin" 

11 

130 

1  92S 

756  000 

301  240 

1  077  300 

1  752  120 

Blacksrnithing  

1,002 

23 

1,970 

465735 

248  821 

443  200 

1  864  070 

Boots  and  shoes 

420 

1  150 

450  271 

310258 

430  944 

1  1^4  684 

Carpentering  and  building  

348 

3(5 

1.03(5 

209  690 

319  113 

841  760 

1,602,766 

Carriages  and  wagons    .  . 

825 

22 

1  250 

577  405 

439  076 

440  170 

1  389909 

Clothing  (men's)  
Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 

138 

61*6 

9019 

801 
1,686 

462.132 
2  660  963 

227.998 
825  247 

5()8,75S 
6  499  234 

1,068,268 

7  886  734 

Furniture  

90 

346 

967 

750  355 

41  2  872 

545  472 

1  463  077 

Glass  ware 

3 

10 

436 

370  000 

233  631 

150350 

447  000 

Iron  blooms  

1 

80 

50 

100  000 

87  500 

53  7'  M) 

94  860 

"    forged  and  rolled  
"    bolts,  nuts,  washers,  and  rivets 

6 

1,450 
14 

876 

27 

1,125.000 
24  000 

582.283 

1  0  750 

1,867.064 

8  333 

2,464.928 
25  560 

"    pigs  

r.» 

2  370 

1  5(55 

2  070  OHO 

41  7  048 

1  223  034 

2  1  82  482 

"    castings  not  specified  

O^j 

572 

895 

1  457  431 

494  985 

1  350  249 

2  368  473 

"    stoves,  heaters,  and  hollow  ware  
Leather,  tanned  

7 
100 

106 
237 

493 

203 

595,000 
566  4*4 

288.000 
76  068 

370.5(10 
741  102 

858,770 
1  000  906 

"         curried 

82 

40 

155 

1  57  016 

41  848 

r>5(?  805 

683  663 

Liquors,  distilled  

141 

2636 

10?3 

2  670  700 

257  732 

1  S5>?  096 

4  532  780 

malt  

35 

222 

193 

584  900 

102  639 

365.612 

689  859 

Lumber,  planed 

17 

587 

250 

288  525 

12")  474 

8141  30 

583  673 

"         sawed  

5(52 

9443 

2407 

1  724  686 

482  683 

1  805  591 

3  6(52  086 

Saddlery  and  harness  
Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware  
Tobacco,  chewing,  smoking,  and  snuffing... 
"         cig.irs  

212 
127 
32 

70 

16 

83 
174 

635 
531 
900 

389 

4(53.348 
K)  0.7  10 
662.691 
107  380 

193,855 
275.031 
212.752 
140  563 

463.619 
465.740 
826,155 

1  87  643 

1,013.852 
1.051.026 
1.  647,669 
440  836 

Wool  cardin;.'  and  cloth  dressing  

89 

855 

198 

117  347 

1  7  (Y>% 

811  009 

415401 

Woollen  goods  

3(5 

7'J6 

4^5 

5S3  102 

142  350 

5°0  619 

897  057 

— Kentucky  has  little  direct  foreign  commerce, 
but  its  domestic!  commerce  is  very  extensive. 
The  chief  commercial  places  are  Maysville,  Cov- 
ington,  Louisville,  Owensboro,  Henderson,  and 
Paducah,  on  the  Ohio,  Columbus  on  the  Missis 
sippi,  and  Lexington  in  the  interior.  The  prin 
cipal  exports  are  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  horses, 
mules,  hogs,  cattle,  bagging,  and  rope.  There 


are  two  United  States  customs  districts,  of  which 
Louisville  and  Paducah  are  the  ports  of  entry. 
The  total  number  of  vessels  registered,  en 
rolled,  and  licensed  in  1873  was  55,  of  13,807 
tons,  at  Louisville,  and  15,  of  2,878  tons,  at 
Paducah.  Of  those  at  Louisville,  44  were 
steamers  and  11  barges,  while  the  entire  num 
ber  at  Paducah  were  steamers.  Boat  building 


KENTUCKY 


801 


is  carried  on  at  both  of  these  points  ;  24  boats 
were  built  in  1873,  including  17  steamers  at 
Louisville  and  4  at  Paducah.  Internal  im 
provements  have  been  well  attended  to,  and 
several  of  the  large  rivers  have  been  rendered 
navigable  for  considerable  distances  above  their 
natural  heads  of  navigation ;  the  works  on  the 
Kentucky  and  Green  are  the  most  important. 
The  completion  of  the  Louisville  and  Portland 
canal  around  the  falls  of  the  Ohio  at  Louisville 


enables  boats  300  ft.  long  and  SO  ft.  wide  to 
pass  through  nearly  the  whole  year.  As  early 
as  1841  Kentucky  had  28  m.  of  railway.  The 
mileage  had  increased  to  549  in  1861,  852  in 
1809,  and  1,123  in  1871.  In  1873  the  total 
number  of  miles  of  main  track  in  the  state  was 
1,228,  and  other  roads  were  in  process  of  con 
struction  and  projected.  The  railways,  with 
their  termini  and  the  number  of  miles  in  opera 
tion  in  1873,  were: 


CORPORATIONS. 

TERMINI. 

Miles  in 

preceding. 

Cincinnati  Southern  (in  progress) 

Cincinnati  and  Chattanooga  Tenn 

Eastern  Kentucky 

23 

Louisville,  Paducah,  and  Southwestern  

Louisville  and  Paducah 

230 

Elizabethtown,  Lexington,  and  Bicr  Sandy 

34 

120 

Kentucky  Central  

Covington  and  Nicholasville          .... 

112 

Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and  Lexington 

Louisville  and  Lexington 

94 

Branches                                                                  < 

Lexington  Junction  to  Newport  

81 

Louisville,  Nashville,  and  Great  Southern  

Anchorage  to  Shelbvville  
Louisville  and  Nashville,  Tenn  

19 

139 

iss 

Memphis  division  . 

Memphis  Junction  to  Memphis,  Tenn. 

46 

260 

Lebanon  Junction  to  Livingston 

110 

Branches  -j 

Richmond  Junction  to  Richmond  

34 

Marysville  and  Lexington 

Glasgow  Junction  to  Glasgow  . 
Paris  and  Mavsville  

11 

15 

50 

Columbus  and  Mobile  Ala 

20 

472 

Nashville,  Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis  
Owensboro  and  Russellville 

Hickman  and  Chattanooga,  Tenn  
Owensboro  to  Tennessee  state  line 

8 
35 

321 

116 

Paducah  and  Memphis  
St.  Louis  and  Southeastern                                  .   . 

Paducah  and  Memphis,  Tenn  
East  St.  Louis,  111.,  and  Nashville,  Tenn 

50 
10S 

105 

316 

Shawneetown   111    to  Madisonville 

42 

In  1873  there  were  36  national  banks  in  opera 
tion,  with  a  paid-in  capital  of  $8,263.700  and 
an  outstanding  circulation  of  $7,021,900.  The 
entire  bank  circulation  of  the  state  was  $7,637,- 
900,  being  $5  78  per  capita.  The  ratio  of  cir 
culation  to  wealth  was  1*3,  and  to  the  bank  cap 
ital  84-4. — The  present  constitution  of  Ken 
tucky  was  adopted  in  1850.  Every  free  male 
citizen  21  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in 
the  state  two  years,  in  the  county  one  year, 
and  in  the  precinct  60  days  next  preceding 
an  election,  is  entitled  to  vote.  The  gen 
eral  election  is  fixed  by  law  on  the  first  Mon 
day  in  August,  and  voting  is  vim  rocc,  ex 
cept  in  the  election  of  representatives  to  con 
gress,  when  it  is  by  ballot.  The  legislature 
consists  of  a  senate  of  .°S  members,  and  a 
house  of  representatives  of  100.  Senators 
must  be  30  years  of  age,  and  are  chosen  for 
four  years,  one  half  every  second  year.  Rep 
resentatives  must  be  24  years  of  age,  and  hold 
office  two  years.  The  sessions  of  the  legisla 
ture  are  biennial,  beginning  on  the  first  Mon 
day  of  December  in  every  odd  year,  and  last 
ing  not  longer  than  60  days  unless  by  vote  of 
two  thirds  of  both  houses.  Members  are  paid 
$5  a  day,  and  15  cents  a  mile  for  travel.  The 
governor  is  chosen  for  four  years.  He  must 
be  35  years  of  age,  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  have  been  resident  in  the  state  for 
six  years.  He  is  ineligible  to  the  office  for  the 
four  years  succeeding  his  term.  A  majority 
vote  in  each  house  is  sufficient  to  pass  a  bill 


over  the  governor's  veto.  The  lieutenant  gov 
ernor,  auditor,  attorney  general,  register  of 
land  office,  and  superintendent  of  public  in 
struction  are  also  elected  for  four  years.  The 
lieutenant  governor,  with  the  same  qualifica 
tions  as  the  governor,  is  ex  officio  president  of 
the  senate.  If  a  vacancy  occurs  in  the  office 
of  governor  during  the  last  half  of  the  term, 
the  lieutenant  governor,  and  failing  him  the 
speaker  of  the  senate,  acts  as  governor;  but 
if  during  the  first  half  of  the  term,  then  a 
new  election  is  held.  The  treasurer  is  elected 
by  the  people  every  two  years.  The  secretary 
of  state  is  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  and 
holds  office  during  the  governor's  term.  The 
official  salaries  are :  for  the  governor  $5,000, 
secretary  of  state  $1,500,  auditor  $2,500,  reg 
ister  of  land  office  $2,000,  treasurer  $2,400, 
and  superintendent  of  public  instruction  $3,000. 
The  secretary  of  state,  auditor,  and  register 
of  the  land  office  also  have  certain  fees.  The 
pay  of  the  lieutenant  governor  is  $8  a  day  du 
ring  attendance  at  the  legislative  session.  The 
judiciary  consists  of  the  court  of  appeals, 
which  has  appellate  jurisdiction  only,  circuit 
and  county  courts.  The  state  is  divided  into 
four  appellate  judicial  districts  and  16  circuit 
court  districts.  Louisville  has  separate  chan 
cery  and  common  pleas  courts,  and  additional 
courts  have  been  established  in  several  dis 
tricts.  The  court  of  appeals  consists  of  a  chief 
justice  and  three  judges,  a  clerk,  sergeant,  and 


802 


KENTUCKY 


reporter.  The  judges  have  each  $5,000  a  year, 
and  the  attorney  general  $500  and  fees.  The 
Louisville  chancery  court  consists  of  a  chan 
cellor  (salary  §3,000),  a  clerk,  and  a  marshal 
(fees).  The  judges  of  circuit  are  paid  $3,000, 
and  attorneys  $500  and  fees.  The  judges  of 
the  Louisville  courts  are  paid  in  addition  $1,000 
each  by  the  city.  All  judges  and  other  officers 
of  courts  are  elected  by  the  people.  Judges 
of  the  court  of  appeals  and  the  circuit  courts 
must  have  had  eight  years'  experience  in  law 
to  be  eligible  to  the  bench.  Kentucky  is  rep 
resented  in  congress  by  two  senators  and  10 
representatives,  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  12 
votes  in  the  electoral  college.  According  to 
the  federal  census  of  1870,  the  assessed  value 
of  real  estate  was  $311,479,694,  and  of  per 
sonal  $98,004,600;  total  assessed  value  of 
property,  $409,544,294;  true  value  of  real 
and  personal  estate,  $604,318,552.  The  total 
taxation  not  national  amounted  to  $5,730,118, 
including  $2,254,413  state,  $1,307,833  coun 
ty,  and  $2,167,872  town,  city,  &c.  The  total 
receipts  into  the  state  treasury  during  the 
fiscal  year  were  $2,107,149,  the  most  important 
sources  being:  direct  taxes,  $1,491,775;  corpo 
rations,  banks,  and  insurance  companies,  $332,- 
992  ;  and  licenses,  $78,551.  The  total  disburse 
ments  amounted  to  $1,824,892.  The  bonded 
debt  of  the  state  in  1872  was  $966,394.  In 
1874  it  was  entirely  free  from  debt  except  the 
amount  due  the  school  fund,  $1,628,123  08, 
which  is  made  by  the  constitution  a  permanent 
debt  of  which  the  interest  only  is  to  be  paid. 
A  direct  tax  of  45  cents  on  every  $100  in 
value  of  real  and  personal  property  is  annually 
collected  for  various  purposes  of  state  govern 
ment,  of  which  20  cents  goes  to  the  school 
fund  and  the  remainder  to  general  purposes. 
Stock  in  banks  and  other  moneyed  corpora 
tions  is  taxed  50  cents  on  each  share  of  $100. 
Kailroads  are  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  the 
state,  on  a  valuation  of  $20,000  a  mile,  at  the 
rate  of  45  cents  on  every  $100.  The  same  rate 
of  tax  is  also  paid  by  toll  bridge,  mining,  man 
ufacturing,  gaslight,  street  railroad,  and  water 
works  corporations.  Express,  telegraph,  and 
turnpike  companies  are  also  taxed. — The  su 
perintendent  of  public  instruction  is  required 
to  set  forth  in  his  annual  report  the  condition 
of  the  institutions  for  the  blind,  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  the  feeble-minded.  The  asylum 
for  the  education  of  the  blind  in  Louisville, 
opened  in  1842,  is  intended  to  afford  board 
and  tuition  free  of  charge  to  the  blind  of  the 
state  between  the  ages  of  7  and  17  years.  Not 
only  the  totally  blind,  but  those  whose  eye 
sight  is  so  defective  that  they  cannot  see  to 
read,  may  be  received  and  educated  at  the 
expense  of  the  state.  Besides  the  ordinary 
branches,  instruction  is  given  in  industrial  pur 
suits.  In  1873  there  were  5  teachers  and  59 
pupils.  The  institution  for  deaf  mutes  in  Dan 
ville,  organized  in  1823,  is  open  to  all  persons 
of  this  class  in  the  state,  without  charge  for 
board  or  tuition.  Pupils  supported  by  the 


state  are  expected  to  remain  five  years.  The 
average  number  of  pupils  in  1873  was  78,  in 
structors  5 ;  number  of  pupils  received  since 
the  opening  of  the  institution  was  590,  of 
whom  344  were  males  and  246  females.  Pro 
vision  is  made  by  the  state  for  the  education 
of  feeble-minded  persons  in  the  institution 
for  this  class  in  Frankfort,  which  has  been  in 
existence  since  1860.  It  is  designed  for  the 
education  of  imbecile  children,  and  not  as  an 
asylum  for  hopeless  idiots.  Those  unable  to 
pay  may  be  educated  free  of  charge.  The 
whole  number  of  pupils  in  1874  was  104. 
The  state  penitentiary  in  Frankfort,  in  1874, 
had  650  convicts.  In  1873  the  legislature 
passed  an  act  vesting  the  management  of  each 
of  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  state,  ex 
cept  that  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  in  a  board 
of  nine  commissioners,  who  are  appointed  by 
the  governor  and  senate,  and  must  be  residents 
of  the  county  where  the  institution  is  situated. 
It  was  also  provided  that  the  asylum  for  the 
insane  at  Lexington  should  be  known  as  the 
first  Kentucky  lunatic  asylum,  that  at  Ilopkins- 
ville  as  the  second  Kentucky  lunatic  asylum, 
the  institution  for  the  education  of  feeble 
minded  children  as  the  third  Kentucky  lunatic 
asylum,  and  the  state  house  of  reform  for  ju 
venile  delinquents  at  Anchorage  as  the  fourth 
Kentucky  lunatic  asylum.  The  two  institutions 
first  named  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  treatment  of 
"lunatics  afflicted  with  acute  mania,"  and  the 
other  two  to  cases  of  "  chronic  mania  or  epi 
lepsy." — Under  the  new  school  law  of  1873,  the 
general  educational  interests  of  the  state  are  in 
trusted  to  a  board  of  education,  comprising  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  secretary 
of  state,  and  attorney  general,  together  with  two 
professional  teachers  to  be  elected  by  them. 
The  more  immediate  supervision  of  the  schools 
is  vested  in  the  superintendent  of  public  in 
struction  (who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  four 
years,  and  receives  an  annual  salary  of  $3,000), 
a  commissioner  of  common  schools  in  each 
county,  and  a  trustee  for  each  school  district ; 
only  teachers  who  have  obtained  certificates 
are  employed.  The  annual  revenue  of  the 
common  school  fund  comprises  the  interest  at 
the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  state 
school  bond  of  $1,327,000,  the  dividends  on 
735  shares  of  the  stock  of  the  bank  of  Ken 
tucky,  the  annual  tax  of  20  cents  on  each  $100 
in  value  of  the  property  of  the  state,  and  cer 
tain  fines  and  forfeitures.  This  income  is  dis 
tributed  each  year  among  the  counties  and 
districts  according  to  the  number  of  white 
children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  20  years. 
The  amount  available  in  1873  was  nearly 
$1,000,000.  The  pro  rota  amount  to  each 
child  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874, 
was  $1  60,  and  $2  20  for  the  preceding  year. 
The  entire  income  of  the  school  fund  is  devo 
ted  to  educating  white  children.  The  legisla 
ture  of  1873-'4  passed  an  act  establishing  a 
system  of  common  school  education  for  color 
ed  children,  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 


KENTUCKY 


803 


superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the 
state  board  of  education.  The  funds  for  its 
support  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  annual 
revenue  tax  of  25  cents,  and  20  cents  in  addi 
tion  on  each  $100  in  value  of  the  taxable  prop 
erty  owned  or  held  by  colored  persons,  which 
tax  shall  be  applied  to  no  other  purpose  what 
ever  ;  a  capitation  tax  of  $1  on  each  male  col 
ored  person  above  the  age  of  21  years;  and  all 
the  lines,  penalties,  and  forfeitures  imposed 
upon  and  collected  from  colored  persons  due 
the  state,  except  the  amount  thereof  allowed 
by  law  to  attorneys  for  the  commonwealth. 
The  act  in  effect  appropriates  all  taxes  levied 
on  colored  people  or  their  property  to  the  edu 
cation  of  colored  children.  The  total  taxable 
property  of  the  colored  people  of  the  state  in 
1873  was  $3,569,040,  and  the  number  of  male 
colored  persons  over  21  years  of  age  was  45,- 
604.  The  number  of  colored  children  of  school 
age  reported  to  the  auditor  in  1873  was  41,- 
289.  In  1873  the  whole  number  of  persons  of 
school  age  in  the  state  was  416,763,  and  the 
number  of  schools  5,381.  The  state  teachers' 
association  meets  annually,  and  teachers'  in 
stitutes  are  held  at  intervals  during  the  year. 
According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  total  num 
ber  of  white  children  in  the  state  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  18  years  was  454,539,  and  of 
colored  78,720.  Of  the  latter,  only  7,702  were 
attending  school.  There  were  5,149  education 
al  institutions,  public  and  private,  with  an  ag 
gregate  of  6,346  teachers,  of  whom  3,972  were 
males  and  2,374  females,  and  245,139  pupils,  of 
whom  125,734  were  males  and  119,405  females. 
The  total  income  of  all  these  institutions  was 
$2,538,429,  of  which  $393,015  was  derived  from 
endowment,  $674,1(92  from  taxation  and  public 
funds,  and  $1,470,422  from  tuition  and  other 
sources.  There  were  4,727  public  schools,  with 
5,351*  teachers  and  218,240  pupils;  the  income 
amounted  to  $1,150,451,  of  which  $24,885  was 
from  endowment,  $004,905  from  taxation  and 
public  funds,  and  $520,661  from  tuition  and 
other  sources.  The  number  of  colleges  was 
42,  having  223  teachers  and  5,864  pupils  ;  and 
there  were  95  academies,  with  286  teachers  and 
6,224  pupils,  and  195  private  schools,  with  302 
teachers  and  7,948  pupils.  Kentucky  lias  (1874) 
no  state  normal  school,  but  efforts  have  been 
made  for  the  establishment  of  one.  Normal 
instruction,  however,  is  afforded  by  several 
colleges.  The  Kentucky  university,  established 
in  1858,  embraces  a  college  of  arts,  the  agri 
cultural  and  mechanical  college,  the  college  of 
the  Bible,  a  commercial  college,  and  a  college 
of  law.  Each  college  is  under  the  immediate 
government  of  its  own  faculty  and  presiding 
officer.  The  general  supervision  of  the  uni 
versity  is  committed  to  the  regent,  who  is  cho 
sen  from  the  curators.  In  1865  the  agricul 
tural  and  mechanical  college,  established  by 
means  of  the  congressional  land  grant,  was 
made  a  part  of  the  university,  and  the  citizens 
of  Lexington  having  given  $100,000  for  the 
purchase  of  an  experimental  and  model  farm 


and  the  erection  of  buildings  for  the  agricul 
tural  college,  the  university  was  removed  to 
that  city.  The  tract  of  land  occupied  by  the 
agricultural  college  contains  433  acres,  and  em 
braces  Ashland,  once  the  home  of  Henry  Clay. 
The  endowment  and  real  estate  of  the  uni 
versity  amount  to  about  $800,000.  Students 
are  employed  in  industrial  pursuits  at  a  good 
rate  of  compensation.  The  Kentucky  military 
institute  in  Frankfort,  organized  in  1846,  is 
under  the  direction  of  a  board  of  visitors  ap 
pointed  by  the  governor.  Among  the  most 
prominent  educational  institutions  are  Berea 
college,  at  Berea,  at  which  students  are  received 
without  regard  to  sex  or  color ;  Bethel  college 
(Baptist),  at  Russellville ;  Cecilian  college  (Ro 
man  Catholic),  at  Elizabethtown ;  Centre  col 
lege  (Presbyterian),  at  Danville ;  Eminence  col 
lege,  at  Eminence,  open  to  both  sexes ;  George 
town  college  (Baptist),  at  Georgetown ;  and  St. 
Mary's  college  (Roman  Catholic),  at  St.  Mary's 
Station.  The  leading  institutions  for  the  edu 
cation  of  women  are  Daughters'  college  (Chris 
tian),  at  Harrodsburg ;  Georgetown  female 
seminary  (Baptist);  Lebanon  female  college; 
Logan  female  college  (Methodist  Episcopal), 
at  Russellville;  Ilocker  female  college  (Chris 
tian)  ;  Lexington  Baptist  female  college,  St. 
Catherine's  academy  (Roman  Catholic),  and 
Christchurch  seminary  (Episcopal),  at  Lex 
ington.  Instruction  in  theology  is  afforded 
by  St.  Joseph's  seminary  (Roman  Catholic),  at 
Bardstown,  Western  Baptist  theological  insti 
tute  at  Georgetown,  college  of  the  Bible,  Ken 
tucky  university,  and  the  theological  depart 
ments  of  Georgetown  and  Bethel  college ;  in 
medicine,  by  the  medical  department  of  the 
university  of  Louisville  and  by  the  Louisville 
medical  college. — According  to  the  census  of 
1870,  there  were  89  newspapers  and  periodi 
cals  published  in  the  state,  having  an  aggregate 
circulation  of  197,130,  and  issuing  18,270,160 
copies  annually.  There  were  6  daily,  with  a 
circulation  of  31,000;  4  tri-weekly,  circulation 
3,500;  4  semi-weekly,  circulation,  4,100;  68 
weekly,  circulation  137,i!30;  and  7  monthly, 
with  a  circulation  of  19,700.  In  1873  the  pub 
lications  were  9  daily,  6  of  which  issued  also 
weekly  editions,  1  tri-weekly,  4  semi-weekly,  80 
weekly,  and  9  monthly.  The  total  number  of 
libraries  in  1870  was  5,546,  containing  1,909,- 
230  volumes;  4,374,  with  1,590,  2-45  volumes, 
were  private,  and  1,172,  with  318,985  volumes, 
were  other  than  private,  including  two  state 
libraries,  with  9,200  volumes;  10  town,  city, 
etc.,  with  13,436;  218  court  and  law,  with  61,- 
590;  18  school,  college,  &c.,  with  20,675;  717 
Sunday  school,  with  160,377;  and  207  church, 
with  53,707.  The  principal  libraries  in  1874 
were  that  of  the  Kentucky  university  at  Lexing 
ton,  which  had  10,000  volumes;  the  Lexing 
ton  library  company's,  18,300;  the  state  libra 
ry  in  Frankfort,  7,000 ;  Danville  theological 
seminary,  7,000;  public  library  of  Kentucky, 
at  LouisVille,  31,250;  St.  Joseph's  college  and 
seminary  in  Bardstown,  5.000 ;  Centre  college 


804 


KENTUCKY 


in  Danville,  5,000 ;  Georgetown  college,  5,000 ; 
Episcopal  theological  library  2,000 ;  and  Lou 
isville  library  association,  5,690.  The  museum 
of  natural  history  of  Kentucky  university  con 
tains  more  than  40,000  specimens,  and  the 
museum  attached  to  the  public  library  of  Ken 
tucky  contains  over  100,000,  which,  however, 
are  only  partially  classified.  The  total  number 
of  religious  organizations  was  2,909,  having 
2,096  edifices,  with  878,039  sittings,  and  prop 
erty  valued  at  $9,824,465.  The  leading  denom 
inations  were  as  follows: 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Orsani- 
zatious. 

Edi 
fices. 

Sitting*. 

Property. 

Baptist  
Christian  
Episcopal,  Protestant  
Evangelical  Association  .  . 
Jewish  ... 

1.004 
490 
33 
5 
3 

962 
436 
35 
5 
3 

288.936 
141,585 
15.SOO 
3,000 
1  500 

$2.023,975 
1,046,075 
570,300 
150,000 
134,000 

Lutheran  

7 

7 

1,650 

16,0,10 

Methodist  
Presbyterian,  reurular  
"           other  
Roman  Catholic  
Shaker 

973 
2S9 
17 
130 
2 

818 
270 
15 
125 

2 

244.918 
97.150 
3.000 
72.550 
1  600 

1,854,565 
1,275,400 
17.000 
2,604.900 
23000 

Unitarian  
TJuiversalist  
Unknown  (union)  

5 
8 

1 

2 
15 

1,000 
400 
4,650 

3.000 
5500 
28,750 

— The  earliest  exploration  of  Kentucky  was 
made  by  John  Finley  and  a  few  companions 
from  North  Carolina  in  1767.  In  1769  Daniel 
Boone,  Finley,  and  four  others  visited  the  re 
gion,  and  in  1770  Col.  James  Knox,  with,  a 
party  from  S.  W.  Virginia,  explored  the  coun 
try  along  the  Cumberland  and  Green  rivers. 
In  177;3-'4  a  party  locating  bounty  warrants 
extended  their  surveys  to  the  north  fork  of  the 
Licking,  up  the  Kentucky  as  far  as  Dix  river, 
and  over  a  considerable  territory  near  the  falls. 
In  1774  James  Harrod  built  a  log  cabin  on  the 
present  site  of  Ilarrodsburg,  and  the  next  year 
he  established  a  station  there.  The  fort  at 
Boonesborough  was  built  by  Daniel  Boone  in 
1775.  The  country  of  Kan-tuck-kee,  "the 
dark  and  bloody  ground,"  was  not  occupied  by 
the  aborigines  except  as  a  common  hunting 
ground  for  the  tribes  north  and  south  of  it. 
The  intrusion  of  white  settlements  met  with 
determined  and  bloody  opposition.  In  March, 
1775,  Boone  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Cher- 
okees  at  Wataga,  by  which  Kentucky  was  sold 
to  Col.  Richard  Henderson  and  his  compa 
ny.  As  it  lay  within  the  charter  limits  of 
Virginia,  that  state  would  not  recognize  Hen 
derson's  purchase,  but  finally  compromised 
by  giving  him  200,000  acres  at  the  mouth 
of  Green  river.  In  1776  Kentucky  was  made 
a  county  of  Virginia,  and  in  1777  the  first 
court  was  held  at  Ilarrodsburg.  In  1779  the 
Virginia  legislature  passed  a  law  which  caused 
a  great  influx  of  population.  In  1783  Ken 
tucky  was  formed  into  one  district,  and  a  dis 
trict  court  established.  The  conclusion  of 
the  war  of  independence  left  the  settlers  in 
constant  danger  of  Indian  outrage,  and  the 
citizens  found  themselves  obliged  to  undertake 
their  own  protection.  Richmond,  Va.,  the 


capital,  was  too  far  distant  to  be  relied  on  for 
assistance  in  times  of  need,  and  hence  the  con 
ventions  held  at  Danville  in  1784-' 5  recom 
mended  a  peaceable  and  constitutional  separa 
tion  from  Virginia.  The  third  convention 
sent  a  petition  to  Richmond,  and  in  1780  an 
act  was  passed  by  the  legislature  complying 
with  the  desires  of  Kentucky  ;  but  from  seve 
ral  causes  the  separation  was  not  then  com 
pleted,  chiefly  from  an  inclination  of  the  peo 
ple  to  obtain  an  independent  nationality.  A 
fourth  convention  only  served  to  inflame  the 
people  against  the  central  government ;  and  a 
report  having  gained  currency  that  Mr.  Jay, 
when  minister  to  Spain,  had  ceded  the  naviga 
tion  of  the  Mississippi  to  that  country,  the  ut 
most  ill  feeling  was  aroused.  A  fifth  con 
vention  met,  and  on  petition  Virginia  allowed 
the  Kentuckians  to  send  a  delegate  to  con 
gress  ;  but  the  constitution  having  in  the  mean 
while  been  adopted,  the  whole  subject  was  re 
ferred  to  the  new  government.  Taking  ad 
vantage  of  this  position  of  affairs,  Spain 
clandestinely  proposed  through  her  minister 
peculiar  commercial  favors  to  Kentucky  in 
case  of  her  forming  an  independent  govern 
ment.  These  propositions  met  with  some  fa 
vor  ;  but  after  a  sixth  and  a  seventh  convention 
were  assembled,  an  address  to  congress  was  ul 
timately  voted.  Two  more  conventions  were 
subsequently  held,  and  the  question  was  de 
termined  by  Kentucky  becoming  in  1790  a 
separate  territory,  and  its  admission  into  the 
Union  on  June  1,  1792.  The  population  at 
this  time  was  about  75,000.  Indian  wars  con 
tinued  to  disturb  the  frontiers,  and  complaints 
of  the  inefficiency  of  the  federal  govern 
ment  were  again  heard.  The  whisky  tax  also 
became  oppressive,  and  the  American  policy 
toward  the  French  republic  was  denounced 
in  every  cabin.  The  old  idea  of  indepen 
dence  was  again  mooted,  but  the  storm  passed 
over.  In  the  10  or  12  years  which  succeeded, 
and  which  included  the  period  of  negotiation 
for  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  and  then 
for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  Kentucky  was 
again  agitated.  The  treaty  of  1795  with  Spain 
gave  to  the  United  States  the  right  of  deposit 
at  New  Orleans  and  the  freedom  of  the  river. 
Pending  the  negotiations  the  governor  of  Lou 
isiana  had  approached  some  leading  Kentuck 
ians  with  a  view  to  a  different  treaty  ;  but  ac 
tion  on  these  promises  was  stayed  by  federal 
interference,  and  the  faithlessness  of  the  Span 
iards  soon  became  evident.  Seven  years  now 
passed  in  comparative  quiet  and  prosperity, 
when  the  whole  nation  became  excited  by  the 
intelligence  that  the  Spaniards  had  violated 
the  treaty  of  1795  by  a  denial  of  the  rights  se 
cured  by  its  provisions,  and  it  became  known 
that  even  Louisiana  had  been  retroceded  to 
France.  Its  subsequent  purchase  by  the  Uni 
ted  States  put  an  end  to  all  pending  troubles. 
In  the  war  of  1812  Kentucky  took  an  active 
part.  Upward  of  5,000  volunteers  were  called 
into  active  service,  and  at  one  time  more  than 


KENTUCKY 


805 


7,000  Kentuckians  arc  said  to  have  been  in 
the  field.  After  the  treaty  of  1814  Kentucky 
was  undisturbed  by  any  stirring  events.  The 
progress  of  the  state,  however,  was  rapid,  and 
the  development  of  agriculture  and  other 
branches  of  industry  within  her  borders  sig 
nally  well  sustained.  The  second  constitution 
took  effect  in  1800,  and  continued  in  force  un 
til  the  adoption  of  the  present  one  in  1850.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  Kentucky,  fa 
voring  an  amicable  adjustment  of  the  difficul 
ties  between  the  north  and  the  south,  assumed 
a  position  of  neutrality,  and  determined  to  re 
sist  the  invasion  of  the  state  by  either  the  fed 
eral  or  the  confederate  forces.  At  the  presi 
dential  election  in  1860,  66,058  votes  had  been 
cast  for  Bell,  53,143  for  Breckenridge,  25,651 
for  Douglas,  and  1,364  for  Lincoln.  In  Febru 
ary,  1861,  the  legislature,  refusing  to  call  a  state 
convention  to  consider  the  subject  of  secession, 
passed  resolutions  appealing  to  the  southern 
states  to  stop  the  revolution,  protesting  against 
federal  coercion,  and  favoring  the  calling  of  a 
national  convention  for  proposing  amendments 
to  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  The 
requisition  upon  Kentucky  for  volunteers, 
made  by  the  secretary  of  war  immediately  after 
the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  was  met  by  a  re 
fusal  on  the  part  of  Governor  Magoffin  to  fur 
nish  any  troops.  However,  Lieut.  William 
Nelson  of  the  navy,  a  native  of  the  state,  be 
gan  to  recruit  volunteers  for  the  national  ser 
vice,  and  toward  the  end  of  July  established  a 
camp  of  organization  in  Garrard  co.,  which  he 
called  Camp  Dick  Robinson.  Volunteers  rap 
idly  assembled,  and  by  the  end  of  September 
three  full  regiments  of  infantry  and  one  of 
cavalry  were  ready  for  service,  besides  one  full 
regiment  of  refugees  from  East  Tennessee,  and 
one  nearly  full.  Recruiting  for  the  national  ser 
vice  was  carried  on  during  the  same  time  at  oth 
er  points.  Governor  Magoffin  protested  against 
this,  and  urged  the  general  government  to  with 
draw  these  forces  from  the  state.  President 
Lincoln  refused  to  do  so,  on  the  ground  that 
he  "  did  not  believe  it  was  the  popular  wish  of 
Kentucky  that  this  force  should  be  removed  be 
yond  her  limits."  At  elections  held  in  May 
and  June  it  was  shown  that  a  great  majority  of 
the  people  were  in  favor  of  the  Union.  Early 
in  September  the  state  was  invaded  by  a  strong 
confederate  force  from  Tennessee,  under  Gen. 
Polk,  who  occupied  and  fortified  Ilickman  and 
Columbus,  important  points  on  the  Mississip 
pi  river.  About  the  same  time  a  confederate 
force  under  Gen.  Zollicoffer  advanced  from 
Tennessee  into  southeastern  Kentucky,  and 
Bowling  Green  was  occupied  by  a  large  body 
of  confederate  troops  under  command  of  Gen. 
Buckner.  Federal  forces  also  began  to  con 
centrate  at  several  points  in  large  numbers. 
Gen.  Robert  Anderson  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  this  department,  but  was  soon 
succeeded  by  Gen.  Sherman,  upon  whose  resig 
nation  Gen.  Buell  assumed  command.  During 
the  latter  part  of  1861  there  were  numerous 


skirmishes  and  unimportant  engagements  be 
tween  the  opposing  forces  in  the  state.  In 
November  200  persons,  not  elected  by  any 
constituency,  but  coming  from  51  counties  of 
the  state,  assembled  in  convention  at  Russell- 
ville,  then  within  the  confederate  lines,  and  or 
ganized  a  provisional  government  consisting  of 
a  governor,  legislative  council  of  ten,  a  trea 
surer,  and  auditor.  George  "W.  Johnson  was 
chosen  for  governor.  lie  was  subsequently 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and  Richard 
Hawes  was  chosen  in  his  place.  In  January, 
1862,  Gen.  Buell,  having  concentrated  a  large 
army  at  Louisville,  sent  a  division  under  Gen. 
George  H.  Thomas  to  attack  the  confederate 
force  in  southeastern  Kentucky,  which  had 
been  reenforced  by  the  division  under  Gen. 
Crittenden.  In  the  battle  of  Mill  Spring  (Jan. 
19)  which  ensued,  the  confederate  forces  were 
defeated,  and  Gen.  Zollicoffer  was  killed.  At 
the  same  time  a  large  force  was  concentra 
ted  at  Paducah,  Cairo,  111.,  and  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
under  command  of  Gen.  Halleck,  for  oper 
ations  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  After  the 
success  of  the  expedition  under  Gen.  Grant 
against  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  in  Febru 
ary,  the  confederate  forces  abandoned  Bowling 
Green  and  Columbus  and  withdrew  from  the 
state.  Governor  Magoffin  resigned  in  August, 
and  was  succeeded  by  James  F.  Robinson, 
speaker  of  the  senate.  In  September  Gen. 
Bragg  at  the  head  of  a  large  confederate  force 
inVaded  the  state  from  East  Tennessee,  and 
advanced  rapidly  toward  Louisville,  to  which 
place  the  governor  and  legislature  retired  with 
the  state  archives.  By  forced  marches  Gen. 
Buell  succeeded  in  getting  between  Louisville 
and  Bragg's  army,  and  on  Oct.  8  a  battle  was 
fought  at  Perryville,  Boyle  co.,  with  heavy 
loss  on  both  sides.  Bragg  then  withdrew  his 
forces  from  the  state,  having  meanwhile  occu 
pied  Frankfort  and  all  the  country  north  of  the 
Kentucky  river,  apparently  threatening  Cin 
cinnati.  Steps  had  been  taken  for  inaugura 
ting  the  provisional  confederate  state  govern 
ment  at.  the  capital,  but  the  ceremonies  were 
interrupted  by  the  advance  of  the  Union  troops, 
and  that  organization  disappeared.  The  state 
continued  to  be  disturbed  by  raids,  and  mar 
tial  law  was  declared  by  President  Lincoln, 
July  5,  1864.  The  civil  authority  was  restored 
by  ^President  Johnson  on  Oct/18,  1865.  In 
1860  and  in  1870  the  legislature  refused  by  a 
large  majority  t'o  ratify  the  15th  amendment 
to  the  federal  constitution. 

KEMHKY,  a  river  of  the  state  of  the  same 
name,  rising  in  the  Cumberland  mountains  on 
I  the  S.  E.  frontier.     Its  principal  feeders  are 
I  the  North,  Middle,  and  South   forks,    which 
!  unite  in  Lee  co.,  near  the  village  of  Proctor. 
I  The  stream  then  takes  a  N.  W.  direction  to  the 
I  S.  boundary  of  Fayette  co.,  where  it  turns  S. 
W.     After  keeping  on  this  course  for  15  or  20 
m.  it  resumes  its  former  direction,  and  pre 
serves  it  until  it  enters  the  Ohio  in  Carroll  co. 
Its  length  from  the  junction  of  its  head  streams 


806 


KENYON" 


KEOKUK 


to  its  month  is  260  m.,  but  the  distance  in  a 
straight  line  between  these  t\vo  points  is  only 
108  in.  The  scenery  on  the  banks  is  famous 
for  its  romantic  beauty.  For  a  great  part  of 
its  course  the  river  Hows  between  perpendicu 
lar  limestone  rocks,  through  which  it  appears 
to  have  gradually  worn  its  way.  The  Ken 
tucky  has  no  large  tributaries.  It  is  navigable 
by  means  of  locks  and  darns  by  steamboats  40 
m.  above  Frankfort  (02  in.  from  its  mouth),  and 
by  flatboats  100  m.  higher.  Cannel  and  other 
kinds  of  bituminous  coal,  iron  ore,  and  an  ex 
cellent  variety  of  marble  are  found  along  the 
banks  of  the  river. 

KENYON,  John,  an  English  poet,  born  in  the 
island  of  Jamaica  about  1783,  died  at  Cowes, 
in  the  isle  of  Wight,  Dec.  3,  1856.  His  father 
was  a  wealthy  planter,  and  he  graduated  at 
Peterhouse  college,  Cambridge.  He  cultivated 
the  acquaintance  of  Coleridge,  Southey,  and 
Wordsworth,  and  in  1815  visited  Italy  and 
other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  After 
his  return  to  England  he  married  Miss  Caroline 
Curteis,  whom  lie  addresses  as  "  Nea  "  in  the 
"  Verses  written  in  a  Churchyard,"  and  whom 
he  survived  many  years.  His  first  volume  of 
poetry,  entitled  "  A  Rhymer's  Plea  for  Toler 
ance  "  (1833),  was  followed  in  1838  by  "  Poems, 
for  the  most  part  Occasional."  His  last  work 
was  entitled  "A  Day  at  Tivoli,  with  other 
Verses."  He  used  his  large  fortune  with  great 
generosity,  and  is  said  to  have  left  legacies  to 
80  persons,  many  of  whom  were  his  old  lit 
erary  friends,  including  B.  W.  Procter  (Barry 
Cornwall)  (£6,000)  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Robert 
Browning  (£10,000). 

