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THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA

VOL. IX.
HORTENSIUS-KINGLAKE.

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOBEDIA:

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE.

EDITED BY

GEORGE RIPLEY AND CHARLES A. DAM.

VOLUME IX.
HORTENSILTS-KINGLAKE.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

549 AND 551 BROADWAY.

LONDON: 1C LITTLE BEITAIN.

1874.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the
Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in
the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Among the Contributors to the Ninth Volume of the Revised Edition are the

following :

Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE, Washington, D. C.
HURRICANE.

WILLARD BARTLETT.

INDIA.

INDIAN ARCUIPELAGO.

KASIIGAE.

KHOKAN.

Prof. 0. W. BENNETT, D. D., Syracuse Uni
versity.

HUNTINGDON, SELINA, Countess of.
JANES, EDMUND STONER.
KIDDER, DANIEL PARISH.

JULIUS BING.

ISMAIL PASHA, Khedive of Egypt,
KAULBACII, WILHELM VON,

and other articles in biography, geography, and

history.

FRANCIS C. BOWMAN.

HUMMEL, JOHANN NEPOMUK.
JOSQUIN DES PRES.
KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISA.

T. S. BRADFORD, U. S. Coast Survey, Washing
ton, D. C.

HYDROGRAPHY.
EDWARD L. BURLINGAME, Ph. D.

JOANNA I. and II., Queens of Naples,
JOHN, Archduke of Austria,
KENT, England,

and other articles in biography, geography, and

history.

KOBERT CARTER.

HOTTENTOTS,
HOUSTON, SAM,
HUGHES, THOMAS,
HUNS,
JAY, JOHN,
JAY, WILLIAM,

and other articles in biography and history.

Jonx D. CHAMPLIN, Jr.

HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, Lord,
HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY,
IRON MASK, Man in the,

JlDDAH,

KIDD, WILLIAM.

and other articles in biography, geography, and
history.

Prof. E. II. CLARKE, M. D., Harvard University.

HYPOPHOSPHITES,
HYPOSULPIIATES,
IODINE,

and other articles in materia medica.

T. M. COAX, M. D.

KALAKAUA, DAVID.

KAUAI.

KILAUEA.

Hon. T. M. COOLEY, LL. D., Michigan Univer
sity, Ann Arbor.

HUSBAND AND WIFE,
and other legal articles.

Rev. S. S. CUTTING, D. D., Rochester Univer
sity, K Y.

JUDSON, ADONIRAM.
JUDSON, ANN HASSELTINE.
JUDSON, SARAH HALL.
JUDSON, EMILY CHITBBUCK.

Prof. J. C. DALTON, M. D.

HYBRID,

HYDROPHOBIA,

HYGIENE,

INOCULATION,

and other medical and physiological articles.

EATON S. DRONE.

ILLINOIS,
INDIANA,
IOWA,

KANSAS,
KENTUCKY,

and other articles in American geography.

Prof. THOMAS M. DROWN, M. D., Lafayette
College, Easton, Pa.

IRON.

ROBERT T. EDES, M. D., Harvard University.

Articles in materia medica.

W. M. FERRISS.

HUGO, VICTOR MARIE.
HUNTER, JOHN.
KEARNY, PHILIP.

Prof. W. E. GRIFFIS, Imperial College, Tokio,
Japan.

JAPAN.
KANAGAWA.

ALFRED H. GUERNSEY.

JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN,
JOHNSTON, JOSEPH ECCLESTON,

and other articles in biography and history.

J. W. HAWES.

HOUSTON, Texas,

IDAHO,

IDIOCY,

INDIAN TERRITORY,

JERSEY CITY,

KANSAS CITY,

KEY WEST,

and other articles in American geography.

Hon. CHARLES C. HAZEWELL, Boston, Mass.
JACKSON, ANDREW.

M. HEILPRIN.
HUNGARY.

J. C. HEPBURN, M. D., LL. D., Yokohama,
Japan.

JAPAN, LANGUAGE OF.

CHARLES L. HOGEBOOM, M. D.
HUYGENS, CHRISTIAN.
HYDRAULIC RAM.
HYDROMECHANICS.
HYDROMETER.
INFLAMMATION.
INSANITY.

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES, M. D., Boston.

JACKSON, CHARLES.
JACKSON, JAMES, M. D.

ROSSITER JOHNSON.

INGELOW. JEAN,
IRVING, WASHINGTON,
JOHNSON. ANDREW,

and other articles in biography and geography.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NINTH VOLUME.

Prof. C. A. JOY, Ph. D., Columbia College,
New York.

INDIUM,

and other chemical articles.

Prof. S. KNEELAND, M. D., Mass. Inst. of
Technology, Boston.

HOUND,

HUMMING BIRD,
HY.ENA,
HYDROIDS,
ICUTIIYOLOGY,

ICHTHYOSAURUS,

KING CRAB,
KING FISH,

and other articles in zoology.

Rev. FRANKLIN NOBLE.

HOWARD. OLIVER OTIS,
HUDSON BAY,
INDEPENDENTS,
JACQUELINE OF BAVARIA,
JOHN, King of Saxony,

and other articles 'in biography.

Rev. BERNARD O'REILLY, D. D.

ICELAND,

ICONOCLASTS,

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION,
INDULGENCE,
INFALLIBILITY,
JESUITS,

and other articles in ecclesiastical history.

Prof. S. F. PECKHAM, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minn.

KEROSENE.

Count L. F. DE POTJRTALES, Museum of Com
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

INDIAN OCEAN.
JUAN FERNANDEZ.

RICHARD A. PROCTOR, A. M., London.

JUPITER.

Prof. ROSSITER W. RAYMOND, Ph. D.

IRON MANUFACTURE.
IRON ORES.

PHILIP RIPLEY.

HURLBERT, "WILLIAM HENRY.
HURLBUT, STEPHEN AUGUSTUS.
INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.
KEBLE, JOHN.

W. E. ROGERS, Late Capt. Corps of Engineers,
U. S. A.

INFANTRY.

ERNEST SATOW, Japanese Secretary II. B. M.
Legation, Tokio, Japan.
JAPAN, LITERATURE OF.

JOHN SAVAGE.

IRELAND.

Prof. A. J. SCHEM.

IRELAND, CHURCH OF,
JANSENIUS, CORNELIUS,

JANSENISTS,

and articles in biography and history.

J. G. SHEA, LL. D.

HURONS.

ILLINOIS (Indians).

IROQUOIS.

KANSAS.

KEECHIES.
KICKAPOOS.

Prof. J. A. SPENCER, D. D., College of the
City of New York.

HOWSON, JOHN SAUL.
HUDSON, HENRY NORMAN.
HUNTING-TON, FREDERICK DAN.
JOWETT, BENJAMIN.
KAYE, JOHN.

N. L. THIEBLIN.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

Prof. GEORGE TIIUBBEB.

HOTBED,

HYACINTH,

IMMORTELLES,

INDIAN SHOT,

INSECT FERTILIZATION,

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS,

IVY,

JUNIPER,

KALMIA,

and other botanical articles.

Prof. G. A. F. VAN RIIYN, Ph. D.

INDIA, RACES AND LANGUAGES OF,

INDIA. RELIGIONS AND RELIGIOUS LITERATURE OF,

INDO-CHINESE RACES AND LANGUAGES.

IRANIC RACES AND LANGUAGES,

ITALIC RACES AND LANGUAGES,

JAVA, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF.

and other archaeological, oriental, and philologi
cal articles.

I. DE VEITELLE.

ITUANCAVELICA,
HUANUCO,

ITURBIDE, AGUSTIN DE,

JAMAICA,

JORULLO,

JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO,

and other Spanish American articles.

C. S. WEYMAN.

HUNGARY, WINES OF.
ITALY, WINES OF.

Gen. JAMES HARRISON WILSON.

IRON-CLAD SHIPS.

THE

AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA

HORTEXSIUS

HORTEASIUS, Quietus, a Roman orator, born
in 114 B. C., died in 50. At the age of 19
he made a speech in the forum, and gained the
applause of the orators Crassus and Scosvola.
He joined the side of Sulla in the civil war,
and afterward was a constant supporter of the
aristocratic party. When Cicero first came to
the forum llortensius was called the rex judi-
dorum. Though professionally rivals, they
seem to have lived on friendly terms ; and in
the beginning of the De Claris Oratoribus,
Cicero pays an eloquent tribute to the memory
of llortensius. When obliged to leave the city
on account of the impeachment of Clodius,
however, Cicero was bitter against the sup
posed duplicity of llortensius, and it was not
till some time after his return that he was
convinced of the injustice of his suspicion.
In 81 llortensius was made quaestor; in 75,
rodile; in 72, prootor; and in 09, consul, with
Q. Cecilius Metellus. The year before his con
sulship occurred the trial of Verres, in which
the two rival orators were opposed. After
his consulship, Hortensius took an active part
against Pompey, opposing the Gabinian law,
which gave Pompey the control of the Medi
terranean sea, and the Manilian law, which
transferred to his command the army against
Mithridates. Cicero subsequently joined the
same party, and we find them pleading often
in common. They defended together C. Rabi-
rius, L. Murrena, and P. Sulla. Ten years be
fore his death Hortensius withdrew from public
life. He had acquired great wealth, and own
ed villas at Tusculum, Bauli, and Laurentum.