KENYON,  Lloyd,  lord,  a  British  jurist,  born 
at  Gredington,  Flintshire,  Oct.  5,  1732,  died 
in  Bath  in  1802.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Welsh 
squire,  and  after  a  very  imperfect  education  at 
a  free  grammar  school  was  articled  to  an  attor 
ney  at  Nantwich  in  Cheshire.  Being  disap 
pointed  in  his  expectation  of  becoming  a  part 
ner  in  the  business  of  his  master,  he  went  to 
London,  entered  the  Middle  Temple,  and  in 
1756  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  attended  the 
courts  at  Westminster  regularly,  and  went  the 
North  Welsh  circuit,  but  at  the  expiration  of 
ten  years  was  so  little  advanced  in  professional 
repute  that  he  was  desirous  of  taking  orders. 
At  this  juncture  Dunning,  who  had  been  his 
fellow  student,  and  who  was  now  in  the  enjoy 
ment  of  a  lucrative  practice,  employed  him, 
and  opinions  written  by  Kem^on,  which  Dun 
ning  never  read,  were  signed  by  the  latter  as 
his  own.  As  it  gradually  became  known  that 
Dunning's  opinions  were  prepared  by  Kenyon, 
the  attorneys  began  to  employ  him,  and  cases 
soon  came  to  him  in  large  numbers.  His  rise  j 
out  of  his  chamber  seclusion  was  probably  in 
consequence  of  some  useful  observations  which 
he  made  as  amicus  curia?,  in  the  presence  of 
Lord  Thurlow,  then  attorney  general,  who 
thereafter  promoted  his  advancement  in  vari 
ous  ways.  To  this  powerful  friend  he  owed 
his  appointment  to  the  chief  justiceship  of 


Chester.  The  sneers  of  Kenyon's  rivals  at  this 
appointment  incited  his  patron  to  push  his  for 
tunes  still  further.  In  1782  he  was  made  at 
torney  general,  and  two  years  after  master  of 
the  rolls.  Finally,  on  the  retirement  of  Lord 
Mansfield,  he  was  made  by  Pitt  chief  justice  of 
the  king's  bench,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Ken- 
yon,  baron  of  Gredington.  This  appointment, 
which  he  held  until  his  death,  was  not  popu 
lar  with  the  bar,  and  during  his  whole  judicial 
career  he  was  disliked  for  his  overbearing  dis 
position,  and  his  irritating  and  even  insolent 
manners.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  in  high 
favor  with  the  public  on  account  of  the  rigid 
impartiality  of  his  decisions.  He  was  deeply 
learned  in  the  law,  and  successfully  resisted 
Lord  Mansfield's  attempts  to  bring  about  a 
fusion  of  law  and  equity.  He  accumulated  by 
his  professional  labors  a  fortune  of  £300,000. 
His  memoirs  are  contained  in  Lord  Campbell's 
"  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices."  A  new  life,  by 
his  grandson,  George  J.  Kenyon,  the  design  of 
which  is  to  free  the  character  of  Lord  Kenyon 
from  the  alleged  injustice  of  Lord  Campbell, 
has  been  published  (London,  1873). 

REN  YON  COLLEGE.     See  GAMBIER. 

KEOKUK,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Iowa,  drained 
by  Skunk  river  ;  area,  576  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  19,434.  The  surface  consists  partly  of 
prairie,  interspersed  with  groves  of  timber, 
and  the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  Sigourney 
branch  of  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pa 
cific  railroad  terminates  at  the  county  seat. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  342,876 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,297,459  of  Indian  corn, 
236,410  of  oats,  97,943  of  potatoes,  91,713 
Ibs.  of  wool,  517,665  of  butter,  and  85,833 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  11,253  horses,  21,- 
458  cattle,  27,551  sheep,  and  32,225  swine,  11 
carriage  factories,  2  woollen  factories,  3  flour 
mills,  and  9  saw  mills.  Capital,  Sigourney. 

KEOKUK,  a  city  of  Lee  co.,  Iowa,  situated 
in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  state,  at  the  foot  of 
the  lower  or  Des  Moines  rapids  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  here  crossed  by  a  railroad  and  wagon 
bridge,  and  2  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  Des 
Moines,  205  m.  above  St.  Louis,  and  135  m.  S. 
E.  of  Des  Moines;  pop.  in  1850,  2,478 ;  in  1860, 
8,136  ;  in  1870,  12,766.  It  is  built  partly  at  the 
foot  and  partly  on  the  summit  of  a  bluff  150  ft. 
high,  which  contains  excellent  limestone,  and 
has  broad  regular  -streets  with  many  handsome 
houses.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Des  Moines 
Valley  railroad;  and  the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and 
Western,  the  Toledo,  Peoria,  and  Warsaw,  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy,  the  Missis 
sippi  Valley  and  Western,  and  the  Missouri, 
Iowa,  and  Nebraska  railroads  also  centre  here. 
The  Keokuk  and  Kansas  City  and  Keokuk  and 
Mt.  Pleasant  railroads  are  in  course  of  construc 
tion.  The  rapids  in  the  Mississippi,  extending 
12  m.  with  a  fall  of  24  ft.,  render  Keokuk 
the  natural  head  of  navigation  for  steamers  of 
the  largest  class,  and  furnish  abundant  water 
power.  The  United  States  is  now  construct 
ing  a  canal  around  them.  The  city  was  made 


KEPLER 


80T 


a  port  of  delivery  in  1854,  and  lias  an  im 
portant  trade.  The  business  of  pork  packing 
is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  and  there  are 
nouring  mills,  iron  founderies,  &c.,  three  banks 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $400,000,  and  a 
savings  bank.  The  college  of  physicians  and 
surgeons,  established  in  1849,  in  1872  had  10 
professors  and  instructors  and  105  students. 
The  Keokuk  library  association  possesses  7,000 
volumes.  The  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school,  are  well  organized  and  largely  attended. 
There  are  two  daily  and  three  weekly  (one 
German)  newspapers,  and  17  churches. 

KEPLER,  Johaiin,  a  German  astronomer,  born 
at  Magstatt,  near  Weil,  Wurtemberg,  Dec.  27, 
1571,  died  in  Ratisbon,  Nov.  15,  1630.  He 
was  a  sickly  child,  and  during  his  whole  life 
suffered  periodically  from  fevers  and  other  ail 
ments.  His  father,  a  man  of  noble  origin  and 
at  one  time  a  soldier  in  the  Netherlands  under 
the  duke  of  Alva,  having  been  reduced  by  the 
loss  of  his  property  to  the  condition  of  an  inn 
keeper,  young  Kepler  was  during  a  portion  of 
his  childhood  employed  by  him  in  a  menial  ca 
pacity.  In  1586  he  entered  the  monastic  school 
of  Maulbronn,  whence  he  was  transferred  to 
the  university  of  Tubingen,  where  in  1591  he 
took  his  degree  of  master.  Subsequently  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  astronomy 
under  Mostlin,  a  disciple  of  Copernicus,  and 
in  1594  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  math 
ematics  in  the  university  of  Gratz  in  Styria. 
Here  in  the  same  year  appeared  his  first  pub 
lication,  an  almanac  for  1595,  followed  in  1596 
by  his  "  Cosmographical  Mystery,"  containing 
a  fanciful  theory  regulating  the  order  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  In  1597  he  married  a  young 
widow  named  Barbara  Mullcr  von  Mulech,  and 
soon  after,  in  consequence  of  domestic  dissen 
sions,  and  of  religious  troubles  which  threat 
ened  the  safety  of  the  Protestant  professors 
in  Gratz,  of  whom  he  was  one,  he  accepted 
Tycho  Brahe's  invitation  to  go  to  Prague 
and  assist  him  in  the  preparation  of  a  new 
set  of  astronomical  tables.  The  work  was 
done  by  order  of  the  emperor  Rudolph  II., 
who  intended  to  substitute  tables  having  his 
own  name  for  those  calculated  on  the  Ptole 
maic  and  Copernican  systems.  Tycho  shortly 
aftenvard  died,  arid  Kepler  succeeded  him  as 
principal  mathematician.  He  was  thenceforth 
constantly  involved  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  in 
consequence  of  the  inability  or  neglect  of  the 
emperor  to  pay  him  the  full  amount  of  his  sal 
ary.  For  this  reason  he  was  obliged  to  eke 
out  a  subsistence  by  casting  nativities  and  wri 
ting  popular  almanacs.  In  his  "Principles  of 
Astrology  "  (1(502)  he  describes  the  power  of 
certain  harmonious  configurations  of  suitable 
planets  to  control  human  impulses.  In  his 
day  such  a  belief  was  regarded  as  in  accordance 
with  just  conceptions  of  the  attributes  of  the 
planets,  and  Kepler's  most  profitable  employ 
ment  at  this  time  was  drawing  the  horoscopes 
of  the  princes.  In  his  optical  treatise,  "  A 
Supplement  to  Vitellio,"  published  in  1604  at 


Prague,  although  unable  to  discover  the  pre 
cise  law  of  refraction,  he  Avas  nevertheless 
singularly  successful  in  his  inquiries  respect 
ing  vision,  and  in  analyzing  the  structure  of 
the  eye.  In  this  work  he  also  described  the 
mode  of  calculating  eclipses  which  obtains  at 
the  present  day.  In  his  subsequent  work  on 
optics,  entitled  "Dioptrics"  (Augsburg,  1611; 
reprinted  in  London,  1653),  which,  according 
to  Sir  David  Brewster,  "laid  the  foundation  of 
the  science,"  he  explained  the  method  of  tra 
cing  the  progress  of  rays  through  transparent 
bodies  with  convex  and  concave  surfaces,  and 
of  determining  the  foci  of  lenses,  and  of  the  rel 
ative  positions  of  the  images  which  they  form 
and  the  objects  from  which  the  rays  proceed. 
Hence  he  was  led  to  describe  the  astronomical 
telescope,  having  two  convex  lenses,  by  which 
objects  are  seen  inverted.  These  discoveries, 
however,  are  obscured  by  the  greatness  of  those 
announced  in  his  "  New  Astronomy,  or  Com 
mentaries  on  the  Motions  of  Mars"  (Prague, 
1609),  which  were  founded  on  the  astronomi 
cal  data  prepared  by  Tycho.  After  many  fruit 
less  attempts  to  represent  the  orbit  of  Mars  by 
combinations  of  uniform  circular  motion  (that 
is,  by  epicyclic  curves),  he  discovered,  by  com 
paring  together  seven  oppositions  of  that  plan 
et,  that  its  orbit  is  elliptical,  whence  he  con 
cluded  that  the  orbit  of  each  planet  is  an  ellipse, 
with  the  sun  placed  in  one  of  its  foci.  Having 
next  ascertained  the  dimensions  of  the  orbit 
of  Mars,  he  found  that  the  radius  vector,  or 
line  joining  the  planet  and  the  sun,  described 
equal  areas  in  equal  times,  and  that  the  same 
was  true  of  the  other  planets.  These  results 
constitute  the  first  two  of  the  three  great  laws 
of  planetary  motion  known  as  Kepler's  laws, 
the  third  of  which  was  discovered  nine  years 
later.  The  labor  and  patience  with  which 
Kepler  conducted  these  investigations  will  be 
best  appreciated  when  it  is  considered  that 
the  calculations  were  made  without  the  assist 
ance  of  logarithms,  which  were  a  later  inven 
tion,  and  that  each  calculation  of  an  opposi 
tion  of  Mars,  filling  10  folio  pages,  was  repeat 
ed  10  times,  so  that  7  oppositions  produced  a 
folio  volume  of  700  pages.  In  view  of  such 
difficulties,  the  remark  of  Prof.  Play-fair  is  par 
ticularly  pertinent,  "that  the  discoveries  of 
Kepler  were  secrets  extorted  from  nature  by 
the  most  profound  and  laborious  research." 
Notwithstanding  the  reputation  which  these 
brilliant  discoveries  gained  for  him,  his  worldly 
circumstances  showed  no  signs  of  improvement. 
Not  only  did  his  arrears  of  salary  remain  un 
paid,  but  the  emperor  Rudolph  refused  to  allow 
him  to  accept  the  professorship  of  mathematics 
at  Linz;  and  to  add  to  his  embarrassments,  his 
wife  died  and  his  children  were  attacked  by 
the  smallpox,  which  proved  fatal  to  the  eldest. 
At  this  time  also  Prague  was  occupied  by  Aus 
trian  troops,  and  the  plague  devastated  the 
city.  Upon  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Mat 
thias,  in  1612,  he  was  allowed  to  accept  the 
professorship  at  Linz,  and  three  years  later  he 


SOS 


KEPLER 


was  married  for  the  second  time,  chiefly  for 
the  sake  of  his  children.  It  has  been  well  re 
marked  by  Sir  David  Brewster,  that  the  nar 
rative  of  Kepler's  search  for  a  wife  "  is  one  of 
the  most  curious  chapters  in  his  history.  No 
fewer  than  eleven  ladies  were  presented  to  his 
choice,"  his  patient  scrutiny  of  their  respective 
claims  being  comparable  with  his  analysis  and 
successive  rejection  of  the  epicyclic  theories  of 
Mars.  In  a  jocular  letter  to  Baron  Strahlendorf 
he  describes  their  various  characters,  and  the 
negotiations  preceding  his  marriage.  During 
the  preparations  for  the  wedding,  his  wine- 
merchant  having  incorrectly  measured  the  con 
tents  of  the  wine-casks,  Kepler  investigated 
the  matter  and  produced  his  work  on  gauging ; 
the  tirst  in  which  the  modern  analysis  is  em 
ployed.  About  the  same  time  he  presented  to 
the  diet  at  Ratisbon  his  views  on  the  reforma 
tion  of  the  calendar,  the  substance  of  which 
he  published  in  a  short  essay.  In  1616  ap 
peared  his  Epliemeridcs  1617-1620,  the  ex 
pense  attending  the  preparation  of  which  he 
confessed  he  had  been  obliged  to  defray  "by 
composing  a  vile,  prophesying  almanac,  which 
is  scarcely  more  respectable  than  begging,  un 
less  from  its  saving  the  emperor's  credit,  who 
abandons  me  entirely,  and  would  suffer  me  to 
perish  from  hunger."  lie  nevertheless  de 
clined  an  invitation  to  fill  the  mathematical 
chair  in  Bologna,  preferring  poverty  and  the 
limited  degree  of  freedom  of  speech  and  opin 
ion  he  enjoyed  in  Germany,  to  the  prospect  of 
bettering  his  fortune  in  Italy.  Between  1618 
and  1622  appeared  the  seven  books  of  his 
''Epitome  of  the  Copernican  Astronomy," 
which  was  placed  by  the  inquisition  on  the  list 
of  prohibited  books;  and  in  1619  he  published 
his  ''Harmonies  of  the  World,"  dedicated  to 
James  I.  of  England,  which  is  memorable  in 
the  history  of  science  as  containing  the  third 
of  his  celebrated  laws,  viz. :  that  the  squares 
of  the  periodic  times  of  the  planets  are  propor 
tional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances 
from  the  sun.  Such  was  the  transport  with 
which  this  discovery,  which  for  17  years  had 
baffled  all  his  skill  and  patience,  filled  him, 
that  he  marked  the  day  and  year.  May  15, 
1618,  when  it  became  known  to  him  ;  and, 
speaking  of  the  book  which  promulgated  it, 
he  said  :  u  It  may  well  wait  a  century  for  a 
reader,  as  God  has  waited  6,000  years  for  an 
observer."1  The  accession  in  1619  of  the  em 
peror  Ferdinand  II.,  who  promised  to  pay 
the  arrears  of  his  salary,  and  to  furnish  the 
means  of  publishing  the  Rudolphine  tables, 
seemed  to  open  a  more  favorable  era  for  the 
prosecution  of  Kepler's  scientific  labors ;  but 
such  were  the  drains  upon  the  imperial  trea 
sury  caused  by  the  religious  wars  which  then 
began  to  convulse  Germany,  that  it  was  not 
until  several  years  afterward  that  he  was  en 
abled  to  collect  even  a  part  of  the  sums  prom 
ised  him.  In  1620  he  was  strongly  urged  by 
Sir  Henry  "Wotton.  the  English  ambassador  at 
Venice,  to  take  up  his  residence  in  England, 


but  declined  the  offer.  Finally  in  1627,  after 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century's  delay  and 
amid  difficulties  of  all  kinds,  the  Rudolphine 
tables  were  published  in  Ulm.  They  were  the 
first  ever  calculated  on  the  theory  of  the  ellip- 
ticity  of  the  planetary  orbits,  and  are  so  re 
markable  a  monument  of  patience  and  indus 
try,  that  had  Kepler  done  nothing  more  than 
compute  them,  he  would  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  benefactors  of  science.  In  1629,  for  the 
sake  of  avoiding  the  religious  dissensions  which 
distracted  Linz,  at  the  invitation  of  Wallenstein, 
he  removed  with  his  family  to  Sagan  in  Sile 
sia,  and  soon  afterward  secured  a  professorship 
in  the  university  of  Rostock.  In  the  following 
year  he  went  to  Ratisbon,  and  made  a  final  but 
fruitless  effort  to  obtain  from  the  imperial  as 
sembly  his  arrears,  which  now  amounted  to 
8,000  crowns.  The  vexation  which  this  occa 
sioned,  combined  with. fatigue  of  mind  and 
body,  brought  on  a  fever  which  proved  fatal. 
His  remains  were  interred  in  St.  Peter's  church 
yard,  Ratisbon,  and  in  1803  a  monumental  tem 
ple  to  his  memory  was  erected  on  the  spot  by 
the  prince  bishop  of  Constance.  The  follow 
ing  epitaph,  composed  by  himself,  was  en 
graved  on  his  tombstone : 

Mensus  eram  coelos.  mine  temp  metier  umbras : 
Mens  coelestis  erat,  corporis  umbra  jacet. 

—The  ardor  and  patience  with  which  Kepler 
!  pursued  science  have  found  few  parallels  among 
modern  philosophers.     Ever  prone  to  indulge 
i  in  fanciful  theories,  he  never  lost  sight  of  the 
precise  object  of  his  search,  and  ingenuously 
renounced  any  hypothesis  that  he  could  not 
reconcile   with   his    advancing  knowledge    of 
phenomena.     Of  his  manifold  attempts  in  va 
rious    branches   of    science    Delambre    says: 
u  Those  which  have  failed  seem  to  us  only  fan 
ciful,  while  those  which  have  been  more  fortu- 
;  nate  appear  sublime."     The  history  of  science 
;  presents  no  discoveries  more  original,  or  which 
were  deduced  with  so  little  assistance  from  the 
\  speculations  of  preceding  philosophers,  as  his 
j  three  celebrated  laws,  from  which  the  discov- 
!  eries   of    Xewton   subsequently   sprung,    thus 
;  completing  the  great  chain  of  truths  which 
•  constitute  the  laws  of  the  planetary  system. 
1  He  computed  correctly  the  transit  of  Mercury 
on  Nov.  7,  1631  (observed  by  Gassendi),  and 
;  announced  a  transit  of  Venus  in  the  same  year, 
which  was  not  observed,  as  it  occurred  during 
the  night.     (Sir  David  Brewster  is  mistaken  in 
asserting  that  "  the  transit  did  not  take  place.") 
;  The  transit  of  Venus  in  1639  Kepler  failed  to 
announce,  but  that  of  1761  he  predicted.     It 
is  a  sufficient  evidence  of  his  industry  as  an 
author  that  between  1594  and  1630  he  pub 
lished  33  works,  besides  leaving  22  volumes  of 
manuscripts,  7  of  which  contain  his  epistolary 
correspondence.     The  latter  was  published  in 
1  vol.  fol.  in  1718,  by  Gottlieb  Ilansch  ;  but 
the  enterprise  proving  unsuccessful,   he  was 
obliged  to  part  with  the  remaining  volumes, 
which  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  imperial 


KEPPEL 


KERGUELEN  ISLAND 


809 


library  of  sciences  in  St.  Petersburg.  A  com 
plete  edition  of  the  works  of  Kepler,  including 
all  his  unedited  manuscripts,  was  published  at 
Frankfort  (8  vols.,  1858-70.) 

KEPPEL.  I.  Augnstns,  viscount,  an  English  ad 
miral,  son  of  the  second  earl  of  Albemarle  (a  title 
conferred  in  1095  on  Arnold  Joostvan  Keppel, 
lord  of  Voorst,  a  Dutch  general  who  accompa 
nied  William  of  Orange  to  England  in  1688), 
born  April  2,  1725,  died  in  Suffolk,  Oct.  2, 1786. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1740  under  the  auspices 
of  Lord  Anson,  with  whom  he  circumnavigated 
the  globe.  In  1744  he  became  a  post  captain, 
and  for  many  years  rendered  important  ser 
vices  as  commander  of  single  ships  or  of  squad 
rons,  being  almost  uniformly  successful  in  the 
expeditions  he  undertook.  In  1762  he  was 
made  rear  admiral  of  the  blue ;  and  in  July, 
1778,  being  then  admiral  of  the  red,  and  in 
command  of  a  large  fleet  of  ships  of  the  line, 
he  had  an  indecisive  conflict  with  the  French 
squadron  under  D'Orvilliers  off  Ushant.  The 
British  fleet  having  hauled  off  to  repair  dam 
ages,  a  signal  was  given  by  the  admiral  to  re 
new  the  battle ;  but  the  failure  of  Sir  Hugh 
Palliser,  who  commanded  the  rear,  to  obey  it, 
enabled  the  French  to  escape.  Palliser  subse 
quently  brought  articles  of  accusation  against 
Keppel,  which  upon  investigation  by  a  court 
martial  were  declared  unfounded,  while  the  con 
duct  of  Keppel  was  approved.  He  was  subse 
quently  at  different  times  first  lord  of  the  ad 
miralty,  and  in  April,  1782,  wascreated  Viscount 
Keppel  of  Elvedon  in  Suffolk,  having  for  many 
years  previous  been  a  member  of  the  house  of 
commons.  II.  George  Thomas,  sixth  earl  of 
Albemarle,  born  June  13,  1799,  succeeding  his 
brother,  the  fifth  earl,  in  1851.  He  entered 
the  army,  and  was  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  In 
•1846  he  became  one  of  the  secretaries  of  Lord 
John  Russell,  and  sat  in  the  house  of  commons, 
in  the  interest  of  the  liberal  party,  from  1882 
to  1835,  and  again  from  1847  to  1851.  He 
has  written  u  Journey  from  India  to  England  " 
(2  vols.,  1827),  "Journey  across  the  Balkan" 
(2  vols.,  1831),  and  "Memoirs  of  the  Marquess 
cf  Rockingham"  (1852).  IIS.  Sir  Henry,  an 
admiral,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  June 
14,  1809.  lie  entered  +he  navy  at  an  early  ' 
age,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  1829  and  | 
commander  in  1833.  lie  commanded  one  of  | 
the  vessels  of  the  expedition  against  China  in 
1842,  and  assisted  Sir  James  Brooke  in  Borneo, 
lie  commanded  a  division  of  boats  at  the  de 
struction  of  the  Chinese  war  fleet  in  the  Fat- 
shan  creek,  June  1,  1857,  for  which  service  he 
was  made  a  K.  C.  B.  In  May,  I860,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  as  na 
val  commander-in-chief,  and  Avas  subsequently 
transferred  to  the  Brazilian  station.  In  1867  i 
he  went  to  the  China  and  Japan  station  as  ' 
vice  admiral  and  commander-in-chief.  In  1869  j 
he  returned  to  England  on  attaining  the  rank 
of  full  admiral,  and  in  the  following  year  he  ' 
was  made  I).  C.  L.  of  Oxford.  He  has  written 
"  The  Expedition  to  Borneo  of  II.  M.  S.  Dido  " 


(2  vols.,  1847),  and  "A  Visit  to  the  Indian 
Archipelago  in  II.  M.  S.  Mrcander"  (2  vols., 
1853),  both  of  which  contain  extracts  from 
Brooke's  diary. — His  brother,  the  Rev.  THOMAS 
ROBERT  KEPPEL  (born  1817,  died  1863),  wrote 
the  "Life  of  Admiral  Keppel  "  (2  vols.,  1842). 

KERATRY.  I.  Angnste  Ililarlou  de,  a  French 
statesman  and  author,  born  in  Rennes,  Oct. 
28,  1769,  died  in  November,  1859.  He  in 
herited  the  title  of  count,  but  never-  used  it, 
and  though  sympathizing  with  the  revolution 
was  twice  arrested.  He  became  a  deputy  in 
1818,  and  again  in  1822  and  1827,  and  warmly 
supported  liberal  measures,  publishing  vigorous 
pamphlets  against  the  restoration  of  the  cen 
sorship;  and  he  was  one  of  the  principal  pro 
moters  of  the  overthrow  of  Charles  X.  and  of 
the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  who  made  him 
a  peer  in  1837.  In  1849  he  was  once  more 
chosen  to  the  legislative  assembly,  where  he 
exasperated  the  radicals  by  his  opening  address 
as  the  oldest  member.  He  strenuously  opposed 
Louis  Napoleon,  and  was  among  those  who 
were  arrested  Dec.  2,  1851,  but  was  soon  re 
leased.  His  principal  works  are :  Inductions 
morales  et  pldlosophiques  (Paris,  1817);  Du 
l)eau  dans  Ics  arts  limitation  (3  vols.,  1822); 
Les  dernicrs  des  Beaumanoir,  ou  la  tour 
d'llehin,  a  romance  (4  vols.,  1824) ;  Du  culte, 
&c.  (1825) ;  Frederic  Styndall,  a  novel  (5  vols., 
1827) ;  S«phira,  ou  Paris  et  Rome  sous  V empire 
(3  vols.,  1835);  and  Une  fin  dc  «/<W<?,  on  Unit 
ans  (2  vols.,  1840).  II.  Emile  de,  count,  a  French 
politician,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris, 
March  20,  1832.  He  served  in  Algeria,  the 
Crimea,  and  Mexico,  and  retired  from  the  army 
in  18(56.  In  1869-'70  he  was  prominent  in  the 
corps  legislatif  as  an  active  opponent  of  Napo 
leon,  though  he  approved  of  the  war  against 
Prussia.  Subsequently  he  was  successively  pre 
fect  of  police,  general  under  Gambetta  for  the 
organization  of  recruits,  and  prefect  at  Tou 
louse  and  Marseilles  ;  but  his  quarrelsome  dis 
position  involved  him  in  difficulties  almost 
everywhere.  He  has  published  plays  and  mis 
cellaneous  writings,  several  relating  to  the  Mex 
ican  expedition,  and  has  been  often  connected 
with  periodical  literature,  and  lately  with  the 
newspaper  Le  Soir. 

RERGIELEX,  or  Desolation  Island,  an  unin 
habited  island  of  the  Indian  ocean,  in  about 
hit.  49°  S.,  Ion.  70°  E.,  about  100  m.  long  and 
50  in.  wide.  It  contains  many  bays  and  inlets, 
the  most  important  being  Christmas  harbor, 
shaped  like  a  horseshoe  and  with  steep  rocks 
rising  in  a  series  of  terraces  to  a  height  of 
1,000  ft.  This  harbor  is  at  the  N.  extremity 
of  the  island,  where  the  soil  is  entirely  volcan 
ic,  and  the  mountains  toward  the  N.  E.  and 
S.  W.  are  from  500  to  2,500  ft.  high.  Sea  fowl 
abound,  but  seals,  once  numerous,  have  disap 
peared,  and  there  are  no  land  animals.  There 
is  scarcely  any  vegetation.  The  British  ex 
ploring  vessel  Challenger  ende;ivored  in  vain 
to  effect  a  landing  here  in  1^74.  Kerguelen 
was  selected  in  that  vear  as  one  of  the  Ameri- 


810        KERGUELEN-TRfcMAREC 


KEENER 


can  and  British  stations  for  the  observation  of 
the  transit  of  Venus. 

RERGIELEN-TREMAREC,   Yves    Joseph    do,   a 

French  navigator,  horn  in  Brittany  in  1745, 
died  in  March,  1797.  He  early  entered  the 
navy,  became  a  lieutenant  in  1767,  and  re 
ceived  command  of  a  frigate  sent  to  protect 
the  fisheries  on  the  coasts  of  Iceland.  Going 
to  Norway  for  provisions,  he  sailed  N.,  cross 
ing  the  parallel  of  69°  on  Aug.  17.  In  1769 
he  had  a  like  commission,  and  on  his  return 
related  his  adventures  to  Louis  XV.  In  1771 
he  was  sent  on  a  southern  exploring  expedi 
tion,  and  the  following  year  discovered  an 
antarctic  territory  which  he  called  Kerguelen 
land.  He  revisited  it  in  1774,  but  was  unable 
because  of  storms  to  explore  it  thoroughly, 
and  on  his  return  home  he  was  accused  of  mis 
conduct  and  imprisoned.  He  wTas  soon  re 
leased,  and  afterward  served  against  England. 
He  published  accounts  of  his  voyages. 

RERMAN,  or  Rirnian.  I.  A  province  of  Per 
sia,  the  ancient  Caramania,  bounded  X.  by 
Khorasan,  E.  and  S.  E.  by  Afghanistan  and 
Beloochistan,  S.  by  the  Persian  gulf,  and  S. 
"W.  and  "W.  by  Laristan  and  Farsistan ;  area, 
75,730  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  300,000.  It  is  in 
tersected  from  E.  to  W.  by  a  mountain  chain 
called  Jebel  Abad.  X.  of  this  chain  the  coun 
try,  with  the  exception  of  the  district  of  Xur- 
manshir,  is  a  barren  wilderness ;  S.  of  it,  gen 
erally  an  alpine  region  of  alternate  hill  and 
vale.  The  valleys  and  some  of  the  plains  are 
fertile,  and  yield  crops  of  oats,  maize,  and  bar 
ley.  The  white  rose  is  extensively  cultivated 
for  its  attar,  and  the  mulberry  tree  for  the 
breeding  of  silkworms.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  woollen  cloths,  carpets,  goats'  and  camels' 
hair  shawls,  coarse  linens,  and  matchlocks.  The 
most  important  minerals  are  iron,  copper,  and 
sulphur.  The  inhabitants  of  the  coast  are 
mostly  engaged  in  fishing,  but  the  pearl  fishery, 
which  once  employed  a  considerable  portion 
of  them,  is  no  longer  prosecuted.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  province,  345  m.  S.  E.  of  Ispa 
han  ;  pop.  about  30,000.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall  of  earth,  and  has  a  citadel  in  which  the 
governor  of  the  province  resides.  Its  bazaars 
are  large  and  well  furnished.  It  was  once  the 
great  centre  of  trade  between  the  Persian  gulf 
and  the  inland  regions ;  but  since  the  rise  of 
Bushire  it  has  declined.  In  1794  it  was  taken 
and  pillaged  by  Asa  Mohammed  Khan,  great 
numbers  of  its  inhabitants  being  massacred, 
and  30,000  enslaved  by  the  captors. 

RERMANSHAH,  a  town  of  Persia,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of 
Irak-Ajemi,  on  the  S.  "W.  declivity  of  a  moun 
tain  range,  80  m.  AV.  S.  W.  of  Hamadan  ;  pop. 
about  25,000.  It  is  situated  at  the  edge  of  a  fine 
plain  watered  by  three  considerable  streams, 
which  on  their  junction  further  south  take 
the  name  of  Kerkha  or  Kara-su,  and  discharge 
into  the  Shat-el-Arab,  X.  of  Bassorah.  It  is 
surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall  nearly  3  m.  in 
circumference,  and  is  said  to  be  a  flourishing 


town.  In  the  neighborhood  are  the  rock  in 
scriptions  of  Behistun.  (See  CUNEIFORM  Ix- 
SCEIPTIONS.)  The  celebrated  Persian  carpets 
are  manufactured  here. 

KERMES  INSECT.     See  COCHINEAL. 

RERMES  MINERAL,  a  compound  of  the  ter- 
sulphide  with  the  teroxide  of  antimony.  The 
secret  of  its  preparation  was  purchased  in  1720 
by  the  French  government  and  made  public. 
It  is  prepared  either  in  the  dry  or  wet  way  by 
treating  the  tersulphuret  of  antimony  with  car 
bonated  soda  or  potash.  The  officinal  process 
is  to  boil  1  oz.  troy  of  the  pulverized  sulphuret 
of  antimony  with  23  oz.  troy  of  carbonate  of 
sodium  in  16  pints  of  water  for  an  hour,  and 
after  filtering  to  allow  the  liquor  to  cool  slowly 
in  an  earthen  vessel.  The  kermes  subsides  in  24 
hours.  It  is  then  collected  on  a  filter,  washed 
with  boiled  water,  and  dried  without  heat.  It 
is  a  purplish  brown,  tasteless  powder.  Kermes 
mineral,  as  containing  more  oxide,  is  a  more 
active  drug  than  the  precipitated  sulphuret. 
It  has  been  used  to  produce  the  depressing  ac 
tion  of  antimony  upon  the  heart,  and  has  con 
sequently  been  considered  antiphlogistic.  It 
is  the  active  ingredient  in  what  is  known  as 
James's  powder,  the  pnhis  antwwnialis  of 
the  pharmacopoeia.  Of  late  years  it  has  been 
much  less  employed  than  formerly. 

RERN,  a  S.  county  of  California  ;  area,  8,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,925,  including  143  Chi 
nese.  It  is  mostly  devoted  to  grazing.  The 
agricultural  and  mineral  resources  are  little 
developed.  Some  parts  are  very  fertile,  but 
the  greater  portion  is  dry  and  unproductive. 
It  contains  the  S.  terminus  of  the  great  valley 
of  California,  the  junction  of  the  Coast  range 
and  Sierra  Xevada  mountains,  and  a  portion 
of  the  desert  region  E.  of  the  latter.  It  is  wa 
tered  by  several  streams,  and  Kern  lake  is  in' 
the  AV.  part.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  13,700  bushels  of  wheat,  3,575  of  Indian 
corn,  26,270  of  barley,  6,050  of  potatoes,  1,643 
tons  of  hay,  and  281,100  Ibs.  of  wool.  There 
were  1,685  horses,  6,873  cattle,  90,200  sheep, 
and  753  swine ;  2  flour  mills,  4  saw  mills,  and 
3  quartz  mills.  Capital,  Havilah. 

RERNER,  Andreas  Justinus,  a  German  phy 
sician,  born  in  Ludwigsburg,  AYurternberg, 
Sept.  18,  1786,  died  at  AVeinsberg,  Feb.  21, 
1862.  After  completing  his  school  education 
he  served  an  apprenticeship  in  a  cloth  factory. 
In  1804  he  went  to  the  university  of  Tubingen, 
where  he  studied  medicine  and  formed  an  inti 
macy  with  the  poet  Uhland.  After  some  years 
of  preliminary  practice  he  settled  in  1818  in 
the  little  village  of  AVeinsberg.  Some  of  his 
lyrics,  for  which  Schumann  has  written  melo 
dies,  have  attained  a  popularity  scarcely  infe 
rior  to  those  of  Uhland.  The  first  volumes  of 
his  poems  were  published  in  1826  and  1848 ; 
another  collection  at  Stuttgart  in  1853,  enti 
tled  Dcr  letzte  Bluthenstrauss ;  and  another  in 
1859,  entitled  Winterbluthen.  He  was  a  close 
investigator  of  the  phenomena  of  animal 
magnetism  and  somnambulism,  and  among 


KEROSENE 


811 


the  results  of  his  observations  is  a  remarkable 
book,  Die  Seller  in  von  Prerorst  ("  The  Seeress 
of  Prevorst,"  Stuttgart,  1829),  translated  into 
English  by  Catharine  Crowe,  which  produced 
an  immense  sensation.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
other  books  on  the  same  subject.  His  novel 
IieisescJiatten  is  considered  his  best  work  in 
prose.  Having  been  obliged  in  1851  to  resign 
his  profession  from  a  total  loss  of  sight,  he  re 
ceived  a  pension  from  the  king  of  Wurtem- 
berg,  and  also  one  from  the  ex-king  Louis  I. 
of  Bavaria. 

KEROSEXE  (from  Gr.  KTjp6g,  wax),  a  term 
originally  employed  as  a  trade  mark  for  a  mix 
ture  of  certain  liquid  hydrocarbons  used  for 
purposes  of  illumination.  It  has  been  prepared 
from  bituminous  coal,  bituminous  shales,  as- 
phaltums,  malthas,  wood,  rosin,  fish  oil,  and 
candle  tar;  but  it  is  now  almost  exclusively 
obtained  from  petroleum.  It  is  produced  in 
greater  or  less  quantity  during  the  destructive 
distillation,  at  moderate  temperatures,  of  nearly 
all  organic  and  mineral  substances  containing 
carbon  and  hydrogen.  It  has  been  obtained 
for  commercial  purposes  in  enormous  quanti 
ties  from  the  petroleum  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
West  Virginia,  Rangoon  in  India,  the  Caucasus, 
and  other  localities,  and  in  less  quantities  from 
the  canncl  coals  of  England  and  the  United 
States,  the  Boghead  shale  of  Scotland,  the  al- 
bertite  of  New  Brunswick,  the  asphaltum  of 
Trinidad,  and  common  rosin.  It  has  been  pre 
pared  in  small  quantities  from  the  malthas  of 
southern  California,  and  from  menhaden  oil. 
For  the  details  respecting  its  preparation  from 
petroleum,  see  PETROLEUM  PRODUCTS. — Kero 
sene  consists  of  a  mixture  of  many  hydro 
carbons,  the  whole  having  the  consistence  of 
the  essential  oils,  a  burning  taste,  and  aro 
matic  odor.  AVhen  properly  prepared  it  is 
nearly  colorless  by  transmitted  light,  but  is 
slightly  opalescent  by  reflected  light.  Its  den 
sity  as  compared  with  water  should  be  about 
•810,  or  43°  of  Baume's  hydrometer.  When 
heated  it  should  not  yield  inflammable  vapors 
below  110°  or  120°  F.,  and  should  extinguish 
a  lighted  match  as  readily  as  water  at  the  ordi 
nary  temperature  of  our  apartments.  As  the 
temperature  of  this  oil  in  a  burning  lamp  sel 
dom  or  never  exceeds  100°  F.,  it  is  obvious 
that  such  an  oil  is  perfectly  safe,  as  it  would 
never  yield  any  vapor  below  110°  which,  by 
mingling  with  the  air  above  the  oil  in  the 
lamp,  could  form  with  it  an  explosive  mix 
ture.  Chemically  considered,  kerosene  is  a  mix 
ture  of  the  less  volatile  members  of  the  marsh 
gas  series  of  the  hydrides  of  the  alcohol  radi 
cals  (CJIo^i),  of  a  second  homologous  series 
isomeric  with  the  first,  having  higher  boiling 
points,  together  with  members  of  the  ethylene 
or  olefiant  gas  series  (CnII2n). — The  manufac 
ture  of  this  product  as  an  article  of  commerce 
has  developed  into  enormous  proportions.  Its 
unsurpassed  qualities  as  an  illuminating  agent, 
together  with  its  cheapness  when  compared 
with  other  substances  used  for  that  purpose, 


|  has  caused  it  to  penetrate  to  every  region 
!  whither  its  transportation  is  possible.  Like 
|  many  other  of  the  great  industries  of  the 
i  world,  it  has  arisen  from  repeated  and  very 
small  beginnings.  The  extraction  of  oil  from 
bituminous  substances,  as  shales,  coals,  asphal 
tum,  &c.,  is  no  new  discovery.  The  first  an 
nouncement  that  oil  might  be  thus  procured 
is  contained  in  the  specification  of  a  patent 
granted  in  England  in  1094  to  Martin  Eele, 
Thomas  Hancock,  and  William  Portlock,  for 
"a  way  to  extract  and  make  great  quantities 
of  pitch,  tar,  and  oyle  out  of  a  sort  of  stone, 
of  which  there  is  a  sufficient  found  within  our 
dominions  of  England  and  Wales."  The  stone 
proved  to  be  a  bituminous  shale  ;  but  no  prac 
tical  results  appear  to  have  followed  the  dis 
covery  and  the  patent.  In  1716  the  Messrs. 
Betton  of  Shrewsbury  patented  a  process  for 
extracting  oil  from  the  black,  pitchy,  flinty 
'  rock  commonly  found  overlying  the  coal  beds. 
This  must  have  been  the  bituminous  shales ; 
!  and  their  method  was  to  grind  them  to  powder 
and  subject  the  material  to  destructive  distilla- 
;  tion.  The  product  was  used  only  as  a  medi- 
I  cine,  and  was  noticed  as  such  in  1701  in  Lewis's 
j  "  Materia  Medica,"  under  the  name  of  British 
I  or  petroleum  oil,  "extracted  by  distillation 
from  a  hard  bitumen  or  a  kind  of  stone  coal 
found  in  Shropshire  and  other  parts  of  Eng 
land."  The  substance  and  the  method  of  pro 
curing  it  received  occasional  notice  in  the  scien 
tific  journals;  the  earliest  paper  of  much  in 
terest  containing  an  account  of  Dr.  Clayton's 
experiments  was  published  in  the  "Philosophi 
cal  Transactions  "  of  January,  1 739.  But  it  was 
about  90  years  after  this  before  any  decided 
advance  was  made  in  adding  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  products  of  the  slow  distillation  of  or 
ganic  bodies.  Those  products,  however,  were 
known  only  as  oily  fluids,  possessing  no  in 
terest  except  as  empirical  medicines,  when  Rei- 
chenbach  of  Moravia  undertook  to  investigate 
!  their  properties,  and  extended  his  researches  to 
the  great  variety  of  products  of  the  destructive 
distillation  at  both  high  and  low  temperatures 
of  organic  bodies,  of  animal  as  well  as  vegetable 
origin.  The  mixture  of  the  several  hydrocar 
bons,  such  as  constitute  the  purified  coal  oils,  he 
called  eupione  (Gr.  ev,  very,  and  -iuv,  fat).  He 
recognized  the  superior  illuminating  quality  of 
these  oils,  and  observed  that  a  cheap  method 
of  separating  them  from  the  tarry  residues  was 
{done  required  to  bring  them  into  extensive 
use  for  domestic  purposes.  The  great  number 
of  new  substances  which  he  thus  discovered, 
together  with  the  promise  that  several  among 
them  might  be  applied  to  useful  purposes,  gave 
great  interest  to  the  accounts  of  his  inves 
tigations  which  appeared  in  the  Journal  fur 
Chemie  itnd  Phyxik  of  Schweigger-Seidel,  the 
Nenes  Jahrbuch  dcr  Chemie  und  Physik,  and 
Erdmann's  Journal  fiir  praTcti&che  Chemie, 
for  1830-'31.  They  attracted  the  attention  of 
scientific  and  practical  chemists  in  other  parts 
of  Europe,  some  of  whom,  in  France  particu- 


812 


KEROSENE 


larly,  were  already  engaged  in  the  extraction 
of  the  oils  from  bituminous  substances,  a  patent 
for  which  had  been  granted  in  1824  to  the  MM. 
Chervau.  In  1832  Blum  and  Monetise  patented 
the  application  of  these  oils  to  illuminating 
purposes.  The  latter  had  a  factory  near  Autun 
in  the  department  of  Saone-et-Loire  for  treat 
ing  the  bituminous  shales  of  that  district ;  the 
chemist  Laurent  was  at  this  time  engaged  in 
conducting  the  operations,  and  a  year  or  two 
afterward  was  succeeded  by  Selligue.  The 
papers  published  by  these  chemists,  and  es 
pecially  the  specifications  of  the  patents  taken 
out  by  the  latter  from  1834  to  1845,  published 
in  the  Brevets  d?  invention,  present  full  details 
of  the  operations,  which  they  had  already 
brought  to  such  a  state  of  perfection  that  the 
subsequent  improvements  introduced  consisted 
merely  in  comparatively  unimportant  modifi 
cations  of  the  apparatus  employed.  Up  to  the 
year  18G1  no  treatise  upon  the  subject  had  ap 
peared  at  all  comparable  to  that  in  the  specifi 
cation  of  the  patent  of  March  19,  1845  (Urevets 
tV  invention,  new  series,  iv.  30).  Of  this  an 
English  translation  is  recorded  in  the  specifi 
cation  of  the  patent  of  Du  Buisson,  No.  10,726 
of  the  English  patent  office.  (See  also  a  paper 
on  the  history  of  this  manufacture  by  F.  II. 
Storer,  in  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science," 
vol.  xxx.,  pp.  121  and  254,  1860.)  In  this 
specification  Selligue  describes  first  the  ap 
paratus  employed  in  the  distillation,  in  one 
form  of  which  he  makes  use  of  superheated 
steam.  The  products  of  the  distillation  are 
then  enumerated,  which  were  as  follows  :  1,  a 
very  limpid  whitish  volatile  oil,  almost  without 
odor,  useful  as  a  solvent  or  for  illumination  in 
suitable  lamps,  and  sometimes  known  as  naph 
tha  ;  2,  a  straw-colored  oil,  somewhat  volatile, 
of  specific  gravity  0'84  to  0'87,  almost  odor 
less,  and  suitable  for  burning  in  lamps  in  which 
the  oil  is  kept  at  the  same  level,  and  which  are 
provided  with  a  double  current  of  air,  with  a 
chimney,  and  proper  burner ;  3,  a  heavier  oil 
adapted  for  lubricating  machinery;  4,  a  red 
coloring  matter  extracted  from  the  different 
varieties  of  the  oils;  5,  paraffine;  6,  a  grease 
for  lubricating  machinery,  being  evidently  a 
mixture  of  paraffine  in  'little  oil;  7,  a  black 
pitch,  the  residue  of  the  distillation,  suitable 
for  coating  wood,  metals,  &c.,  for  their  preser 
vation  ;  8,  an  alkaline  soap  prepared  by  treat 
ing  the  oil  with  alkalies;  9,  sulphate  of  am-  j 
monia:  10,  fertilizing  mixtures  prepared  with 
the  ammoniacal  liquors;  11,  sulphate  of  alu 
mina.  The  crude  oil  obtained  from  his  retorts, 
which  were  like  those  of  the  gas  works,  he  ! 
treated  either  before  or  after  its  being  redis 
tilled  with  a  quantity  of  acid  (sulphuric,  mu-  I 
riatic,  or  nitric),  and  caused  the  mixture  to  be  ! 
thoroughly  agitated.  This  operation  being  con-  j 
tinned  for  some  time,  the  tarry  matters  were  ; 
partially  freed  from  the  oil,  and  on  the  mixture  \ 
being  left  to  repose  they  subsided  with  the  acid, 
so  that  the  purified  oil  could  be  drawn  off  from  ! 
the  top,  bringing  with  it  but  little  of  the  acid!  | 


This  was  neutralized  by  addition  of  an  alkali, 
as  the  lye  of  soap  boilers,  and  after  the  mixture 
had  been  well  agitated  again,  more  tar  and 
coloring  matter  subsided,  from  which  the  oils 
were  separated  by  decanting  again  and  redis 
tilling.  By  a  series  of  fractional  distillations 
the  several  sorts  of  light  oils  were  obtained  in 
a  pure  state. — In  1846  Abraham  Gesner  made 
oil  from  coal  in  Prince  Edward  island,  and  was 
the  first  to  give  it  the  name  kerosene.  In  Eng 
land  the  establishment  of  the  coal-oil  manu 
facture  was  due  to  the  enterprise  of  James 
Young  of  Glasgow.  In  1847  his  attention  was 
directed  to  the  extraction  of  a  lubricating  oil 
from  petroleum,  which  exuded  from  a  coal  mine 
in  Derbyshire  ;  and  having  exhausted  the  sup 
ply  of  this,  he  next  applied  to  the  same  pur 
pose  the  Torbanehill  mineral  or  Boghead  can- 
nel,  a  material  which  was  first  ascertained  in 
1850  to  possess  an  unusual  proportion  of  bitu 
men,  and  to  be  capable  of  affording  large 
quantities  of  gas.  Mr.  Young  found  it  still 
better  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  oil,  and 
succeeded  so  well  that  in  1854,  as  he  testified 
in  a  lawsuit  for  establishing  his  patent,  his  pro 
duction  of  oil  amounted  to  about  8,000  gallons 
a  week,  which  sold  for  5s.  a  gallon.  For  the 
year  the  sales  reached  about  £100,000,  a  large 
proportion  of  which  was  profit.  Such  success 
soon  led  others  to  undertake  the  manufacture, 
and  coal-oil  works  rapidly  increased  in  England, 
and  were  introduced  into  the  United  States. 
The  first  factory  of  the  kind  in  this  country 
was  that  of  the  kerosene  oil  company,  on  New- 
town  creek,  Long  Island,  opposite  the  upper 
part  of  New  York  cit}r,  which  went  into  op 
eration  in  June,  1854.  It  was  designed  to 
work  the  Boghead  cannel  or  other  materials 
of  similar  character  that  might  be  brought 
to  New  York  from  New  Brunswick  or  Nova 
Scotia,  or  from  the  western  coal  mines;  and 
the  operations  were  to  be  conducted  under  the 
patent  of  Mr.  Young,  granted  to  him  in  this 
country  as  well  as  in  England,  for  the  exclu 
sive  use  of  coal  for  this  manufacture.  His 
claim,  however,  was  not  recognized  at  other 
works  of  later  date  in  the  United  States,  and 
was  never  enforced.  In  185  6  the  B  reck  en  ridge 
coal-oil  works  at  Clovcrport,  Ky.,  on  the  Ohio 
river,  were  producing  oil  from  the  cannel  coal 
of  the  vicinity,  which  somewhat  resembled  the 
Boghead  cannel  in  appearance  and  in  its  rich 
bituminous  character ;  and  the  same  3Tear  a 
factory  was  built  in  Perry  co.,  Ohio.  The  can 
nel  coals  of  this  region  proving  to  be  well 
adapted  for  this  application,  several  other  fac 
tories  were  soon  constructed,  particularly  in 
the  vicinity  of  Newark,  Licking  co.,  Canfield, 
Mahoning  co.,  and  in  Coshocton  co. ;  and  at 
the  close  of  the  year  1860  the  total  number  in 
Ohio  was  probably  not  less  than  25,  and  there 
were  also  many  in  other  states.  The  processes 
pursued  in  the  different  works  were  essentially 
the  same.  The  only  distinctions  of  importance 
were  in  the  forms  of  the  apparatus,  and  par 
ticularly  in  the  retorts.  The  common  form  in 


KERR 


KERTCII 


813 


use  for  some  time  was  that  of  the  gas  retort, 
long  cast-iron  boxes,  with  an  opening  at  the 
end  that  projected  from  the  furnace  in  which 
they  were  set,  and  shaped  in  their  section  like 
the  letter  fi  .  Others  were  made  of  cylindri 
cal  form,  were  set  upright  in  the  furnace,  made 
to  be  charged  at  the  top  and  discharged  at  the 
bottom,  and  furnished  with  exit  pipes  for  the 
volatile  products  either  at  the  top  or  at  differ 
ent  heights.  Earthenware  retorts  were  sub 
stituted  in  some  works  for  those  of  cast  iron, 
as  in  the  manufacture  of  gas.  In  the  use  of  all 
of  them  a  loss  resulted  from  the  unequal  degree 
in  which  portions  of  the  charge  were  heated, 
a  part  being  rapidly  overheated  so  as  to  produce 
gaseous  matters,  while  other  parts  were  acqui 
ring  the  heat  necessary  for  the  generation  of 
the  oily  products.  This  defect  was  however 
corrected  by  means  of  a  revolving  retort  which 
was  invented  in  France,  and  which  produced  a 
more  uniform  distribution  of  heat.  Methods 
of  distillation  were  also  in  use  by  which  an 
external  fire  was  dispensed  with,  and  the  heat 
required  for  the  expulsion  of  the  volatile 
matters  was  produced  by  the  combustion  of  a 
portion  of  the  material,  as  in  the  process  of 
making  charcoal.  Near  Wheeling,  Va.,  this 
plan  was  in  operation,  the"  coal  being  collected 
in  pits  of  100  tons'  charge,  and  covered  with 
earth.  Other  forms  of  kiln  were  in  use,  but 
as  the  process  of  obtaining  kerosene  from  coal 
is  abandoned,  more  than  the  above  notice  is 
superfluous.  In  1800  the  establishments  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  alone  produced  about  200,000 
barrels.  At  that  date,  according  to  the  census 
returns,  the  total  value  of  all  the  kerosene 
produced  in  the  country  was  estimated  at 
$2,142,093.  The  marvellous  production  of 
petroleum  during  the  years  immediately  fol 
lowing  led  to  the  abandonment  of  coal  as 
a  crude  material.  Those  establishments  then 
using  coal  rapidly  changed  to  petroleum  refi 
neries,  and  many  new  refineries  were  erected  at 
different  points.  (See  PETROLEUM  PRODUCTS.) 

KERK,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  watered  by 
Guadalupe  and  Medina  rivers;  area,  818  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,042,  of  whom  90  were  col 
ored.  The  surface  is  diversified,  and  much  of 
the  soil  of  superior  quality.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  45  7<S1  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  10,963  Ibs.  of  wool,  19,095  of  butter,  and 
230  tons  of  hay.  There  were  480  horses,  2,511 
milch  cows,  10,128  other  cattle,  4,848  sheep, 
and  2,020  swine.  Capital,  Kerrsville. 

KERRY,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Munster,  bordering  on  the  At 
lantic,  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon,  and  the 
counties  Limerick  and  Cork;  area,  1,811  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  in  1871,  190,014,  of  whom  a  con 
siderable  proportion  speak  only  the  Irish 
tongue.  The  coast  is  much  indented  with  bays 
and  inlets,  the  principal  being  Brandon,  Va- 
lentia,  Kenmare,  Dingle,  Tarbert,  and  Tralce 
bays.  Numerous  small  islands  lie  off  the  coast. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Feale,  Maine,  Laune, 
and  Roiiglitv.  Manv  beautiful  lakes  are  hid 


den  among  the  hills,  including  the  famous  lakes 
of  Killarney,  the  two  lakes  of  Carra,  Currane, 
Derryana,  and  Lanan,  and  the  Devil's  Punch 
Bowl,' near  the  summit  of  Mangerton.  The 
surface  in  the  north  is  open  and  undulating, 
in  the  southwest  wild  and  mountainous.  Carn 
Tual,  the  highest  mountain  in  Ireland,  is  3,414 
ft.,  and  several  others  are  2,000  and  3,000  ft. 
Minerals  have  been  but  partially  explored,  yet 
copper,  marble,  and  roofing  slate  are  worked, 
and  lead  and  iron  are  known  to  exist.  Agri 
culture  is  in  a  backward  condition.  The  soil  is 
inferior,  except  in  the  central  lowlands,  where 
it  is  a  rich  loam,  resting  on  limestone.  The 
climate  is  the  mildest  in  Ireland.  The  fisheries 
of  the  Kerry  coast  are  important.  The  chief 
towns  are  Tralee,  Killarney,  Dingle,  Listowel, 
Caherciveen,  and  Kenmare. 

KERSHAW,  a  N.  county  of  South  Carolina, 
drained  by  Wateree  river ;  area,  770  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  11,754,  of  whom  7,945  were  col 
ored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface.  The  soil  of  the 
uplands  is  sandy,  but  susceptible  of  profitable 
cultivation,  and  the  river  bottoms  arc  remark 
ably  fertile.  The  Camden  branch  of  the  South 
Carolina  railroad  terminates  at  the  county  seat. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  G,389"bush- 
els  of  wheat,  108,420  of  Indian  corn,  11,101  of 
peas  and  beans,  10,595  of  sweet  potatoes,  4,101 
bales  of  cotton,  and  30,530  Ibs.  of  rice.  There 
were  501  horses,  051  mules  and  asses,  1,432 
milch  cows,  2,214  other  cattle,  1,247  sheep,  and 
4,224  swine.  Capital,  Camden. 

KERTCII  (anc.  Panticapceum  or  Bosporus),  a 
city  of  Russia,  in  the  Crimea,  on  the  strait  of 
its  name  or  of  Yenikale,  commanding  the  en 
trance  to  the  sea  of  Azov,  lat.  45°  20'  N.,  Ion. 
30°  28'  E.,  112  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Simferopol;  pop. 
in  1807,  19,010.  The  place  as  it  IIONV  stands 
is  of  recent  date.  It  is  handsomely  built  of 
stone,  with  wide  and  regular  streets.  It  has 
been  a  free  port  since  1822,  and  is  rapidly 
growing.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  engaged 
in  commerce.  The  exports  are  building  stone, 
soap,  candles,  salt  in  large  quantities,  and  her 
ring  and  sturgeon,  the  produce  of  the  coast 
fisheries.  The  government  has  a  foundery  and 
ship  yard  here.  The  harbor  is  good,  and  is 
fortified. — Panticapfflum,  the  capital  of  the  an 
cient  kingdom  of  Bosporus,  was  founded  by 
Milesians  in  the  6th  century  B.  C.,  and  was 
annexed  to  Rome  by  Pompey,  03  B.  C.  The 
Huns  seized  it  about  375,  and  the  Genoese-  in 
1280.  They  were  compelled  to  abandon  it  by 
the  Turks  in  1475.  These  were  displaced  by 
the  Russians  in  1771,  to  whom  the  place  was 
formally  ceded  in  1792.  It  surrendered  to  the 
allied  forces  of  France  and  England  May~25, 
1855,  and  was  restored  to  Russia  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  March  30,  1850.  Kertch  is  still  called 
Bospor  (Vosfor)  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Crimea.  In  the  Italian  charts  of  the  middle 
ages  it  is  called  Pandico  or  Pondico,  as  well  as 
Bospro  or  Vospro.  Foundations  of  ancient 
buildings  and  heaps  of  brick  and  pottery  are 
still  scattered  over  the  hill  of  Mithridates,  on 


814 


KESTREL 


KESWICK 


•which  PanticapaBum  was  situated,  and  at  the 
foot  of  which  Kertch  now  stands.     Among  the 


Kertch. 

numerous  tumuli  in  the  vicinity,  the  most  ex 
traordinary  are  those  situated  at  the  mountain 
called  by  the  Tartars  Altun-Obo.  One  of  these 
is  165  ft.  in  diameter;  a  vestibule  6  ft.  square 
leads  into  a  tomb  15  ft.  long  and  14  ft.  broad, 
which  formerly  contained  the  bones  of  a  king 
and  queen,  golden  and  silver  vases,  and  other 
ornaments.  Below  this  tomb  is  another,  and 
from  the  two  120  Ibs.  of  gold  ornaments  are 
said  to  have  been  carried  away  at  the  conquest 
of  the  place  by  the  allies  in  1855.  It  is  sup 
posed  that  it  was  erected  not  later  than  the 
4th  century  B.  C. 

KESTREL,  a  European  falcon,  of  the  genus 
tinnunculus   (Vieill.),    much    resembling   the 


Kestrel  (Tinnunculus  alaudarius). 

American  sparrow  hawk.     This  bird  (T.  alau- 
darius,  Briss.)  has  the  form  and  proportions  of 


the  falcons  proper,  except  that  the  tarsi  are 
longer  and  the  toes  less  stout.  The  length  is 
about  14  in.,  and  the  ex 
tent  of  wings  28,  the  fe 
male  being  a  little  larger 
than  this ;  the  closed  wings 
are  about  2  in.  shorter  than 
the  tail.  In  the  male,  the 
general  color  above  is  light 
grayish  blue,  the  back  and 
wing  coverts  pale  red  with 
triangular  dark  spots ;  the 
tail  with  a  subterminal 
broad  black  bar ;  the  lower 
parts  light  yellowish  red, 
with  long  longitudinal  dark 
lines  and  spots.  In  the  fe 
male,  the  upper  parts  are 
light  red,  with  transverse 
dark  bars  and  spots;  the 
young  resemble  the  fe 
male.  The  kestrel  hov 
ers  in  search  of  prey  at  a 
height  of  30  or  40  ft., 
from  which  it  pounces 
upon  small  birds,  mice, 
moles',  reptiles,  and  sometimes  worms  and 
beetles,  which  it  finds  in  the  open  fields; 
from  its  peculiar  manner  of  hovering,  it  has 
received  the  popular  name  of  wind-hover ; 
it  occasionally  pursues  birds  in  open  flight. 
When  not  in  search  of  food,  the  flight  is  high, 
with  rapid  flaps  and  occasional  sailings.  Silent 
when  hovering  after  prey,  it  is  very  noisy  in 
the  breeding  season ;  it  breeds  on  cliffs  near 
the  sea,  in  trees  in  the  woods,  in  ruined  build 
ings  or  high  towers  in  towns,  and  in  the  desert 
ed  nests  of  the  crow  family ;  the  eggs,  three  to 
five,  are  reddish  Avhite,  with  irregular  dots  and 
patches  of  dull  brownish  red.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  common  birds  of  prey  in  Great  Brit 
ain,  in  almost  all  districts  except  the  interior 
heaths.  When  taken  from  the  nest,  kestrels 
may  be  trained  to  pursue  quails,  snipes,  larks, 
and  birds  of  similar  size.  Their  numbers  are 
greatly  diminished  during  winter,  and  they  are 
said  to  migrate  to  northern  Africa.  Though 
persecuted  by  gamekeepers  often  for  the  sins 
of  the  sparrow  hawk,  it  is  of  positive  benefit 
to  man  by  destroying  great  numbers  of  mice. 
It  is  found  throughout  Europe.  There  is  a 
smaller  kestrel  (T7.  cencliris,  Naum.),  with  long 
er  wings  and  fewer  spots,  in  eastern  and  south 
ern  Europe.  The  kestrel  swallows  small  mam 
mals  whole,  but  removes  the  feathers  from  its 
bird  prey.  There  is  considerable  variation  in 
the  plumage. 

KESWICK,  a  market  town  of  Cumberland, 
England,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Greta,  22  m. 
S.  S.  W.  of  Carlisle;  pop.  in  1871,  2,777.^  It 
is  well  built,  contains  two  museums,  chiefly 
of  minerals,  and  has  manufactures  of  linsey- 
woolsey  stuffs,  cutlery,  and  black-lead  pencils. 
Lying  within  one  mile  of  the  foot  of  Skiddaw 
and  half  a  mile  from  Derwentwater,  it  is 
much  resorted  to  by  tourists,  for  whose  accom- 


KETOXES 


KEW 


815 


modation  there  are  several  hotels.     The  vale  j 
of  Keswick  is  renowned   for  its  picturesque  i 
scenery,  in  respect  to  which  it  is  surpassed  by  | 
few  spots  in  England.     Greta  Hall,  formerly 
the  residence  of  Southey,  is  near  the  town. 

KETOXES,  or  Acetones,  a  class  of  bodies  com 
posed  of  an  acid  radical  united  with  an  alcohol 
radical.  Xearly  all  the  ketones  now  known 
consist  of  the  radical  of  a  fatty  acid  combined 
with  one  of  the  corresponding  alcohol  radi 
cals,  their  general  formula  being  C,,,II2,n  +  l  and 
CJIsn-iO,  where  ra  may  be  either  greater  or 
less  than  n.  When  m=0,  the  ketone  becomes 
an  aldehyde,  II.  OwH2^_10=0«H2nO;  the  ke 
tones  may  be  therefore  regarded  as  aldehydes 
in  which  one  atom  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by 
an  alcohol  radical.  Ketones  are  either  simple 
or  compound.  In  the  simple,  m=n— 1,  so  that 
their  general  formula  is  Cn_ iH2n_i,  0,Jl2n-iO  = 
Csn-iI^n-sO.  Acetic  or  common  acetone,  or 
methyle  acetyle,  where  w=2,  is  CHaCJIsO. 
Both  the  simple  ketones  are  produced  by  heat 
ing  the  barium  or  calcium  salts  of  the  fatty 
acids,  whereby  two  atoms  of  the  salt  are  de 
composed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  acid  radi 
cal  of  one  of  them  is  resolved  into  the  next 
lowest  alcohol  radical  and  carbonyle. 

KETTELER,  Wilhelm  Emaimel  von,  baron,  a 
German  prelate,  born  in  Minister,  Westphalia, 
Dec.  25,  1811.  After  studying  law  and  being 
engaged  in  the  civil  service  at  Minister  for 
several  years,  he  qualified  himself  for  the 
priesthood,  was  ordained  June  1,  1844,  and 
became  chaplain  at  Bock- 
inn,  and  in  1846  curate  at 
Ilopsten.  In  1848,  as  a 
member  of  the  Frankfort 
parliament,  he  delivered  a 
remarkable  speech  at  the 
funeral  of  Liclmowsky  and 
Auerswald,  who  had  been 
murdered  by  the  mob, 
Sept.  18,  and  advocated 
during  the  debates  on  the 
constitution  the  indepen 
dence  of  the  church  from 
the  state.  In  1849  he  was 
made  provost  of  the  Ber 
lin  Iledwigskirche,  and 
next  year  bishop  of  Mentz. 
He  became  known  as  a 
most  enterprising  ultra- 
montanist,  founded  vari 
ous  institutions  and  reli 
gious  orders  and  commu 
nities  with  the  view  of 
controlling  education  and 
charitable  works,  and  ex 
erted  himself  for  the  protection  of  Roman 
Catholic  interests  in  the  ecclesiastical  province 
of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  in  Germany  generally. 
With  the  support  of  the  Roman  Catholic  grand 
duchess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  and  the  prime  min 
ister  Dalwigk,  he  secured,  in  virtue  of  a  secret 
convention  of  Aug.  23,  1854,  special  preroga 
tives  for  his  diocese  ;  and  although  this  conven- 
VOL.  ix. — 52 


tion  was  subsequently  abrogated,  he  retained 
these  privileges,  even  after  the  overthrow  of 
the  Dahvigk  cabinet  in  1871.  After  having 
opened  an  asylum  for  the  Jesuits,  and  identi 
fied  himself  with  the  most  extreme  ultramon 
tane  measures,  he  surprised  the  world  by  ques 
tioning  the  expediency  of  the  declaration  of 
papal  infallibility,  though  he  sympathized  with 
the  principle  of  the  dogma ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
decrees  of  the  Vatican  were  passed,  he  united 
with  other  bishops  in  submitting  to  them.  He 
was  elected  in  1871  to  the  first  German  Reichs 
tag,  and  became  the  ablest  ultramontane  leader 
in  that  assembly.  His  principal  works  are :  Das 
It  edit  und  der  Rechtsschutz  der  Katholischen 
Kirche  in  Deutschland  (5th  ed.,  1854);  Frei- 
heit,  Autoritat  und  Kirche  (7th  ed.,  1802) ;  Die 
Arbeiterfrage  vnd  das  Christcnthum  (3d  ed., 
1864)  ;  Dcutschland  nach  dem  Kriege  von  I860 
(6th  ed.,  1867);  Die  wahren  Grundlagen  des 
religidsen  Friedens  (3d  ed.,  1868);  Das  allge- 
meine  Condi  und  seine  Bedeutung  far  unsere 
Zeit  (5th  ed.,  1869);  and  Die  Anschauungen 
des  Cultusministers  Ilerrn  Dr.  Falk  iiber  die 
Katholische  Kirche,  nach  dessen  Rede  vom  10. 
December,  1873  (1874). 

KEW,  a  village  and  parish  of  Surrey,  England, 
on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Thames,  7  m.  S.  W.  of 
St.  Paul's,  London,  famous  for  the  royal  bo 
tanic  gardens,  the  richest  in  the  world,  com 
prising  75  acres,  and  open  gratuitously  to  the 
public  daily,  including  Sunday.  They  contain 
a  palm  house  362  ft.  long,  100  ft.  wide,  an-,1 


The  Museum  at  Kew. 

64  ft.  high,  houses  for  cacti,  tanks  for  the 
Victoria  regia  water  lily,  and  a  most  extensive 
collection  of  Australian  trees  and  plants.  The 
old  palace  of  Kew  was  the  residence  of  George 
III.  and  his  family.  The  surrounding  pleasure 
grounds  cover  an  extent  of  245  acres,  tastefully 
laid  out.  The  observatory  is  chiefly  used  as  a 
meteorological  station. 


816 


KEWAUNEE 


KEYSER 


KEWAOfEE,  an  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bor 
dering  on  Lake  Michigan  and  drained  by  Ke- 
waunee  and  Ked  rivers ;  area,  360  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  10,128.  It  has  a  rolling  surface  and 
a  fertile  soil,  and  is  well  wooded.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  120,065  bushels  of 
wheat,  21,123  of  rye,  73,554  of  oats,  58,866  of 
potatoes,  20,636  of  peas  and  beans,  124,091  Ibs. 
of  butter,  and  5,110  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
842  horses,  2,407  milch  cows,  1,940  working 
oxen,  2,582  other  cattle,  1,546  sheep,  and  3,865 
swine ;  3  breweries,  5  flour  mills,  and  10  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Kewaunee. 

KEWEENAW,  a  N.  W.  county  of  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  occupying  the  extremity 
of  Keweenaw  point,  which  is  surrounded  by 
Lake  Superior  on  all  sides  except  the  S.  W., 
and  including  Isle  Royale ;  area,  about  575  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,205.  The  surface  is  hilly, 
and  near  the  centre  mountainous.  Sandstone 
underlies  a  portion  of  it.  It  is  productive  of 
copper,  and  mining  is  the  principal  occupation 
of  the  people.  In  1870  there  were  6  mines, 
producing  to  the  value  of  $823,447,  6  quartz 
jnills,  and  a  manufactory  of  explosives  and  fire 
works.  In  1872  the  yield  was  1,836  tons  of 
ore.  Capital,  Eagle  River. 

KEWKIANG,  or  Kinkiang,  a  town  of  China, 
in  the  province  of  Kiangsi,  on  the  Yangtse, 
near  the  N".  end  of  Lake  Poyang,  227  m.  S.  W. 
of  Nanking.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  nine 
rivers  which  flow  from  the  adjacent  moun 
tains.  This  situation,  commanding  the  trade 
of  Lake  Poyang,  induced  Lord  Elgin  in  1860 
to  propose  the  place  as  an  open  port,  it  being 
the  nearest  outlet  of  the  green  tea  district,  of 
which  the  export  rose  in  1868  to  9,000,000 
Ibs.,  and  of  black  tea  to  nearly  twice  as  much. 
The  shipments  subsequently  declined  consider 
ably,  and  the  total  exports  in  1871  did  not 
exceed  the  value  of  $4,000,000,  the  imports, 
however,  reaching  $12,000,000.  The  town 
suffered  greatly  from  the  Taeping  rebellion, 
and  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  when  it 
was  recaptured  by  the  imperial  troops ;  but  it 
soon  recovered.  The  overflow  of  the  Yang 
tse  in  several  consecutive  seasons  had  filled  the 
place  in  1870  with  fugitives  from  inundated 
districts,  and  with  vagabonds  and  Mohamme 
dan  fanatics,  who  destroyed  missionary  chapels, 
but  were  put  down  with  the  aid  of  war  vessels. 
The  British  settlement  fronts  the  river,  and  the 
remains  of  the  Chinese  town  are  back  of  it, 
with  a  new  temple  built  by  the  emperor,  con 
taining  a  memorial  of  a  general  who  fell  in  the 
siege.  The  American  house  of  Russell  and  co. 
maintains  here  a  fine  fleet  of  river  steamers, 
and  controls  the  carrying  trade  on  the  Yangtse 
and  on  Lake  Poyang.  The  shipping  in  1871 
comprised  320  American  and  92  English  steam 
ers,  and  23  American  and  65  English  sailing 
vessels.  Kewkiang  is  only  a  subsidiary  port  of 
Shanghai,  and  the  navigation  is  liable  to  be 
impeded  by  low  water  and  sand  bars,  requiring 
the  transshipment  of  cargoes  at  Ilukow,  16m. 
below  Kewkiang,  at  the  mouth  of  Lake  Poyang. 


KEY,  Francis  Scott,  an  American  poet,  born 
in  Frederick  co.,  Md.,  Aug.  1,  17Y9,  died  in 
Baltimore,  Jan.  11,  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  St.  John's  college,  Annapolis,  and  com 
menced  the  practice  of  the  law  in  Frederick 
City.  Subsequently  he  removed  to  Washing 
ton,  where  he  was  for  many  years  district  at 
torney  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  As  a  song 
writer  be  is  chiefly  known  by  "  The  Star-Span 
gled  Banner,"  a  popular  national  lyric,  suggest 
ed  and  partially  written  while  the  author  was 
detained  in  the  British  fleet  during  the  bom 
bardment  of  Fort  McHenry,  near  Baltimore, 
of  which  he  was  an  anxious  and  interested  wit 
ness.  A  collection  of  his  poems  was  published 
in  New  York  in  1857.  In  1874  James  Lick  of 
San  Francisco  gave  $150,000  for  a  monument 
to  Key  in  that  city. 

KEY,  Thomas  Hewitt,  an  English  scholar  and 
educator,  born  in  Southwark,  March  20,  1799. 
lie  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
in  1821,  and  for  two  or  three  years  was  engaged 
in  studying  medicine  in  Guy's  hospital,  Lon 
don.  In  1824  he  accepted  the  professorship 
of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  Virginia, 
but,  the  climate, not  agreeing  with  his  health, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1827.  The  next 
year,  on  the  founding  of  the  university  of  Lon 
don,  he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  Latin,  and 
held  the  post  for  13  years.  He  then  became 
head  master  of  the  school  in  the  university, 
and  professor  of  comparative  grammar,  which 
positions  he  still  occupies  (1874).  He  has  con 
tributed  largely  to  philological  literature  in  the 
way  of  reviews,  pamphlets,  essays,  &c. ;  he  had 
a  spicy  controversy  with  Donaldson  in  regard 
to  the  latter's  "  Varronianus ;"  and  he  was 
engaged  for  many  years  on  a  new  and  full 
"  Latin-English  Lexicon."  He  has  also  pub 
lished  a  "Latin  Grammar  "  (1843-'6),  u  Philo 
logical  Essays"  (1868),  and  "Language,  its 
Origin  and  Development  "  (1874). 

KEY  ISLANDS,  or  Ki,  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  Indian  archipelago,  50  m.  W.  of  the  Arroo 
islands,  in  lat.  6°  S.,  Ion.  133°  E.  The  largest 
are  the  Great  Keys,  with  mountains  3,000  ft. 
high,  which  are  supposed  to  contain  gold.  Lit 
tle  Key  and  other  smaller  islands  are  level  and 
fertile.  Along  the  coast  is  a  mixture  of  races, 
the  Malays  predominating.  The  interior  is 
inhabited  by  the  Ilaraforas,  who  are  laborious 
agriculturists.  The  islands  are  annually  visited 
by  coasting  vessels  from  the  Moluccas  and  other 
islands  for  the  shipment  of  tortoise  shell,  birds' 
nests,  and  other  products.  The  Dutch  resident 
at  Amboyna  occasionally  superintends  the  af 
fairs  of  the  islands,  though  they  are  virtually 
independent.  They  were  explored  in  1870  by 
the  Italian  navigator  Cerrute. 

KEYSER,  Mcaise  dc,  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Sandvliet,  province  of  Antwerp,  in  1813. 
He  is  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  was  enabled  by 
the  generosity  of  a  lady  who  recognized  his 
talents  to  pursue  his  studies  at  the  academy  in 
Antwerp.  His  first  picture  was  a  "  Christ  on 
the  Cross,"  painted  in  1834,  for  a  Roman 


KEYS   OF  FLORIDA 


KEY  WEST 


817 


Catholic  church  in  Manchester,  England.  His 
works  consist  chietiy  of  battle  pieces  and  his 
torical  subjects. 

KEYS  OF  FLORIDA.     See  FLORIDA  KEYS. 

KEY  WEST  (Sp.  Cayo  Ifueso,  Bone  Key).  I. 
An  island  forming  part  of  Monroe  co.,  Florida, 
one  of  the  Florida  Keys,  60  in.  S.  W.  of  Cape 
Sable,  the  S.  point  of  the  state;  pop.  in  1850, 
2,367 ;  in  1860,  2,832  ;  in  1870,  5,016,  of  whom 
989  were  colored  and  2,283  foreigners ;  in  1874, 
about  7,000.  It  is  7  m.  long  by  from  1  to  2  m. 
wide,  and  is  11  ft.  above  the  sea.  On  the  S. 
W.  point  there  is  a  lighthouse  with  a  fixed  light 
72  ft.  above  the  water,  guiding  vessels  to  the 
city,  and  another  on  the  S".  W.  passage,  showing 
a  fixed  light,  40  ft.  above  the  water.  The  island 
is  of  coral  formation,  and  has  a  shallow  soil, 
consisting  of  disintegrated  coral  with  a  slight 
admixture  of  decayed  vegetable  matter.  There 


are  no  springs,  and  the  inhabitants  are  depen 
dent  on  rain  or  distillation  for  water.  Adjacent 
to  the  city  is  a  salt  pond,  where  the  greater 
part  of  the  salt  used  on  the  island  is  manufac 
tured,  and  considerable  quantities  are  shipped 
to  neighboring  keys  and  the  mainland.  The 
natural  growth  is  a  dense  but  stunted  chapar 
ral,  in  which  various  species  of  cactus  are  a 
prominent  feature.  Tropical  fruits  are  culti 
vated  to  some  extent,  the  chief  varieties  being 
cocoanuts,  bananas,  pineapples,  guavas,  sapo- 
dillas,  and  a  few  oranges.  The  air  is  pure  and 
the  climate  healthy.  The  thermometer  seldom 
rises  above  90°,  and  never  falls  to  freezing 
point,  rarely  standing  as  low  as  50°.  The  island 
has  suffered  repeatedly  from  violent  hurricanes. 
Excepting  the  Cubans,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  population  of  Key  West  consists  of  natives 
or  descendants  of  natives  of  the  Bahama  islands. 


Kev 


They  are  a  hardy  and  adventurous  race,  remark 
able  for  their  skill  in  diving.  The  language 
commonly  spoken  is  Spank!  i  or  a  patois  of  that 
tongue.  II.  A  city,  port  of  entry,  and  United 
States  naval  station,  occupying  about  three 
eighths  of  the  island,  capital  of  Monroe  co., 
Florida,  and  the  southernmost  town  of  the 
United  States,  430  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Tallahassee, 
and  1 10  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Havana  ;  lat,  24°  32'  K, 
Ion.  81°  48'  W. ;"  pop.  about  5,000.  The  streets 
are  broad,  and  for  the  most  part  are  laid  out  } 
at  right  angles  with  each  other.  The  residences 
are  shaded  with  tropical  trees,  and  embowered 
in  perennial  flowers  and  shrubbery,  giving  the 
city  a  very  picturesque  appearance.  The  build 
ings,  however,  are  mostly  small,  and  are  con 
structed  of  wood,  except  the  Western  Union 
telegraph  otfice,  those  belonging  to  the  United 
States  government,  and  one  other,  which  are 


of  brick.  The  public  buildings  are  the  custom 
house,  naval  storehouse,  marine  hospital,  county 
court  house,  county  jail,  a  masonic  hall,  an 
opera  house,  and  a  hotel  capable  of  accommo 
dating  from  50  to  75  guests.  Another  hotel, 
to  accommodate  200,  is  about  to  be  erected. 
The  United  States  court  house,  the  post  office, 
and  the  city  hall  occupy  leased  buildings.  Near 
the  naval  storehouse  is  a  monument  of  dark 
gray  granite,  erected  in  1866  to  the  memory 
of  the  sailors  and  soldiers  who  died  in  the  ser 
vice  on  this  station  during  the  civil  war.  Key 
West  has  a  fine  harbor,  accessible  through  sev 
eral  channels  by  vessels  drawing  22  ft.  of  wa 
ter.  Being  the  key  to  the  best  entrance  to  the 
gulf  of  Mexico,  it  is  strongly  fortified.  The 
principal  work  of  defence  is  Fort  Taylor,  built 
on  an  artificial  island  within  the  main  entrance 
to  the  harbor.  It  has  120  guns  mounted  and 


818 


KHAN 


KHARKOV 


40  more  ready  for  mounting ;  but  work  upon 
the  brick  and  stone  batteries  or  forts  that  were 
projected  has  been  suspended,  and  sand  bat 
teries  are  in  process  of  construction.  The  bar 
racks  are  large  and  commodious,  and  are  garri 
soned  by  00  men.  There  is  a  United  States 
dock,  with  cisterns  to  catch  rain  water,  a  con 
densing  and  distilling  apparatus,  and  a  machine 
shop  and  foundery.  Key  West  is  connected 
with  New  York  and  New  Orleans  by  weekly 
lines  of  steamers,  and  with  Baltimore  by  a 
semi-monthly  line.  The  New  Orleans  line  also 
connects  the  city  with  Cedar  Keys,  the  gulf 
terminus  of  the  Florida  railroad,  and  with  Ha 
vana.  There  are  telegraph  cables  to  Cuba  and 
to  the  mainland.  The  value  of  the  imports  from 
foreign  countries  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1873,  was  $389,054;  exports  to  foreign  ports, 
$939,880 ;  the  number  of  vessels  entered  was 
384,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  68,828 ; 
cleared,  383,  of  58,661  tons.  In  the  coastwise 
trade  the  entrances  were  337,  of  201,942  tons ; 
clearances,  278,  of  198,517  tons;  belonging  to 
the  port,  103  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  ton 
nage  of  3,374.  Among  the  principal  industries 
are  turtling,  sponging,  and  the  catching  of  mul 
let  and  other  fish  for  the  Cuban  market.  The 
value  of  sponges  annually  obtained  is  about 
$100,000.  About  30  vessels  with  an  aggregate 
of  250  men  are  engaged  in  wrecking  on'  the 
Florida  reef.  The  manufacture  of  cigars  em 
ploys  about  775  hands,  chiefly  Cubans.  About 
25,000,000  cigars  are  manufactured  annually. 
An  establishment  for  canning  pineapples  is  in 
successful  operation.  The  value  of  real  estate 
and  improvements  on  the  island  in  1874  was 
$2,600,000.  The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
and  a  board  of  nine  aldermen  elected  annually. 
The  United  States  courts  for  the  S.  district  of 
Florida  are  held  here.  There  are  two  public 
schools  for  white  children,  with  500  pupils, 
and  one  for  colored  children,  with  198  pupils. 
The  Catholic  convent  has  a  school  connected 
with  it,  and  there  are  eight  private  schools, 
containing  in  all  225  pupils.  Two  weekly 
newspapers  (one  Spanish)  are  published.  The 
city  has  Baptist,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  and  Ro 
man  Catholic  churches. — Key  West  was  settled 
about  1822,  but  it  long  remained  a  mere  village. 
During  the  civil  war  the  attention  of  the  gov 
ernment  was  more  particularly  directed  to  it. 