HORTICULTURE, the most perfect method of
tilling the earth so as to produce the best re
sults, whether the products are objects of
utility or of beauty. It is- difficult to define
the line between horticulture and improved
agriculture upon the one side, and landscape
architecture upon the other. Horticulture or
gardening has been pursued from the earliest

HORTICULTURE

times of civilization or national refinement.
Among the Romans, according to Pliny, small
gardens filled with roses, violets, and other
sweet-scented flowers were in repute ; while
many of the choicest plants and flowers which
we now cherish were cultivated by the ancient
Greeks. Horticultural art declined, however,
with the fall of Rome, and not until long after
did it revive under the monastic institutions.
A part of the policy of Charlemagne was the
establishment of gardens by royal edict, pre
scribing the very plants which were to be
grown. In the 16th century several botanic
gardens were founded by Alfonso d'Este, duke
of Ferrara, and in consequence many other
noblemen had fine gardens of their own. The
Venetians and Paduans followed the example,
and in 1555 a garden founded at Pisa by
Cosmo de' Medici had become so rich in plants
as to excite admiration. The garden at Mont-
pellier in France, founded by Henry IV., con
tained before the end of the 16th century up
ward of 1,300 French, Alpine, and Pyrenean
plants. At this time the garden at Breslau in
Germany, to which the celebrated botanist
Fuchs was attached, was in existence ; and in
1577, at the suggestion of Bontius, was founded
the garden at Ley den. In England, pleasure
gardens with fountains and shady walks, with
hedges and designs, were known from the time
of the conquest, but it was not until the con
struction of conservatories for the preservation
of tender plants that horticulture made much
progress. According to Loudon, it was not
till 1717 that such structures were furnished
with glass roofs, and from this time a new era
in gardening began. The education and train
ing of young persons to the practice of gar
dening raised the occupation to an art, and has
brought horticulture in European countries
especially to a high rank. — We have considered
horticulture as the acme of agriculture ; and
those familiar only with ordinary farm tillage

IIORTUS SICCUS

IIOSACK

would be surprised to find how productive land
can be made when husbanded by practical gar
dening. In the best market gardens the soil,
by abundant manuring and working, is kept up
to the highest attainable state of fertility, and
is made to produce always two, and frequently
three and four crops in a year. It often hap
pens that a single acre near a large city yields
the cultivator a greater profit than many entire
forms bring to their owners. Within the last
30 or 40 years horticulture in the United States
has rapidly advanced, and its progress has
been largely due to the influence of the various
horticultural societies, especially those of Penn
sylvania and Massachusetts. In this country
there are very few magnificent gardens; but
in the diffusion of a knowledge of horticul
ture among the people at large there has been
a steady advance, and a special literature per
taining to the science and practice of horticul
ture has sprung up. The large works of other
countries upon the general subject are superior
to any yet published here, but our works upon
separate topics are more thorough and prac
tical than those of any European country.
Among the earlier horticultural works pub
lished in this country is " The American Gar
dener/' by ^ymiam Cobbett (New York, 1819).
"The American Gardener's Calendar," by B.
McMahon (Philadelphia, 1819), is one of the
few works embracing every department of
horticulture. In landscape gardening the lead
ing authors are A. J. Downing, Copeland,
"Weidenmann, and Scott; in arboriculture,
Warder, Hoopes, and Bryant ; in flower gar
dening, including roses, Breck, Buist, Rand,
Parkman, and Parsons. In floriculture under
glass, "Practical Horticulture,' 1 by Peter Hen
derson (New York, 1868), is the only recent
work. Among works on vegetable gardening,
the most prominent are Burr's " Vegetables of
America," White's " Gardening for the South,"
Quinn's " Money in the Garden," and Hender
son's "Gardening for Profit." The leading
agricultural journals have each a horticultural
department with a competent editor, and there
are now only three journals devoted solely to
horticulture ; these are : " The Horticulturist "
(New York), established by A. J. Downing in
1846, and now (1874) edited by II. T. Williams;
" The Gardener's Monthly " (Philadelphia,
1859), Thomas Meehan, editor; and "The
California Horticulturist " (San Francisco,
1871), C. Stephens, editor.

HORTIS SICCIS. See HERBARIUM.

HORFS, a god of the Egyptians, son of Osiris
and Isis. He represented the rising sun. He
pierces with a spear the serpent Apophis or
Apap, the vapors of dawn. He avenges his
father Osiris, whom Set or Soutekh, also called
Baal, kills, and whom the prayers of Isis re
suscitate. The death of Osiris, the grief of
Isis, and the final defeat of Set, the god of evil,
are common themes in oriental mythologies,
and recur in the stories of Cybele and Atys,
and of Venus and Adonis. The youthful

Horus was held forth as a model for all princes,
and as a type of royal virtues. He was often
represented as a little child, sometimes in the
lap of Isis, and always with a finger on his
mouth, which is the common Egyptian sign
indicative of extreme youth or infancy. The
Greeks identified Horus with their god Har-
pocrates, whom they represented also with a
finger on the lips; but mistaking the signifi
cance of the sign, they regarded it as a symbol
of silence, secrecy, and mystery, and ascribed
these attributes to the deity. He became ac
cordingly a favorite subject for speculation
with the later philosophers. His worship was
also carried into Rome, where, probably on
account of excesses committed in the mysteri
ous rituals, it was for a while forbidden. The
peach was considered the sacred fruit of the
god. The Egyptians also believed that Horus
held in conjunction with Anubis the balance in
which the hearts of the dead are weighed be
fore Osiris and the 42 assessors, and that he
or Smon beheaded those found wanting on the
nemma or infernal scaffold.

HORVATH, Miltaly, a Hungarian historian, born
at Szentes, Oct. 20, 1809. He was ordained as
priest in 1830, and became in 1844 professor
of the Hungarian language and literature in
the Theresianum at Vienna. In 1848, during
the Hungarian revolution, he was made bishop
of Csanad, and ex officio a member of the up
per house in the diet ; and in 1849 he was min
ister of public worship and education. The
Hungarian uprising having been overthrown,
he took refuge first in France, and afterward
in Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy, where for
several years he prosecuted his studies in Hun
garian history. In the mean while the Aus
trian government sentenced him to death in
his absence. In 1866 he was permitted to re
turn to his native country, and in 1869 he was
unanimously elected member of the diet for
Szegedin. His works on Hungarian history, in
Hungarian, include "Hungarian History" (4
vols., Papa, 1842-'6 ; abridged in 1 vol., Pesth,
1847; enlarged in 6 vols., 1859-'63; German
translation, 2d ed., 1861) ; " Twenty-five Years
of Hungarian History " (2 vols., Geneva, 1863 ;
German translation, Leipsic, 1866); "History
of the War of Independence in Hungary " (3
vols., Geneva, 1865); and "Reply to the Let
ters of Kossuth," a pamphlet setting forth the
great importance for Hungary of the compro
mise with Austria in 1867. He has also pub
lished a collection of Hungarian historical docu
ments in 4 vols.

IIOSACK, David, an American physician, born
in New York, Aug. 31, 1769, died Dec. 23,
1835. He studied in Columbia college from
1786 to 1788, thence went to Princeton col
lege, where he graduated in 1789, and receiv
ed his degree as doctor of medicine in Phila
delphia in 1791. He subsequently continued
his medical studies in London and Edinburgh ;
and on his return home in 1794 brought with
him a cabinet of minerals obtained from Wer-

IIOSAXXA

HOTBED

ner, and a collection of duplicate specimens of
plants from the herbarium of Linnaeus. This
collection of dried plants gathered by Linmeus
now constitutes a part of the museum of the
lyceum of natural history of New York. In
1795 he was appointed professor of botany in
Columbia college, and in 1797 of materia med-
ica. In 1807 he became professor of materia
medica and of midwifery in the newly created
college of physicians and surgeons, antl in 1811
of the theory and practice of physic and clini
cal medicine, to which were afterward added
obstetrics and the diseases of women and chil
dren. He retained his post after the union of
the two rival medical faculties of Columbia
college and the college of physicians and sur
geons in September, 1813. Resigning with the
rest of the faculty in 1820, he aided in organi
zing the Rutgers medical school, which ceased
in 1830. Dr. Hosack held several public medi
cal offices, and was prominent in the promo
tion and management of municipal institutions.
He founded in 1810, with Dr. Francis, the
"American Medical and Philosophical Regis
ter," and was a fellow of the royal societies of
London and Edinburgh. Among his works
are : " A Biographical Memoir of Hugh Wil
liamson, M.D., LL.D." (8vo, 1820); u Essays
on Various Subjects of Medical Science" (3
vols., 1S24-'30) ; " System of Practical Nosolo
gy " (1829) ; " Memoirs of De Witt Clinton "
(4to, 1829); "Lectures on the Theory and
Practice of Physic," edited by the Rev. II. W.
Ducachet, M.D. (1838).

HOSAXNA (Heb. hoshVali na, Save, we pray),
in Jewish antiquity, a form of acclamation on
joyous and triumphal occasions. At the feast
of tabernacles it was customary to sing Ps.
cxviii. 25, which contains the words JiosJiVah
na, while the people carried green boughs of
palm and myrtle and branches of willow.
Hence the prayers were called hosanna, and
the seventh day of the feast the great hosanna.
The term was employed as a salutation to
Christ on his public entry into Jerusalem.