KIIA.V,  a  Tartar  word,  signifying  sovereign 
or  chief.  It  is  used  by  sovereign  princes  in  all 
the  Tartar  countries,  and  is  one  of  the  titles  of 
the  Turkish  sultan.  The  title  khan  is  given  in 
Persia  to  officers  of  various  grades,  but  is  gen 
erally  expressive  of  high  rank,  and  is  especial 
ly  applied  to  the  chiefs  of  the  nomad  tribes  of 
that  country. — Khan  is  also  the  Turkish  word 
for  caravansary  or  hotel.  These  edifices  are 
very  numerous  in  Constantinople.  They  are 
commonly  in  the  form  of  a  square,  with  an  in 
terior  court  surrounded  by  three  ranges  of  gal 
leries,  one  above  another,  from  which  open 
small  unfurnished  chambers  which  travellers 
occupy  without  charge.  Some  have  been 


founded  by  private  individuals,  but  they  have 
mostly  been  built  at  the  expense  of  the  sultans. 

RIIAMiKISII.     See  CANDEISH. 

KIIA.MA.     See  CAXEA. 

KHANPOOR,  or  Khaunpoor,  a  town  of  N.  W. 
Ilindostan,  in  the  native  state  and  89  m.  S.  S. 
W.  of  the  city  of  Bhawalpoor;  pop.  about  10,- 
000.  It  is  connected  with  the  Indus,  about  30 
m.  distant,  by  a  navigable  canal,  and  though 
once  of  considerable  importance,  it  contains 
only  a  few  houses  of  brick,  a  spacious  bazaar, 
and  a  sightly  mosque.  There  is  also  a  ruinous 
mud  fort.  Between  the  town  and  the  Indus 
the  land  is  fertile,  and  the  district  very  popu 
lous,  but  to  the  east  and  south  lies  a  desert. 

KHARESM,  or  Khovaresm,  in  the  middle  ages, 
a  designation  of  the  khanate  of  Khiva,  and  in 
more  recent  times  of  the  central  portion  of  it. 
According  to  eastern  legends,  Kai  Khosru  in 
pursuit  of  the  army  of  Turan,  crossing  the 
Oxus  and  beholding  the  field  of  battle,  ex 
claimed,  Kharesmibwl,  "  I  have  my  desire,"  and 
the  plain  has  ever  since  been  called  Kharesm. 
The  name  of  its  inhabitants  seems,  however, 
to  be  identical  with  that  of  the  ancient  Cho- 
rasmii  or  Chorasmusini  mentioned  by  Herodo 
tus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  others.  During  the 
middle  ages  Kharesm  was  for  a  time  subject 
to  the  Seljuks,  and  subsequently  formed  an 
independent  kingdom,  and  the  Kharesmians 
were  formidable  enemies  to  the  Persians  un 
til  both  peoples  were  conquered  by  Genghis 
Khan.  An  invasion  of  Syria  by  a  horde  of 
Kharesmians  (Carizmians,  or  Corasmians),  fly 
ing  from  the  Mongols,  about  1243,  is  related 
by  the  chroniclers  of  the  crusades,  and  also  by 
the  Arabian  historians. 

KHARKOV.  I.  A  S.  government  of  European 
Russia,  in  the  province  of  Ukraine,  bordering 
on  Kursk,  Voronezh,  the  land  of  the  Don  Cos 
sacks,  Yekaterinoslav,  and  Poltava;  area,  21,- 
016  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  1,681,486.  It  has 
an  elevated  but  flat  and  monotonous  surface, 
partly  covered  with  forests,  and  a  fertile  soil, 
which  is  generally  loamy  and  here  and  there 
sandy.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Donetz,  the  Os- 
kol,  its  chief  tributary  from  the  north,  and 
tributaries  of  the  Dnieper.  None  of  these  are 
navigable  for  any  considerable  distance.  The 
chief  vegetable  productions  are  the  various 
species  of  grain,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  hops,  and 
potatoes.  Besides  agriculture,  the  rearing  of 
cattle  (which  are  excellent),  horses,  and  bees 
forms  the  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabi 
tants,  who  are  for  the  most  part  Little-Rus 
sians  and  Cossacks.  The  principal  towns  are 
Kharkov,  Akhtyrka,  and  Bogodukhov.  II.  A 
city,  capital  of  the  government,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  two  small  affluents  of  the  Donetz, 
and  at  the  junction  of  railway  lines  to  Mos 
cow,  Odessa,  and  Taganrog,  400  m.  S.  by  W. 
of  Moscow ;  pop.  in  1867,  59,968.  It  is  mostly 
built  of  wood,  but  contains  a  cathedral,  many 
churches,  two  convents,  and  a  theatre ;  a  uni 
versity  founded  in  1804,  with  a  botanical  gar 
den,  museum,  and  a  library  of  20,000  volumes  ; 


KHARTOOM 


KHERSON 


819 


and  numerous  other  educational  institutions.  ] 
The  manufactures  of  Kharkov  consist  chiefly 
in  felt  hats,  carpets,  soap,  brandy,  and  leather. 
The  winter  fairs  are  numerously  attended  by 
traders  from  all  parts  of  the  empire.     It  is  the  ; 
see  of  an  archbishop. 

KHARTOOM,  a  town  of  Sennaar,  Africa,  the  | 
centre   of   government   of  Egyptian   Soudan,  ! 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Bahr  el-Azrek  or  | 
Blue  Nile,   nearly   at   its  junction   with   the 
White  Nile;   lat.  15°  36' N.,  Ion.  32°  38'  E. ; 
pop.  about  20,000.     It  is  about  1,450  ft.  above  j 
the  sea,  but  the  inundations  of  the  White  Nile  j 
frequently  reach  the  earthen  wall  by  which  it  j 
is  surrounded.     The  houses  are  mostly  con-  j 
structed  of  millet  stalks,  and  scattered  over  a 
wide  area;  but  the  town  has  recently  been 
much  altered.     Dr.  Schweinfurth,  on  his  re 
turn   from   his   expedition   into  the  heart  of 
Africa  in  1871,  saw  in  it  "a  large  number  of 


new  brick  buildings,  a  spacious  quay  on  the 
banks  of  the  Blue  Nile,  and  some  still  more 
imposing  erections  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river."  There  are  extensive  gardens  and  rows 
of  date  palms  planted  marly  half  a  century 
ago.  The  defective  drainage  of  the  portion  of 
the  town  built  below  high-water  level  renders 
it  very  unhealthy.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mix- 
tu^e  of  Egyptians,  Berbers,  Arabs,  Turks,  Jews, 
Europeans,  and  negroes.  They  have  a  Coptic 
church,  and  a  Catholic  mission.  Khartoom 
carries  on  an  extensive  ivory  trade,  mostly  in 
the  hands  of  six  of  the  larger  merchants,  which 
facilitates  also  the  operations  of  the  regular 
slave  traders,  who  pour  into  the  negro  coun 
tries  annually  by  thousands,  on  the  roads  over 
Kordofan  and  Darfoor.  The  merchants  of 
Khartoom  maintain  a  great  number  of  settle 
ments  in  districts  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
present  ivory  countries,  and  among  peaceful 
races  devoted  to  agriculture.  They  have  ap 


portioned  the  surrounding  territory  among 
themselves,  and  have  brought  the  natives  to  a 
condition  of  vassalage.  They  are  represented 
by  agents  who  command  the  armed  men  of  the 
country,  determine  what  products  the  natives 
shall  pay  as  tribute,  appoint  and  displace  the 
local  managers,  carry  on  war  or  make  alliances 
with  the  chiefs,  and  once  a  year  remit  the  col 
lected  stores  to  Khartoom.  Vessels  are  built 
of  Sunt  acacia,  a  wood  harder  and  heavier  than 
oak,  but  from  want  of  skill  and  proper  tools 
they  are  exceedingly  clumsy. 

KHEMNITZER.     (See  CHEMNITZER. 
KHERASKOFF,  Mikhail,  a  Russian  poet,  born 
Oct.  25,  1733,  died  in  Moscow,  Sept.  27,  1807. 
He  served  in  the  army,  and  was  at  one  time 
director  of  the  Moscow  university.     He  was  a 
copious  writer  in  prose  and  poetry ;  but  he  is 
now  remembered  only  as  the  author  of  the 
"Rossiad"  (Moscow,  1785),  an  epic  in  12  can 
tos  on  the  conquest  of  Ka 
zan  by  Ivan  the  Terrible  ; 
and    of    the    "  Vladimir " 
(Moscow,  1780),  in  18  can 
tos,  on  the  conversion  to 
Christianity  of  the  czar  of 
that  name. 

KHERSON,  or  Cherson.    I. 
A.  S.  government  of  Euro 
pean  Russia,  bordering  on 
the  governments  of  Kiev, 
Poltava,      Yekaterinoslav, 
and    Taurida,     the    Black 
sea,  and  Bessarabia;  area, 
27.475    sq.    m.  ;     pop.    in 
1867,     1,497,995,    consist 
ing  of  Russians,  Cossacks, 
Poles,  Bulgarians,  Tartars, 
Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews, 
gypsies,  and  many  foreign 
settlers,    mainly  Germans, 
who  form  a  large  number 
of  colonies.     With  the  ex 
ception  of  the  N.  W.  and 
N.  E.  borders,  where  there 
is  some  wood,  and  some  extensive  forests  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Elisabethgrad,  the  whole 
country  consists  of  an  immense  plain  with  but 
few  trees.     The  soil,  however,  is  covered  with 
grasses  and  other  plants,  and  produces  in  the 
interior  rich  pastures.      The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Dnieper,  the  Bog,  and  the  Dniester. 
Wild   animals   are  very  numerous,   especially 
wolves  and  wild  cats.     The  most  common  tame 
j  animal  is  the  sheep.     Oxen  and  buffaloes  are 
\  numerous  and  used  for  draught ;    the  horses 
j  (of  which  many  are  wild)  are  spirited  and  110- 
j  ted  for  their  swiftness.     The  fisheries  are  im- 
i  portant,  especially  in  the  Dniester.     The  min 
erals  are  freestone,  slate,  chalk,  talc,  saltpetre, 
agates,  and  garnets.     The  northern  part  of  the 
government  possesses  many  distilleries  and  tal 
low  manufactories ;  rope  walks  and  tile  works 
are  scattered  all  over  the  country,  and  much 
I  linen  is  manufactured.    The  products  are  wheat, 
I  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  mustard,  saffron,  and  wine. 


820 


KHIVA 


The  chief  seat  of  manufacture  as  well  as  of 
trade  is  Odessa.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  gov 
ernment,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  embou 
chure  of  the  Dnieper,  50  in.  E.  of  the  Black 


m 


Kherson. 

sea,  and  90  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Odessa ;  pop.  in 
1867,  45,926.  It  is  divided  into  four  quarters, 
and  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government 
and  of  several  learned  institutions.  Kherson 
was  founded  in  1778  by  Potemkin,  whose  tomb 
is  in  the  cathedral,  and  was  destined  by  Catha 
rine  II.  to  become  the  southern  St.  Petersburg 
of  the  empire.  But  the  bad  climate  of  the 
town  has  proved  unfavorable  to  its  growth, 
and  the  vicinity  of  Odessa  has  still  more  con 
tributed  to  reduce  its  importance.  The  im 
perial  dockyards  have  been  removed  to  Niko- 
layev.  The  small  amount  of  trade  of  the  town 
is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks. 
John  Howard  the  philanthropist  died  in  Kher 
son,  and  a  monument  was  dedicated  to  his 
honor  by  Alexander  I. 

KHIVA.  I.  A  khanate  of  Independent  Tur- 
kistan,  central  Asia,  between  Int.  36°  and  44° 
K,  and  Ion.  51°  and  62°  30'  E.,  bounded  N.  W. 
and  N.  by  Russia,  iST.  E.  and  E.  by  Bokhara,  S. 
by  Afghanistan  and  Persia,  and  W.  by  the 
Caspian  sea ;  area,  about  30,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
estimated  at  1,500,000.  The  Bokharian-Rus- 
sian  boundary  under  the  recent  treaty  (the 
czar  having  ceded  the  territories  occupied  E. 
of  the  river  to  the  khan  of  Bokhara)  follows 
the  Amoo  Darya  (Oxus)  from  Kukertli  to  the 
junction  of  the  westernmost  branch,  which  it 
follows  to  the  Aral  sea;  and  from  Cape  TJrgu, 
on  the  latter,  the  line  continues  along  the  E. 
slope  of  the  Ust-Urt  plateau  and  the  so-called 
old  bed  of  the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian.  The  whole 
of  Khiva  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  some 
time  the  bed  of  an  immense  shallow  inland  sea, 
of  which  only  the  Caspian  and  Aral  remain. 
It  is  now  a  level  expanse  of  plain  alternating 
between  sand  and  gravel,  in  which  only  the 


hardiest  of  plants  can  flourish,  and  which  is 
relieved  in  spots  by  low,  barren,  slaty  moun 
tains.  In  the  middle  of  this  desert  is  the  oasis 
of  Khiva,  which  has  a  length  of  about  200  m., 
with  an  average  width  of 
75  m.,  and  contains  a  pop 
ulation  of  nearly  1,000,000. 
The  Amoo  Darya  is  con 
nected  with  this  oasis  by 
a  large  number  of  canals, 
partly  formed  by  the  river 
itself,  and  partly  artificial, 
and  covering  the  whole 
land  under  cultivation  as 
with  a  net.  The  climate 
of  the  oasis  of  Khiva  is  va 
riable.  The  greatest  cold 
is  in  December,  when  the 
Amoo  and  the  sea  of  Aral 
are  usually  covered  with 
ice.  Frosts  continue  till 
April,  and  then  the  heat 
increases  so  rapidly  as  to 
become  insupportable  in 
June.  In  October  night 
frosts  set  in  again.  Vam- 
bery  speaks  in  the  most 
enthusiastic  terms  of  the 
fertility  of  the  abundantly  watered  soil,  and 
of  the  admirable  quality  of  its  fruits  and 
vegetables,  especially  apples,  peaches,  pome 
granates,  and  the  incomparable  melons.  The 
other  principal  products  are  corn,  rice,  cot 
ton,  and  ruyan,  a  kind  of  root  prized  for  the 
red  dye  extracted  from  it.  The  finest  silk 
comes  from  Shah-Abat  and  Yeni  Urgenj. 
Sheep,  goats,  horses,  asses,  and  camels  are 
raised  in  large  numbers.  The  principal  manu 
factures  are  articles  in  brass,  earthenware, 
woollen  goods,  silk,  and  linen.  Trade  is  chiefly 
carried  on  with  Russia.  Caravans  consisting  of 
nearly  2,000  camels  go  to  Orenburg  in  the 
spring  and  to  Astrakhan  in  the  fall,  and  bring 
back  cast-iron  vessels,  chintz  (a  favorite  orna 
ment  of  the  women),  fine  muslin,  calico,  sugar, 
guns,  and  fancy  goods.  There  is  a  great  ex 
port  trade  in  fish,  but  the  Russians  have  their 
own  fisheries  on  the  sea  of  Aral.  "With  Persia 
and  Afghanistan  the  trade  is  small,  as  the 
routes  are  occupied  by  the  Turkomans.  "With 
Bokhara  they  exchange  woollen  gowns  and 
linen  for  teas,  spices,  paper,  and  fancy  goods. 
From  Astrabad  they  obtain  boxwood  and 
naphtha. — The  khanate  is  peopled  by  Uzbecks, 
Turkomans,  Kirghiz,  Sarts  (or  Tajiks),  and 
Persians.  The  Uzbecks,  the  predominant  race, 
live  in  settled  villages  and  towns,  and  are 
mostly  engaged  in  agriculture.  They  are  fond 
of  music  and  poetry,  mimic  battles,  wrestling, 
and  horse  races.  The  Turkomans  are»repre- 
sented  mainly  by  the  Yomuts,  who  inhabit  the 
borders  of  the  desert  from  Kunya  Urgenj  to 
Gazavat.  There  are  now  very  few  Kirghiz. 
The  Sarts  are  the  ancient  Persian  population 
of  Khiva,  and  though  they  have  lived  five  cen 
turies  together,  very  few  marriages  have  taken 


KHIVA 


821 


place  between  them  and  the  TJzbecks.  Before 
the  recent  war  there  were  40,000  Persians, 
many  of  them  slaves.  The  Khivan  constitu 
tion  is  of  Mongol  origin.  At  the  side  of  the 
khan  stand  a  number  of  dignitaries  whom  he 
cannot  remove  from  office.  Other  officials 
serve  only  in  time  of  war.  Justice  is  adminis 
tered  by  karsis  and  muftis,  either  in  their  own 
houses  or  in  the  mosques.  The  political  divi 
sions  of  the  khanate  correspond  to  the  number 
of  large  cities,  which  have  their  own  beys  or 
governors.  The  most  interesting  cities  are 
Khiva,  the  capital,  Yeni  (New)  Urgenj,  and 
Kunya  (Old)  Urgenj,  famous  for  having  long 
been  the  capital  of  the  khanate.  Other  towns 
of  importance  are  Ilazar-asp,  Kungrad,  Tash- 
hatiz,  Gurlen,  Khoja  Hi,  Shah-Abat,  Kilij-bay, 
Mangit,  and  Kiptchak,  mostly  within  a  short 
distance  from  the  banks  of  the  Amoo  Darya. — 
The  khanate  of  Khiva  anciently  formed  part 
of  the  Persian  empire,  and  included  the  prov 
inces  of  Chorasmia,  Sogdiana,  and  Bactria. 
The  shores  of  the  sea  of  Aral  were  at  that  time 
inhabited  by  the  Massageta?,  who,  it  is  said, 
slew  Cyrus,  529  B.  C.  North  of  the*old  course 
of  the  Oxns,  which  united  the  Caspian  and  Aral 
seas,  lived  the  Asparsiaca?,  a  Scythian  tribe. 
Khiva  probably  formed  part  of  the  Parthian 
empire  at  the  time  of  Arsaces  VI.  (or  Mithri- 
dates  I.),  about  150  B.  C.  The  tribes  succeeded 
in  throwing  off  the  Parthian  yoke  between  A. 
D.  50  and  100.  From  the  3d  to  the  10th  cen 
tury  it  was  connected  with  Persia.  It  became 
afterward  an  independent  kingdom  under  the 
name  of  Khovaresm  or  Kharesm,  until  con 
quered  by  Genghis  Khan  early  in  the  13th 
century.  "  At  the  end  of  the  14th  it  was  taken 
by  Tamerlane,  and  remained  part  of  the  king 
dom  of  Samarcand  until  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century.  Eventually  it  came  under  the 
rule  of  the  Uzbecks,  a  Turkish  tribe,  who 
founded  the  khanate  or  kingdom  of  Khiva. 
Peter  the  Great  sent  an  army  under  Gen. 
Bekevitch  against  the  Khivans  in  1717,  which 
was  defeated.  Since  that  time  the  khans  have 
taken  every  opportunity  to  display  hostile  feel 
ings  against  Russians.  Prominent  among  the 
recent  khans,  for  his  military  skill  and  wise 
administration,  was  Rahim  (1802-'26).  Allah 
Kuli  (1826-'4i)  toward  the  end  of  his  reign 
successfully  resisted  a  large  Russian  expedition 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Perovsky.  He 
subdued  also  the  tribe  of  the  Goklens,  whom  he 
transferred  into  his  territory.  His  son  Rahim 
Kuli  (l<S41-'3)  settled  10,000  tents  of  Jem- 
shidi,  a  Persian  tribe,  on  the  bank  of  the 
Amoo,  near  Kilij.  His  brother  defeated  the 
emir  of  Bokhara,  and  usurped  the  throne  at 
his  death.  Mohammed  Emin  (1843-'55)  ex 
tended  his  territory  by  conquering  the  land  of 
the  Sariks  and  the  Tekkes,  who  dwelt  near 
Merv  and  Akhal.  In  a  subsequent  expedi 
tion  some  daring  enemies  entered  his  tent, 
struck  off  his  head,  and  sent  it  to  the  shah 
of  Persia.  His  troops  called  to  the  throne 
one  Abdullah,  who  was  slain  in  a  rebellion 


of  the  Yomuts  (1856).  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  younger  brother  Kutlug-Murad,  who 
reigned  only  three  months.  His  successor, 
Seid  Mohammed,  allowed  the  Yomuts  to  de 
vastate  the  land,  and  the  colonies  founded  by 
the  previous  khan  became  depopulated.  Then 
a  pretender  to  the  throne,  Mohammed  Penah, 
instigated  a  rebellion,  and  implored  the  pro 
tection  of  Russia,  for  which  he  was  finally 
murdered  by  his  own  partisans.  The  expedi 
tion  undertaken  by  the  Russian  government 
against  Khiva  toward  the  close  of  1872,  under 
pretext  of  repressing  brigandage  and  securing 
redress  of  grievances,  met  at  first  with  a  seri 
ous  reverse.  A  body  of  Khivans  surprised  the 
advancing  Russians,  and  compelled  them  to 
retreat.  The  Khivan  success,  however,  roused 
the  Russians  to  new  efforts.  An  army  was 
sent  out  in  two  main  divisions,  one  advancing 
against  Khiva  from  Turkistan  on  the  east,  and 
another  from  Orenburg  and  the  Caucasus  on 
the  west.  The  principal  column  was  under 
the  orders  of  Gen.  Kaufmann,  the  command- 
er-in-chief  of  the  whole  expedition.  On  May 
20,  1873,  Kungrad  was  attacked  and  captured, 
and  on  June  10  the  Russians  entered  the  capi 
tal  of  Khiva.  The  khan  had  fled,  but  a  few 
days  afterward  he  returned,  signified  his  sub 
mission,  and  signed  a  treaty  of  peace,  which 
compelled  him  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  2,000,- 
000  rubles  by  instalments  extending  over  seven 
years,  the  Russian  troops  in  the  mean  time  oc 
cupying  Shurakhan  and  Kungrad.  The  inde 
pendence  of  the  khan  was  to  be  recognized,  but 
the  E.  boundary  of  the  territory  was  reduced 
to  the  river  Amoo  Darya.  Slavery  and  the 
slave  trade  were  prohibited  in  the  khanate. 
Subsequently  it  was  added  that  the  khan  should 
have  no  right  to  make  treaties  with  foreign 
powers  without  Russian  sanction.  The  popu 
lation  of  the  ceded  territory  may  be  roughly  es 
timated  at  6,000  houses  of  settled  inhabitants, 
and  37,000  kibitkas  of  nomads  and  semi-no 
mads  ;  and  taking  the  usual  estimate  of  five 
persons  to  a  house,  with  about  5,000  Persians 
previously  slaves,  the  ceded  population  prob 
ably  amounts  to  about  220,000.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  khanate,  situated  in  the  most  fer 
tile  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Amoo  Darya, 
about  30  m.  from  its  W.  shore ;  lat.  41°  20'  N., 
Ion.  00°  E. ;  pop.  about  6.000.  The  environs 
of  Khiva  are  beautifully  cultivated,  but  the 
city  itself  is  declared  to  be  inferior  to  a  Per 
sian  city  of  the  lowest  rank.  The  houses  are 
built  of  mud,  and  stand  in  the  most  irregular 
manner.  The  city  is  divided  into  Khiva  proper 
and  the  citadel,  which  can  be  shut  off  from 
the  outer  city  by  four  gates.  The  palace  of  the 
khan  Is  an  inferior  building,  and  the  bazaars 
are  not  equal  to  those  of  other  oriental  cities. 
Tim  is  the  principal  bazaar,  where  the  articles 
imported  from  Russia,  Bokhara,  and  Persia  are 
exposed  for  sale.  There  are  few  mosques  of 
much  antiquity  or  artistic  construction.  The 
Polvan-Ata  is* an  edifice  about  four  centuries 
old,  consisting  of  one  large  and  two  small 


822 


KHODAVENDIGHIAK 


KHOKAN 


domes,  and  contains  the  tomb  of  Polvan,  the 
patron  saint  of  the  city.  The  mosque  attached 
to  the  khan's  palace  has  a  high  round  tower 
ornamented  with  arabesques.  Among  the 
medreses  (colleges),  that  of  Mohammed  Emin 
Khan  is  probably  the  largest.  It  was  built  in 


The  Mosque  of  the  Palace  of  Khiva. 

1843  by  a  Persian  architect  after  the  model  of 
a  Persian  caravansary.  It  has  accommodation 
for  300  students. — See  Stumm,  Aus  Chiwa 
(Berlin,  1874) ;  Veniukoff,  Die  Russiscli-Asia- 
tischen  Grenzlande  (translated  from  the  Rus 
sian  by  Kramer,  Leipsic,  1874  et  seq.} ;  Vam 
bery,  "  Central  Asia  and  the  Anglo-Russian 
Frontier  Question"  (London,  1874);  Spalding, 
"  Khiva  and  Turkestan  "  (London,  1874)  ;  and 
MacGahan,  "  Campaigning  on  the  Oxus,  and 
the  Fall  of  Khiva"  (London,  1874). 

KHODAVE\DIGHIAR,  a  vilayet  of  Asiatic  Tur 
key,  bounded  X.  by  the  sea  of  Marmora;  pop. 
about  1,100,000.  It  is  traversed  by  lofty  moun 
tains,  including  the  Keshish  Dagh  (anc.  Olym 
pus),  and  by  tributaries  of  the  Sakaria  river, 
and  has  numerous  lakes,  that  of  Abullonia 
being  the  most  remarkable.  It  abounds  in 
grain  and  fruit,  and  produces  cotton  and  silk. 
It  comprises  the  S.  part  of  ancient  Bithyriia, 
Mysia,  and  the  western  portions  of  Phrygia. 
Capital,  Brusa. 

KIIOI,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 
Azerbijan,  situated  in  a  fertile  valley  watered 
by  the  Kotura,  an  affluent  of  the  Aras,  N.  of 
Lake  Urumiah,  70  m.  X.  AV.  of  Tabriz ;  pop. 
about  20,000.  It  is  strongly  fortified  and  one 
of  the  most  attractive  Persian  towns,  with 
many  mosques,  a  fine  caravansary,  and  a 
khan's  palace.  There  is  a  considerable  caravan 
trade  to  Erzerum.  Woollen  and  cotton  goods 
are  manufactured,  and  the  principal  products 
are  grain,  cotton,  and  fruits.  The  Persians, 
numbering  30,000,  were  overwhelmed  he-re  by 
a  Turkish  army  of  180,000  men  in  1514. 

KHOKAX,  or  Kokand.     I.  A  country  of  cen-  | 
tral  Asia,  one  of  the  three  great  khanates  of  | 


"West  Turkistan  or  Independent  Tartary,  lying 
between  lat.  39°  and  43°  K,  and  Ion.  69°  and 
75°  E. ;  bounded  S.  W.,  W.,  N.,  and  N.  E.  by 
the  new  Russian  province  of  Sir  Darya,  E.  and 
S.  E.  by  East  Turkistan,  and  S.  by  the  Pamir 
plateau  and  Karateghin.  It  is  enclosed  by  lof 
ty  snow-covered  mountain  ranges  on  the  south 
and  southeast,  dividing  the  basin  of  the  Amoo 
Darya  or  Oxus  from  that  of  the  Sir  Darya 
(the  ancient  Jaxartes),  which  is  the  princi 
pal  river  of  Khokan,  receiving  all  its  streams. 
The  precise  area  of  the  khanate  is  unknown, 
but  it  is  largely  comprised  in  an  almond-shap 
ed  valley  about  165  m.  long  and  with  an  ex 
treme  width  of  65  m.  Prior  to  the  Russian 
advance  in  1864,  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Sir 
Darya  as  far  X.  W.  as  Tashkend  was  included 
within  its  boundaries,  but  at  present  the  west 
ern  frontier  of  Khokan  crosses  the  river  be 
tween  the  capital  and  the  city  of  Khojend. 
The  general  elevation  of  the  country  exceeds 
1,500  ft.  above  the  sea  level.  The  winter  is 
severe  in  the  mountainous  tracts,  but  a  milder 
climate  prevails  in  the  main  valley,  where  but 
little  snow  falls.  In  summer  the  heat  is  ex 
cessive  during  the  day,  but  the  nights  are  cool. 
The  most  fertile  portion  of  the  khanate  is  the 
rich  territory  about  the  city  of  Andijan,  near 
the  centre  of  the  country,  formerly  known 
as  the  province  of  Ferghana ;  but  irrigation  is 
extensively  practised,  and  the  soil  throughout 
the  country  is  extremely  productive.  The  ce 
reals  are  wheat,  barley,  and  rice ;  there  .is  a 
large  cotton  crop ;  and  hemp,  flax,  sorghum, 
peas,  beans,  madder,  and  tobacco  are  also  cul 
tivated.  Khokan  is  noted  for  the  excellence 
and  variety  of  its  fruits.  The  manufacture  of 
a  fine  quality  of  silk  is  a  leading  branch  of 
industry.  In  1872  the  chief  articles  of  export 
were  cotton,  of  which  about  8,000,000  Ibs. 
were  sent  to  Russia,  and  silk,  of  which  tho 
same  country  received  about  200,000  Ibs. 
Many  districts  afford  pasturage  for  large  and 
thriving  herds  of  horses,  asses,  horned  cattle, 
sheep,  and  camels.  Coal,  iron,  naphtha,  and 
petroleum  are  known  to  exist  in  the  moun 
tains ;  turquoises  of  an  inferior  quality  and 
greenish  hue  are  also  found.  The  population 
is  estimated  at  3,000,000,  and  includes  Uzbecks, 
who  are  the  military  and  dominant  class,  Ta 
jiks,  Kirghiz,  and  Kiptchaks.  A  commercial 
treaty  between  Khokan  and  Russia  was  nego 
tiated  in  1868,  and  the  khanate  is  virtually 
under  Russian  protection  and  control.  (See 
TURKISTAN.)  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  khan 
ate,  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  a  short  dis 
tance  S.  of  the  Sir  Darya,  about*  220  m.  E.  N". 
E.  of  Samarcand,  1,540  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  According  to  Vambery,  it  is  three 
times  as  large  as  Bokhara  and  six  times  as 
large  as  Khiva.  Estimates  of  the  population 
vary  from  30,000  to  60,000.  There  are  four 
stone  mosques  in  the  city,  and  numerous  ba 
zaars  in  which  Russian  goods  are  sold,  as  well 
as  native  silks  and  woollens,  and  handsome 
leather  equipments  for  riding. 


KHORASAN 


KIANGSI 


823 


KIIORASAtf,  or  Khorassan,  a  K  E.  province  of 
Persia,  between  lat.  31°  30'  and  38°  40'  X., 
and  Ion.  52°  40'  and  01°  20'  E.,  bounded  X.  by 
Khiva,  E.  by  Afghanistan,  S.  and  "W.  by  the 
Persian  provinces  of  Kerman,  Fars,  Luristan, 
and  Irak-Ajemi ;  area,  124,400  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
estimated  at  850,000.  A  large  portion  of  the 
surface  is  covered  by  the  great  salt  desert, 
called  by  the  natives  Kubir.  The  X.  "W.  and 
N.  E.  districts  are  fertile,  with  numerous  oases, 
mostly  of  small  extent,  but  containing  several 
populous  towns.  The  Elburz  mountains  stretch 
along  the  north  of  the  province,  and  throw  off 
ramifications  to  the  southward.  The  products 
of  the  cultivated  districts  are  grain,  cotton, 
hemp,  tobacco,  aromatic  plants,  and  drugs,  in 
cluding  asafoetida,  rnanna,  and  gum  tragacanth. 
The  manufactures  are  silk,  woollen,  and  goats' 
hair  stuffs,  carpets,  muskets,  and  sword  blades. 
Meshed  is  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  the 
other  chief  towns  are  Yezd,  Tabas  or  Tubus, 
and  Xishapur.  About  40  m.  X.  "W.  of  Xisha- 
pur  are  famous  turquoise  mines.  Two  thirds  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Persians,  resident  in  towns, 
the  remainder  being  nomadic  Turkomans  and 
Kurds.  The  prevalent  religion  is  Mohamme 
danism  of  the  sect  of  All. — The  province  com 
prises  the  ancient  territories  of  Parthia,  Mar- 
giana,  and  Aria.  After  its  having  formed  part 
of  the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  of 
the  Seleucidas,  a  portion  of  it  was  incorpora 
ted  with  Bactria,  The  Arsacides  of  Parthia, 
the  Sassanides  of  Persia,  and  the  caliphs  ruled 
over  the  entire  province.  Its  governor  Taher 
revolted  in  813,  and  he  and  his  successors  con 
tinued  independent.  The  Suffarides  regained 
possession  of  it,  but  lost  it  to  the  Samanides 
and  their  successors  in  power,  the  Ghuznevides. 
The  Seljuks  also  occupied  it  for  a  while,  losing 
it  periodically  to  the  people  of  Kharesm  and 
Ghore,  and  finally  Genghis  Khan  conquered 
it.  About  1383  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Tamer 
lane,  and  in  the  reign  of  his  son  it  enjoyed 
great  prosperity.  After  much  suffering  from 
the  inroads  of  the  Uzbecks,  it  was  seized  by 
Ismael,  and  has  formed  since  1510,  with  the 
exception  of  Herat,  a  province  of  Persia. 

KHOTItf,  or  Chocim,  a  fortified  town  of  Rus 
sia,  in  Bessarabia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dniester,  nearly  opposite  Kamenetz,  near  the 
frontier  of  Galicia;  pop.  in  1807,  20,917.  It  is 
surrounded  by  hills,  which  lessen  the  strategi 
cal  value  of  the  fortifications.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop  of  the  Greek  church.  The  indus 
try  consists  chiefly  in  furnishing  supplies  for  the 
army.  It  was  anciently  a  Moldavian  city,  and 
became  afterward  an  important  stronghold  of 
the  Turks  against  the  Poles.  The  latter,  how 
ever,  achieved  here  two  celebrated  victories. 
In  1621  Gen.  Chodkiewicz  repulsed  here  vig 
orous  Turkish  assaults  on  his  fortified  camp  ; 
and  in  1673  John  Sobieski  routed  an  army  of 
Mohammed  IV.  in  a  battle  of  scarcely  two 
hours.  Strengthened  by  new  fortifications  since 
1718,  the  place  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
1739,  but  restored  to  the  Turks ;  taken  again  in 


1769,  and  restored  in  1774;  taken  by  the  Atis- 
trians  in  1788,  but  not  held  ;  and  finally  ceded 
by  the  peace  of  Bucharest  to  Russia  in  1812. 

KIR'ZISTAN  (anc.  Susiana\  a  province  of 
Persia,  bounded  X.  and  X.  E.  by  Luristan,  S. 
E.  by  Fars,  S.  by  the  Persian  gulf,  and  "W.  by 
the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Bagdad  ;  area  estimated 
at  39,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  400,000.  Its  sur 
face  is  hilly,  the  Bakhtiyari  mountains  rising 
on  its  X.  E.  frontier,  and  lesser  eminences 
being  scattered  over  the  X.  part  of  the  prov 
ince.  In  the  south  it  is  more  level.  The  Shat- 
el-Arab  (the  united  stream  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates)  forms  part  of  its  AV.  boundary. 
Several  of  the  branches  which  form  its  delta 
empty  into  the  Persian  gulf  through  this  prov 
ince.  The  principal  rivers  which  traverse  the 
interior  are  the  Kerkha  (anc.  Choaspes]  and 
the  Karun  (anc.  Eulatus).  Khuzistan  con 
tains  extensive  grazing  lands  on  which  vast 
herds  are  pastured,  and  produces  rice,  maize, 
barley,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  dates,  and  indigo. 
The  silkworm  is  reared,  and  trade  is  carried 
on  with  Bagdad,  Bassorah,  and  other  places. 
Its  principal  towns  are  Sinister,  Dizful,  Ahwaz, 
and  Mohammerah.  The  inhabitants  are  Tajiks, 
Sabian  Christians,  Lurs,  Erdelans,  and  Arabs, 
all  of  whom  except  the  Sabians  are  Moham 
medans.  The  province  contains  the  ruins  of 
Susa,  one  of  the  ancient  capitals  of  Persia. 
(See  ELAM,  and  SUSIANA.) 

KIAKHTA,  or  Kiaehta,  a  town  of  Siberia,  near 
the  Chinese  frontier,  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Transbaikalia,  lat.  50°  20'  X.,  Ion.  106°  30' 
E.,  about  100  m.  S.  of  Lake  Baikal,  on  a  small 
stream  of  its  own  name,  2,500  ft.  above  the 
j  sea;  pop.  in  1867,  4,286.  It  consists  of  the  for 
tress,  where  the  custom  house  and  the  govern 
ment  buildings  are  established,  and  of  the  lower 
town  or  town  proper,  where  the  merchants 
live,  many  of  them  in  elegant  houses.  Kiakhta 
is  a  great  emporium  of  trade  between  Russia 
and  China,  the  Chinese  settlement  Maimachin 
being  less  than  half  a  mile  from  the  lower 
town.  In  1727  a  free  commercial  intercourse 
was  established  between  China  and  Russia,  to 
be  carried  on  at  the  common  boundary  on  the 
Kiakhta.  Fairs  were  formerly  held  annually, 
j  at  which  Russian  productions  were  bartered 
i  for  Chinese,  especially  tea,  a  great  amount  of 
which  was  forwarded  to  the  fair  of  Xizhni- 
Xovgorod.  The  trade  of  Kiakhta,  formerly 
estimated  at  $8,000,000  a  year,  has  decreased 
since  the  treaty  of  Peking,  Xov.  14, 1860,  which 
opened  for  traffic  the  whole  line  of  the  Rus- 
I  sian-Chinese  frontier. 

Kl  \\GSI,  a  S.  E.  province  of  China,  border- 

dering  on  llupeh,  Xganhwui,  Chihkiang,  Fo- 

j  kien,  Kwangtung,  and  Hunan;  area,  72,176  sq. 

!  m. ;    pop.    about   23,000,000.      It   is   watered 

1  chiefly  by   the   Kan-kiang,  which   flows   into 

Lake  Poyang,  and  its  numerous  affluents.    East 

J  of  the  lake  are  large  coal  mines.     Green  tea 

!  is  produced  chiefly  in  the  E.  and  black  in  the 

AV.  part  of  the  province.     The  other  products 

include  cereals,  rice,  cotton,  sugar,  indigo,  and 


824 


KIANGSU 


KICKAPOOS 


silk.  Excellent  porcelain  and  nankeen  cloth, 
besides  other  articles,  are  manufactured.  A 
large  portion  of  Kiangsi  was  flooded  in  1870- 
'71  by  the  Yangtse,  more  than  300,000  persons 
taking  refuge  on  the  high  ground  near  Kew- 
kiang.  This  created  poverty  and  disturbances, 
resulting  in  movements  against  missionaries 
and  foreigners  generally.  Capital,  Nanchang. 

KIANGSU,  a  province  of  China,  on  the  N.  E. 
coast,  bordering  on  Shantung,  Honan,  Ngan- 
hwui, .  Chihkiang,  and  the  Yellow  sea ;  area, 
44,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  38,000,000.  It  is 
generally  level,  and  abounds  in  marshes,  but  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  China, 
owing  to  its  many  lakes,  rivers,  and  canals. 
The  principal  lake  is  the  Hungtsih,  about  200 
in.  in  circumference,  which  is  connected  with 
the  Hoang-ho.  It  exports  more  rice  than  any 
other  Chinese  province,  and  cereals,  cotton,  tea, 
and  silk  are  produced.  Fisheries  thrive  on  Lake 
Taihu  and  other  waters.  The  people  are  among 
the  most  intelligent  in  China,  and  the  province 
contains  many  fine  towns.  Capital,  Nanking. 

KICKAPOOS,  a  tribe  of  the  great  Algonquin 
family,  first  found  by  the  French  missionaries 
toward  the  close  of  the-  17th  century  on  the 
Wisconsin,  not  far  from  the  Maskoutens,  a 
kindred  tribe,  who  seem  to  have  ultimately 
merged  in  the  Kickapoos.  They  probably 
lived  previously  on  the  Mississippi,  above  the 
Wisconsin.  They  were  closely  allied  to  the 
Miamis,  but  roved  in  bands  over  a  large  terri 
tory.  Though  professing  friendship  to  the 
French,  they  killed  a  Franciscan,  Father  Ga 
briel  de  la  Ribourde,  who  was  attached  to  La 
Salle's  party.  They  took  part  in  the  general 
peace  of  1700,  but  in  1712  joined  the  Foxes  to 
attack  Detroit,  and  were  their  allies  in  the  long 
series  of  hostilities  that  ensued.  By  1718  they 
were  chiefly  on  the  Eock  river,  Illinois.  In 
1728  they  captured  the  Jesuit  Father  Guignas, 
and  held  him  captive  for  several  months. 
Peace  was  finally  restored  about  1747,  when 
the  Kickapoos  are  said  to  have  been  reduced  to 
80  warriors ;  but  they  were  still  hostile  to  the 
Illinois.  When  the  English  conquered  Canada, 
in  1763,  they  found  180  Kickapoos  on  the  Wa- 
bash.  The  tribe  joined  Pontiac,  and  in  1765 
attacked  Croghan  on  the  Ohio,  killing  and 
wounding  several  of  his  men ;  but  they  made 
peace  at  Detroit  in  October.  They  were  soon 
hostile  again  to  the  English,  and  in  1779  readily 
supported  Col.  Clark  in  his  operations  against 
the  English.  They  soon,  however,  partook  of 
the  general  hostile  feeling  against  the  new  gov 
ernment,  besides  warring  on  the  Chickasaws. 
In  June,  1791,  Gen.  Scott  carried  the  Kickapoo 
town  on  the  Wabash,  and  in  August  Wilkinson 
burned  another  of  their  villages.  Peace  was 
nominally  made  in  1702,  but  they  did  not  really 
yield  till  the  treaty  of  Greenville,  Aug.  3, 1795, 
after  Wayne's  great  victory.  They  then  ceded 
part  of  the  land  they  claimed  for  $500  a  year 
in  useful  goods;  and  they  made  further  ces 
sions  in  1802, 1803,  and  1809.  Though  warned 
by  Gov.  Harrison,  they  joined  Tecumseh,  and  j 


fought  at  Tippecanoe  in  1811.  After  that  they 
sought  to  treat,  but  Harrison  declined.  The 
war  with  England  gave  them  hopes,  and  the 
Kickapoos  with  others  attacked  Fort  Harrison, 
where  Zachary  Taylor  defeated  them.  In  Oc 
tober,  1812,  Russell  surprised  a  Kickapoo  town 
on  the  Illinois,  killing  many ;  and  in  November 
Hopkins  destroyed  another  town  on  Wildcat 
creek.  They  then  sued  for  peace,  and  Little 
Otter  met  Harrison.  The  treaties  of  Portage 
des  Sioux  (Sept.  2,  1815),  Fort  Harrison  (June 
4,  1816),  and  Edwardsville  (July  30,  1819), 
ceded  a  large  part  of  the  lands  which  they 
claimed  by  descent  from  their  ancestors,  by 
conquest  from  the  Illinois,  and  by  60  years' 
possession.  Many  of  the  tribe  had  already 
gone  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  the  United 
States  agreed  to  pay  them  $2,000  a  year  for  15 
years,  and  assigned  them  a  large  tract  on  the 
Osage.  In  1822,  1,800  had  removed,  only  400 
remaining  in  Illinois.  About  1830  Kennekuk, 
or  the  prophet,  a  leading  chief,  set  himself  up 
as  a  teacher,  preached  with  eloquence,  and 
taught  the  people  to  pray  morning  and  even 
ing,  the  form  being  symbolically  cut  on  ma 
ple  sticks.  Provision  was  made  for  schools 
by  the  treaty  of  Castor  Hill,  Oct.  24,  1832; 
but  the  labors  of  the  Jesuits,  followed  by  the 
Methodists,  Presbyterians,  and  Friends,  failed 
to  convert  the  tribe  or  establish  education 
among  them.  Some  few  settled  down  to  culti 
vate  ;  more  rambled  off  to  hunt  on  the  grounds 
of  southern  tribes,  entering  even  Texas  and 
other  Mexican  states.  This  band  was  very 
troublesome,  plundering  on  all  sides.  They 
were  sent  out  of  the  Chickasaw  country  in 
1841,  but  were  allowed  on  the  Creek  territory 
for  a  time.  They  made  constant  inroads  into 
Texas,  killing  and  horse  stealing.  In  1854 
they  killed  an  Indian  agent  of  the  United 
States.  In  1838  the  agency  band  numbered 
725 ;  the  next  year  only  419.  In  1845  this  band 
had  increased  to  516,  and  they  were  then  in  a 
thriving  condition,  raising  enough  vegetables 
and  grain  to  support  themselves,  and  supply 
Fort  Leavenworth.  In  1854  they  were  re 
moved  to  a  reservation  in  Atchison  co.,  Kan 
sas,  part  of  their  large  tract  being  ceded  for 
$300.000.  Soon  after  the  tribe  lost  greatly  by 
smallpox,  Kennekuk  the  prophet  being  one  of 
the  victims.  Though  unaffected  by  the  civil 
war,  they  steadily  declined  in  numbers,  and  in 
1863  there  were  only  343  on  the  reservation, 
the  southern  or  wild  band  appearing  only 
when  the  annuities  were  to  be  paid.  At  this 
time  the  Atchison  and  Pike's  Peak  railroad 
obtained  the  right  to  purchase  their  lands  at 
$1  25  an  acre,  and  steps  were  taken  to  give 
individual  members  of  the  tribe  separate  lands, 
and  make  them  citizens.  Great  discontent 
arose,  and  Nokohwart  led  100  to  Santa  Rosa, 
Mexico,  where  a  large  number  of  Kickapoos 
had  settled  and  were  protected  by  the  Mexi 
cans.  In  1865,  under  a  new  treaty,  30  families 
took  lands  in  severalty,  160  acres  being  allot 
ted  to  each  head  of  a  family;  79  families,  form- 


KIDD 


KIDDER 


825 


ing  the  Prairie  band,  preferred  to  have  lands 
in  common.  The  sale  of  the  remaining  lands 
gave  a  fund  of  which  the  United  States  was  to 
pay  $10,000  in  1873  and  a  similar  amount 
yearly  till  the  whole  is  accounted  for.  The 
tribe  has  also  $5,000  a  year  for  schools.  The 
roving  part  has  given  much  trouble  to  the 
more  civilized  and  to  government.  They  have 
gathered  mainly  at  Santa  Rosa  and  its  vicinity, 
and,  as  they  defend  the  Mexicans  against  the 
Apaches,  and  bring  in  considerable  by  their 
raids,  are  encouraged  in  their  roving  habits. 
In  1871  Miles,  the  agent  of  the  Kickapoos,  went 
to  Mexico  to  endeavor  to  indirce  the  whole 
body  there  to  return  to  the  United  States  and 
settle  on  a  reservation.  The  Mexican  govern 
ment  thwarted  his  plans,  and  at  once  spent 
$10,000,  long  previously  appropriated,  for 
agricultural  implements  and  other  valuable  ar 
ticles  for  the  Kickapoos.  The  depredations  of 
these  Indians  across  the  frontier  led  to  a  dash 
into  Mexico  by  Gen.  Mackenzie,  in  which  the 
Indians  were  severely  punished.  These  Mexi 
can  Kickapoos  numbered  fully  1,000;  but  in 
1873  300  or  400  returned,  and  were  placed  in 
the  Indian  territory,  west  of  Arkansas  river. 
In  1873  the  Kickapoos  on  the  reservation  in 
N.  E.  Kansas  numbered  274.  There  were  40 
children  in  their  school,  and  a  boarding  school 
was  in  progress.  These  Indians  have  ceased 
to  be  or  consider  themselves  warriors.  Their 
annual  produce  was  valued  at  $12,000,  and 
their  stock  was  worth  about  $18,000. 

KIDD,  William,  a  pirate,  born  in  Scotland 
(probably  in  Greenock),  executed  in  London, 
May  24,  1701.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
son  of  John  Kidd,  a  nonconformist  minister. 
He  followed  the  sea  from  his  youth,  and  to 
ward  the  end  of  the  17th  century  was  a  bold 
and  skilful  shipmaster  from  New  York.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  a  privateersman  against 
the  French  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  1691  re 
ceived  £150  from  Ne\v  York  for  protecting  the 
colony  against  pirates.  In  1695  a  company 
for  the  suppression  of  piracy  was  organized  in 
England,  by  the  earl  of  Bellamont  and  others, 
who  hoped  to  derive  a  profit  from  recaptures. 
The  Adventure  Galley,  a  new  ship  of  287  tons 
and  34  guns,  was  bought,  and  at  the  suggestion 
of  Robert  Livingston  of  New  York,  one  of  the 
shareholders,  her  command  was  given  to  Kidd, 
who  received  two  commissions,  one  dated  Dec. 
10,  1605,  from  the  commissioners  of  the  ad 
miralty,  empowering  him  to  act  against  the 
French,  the  other  dated  Jan.  26,  1*596,  under 
the  great  seal,  authorizing  him  to  cruise  against 
pirates.  One  tenth  part  of  all  booty  was  to  be 
set  aside  for  the  king,  and  the  remainder  was 
to  be  divided  between  the  shareholders  and 
Kidd  in  certain  specified  proportions.  A  share 
was  also  appropriated  to  the  crew,  who  were 
to  receive  no  regular  pay.  Kidd  sailed  from 
Plymouth  on  April  23,  1696,  captured  a  French 
fishing  vessel  off  Newfoundland,  and  arrived 
in  New  York  with  his  prize  about  July  4.  He 
remained  there  until  Sept.  6.  when  he  sailed 


with  a  crew  of  154  men  for  Madagascar,  then 
the  chief  rendezvous  for  pirates,  and  arrived 
there  in  January,  1697.  In  1698  rumors  be 
came  prevalent  in  England  that  Kidd  himself 
had  turned  pirate,  and  on  Nov.  23  of  that  year 
orders  were  sent  to  the  governors  of  all  the 
English  colonies  to  apprehend  him  if  he  came 
within  their  jurisdiction.  In  April,  1699,  he 
arrived  in  the  West  Indies,  in  a  ship  named 
the  Quidah  Merchant,  secured  her  in  a  lagoon 
in  the  island  of  Saona,  at  the  S.  E.  end  of  llay- 
ti.  and  set  sail  northward  with  about  40  men, 
in  the  San  Antonio,  a  sloop  of  55  tons.  He 
made  a  landing  in  Delaware  bay,  sailed  up 
the  coast  to  Long  Island  sound,  and  went 
into  Oyster  bay.  Here  he  took  on  board 
James  Emott,  a  New  York  lawyer,  and  run 
ning  across  to  the  Rhode  Island  coast  set  him 
ashore  and  sent  him  to  Boston  to  Bellamont, 
who  had  become  governor  of  the  colonies,  to 
ascertain  how  the  latter  would  receive  him. 
During  his  absence  Kidd  buried  some  bales  of 
goods  and  some  treasure  on  Gardiner's  island. 
Bellamont  answered  evasively,  and  after  some 
correspondence  persuaded  Kidd  to  go  to  Bos 
ton,  where  he  landed  on  July  1, 1699.  lie  was 
examined  before  the  council,  and,  according  to 
Bellamont,  gave  trifling  answers  to  interroga- 
i  tories,  and  on  July  6  the  governor  ordered  his 
I  arrest.  lie  was  sent  to  England,  and  after  a 
grossly  unfair  trial,  in  which  he  was  allowed 
!  no  counsel,  and  was  not  permitted  to  send  for 
I  papers  and  witnesses,  he  was  found  guilty  of 
piracy  and  of  the  murder  of  William  Moore, 
one  of  his  crew,  whom  he  struck  on  the  head 
with  a  bucket  during  an  altercation,  and  was 
hanged  at  Execution  dock,  with  nine  of  his 
associates.  Kidd  asserted  his  innocence  to 
the  last ;  averred  that  Moore  was  mutinous 
when  he  struck  him;  and  claimed  that  his 
men  forced  him  to  take  the  Quidah  Merchant 
against  his  will.  Bellamont  equipped  a  ship 
to  go  in  search  of  that  vessel,  but  heard  before 
she  sailed  that  the  latter  had  been  stripped  and 
burned  by  the  men  left  with  it.  He  secured 
the  treasure  buried  on  Gardiner's  island,  which, 
together  with  that  found  in  Kidd's  possession 
and  on  the  San  Antonio,  amounted  to  1,111 
oz.  troy  of  gold,  2,353  oz.  of  silver,  17  oz.  of 
jewels  (69  stones),  57  bags  of  sugar,  41  bales 
of  merchandise,  and  67  pieces  of  canvas,  of 
the  total  value  of  about  £14,000.  There  are 
no  grounds  for  the  popular  belief  that  he  bu 
ried  other  treasures,  although  frequent  search 
has  been  made  for  them  along  the  N.  E.  coast, 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  Hudson,  and  else 
where,  till  a  very  recent  period. 

KIDDER,  a  N.  county  of  Dakota,  recently 
formed,  and  not  included  in  the  census  of 
1870;  area,  about  1,700  sq.  in.  It  is  occupied 
by  the  "  Plateau  du  Coteau  du  Missouri,"  and 
contains  several  alkaline,  lakes.  The  Northern 
Pacific  railroad  crosses  it. 

KIDDElt,  Daniel  Parish,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  at  Darien,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  18,  1815.  He 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  university,  Middletown, 


826 


KIDDERMINSTER 


KIDNEY 


in  1836,  entered  the  Genesee  conference,  and 
was  stationed  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.  In  1837  he 
went  as  missionary  to  Brazil,  and  during  1839 
traversed  the  whole  eastern  coast  from  San 
Paolo  to  Para.  lie  introduced  and  circulated 
the  Scriptures  in  the  Portuguese  in  all  the 
principal  cities  of  the  empire,  and  preached 
the  first  Protestant  sermon  on  the  waters  of  the 
Amazon.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1840,  and  in  184-4  was  appointed  official  editor 
of  the  Sunday  school  publications  and  tracts, 
and  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Sunday 
school  union  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church, 
a  post  he  held  for  12  years.  Besides  editing 
the  u  Sunday  School  Advocate,"  he  compiled 
and  edited  more  than  800  volumes  of  books  for 
Sunday  school  libraries.  He  was  likewise  the 
organizer  of  the  conference  Sunday  school 
unions,  and  one  of  the  originators  of  Sunday 
school  conventions  and  institutes.  In  1856  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  practical  theology 
in  the  Garrett  Biblical  institute  at  Evanston, 
111.,  where  he  remained  till  1871,  when  he  was 
called  to  a  like  chair  in  Drew  theological 
seminary  at  Madison,  N.  J.,  where  he  still 
remains  (1874).  His  publications  include  a 
translation  from  the  Portuguese  of  the  work 
of  Feijo  entitled  "Demonstration  of  the  Ne 
cessity  of  abolishing  a  constrained  Clerical 
Celibacy  "  (Philadelphia,  1844) ;  "  Mormonism 
and  the  Mormons"  (1844);  "Sketches  of  a 
Residence  and  Travels  in  Brazil "  (2  vols., 
1845) ;  conjointly  with  the  Rev.  J.  C.  Fletcher, 
"Brazil  and  the  Brazilians"  (1857);  "Homi- 
letics  "  (New  York,  1868) ;  and  "The  Chris 
tian  Pastorate  "  (1871). 

KIDDERMINSTER,  a  municipal  and  parlia 
mentary  borough  of  Worcestershire,  England, 
situated  on  the  Stour,  13  in.  N.  of  Worcester; 
pop.  of  the  municipal  borough  in  1871,  19,463; 
of  the  parliamentary  borough,  31,747.  The 
streets  are  irregularly  built  and  the  houses  are 
generally  small.  The  most  important  manu 
facture  is  of  carpets,  for  which  Kidderminster 
has  long  been  famous ;  but  worsted  and  other 
woollen  goods,  damask  silks,  leather,  &c.,  are 
made.  The  Stafford  and  Worcester  canal,  and 
the  Oxford,  Worcester,  and  Wolverhampton 
railway,  pass  through  the  town.  The  manor 
of  Kidderminster  was  once  the  property  of 
the  poet  Waller.  Here  for  many  years  Rich 
ard  Baxter  officiated  as  pastor. 

KIDNAPPING,  the  stealing  and  carrying  away 
or  secreting  of  any  person.  It  is  regarded  by 
the  law  as  an  aggravated  species  of  false  im 
prisonment,  and  includes  the  legal  elements  of 
that  offence.  At  the  common  law  kidnapping 
is  a  misdemeanor,  and  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment.  The  same  punishment  is  adopt 
ed  by  the  state  statutes  in  this  country. 

KIDNEY,  a  special  organ  in  vertebrated  ani 
mals,  whose  office  is  to  separate  from  the  blood 
certain  effete  substances,  to  be  thrown  out  of 
the  system  in  the  urine ;  it  has  no  direct  con 
nection  with  any  of  the  nutritive  operations 
concerned  in  digestion.  Taking  these  organs 


in  man  as  typical,  the  kidneys  are  situated  in 
the  lumbar  region,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
spine,  on  a  level  with  the  last  two  dorsal  and 
the  first  two  lumbar  vertebrae ;  they  are  of 
a  brownish  red  color,  bean-shaped,  flattened 
from  before  backward,  and  grooved  on  the  in 
terior  border  for  the  great  vessels;  the  ante 
rior  surface  is  in  relation  on  the  right  with  the 
duodenum  and  the  ascending  colon,  'and  on  the 
left  with  the  descending  colon,  the  posterior 
surface  is  imbedded  in  fat,  resting  against  the 
muscles;  the  upper  extremity  is  embraced  by 
the  supra-renal  capsules ;  the  lower  extremit}', 
which  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  upper, 
projects  a  little  further  downward  upon  the 
right  side  than  the  left.  The  kidneys  are  well 
supplied  with  blood,  in  accordance  with  the 
importance  of  their  function ;  the  renal  arteries 
come  directly  from  the  aorta,  and  the  large 
veins  terminate  in  the  vena  cava ;  the  nerves 


Human  Kidney,  in  Vertical  Section. 

a.  Cortical  substance,  b.  Medullary  substance,  c.  Conical 
bundles  of  the  medullary  substance,  d.  Membranous 
ducts,  into  which  the  conical  bundles  are  received,  e. 
Pelvis  of  the  kidney.  /.  Ureter,  g.  Eenal  artery,  h. 
Eenal  vein. 

come  from  the  renal  plexus  of  the  sympathetic 
system.  They  are  covered  by  a  thin,  firm, 
transparent  cellular  envelope ;  internally  they 
are  composed  of  two  substances,  an  exterior  or 
cortical  and  an  interior  or  medullary.  From 
the  researches  of  Bowman,  Gerlach,  Kolliker, 
and  others,  it  is  ascertained  that  the  cortical 
substance,  the  seat  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
secretory  process,  is  made  up  of  a  great  num 
ber  of  uriniferous  tubes,  much  convoluted  and 
inosculating  with  each  other,  and  lined  with 
epithelial  cells  of  a  spheroidal  and  projecting 
form  ;  scattered  through  the  plexus  formed 
by  these  tubes  and  the  blood  vessels  are  dark 
points  which  have  been  called  corpora  Mal- 
pighiana  from  their  discoverer  ;  these  last  are 
convoluted  masses  of  minute  blood  vessels  in 
cluded  in  flask-like  dilatations  of  the  urinif 
erous  tubes,  forming  a  close  relation  between 
the  circulating  and  the  secreting  systems. 


KIDNEY 


827 


The  medullary  substance  is  composed  principal 
ly  of  tubes  passing  nearly  straight  inward  to 
the  central  receptacle  of  the  secretion.  Both 
these  substances  are  imbedded  in  interlacing 


Vertical  Section  through  a  portion  of  the  Medullary  and 
Cortical  Portions  of  the  Rabbit's  Kidney. 

a.  Small  arteries  of  the  cortical  portion.  ?>.  Corpora  Mal- 
pighiana.  d.  Capillary  blood  vessels  of  the  cortical  por 
tion,  e,  n,  p.  External  suri.ice  of  the  kidnev.  ff,  n,  i. 
Blood  vessels  of  the  medullary  portion.  \.  Straight 
uriniferous  tubes  of  the  medullary  portion,  becoming 
convoluted  iu  the  cortical  portion. 

fibres,  most  abundant  in  the  medullary.  In 
mammals  the  kidneys  are  supplied  with  blood 
directly  from  the  arterial  system,  but  the  renal 
artery  divides  very  soon  after  entering  the 
organs  into  minute  twigs  which  pierce  the 
capsule  of  the  Malpighian  tufts ;  from  the  con 
volutions  of  these  tufts  arise  the  efferent  ves 
sels  which  surround  the  uriniferous  tubes,  and 
from  which  the  renal  veins  are  formed ;  thus 
the  urinary  secretion  is  produced  from  blood 
which  has  passed  through  the  Malpighian  cap 
illaries,  the  efferent  trunks  from  which  have 
"been  compared  to  a  portal  system  within  the 


Malpighian  Tuft  from 
near  the  base  of  one 
of  the  Medullary 
Cones,  a.  Arterial 
branch,  (if.  Afferent 
vessel,  m.  Malpighi 
an  tuft.  ef.  Efferent 
vessel ;  I,  its  branch 
es,  entering  the  me 
dullary  cone.  (Mag 
nified  70  diameters.) 


kidney.  The  uriniferous  tubes  end  in  from  12 
to  18  conical  bundles,  pointing  toward  the  in 
terior,  and  there  embraced  by  6  or  12  mem 
branous  ducts  received  into  the  central  reser 
voir  or  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  from  which  arises 
the  ureter,  the  membranous  tube  which  con 
ducts  the  renal  secretion  to  the  bladder.  With 
out  entering  upon  physiological  questions  which 
will  be  more  properly  treated  under  URINE,  it 

will  be  sufficient 
to  state  that  the 
kidneys  serve 
to  regulate  the 
quantity  of  wa 
ter  in  the  system, 
a  large  amount 
of  which  may 
be  got  rid  of 
through  their 
agency.  As  the 
skin  and  lungs, 
the  other  chan 
nels  through 
which  superflu 
ous  water  is  re 
moved  from  the 
blood,  are  liable 
to  be  greatly  af 
fected  by  external  circumstances,  the 
kidneys  perform  a  very  important 
office  in  relation  to  that  liuid.  Hence 
the  quantity  of  the  renal  secretion  will 
depend  on  the  amount  of  fluid  passed 
off  by  the  skin,  being  greatest  when  the  cuta 
neous  secretion  is  least,  and  vice  versa;  the 
amount  of  solid  ingredients  being  dependent 
on  the  amount  of  waste  and  the  excess  of 
nitrogen  in  the  system.  The  kidneys  serve 
to  free  the  blood  from  highly  nitrogenized 
compounds  formed  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  albuminous  and  gelatinous  tissues  and 
from  some  portions  of  the  food ;  they  also 
remove  certain  excrementitious  compounds,  of 
which  carbon  is  a  principal  ingredient,  ab 
normally  increased  when  the  liver  and  the 
lungs  do  not  act  freely;  by  them  the  super 
fluous  water  and  various  saline  matters  in  ex 
cess,  and  foreign  substances  introduced  into 
the  blood  as  medicines  or  otherwise,  which 
would  be  injurious  if  retained,  are  carried  off. 
The  kidneys  are  subject  to  many  painful  and 
dangerous  diseases,  which  can  only  be  alluded 
to  here  ;  among  these  are  vascular  congestion, 
inflammation,  fatty  and  waxy  degeneration,  and 
diseased  states  produced  by  retention  of  urine, 
by  calculi,  external  violence,  and  extension 
from  other  organs.  Bright's  disease  is  one  of 
their  most  common  and  fatal  affections,  the 
so-called  granular  degeneration,  consisting  in 
the  distention  of  the  tubules,  the  surrounding 
tissue,  and  the  Malpighian  capsules,  with  ex 
udation  matter,  and  the  subsequent  atrophy  of 
portions  or  even  the  whole  of  the  cortical  sub 
stance.  Invertebrates  have  special  organs  for 
the  secretion  of  urine,  opening  into  the  intes 
tines  or  into  the  branchial  cavitv.  In  tishes 


828 


KIEL 


K1EXCIIOW 


the  kidneys  are  very  long,  extending  the  whole 
length  of*  the  spine,  even  to  the  head,  formed 
of  a  mass  of  simple  globules,  the  ureter  opening 
into  the  cloaca  or  a  urinary  bladder ;  in  reptiles 
they  are  generally  situated  within  the  pelvis, 
but* in  serpents  they  come  further  forward  and 
are  made  up  of  numerous  lobes  of  a  compress 
ed  reniform  shape.  In  birds  they  are  elongated, 
commencing  immediately  below  the  lungs,  ex 
tending  on  each  side  of  the  spine  to  the  rectum, 
and  variously  divided  into  lobes.  In  mammals 
they  resemble  those  of  man,  except  that  in  ce 
taceans  and  some  other  lower  families  they 
are  more  or  less  subdivided  into  lobes,  as  in  the 
human  foetus;  in  mammals  only  is  there  the 
marked  distinction  into  cortical  and  tubular 


substance.  In  the  foetus  at  an  early  period, 
while  the  kidneys  are  very  small  and  imperfect, 
their  office  is  performed  by  the  "  Wolffian 
bodies,"  two  organs  analogous  to  them  in 
structure,  which  afterward  become  atrophied 
and  disappear.  The  two  kidneys,  which  first 
make  their  appearance  just  behind  the  Wolffian 
bodies,  grow  rapidly  as  the  latter  diminish  in 
size,  and  in  the  human  subject  have  fully  taken 
their  place  by  the  end  of  the  second  month  of 
foetal  life.  In  fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Wolffian  bodies  remain  as  permanent  organs, 
no  true  kidneys  being  developed. 

KIEL,  a  seaport  of  Prussia,  in  Holstein,  capi 
tal  of  the  province  of  Schleswig-llolstein,  and 
of  a  district  of  its  own  name  (embracing  IIol- 


Kiel. 


stein),  situated  on  the  Kieler  Ilafen,  a  fine 
harbor  of  the  Baltic,  52  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Ham 
burg;  pop.  in  1871,  31,747.  It  is  walled,  well 
built,  contains  the  Gliicksburg  palace,  four 
churches,  and  a  university  founded  in  1665, 
with  an  observatory,  a  library  of  140,000  vol 
umes,  a  botanic  garden,  and  250  students. 
Kiel  is  important  as  the  great  harbor  of  the 
fleet  of  the  German  empire.  The  harbor  is 
about  10  m.  long  and  1  m.  wide,  and  is  de 
fended  by  several  forts.  The  government  is 
building  extensive  wharves  and  arsenals,  which 
are  to  be  completed  in  1878.  The  naval  acad 
emy  of  Berlin  was  transferred  in  1868  to  Kiel, 
and  a  special  school  for  deck  officers  and  sub- 
engineers  was  connected  with  it.  An  academy 
for  the  instruction  of  naval  officers  is  in  the 
course  of  erection.  It  is  proposed  to  connect 
the  Baltic  with  the  North  sea  by  a  new  canal 
terminating  in  the  harbor  of  Kiel.  The  Eider 
canal,  which  forms  that  connection  at  present, 
is  not  considered  wide  and  deep  enough  for 
the  purposes  of  the  German  navy,  and  is  for 
technical  reasons  not  fit  to  be  enlarged.  There 
are  numerous  sugar,  soap,  and  woollen  fac 
tories,  large  iron  founderies,  machine  shops,  and 
ship  yards.  An  extensive  trade  is  carried  on 
with  all  the  important  towns  on  the  Baltic. 
There  are  railways  to  Hamburg  and  Neustadt. 
— Kiel  was  a  town  in  the  llth  century,  and  sub 


sequently  belonged  to  the  Ilanseatic  league.  A 
treaty  of  peace  between  Denmark  and  Sweden 
was  concluded  here  in  1814.  An  insurrection 
in  favor  of  the  independence  of  Schleswig- 
llolstein  took  place,  and  a  provisional  govern 
ment  was  formed,  March  24,  1848.  By  the 
convention  of  Gastein,  Aug.  14,  1865,  Kiel, 
unlike  the  rest  of  Holstein,  was  to  be  held  by 
Prussia  as  a  German  federal  harbor. 

K1ELCE.  I.  A  government  of  European  Rus 
sia,  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  bordering  on 
the  governments  of  Piotrkow  and  Radom,  and 
on  Austrian  Galicia;  area,  3,623  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1867,  470,300.  It  is  slightly  mountainous 
in  the  north,  where  it  is  traversed  by  offshoots 
of  the  Lysa  Gora,  and  hilly  in  the  east  and 
south.  It  has  mines  of  iron  and  other  metals, 
and  produces  rye,  wheat,  and  fruits.  It  is  wa 
tered  by  the  Vistula,  which  separates  it  from 
Galicia,  by  its  affluent  the  Nida,  and  by  the 
Pilica,  which  partly  separates  it  from  Piotrkow. 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  government,  96  m. 
S.  W.  of  Warsaw ;  pop.  in  1867,  7,295.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  bishop,  has  several 
churches,  a  monastery,  an  episcopal  seminary, 
a  gymnasium,  a  mining  school,  and  in  its  en 
virons  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  coal  mines. 

KIENCHOW,  or  Kiun^chow,  a  city  of  China, 
capital  of  the  island  of  Hainan,  off  the  S.  coast 
of  the  province  of  Kwangtung,  on  a  narrow 


KIEPERT 


KIEV 


820 


spit  of  land  between  a  river  and  a  bay;  pop. 
about  200,000.  There  is  a  considerable  coast 
ing  trade  with  Canton  and  Macao.  Ivienchow 
is  one  of  the  ports  open  to  foreigners,  though 
there  is  not  as  yet  any  English  settlement. 
The  rocky  coast  is  infested  by  pirates  and 
wreckers,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous 
casualties,  but  the  inhabitants  generally  treat 
the  shipwrecked  people  with  kindness. 

KIEPERT,  Heiiirich,  a  German  geographer, 
born  in  Berlin,  July  31,  1818.  lie  studied 
under  Hitter,  explored  Asia  Minor  in  1841-1:?, 
and  was  director  of  the  geographical  institute 
at  Weimar  from  1845  till  the  end  of  1852,  when 
he  returned  to  Berlin,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences  and  a  lecturer,  and 
in  1859  a  professor  in  the  university.  In  1S05 
he  joined  the  statistical  bureau.  lie  published, 
with  the  assistance  of  Hitter,  the  Atlas  von 
Hellas  und  den  hellenischen  Colonien  (Berlin, 
1840-'46;  revised  ed.,  1866).  His  other  works 
include  maps  for  Robinson's  "  Biblical  Re 
searches  in  Palestine  "  (Halle,  1843) ;  a  celebra 
ted  map  of  Asia  Minor  (1843-'5);  Historiacli- 
geographische  Erlauterung  der  Kriegc  zicischcn 
dem  ostromischen  Reich e  und  den  persischen 
Ki'migcn  der  Sassaniden-Dynastie,  which  won  a 
prize  from  the  French  institute  in  1844,  though 
not  yet  published;  eight  maps  to  Lepsius's 
"  Monuments  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia"  (Berlin, 
1849-'59) ;  Historisch-geographischer  Atlas  der 
alien  Welt  (16  maps,  Weimar,  1848  ;  loth  ed., 
1864);  Ncuer  Handatlas  der  Erde  (40  maps, 
Berlin,  1857-'61  ;  enlarged  ed.,  1866  et  seq.}; 
Grosser  Handatlas  des  Himmels  und  der  Erde, 


with  C.  F.  Weiland  and  others  (43d  ed.,  72 
I  sheets,  Weimar,  1871)  ;  and  a  large  number  of 
I  minor  publications. 

KIESEWETTER,  Rafael  Georj?,  a  German  au- 

j  thor,  born  at  Holleschau,  Moravia,  Aug.  29, 
I  1773,  died  near  Vienna,  Jan.  1,  1850.  He  was 
for  many  years  referendary  of  the  aulic  mili 
tary  council  at  Vienna.  Ilis  works  include 
Geschichte  der  europdisch-dbendlandiscTien^  das 
lieisst  unserer  heutigcn  Musik  (Leipsic,  1834; 
2d  ed.,  1846),  which  has  been  translated  into 
English.  He  also  wrote  works  on  Dutch, 
modern  Greek,  and  Arabic  music.  He  pub 
lished  a  catalogue  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1847)  of  his 
collection  of  ancient  music,  which  latter  he  be 
queathed  to  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna. 

KIEV,  Rieff,  or  Kiovv.  I.  A  S.  government 
of  European  Russia,  bordering  on  Minsk, 
Tchernigov,  Poltava,  Kherson,  Podolia,  and 
Volhynia;  area,  19,682  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867, 
2,144.276.  Kiev  is  the  most  fertile  part  of 
the  Ukraine  or  Little  Russia.  Its  surface  is  a 
plain,  here  and  there  undulating,  and  near  the 
river  courses  intersected  by  low  ranges.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Dnieper,  which  forms  its  bound 
ary  on  the  side  of  Tchernigov  and  Poltava, 
and  its  western  affluents,  the  Pripet,  Ros,  and 
others,  the  streams  which  take  their  course  to 
the  Bog  or  southern  Bug  being  unimportant. 
There  is  abundance  of  grain  of  all  kinds,  of 
hemp,  flax,  honey,  wax,  and  tobacco,  excellent 
timber,  and  cattle  of  very  good  breed,  the  latter 
forming  a  principal  article  of  export.  The  cli 
mate  is  generally  very  mild  and  dry ;  excessive 
heat  prevails  in  summer.  Agriculture  and  cat- 


Kiev — the  Petcherskoi  Monastery. 


tie  breeding  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  consist  mainly  of  Little-Rus 
sians.  The  manufactures  are  unimportant. 
Trade  is  in  part  carried  on  by  Jews,  who  are 


numerous  in  the  adjoining  western  govern 
ments.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  government, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  270  m.  N.  of 
Odessa;  pop.  in  1867,  70,591.  It  consists  of 


830 


KILAUEA 


KILBOUENE 


four  parts,  the  old  town,  the  Fetch erskoi  or 
new  fort,  both  on  steep  hills,  the  Podol  or 
low  town,  between  the  hills  and  the  river,  and 
the  Vladimir  town,  which  was  added  to  the 
former  by  the  empress  Catharine  II.  The  old 
town,  which  in  the  times  preceding  the  con 
version  of  the  Russians  to  Christianity,  under 
Vladimir  the  Great,  was  the  principal  seat  of 
Sarmatian  and  Russian  heathen  worship,  now 
contains,  besides  several  other  churches,  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  a  magnificent  structure 
of  the  11  tli  century,  and  the  palace  of  the 
Greek  metropolitan.  The  fort  contains  the 
great  Petcherskoi  monastery  from  which  it  re 
ceived  its  name,  and  which,  together  with  the 
bastions  and  walls  of  the  place,  and  the  glitter 
ing  gilt  and  colored  cupolas  of  the  churches  on 
the  neighboring  eminences,  makes  a  strong 
impression  upon  the  traveller  who  approaches 
the  city  from  the  other  side  of  the  Dnieper. 
This  division  embraces  the  barracks  of  the 
garrison,  the  arsenals  and  magazines,  the  houses 
of  the  officers,  the  palace  of  the  governor,  nu 
merous  churches,  and  the  renowned  catacombs 
of  St.  Anthony,  consisting  of  excavations  in 
a  precipitous  cliff  on  the  banks  of  the  river, 
which  attract  numberless  pilgrims  from  all 
parts  of  Russia  through  veneration  for  the 
saints  whose  bodies  are  there  preserved.  Ad 
joining  are  the  catacombs  of  St.  Theodosius, 
which  contain  a  smaller  number  of  saints. 
The  Podol,  which  is  the  commercial  part  of 
the  city,  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  embellished 
with  gardens.  Kiev  has  a  large  university, 
founded  in  1834,  to  which  are  attached  a 
library  and  cabinets  of  medals,  zoology,  min 
eralogy,  and  botany.  There  are  also  various 
other  institutions  of  learning,  of  which  the 
Greek  theological  academy  in  the  Petcherskoi 
monastery  is  the  best  endowed  and  most  fre 
quented.  The  manufactures  and  trade  of  the 
city  are  not  important.  Railways  connect  it 
with  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  Odessa,  and 
Lcraberg.  A  magnificent  bridge,  recently  con 
structed,  spans  the  Dnieper. — The  earliest  his 
tory  of  Kiev  is  traced  by  some  to  the  time  of  the 
Greek  colonies  near  the  X.  coast  of  the  Black 
sea ;  others  place  its  foundation  in  the  5th  cen 
tury.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  9th  century  it 
became  the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Nov 
gorod.  As  the  capital  of  Christianized  Russia, 
it  was  adorned  in  the  llth  century  with  a  great 
number  of  churches.  After  the  middle  of  the 
12th,  however,  it  was  deprived  of  its  rank,  and 
subsequently  suffered  by  the  devastations  of  the 
Tartars,  the  Lithuanian  and  Polish  wars,  the 
plague,  and  fires.  After  having  been  for  about 
three  centuries  in  the  hands  of  the  Poles,  it 
was  reannexed  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of  1667. 
KILAl'EA,  a  volcano  in  the  E.  part  of  the 
island  of  Hawaii,  in  lat.  19°  25'  N.,  Ion.  155° 
20'  "W.  It  is  a  pit  or  sunken  plain  8  m.  in  cir 
cumference,  bounded  by  steep  or  perpendicular 
walls,  and  varying  from  800  to  1,500  ft,  in 
depth  as  the  floor  of  the  crater  is  raised  or 
lowered  by  volcanic  action ;  eruptions  drawing 


off  the  accumulated  lavas  from  beneath  and 
causing  it  to  sink.  Near  the  S.  W.  extremity 
of  the  pit  is  a  lake  of  melted  lava  in  a  state  of 
constant  ebullition,  called  by  the  Hawaiians 
the  Hale-mau-mau,  or  "house  of  everlasting 
fire,"  and  formerly  regarded  as  the  residence 
of  their  principal  divinity,  the  goddess  Pele. 
From  this  caldron,  which  is  not  infrequently  a 
third  or  a  half  mile  in  diameter,  the  fusion 
overflows  in  times  of  special  volcanic  activity, 
spreading  out  upon  the  cooled  lava  which  forms 
the  bottom  of  the  crater ;  or  it  bursts  out  at* 
new  points  of  this  nearly  level  tract.  The 
crater  presents  in  consequence  quite  different 
appearances  at  different  times,  being  especially 
changed  by  the  occurrence  of  eruptions.  These 
are  generally  preceded  by  a  rise  in  the  floor  of 
the  crater.  When  the  lateral  pressure  of  the 
accumulating  lava  becomes  sufficiently  great,  it 
forces  its  way  through  the  side  of  the  moun 
tain,  often  accompanied  by  violent  earth 
quakes,  and  breaks  to  the  surface  at  a  distance 
of  5,  10,  or  20  m.  from  the  great  crater,  which 
is  usually  emptied  to  a  depth  of  400  ft.  The 
lava  continues  to  flow  seaward  incessantly  for 
several  days,  weeks,  or  months.  These  erup 
tions  are  generally  independent  of  those  which 
take  place  from  the  crater  upon  the  summit  of 
Mauna  Loa,  10,000  ft.  higher  than  Kilauea, 
though  the  two  craters  are  but  16  m.  distant 
from  each  other.  The  lavas  are  very  fluid, 
and  contain  much  iron  and  augite.  The  great 
est  recorded  eruption  of  Kilauea  took  place  in 
June,  1840.  The  lava  forced  its  way  for  27  m. 
mostly  underground,  marking  its  course  by 
rending  the  rocks  above  it,  and  sometimes 
splitting  the  trunks  of  large  trees  so  as  to  leave 
them  standing  astride  of  the  crevices.  The 
lava  stream  showed  itself  occasionally  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  in  the  pits  of  old 
craters ;  and  finally  it  broke  from  the  ground 
in  a  resistless  flood,  at  the  distance  of  12  m. 
from  the  coast,  and  rolled  shoreward,  sweeping 
forests,  hamlets,  and  plantations  before  it,  un 
til,  leaping  a  precipice  of  40  or  50  ft.,  it  plunged 
with  loud  detonations  into  the  sea.  Its  entire 
course  was  40  m.  in  length ;  its  depth,  owing 
to  the  extreme  roughness  of  the  country  over 
which  it  flowed,  varied  from  12  to  200  ft.,  and 
its  width  from  500  ft.  to  3  m.  The  flow  con 
tinued  for  three  weeks,  and  for  a  fortnight  the 
light  of  it  was  so  brilliant  that  at  Hilo,  40  m. 
distant,  fine  print  could  be  read  at  midnight, 
The  coast  was  extended  into  the  sea  a  quarter 
of  a  mile ;  hills  of  scoria  and  sand  were  form 
ed,  one  300  ft.  high  ;  the  sea  was  heated  for  20 
m.  along  the  coast,  and  multitudes  of  fishes 
were  killed.  This  eruption  poured  out  15,400,- 
000, 000  cubic  feet  of  lava,  which  is  probably 
about  the  average  amount  of  the  eruptions  of 
Kilauea.  Eruptions  occurred  in  1789,  1823, 
1832, 1840,  and  1866.  The  crater  is  not  difficult 
of  access,  and  is  generally  visited  from  Hilo. 