HOSEA, the first of the minor prophets. He
was the son of Beeri, commenced his prophecy
about 785 B. C., and exercised his office at in
tervals for about 00 years. He was a resident
of the kingdom of Israel, against which most
of his prophecies are directed, rebuking and
threatening the people for their sins, and ex
horting them to repentance. His style is con
cise, sententious, and abrupt ; and his prophe
cies are in one continued series, without any
distinction as to the times when they were de
livered or their subjects.

HOSMER, Harriet G., an American sculptor,
born in Watertown, Mass., Oct. 9, 1830. She
studied sculpture in the studio of Mr. Steven
son in Boston, also with her father, a physician,
and in the medical college of St. Louis. In
the summer of 1851 she commenced her first
original work, a bust of Hesper. Late in 1852
she went to Rome, entered the studio of Gib
son, and passed her first winter in modelling

from the antique. Her busts of Daphne and
Medusa were her first attempts at original de
sign in Rome, and were followed by a statue
of (Enone. For the public library of St. Louis
she also executed her " Beatrice Cenci." In
1855 she modelled a statue of Puck, the popu
larity of which procured her orders for nearly
30 copies. In 1859 she finished a colossal sta
tue of " Zenobia in Chains." This was followed
by a statue of Thomas H. Benton in bronze for
Lafayette park, St. Louis, and a " Sleeping
Faun." She still resides in Rome (1874).

HOSPITAL (Lat. Jwspitalia, apartments for
guests), an institution for the reception and
relief of the sick, wounded, or infirm. The
word has undergone great changes of significa
tion. The earliest known hospital for the sick
was founded in the latter part of the 4th cen
tury at Cassarea ; St. Chrysostom built one at
his own expense in Constantinople ; and Fabi-
ola, the friend of St. Jerome, founded one at
Rome. The IIotel-Dieu in Paris, founded in
the 7th century, has long been the largest and
finest hospital in the world. It was rebuilt
in the 12th century, and has been extended
from time to time until now it covers five acres.
The IIotel-Dieu of Lyons, said to have been
founded by Childebert in the Oth century, al
most equals it. Rome had 2'4 hospitals in the
9th century; and in the llth they began to
be established for pilgrims in the Holy Land.
Archbishop Lanfranc built a hospital at Can
terbury in 1070. The oldest hospitals in Lon
don are St. Bartholomew's, which dates from
1546; Bethlehem, 1547; and St. Thomas's,
1553. In all civilized countries every consid
erable city now has one or more hospitals,
sustained by charity, endowment, or govern
ment grants. Frequently they are connected
with medical schools, for mutual advantage.
Many have elaborate and costly buildings ; but
the latest theories are not in favor of perma
nent structures, which are believed to harbor
the germs of disease. Military field hospitals,
first known in the Oth century, have now, in
connection with the ambulance system (see
AMBULANCE), been made highly efficient. A
yellow flag is the sign of a hospital.

HOSPITALLERS. See SAINT Jonx OF JERU
SALEM, KNIGHTS OF.

HOTBED, in gardening, a bed of earth en
closed by a frame, which is covered by movable
sashes, and heated from below by means of
fermenting vegetable matter. In large estab
lishments the hotbed is replaced by a glass
structure heated by flues or by hot- water pipes.
(See GREENHOUSE.) When vegetables are made
to grow out of their proper season, they are
said to be forced ; large quantities of lettuce,
radishes, &c., are forced for market in hotbeds
during the winter months. The most general
use of the hotbed is in starting such seeds as
would germinate very slowly, if at all, in the
open ground, and to forward plants for an early
crop of those kinds that are later sown in the
open air ; by the use of the hotbed, plants six

HOTBED

HOT SPRINGS

weeks old, of cauliflower and cabbage for ex
ample, may be had for planting out at the time
when the outside soil is dry and warm enough
to allow of the sowing of seeds, thus enabling
the gardener to produce a much earlier crop.
The hotbed allows us to extend the season of
many vegetables about t\vo months ; for in
stance, the season of tomatoes would be a very
short one if we depended upon plants from
seed sown in the open ground, but with the
aid of the hotbed the plants may be so far
forward as to be ready to flower at the time
when it is safe to put them out. The usual
heating material is horse dung; this is turned
over a few times at intervals of a few days,
and when in a state of active fermentation is
laid up in a regularly formed bed 3 or 4 ft.
thick, and a foot wider on each side than the
frame of the hotbed ; care is taken to have the
manure evenly packed, and it is beaten with
the fork to make it solid ; the frame is then
set upon the manure; fine, light, rich soil
should be at hand, and when the thermometer
shows that the heat of the bed (at first very vio
lent) has receded to 90°, this is spread evenly
over the manure to the depth of 6 or 8 in. ;
then the seeds may be sown. The use of one
third or one half its bulk of forest leaves with
the manure gives a more gentle and more
lasting heat. The hotbed for a family garden
is made in the manner described, and the frame,
usually permanent, is large enough for two or
three sashes. In market gardens the method
is quite different. The regular hotbed sash is
usually 6x3 ft. ; the bars to hold the glass run
longitudinally, there being no crossbars, but the
glass is lapped at the edges about a quarter of
an inch. The width of the bed is the length
of the sash, and the length of the bed is deter
mined by the number of sashes ; an excavation
is made 2£ ft. deep, and of the required size ;
this is boarded up with rough boards nailed
to posts ; the boarding extends above the sur
face of the ground 12 in. in front and 18 in. at
the rear; cross pieces are nailed from front to
rear, upon which the sash can slide. The ma
nure is then placed in this pit and the soil put
upon it as before described. Mats of straw or
shutters of thin boards are provided to protect
the bed in cold nights, and to afford shading
when needed. The hotbed should be in a
sheltered place well exposed to the sun; if
need be, shelter from cold winds is afforded
by making a fence, or setting up a wind-break
of brush. As soon as the young plants are up
they require the same care in weeding, thinning,
watering, and loosening the soil, as those in the
open ground ; besides this, the sashes must be
opened more or less, according to the weather,
to prevent injury from too great heat, and when
open must be closed should the outer tempera
ture fall, to prevent damage from cold. Unless
the beds are carefully attended to in both par
ticulars, an hour of neglect may destroy the
contents. Many plants require transplanting,
when large enough, into other hotbeds before

they are finally set out. Before setting in the
open ground the plants are hardened by gradu
ally exposing them by the removal of the
sashes whenever the night temperature will
allow. The usual night temperature for a hot
bed is 55° to 65°, and that in the day 70° to
80°. - Where many varieties are to 'be sown in
a bed, it is convenient, instead of sowing the
seeds in the soil of the bed, to sow them in
shallow Wooden boxes 2|- or 3 in. deep. Be
sides seeds, roots of various kinds are for
warded in hotbeds ; sweet potatoes are buried
in the soil of the bed in order to get sets for
planting; dahlia roots are started, and such
slow-growing bulbs as tuberoses are best for
warded in this way before putting them out.
A little bottom heat will often resuscitate a
languishing plant or start a backward one into
growth, and a hotbed is often useful as a place
in which to plunge the pots of such plants.
Where a very gentle and long continued heat
is required, what is called a bark pit is used ;
in this spent tanner's bark, or waste tan, as it
is called, takes the place of manure.

HOTHO, Hemrich Gnstav, a German author,
born in Berlin, May 22, 1802, died there, Dec.
25, 1873. He studied in Berlin, and was one
of the most distinguished pupils of Hegel. In
1828 he became professor of history in the
military school of Berlin, and in 1829 professor
in the university; in 1830 assistant curator
of the gallery of paintings, and in 1859 director
of the collection of engravings in the royal
museum. He published an edition of Hegel's
Vorlesungen iiber AestJietik (3 vols., Berlin,
1835-'8), and acquired celebrity as a historian
and critic of Flemish and German art. His
works include Gescliiclite der deutscJien und
niedcrldndischenMalerei(2vo]s., 1840-'43, left
unfinished) ; Die Nalerschule Hulerfs van
Eyclc, &c. (2 vols., 1855-'9) ; and Die Meister-
werlee der Malerei vom Ende des 3. bis Anfang
des 18. Jalirliundcrts (1865 et seq.}.

HOT SPRINGS, a S. W. central county of
Arkansas, intersected by Washita river ; area
in 1870, about 900 sq. m. ; pop. 5,877, of whom
650 were colored. It has a hilly surface. The
soil is very fertile in the river bottoms, and
timber is abundant. It is traversed by the
Cairo and Fulton railroad. The chief produc
tions in 1870 were 5,796 bushels of wheat,
196,848 of Indian corn, 15,851 of sweet pota
toes, and 843 bales of cotton. There were
964 horses, 3,896 cattle, 1,779 sheep, and 11,-
364 swine. The portion containing the hot
springs whence its name is derived was set off
to form Garland co. in 1873, reducing the area
given above. Capital, Rockport.

HOT SPRINGS, a town and the capital of Gar
land co., Arkansas, about 45 m. W. S. W. of
Little Rock, 6 m. N". of the Washita river, and
21 m. from Malvern on the Cairo and Fulton
railroad; pop. in 1870, 1,276, of whom 296
were colored. It is built principally in the
narrow valley of Hot Spring creek, running
N. and S., and contains 8 or 10 hotels, 3

HOTTENTOTS

HOUDETOT

schools, 2 weekly newspapers, and 5 churches.
In the vicinity is found valuable stone for hones
and whetstones, of which considerable quanti
ties are quarried. The springs (57 in number)
issue from the "W. slope of Hot Spring moun
tain, vary in temperature from 93° to 150°, and
discharge into the creek about 500,000 gallons
a day. They are much resorted to by invalids
and tourists. — See "The Hot Springs as They
Are," by Charles Cutter (Little Rock, 1874).

HOTTENTOTS, a people of South Africa, in
cluding the original inhabitants of the territo
ry now occupied by Cape Colony. Van Kie-
beek, the founder of this colony in 1652, states
that they called themselves, according to the
various dialects, Koi-koin, Tkuhgrub, Quenau,
and Quaquas. It is supposed that the name
of Hottentots was given them by the Dutch,
probably in imitation of the clicking sounds
in the language of the natives. The general
characteristics of the Hottentots are a pecu
liarly livid and yellowish brown skin, crisp
and tufted hair, a narrow forehead, projecting
cheek bones, a pointed chin, a body of me
dium height and rather tough than strong,
small hands and feet, and a flat and nar
row skull. The Griquas are half-breeds de
scended from Hottentot mothers and Dutch
fathers. The Hottentots are skilled in horse
manship, and are intelligent and courageous.
They are of a mild disposition, but given to
lying, stealing, drunkenness, and sensuality.
They are ruled by chiefs who are controlled
by councils. Their religious notions are cen
tred in a supreme being, who is little else
than a deified chieftain. They believe in a fu
ture life, and fear the return of spirits. They
have various superstitions. They refuse to
have their photographs taken lest it should
deprive them of a portion of their life. They
sometimes mutilate their hands as a protection
against evil influences. As an example of their j
intellectual capacity may bo mentioned the
Hottentot Andreas Stoffles, who was master
of several languages, and could make a good
speech in English. The Damaras, a nomadic
warrior tribe who came to South Africa from
the central regions of that continent about the
middle of the 18th century, are now almost
extinct. Nearest related to the Hottentots
are the Bushmen. See BUSHMEN, and ETH
NOLOGY ; also Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sud-
afrikas (Breslau, 1872j, and Perty, Antliro-
pologie (2 vols., Leipsic, 1873-'4).— The Hot
tentot language has four dialects. The Nama
dialect is spoken by the Namaquas (properly
Nama-kha or Nama-na, klia and na being plu
ral suffixes, the one of masculine, the other of
common gender), N. W. of Cape Colony, and
also by the Damaras, N. of them, but it does
not seem to be their original tongue. It is the
oldest and purest of the dialects, but, like the
speech of all savages, it may be subdivided into
several sub-dialects according to tribes and
even families. The Khora dialect is spoken by
the Koraquas (better Khora-kha or Kora-na),

N. of the upper Orange river, and is in age
and purity greatly inferior to the Nama. The
Cape dialect is the least cultivated of all, and
no grammar of it has been published. The
same is the case with the dialect of the eastern
races. The Hottentot is, generally speaking,
of a monosyllabic structure. It is rich in diph
thongs and remarkably delicate in the use
of inflectional final sounds, which contrast
strangely with the constantly recurring initial
clicking sounds. Flectional forms are pro
duced by suffixes to the verbal root. Mascu
line, feminine, and common genders, and sin
gular, dual, and plural numbers, are distin
guished, and in case of pronouns not only in
the third, but even in the first and second per
son. These distinctions, however, are not as
clear as in other languages. The Bushman
language also is considered a form of the Hot
tentot. Missionaries speak of it as hard and
rough, and as represented by numerous dia
lects among the races of the desert and moun
tains of the interior. — See Tindall, " Grammar
and Vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot
Language" (no date); Bleek, "Comparative
Grammar of the South African Languages"
(2 vols., Capetown and London, 1862-'9); and
F. Miiller, Eeise der Oesterreichisclien Fregatte
Novara : LinguistiscJier Theil (Vienna, 1867).

HOTTENTOTS' BREAD. See TORTOISE PLANT.

HOTTIAGER, Johann Heinrich, a Swiss philolo
gist, born in Zurich, March 10, 1620, drowned
June 5, 1667. He studied at Groningen, and
afterward at Leyden. In 1642 he became pro
fessor of church history in Zurich, and in 1643
also of the Hebrew language; and in 1653 he
was appointed to the chair of rhetoric, logic,
and Scriptural theology. In 1655 he accepted
the professorship of eastern languages and Bib
lical criticism at Heidelberg. On his return to
Zurich in 1661 he was made rector of the uni
versity. His increasing reputation led to an
invitation from the university of Leyden in
1667, which he was ready to accept, when,
while crossing the river Limmath in the vicin
ity of Zurich, he was drowned by the upsetting
of a boat, with several of his children. Among
his works are Thesaurus Pldlologicus, sen Cla-
vis Scripture (Zurich, 1649), sm<\.Etymologicum
Orientale, sive Lexicon Harmonicum Heptci-
glotton (Frankfort, 1661). — His son, JOHANN
JAKOB (1652-1735), wrote Helvetisclte Kirclien-
gescMcJite (Zurich, 1708-'29); and another Jo-
IIANN JAKOB, of the same family (1783-1859),
wrote a Gescliichte der Scliiceizerisclteii Kir-
chentrcnnung (Zurich, 1825-'7).

HOIDETOT, Elisabeth Fran^oise Sophie d', coun
tess, a French lady celebrated by her associa
tion with Rousseau, born in Paris about 1730,
died Jan. 22, 1813. She was a daughter of
M. de la Live de Bellegarde, and married about
1748 the count d'Houdetot, to whom she bore
a son in 1750. She left him toward 1753, and
lived with the poet Saint-Lambert till his death
in 1803. While residing at the chateau of
Eau-Bonne near Andilly, and iu the vicinity

HOUDIX

HOUGHTON

of the Hermitage which her sister-in-law Mine.
d'Epinay had fitted up for Rousseau, she renew
ed her acquaintance with the latter, whom she
had previously met in her relative's house in
Paris. He fell in love with her, and idealized
her in his Julie, ou la nouvelle Helo'ise, describ
ing the vicissitudes of his passion and of his
relation with her in his Confessions; but the
countess protested against his exaggerations,
and according to Rousseau's account as well as
her own she remained faithful to her lover
Saint-Lambert, although she felt much nat
tered by Rousseau's admiration. She had fine
hair, but was far from handsome. When Saint-
Lambert became idiotic in his old age she
nursed him. Her husband, who died some 10 j
years before her lover, never lost his regard
for her. Her son became a lieutenant general,
and his three sons acquired eminence respec
tively in civil and military life and in literature.

HOUDIX, Robert, a French conjurer, born in
Blois, Dec. G, 1805, died there in June, 1871.
His father, a watchmaker, gave him a good
education at the college of Orleans, and at 18
years of age placed him in a lawyer's office ;
but having an extraordinary taste for mechan
ics, his father consented that he should learn
watchmaking. While engaged in this occupa
tion, the perusal of works on natural magic
and a friendship formed with a travelling con
jurer inspired him with an inclination for jug
gling. Having married, he went to Paris and
engaged in his trade. He employed himself for
a year in reconstructing a complicated ma
chine, and so overstrained his mind as to lose
all mental power for five years. After recov
ering he devoted himself for some time to ma
king mechanical toys and automata, and at the
Paris exhibition of 1844 obtained a medal for
several curious figures of this kind. In 1845
he opened a series of exhibitions in juggling
which became famous throughout Europe, and
in 1848 he performed with great success in
England. In 1855, at the great Paris exhi
bition, he gained the gold medal for his sci
entific application of electricity to clocks, and
shortly after relinquished his exhibition to his
brother-in-law Hamilton, retiring with a for
tune to Blois. In 1856 the French government,
finding that the Arabs in Algeria were fre
quently stirred up to rebellion by the pre
tended miracles of their marabouts or priests,
invited Houdin to visit that colony, and if pos
sible excel the magicians in their own tricks.
He completely succeeded, passing through sev
eral very singular adventures while so doing.
In 1857 he published Robert Houdin, sa vie, scs
ceuvres, son theatre, and in 1859 his Confidences,
which has been translated into English (Phila
delphia, 1859). In 1861 he published Les tri
ckeries des Grecs devoiles, exposing the cheats
Of gamblers.

HOIDO.X, Jean Antoine, a French sculptor,
born in Versailles, March 20, 1741, died in
Paris. July 15, 1828. Having gained the first
prize for sculpture in the royal academy at Pa

ris, he passed ten years in Rome, and finished,
among other works, the statue of St. Bruno in
the church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli. Re
turning to Paris, he executed during the next
15 years admirable busts of Rousseau, Diderot,
D'Alembert, Gluck,Turgot. Franklin, Mirabeau,
and many other distinguished men ; statues of
Voltaire and Tourville ; the " Diana " for the
empress of Russia ; the " Shivering Woman,"
and other works, which placed him in the first
rank of French sculptors, and procured his ad
mission to the academy, lie made at this time
the statue of a muscular skeleton of the human
body, which he afterward reproduced in smaller
size, and which has been often copied and used
for the artistic study of anatomy. In 1785 he
accompanied Franklin to the United States, to
prepare the model for the statue of Washing
ton ordered by the state of Virginia, and
passed two weeks at Mount Vernon for that
purpose. The statue, bearing the sculptor's
legend, Fait par Houdon, citoyen fmngais,
1788, in the hall of the capitol at Richmond,
according to the testimony of Lafayette and
other personal friends of Washington, is the
best representation of him ever made. Among
his later works were busts of Napoleon and
Josephine and other celebrities of the first
empire, and the statue of Cicero in the Lux
embourg palace.