KILBOURNE,  James,  an  American  pioneer, 
born  in  New  Britain,  Conn.,  Oct.  19,  1770, 
died  in  Worthington,  O.,  April  9,  1850.  He 


KILDARE 


KILKENNY 


831 


was  successively  employed  as  an  apprentice, 
clerk,  merchant,  and  manufacturer.  Having 
secured  a  competence,  he  became  a  priest  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  declined  sev 
eral  advantageous  calls  to  vacant  parishes,  and, 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  western  emigra 
tion,  in  1801-'2  organized  the  Scioto  company, 
under  whose  auspices  a  colony  of  about  100 
persons,  under  his  lead,  was  in  180:)  established 
in  what  is  now  the  township  of  Worthington 
in  Ohio,  lie  retired  from  the  ministry  in 
1804,  and  was  appointed  a  civil  magistrate,  an 
officer  of  militia  on  the  N.  "W.  frontier,  and 
surveyor  of  a  large  portion  of  the  public  lands. 
In  1812  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
settle  the  boundary  between  the  public  lands 
and  the  great  Virginia  reservation,  and  also 
commissioned  as  a  colonel  in  the  frontier  regi 
ment  ;  and  in  1813  he  entered  congress,  of 
which  he  remained  a  member  till  1817.  He 
was  for  85  years  president  of  the  board  of 
trustees  of  Worthington  college. 

KILDAKE,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Leinster,  bordering  on  Meath,  Dub 
lin,  Wicklow,  Carlo w,  Queen's,  and  King's  coun 
ties;  area,  054  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  84,198. 
The  surface  is  flat  or  undulating,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  bogs,  has  a  fertile  clayey  soil. 
Farms  are  less  subdivided  in  this  county  than 
in  most  others.  Kildare  has  a  considerable  ex 
port  of  grain  and  flour  by  means  of  the  river 
Barrow  and  the  Royal  and  Grand  canals  and 
their  branches.  The  rivers  Lififey  and  Boyne 
also  traverse  a  portion  of  the  county,  and  two 
railways  intersect  it.  Cotton  and  woollen  fab 
rics  and  paper  are  manufactured  to  a  limited 
extent.  Near  the  centre  of  the  county  is  a 
plain  of  4,858  acres,  the  property  of  the  gov 
ernment,  and  called  the  Curragh  of  Kildare, 
used  for  military  camps  of  exercise,  and  having 
on  it  one  of  the  best  race  courses  in  the  king 
dom.  The  principal  towns  are  Naas,  the  capi 
tal,  Athy,  and  Kildare. 

KILDEER,  an  American  plover,  so  called  from 
its  notes,  which  resemble  the  sounds  "  kildee, 
kildee,  dee,  dee,  dee;"  it  is  the  charadrius  vo- 


Kildcer  (Charadrius  vocifcrus). 

cifcrus  (Linn.)  or  the  genus  cegialitu  (Boie). 
The  kildeer  is  about  10  in.  long,  with  an  extent 
of  wings  of  20,  the  bill  1  in.,  and  the  weight  6  oz. 
The  head  is  small,  the  neck  short,  body  rather 
slender,  wings  reaching  to  the  end  of  the  long 
tail,  feet  long  and  slender,  hind  tibia  bare  con- 
YOL.  ix. — 53 


siderably  above  the  joint,  and  toe  wanting. 
The  bill  is  black,  the  edges  of  the  lids  bright 
red,  the  iris  dark  brown,  and  the  feet  grayish 
blue ;  the  head  above  and  upper  parts  of  the 
body  light  brown  with  a  greenish  tinge;  rump 
and  upper  tail  coverts  rufous ;  lower  parts 
white;  ring  on  neck  and  wide  band  on  breast 
black ;  quills  brownish  black,  with  about  half 
their  inner  webs  white ;  white  spots  on  the 
shorter  primaries,  and  the  secondaries  edged 
with  the  same ;  the  four  middle  tail  feathers 
white  tipped,  with  a  wide  subterminal  black 
band,  and  the  lateral  ones  widely  tipped  with 
white ;  the  whole  upper  plumage  is  sometimes 
edged  with  rufous.  The  bird  is  common 
throughout  North  America,  most  abundant  in 
land,  going  to  the  south  in  winter,  and  to  the 
islands  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  It  is  very 
wary,  the  small  flocks  when  feeding  posting  a 
sentinel  to  warn  them  of  danger ;  when  alarm 
ed  it  is  very  noisy,  uttering  rapidly  the  notes 
which  have  given  it  its  name.  Its  chief  resorts 
are  newly  ploughed  fields,  the  banks  of  clear 
rivers,  and  elevated  worn-out  grounds,  where 
it  feeds  on  worms,  grasshoppers,  beetles,  small 
crustaceans,  and  snails ;  toward  winter  it  ap 
proaches  the  seashore,  and  at  the  south  is  fond 
of  the  sugar,  cotton,  and  rice  fields,  and  of 
marshes,  mud  flats,  and  oyster  beds.  The 
flight  is  strong  and  rapid,  whether  at  high  or 
low  elevations,  and  the  speed  in  running  is 
such  as  to  have  become  proverbial ;  the  large 
eyes  indicate  its  habit  of  feeding  by  night  as 
well  as  by  day.  It  breeds  in  the  southern 
states  about  the  beginning  of  April,  and  a 
month  later  in  the  middle  states ;  the  nest  is 
either  a  hollow  in  the  earth  or  is  made  of 
grass  on  the  ground ;  the  eggs,  usually  four, 
are  If  by  H  i»-,  cream-colored  with  irregular 
purplish  brown  and  black  blotches ;  the  pa 
rents  adopt  various  devices  to  divert  attention 
from  their  nest.  The  flesh,  unless  of  the  young 
in  early  autumn,  is  indifferent,  though  it  is 
eaten  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

KILIMANJARO  (properly  Kilima  Rjaro,  snow 
mountain),  the  highest  known  mountain  in 
Africa,  situated  in  the  Jagga  country,  on  the 
border  of  Zanguebar,  about  ISO  m.  from  the 
coast,  in  lat.  3°  40'  S.,  Ion.  30°  E.  It  is  crowned 
with  perpetual  snow,  and  its  summit  is  20,005 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  was  discov 
ered  in  1848  by  Rebmann. 

KILKENNY.  I.  An  inland  county  of  Ire 
land,  in  the  province  of  Leinster,  bordering 
on  Queen's,  Carlow,  Wexford,  Waterford,  and 
Tipperary  counties ;  area,  796  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  109,302.  The  surface  is  generally  level, 
but  diversified  with  some  hills,  which  rise  to 
the  altitude  of  1,000  ft.  The  county  is  inter 
sected  by  the  river  Nore,  and  bounded  respec 
tively  E.  and  S.  by  the  rivers  Barrow  and  Suir. 
The  soil  is  mostly  a  light  fertile  loam.  Anthra 
cite  coal  of  inferior  quality  abounds.  Fine 
black  marble  is  quarried  near  the  town  of  Kil 
kenny.  Various  stone  piles  of  the  pagan  era, 
cromlechs,  and  cairns  are  found  in  this  county, 


832 


KILLARXEY 


KILLIGREW 


chiefly  on  the  summits  of  hills.  It  is  divided 
into  ten  baronies.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
county,  and  a  county  in  itself,  situated  on  the 


St.  Canice's  Cathedral,  Kilkenny. 

river  Nore,  63  m.  S.  W.  of  Dublin,  and  30  m. 
N.  by  W.  of  Waterford;  pop.  in  1871,  15,609. 
It  is  well  built,  paved,  lighted,  and  supplied 
with  water.     The  principal  buildings  are  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Canice  or  Kenny,  erected  in 
the  12th  century,  and  having  a  round  tower 
100  ft.  high  adjoining  its  S.  transept;   a  Ro 
man  Catholic  cathedral,  two  Episcopal  parish 
churches,  six  Catholic  chapels,  two  monasteries, 
a  convent,  several  Presbyterian  and  Methodist 
places  of  worship,  the  ruins  of  a  Franciscan 
monastery,   prisons,   work 
house,  barracks,  and  a  cas 
tle  built  by  Strongbow.     Its 
educational  institutions  in 
clude  the  Kilkenny  college 
or  grammar  school,   where 
Swift,  Congreve,  Farquhar, 
Bishop  Berkeley,  and  other 
distinguished  persons  stud 
ied  ;  and  St.  Kyran's  Roman 
Catholic  seminary  for  the 
education    of    young    men 
destined  for  the  priesthood. 
K1LLARNEY,      a     market 
town  and  parish  of  Ireland, 
county  Kerry,  44  m.  N.  N". 
W.  of  Cork;    pop.   of   the 
town  (which  lies  partly  in 
the  parish  of  Aghadoe)  in 
1871,  5,187.     It  is  an  unat 
tractive    place,    containing 
several  hotels,  a  nunnery,  a 
dispensary,  a  fever  hospital, 
an  almshouse,  and   several 
churches   and    chapels,   in 
cluding  a  handsome  Roman  Catholic  cathe 
dral.     It  is  situated  about  H  m-  E.  of  a  chain 
of  three  lakes  famous  for  their  picturesque  beau 


ty,  and  much  resorted  to  by  tourists.  The 
upper  or  southernmost  lake  is  2£  m.  long  and 
f  m.  wide.  It  contains  12  islets,  and  is  con 
nected  by  a  circuitous  stream  with  the  middle, 
Muckross,  or  Tore  lake,  !£  m.  long.  The  lat 
ter  communicates  by  three  passages  with  the 
lower  lake,  called  also  Lough  Leane,  which  is 
4  m.  long  and  2  m.  broad,  and  contains  30 
islands.  On  the  peninsula  between  the  middle 
and  lower  lakes  are  the  picturesque  ruins  of 
Ross  castle,  a  fortress  of  the  15th  century,  and 
the  remains  of  Muckross  abbey.  On  the  W.,  S., 
and  S.  E.  shores  rise  high  mountains,  separa 
ted  by  wild  ravines,  through  which  flow  several 
beautiful  springs.  O'Sullivan's  cascade,  near 
the  "W.  shore  of  Lough  Leane,  consists  of  three 
distinct  falls  between  high  overhanging  rocks. 
KILLIGREW.  I.  Sir  William,  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Hanworth,  Middlesex,  in  1605,  died  in 
London  in  1693.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
college,  Cambridge,  and  became  governor  of 
Pendennis  castle  in  Cornwall,  and  afterward 
gentleman  usher  to  Charles  I.  When  the  civil 
war  broke  out  he  was  made  a  captain  in  the 
royal  horse  guards,  and  at  the  restoration 
gentleman  usher  to  Charles  II.,  and  subse 
quently  first  vice  .chamberlain,  which  office  he 
held  for  22  years.  He  was  buried  in  West 
minster  abbey.  He  wrote  u  The  Siege  of 
Urban,"  "  Selindra,"  "  Ormasdes,  or  Love  and 
Friendship,"  and  "  Pandora,"  dramas  pub 
lished  at  Oxford  in  1666,  and  much  praised 
by  Waller.  In  his  old  age  he  wrote  "  Artless 
Midnight  Thoughts,"  &c.,  and  "  Midnight  and 
Daily  Thoughts."  II.  Thomas,  an  English 
dramatist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Hanworth  in  1611,  died  in  London  in  1682. 
After  visiting  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  he  be- 


Ituins  of  Ross  Castle,  Ki 


came  page  of  honor  to  Charles  I.,  and  at  the 
restoration  groom  of  the  bedchamber  to  Charles 
II.,  whose  exile  and  privations  he  had  shared, 


KILMARNOCK 


KING 


833 


and  over  whom,  by  his  coarse  licentious  wit, 
he  had  acquired  great  influence.  He  was  the 
author  of  1 1  plays,  a  complete  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  1664.  III.  Henry,  an  English  di 
vine,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Han- 
worth  in  1612;  the  date  of  his  death  is  un 
certain.  He  was  educated  at  Christclmrch, 
Oxford.  When  only  17  years  old  he  wrote  a 
tragedy  called  "  The  Conspiracy "  (reprinted 
in  1653  under  the  title  of  "  Pallantus  and  Eu- 
dora  ").  After  the  restoration  he  became 
almoner  and  chaplain  to  the  duke  of  York. 
IV.  Aline,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
London  in  1660,  died  in  June,  1685.  She  was 
noted  for  her  virtues,  beauty,  and  accomplish 
ments,  but  is  still  better  known  by  the  ode 
which  Dryden  wrote  to  her  memory.  She 
was  "  excellent  in  the  sister  arts  of  poesy  and 
painting,"  and  painted  a  portrait  of  the 
duke  of  York  (afterward  James  II.)  and  his 
duchess,  to  whom  she  was  a  maid  of  honor. 
A  volume  of  her  poems  was  published  in  1686. 

KILMARNOCK,  a  parliamentary  and  munici 
pal  borough  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  12  m.  N. 
N.  E.  of  Ayr,  20  m.  S.  W.  of  Glasgow,  and  8  m. 
from  the  seaport  of  Troon,  with  all  of  which 
it  is  connected  by  railway;  pop.  in  1871, 
22,952.  The  town  possesses  some  handsome 
public  buildings,  18  churches,  an  academy, 
several  public  libraries,  a  picture  gallery,  a  me 
chanics'  institute,  &c.  It  is  famed  for  the  man 
ufacture  of  woollen  shawls,  carpets,  worsted 
goods,  gauzes,  muslins,  hosiery,  and  shoes. 

KILOGRAMME.     See  GRAMME. 

KILAYA,  or  Qniloa,  a  town  of  E.  Africa,  on  an 
island  off  the  coast  of  Zanguebar,  in  lat.  8° 
57'  S.,  Ion.  39°  37'  E. ;  pop.  about  7,000.  It  is 
tributary  to  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar,  and  has 
much  declined  in  importance  and  population 
since  its  devastation  by  the  Portuguese  early  in 
the  16th  century.  It  is  now  chiefly  known  as 
one  of  the  principal  ports  for  the  exportation 
of  slaves  ;  nearly  100,000  were  sent  in  the  five 
years  1862-7  to  Zanzibar  and  other  places,  and 
about  15,000  were  exported  in  the  year  end 
ing  August,  I860.  These  statistics  were  sub 
mitted  at  a  public  meeting  held  in  London, 
June  5,  1874,  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade  in  accordance  with  Sir  Bartle  Frere's  ne 
gotiations  in  1873  with  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar. 
The  name  Kilwa  is  also  applied  to  the  island 
and  to  other  adjacent  localities,  and  the  sur 
rounding  region  is  watered  by  many  important 
rivers  and  noted  for  its  unhealthy  character. 

KIM  BALL,  Richard  Unrleigli,  an  American  au 
thor,  born  at  Plainfield,  X.  II.,  Oct.  11,  1816. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1834, 
studied  law,  and  after  visiting  Europe,  and 
spending  some  time  at  the  continental  univer 
sities,  he  entered  upon  the  practice  of  law,  first 
at  Waterford,  N.  Y.,  and  then  in  New  York 
city.  His  works,  besides  lectures,  pamphlets, 
and  contributions  to  periodicals,  are :  "  St. 
Leger,  or  the  Threads  of  Life"  (New  York 
and  London,  1849);  "Letters  from  England;" 
"Letters  from  Cuba"  (New  York,  1850); 


"  Cuba  and  the  Cubans  "  (1850) ;  "  Romance  of 
Student  Life  abroad  "  (1853) ;  "  Under-currents 
of  Wall  Street"  (1862);  "Was  He  Success 
ful  ?  "  (1863) ;  "  In  the  Tropics  "  (1863)  ;  "  The 
Prince  of  Vashna"  (1865);  "Henry  Powers, 
Banker  "  (186H) ;  and  "  To-day  "  (1869). 

KOIBLE,  a  W.  county  of  Texas,  drained  by 
the  head  waters  of  Llano  river;  area,  about 
1,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  72.  It  has  a 
rugged  surface,  with  an  alternation  of  narrow 
valleys  and  rocky  highlands,  and  abounds  in 
limestone  and  other  building  materials.  The 
soil  is  of  good  quality,  but  better  adapted  to 
grazing  than  tillage.  Good  timber  is  abundant. 

KIMHI,  or  Kimchi,  David,  a  Hebrew  scholar 
of  southern  France,  born  probably  at  Nar- 
bonne,  flourished  in  that  city  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  13th  century.  He  was  the  son  of 
Rabbi  Joseph  Kimhi,  a  distinguished  Biblical 
commentator,  and  the  younger  brother  of  Mo 
ses  Kimhi,  an  eminent  grammarian.  Both  of 
them  were  eclipsed  by  David,  whose  exegetical 
and  linguistic  writings  are  to  this  day  con 
sidered  standard  works  by  Hebrew  students. 
They  include  a  Hebrew  grammar  (Sepher  mikh- 
lol,  Constantinople,  1532  ;  Venice,  1545,  &c.), 
a  Hebrew  dictionary  (Sepher  hashshorashim, 
Naples,  1491 ;  Venice,  1529,  &c.),  a  defence 
of  Maimonides,  and  commentaries  on  the  pro 
phets,  the  Psalms,  and  some  other  portions  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  have  appeared  in  various 
Bible  editions. 

KINCARDINESHIRE,  or  The  Mearns,  a  mari 
time  county  of  Scotland,  bordering  on  Aber- 
deenshire,  Forfarshire,  and  the  North  sea ; 
area,  394  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  34,651.  Geo 
graphically  the  county  is  divided  into  the 
Grampians  or  hill  district,  Deeside,  the  valley 
or  "  howe  "  of  the  Mearns,  and  the  coast  side. 
Mount  Battock,  the  highest  point  of  the  Gram 
pians  in  Kincardineshire,  is  2,500  ft.  high. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Dee,  North  Esk, 
Bervie,  and  Dye.  The  county  is  mainly  agri 
cultural.  There  are  manufactures  of  linen  and 
of  a  peculiar  kind  of  woollen  tartan  wares  of 
beautiful  workmanship.  On  the  coast  there 
are  about  a  dozen  fishing  villages.  Capital, 
Stonehaven. 

KINDERGARTEN.     See  INFANT  SCHOOLS. 

KIXESIPATH1.     See  LING,  PETER  HENRIK. 

RING  (Ger.  Ki'nrig ;  A.  S.  cyng  or  cyniy),  a 
title  of  dignity  designating  the  supreme  ruler 
of  a  nation  or  country.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  is  far  from  being  settled,  some  deriving 
it  from  the  old  Gothic  Irani,  family  or  (noble) 
race;  others  from  roots  like  know,  can,  ken, 
denoting  ability ;  while  others  compare  it  with 
khan  and  other  eastern  terms  of  similar  mean 
ing.  The  Romance  languages  all  use  words 
little  altered  from  the  Latin  rex  (ruler),  which 
was  the  title  of  the  first  seven  sovereigns  of 
Rome,  while  those  who  followed  the  fall  of 
the  republic  assumed  that  of  imperator  (com 
mander),  now  altered  into  our  emperor.  The 
difference  between  king  and  emperor,  and  be 
tween  kingdom  and  empire,  is  not  always  one 


KING 


of  power  or  extent,  but  is  sometimes  the  result 
of  historical  developments.  Thus  Louis  XIV. 
and  Louis  Philippe  were  satisfied  with  the  title 
of  king,  while-  the  sovereign  successor  to  the 
unaltered  dominions  of  the  latter,  Napoleon 
III.,  assumed  that  worn  by  the  conqueror  from 
whom  he  derived  his  historical  claims  to  pow 
er.  Soulouque  of  Hayti,  who  like  both  Na 
poleons  paved  his  way  to  the  throne  by  a  coup 
d'etat,  also  chose  the  title  of  emperor.  In  Eu 
rope  there  were  12  kingdoms  in  1874:  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  Italy,  Sweden  and  Nor 
way,  Belgium,  Portugal,  Holland,  Denmark, 
Greece,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wiirtem- 
berg ;  the  last  four,  however,  being  included  in 
the  German  empire.  Besides  these  there  are 
other  kingdoms  in  Europe  which,  having  in 
various  degrees  lost  their  independence,  have 
maintained  their  title,  adding  it  to  those  of  the 
other  possessions  of  their  rulers.  Thus  the 
emperor  of  Russia  is  king  of  Poland,  and  the 
emperor  of  Austria  king  of  Bohemia,  while 
Hungary  forms  as  a  kingdom  a  constituent  half 
of  the  latter  empire.  There  are  also  some  titles 
preserved  by  houses  wrho  have  lost  the  posses-, 
sions  to  which  they  were  attached.  The  em 
peror  of  Austria  styles  himself  king  of  Jerusa 
lem,  and  the  king  of  Sweden  also  king  of  the 
Vandals.  The  royal  dignity  in  Europe  is  now 
everywhere  hereditary.  Formerly  there  were 
elective  kings  of  Poland,  Hungary,  and  other 
countries ;  those  of  Poland  were  little  more 
than  presidents  for  life  of  a  republic.  The 
successor  elect  of  the  German  emperors  was 
called  king  of  Rome ;  the  same  title  was  be 
stowed  by  Napoleon  I.  on  his  son.  The  period 
of  Napoleon  was  productive  of  new  kingdoms, 
of  which  some,  as  Westphalia  and  Etruria,  were 
short-lived. 

KI.VG,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Washington  terri 
tory,  bounded  E.  by  the  Cascade  mountains, 
and  W.  by  Admiralty  inlet ;  area,  1,800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  2,120.  It  has  numerous  harbors. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  White,  Snoqualmie, 
Dwamish,  and  Green,  which  are  bordered  by 
good  agricultural  land.  Lake  Washington  is  a 
large  body  of  fresh  water,  bordered  by  lands 
rich  in  coal,  which  is  mined.  The  W.  part  is 
interspersed  with  prairies,  forests,  and  lakes. 
The  Snoqualmie  pass,  3,700  ft.  high,  crosses 
the  Cascade  range  in  this  county.  The  falls 
of  Snoqualmie  attract  many  tourists.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  3,872  bush 
els  of  wheat,  14,135  of  oats,  2,817  of  barley, 
42,981  of  potatoes,  34,755  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
1,884  tons  of  hay.  There  were  305  horses,  628 
milch  cows,  947  other  cattle,  and  891  swine ;  1 
brewery,  1  planing  mill,  1  flour  mill,  and  2 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Seattle. 

RING,  John  €rookshanks,  an  American  sculp 
tor,  born  at  Kil winning,  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
Oct.  11,  1806.  He  was  educated  as  a  practical 
machinist,  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in 
1829,  and  was  employed  for  several  years  in 
Cincinnati  and  Louisville  as  superintendent  of 
a  factory.  In  1834,  at  the  suggestion  of  Hiram 


Powers,  he  made  a  model  in  clay  of  the  head 
of  his  wife,  and  the  success  with  which  the 
work  was  accomplished  encouraged  him  to 
adopt  the  profession  of  a  sculptor.  From  1837 
to  1840  he  resided  in  New  Orleans,  and  mod 
elled  a  number  of  busts  of  public  men  and 
made  cameo  likenesses.  Subsequently  he  re 
moved  to  Boston,  where  he  now  lives.  He 
has  executed  several  busts  of  Daniel  Webster, 
also  those  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  Dr.  Samuel 
Woodward,  Professor  Agassiz,  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson,  and  other  men  prominent  in  public 
life  or  literature.  Since  1860  he  has  executed 
for  the  city  of  Boston  a  bust  of  Chief  Justice 
Shaw  ;  but  with  the  exception  of  a  few  busts 
of  private  individuals,  he  has  mainly  been  en 
gaged  on  cameos  of  Webster,  Franklin,  Grier- 
son,  Audubon,  Com.  Morris,  J.  Q.  Adams, 
Horace  Greeley,  Sumner,  Lincoln,  Washing 
ton,  and  others,  and  is  now  (June,  1874)  exe 
cuting  a  cameo  of  Agassiz. 

KING,  Peter,  lord,  an  English  chancellor, 
born  in  Exeter  in  1669,  died  at  Ockham,  Sur 
rey,  July  22,  1734.  His  mother  was  a  sister 
of  the  philosopher  Locke.  He  studied  at  Ley- 
den,  was  called  to  the  bar,  was  elected  to  par 
liament  in  1699  for  Beer- Alston,  Devonshire, 
was  appointed  in  1709  one  of  the  managers  to 
conduct  the  impeachment  of  Sacheverell,  and  a 
few  years  later  acted  as  counsel  in  defence  of 
Whiston.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  George 
I.  he  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas,  and  apr.ivy  councillor ;  and  in  June,  1725, 
on  the  removal  of  the  earl  of  Macclesfield,  he 
became  lord  chancellor,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
King  of  Ockham.  He  held  office  till  Novem 
ber,  1733,  when  ill  health  compelled  him  to  re 
sign.  More  of  his  decrees  are  said  to  have  been 
set  aside  than  of  any  former  chancellor.  He 
wrote  "Inquiry  into  the  Constitution,  Disci 
pline,  Unity,  and  Worship  of  the  Primitive 
Church"  (London,  1691),  and  "Critical  His 
tory  of  the  Apostles'  Creed"  (1702). 

KING,  Philip  Parker,  a  British  admiral,  born 
on  Norfolk  island,  Dec.  13,  1793,  died  at  Gran- 
tham,  near  Sydney,  Australia,  in  February, 
1855.  He  was  the  son  of  a  naval  officer,  and 
entered  the  navy  in  1807.  In  1817  he  was  in 
trusted  with  the  conduct  of  an  expedition  to 
Australia,  returning  to  Europe  in  1823,  when 
he  published  the  results  of  his  survey  of  the 
inter-tropical  and  western  coasts ;  the  atlas  to 
this  work  was  issued  by  the  hydrographical 
office  at  the  admiralty.  In  1825  he  was  ap 
pointed  to  survey  the  8.  coast  of  America,  from 
the  entrance  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  round  to 
Chiloe,  and  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  published 
in  1832  "Sailing  Directions  to  the  Coasts  of 
Eastern  and  Western  Patagonia,  including  the 
Straits  of  Magelhaen  and  the  Sea  Coast  of 
Terra  del  Fuego."  Afterward  he  returned  to 
Australia,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  legisla 
ture  in  1851.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  was 
appointed  rear  admiral  of  the  blue,  being  the 
first  instance  of  a  native  of  Australasia  rising 
to  so  high  a  rank  in  the  navy. 


KING 


835 


RING,  Kiifiis,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Scarborough,  Me.,  in  1755,  died  in  Jamaica, 
L.  L,  April  29,  1827.  His  father,  Richard  King, 
a  successful  merchant,  pave  him  the  best  educa 
tion  then  attainable.  He  was  admitted  to  Har 
vard  college  in  1773,  graduated  in  1777,  and 
went  to  Newburyport  to  study  law  under  the 
direction  of  Theophilus  Parsons.  In  1778  he 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Glover  in  the 
brief  and  fruitless  campaign  in  Rhode  Island. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1780,  and  at 
once  entered  upon  a  successful  practice  in 
Newburyport.  He  was  an  ardent  patriot,  and 
in  1782  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  general 
court  or  legislature.  In  that  body,  to  which  he 
was  repeatedly  reflected,  he  took  a  leading 
part,  and  successfully  advocated,  against  a  pow 
erful  opposition,  the  granting  of  a  5  per  cent, 
impost  to  the  congress,  as  indispensable  to  the 
common  safety  and  the  efficiency  of  the  con 
federation.  In  1784  he  was  chosen  by  the 
legislature  a  delegate  to  the  continental  con 
gress,  then  sitting  at  Trenton.  He  took  his  seat 
in  December,  and  in  March,  1785,  moved  a  reso 
lution  :  "  That  there  be  neither  slavery  nor  in 
voluntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  states  described 
in  the  resolution  of  congress  of  April,  1784, 
otherwise  than  in  punishment  of  crime  whereof 
the  party  shall  have  been  personally  guilty ;  and 
that  this  regulation  shall  be  made  an  article  of 
compact  and  remain  a  fundamental  principle 
of  the  constitution  between  the  original  states 
and  each  of  the  states  named  in  said  resolves." 
This  resolution  was,  by  the  vote  of  seven  states 
(New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Maryland)  against  four  (Virginia,  North  Caro 
lina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia),  referred 
to  a  committee  of  the  whole,  where  for  the 
time  it  slept.  The  ordinance  offered  by  Thomas 
Jefferson  in  the  previous  year  (April,  1784) 
proposed  the  prospective  prohibition  of  slavery 
in  the  territories  of  the  United  States  after  the 
year  1800  ;  Mr.  King's  proposition  was  for  its 
immediate,  absolute,  and  irrevocable  prohibi 
tion.  When,  two  years  afterward,  the  famous 
ordinance  of  freedom  and  government  for  the 
N.  "W.  territory  was  reported  by  Nathan  Dane 
of  Massachusetts  (July  11,  1787),  Mr.  King, 
who  was  a  member  of  that  congress  (then  sit 
ting  in  New  York),  hud  gone  to  Philadelphia 
to  take  the  seat  to  which  he  had  been  elected 
by  Massachusetts  as  a  member  of  the  conven 
tion  for  framing  a  constitution  for  the  Uni 
ted  States ;  but  his  colleague  embodied  in  the 
draft  of  his  ordinance  the  provision,  almost 
word  for  word,  which  Mr.  King  had  laid  be 
fore  congress  in  March,  1785.  AVhile  occupied 
with  his  duties  as  a  member  of  congress,  he 
was  designated  by  his  state  as  one  of  the  com 
missioners  to  determine  the  boundary  between 
New  York  and  Massachusetts,  and  was  em 
powered  with  his  colleague  to  convey  to  the 
United  States  the  large  tract  of  lands  beyond 
the  Alk-ghanies  belonging  to  his  state.  On 
Aug.  14,  1780,  Rufus  King  and  James  Monroe 


were  appointed  a  committee  on  behalf  of  the 
congress  to  wait  upon  the  legislature  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  explain  to  them  the  embarrass 
ments  of  the  finances  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  urge  the  prompt  repeal  by  that  state  of  the 
embarrassing  condition  upon  which  it  had  voted 
its  contingent  of  the  5  per  cent,  impost  levied 
by  the  congress  on  all  the  states.  The  speech 
of  Mr.  King  on  this  occasion,  though  no  notes 
of  it  remain,  is  commemorated  as  most  effec 
tive  and  brilliant.  On  May  25, 1787,  he  took 
his  seat  in  the  federal  convention.  The  jour 
nals  of  the  convention  and  the  fragments  of 
its  debates  which  have  come  down  to  us  attest 
the  active  participation  of  Mr.  King  in  the  im 
portant  business  before  them  ;  and,  although 
one  of  the  youngest  members  of  that  body,  he 
was  selected  as  one  of  the  committee  of  five 
to  which  it  was  finally  referred  to  "  revise  the 
style  of,  and  arrange  the  articles "  agreed  on 
for  the  new  constitution.  Having  signed  the 
constitution  as  finally  adopted,  Mr.  King  went 
back  to  Massachusetts,  and  was  immediately 
chosen  a  delegate  to  the  state  convention  which 
was  to  pass  upon  its  acceptance  or  rejection. 
Fierce  opposition  was  made  in  that  convention 
to  this  instrument,  Mr.  King  successfully  lead 
ing  the  array  in  defence.  In  1788  he  took  up 
his  permanent  residence  in  New  York,  where 
in  178G  he  had  married  Mary,  daughter  of  John 
Alsop  ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  elected 
a  representative  of  that  city  in  the  assembly 
|  of  the  state.  In  the  summer  of  the  same  year 
;  he  was  chosen  by  the  legislature  the  first  sena- 
!  tor  from  the  state  of  New  York  under  the  new 
constitution,  having  'for  his  colleague  Gen. 
Schuyler.  In  this  body  he  took  rank  among 
the  leaders  of  the  federal  party.  In  the  bitter 
confiict  aroused  by  Jay's  treaty  he  was  con 
spicuous  in  its  defence,  both  in  the  senate  and 
as  the  joint  author  with  Alexander  Hamilton 
of  a  series  of  newspaper  essays,  under  the  sig 
nature  of  Camillus.  In  1^95  he  was  reflected 
to  the  senate,  and  while  serving  his  second 
term  was  nominated  by  Washington  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  Great  Britain,  having  pre- 
I  viously  declined  the  office  of  secretary  of  state, 
I  made  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  Edmund 
I  Randolph.  He  embarked  with  his  family  at 
New  York  in  July,  179(5,  and  for  eight  years 
ably  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  office.  No  for 
eign  minister  was  probably  more  sagacious  in 
ascertaining  or  divining  the  views  and  policy 
of  nations,  or  more  careful  in  keeping  his  own 
government  well  informed  on  all  the  public 
questions  of  the  day.  His  diplomatic  corre 
spondence  is  a  model  both  in  style  and  in  topics. 
The  federal  party  having  lost  its  ascendancy  in 
the  public  councils,  Mr.  King,  shortly  after  Mr. 
Jefferson's  accession,  asked  to  be  recalled.  He 
was  however  urged  by  the  president  to  remain, 
as  he  had  in  hand  important  negotiations.  The 
recurrence  of  war  in  Europe,  consequent  upon 
the  rupture  of  the  peace  of  Amiens,  leaving 
little  hope  of  success  on  the  point  to  which  his 
efforts  had  been  chiefiy  directed,  that  of  se- 


836 


KING 


curing  our  seamen  against  impressment,  he  re 
newed  his  request  to  he  relieved ;  and  accord 
ingly  a  successor  was  appointed,  and  Mr.  King 
returned  to  his  country  in  1804,  and  withdrew 
to  a  farm  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.  In  1813,  during  the 
war  with  Great  Britain,  he  took  his  seat  for 
the  third  time  as  United  States  senator.  Yield 
ing  no  blind  support  to  the  administration,  and 
offering  to  it  no  partisan  opposition,  he  yet 
was  ever  ready  to  strengthen  its  hands  against 
the  common  enemy.  When  the  capitol  at 
Washington  was  burned  by  the  British  forces, 
he  resisted  the  proposal  to  remove  the  seat  of 
government  to  the  interior,  and  rallied  the  na 
tion  to  defend  the  country  and  avenge  the  out 
rage.  His  speech  on  this  occasion  in  the  senate 
was  one  of  those  that  marked  him  as  a  great 
orator.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  applied 
himself  to  maturing  the  policy  which  should 
efface  its  evils  as  speedily  as  possible,  and  build 
up  permanent  prosperity.  To  a  bill,  however, 
for  a  United  States  bank  with  a  capital  of 
$50,000,000,  he  made  earnest  opposition.  He 
resisted  the  claim  of  Great  Britain  to  exclude 
us  from  the  commerce  of  the  West  India 
islands;  and  to  his  intelligent  exposition  of 
the  laws  of  navigation  and  of  the  mercantile 
interests  and  rights  of  the  United  States  we 
are  indebted  for  the  law  of  1818.  He  likewise 
early  discerned  the  danger  of  the  sales  on  credit 
of  the  public  lands,  and  by  his  bill  substituting 
cash  payments  and  a  fixed  but  reduced  price 
for  these  lands,  and  stipulating  a  remission  of 
interest  and  of  a  portion  of  the  principal  of 
the  debt  then  due  therefor,  he  averted  a  great 
political  peril,  and  gave  order  and  security  to 
the  receipts  from  the  sale  of  those  lands.  In 
1819  he  was  reflected  to  the  senate,  as  in  the 
previous  instance  by  a  legislature  of  adverse 
politics  to  his  own.  In  1816  he  had  been, 
without  his  knowledge,  named  as  the  candi 
date  of  the  federal  party  for  governor  of  New 
York.  He  reluctantly  accepted  the  nomina 
tion,  but  was  not  elected.  Shortly  afterward 
the  so-called  Missouri  question  began  to  agitate 
the  nation.  Mr.  King  was  pledged  against 
the  extension  of  slavery ;  and  when  therefore 
Missouri  presented  herself  for  admission  as  a 
state  with  a  constitution  authorizing  the  hold 
ing  of  slaves,  he  was  inexorably  opposed  to 
it.  The  state  of  New  York,  by  an  almost 
unanimous  vote  of  its  legislature,  instructed 
him  to  resist  the  admission  of  Missouri  as 
a  slave  state ;  and  the  argument  made  by 
Mr.  King  in  the  senate,  though  but  partially 
reported,  has  been  the  repertory  for  almost  all 
subsequent  arguments  against  the  extension  of 
slavery.  He  also  opposed  the  compromise  in 
troduced  by  Mr.  Clay,  which  partially  yielded 
the  principle,  and  voted  to  the  last  against  it. 
His  fourth  term  in  the  senate  expired  in  March, 
1825,  when  he  took  leave  of  that  body,  and  as 
he  hoped  of  public  life,  in  which  for  40  years 
he  had  been  engaged.  One  of  his  latest  acts 
was  to  present  a  resolution,  Feb.  16,  1825  : 
"That  as  soon  as  the  portion  of  the  existing 


funded  debt  of  the  United  States  for  the  pay 
ment  of  which  the  public  land  of  the  United 
States  is  pledged  shall  have  been  paid  off,  then 
and  thenceforth  the  whole  of  the  public  land 
of  the  United  States,  with  the  net  proceeds  of 
all  future  sales  thereof,  shall  constitute  and 
form  a  fund  which  is  hereby  appropriated,  and 
the  faith  of  the  United  States  is  pledged  that 
the  said  fund  shall  be  inviolably  applied,  to 
aid  the  emancipation  of  such  slaves  within 
any  of  the  United  States,  and  to  aid  the 
removal  of  such  slaves  and  the  removal  of 
such  free  persons  of  color  in  any  of  the  said 
states,  as  by  the  laws  of  the  states  respec 
tively  may  be  allowed  to  be  emancipated  or 
removed  to  any  territory  or  country  without 
the  limits  of  the  United  States  of  America." 
The  resolution  was  read,  and,  on  motion  of 
Mr.  Benton  of  Missouri,  ordered  to  be  printed. 
John  Q.  Adams,  now  become  president,  urged 
Mr.  King  to  accept  the  embassy  to  England, 
with  which  country  unadjusted  questions  of 
moment  were  pending,  and  which  the  president 
believed  Mr.  King  was  specially  qualified  to 
manage.  He  reluctantly  accepted  the  mission ; 
but  his  health  gave  way,  and  after  a  few  months 
spent  in  England,  where  he  was  warmly  wel 
comed,  he  resigned  and  came  home. — His  son 
JOHN  ALSOP,  born  in  New  York,  Jan.  3,  1788, 
was  several  times  elected  to  the  state  legisla 
ture,  was  a  member  of  congress  in  1849-'51, 
and  governor  of  the  state  in  1857-'9.  He  was 
for  many  years  president  of  the  state  agricul 
tural  society,  and  died  in  Jamaica,  Long  Island, 
July  8,  1867. — His  second  son,  CHAELES,  born 
in  March,  1789,  was  for  some  time  a  merchant, 
member  of  the  legislature  in  1813,  from  1823 
to  1845  editor  of  the  "New  York  American," 
afterward  associate  editor  of  the  "  Courier  and 
Enquirer,"  and  from  1849  to  1864  president  of 
Columbia  college.  He  died  in  Frascati,  Italy, 
Sept.  27,  1867.  He  was  the  author  of  a  "  Me 
moir  of  the  Croton  Aqueduct "  (1843),  "  His 
tory  of  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce," 
"New  York  Fifty  Years  Ago,"  and  other  his 
torical  pamphlets. 