HOUGHTON, a N". W. county of the upper
peninsula of Michigan, bounded N. W. by Lake
Superior, indented on the N. E. by Keweenaw
bay, and drained by Sturgeon river and other
streams; area, about 2,000 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 13,879. The surface is uneven and rocky,
the N. W. portion consisting of the upper half
of Keweenaw point, a peninsula lying between
Lake Superior and Keweenaw bay, through
which runs the Mineral range, and which con
tains Torch lake and Portage lake, discharging
into the bay. Silver and iron ore are found,
but the great wealth of the county is in its
copper mines, which are situated in the Mineral
range near Portage lake, the most productive
being the Calumet and Hecla mine on the X.
border. According to the census of 1870,
there were 11 copper mines, employing 2,961
hands, and producing $3,231,888 worth of ore.
The product of 1872 was 12,602 tons (four fifths
of the product of the Lake Superior region),
of which the Calumet and Hecla mine yielded
9,800 tons. The ore is in a nearly pure state.
The chief productions in 1870 were 8,595
bushels of oats, 22,040 of potatoes, and 703
tons of hay. There were 3 manufactories of
clothing, 2 of iron castings, 1 of machinery,
1 of soap and candles, 12 of copper (milled and
smelted), 4 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware,
4 breweries, 2 planing mills, and 5 saw mills.
Capital, Houghton.

HOI GHTOIV, Richard Monokton Milnes, lord, an
English author, born in Yorkshire, June 19,
1809. He graduated at Trinity college, Cam
bridge, in 1831, entered parliament as member
for Pontefract in 1837, and represented that

HOUGHTON

HOUND

constituency till Aug. 20, 1863, when he was j
raised to the peerage as Baron Houghton.
He began his political life as a conservative,
but soon allied himself with the liberals. In
the house of commons he advocated popular
education, religious equality, and measures for
the reformation of criminals, and proved him
self a warm friend of Italy in its struggles for
unity and freedom. In early life he travelled
much in southern Europe and in the East, and
he has published several volumes of travels
and a number of poems, some of the latter
descriptive of oriental life and scenery. His
works are : " Memorials of a Tour in Greece "
(1833); "Memorials of a Residence on the
Continent, and Historical Poems," and "Poeti
cal Works" (1838); "Poetry for the People,
and other Poems" (1840); "Memorials of
Many Scenes : Poems " (1843) ; " Palm Leaves :
Eastern Poems," "Poems Legendary and His
torical," and " Poems of Many Years " (1844) ;
"Good Night and Good Morning" (1859);
"Monographs, Personal and Social" (1873);
and "Poetical Works" (1874). He edited the
letters and literary remains of John Keats, with
a memoir (1848), has published many pam
phlets and speeches on political topics, includ
ing "Thoughts on Party Politics," "Real Union
of England and Ireland," and " Events of 1848,
especially in their relation to Great Britain,"
and has contributed articles to the " Westmin
ster Review" and other periodicals.

HOIGHTON, William, an English clergyman,
born in Norwich in 1807. He graduated at
Highbury college, London, in 1832, and in 1833
became minister of the Congregational church
at Windsor. In 1844 he succeeded Dr. Robert
Yaughan as minister of the Congregational
society at Kensington, and in 1855 was elected
chairman of the Congregational union of Eng
land and Wales, and delivered the " Congrega
tional lecture," his subject being " The Ages of
Christendom." Dr. Houghton has travelled
extensively in the East, and has written many
hooks, the most important of which is "The
Ecclesiastical History of England " (4 vols., Lon
don, 1870). Among his other works is "Coun
try Walks of a Naturalist with his Children "
(1809). lie represented the English Indepen
dents at the meeting of the evangelical alliance
held in New York in 1873.

H()l : JVD (canis sfiya-x), the name of several
varieties of large and powerful dogs hunting
by scent, and trained to pursue the stag, the
fox, the hare, and other animals, and even
man. The progenitors of the hound races
were probably, according to Hamilton Smith,
the jungle koola (lyciscm tigris, II. Smith) and
the buansuah (canis prime/evils, Hodg.), both of
the warmer parts of Asia. (See DOG.) These
were domesticated after the more wolf-like
varieties, and display in all the breeds a ten- j
dency to the three colors of white, black, and
tan, characterizing them in their wild state. !
The cranium has a larger cerebral cavity than
in less sagacious dogs, with a more convex fore- :

head, wider space between the eyes for the
organ of smell, and broader jaws; most varie
ties have also a wide nose, full and prominent
eyes, large hanging ears, a raised and truncated
tail, and often a spurious toe on the hind feet.
There are two races, the one with short hair,
the hounds proper, and the other with long
hair, like the setter and spaniel, and used as
gun and water dogs ; the pointer seems to
occupy an intermediate place between them.
The faculties which make the hounds so useful
in hunting must have existed in the original
species, and have been cultivated in regard to
special game according to the fancy of man;
the blood, stag, and fox hounds have no intui
tive tendency to pursue respectively man, the
deer, and the fox, and these only, but have
been trained with great care to hunt a single
game. The most ancient form of hound fig
ured upon the Egyptian monuments resembles
much the bloodhound, which was formerly so
much esteemed for its sagacity, strength, and
olfactory acuteness. The bloodhound, once
employed to trace felons, enemies, and fugi
tives, or to bring the huntsman to the retreat
of a wounded animal, has been fully described
under that title; it is now kept in civilized
countries rather for show than use. • The stag
hound is but little smaller than the blood
hound, and like it is slow, sure, and steady ; in
fact it is a mongrel bloodhound, the cross being
either some greyhound or swift fox hound ;
it has a large, rather short and sharp head,
long hanging ears, muscular limbs, small feet,
and tail carried high; the color is always more
or less white with fulvous markings. Stag
hunting, as performed in the fatiguing and
cruel manner of the 17th and 18th centuries,
is now rare, and this form of hound has be
come nearly if not entirely extinct. The fox
hound of the present day is a perfect model of

English Fox Hound.

a hunting dog, and is a carefully bred cross
between the bloodhound and the greyhound,
probably with the intermixture of the southern
English and perhaps other hounds; exactly how
it has attained its present character it is impos
sible to determine. It is lower at the shoulders

HOUNSLOW

IIOUSELEEE

and more slenderly built than the stag hound,
with shorter hair, and the color is white, with
larger clouds of black and tan, one on each side
of the head, covering the ears, another on each
flank, and a third at the root of the tail. Its
speed is such that none but a thoroughbred
hunter can keep up with it, and its endurance
so great that a pack has been known to run for
ten hours, tiring out three changes of horses,
and severely testing the strength of the sports
men. Breeders dilfer as to the best size for fox
hounds, but from 22 to 24 in. high at the shoul
der is generally considered the most advantage
ous. The best food is thought to be oatmeal
and well boiled horse flesh, attention being paid
to their constitution, the season of the year, and
amount of work to be done. The cry of a pack
of hounds, once so cheering and melodious, has
lost much of its romantic interest from the
change man has effected in the character of
these animals ; the other good points of a hound,
such as pureness of stock, beauty of form, speed,
endurance, and acuteness of smell, are more
highly prized in a pack than harmonious voices.
The average value of an established pack of
fox hounds may be set down at about £1,000,
though some have been sold for more than
twice that sum ; single hounds are often sold
as high as 100 guineas. (See BEAGLE, BLOOD-
HOUXD, DOG, GREYHOUND, and HAEEIEE.)

HOOSLOW, a town of Middlesex, England, 10
m. W. S. W. of London ; pop. in 1871, 9,294. It
consists of a single street, which stretches along
the Great Western road from London. On
Hounslow heath, which previous to the pres
ent century was frequently the scene of high
way robberies, now stand gunpowder mills.

HOUR (Gr. &pa ; Lat. hora), a measure of
time equal to ^ T of a mean solar day, or this
proportion of the period between sunrise and
sunrise at the time of the equinoxes. Thus
applied, it becomes a definite measure ; but as
employed by the ancients to designate -fa of
the natural day, it was an indefinite period,
varying with the times of rising and setting
of the sun, times which continually changed
with the season, and between increasing ex
tremes as the observations were made in high
er and higher latitudes. Even in the latitude
of Rome, the length of the hour on June 25
was about ^ part of 15 hours 6 minutes, as
now reckoned, and on December 23 it was only
y^ part of 8 hours 54 minutes. At the two
equinoxes only would the hour agree with its
present measure. Hours thus divided were
known as " temporary hours," in reference to
their constant change of length. When the
day was thus first divided is unknown. Herod
otus states that the Greeks obtained the prac
tice from the Babylonians. Wilkinson, how
ever, says that " there is reason to believe that
the day and night were divided, each into 12
hours, by the Egyptians, some centuries before
that idea could have been imparted to the
Greeks from Babylon." The division of the
night as Avell as the day into 12 equal parts was

not practised by the Romans until the time of
the Punic wars, and the use of equinoctial
hours was not adopted till toward the end of
the 4th century of our era ; the first calendar
known to have been made after this system
is the Calendarium Rusticum Farnesianum.
Hours are now reckoned in common practice
in two series of 12 each, from midnight to
midday, and from this to midnight, which cor
responds to the supposed divisions of the an
cient Egyptians. Astronomers count 24 hours
from one midday to the next ; and the Ital
ians 24 hours from one sunset to the next,
changing the commencement of the day with
the season. The Chinese divide the day into
12 hours, one of their hours being equal to
two of ours. They reckon from an hour (of
our time) before midnight. In the use of
clocks in the llth century it was the duty of
the sacristans of the churches to regulate the
horologia each morning.

HOUR CIRCLES, or Horary Circles, great circles
of the sphere, passing through the poles, and
consequently perpendicular to the equator.
They are meridians at every -fa part of the
circumference, their planes thus making an
gles of 15° with each other.

HOURIS, the black-eyed damsels of the Mo
hammedan paradise, formed of pure musk, and
made by a peculiar creation perpetual virgins.
They dwell in green gardens and pearl pavil
ions, among lotus and acacia trees, with fruits
in abundance, near flowing streams, reposing
on lofty couches adorned with gold and pre
cious stones. Some of the pavilions which
they occupy are 60 miles square. The very
meanest of the faithful will have V2 houris, be
sides the wives which he married when living.
They join in concert with the angel Israfil, the
most melodious of God's creatures, and the
branches of the trees give an ^Eolian accom
paniment. They may, if they desire, have
children, which within an hour shall be con
ceived, born, and grow to maturity. Algaz-
zali regards the descriptions of the houris in
the Koran as allegorical, and designed to con
vey an impression of the spiritual beatitude of
the saints ; and the orientalist Hyde affirms
that an enlightened belief prevails among the
wiser Mohammedans.

HOl'RS, in mythology. See HOE^.

HOISATONIC, a river of New England, which
rises in Berkshire co., Mass., flows into Con
necticut, winds through Litchfield co.,' forms
a part of the boundary between New Haven
co. and Fail-field co., and falls into Long Island
sound below Milford. Its entire length is
about 150 m. Its scenery in general is very
picturesque, and on its banks are numerous
large mills. The Housatonic railroad follows
its course for about 75 m.

HOl'SELEEK. (sempermvum, Linn.), a genus of
plants of the natural order cmssidacew, having
thick succulent stems and leaves, the former
frequently short, with the leaves so closely
crowded upon them as to form a dense rosette,

IIOUSELEEK

IIOUSSA

and ornamental flowers, either yellow or red. j cially adapt them to this purpose ; and these
The houseleeks are found in the mountains of I plants, which were formerly kept as single
southern and central Europe, the Canaries, specimens by the curious, are now raised by
and various parts of Asia and Africa, The the florists in large quantities for ornam en-

common houseleek (S. tectorum, Linn.) has
very thick, succulent leaves, disposed about a

Common Ilouscleek (Sompm'ivum tcctorum).

short stem in a circular manner. It will grow
in the most scanty soils and where it is exposed
to drought, patches of it several feet in circum
ference thriving for years upon the exposed
surfaces of rocks that are partially shaded. In
Europe it is very common upon the thatched
roofs of houses; it was formerly supposed to
serve as a protection from lightning, and in
early times every
house was required
to have it ; the cus
tom still prevails,
and it is said that
the plant tends to
preserve the thatch.
AVithin a few years

t]ie taste in garden-
ing has led to the
of semper vi-

Cobweb llouseleck (Sempervivum arachnoideum).

vums and other succulents for forming beds
of a mosaic of living plants. The neat com
pact habit of the houseleeks and the related
cotyledons, echeverias, &c., as well as the va
riety in color presented by the leaves, espe- I

tal planting. One of the most valued for
this purpose is 8. calcareum from the Alps
(incorrectly S. Californicum of florists), and
several others are employed. A very striking
and interesting little species is the cobweb
houseleek (S. aracJinoideum), also an alpine
species; its rosettes, about an inch across,
grow close together in large clumps ; the tiny
leaves are connected by a fine down which
passes from tip to tip, making the plant look
as if an industrious spider had spun its web
over it. AYhere sparrows abound the plant
cannot be grown in perfection, as these birds
rob it of the web to use in their nests. The
tree houseleek (S. arboreum), from the Ca
naries, has a branching stem 3 ft. or more high,
each branch terminated by a handsome rosette

Tree Houseleek (Sempervivum arboreurn).

of green leaves, or in the varieties yellow
margined or purple. It is a greenhouse plant,
and was formerly common as a window plant.
— The houseleeks are not remarkable for useful
qualities. The fresh leaves of the cnsao of
Madeira (S. (jlutinosum, Aiton) are used by the
fishermen to rub upon their nets, to preserve
them. Malic acid combined with lime exists
in 8. tectorum. Its juices are considered cool
ing, and its bruised leaves are used in domestic
practice as applications to burns, ulcers, and
inflammation, and from them also a simple and
cooling salve is prepared.

IIOl'SSA, or llanssa, a country of central Af
rica, bounded N. by the Sahara, E. by Bor
neo, S. by Xufi, and "W. by the Quorra. The
people are negroes, and the Foolahs or Fella-
tahs are the ruling race. Barth found the coun
try divided into 10 provinces. Kano, in the
province of the same name, is the principal
city in point of commerce, and has about 30,-
000 inhabitants; it is in lat. 12° 0' 19" N. and

1-t

IIOUSSAYE

HOUSTON

Ion. 8° 40' E. Katagum, E. by N. of Kano, has
from 7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants. Sackatoo, in
the N. W. part of the country, has upward of
20,000 inhabitants, and has one of the best sup
plied markets in central Africa. Wurno, 15 m.
N. E. of Sackatoo, on the river Rima, is a new
town founded in 1831 ; its population is about
12,000. Zaria, the capital of the province of
Zegzeg, is in lat. 10° 59' N. and Ion. 8° E. ;
it is surrounded by a beautiful and highly cul
tivated country, and its population is estimated
at 50,000. Houssa is well watered, being
traversed by the rivers Sackatoo, Mariadi,
Zirmie. Bugga, Zoma, and other tributaries of
the Niger. It is considerably elevated above
the sea, and its climate is consequently cooler
and more healthy than that of the other coun
tries of central Africa. The land is well culti
vated, the principal crop being Indian corn,
of which two harvests are annually produced.
Cotton is largely raised, and Kano is famous
throughout central Africa for its dyed cloths.
Tobacco, indigo, rice, and various kinds of
grain and fruits are diligently cultivated. At
Sackatoo there are extensive manufactures of
leather, iron, and cotton cloths ; and an active
commerce is carried on in all the cities by
means of open markets, which are frequented
by traders from the neighboring countries
and from remote parts of the continent. The
people of Houssa are mostly Mohammedans.
They have attained to some degree of civiliza
tion, have a written language, and have his
torical records reaching back to the 13th cen
tury of our era. They were converted to Mo
hammedanism in the 16th century, and were
conquered by the Foolahs in 1807, when Kat-
sena, then their principal city, surrendered
after a desperate defence of seven years.

IIOUSSAYE. 3. Arsene, a French author, born
at Bruyeres, near Laon, March 28, 1815. While
young he went to Paris, where his two novels,
La couronne de bluets and La pecheresse, ap
peared in 1836. The friendship of Jules Janin
and Theophile Gautier, and his association in
work with Jules Sandeau, aided to establish
him in the literary world. From 1844 to 1849
he was editor of D Artiste, and his Histoire de
la peinture Jiamande et liollandaise (fol., 1846)
was aided by a subscription of 50,000 francs
from the government. This work was receiv
ed with popular favor, although charged with
plagiarism. At the revolution of 1848 he was
thrown into political prominence, and was an
unsuccessful candidate for the assembly. He
was manager of the Theatre Francais from
1840 to 1856, and he became one of the most
notorious courtiers of the second empire. In
1861 he became one of the proprietors and the
managing editor of La Prense. His numerous
writings include poetry, plays, essays, and pop
ular sketches of celebrated and fashionable
women. Among them are Nos grandes dames (4
vols., 1868), Les Parisiennes (4 vols., 1869-'70),
and Mademoiselle Cleopdtre (new ed., 1874).
Hi Henry, a French author, son of the prece

ding, born in Paris, Feb. 24, 1848. He be
came known in 1867 by his Histoire d?Apelles,
and his subsequent works include Histoire
d? Alcibiade et de la repullique athenienne
depuis la mart de Pericles jusqifd Vavenement
des trente tyrans (2 vols., Paris, 1874).