KING,  Thomas  Starr,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  New  York,  Dec.  16,  1824,  died  in  San 
Francisco,  March  4,  1864.  He  was  preparing 
to  enter  Harvard  college  when  the  sudden  death 
of  his  father  left  the  family  in  a  measure  de 
pendent  upon  him,  and  from  the  age  of  12  to 
20  he  was  employed  either  as  a  clerk  or  school 
master,  devoting  his  leisure  hours  to  theologi 
cal  studies.  In  September,  1845,  he  preached 
for  the  first  time  in  the  town  of  Woburn,  and 
in  1846  he  was  settled  over  his  father's  former 
parish  in  Charlcstown,  whence  he  was  called 
in  1848  to  the  Unitarian  church  in  Hollis  street, 
Boston,  with  which  he  remained  connected 
until  the  early  part  of  1860.  In  April  of  the 
latter  year  he  sailed  for  San  Francisco,  to  take 
charge  of  the  Unitarian  congregation  in  that 
city.  Apart  from  his  labors  in  the  pulpit,  he 
acquired  an  extended  reputation  as  a  lecturer, 
and  for  15  years  addressed  large  audiences  every 


KING 


KING  BIRD 


83T 


winter  in  nearly  all  the  northern  states.  When 
California  seemed  in  danger  of  seceding,  he 
travelled  over  the  state,  speaking  enthusiasti 
cally  in  favor  of  the  Union ;  and  her  loyalty 
is  largely  attributed  to  his  eloquence.  lie  also 
labored  earnestly  and  effectively  in  behalf  of 
the  sanitary  commission.  lie  published  u  The 
White  Hills,  their  Legends,  Landscape,  and 
Poetry"  (4to,  illustrated,  1859),  and  a  number 
of  articles  in  reviews,  pamphlets,  and  sermons. 
A  volume  of  his  writings,  entitled  "Patriotism 
and  other  Papers,"  was  published  in  1864,  and 
Richard  Frothingham  wrote  UA  Tribute  to 
Thomas  Starr  King"  (Boston,  1864). 

RING,  William,  an  Irish  bishop,  born  in 
Antrim  in  1650,  died  in  Dublin,  May  8,  1729. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  and  or 
dained  in  1674.  In  1688  he  became  dean  of 
St.  Patrick's,  but  having  taken  a  prominent 
part  in  the  controversies  of  the  time,  and  in 
opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  government,  he 
was,  after  the  revolution  and  the  landing  of 
James  II.  in  Ireland  in  1689,  imprisoned  in 
Dublin  castle.  On  the  departure  of  James  he 
was  liberated  and  restored  to  his  deanery.  In 
1691  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Derry,  and 
in  1702  became  archbishop  of  Dublin.  lie  was 
the  author  of  many  theological  and  controver 
sial  works,  the  most  important  of  which  is  his 
treatise  De  Origine  Mali  (1702),  which  pro 
voked  attacks  from  several  formidable  antago 
nists,  among  whom  were  Leibnitz  and  Bayle. 

KING,  William  Rufiis,  an  American  statesman, 
13th  vice  president  of  the  United  States,  born 
in  Sampson  co.,  N.  C.,  April  6,  1786,  died  in 
Dallas  co.,  Ala.,  April  17,  1853.  He  entered 
the  university  of  North  Carolina  at  the  age  of 
12,  graduated  in  1803,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1806.  He  was  elected  to  the  legis 
lature  in  1806,  and  was  reflected  in  1807;  but 
at  the  meeting  of  the  legislature  he  was  ap 
pointed  state  solicitor  for  the  Wilmington  cir 
cuit,  which  office  he  held  for  two  years,  when 
he  resigned.  In  1809  he  was  again  elected  to 
the  legislature.  In  1810  he  was  elected  to  con 
gress,  and  was  twice  reflected.  In  congress 
he  united  himself  with  Clay,  Calhoun,  and 
others,  who  advocated  the  war  policy  of  Mr. 
Madison's  administration,  and  voted  for  the 
declaration  of  war  in  Tune,  1812.  In  the 
spring  of  1816  lie  resigned  his  seat  to  become 
secretary  of  legation  to  Naples  under  William 
Pinckney,  whom  he  accompanied  in  the  same 
capacity  to  St.  Petersburg.  In  the  autumn  of 
1818  he  returned  home,  and  removed  to  Dallas 
co.,  Ala.,  where  he  continued  to  reside  until 
his  death.  In  1819  he  was  elected  to  the  con 
vention  to  form  a  constitution  and  a  state 
government  for  Alabama,  and  was  chosen  one 
of  the  United  States  senators  from  the  new 
state,  drawing  the  short  term  of  four  years. 
He  was  successively  reflected  in  182:5,  1828, 
1834,  and  1840.  During  all  this  time  he  acted 
uniformly  with  the  democratic  party.  In 
April,  1844,  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Tyler  minister  to  France.  The  proposition  for 


the  annexation  of  Texas  was  then  pending,  and 
Mr.  King  successfully  exerted  himself  to  pre 
vent  a  joint  protest  of  France  and  England 
against  it.  He  returned  to  the  United  States 
in  November,  1846.  In  1848  he  was  again 
elected  United  States  senator  to  till  a  vacancy, 
and  in  1849  for  a  full  term.  In  1850,  on  the 
accession  of  \rice  President  Fillniore  to  the 
presidency  after  the  death  of  Gen.  Taylor,  Mr. 
King  was  unanimously  elected  president  of  the 
senate.  In  1852  he  was  elected  vice  president 
of  the  United  States,  at  the  time  Franklin 
Pierce  was  elected  president.  In  January, 
1853,  he  went  to  Cuba  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health,  and  by  a  special  act  of  congress  the 
oath  of  office  as  vice  president  was  adminis 
tered  to  him  by  the  American  consul  general 
at  Havana.  In  April  he  returned  home. 

KL\G  AND  QUEEN,  an  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  Mattapony  and  York  rivers, 
and  E.  by  the  Piankatank ;  area,  335  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  "1870,  9,709,  of  whom  5,488  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  moderately  uneven. 
The  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  but  may  be  im 
proved  by  the  application  of  marl,  of  which 
the  county  contains  large  quantities.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  28,172  bushels 
of  wheat,  204,906  of  Indian  corn,  19,771  of 
oats,  and  30,733  Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were 
770  horses,  1,600  milch  cows,  1,289  working 
oxen,  1,830  other  cattle,  2,036  sheep,  and  5,754 
swine.  Capital,  Kintr  and  Queen  Court  House. 

KING  AT  ARMS.     See  HEEALDKY. 

KING  BIRD,  an  American  flycatcher  of  the 
genus  tyrannus  (Cuv.),  and  species  T.  Caroli- 
nensis  (Baird)  or  T.  intrcpidus  (Vieill.);  other 
names  given  to  it  are  tyrant  flycatcher  and  bee 
martin.  This  bird  is  8£  in.  long,  with  an  ex 
tent  of  wings  of  14£ ;  the  bill  is  stout,  shorter 
than  the  head ;  the  wings  long  and  pointed, 


Kin?  Bird  tTyranjins  Caroliiiensis). 

the  outer  primaries  abruptly  attenuated  near 
the  end ;  tail  shorter  than  the  wings,  slightly 
rounded;  on  the  crown  a  concealed  patch  of 
vermilion  feathers  edged  with  white  and  or 
ange,  capable  of  erection  as  a  crest.  The  color 
above  is  dark  bluish  ash ;  below  white,  tinged 


838 


KING   CRAB 


KING  FISH 


with  bluish  ash  on  the  sides  of  the  throat  and 
across  the  breast ;  the  wings  dark  brown,  the 
creator  coverts  and  quills  edged  with  white ; 
tail  broadly  margined  and  tipped  with  white. 
It  is  found  throughout  eastern  North  America 
to  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  in  Washington 
territory.  According  to  Audubon,  the  king 
bird  arrives  in  Louisiana  from  the  south  about 
the  middle  of  March ;  it  proceeds  gradually  to 
the  north,  going  back  about  the  last  of  August. 
It  prefers  orchards,  fields  of  clover,  and  the  vi 
cinity  of  houses,  being  seldom  found  in  woods ; 
the  flight  is  rapid,  performed  by  alternate  flap 
pings  and  sailings,  much  in  the  manner  of  our 
robin.  The  intrepidity  of  the  king  bird  is  re 
markable,  as  it  does  not  hesitate  to  attack  the 
crow,  vultures,  hawks,  eagles,  and  even  cats 
and  other  animals  approaching  the  nest,  plung 
ing  upon  their  backs  and  striking  with  the  bill ; 
it  is  the  farmer's  friend  in  protecting  eggs  from 
the  crow  and  chickens  from  the  hawk,  and  in 
devouring  noxious  insects ;  and  yet  on  account 
of  its  eating  a  few  bees,  raspberries,  and  figs, 
it  is  very  generally  persecuted.  The  nest  is 
made  in  trees,  and  the  eggs,  four  to  six,  are 
reddish  white  with  irregular  spots  of  brown. 
The  notes  are  tremulous  and  sharp,  and  uttered 
continuously  during  flight.  Many  are  shot  in 
the  southern  states,  where  their  flesh  is  con 
sidered  a  delicacy. 

RING  CRAB,  or  Horse-shoe  Crab,  a  common 
name  for  the  limuloid  group  of  the  entomos- 
tracan  order  of  crustaceans,  from  their  large 
size  and  peculiar  form.  This  order  is  the  lowest 
of  the  class,  as  the  segments  and  feet  are  fewer 
than  in  the  other  orders.  In  the  genus  limulus 
(xiphosura,  Milne-Edwards),  the  tail  is  reduced 
to  a  mere  spine,  and  the  bases  of  the  first  six 
pairs  of  legs,  being  rough  with  points,  perform 


King  Crab — 1.  Lower  $urlaco.    '2.  Upper  surface. 

the  functions  of  jaws,  their  free  extremities 
ending  in  nipping  claws.  The  whole  upper 
surface  is  protected  by  a  kind  of  buckler,  made 
up  of  an  anterior  semicircular  shield,  and  a 
posterior  hexagonal  plate,  to  the  hinder  margin 
of  which  is  jointed  the  long  sharp  spine  of  the 


tail ;  the  branchial  appendages  are  on  the  un 
der  surface  of  the  posterior  plate.  The  Molucca 
king  crab  attains  a  size  of  2  to  3  ft.,  and  both 
eggs  and  flesh  are  eaten  by  the  Malays;  the 
spine  attached  to  a  spear  makes  a  formidable 
weapon.  Our  common  species  (limulus  poly- 
phemus)  also  grows  very  large  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  middle  states,  and  is  of  a  blackish 
brown  color ;  its  flesh  is  sometimes  given  to 
pigs  and  poultry,  but,  while  it  fattens  them, 
imparts  a  bad  flavor  to  their  meat ;  on  the 
New  England  coast  the  size  is  small,  and  their 
delicate  yellowish  cast-off  shells  are  frequently 
thrown  upon  the  beaches.  The  legs  are  feeble, 
and  the  use  of  the  tail  seems  to  be  to  enable 
it  to  turn  over  by  a  kind  of  spring,  should  its 
wide  flat  body  be  thrown  by  the  waves  upon 
its  back ;  the  anterior  limbs  in  the  male  are 
short,  stout,  and  swelled,  with  nippers  for  hold 
ing  the  female.  The  eggs,  fertilized  in  sum 
mer  as  they  are  extruded,  are  placed  in  a  hole 
excavated  in  the  sand  on  the  edge  of  high  tide, 
the  sand  at  once  covering  them ;  their  hatch 
ing  is  thus  aided  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  until 
the  tide  rises  again.  The  eggs  of  the  king 
crabs  are  very  tenacious  of  life.  The  extinct 
eurypteridw  are  closely  allied,  and  some,  as 
ptcrygotus,  attained  a  length  of  6  ft.  Dr.  Pack 
ard,  in  the  "Memoirs  and  Proceedings  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,"  1870-'72, 
and  "  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,"  1870,  has 
shown  that  the  larva,  which  hatches  in  about 
six  weeks,  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
trilobites ;  he  therefore  regards  the  pceciloptera, 
or  the  king  crab  and  its  allies,  as  a  subdivision 
of  the  branchiopods.  Prof.  Van  Beneden,  on 
the  contrary  (1872),  thinks  that  the  king  crabs 
are  not  crustaceans,  having  none  of  their  char 
acteristic  phases  of  development,  but  show  the 
closest  resemblance  to  scorpions  and  other 
arachnids;  and  that  trilobites,  eurypteridm and 
pwcilopodd,  must  form  with  the  arachnids  a 
distinct  division.  Considering  the  palaeozoic 
trilobites  as  the  lowest,  the  next  series  in  time 
and  in  rank  would  be  such  forms  as  eurypterm 
and  pterygotus,  the  limulus  or  king  crab  being 
the  highest,  and  beginning  to  appear  as  the 
trilobites  were  dying  out ;  some  forms  of  trilo 
bites  had  a  spiny  tail  like  limulus. 

RING  FISH,  the  common  name  of  the  perch- 
like,  scirenoid  fishes  of  the  genus  unibrina,  es 
pecially  the  U.  nebulosa  (Storer)  or  U.  alburnus 
(De  Kay),  the  former  being  regarded  by  Storer 
as  the  northern  and  the  latter  as  the  southern 
species.  It  is  of  a  dull  gray  color,  with  silvery 
reflections  on  the  sides  and  irregular  dark  bars, 
one  broad,  one  extending  straight  backward 
from  the  end  of  the  pectorals  to  the  tail ;  be 
neath,  yellowish  ;  extremities  of  first  dorsal, 
pectorals,  and  ventrals  white,  rays  black,  sec 
ond  dorsal  and  base  pectorals  and  ventrals 
yellowish.  Body  elongated,  snout  blunt,  lips 
fleshy,  jaws  with  numerous  small  card-like 
teeth ;  small  fleshy  cirrhus  under  chin ;  length 
16  to  17  in. ;  weight  1  to  2  Ibs.  It  is  a  deep 


KINGFISIIEK 


839 


swimmer  and  a  good  table  fish,  and  is  often 
called  whiting.     It  is  rare  on  the  New  Eng- 


King  Fish  (Uinbrina  ncbulosa). 

land  coast,  but  common  in  the  waters  of  the 
middle  states. 

KINGFISHER,  an  extensive  family  of  birds, 
with  a  lengthened,  generally  straight  bill,  broad 
at  the  base  with  acute  tip,  rounded  wings,  short 
tail,  strong  and  short  tarsi.  The  family  in 
cludes,  according  to  Gray,  the  subfamilies  l>uc- 
coninae  or  puff  birds  of  tropical  America ;  the 
galbulincB  or  jacamars,  also  South  American, 
already  treated ;  lialcyonincB  or  kinghunters, 
belonging  to  the  old  world ;  and  the  alcedin  ince 
or  kingfishers,  distributed  the  world  over.  The 
subfamily  of  kingfishers  contains  the  genera 
alcedo  (Linn.),  alcyone  (Swains.),  and  ccryle 
(Boie),  with  a  long,  straight,  and  slender  bill, 
with  the  culmen  sloping  to  the  acute  tip.  In 
alcedo  the  wings  are  short,  with  the  first  quill 
nearly  as  long  as  the  second  and  third,  which 
are  equal  and  longest ;  tail  short,  broad,  and 
rounded ;  tarsi  very  short  and  robust ;  toes 
unequal,  the  middle  one  longest,  and  the  inner 
one  short ;  the  claws  short  and  curved.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  most  parts 
of  the  old  world,  where  they  frequent  fresh 
water  rivers  and  lakes,  perching  solitary  on 
an  overhanging  branch,  or  skimming  near  the 
surface  in  pursuit  of  their  fish  prey ;  they 


as  it  rises  to  the  surface ;  they  catch  the  fish 
with  the  bill,  and  swallow  it  whole,  head  fore 
most,  unless  it  be  too  large,  in  which  case  they 
1  beat  it  to  pieces  and  swallow  the  separate 
I  fragments.  The  nest  is  made  at  the  end  of 
a  long  gallery  which  they  excavate  in  the 
sandy  or  clayey  banks  of  rivers  by  their  bill 
and  feet,  and  the  eggs,  six  or  seven  in  number, 
i  arc  placed  on  ejected  pellets  of  fish  bones. 
The  common  kingfisher  of  Europe  (A.  ispida, 
Linn.)  is  about  7  in.  long,  with  a  long  sharp 
bill,  stout  body,  and  short  wings;  it  possesses 
many  of  the  brilliant  colors  of  tropical  birds, 
the  upper  back  being  dark  green,  the  lower 
back  and  rump  bright  blue ;  the  upper  part  of 
the  head,  wing  coverts,  and  stripe  on  each 
side  of  neck,  green  with  numerous  light  blue 
spots;  throat  and  neck  stripe  yellowish  white, 
and  lower  parts  pale  chestnut.  The  eggs 
are  pinkish  white,  and  are  placed  in  holes  in 
river  banks.  The  bird  is  the  halcyon  of  the 
ancients,  from  whose  period  and  habits  of 
incubation  arose  the  term  "halcyon  days." 


European  Kingfisher  (Alcedo  ispidu). 

sometimes  plunge  from  a  branch,  and  at  others 


Belted  Kingfisher  (Ccryle  nlcyon). 

Some  of  the  older  writers  even  attributed  to 
the  kingfisher  the  power  of  arresting  the  vio 
lence  of  the  waves.     In  some  parts  of  Europe 
it  is  still  believed  that  the  breast  of  a  kingfisher 
suspended  by  the  bill  will  always  be  turned  to 
the  north,  that  when  accurately  balanced  the  bill 
will  point  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  even 
within  doors,  and  that  its  head  and  feathers 
protect  against  witches  and  storms  at  sea,  and 
are  a  sure  means  of  securing  the  affections  of 
i  a  loved  object.     The  flight  is  direct  and  rapid, 
I  and  its  note  sharp  and  piercing  and  emitted  on 
|  the  wing.     The  genus  alcyone  (Swains.)  has  no 
j  inner  toe ;  its  few  species  are  found  in  Aus- 
i  tralia  and  the  Indian  archipelago;  their  habits 
I  are  the  same  as  in  the  preceding. — The  com 
mon  kingfisher  of  this  country  belongs  to  the 
i  genus   ccryle   (Boie);    this   comprises   several 
'  species,  many  of  which  are  found  in   Africa 
and  India;  the  tail  is  long  and  rounded,  the 
tarsi   uncommonly  short   and   stout,  and   the 
inner  toe  much  longer  than  the  hinder.     The 


flutter  over  a  spot,  suddenly  pouncing  on  a  fish  j  belted  kingfisher  (6'.  alcyon,    Boie)  is   found 


84.0 


KINGFISHER 


KINGLAKE 


throughout  North  America ;  the  length  is  about 
13  in.  and  the  extent  of  wings  22 ;  the  head 
has  a  long  crest ;  the  color  is  blue  above,  with 
out  metallic  lustre ;  a  concealed  band  across 
the  back  of  the  head,  a-  spot  before  the  eye, 
and  the  lower  parts  white ;  a  band  across  the 
breast,  and  the  sides  under  the  wings,  blue  like 
the  back ;  primaries  white  on  the  basal  half ; 
tail  transversely  banded  and  spotted  with  white. 
In  the  young  birds  there  is  a  light  chestnut 
band  on  the  breast  below  the  blue  one,  which 
last  is  more  or  less  tinged  with  chestnut.  Speci 
mens  from  the  Pacific  coast  are  considerably 
the  largest.  It  is  a  constant  resident  in  the 
southern  states ;  its  flight  is  rapid,  and  it  often 
suddenly  stops  like  a  sparrow  hawk  and  hovers 
over  the  water,  dashing  headlong  after  its  prey, 
which  it  carries  to  the  nearest  stump  or  tree 
and  swallows  instantly.  It  follows  the  course 
of  rivers  even  to  the  cascades  of  their  sources, 
and  its  presence  near  a  stream  is  good  evidence 
to  the  angler  that  fish  are  there  abundant ;  it 
is  fond  of  resorting  to  mill  ponds,  where  the 
stillness  of  the  water  enables.it  easily  to  de 
tect  its  prey.  Its  notes  are  very  sharp,  rapid, 
and  rattling.  The  nests  are  made  in  holes  dug 
to  the  horizontal  depth  of  from  4  to  6  ft.  in 
a  bank,  the  entrance  being  just  large  enough 
to  admit  a  bird,  and  the  end  rounded  like  an 
oven;  the  eggs  are  generally  six,  and  pure 
white,  and  incubation  lasts  about  16  days,  be 
ing  performed  by  both  parents ;  the  eggs  are 
considered  good  eating,  though  the  flesh  of  the 
bird  is  fishy  and  tough.  According  to  Audu- 
bon,  this  bird  occasionally  plunges  into  the  sea 
after  small  fry. — The  subfamily  of  halcyonince 
or  kinghunters  have  the  aspect  and  general 
habits  of  kingfishers,  from  which  they  differ 
principally  in  the  broader  and  stouter  bill. 
The  genus  dacelo  (Leach)  is  found  in  Austra 
lia  and  Papua;  the  species  are  not  shy,  and 
one,  the  D.  gigas  (Bodd.),  is  18  in.  long;  they 
go  into  the  woods,  and  feed  indiscriminate 
ly  on  any  animals  of  suitable  size,  whether 
quadruped,  bird,  reptile,  fish,  insect,  or  crus 
tacean  ;  the  colors  are  handsome,  and  the  flight 
quick  and  noiseless ;  their  powerful  bills  ren 
der  them  formidable,  and  they  can  successful 
ly  resist  the  smaller  birds  of  prey ;  some  of  the 
species  have  a  peculiar  screaming  laugh  at 
sunrise  and  sunset,  which  has  caused  the  name 
of  "  laughing  jackass"  to  be  given  to  them  in 
Australia.  The  genus  halcyon  (Swains.),  with 
about  50  species,  inhabits  Africa,  Australia, 
India  and  its  archipelago,  and  the  South  sea 
islands ;  some  of  these  birds  are  very  hand 
some,  green  and  blue  predominating ;  they 
build  their  nest  in  the  hollow  trunks  of  trees. 


KWG  GEORGE,  an  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the  Potomac  river  and  S. 
by  the  Rappahannock ;  area,  176  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  5,472,  of  whom  2,812  were  colored. 
The  surface  and  soil  are  both  diversified.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  34,463  bushels 
of  wheat,  144,807  of  Indian  corn,  11,652  of 
oats,  and  29,322  Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were 
843  horses,  2,706  cattle,  and  2,440  swine. 
Capital,  King  George  Court  House. 

KIXGLAKE.  I.  Alexander  William,  an  English 
author,  born  in  Taunton  in  1802.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  college,  Cam 
bridge,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1837,  and  in 
a  few  years  acquired  an  extensive  chancery 
practice  in  London.  Not  long  after  his  ad 
mission  to  the  bar  he  made  an  extensive  tour 
in  the  East,  of  which  he  wrote  home  many 
graphic  descriptions.  Upon  his  return  to  Eng 
land  he  was  induced  to  revise  his  letters  for 
publication ;  but  having  attempted  in  vain  to 
find  a  publisher,  lie  threw  the  manuscript  aside, 
and  for  some  years  thought  no  more  upon  the 
subject.  Happening  one  day  to  be  conversing 
with  a  publisher  on  the  recent  appearance  of 
a  book  of  travels,  he  offered  to  give  him  his 
manuscript  if  he  would  print  it.  The  offer 
was  accepted,  and  the  work,  published  under 
the  title  of  "Eothen"  (1844),  was  universally 
pronounced  one  of  the  freshest  and  most  enter 
taining  books  of  travel  of  the  day.  In  1857 
he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  the  borough 
of  Bridgewater,  and  in  1860  took  an  active 
part  in  denouncing  the  annexation  of  Nice  to 
the  French  empire.  In  1868  he  was  again 
returned  for  Bridgewater,  but  was  unseated  on 
petition.  After  "Eothen"  he  published  noth 
ing,  except  an  article  in  the  "Quarterly  Re 
view  "  on  the  political  uses  of  the  Mediterra 
nean,  till  1863,  when  the  first  two  volumes  of 
his  history  of  "The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea" 
appeared ;  two  more  volumes  were  published 
in  1868,  and  a  fifth  in  1874,  bringing  the  his 
tory  down  to  and  including  the  battle  of  Inker- 
man,  the  work  being  still  unfinished.  II.  John 
Alexander,  an  English  lawyer,  cousin  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Taunton  in  1805.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1830,  made  a  sergeant  at  law  in  1844,  and 
at  the  same  time  appointed  recorder  of  Exeter, 
and  in  1856  of  Bristol.  For  many  years,  up 
to  1870,  he  was  a  member  of  parliament  for 
Rochester,  and  an  extreme  liberal  in  politics, 
being  in  favor  of  the  vote  by  ballot,  the  aboli 
tion  of  church  rates,  and  other  popular  mea 
sures,  lie  has  contributed  articles  to  the  re 
views,  and  the  authorship  of  "Eothen"  has 
frequently  been  erroneously  attributed  to  him. 


END    OF    VOLUME    NINTH. 


CONTENTS    OF  VOLUME  IX. 


PAGE 

Hortensius.  Quintus 5 

Horticulture 5 

Hortus  Siccus.    See  Herbarium. 

Horns 6 

Horviith.  Mihaly 6 

Hosack,  David 6 

Hosanna 7 

Hosea 7 

Hosmer,  Harriet  G 7 

Hospital 7 

Hospitallers.      See      Saint     John, 

Kniirhts  of. 

Hotbed 7 

Hotho,  Heinrich  Gustav 8 

Hot  Springs  co 8 

Hot  Springs 8 

Hottentots 9 

Hottentots'    Bread.      See    Tortoise 

Plant. 

Ilottinger,  Johann  Ileinrich . . .  .• 9 

Ilottinger,  Johann  Jakob  (two) 9 

Houdetot.  Elisabeth  Francois  Sophie 

d\  Countess 9 

Houdin,  Robert 10 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine 10 

Houghton  co 10 

Houghton,  Richard  Monckton  Milnes, 

Lord 10 

Houtrhton,  William 11 

Hound 11 

Hounslow 12 

Hour 12 

Hour  Circles 12 

Houris 12 

Hours,  in  mythology.     See  Hora?. 

Housatonic 12 

Houseleek 12 

Houssa 13 

Houssaye,  Arsene 14 

Houssaye,  Henry 14 

Houston  co.,  Ga 14 

Houston  co.,  Texas 14 


Houston  co.,  Tenn 
Houston  co.,  Minn 
Houston  ........................ 

Houston,  Sam  ................... 

Hoveden,  Roger  de  .............. 

Hovey.  Alvah  .................... 

Howard  co.,  Md  ................. 

Howard  co.,  Ark 


PAGE 

Howe,  Richard 21 

Howe,  William 21 

Howe,  Elias 21 

Howe,  John 21 

Howe,  Samuel  Gridley 22 

Howe.  Julia  Ward 22 

Howell  co 22 

Howell,  James 22 

Howells,  William  Dean 22 

Howitt,  William 22 

Howitt,  Mary  Botham 23 

Howitzer.     See  Artillery,  vol.  i.,  p. 
7(56. 

Howson,  John  Saul 23 

Howth,  Hill  of. 23 


Hoxtc 


Iloyle.  Edmund 

Hrabanus  Maurus.     See  Rabanus. 

Huaca 

Huallaga 

Huamanga.    See  Ayacucho. 

Huancavelica 

Huanta 

Huanuco 

Huaraz 

Huastecas.    See  Quetzalcoatl. 

Hubbard,  William 

Hubbardton 

Huber,  Francois 

Huber,  Pierre 

Huber,  Jean  Rodolphe 

Huber,  Johanu  Nepomuk 

Huber,  Marie. 

Huber,  Michael 

Huber,  Ludwig  Ferdinand 

Huber,  Therese 

Huber.  Victor  Aim6. . . 


Howard  co..  Ind  ...................   17 


Howard  co.,  Iowa  ..................  18 

Howard  co.,  Mo  ...................  18 

Howard  co.,  Kansas  ................  18 

Howard  co.,  Neb  ..................  18 

Howard  co.,  Dak  ...................   18 

Howard,  Charles,  Lord  .............   18 

Howard,  Henry,  Earl  of  Surrey.    See 

Surrey. 
Howard,  John  .....................  18 

Howard,  John  Eager  ...............  I'.t 

Howard.  Oliver  Otis  ...............  20 

Howard.  Thomas  ..................  20 

Howard,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Arundel. 

See  Arundel. 
Howard  University  ................   20 

Howe.  George  Augustus  ...........  21 


Hi'ibner,  Karl 

Hiibner,  Rudolf  Julius  Benno 

Hue,  Evaristc  Regis 

Huckleberry.    See  Whortleberry. 

Huddersfleld 

Hudson  co 

Hudson,  N.  Y 

Hudson,  Ohio 

Hudson.  Henry 

Hudson,  Henry  Norman 

Hudson,  Jeflery.    See  Dwarf. 

Hudson  Bay 

Hudson  Bay  Territory.     See  North 

west  Territories. 

Hudson  River 

Hudson  Strait 

Hue 

Huelva 

Huerfano  co , 

Huesca 

Huet,  Pierre  Daniel 

Hufcland.  Christoph  Wilhelm 

Huge),  Karl  Alexander  Anselm,  Ba 

ron  ... 


..  29 


PAGE 

Hughes,  John 33 

Hughes,  Thomas 34 

Hughs  co 34 

Hugo,  Gustav 34 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie 35 

Hugo,  Charles  Victor 36 

Hugo,  Francois  Victor 36 

Hugo,  Jules  Abel 30 

Huguenots 3fi 

Hulin,  Pierre  Augustin,  Count 38 

Hull 38 

Hull,  Isaac 30 

Hull,  William 40 

Hullah.  John 40 

Hultsch.  Friedrich  Otto 40 

Humber 40 

Humboldt  co.,  Iowa 40 

Humboldt  co.,  Cal 40 

Humboldt  co.,  Nev 41 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alex 
ander  von.  Baron 41 

Humboldt,  KarlWilhelm  von.  Baron.  41 

Humboldt  River 47 

Hume.  David 47 

Hume,  Joseph 48 

Hummel,  Johann  Ncpomuk 49 

Humming  Bird 49 

Humphrey,  Heniau 51 

Humphreys  co 51 

Humphreys,  Andrew  Atkinson 51 

Humphreys,  David 52 

Humus 52 

Humuya 52 

Hundred 52 

Hunfalvy.  Pal 52 

Hunfalvy,  Janos 53 

1 1  ungary 53 

Hungary,  Language  and  Literature 

of....". 62 

Hungary,  Wines  of 6t> 

Hunger 67 

Huns 67 

..   68 
...   68 
68 

..  69 

..  69 
. . .  69 
...  70 
...  70 

..  71 


Hutrer,  Isaac 

linger.  Francis  Kinlock 

Huger,  Benjamin 

Hutrtrins,  William 

Husrh  Capet 

Hughes,  Ball 


Hunt  co 
Hunt,  Henry 

Hunt.  James  Henry  Leigh 
Hunt,  Thornton 
Hunt,  Richard  Morris 
Hunt,  Thomas  Sterry 
Hunt,  William  Henry 
Hunt,  William  Holm'an 
Hunt,  William  Morris 

Hunter,  John 71 

Hunter.  Anne  Home 72 

Hunter,  Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro. .  .  72 

Hunter.  William 73 

llunterdon  co 74 

Huntingdon  co..  Pa 74 

Huntingdon  co..  Canada 74 

Huntingdon,  Selina,  Countess 74 

Huntingdonshire 75 

lluntington  co 75 

Huntingdon,  Daniel 75 

Huntimrton.  Jedidiah  Vincent 75 

Huntington.  Frederick  Dan 75 

lluntington,  Samuel 7»> 

Huntington.  William 76 

Huntsville.  Ala 76 


11 


CONTENTS 


Huntsville.  Texas 

Hunyady.  Junes 

Huppazoli,  Francesco 

Hurd,  Richard 


Hurdwar 

Hurlbert.  William  Henry 

Ilurlbut,  Stephen  Augustus 

Huron  co.,  Ohio 

Huron  co.,  Mich 

Huron  co.,  Canada 

Huron,  Lake 

Hurons 

Hurricane 

Hurst,  John  Fletcher 

Hurter,  Friedrich  Eiuanuel  von 

Husband  and  Wife 

Husbandry.  Patrons  of 

Husbands,  Herman 

Hush 

Huskisson,  William 

Huss,  John 

Hussars 

Hussites 

Hutcheson,  Francis 

Hutchinson  co 

Hutchiusou,  Anne 

Hutchinson.  John  (two) 

Hutchinson,  Thomas 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von 

Hutton,  Charles 

Hutton,  James 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry 

Huy 

Huygens,  Christian 

Hyacinth 

Hyacinthe,    Pere.      See    Loyson, 
Charles. 

Hyacinthus 

Hyades 

Hya-na 

IlVbla 

HVbi-id 

Hydaspes.     See  Jhylum,  and  Pun- 
jaub. 

Hydatids.     See   Entozoa,  vol.   vi., 
p.  666. 

Hydeco.,N.C 

Hyde  co.,  Dak 

Hyde,  Edward.    See  Clarendon. 

Hyde,  Thomas 

Hyde  de  Neuville,  Jean  Guillaume, 
Baron 

Hyderabad 

Hyder  Ali 

Hydra.     See  Hercules. 

Hydra,  an  island 

Hydrabad 

Hydrangea 

Hydrastis.    See  Puccoon. 

Hydrates 

Hydraulic  Ram 

Hydraulics.    See  Hydromechanics. 

Hydrocephalus.     See    Brain,    Dis 
eases  of  the,  vol.  iii..  p.  197. 

Hydrochloric  Acid. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid 

Hydrodynamics.      See    Hydrome 
chanics. 

Hydrofluoric  Acid.     See  Fluorine. 

Hydrogen 

Hydrography 

Hydroids 

Hydromechanics 

Hydrometer 

Hydropathy 

Hydrophobia 

Hydrostatics.     See   Hydromechan 
ics. 

Hydrosulphuric  Acid 

Hydruntum.    See  Otranto. 

Hydros 

Hygiea 

Hygiene 

Hygrometry 

Ilyksos.    See  Egypt,  vol.  vi.,  p.  400. 

Hylaeosaurus 

Hylas 

Hymen 

Hymenoptera 

Hymettus 

Hyoscyamus.    See  Henbane. 

Hypatia 


AGE    I  PAGE 

76  I  Hyperbola 134 

76  Hyperboreans 135 

76  Hyperides 1K5 

77  Hypertrophy 135 

77  Hyphasis.    See  Puniaub. 

77  Hypochondriasis 136 

77  Ilypophosphites 1^7 

78  Hyposulphates 137 

78  Hypothecation 138 

78  Hyrax 13S 


101) 

100 

too 

102 

102 


104 

. .   1U4 

. .  104 

104 
104 
105 

106 
106 
106 

1 07 
107 


108 

110 


111 
112 
114 
LI  5 
124 
1 25 
L26 


H  yrcania 138 

Hyrcanus,  John 138 

Hyrcanus  II 131) 

Hyrtl,  Joseph 13!) 

Hyssop 139 

Hysteria 139 

Hythe 140 


I 

lambliclms 

Ibarra 

Iberia 

Iberia  parish 

Iberus.    See  Ebro. 

Iberville  parish 

Iberville  co.,  Canada 

Iberville,  Pierre  le  Moyne,  Sieur  d1 . 

Ibex 

Ibicui 

Ibis 

Ibn  Batuta.     See  Batuta. 

Ibrahim  Pasha 

Ibraila.    See  Braila. 

Ibycus 

lea 

Icarus.    See  Daedalus. 

Ice 

Icebergs 

Iceland 

Iceland,  Language  and  Literature 

of. 

Iceland  Moss 

Ice  Plant 

Ichneumon 

Ichneumon  Fly 

Ichnology 

Ichthyology 

Ichthyosaurus  

Icolmkill.     See  lona. 
Iconium.    See  Konieh. 

Iconoclasts 

Ictinus 

Ida  co 

Ida  (two) 

Idaho 

Idaho  co 

Ideler,  Christian  Ludwig 

Ides 

Idiocy 

Idocrase 

Idria 

Iduma?a.    See  Edom. 
lesi.    See  Jesi. 

Iffland,  August  Wilhelm 

Iglau 

Iglesias 

Iglesias  de  la  Casa,  Josef 

Ignatius,  Saint,  Thepphorus 

Ignatius,  Saint,  patriarch 

Ignatius  Bean.    See  Strychnia. 
Ignis  Fatuus 


180 

ISO 
180 
ISO 
181 


188 
184 
184 
184 
184 

184 


Igualada 

Iguana 

Iguanodon  

Hire,  Johan 

Hi 

Iliad.     See  Homer. 
Iliniza,  Pyramids  of. 

Ilion 

Ilissus 


Ilium.     See  Troy. 

Iliyats 

Ilkeston 

Ille-ot-Vilainc 

Illinois,  Indians 

Illinois 

Illinois,  a  river 

Illuminati 

Illyria 


176 
177 
177 

177 

178 
173 
17!) 
179 
179 

170 
ISO 
180 

ISO 

ISO 

180 
180 
181 
193 
193 
193 


PAGE 

Ilopango 194 

Image  Worship.     See  Iconoclasts. 

Imbert,  Barthelemi 194 

Immaculate  Conception 194 

Immermann,  Karl  Lebrecht 196 

Immortelles 196 

Imola 197 

Imola,  Innocenzio  da 197 

Impeachment 197 

Imphee.     See  Sorghum. 

Inachus 198 

Incas.    See  Peru,  and  Quidma. 
Incense.     See  Frankincense. 

Incest 198 

Inchbald,  Elizabeth 198 

Incledon.  Benjamin  Charles 198 

Incunabula 198 

Independence  co 198 

Independence,  Texas 199 

Independence,  Iowa 199 

Independence,  Mo 199 

Independents 199 

Index  Librorum 199 

India 200 

India,  Races  and  Languages  of. 213 

India.  Religions  and  Religious  Lit 
erature  of 222 


Indiana 

Indiana  co. 


'231 
240 


Indianapolis 240 

Indian  Archipelago 242 

Indian  Bean.     See  Catalpa. 
Indian  Corn.    See  Maize. 
Indian  Cress.    See  Nasturtium. 

Indian  Cucumber 243 

Indian  Dye.     See  Puccoon. 
Indian  Fig.    See  Cactus. 

Indian  Hemp 243 

Indian  Languages,  American.  See 
American  Indians,  Languages  of 
the. 

Indian  Ocean 244 

Indianola 245 

Indian  Poke.     See  Hellebore. 
Indians,    See  American  Indians. 

Indian  Shot 245 

Indian  Territory 246 

Indian  Tobacco.     See  Lobelia. 
India  Rubber.    See  Caoutchouc. 

Indictment 243 

Indies,  East.     See  East  Indies,  and 

India. 

Indies,  West.  See  Antilles,  and 
West  Indies. 