HOUSTON. I. A central county of Georgia,
bounded E. by the Ocmulgee river, which is
navigable by steamboats, and drained by seve
ral of its affluents ; area, 875 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 20,406, of whom 15,332 were colored.
The surface is undulating, and the soil, of
limestone formation, is very fertile. The
Southwestern railroad passes through the
county. The chief productions in 1870 were
3,536 bushels of wheat, 363,895 of Indian corn,
40,107 of sweet potatoes, and 3,819 bales of
cotton. There were 834 horses, 2,730 mules
and asses, 1,502 milch cows, 3,890 other cattle,
and 10,963 swine; 1 manufactory of agricul
tural implements, 3 of carriages, 1 of cotton
goods, 1 flour mill, and 7 saw mills. Capital,
Perry. II. A S. E. county of Texas, bounded
E. by Neches river, and W. by Trinity river,
both navigable ; area, 1,090 sq. m. ; pop. in
1870, 8,147, of whom 3,542 were colored. It
has a highly fertile soil, and a rolling surface
diversified in some places with hills, and well
timbered with oak, pine, ash, hickory, black
walnut, &c. The Houston and Great North
ern railroad traverses it. The chief produc
tions in 1870 were 33,163 bushels of Indian
corn, 5,779 of sweet potatoes, and 920 bales of
cotton. There were 297 horses, 2,684 cattle,
and 3,171 swine. Capital, Crockett. III. A
N. W. county of Tennessee, formed since the
census of 1870, bounded W. by the Tennessee
and N. E. by Cumberland river; area, about
350 sq. m. The surface is undulating and the
soil fertile. The Louisville and Nashville and
Great Southern railroad passes through the N.
part. The assessed value of property in 1871
was $344,775. Capital, Erin. IV. A S.^E.
county of Minnesota, separated on the E. from
Wisconsin by the Mississippi, bordering on
Iowa on the S., and intersected by Root river ;
area, about 575 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 14,936.
The surface is undulating and mostly wooded,
only about a fifth being occupied by prairies.
The soil, resting on magnesian limestone, is
very fertile. The Southern Minnesota and the
Chicago, Dubuque, and Minnesota railroads
intersect it. The chief productions in 1870
were 623,557 bushels of wheat, 249,761 of In
dian corn, 227,688 of oats, 31,182 of barley,
32,065 of potatoes, 27,560 Ibs. of hops, 14,286
of wool, 229,183 of butter, and 14,776 tons of
hay. There were 2,917 horses, 3,614 milch
cows, 4,536 other cattle, 4,697 sheep, and 6,305
swine ; 1 car factory, 6 flour mills, and 2 saw
mills. Capital, Caledonia.

HOUSTON, a city and the capital of Harris
co., Texas, the second city in the state in pop
ulation and importance, situated at the head
of tide water on Buffalo bayou, 45 m. above its
mouth in Galveston bay, 46 N. W. of Galves-

HOUSTON"

ton, and 150 m. E. S. E. of Austin; pop. in
1860, 4,845 ; in 1870, 9,882, of whom 3,691
were colored; in 1874, estimated by the local
authorities at 20,000. It is built on the left
bank of the bayou, which is spanned by several
bridges, the principal ones being of iron, and
embraces an area of 9 sq. m. The city hall
and market house of brick, just finished at a
cost of $400,000, is 272 ft. long by 146 ft. wide,
and has two towers, 14 by 21 ft. and 114 ft.
high. It contains a hall, 70 by 110 ft., fitted
up for public entertainments and capable of
seating 1,300 persons. The masonic temple is
a handsome structure costing $200,000. The
principal hotel, the largest in the state, has
accommodations for 500 guests. The city is
lighted with gas, and is easily drained. The
construction of street railroads and grading of
streets are in progress. Houston is the centre

of the railroad system of the state, and attracts
the trade of the surrounding country, which
is rich in grazing and agricultural products.
There are six diverging lines: the Houston and
Texas Central ; the Houston and Great North
ern and International ; Houston Tap and Bra-
zoria; Galveston, Houston, and Henderson;
New Orleans and Texas ; and Buffalo Bayou,
Brazos, and Colorado. The bayou opposite
the city has a depth of 5 ft., but owing to bars
in Galveston bay vessels drawing more than 4
ft. cannot reach this point. Improvements are
in progress by the United States government
and an incorporated company, which will ren
der Houston accessible by vessels drawing 9 ft.
The navigation of the bayou is mainly con
trolled by the Houston direct navigation com
pany, which hac a capital of $300,000, and
owns 6 steamers, 4 tugs, and 24 barges. The

Market and Opera House, Houston.

whole number of vessels regularly engaged in
the trade of the Ijayon in 1872 was 71, viz. :
steamers, 10 ; fugs, 6 ; barges, 30 ; schooners,
mostly employed in the lumber trade with the
Sabine, Louisiana, and Florida coasts, 25. An
extensive lumber trade is also carried on by
flatboats with the bayous emptying into Buffalo
bayou and San Jacinto river. The principal
business, however, is manufacturing, in which
Houston surpasses all other places in the state.
The chief establishments, besides the extensive
machine shops of the railroads, are 2 cotton fac
tories, 4 iron and brass founderies, 3 car facto
ries. 4 planing mills and wood works, 5 manu
factories of furniture, 2 of soap, 1 of cement
pipe, 1 of bone dust, 5 sheet-iron and tin works,
5 carriage and wagon works, 1 beef-packing
and ice-manufacturing establishment, and 7
brick yards. There are three nurseries, two

VOL. IX. — 2

fire and marine insurance companies, a cotton
press company, two national banks with a cap
ital of $200,000, and a state bank with $500,000
capital. The valuation of property in 1873
was $7,669,625. The state fair is held here an
nually. The city contains 14 public schools,
which in 1872 had 26 teachers and 1,228 pu
pils, two public libraries with about 3,000 vol
umes, three daily and six weekly newspapers,
two monthly periodicals, and 12 churches. —
Houston was settled in 1836, and in 1837 was
temporarily the seat of government.

HOUSTON, Sam, an American soldier, born
near Lexington, Va., March 2, 1793, died at
Huntersville, Texas, July 25, 1863. His father
served in the revolutionary war, and held the
post of inspector of brigade till his death in
1807. His mother, after her husband's death,
emigrated with her six sons and three daugh-

HOUSTON

ters to East Tennessee, within 8 m. of the Cher
okee country. Sam had read a few books,
among them Pope's translation of the Iliad, of
which lie could repeat nearly the whole from
memory, lie desired to learn Greek and Latin,
but was refused by his schoolmaster, upon
which he left the school, and entered a store
as clerk. This occupation he had no relish for,
and absconding, he crossed the Tennessee river,
and lived witli the Indians about three years.
Though under 18 years of age, he was six feet
high and an active hunter, and stood high in
the esteem of his savage associates. Oolooteka,
one of their chiefs, adopted him as his son. In
1811 he returned to his family, and opened a
school. In 1813, during the war with Great
Britain, he enlisted as a common soldier, was
promoted to be an ensign, and fought under
Jackson against the Indians at the battle of
the great bend of the Tallapoosa, March 24,
1814, where he was severely wounded. After
the ratilication of peace in 1815 he was pro
moted to be a lieutenant, and was stationed
near Knoxville, Tenn., and afterward at New
Orleans. In November, 181 7, he was appoint
ed a subordinate Indian agent to carry out the
treaty with the Cherokees which had just been
ratified. In the following winter he conducted
a delegation of Indians to Washington. Com
plaints were made against him to the govern
ment on account of his exertions to prevent
the unlawful importation of African negroes
through Florida, then a Spanish province.
He was acquitted of all blame by the gov
ernment ; but conceiving himself to be ill
treated, he resigned his commission in the
army, March 1, 1818, settled in Nashville,
and began to study law. In six months he
was admitted to the bar, and began practice in
Lebanon, 30 m. E. of Nashville, lie was soon
appointed adjutant general of the state, with
the rank of colonel ; and in 1819 he was elected
district attorney of the Davidson district, and
took up his residence in Nashville. In 1821
he was elected major general of militia, and in
1823 a representative in congress. He was re-
elected in 1825 by an almost unanimous vote,
and in August, 1827, was chosen governor of
Tennessee. In January, 1829, he was mar
ried, and in April, for reasons unknown to the
public, separated from his wife, resigned his
office, went to the w r est of Arkansas, to which
his former friends the Cherokees had removed,
and presented himself before Oolooteka, who
had now become the principal chief of the
tribe. lie was kindly received, and by an
official act of the ruling chiefs, Oct. 21, 1829,
was formally admitted to all the rights and
privileges of the Cherokee nation. In 1832
he went to Washington to remonstrate against
the frauds and outrages practised upon the
Indians. This resulted in the removal of five
government agents from office, and he be
came involved in a series of personal and legal
contests with the removed agents and their
friends. He was accused in the house of rep

resentatives by W. R. Stansbury of Ohio of
having attempted to obtain from government
a fraudulent contract for Indian rations. This
led to a personal rencontre between Houston
and Stansbury, who was severely beaten. For
this Houston was arrested, and publicly cen-
.sured by the speaker of the house. He was
also tried for assault, and lined $500 ; but the
sentence of the court was not enforced, and
the tine was afterward remitted by President
Jackson. A committee of which Mr. Stans
bury was chairman was appointed to investi
gate the charge of fraud, but reported that
it was not sustained. Houston returned to
his wigwam, and in December, 1832, went to
Texas, where a revolutionary movement was
organizing against the Mexican government.
In the constitutional convention, which met
April 1, 1833, Houston exercised a controlling
influence. When the war with Mexico began
he was chosen general of the military district
east of the Trinity, and in October, 1835, mus
tered his forces and led them to the camp of
Gen. Austin, who was besieging Bexar. He
was soon elected commander-in-chief of the
Texan army. After the declaration of Texan
independence, he resigned his command, and
was immediately reflected commander-in-chief
of the army of the new republic. On March
10, 1836, he went to the camp of Gonzalez and
took command of the army of 374 men, ill or
ganized, poorly armed, and without supplies.
The fort of the Alamo had just be"en taken by
the Mexicans, and its garrison of about 170 put
to death. On March 12 information reached
the camp of this massacre, accompanied by
the statement that the president of Mexico,
Santa Anna, was close at hand with an army
of 5,000 men. The wildest panic seized the
Texan camp. Houston promptly restored or
der, and fell back to the Colorado, receiving
from time to time small reinforcements, till at
length the entire number of his force was 650
men. He had no artillery, and Col. Fannin,
who was stationed at Goliad with 500 men
well armed and supplied with artillery, was
ordered to join him; but he was intercepted
by a vastly superior force, and after a desperate
defence capitulated, March 20, and with his
command of 357 was massacred in cold blood,
March 27. Santa Anna advanced to Harris-
burg, the capital, which he laid in ashes, and
marched upon the town called New Washington.
Here upon the San Jacinto he was encountered
by Houston, who had at length received two
six-pounders from Cincinnati. His force had
been increased till it numbered 783 men, all
volunteers, most of whom had never seen a
battle ; but, led in a general charge by Houston,
with shouts of " Remember the Alamo ! " "Re
member Goliad ! " they utterly routed (April 21)
the Mexican force of 1,600 regulars, of whom
(530 were killed and nearly all the remainder
captured. The Texans had only 8 killed and 25
wounded. The next day Santa Anna, disguised
as a common soldier, was captured and brought