Indigo 249 

Indigo  Bird 251 

Indium 251 

Indo-China 252 

Indo-Chinese  Races  and  Languages  252 
Indo-European    Races    and    Lan 
guages.     See    Aryan    Race    and 
Language,  and   Germanic  Races 
and  Languages. 

Indore 254 

Indorsement.  See  Exchange.  Prom 
issory  Note,  and  Negotiable  Pa 
per. 

Indre 254 

Indre-et-Loirc 255 

Indri.     See  Lemur. 

Indulgence 255 

Indus 257 

Industrial  Exhibitions 258 

Ines  de  Castro.    See  Castro,  Ines  de. 

Infallibility 202 

Infant 2C6 

Infante 268 

Infante,  Jose  Miguel 268 

Infantry 268 

Infant  Schools 273 

Inflammation 274 

Influenza.  See  Bronchitis,  vol.  iii., 
p.  312. 

Information 278 

Infusoria 278 

Ingbert 279 

Ingelow,  Jean 279 

Ingemann,  Bernhard  Severin 279 

Ingenhousz,  Johannes 279 

Ingermannland.     See  Ingrians. 

Ingersoll 279 

Ingersoll,  Jared 279 


CONTEXTS 


in 


2>2 

235 
2S5 
235 
235 
236 
286 
286 
287 


291 
2!»2 
292 
292 
2:>3 
296 
303 
309 
310 
310 
314 
314 
314 

320 
321 

321 
323 
324 
324 


PAGE 

Ingersoll,  Charles  .Tared 279 

Ingersoll,  Joseph  Reed 280 

Ingham  co 2bO 

Ingham,  Charles  C 280 

Inghirami,  Tommaso 280 

Ingleby,  Clement  Mauslield 230 

Ingolstadt 280 

Ingraham,  Duncan  Nathaniel 280 

Ingraham,  Joseph  II 280 

Ingres,  Jean  Dominique  Auguste..  281 

Ingrians 2?1 

Ingulphus 281 

Inhamban 281 

Injunction 

Ink 

Inkberry 

Inkerman 

Inman,  1  lenry 

Inn,  river 

Inn 

Inriess,  George 

Innkeeper 

Innocent,  Popes 

Inns  of  Court 

Innspruck 

Ino 

Inoculation 

Inowraclaw 

Inquisition 

Insanity 

Insect  Fertilization 

Insectivora 

Insectivorous  Plants 

Insects 

Insessores 

Insterburg 

Insurance 

Integral  Calculus.     See  Calculus. 

Interdict 

Interlakon 

Intermittent  Fever.     See  Fevers. 

International  Association 

Intestine 

Inverness  

Inverness  co , 

Inverness-shire 824 

Invertebrata 325 

Investiture 325 

Inyo  co 326 

lo 326 

Iodine 326 

lona 328 

Ionia 329 

Ionia  co 329 

Ionian  Islands 

loniuns 

Ionics 

losco  co 

Iowa 

Iowa  co.,  Wis 

Iowa  co.,  Iowa 

Iowa  City 

Iowa  River.     See  Iowa. 

lowas 341 

Ipecacuanha 342 

Iphicrates 343 

Iphigenia 343 

Ipsambul 343 

Ipsara 844 

Ipsus 344 

Ipswich,  Mass 344 

Ipswich.  Eng 345 

Ipswich,  Australia 345 

Irak-Ajemi 345 

Ink-Arabi 345 

Iran.    See  Persia 

Iranic  Races  and  Languages 846 

Iredell  co 343 

Iredell,  James  (two) 343 

Ireland 848 

Ireland,  Church  of 361 

Ireland,  Samuel 862 

Ireland,  William  Henry 362 

Irenjeus,  Saint 362 

Irene 363 

Ireton.  Henry 363 

Iriarte.     See  Yriarte. 

Iridium 363 

Iris 363  ' 

Iris,  in  botany 864  [ 

Irish  Moss.    See  Carrageen. 

Irish  Sea... 364 


PAGE 

Irkutsk 364 

Iron 365 

Iron  co.,  Mo 876 

Iron  co.,  Utah 376 

Iron-clad  Ships 376 

Iron  Manufacture 38:> 

Iron  Mask,  Man  in  the 

Iron  Mountain 

Iron  Ores 

Irons,  "William  Josiah 

Iron ton  

Iroquois  .    

Iroquois  co 


.vaddy, 


404 
404 
406 
411 
412 
412 
414 


Irrigation. 

Irvine 

Irvine,  "William 

Irving,  Edward 

Irving,  Theodore 

Irving,  Washington 

Irwin  co 

Isaac  

Isaac  I.,  Comnenus 

Isaac  II.,  Angelus 

Isabella  co 

Isabella  I 

Isabella  II 

Isabella  of  England.    See  Edward 

II.  and  III. 
Isabella  of  Valois.     See  Elizabeth  of 

Valois. 

Isabey,  Jean  Baptiste 

Isabey,  Eugene  Louis  Gabriel 

Isams" 

Isaiah 

Isanti  co 

Isar 

Isaure,  Clomence 

Isauria 

Ischia 

Ischl 

Iseghem 

Iseliu,  Henri  Frederic 

Isere  

Iserlohn 


414 
414 
416 
416 
417 
419 
419 
421 
421 
421 


424 
424 

42  i 
424 
42  I 
424 
425 
425 
425 
425 
425 


829 
330 
381 
332 
3:32 
341 
341 
341 


Isernia 

Ishmael 

Isidore  Mercator 

Isidorus  of  Charax 

Isidorus  of  Seville 

Isinglass 

Isis 

Isla.  Jose  Francisco  de 

Islam  . . . 


425 
126 
426 
426 
426 
426 
426 
426 
126 
127 
427 
128 


Italic  Races  and  Languages 

Italy 

Italy,  Language  and  Literature  of. 

Italy,  \Vines  of 

Itard,  Jean  Marie  Gaspard 

Itasca  co 

Itasca,  Lake  of 

Itawamba  co 

Itch 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Ithaca,  an  island 

Ittenbach,  Franz 

Iturbide,  Augustin  de.  Emperor  .. 
Itza,  Lake  of.     See  Peten. 

Itzaes 

Ivan,  Czars.    See  Kussia. 
IvanotF,  Alexander  Audreyevitch.. 

Ives,  Levi  Silliuiau 

Ivory  

Ivory,  James 

Ivory  Coast 

Ivrea  

Ivry-la-Batailk 


Ivry-sur-Seine 

Ivy 

Ixion 

IxtliLxochitl,  Fernando  de  Alva... 

Izabal 

Izalco,  a  volcano 

Izalco,  a  town 

Izard  co 

Izard,  Ralph 

Iztaccihuatl  . . 


PAGE 

.  488 

.  440 

.  455 

.  407 

.  469 

.  469 

.  469 

.  469 

.  4««J' 

.  471 

.  471 

.  471 

.  471 

.  473 

.  473 
.  473 
.  474 

.  475 
.  475 
.  476 
.  476 

.  476 
.  476 

.  477 
.  477 
.  473 
.  478 
.  473 
.  478 
.  473 
.  473 


J 

Jabirti 

Jablonski,  Paul  Ernst 

Jacamar 

Jacana  . . . 


Jachmann,  Eduard  Karl  Emanuel. 

Jack  co 

Jackal 

Jackdaw  

Jackson  co.,  Va 

Jackson  co.,  N.  C 

Jackson  co.,  Ga 

Jackson  co.,  Fla 

Jackson  co..  Ala 

Jackson  co..  Miss 

Jackson  parish.  La 

Jackson  co..  Texas. . . 


Island  co 423 

Islay 42S 

Isle'of  France.    See  Mauritius. 

Isle  of  Man.     See  Man. 

Isle  of  Pines.    See  Pines. 

Isle  of  Wight,  England.   See  Wight. 

Isle  of  Wight  co 428 

Isle  Royale 423 

Isles  of  Shoals 429 

Islington.     See  London. 
Ismaelians.     See  Assassins. 

Ismail 429 

Ismailia 429 

Ismail  Pasha 430 

Ismid 481 

Isnard,  Maximin 431 

Isocrates 431 

Isomerism 481 

Isometric  Projection 434 

Isomorphism 484 

Isopods >. . .  484 

Isothermal  Lines.     See  Climate. 

Ispahan 434 

Israel.     See  Jacob. 
Israelites.     See  Hebrews. 

Israels.  Josef 436 

Issaquena  co 436 

Issoire 436 

Issoudun  436 

Issue,  in  law 436 

Issue,  in  pleading 436 

Issus 437 

Istnpa 437 

Ister.    See  Danube. 

Isthmian  Games 437 

Istria 438 

Isturiz.  Francisco  Xavier  de 483 

Itacolumite  . .  . .  433 


Jackson  co.,  Ark 

Jackson  co.,  Tenn 

Jackson  co.,  Ky , 

Jackson  co.,  Ohio 

Jackson  co.,  Ind 

Jackson  co..  Ill 

Jackson  co.,  Mich , 

Jackson  co..  Minn.. . 


Jackson  co.,  Iowa 

Jackson  co.,  Mo 

Jackson  co.,  Kansas 

Jackson  co..  Oregon 

Jackson,  Mich 

Jackson,  Miss 

Jackson,  La 

Jackson,  Tenn 

Jackson,  Andrew 

Jackson,  Charles 

Jackson.  James 

Jackson.  Patrick  Tracy. . .' 

Jackson,  Charies  Thomas 

Jackson,  John 

Jackson,  Samuel 

Jackson,  Thomas 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan 

Jackson.  William 

Jacksonville.  Fla 

Jacksonville,  111 

Jacmel  

Jacob  

Jacol>a>ari  Lily 

Jacob.    Bibliophile.      See  Lacroix, 
Paul. 

Jaeobi.  Ahrahmn 

Jacobi,  Friedrich  Heinrich 


Jacohi,  Johann'  Georg. .  . 

Jacobi.  Maximilian 

Jacobi,  Karl  Gustav  Jakob 


479 
479 
479 
479 
4>0 
4bl 
481 
481 
481 
4^2 
4.V2 
4-2 
432 
4*2 
483 
488 
4:-8 
4-3 
4-3 
483 
433 
483 
483 
4-3 
4s4 
4.84 
4S4 
4S4 


485 
4-5 
485 
4-5 
493 
498 
494 
494 
495 
495 
495 
496 
496 
4% 
497 
497 
497 
498 


493 
493 
499 
499 
499 


IV 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Jacobi,  Moritz  Hermann 4!ii) 

Jacobins 499 

Jacobites 500 

Jacobs,   Christian    Friedrich    Wil- 

helm  500 

Jacobs,  Paul  Emil 500 

Jacobs,  Jacques  Albert  Michel 500 

Jacobs,  Pierre  Francois 500 

Jacobson.  William 500 

Jacoby,  Johann 501 

Jacoby,  Ludwig  Sigisinuud 501 

Jacotot,  Joseph 501 

Jacquand,  Claudius 501 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie 502 

Jacqueline  of  Bavaria 502 

Jacquemart,  Albert 503 

Jacquemart,  Jules  Ferdinand 503 

Jacqueinont,  Victor 503 

Jacquerie 503 

Jacques  Cartier  co 503 

Jacquier,  Nicolas 503 

Jacquin,  Nicolas  Joseph  von,  Baron.  504 

Jacquin,  Joseph  Franz 504 


PAGE 

Janssens,  Abraham 528 

Januarius,  Saint 528 

January  529 

Janus  and  Jana 529 

Japan 529 

Japan,  Language  and  Literature  of.  547 

Japan  Clover 505 

Japanning 505 

Japetus 506 

Japheth 500 

Japura 50T 

Japygia.    See  Apulia. 

Jardiu,  Karel  du.     See  Dujardin, 


Karel. 
arnac 


Jade 

Jade  Nephrite 

Jadin,  Louis  Emmanuel 

Jadin,  Louis  Godefroy 

Jaell,  Alfred 

Jaen , 

Jaffa . 


5(14 
504 
504 
504 
504 
504 
504 


Jaffnapatam 505 


Jagellon 506 

Jagemann,  Karoline 506 

Juger.  Gustav 506 

Jagiello.    See  Jagellon. 

Jaguar 506 

Jahde.     See  Jade. 

Jahn,  Friedrich  Ludwig 507 

Jahn,  Johaun 507 

Jahn,  Otto 507 

Jahr,  Georges  Ilenri  Gottlieb 507 

Jains 507 

Jakob,  Ludwig  Ileinrich  von 508 

Jal,  Auguste 508 

Jalabert,  Charles  Francois 508 

Jalap 509 

Jalapa 510 

Jaley,  Jean  Louis  Nicolas 510 

Jalisco   510 

Jamaica 510 

Jamaica,  N.  Y 513 

Jamaltica 513 

James  co 513 

James  I.,  Scotland 513 

James  II..  Scotland 514 

James  III.,  Scotland 515 

James  IV..  Scotland 515 

James  V.,  Scotland 516 

James  I.,  England 516 

James  II.,  England 517 

James,  Epistle  of 519 

James,  George  Payne  Kainsford...  519 

James,  Henry  (two) 519 

James,  Sir  Henry 520 

James,  John  Angell 520 

James.  Robert 520 

James.  Saint,  the  Elder 520 

James,  Saint,  the  Less 520 


James,  Thomas. . 


520 


James  Citv  co . . .  . .  521 


521 

522 
f>22 


James  Francis  Edward  Stuart 

Jameson,  Anna 

Jameson.  Robert 

Jamesone,  George 522 

James  River 522 

Jamestown,  N.  Y 523 

Jamestown,  Va 523 

Jami  (Abderrahman  ben  Ahmed)  ..  523 

Jamieson,  John 523 

Janauschek,  Fanny 524 

Janes,  Edmund  S  toner 524 

Janesville 524 

Janet.  Paul 524 

Janet-Lange,  Antoine  Louis 524 

Janin,  Jules  Gabriel 524 

Janina 525 

Janizaries 526 

Jan  Mayen 527 

Jannequin,  Clement 527 

Jan  Sahib 527 

Jansonins,  Cornelius 527 

Jansenists. . .  . .  527 


Jaroslav.    See  Yaroslav. 

Jarrow 

Jarves,  James  Jackson 

Jarvis,  Abraham 

Jarvis,  Samuel  Farmar 

Jarvis.  Edward 

Jasher,  Book  of 

Jasmin,  Jacques 

Jasmine 

Jason.     See  Argonauts. 

Jasper  

Jasper  co.,  Ga 

Jasper  co.,  Miss 

Jasper  co.,  Texas 

Jasper  co.,  Ind 

Jasper  co.,  Ill 


Jasper  co.,  Iowa 

Jasper  co.,  Mo 

Jasper,  William 

Jassy 

Jaszbereny 

Jats 

Jaubert,    Pierre  Amedee    fimilien 

Probe 

Jauer 

Jauja 

Jaundice 

Java 

Java,  Language  and  Literature  of  . 

Jaxartes 

Jay 

Jay  co 

Jay,  John 

Jay,  William 

Jay,  John 

Jay,  William 

Jayadeva  

Jazet,  Jean  Pierre  Marie 

Jazet,  Eugene 

Jazet.  Alexandre  Jean  Louis 

Jazyges  

Jazygia.    See  Jazyges. 

Jeaffreson,  John  Cordy 

Jeanron,  Philippe  Auguste 

Jebail 

Jebel  Shomer.    See  Shomer. 

Jedburgh 

Jefferson  co.,  N.  Y 

Jefferson  co.,  Pa 

Jefferson  co.,  Va 

Jefferson  co.,  Ga 

Jefferson  co.,  Fla 

Jefferson  co.,  Ala 

Jefferson  co.,  Miss 

Jefferson  parish,  La 

Jefferson  co.,  Texas 

Jefferson  co.,  Ark 

Jefferson  co.,  Tenn 

Jefferson  co.,  Ky 

Jefferson  co.,  Ohio 

Jefferson  co.,  Ind 

Jefferson  co.,  Ill 

Jefferson  co.,  Wis 

Jefferson  co.,  Iowa 

Jefferson  co.,  Mo 

Jefferson  co.,  Kansas. . . 


Jefferson  co.,  Neb 

Jefferson  co.,  Col 

Jefferson  co.,  Montana 

Jefferson  co.,  Washington  Terr.... 

Jefferson 

Jefferson,  Thomas 

Jefferson  City 

Jeffersonia 

Jefferson  ville 

Jeffrey,  Francis 

Jeffreys,  George,  Lord 


679 

5-0 

f)M) 

;,-;', 

5*4 
684 

r,s4 

584 

5M 

rM 

584 

585 
685 

585 

685 

686 
W, 
686 
686 
686 
686 
586 
587 
587 
5-7 
587 
587 
587 
5-7 
587 
687 


688 
688 

r.ss 
r>-s 
588 

fist) 

696 

5H7 
5!  1  7 
.Mi  7 
698 


PAGE 

Jeffries,  John 599 

Jehoshaphat 509 

Jehovah 5S9 

Jejeebhoy,  Sir  Jarnsetjee 600 

Jejeebhoy,  Sir  Curse  tjee 600 

Jelalabad  (two) 000 

Jelf,  Richard  William COO 

Jelf,  William  Edward COO 

Jellachich  de  Buzim,  Joseph,  Baron.  COO 

Jelly  Fish 001 

Jemmapes 602 

Jena CG2 

Jengis  Khan.    See  Genghis  Khan. 
Jenisei.    See  Yenisei. 

Jenner,  Edward C03 

Jenner,  Sir  William C04 

Jennings  co 604 

Jennings,  William 604 

Jenyns,  Soame 604 

Jephthah 005 

Jequitinhonha 605 

Jerboa 6<i5 

Jeremiah 006 

Jerez  de  la  Frontera COO 

Jericho C07 

Jericho,  Rose  of.    See  Rose  of  Jeri 
cho. 

Jeroboam  (two) 607 

Jerome,  King  of  Westphalia.    See 
Bonaparte,  Jerome,  vol.  iii..  p.  2G. 

Jerome,  Saint 607 

Jerome  of  Prague 603 

Jerrold.  Douglas  William 609 

jerrold,  William  Blanchard 609 

Jersey  co 609 

Jersey 609 

Jersey  City 610 

Jerusalem 612 

Jerusalem,  Johann   Friedrich  Wil- 

helm 622 

Jerusalem  Cherry 622 

Jervas,  Charles 623 

Jervis,  Sir  John 623 

Jesi 623 

Jesi,  Samuele 023 

Jessamine.    See  Jasmine. 

Jessamine  co 623 

Jesse,  John  Heneage 623 

Jesso.     See  Yezo. 

Jessulmeer 623 

Jesuits  623 

Jesuits'  Bark.    See  Cinchona. 

Jesus  Christ 035 

Jet 638 

Jeter,  Jeremiah  B 68S 

Jetsam.    See  Flotsam. 

Jevons,  William  Stanley 638 

Jew,  The  Wandering.    See  Wan 
dering  Jew. 

Jewel,  John 638 

Jewell  co 639 

Jews.    See  Hebrews. 

Jewsbury,  Maria  Jane 639 

Jewsbury,  Geraldine  Endsor 689 

Jeypoor 639 

Jhansi 639 

Jhylum 639 

Jiddah 689 

Jihoon.    See  Oxus. 

Joab 640 

Joachim,  King  of  Naples.     See  Mu- 
rat. 

Joachim,  Joseph 040 

Joachimsthal 641 

Joan.  Pope 641 

Joan  of  Arc 641 

Joanes,  Vicente.    See  Juanes. 

Joanna  1 642 

Joanna  II 643 

Joannes,  Island  of.    See  Marajo. 

Joannv W3 

Job,  Book  of. 643 

Jobbe-Duval.  Armand  Marie  Felix.  044 

Jobert,  Antoine  Joseph 044 

Job's  Tears 644 

Jo  Daviess  co 645 

Jode,  Pieter  de 645 

Jodelle,  itienne 645 

Joel 645 

Jogues,  Isaac 045 

Johanna  Island 646 

Johannes  Secundus 646 


CONTEXTS 


054 

655 
655 
655 
655 

655 


PAGE 

Johannisberg.  See  Germany,  Wines 

of. 
Johannot,  Charles  Henry  Alfred. . .  646 

Johannot,  Tony 646 

John,  Popes 646 

John.  King,  England 64$ 

John  II.,  France 650 

John  II.  Casimir,  Poland 650 

John  III.  Sobieski,  Poland 651 

John,  King,  Saxony 651 

John,  Archduke,  Austria 652 

John,  Eugenie 652 

John,  Knights  of  Saint.  See  Saint 
John,  Knights  of. 

John  of  Austria,  Don 652 

John  the  Baptist 653 

John  the  Evangelist '"" 

John  the  Fearless,  Duke 

John  of  Gaunt 

John  of  Leyden 

John  of  Salisbury 

John  Scotus.    See  Erigena. 

John  of  Swabia,  Prince 

Johnson  co.,  Ga 656 

Johnson  co.,  Texas 656 

Johnson  co.,  Ark 056 

Johnson  co. ,  Tenn 056 

Johnson  co.,  Ky 656 

Johnson  co.,  Ind 656 

Johnson  co.,  Ill 656 

Johnson  co.,  Iowa 057 

Johnson  co.,  Mo 657 

Johnson  co.,  Kansas 657 

Johnson  co.,  Neb 657 

Johnson,  Alexander  Bryan 057 

Johnson,  Andrew 657 

Johnson,  Eastman 662 

Johnson,  Edward 662 

Johnson,  Isaac 662 

Johnson,  Reverdy 662 

Johnson,  Richard  Mentor 662 

Johnson,  Samuel  (two) 663 

Johnson,  Walter  Rogers 668 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  Baronet 668 

Johnson,  Sir  John 669 

Johnston  co 669 

Johnston,  Albert  Sidney 669 

Johnston,  Alexander 670 

Johnston,  Alexander  Keith 670 

Johnston,  Arthur 670 

Johnston,  Charles 670 

Johnston,  George 670 

Johnston,  James  F.  W 671 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eccleston 

Johnstone 

Johnstown,  N.  Y 

Johnstown,  Pa 

Joigny 

Joint-Stock  Company 

Joint  Tenants 

Joinville,  Francois  Ferdinand  Phi 
lippe  Louis  Marie  d'Orleans, 

Prince  de 672 

Joinville.  Jean,  Sire  de 673 

Jokai,  Mor 074 

Jokjokerta 674 

Joliba.     See  Niger. 

Joliet 

Joliet,  Charles 

Joliette  co 

Joliette 

Jolliet,  Louis 

Jollivet,  Pierre  Jules 675 

Jomard,  Ed  me  Francois 675 

Jomelli,  Nicolo 

Jomini,  Henri,  Baron 

Jonah 

Jonas,  Justus 

Jonathan,  brother  of  Judas  Macca- 
bii'us.  See  Hebrews,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
592. 

Jones  co.,  N.  C 676 

Jones  co.,  Ga 676 

Jones  co.,  Miss 677 

Jones  co.,  Texas 677 

Jones  co..  Iowa 677 

Jones,  Anson 677 

Jones,  Inigo 677 

Jones,  Jacob 678 

Jones,  John, 67$ 

Jones,  John  Paul 67$ 

Jones,  Owen 679 


PAGE 

6$0 

6M) 
0;>0 


Jones,  Thomas  Rymer 

Jones,  William 

Jones,  Sir  William 

Jonesboro  .......................  (]$i 

Jonkoping  .......................  6>1 

Jonson,  Benjamin  .................  0>1 

Jonsson,  Finn  ....................   6s2 

Joodpoor  ........................  0>2 

Joonpoor  .........................   6;>3 

Joppa.    See  Jaffa. 

Jordaens,  Jacob  ..................  683 

Jordan  ...........................   6s3 

Jordan,  Camille  ...................   684 

Jordan,  Charles  Etiennc  ..........   6$4 

Jordan,  Dorothy  .................   684 

Jordan,  Rudolph  ..................  684 

Jordan,  Wilhelm  ..................  6>4 

Jorg,  Joseph  Edmund  ............  685 

Jorg,  Johann  Christian  Gottfried..  6$5 
Jorg,  Eduard  .....................  6$5 

Jorgensen,  Jorge  n  ................  685 

Jornandes  ........................  6-5 

Jortin,  John  ......................  686 

Jorullo  ...........................  686 

Joseph,  son  of  Jacob  ..............  686 

Joseph,  spouse  of  Mary  ...........  687 

Joseph  1  .........................   687 

Joseph  II  ........................   6;>7 

Joseph,    King   of    Naples    and  of 

Spain.    See  Bonaparte,  vol.  Hi.,  p. 

29. 
Joseph,  Father  ...................  688 

Josephine  co  .....................  688 

Josephine,  Empress  of  France.    See 

Bonaparte,  vol.  iii.,  p.  46. 
Josephus,  Flavius  .................  689 

Josh  Bell  co  ......................  689 

Joshua  ...........................  6S9 

Josiah  ...........................  690 

Josika,  Miklos,  Baron  .............  600 

Josquin  des  Pres  .................  690 

Jost,  Isaak  Markus  ...............  61)0 

Jotuns.    See  Mythology. 

Joubert,  Barthelemy  Catherine  ____  691 

Joudporc.     See  Joodpoor. 

Jouffroy,  Theodore  Simon  .........  691 

Jouffroy  d'Arbans,  Claude  Francois, 


Marquis  de 
Joule,  James  Prescott 
Jounpore.    See  Joonpoor. 
Jourdan,  Antoine  Jacques  Louis. 


692 
692 


693 
693 


674 

674 
674 
674 
674 


675 
675 
676 
676 


Jourdan.  Jean  Baptiste,  Count. . . 
Journalism.     See  Newspapers. 

Joutel,  Henri 

Jouvenet,  Jean 

Jouy.  Victor  Joseph  Etienne  de.. 
Jovellanos,  Caspar  Melchior  de. . . 

Jovian,  Emperor 

Jovius,  Paulus.     See  Giovio. 

Jowett,  Benjamin 

Jowf. Oi»5 

Joze,  Antonio 6!»5 

Juab  co 695 

Juan,  Don.    See  John  of  Austria. 

Juanes,  Vicente 695 

Juan  Fernandez 695 

Juan  y  Santacilia,  Jorge 696 


693 
693 
694 
694 
694 

695 


PAGE 

.  705 

.  705 

.  706 

.  707 

.  708 

.  709 


Judson.  Emily  Chubbuck. . . 

Juel,  Niels 

Juggernaut 

Juggler 

Jugurtha 

Juillerat,  Clotilde  Gerard. . . 

Jujube 709 

Jujuy 709 

Jujuy,  San  Salvador  de 710 

Julian,  Emperor        710 

Jiilich '..   711 

Julien,  Stanislas  Aignan 711 

Juliers.    See  Jiilich. 

Julius,  Popes 71 1 

Julius,  Nikolaus  Heinrich 712 

Julius  Africanus.    See  Africanus. 

Jullien,  Louis  Georges 712 

July 712 

Jumna 712 

June 713 

Juneau  co 713 

June  Berry. . .  - .   713 


Juarez,  Benito  Pablo 


097 


Juarros,  Domingo  ................  6'.»8 


69$ 
69$ 
698 

699 

699 
699 
699 


Juba  (  two) 

Jubbulpore  ....................... 

Jubilee  ........................... 

Juda-a.     See  Judea. 

Judah  ............................ 

Judali  Ilakkadosh.  Rabbi  .......... 

Judah  I  lallevi.  Rabbi  .............. 

Judas  Iscariot  .................... 

Judas  Maccabaeus.    See  Hebrews, 

vol.  viii..  p.  592. 
Judas  Tree  .......................  699  I 

Judd.  Sylvester  ...................  700  ; 

Jude.  Saint  .......................   700  : 

Judea  ............................   "00 

Judges,  Book  of  ..................   701 

Judges  of  Israel.     See  Hebrews. 
Judgment  ........................  701 

Judenbach  .......................   702 

Judith  ..........................   702  j 

Judith,  Mile.  (Julie  Bernat)  .......  702  | 

Judson.  Adoniram  ................  702  i 

Judson.  Ann  Hasseltine  ...........  704  ; 

Judsou,  Sarah  Hall  ................  705  j 


Jung.  Joachim 713 

Jung-Bunzlau 714 

Jungermaunia 714 

Jungfrau 714 

Junghuhn,  Franz  Wilhelm 714 

Jungmann,  Jozef  Jakob 714 

Jung-Stilling      (Johann      Heinrich 

Jung) 714 

Juniata 715 

Juniata  co 715 

Juniper 715 

Junius 716 

Junius,  Franciscus 717 

Junius,  Franciscus 718 

Juno 718 

Junot.     See  Abrantes. 

Jupiter 718 

Jupiter,  a  planet 718 

Jupiter  Ammon.    See  Ammon. 

Jura,  an  island 720 

Jura,  a  range  of  mountains 720 

Jura,  a  department 721 

Jurieu,  Pierre 721 

Jury 7'-'l 

Jus'sieu,  Antoine  de 724 

Jussieu.  Bernard  de 724 

Jussieu,  Antoine  Laurent  de 724 

Jussieu.  Adrien  de 725 

Jussieu.  Laurent  Pierre 725 

Juste,  Theodore 725 

Justi.  Karl  Wilhelm 725 

Justice  of  the  Peace 725 

Justin  the  Elder 726 

Justin  the  Younger 727 

Justin,  a  historian 727 

Justinian  1 727 

Justinian  II 728 

Justin  Martyr 728 

Jute 729 

Jutland 730 

Juvenal.  Decinms  Junius 780 

Juxon,  William 730 


K 731 

Kaaba.    See  Mecca. 
Kabbalah.    See  Cabala. 
Kabyles.    See  Algeria. 
Kaf.     See  Caf. 

Kaffa.  in  Africa 

Kaffa.  Russia 

Kaffraria.    See  Caffraria. 

Knfiristan 

Kajroshima 

Kahlenberg 

Kahnis.  Karl  Friedrioh  August. 
Kaieteur  Fall.     See  Guiana 
Kainvan  . . 
Kaisariveh. 


731 
731 

732 
732 
732 


Kaiserslautern 

Kniserswerth 

Kakodyle 

Kalafaf 

Kalamata 

Kalakaua.  David , 

Ealamazoo  co 

Kalamazoo 


733 
733 
733 
733 
733 
734 
734 
734 


VI 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Kalamazoo  River 734 

Kalckreuth,   Friedrick  Adolf   von, 

Count 734 

Kaleidoscope 735 

Kalergis,  Demetrius 735 

Kalian 735 

Kalevala.    See  Finland,  vol.  iii..  p. 
203. 

Kalidasa 735 

Kalisch.    See  Kalisz. 

Kalisch.  David 736 

Kalispels 736 

Kalisz 736 

Kalkaska  co 736 

Kalkbrenner,  Christian 736 

Kalkbrenner,  Friedrick 736 

Kalm,  Peter 737 

Kalmar.    See  Calmar. 

Kalmia 737 

Kalocsa 737 

Kaluga 733 

Kahv.     See  Calw. 

Kama 738 

Kameela 738 

Kamehameka,  Kings 733 

Kamenetz  739 

Kamenz.     See  Carnenz. 

Kames.  Henry  Home,  Lord 739 

Kamieniec.    See  Kauieuetz. 
Karnmin.    See  Camrnin. 

Kaniouraska  co 740 

Kampen 740 

Kampen,  Nikolaas  Godfried  van. . .  740 

Kampfer,  Engelbreckt 740 

Kamptz.    Karl     Albert    Ckristopk 

Heinrick  von 740 

Kamtchatka 740 

Kanabec  co 741 

Kanagawa 741 

Kanawha  co 741 

Kanawha    Eiver.    See    Great    Ka 
nawka. 

Kandiyoki  co 741 

Kane  co.,  Ill 741 

Kane  co..  Utah 742 

Kane,  Eliska  Kent 742 

Kane.  Sir  Kobert 743 

Kangaroo 743 

Kankakee  co 744 

Kano 745 

Kansas,  Indians 745 

Kansas 746 

Kansas  City 756 

Kansuk 757 

Kant.  Immanuel 757 

Kantemir.     See  Cantemir. 
Kaolin.    See  Clay. 

Kapnist.  Vasili  Vasilievitck 766 

Kapp.  Friedrick 766 

Kappcl  767 

Kara  George.     See  Czerny  George. 
Karakissar.     See  Afium    Karakis- 
sar. 

Karaites 767 

Karaiitck,  Vuk  Stefauovitck 767 

Kara'k 767 

Karakorum 767 

Karaman.    See  Caraman. 

Karamsin,  Nikolai  Mikkailovitck.. .   763 

Karasu-Bazar 763 

Kardszag 768 

Karelians.    See  Finns. 

Karens  768 

Karli.    See  Carlee. 
Karlsbad.     See  Carlsbad. 
Karlsburg.    See  Carlsburg. 
Karlskrona.     See  Carlscrona. 
Karlsruhe.    See  Carlsruhe. 
Karlstad.    See  Carlstad. 

Karlstadt 769 

Karnak.    See  Thebes. 

Karnes  co 769 

Karpinski,  Franciszek 769 

Karr,  Jean  Baptiste  Alpkonse 769 

Kars 769 

Karsck,  Anna  Luise 769 

Karsten,  Karl  Jokann  Bernkard. . .  770 
Kasan.    See  Kazan. 
Kasbin.    See  Casbin. 

Kasckau 770 

Kaskan 770 

Kaskgar 770 


PAGE 

Ka'stner,  Abrakam  Gottkelf. 771 

Katakdin 771 

Kater,  Henry 771 

Katif ..  772 

Katkoff,  Mikhail  Nikiforovitch 772 

Katmandu 772 

Katrine,  Lock 772 

Katydid 772 

Katzback 773 

Kauai 773 

Kauffman,  Maria  Angelica 773 

Kaufman  co 773 

Kaufmann,  Constantin  Petrovitck. ,  773 

Kaufmann,  Tkeodor 774 

Kaulback,  Wilkelrn  von 774 

Kaunitz,  Wenzel  Anton,  Prince 775 

Kavauagk.  Julia 775 

Kavanaugk,  Hubbard  Hinde 775 

Kaye,  Jokn 775 

Kaye,  Sir  John  William 775 

Kazan 776 

Kazinczy,  Ferencz 776 

Kean,  Edmund 777 

Kean,  Charles  Jokn 778 

Kean,  Ellen  (Tree) 778 

Keane,  Jokn,  Lord 778 

Kearney  co., 778 

Kearny,  Lawrence 778 

Kearny,  Stepken  Watts 778 

Kearny,  Pkilip 779 

Keats,*  Jokn 779 

Keble,  John 780 

Kecskemet 780 

Keechies 780 

Keene 781 

Keene,  Laura 781 

Keff 781 

Kehl 781 

Keighley 781 

Keightley,  Thomas 781 

Keill,  John 781 

Keim,  Theodor 782 

Keith  co 782 

Keitk,  Alexander 782 

Keitk,  George 782 

Keith,  James 782 


Keitk.  George  Keitk  -  Elpkiustone, 

Viscount 782 

Kelat 782 

Kellermann,  Francois  Ckristopke. . .  783 

Kellermann,  Francois  ^tienne 783 

Kellogg,  Clara  Louisa 783 

Kelung 783 

Kemble,  Eoger 784 

Kemble,  John  Philip 784 

Kemble,  George  Stephen 784 

Kemble,  Elizabeth 784 

Kemble,  Charles 784 

Kemble,  Frances  Anne 784 

Kemble,  Adelaide 785 

Kemble,  John  Mitchell 785 

Kemeny,  Zsigmond,  Baron 785 

Kempelen,  Wolfgang,  Baron 786 

Kemper  co 786 

Kemper,  Eeuben 786 

Kempis,  Thomas  a 786 

Kempten 787 

Ken,  Tkomas 787 

Kenaians 787 

Kendal 788 

Kendall  co.,  Texas 783 

Kendall  co.,  Ill 788 

Kendall,  Amos 783 

Kendall,  George  Wilkins 788 

Kendrick,  Asakel  Clark 789 

Kenek 789 

Kenilwortk 789 

Kennebec  co 790 

Kennebec 790 

Kennedy,  Benjamin  Hall 790 

Kennedy,  Ckarles  Eann 790 

Kennedy.  Grace 790 

Kennedy.  Jokn  Pendleton 790 

Kennet,  Wkite 791 

Kennicott,  Benjamin 791 

Kenoska  co 791 

Kenoska 791 

Kenrick,  Francis  Patrick 792 

Kenrick,  Peter  Eichard 792 

Kensett,  John  Frederick 793 

Kent  co.,  E.  1 793 

Kent  co..  Del 793 


Kent  co.,  Md 793 

Kent  co.,  Mick 703 

Kent  co.,  Ont.,  Canada .'  793 

Kent  co.,  N.  B.,  Canada 794 

Kent 794 

Kent,  Edward  Augustus,  Duke  of. .  794 

Kent,  James 794 

Kent,  William  (two) 796 

Kenton  co 796 

Kenton,  Simon 790 

Kentucky 796 

Kentucky,  a  river 605 

Kenyon,  Jokn 806 

Kenyon,  Lloyd,  Lord 806 

Kenyon  College.     See  Gambier. 

Keokiik  co g06 

Keokuk 806 

Kepler.  Jokann 807 

Keppel.  Augustus,  Viscount 809 

Keppel.  George  Thomas 809 

Keppel,  Sir  Henry 809 

Keratry,  Auguste  Ililarion  de 809 

Keratry,  l^mile  de,  Count 809 

Kerguelen ; 809 

Kerguelen-Tremarec,  Yves  Joseph 

de 810 

Kerman 810 

Kermanshah 810 

Kermes  Insect.     See  Cochineal. 

Kermes  Mineral 810 

Kern  co 81 0 

Kerner,  Andreas  Justinus 810 

Kerosene 81 1 

Kerr  co 813 

Kerry  co 813 

Kershaw  co 813 

Kertch  813 

Kestrel 814 

Keswick 814 

Ketones 815 

Ketteler,  Wilhelm    Emanuel   von, 

Baron  815 

Kew , 815 

Kewaunee  co 816 

Keweenaw  co 81 6 

Kewkiang 816 

Key,  Francis  Scott 816 

Key,  Tkomas  Hewitt 81 6 

Key  Islands 816 

Keyser,  Nicaise  de 816 

Keys  of  Florida.    See  Florida  Keys. 

Key  West 817 

Kkan 818 

Kkandeisk.     See  Candeisk. 
Kkania.    See  Canea. 

Kkanpoor 818 

Kkaresm 818 

Kknrkov 813 

Kkartoom 819 

Khemnitzer.     See  Chemnitzer. 

Kheraskoff,  Mikhail 819 

Kherson 819 

Kkiva 820 

Kkodavendigkiar 822 

Kkoi  822 

Kkokan 822 

Kkorasan 823 

Kkotin 823 

Kkuzistan 823 

Kiakkta 823 

Kiangsi 823 

Kiangsu 824 

Kickapoos 824 

Kidd,  William 825 

Kidder  co 825 

Kidder,  Daniel  Parish 825 

Kidderminster 826 

Kidnapping 826 

Kidney 826 

Kiel.. 823 

Kielce 828 

Kienckow 828 

Kiepert,  Heinrick 829 

Kiesewetter,  Eafael  Georg 829 

Kiev 829 

Kilauea 830 

Kilbourne,  James 830 

Kildare  co 831 

Kildeer 831 

Kilimanjaro 831 

Kilkenny  co 831 

Kilkenny 832 


CONTENTS 


vn 


PAGE 

832 

Killigrew,  Sir  William 832 

Killigrew,  Thomas 832 

Killigrew.  Henry b33 

Killigrew,  Anne 833 

Kilmarnock 833 . 

Kilogramme.     See  Gramme. 

Kihva 833 

Kimball,  Richard  Burleigh 833 

Kimble  co 833 

Kimhi,  David 833 


Kindergarten.     See  Infant  Schools. 
Kinesipathy.    See  Ling,  Peter  Hen- 
rik. 

King 833 

King  co 834 

King,  John  C'rookshanks. '. 834 

King,  Peter,  Lord 834 

King,  Philip  Parker 834 

King,  Rufus 835 

King,  Thomas  Starr 886 


King,  William 

King,  William  Rufus 

King  and  Queen  co 

King  at  Arms.     See  Heraldry 

King  Bird 

King  Crab 

King  Fish 

Kingfisher 

King  George  co 

Kinglake,  Alexander  William. 
Kinglake,  John  Alexander. . . . 


PAGE 

,.   887 

,.  837 


..  837 

1!  838 

. .  889 

. .  840 


VOL.  ix. — 54 


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