IIOYEDEN

HOWARD

before Houston, who rebuked him for the cruel
and perfidious massacres of Goliad and the
Alamo, but protected him from the wrath of
the Toxans. A treaty made with the captive
president secured the independence of Texas.
Houston, who had been severely wounded in
the ankle, was relieved from the command of
the army, and sailed for New Orleans, where
he arrived almost in a dying condition. In
July, however, he returned to his home in Na-
cogdoches. In the following September he
was elected president of Texas, and was in
augurated Oct. 22, 1836. He appointed his
political rivals to important offices, liberated
Santa Anna, and opened negotiations with
the United States government for the an
nexation of Texas to the Union. His presi
dential term expired Dec. 12, 1838; and as
the constitution made him ineligible for the
next term, he was succeeded by Mirabeau B.
Lamar. During the three years of the next
presidential term Texas became involved in
wars with the Indian tribes on her borders,
in disastrous expeditions against the Mexican
territories, and in debt to an enormous amount.
The expenditures for the year 1841 amounted to
$1,176,288, and the receipts to only $442,604.
Houston, who had meantime been twice elected
to congress, was reflected president in Septem
ber, 1841, by more than three quarters of the
votes. After a stormy administration, beset
at the outset with difficulties of the gravest
character, which were met with firmness and
overcome with great judgment and ability, he
retired from his second presidential term in De
cember, 1844. He had paid off a large amount
of the national debt, had kept the expendi
tures far within the revenues, restored peace
and trade with Mexico, made treaties with all
the hostile Indian tribes, and lastly had nego
tiated successfully the great measure of annexa
tion to the United States, though its final con
summation did not take place till after the ex
piration of his constitutional term of office,
when he was once more ineligible. Texas be
came one of the United States in 1845, and
Sam Houston and Thomas J. Rusk were the
first senators she sent to Washington. Hous
ton was reflected at the end of his term in
1853, and remained in the senate till March 4,
1859. As a senator, he was the zealous ad
vocate of justice and humanity to the Indians.
He opposed the Kansas and Nebraska bill, in a
speech March 3, 1854, and gave in his adhesion
to the "Know-Nothing" or American party.
In 1858 he voted against the Lecompton con
stitution of Kansas. On Aug. 1, 1859, he was
elected governor of Texas. He opposed seces
sion in 1861, and long resisted the clamor for
an extra session of the Texas legislature ; and
he finally resigned his office in preference to
taking the oath required by the convention.

IIOYEDEN, Roger de, an English chronicler,
born in Yorkshire about the middle of the 12th
century. He was attached to the court of
Henry II., and was employed in visiting mon-

j asteries, and in watching over the revenues
i that accrued to the king on the death of the
I superiors. His history, Annales Serum Anyli-
carum, is a continuation of the ecclesiastical his
tory of Bede, beginning where he left off (731),
and extending to 1202, the third year of the
reign of King John. Its accuracy is attested by
Sir Henry Savile, Selden, Leland, and Nicolson.
It was published in Savile's Scriptores post
Bedam (London, 1595), and translated by II.
T. Riley for Bonn's " Antiquarian Library."

HOVEY, ilrah, an American clergyman, born
in Thetford, Yt., March 5, 1820. He gradu
ated at Dartmouth college in 1844. Having
taught in the academy at New London one
year, he studied theology at Newton, Mass.,
completing the course in 1848. He was pastor
of the Baptist church at New Gloucester, Me.,
for one year, and in 1850 returned to Newton
theological institution, and taught in the de
partment of Biblical literature till 1853. He
became professor of ecclesiastical history in
1853 and of theology and Christian ethics in
1855, which latter post he still retains (1874).
He received the degree of D. D. from Brown
university in 1856. He has published a transla
tion of Perthes's " Life of Chrysostom," jointly
with the Rev. D. B. Ford (Boston, 1854) ; " Life
and Times of Backus" (1858); "The State of
the Impenitent Dead " (1859); "The Miracles
of Christ as Attested by the Evangelists"
(1863); "The Scriptural Law of Divorce"
(1866) ; and " Religion and the State" (1874).
HOWARD, the name of eight counties in the
United States. I. A central county of Mary
land, bounded N. E. by the Patapsco river,
and S. W. by the Patuxent; area, 225 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 14,150. of whom 3,474 were
colored. It has an uneven surface, rising in
some places into hills. The valleys are gen
erally fertile. The Baltimore and Ohio rail
road and the Washington branch pass through
it. The chief productions in 1870 were 128,-
376 bushels of wheat, 415,719 of Indian corn,
204,877 of oats, 97,929 of potatoes, 182,980
Ibs. of tobacco, 189,646 of butter, and 7,445
tons of hay. There were 2,958 horses, 3,100
milch cows, 3,056 other cattle, 2,516 sheep,
and 8,441 swine ; 3 cotton mills, 1 woollen mill,
and 5 flour mills. Capital, Ellicott City. II. A
S. W. county of Arkansas, formed in 1873
from portions of Hempstead, Pike, Polk, and
Sevier cos. It is well watered by affluents of
Little river and of the Little Missouri. The
surface is irregular, consisting of hills, valleys,
and river bottoms. The valleys and bottoms
| produce corn and cotton ; the hills are better
i adapted to the smaller grains and fruit. Tim-
! her is abundant, and lead, silver, and marl are
I found. Capital, Centre Point, III. A central
! county of Indiana, traversed by Wildcat creek,
| an affluent of the W abash ; area, 279 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 15,847. It has a level surface
and an excellent soil. The Pittsburgh, Cin-
| cinnati, and St. Louis, and the Indianapolis,
I Peru, and Chicago railroads intersect at the

HOWARD

county seat. The chief productions in 1870
were 287,875 bushels of wheat, 350,401 of In
dian corn, 34,031 of oats, 37,668 of potatoes,
4(5,429 Ibs. of wool, 121,777 of butter, and
4,250 tons of hay. There were 3,803 horses,
2,687 milch cows, 4,424 other cattle, 14,393
sheep, and 14,656 swine; 5 Hour mills, 3 pla
ning mills, 36 saw mills, and 3 woollen facto
ries. Capital, Kokomo. IV. A N. E. county
of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota, and watered
by the AVapsipinicon, Turkey, and Upper Iowa
rivers; area, about 430 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
6,282. It is well timbered, and has tracts of
prairie. The Iowa and Minnesota division of
the Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad crosses the
N. E. corner. The chief productions in 1870
were 321,514 bushels of wheat, 120,234 of
Indian corn, 263,258 of oats, 30,713 of pota
toes, 408,351 Ibs. of butter, and 14,880 tons of
hay. There were 2,175 horses, 2,734 milch
cows, 3,922 other cattle, 1,648 sheep, and
2,640 swine. Capital, New Oregon. V. A
central county of Missouri, bounded S. and AV.
by the Missouri river, and drained by some of
its small tributaries; area, 430 sq. in.; pop. in
1870, 17,233, of whom 5,193 were colored. It
abounds in anthracite coal, and has quarries
of limestone and sandstone. The surface is
rolling, and the soil fertile. The chief produc
tions in 1870 were 400,410 bushels of wheat,
917,335 of Indian corn, 152,490 of oats, 42,422
of potatoes, 788,132 Ibs. of tobacco, 66,554 of
wool, 120,216 of butter, and 3,856 tons of hay.
There were 5,799 horses, 2,425 mules and asses,
4,103 milch cows, 7,326 other cattle, 19,156
sheep, and 35,094 swine ; 2 manufactories of
carriages, 4 of saddlery and harness, and 4
flour milK Capital, Fayette. VI. A S. E.
county of Kansas, bordering on the Indian ter
ritory, and drained by Suicide creek and other
branches of the Arkansas, and by Fall river ;
area, 1,271 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 2,794. The
surface is undulating and the soil fertile. The
chief productions in 1870 were 4,766 bushels
of wheat, 26,795 of Indian corn, 2,710 of oats,
2,304 of potatoes, and 150 tons of hay. There
were 243 horses, 502 milch cows, 1,348 other
cattle, 592 sheep, and 435 swine. Capital, Elk
Falls. VII. An E. central county of Nebraska,
intersected by Loup fork of the Platte river
and its branches ; area, 576 sq. m. ; not in
cluded in the census of 1870. VIII. A N. W.
county of Dakota, bordering on Montana, re
cently formed and not included in the census
of 1 870 ; area, about 3,500 sq. m. It is bounded
N. by the Missouri, intersected by the Little
Missouri, and watered by other streams.

HOWARD, Charles, Lord Howard of Effing-
ham, an English admiral, born in 1530, died
Dec. 14, 1024. His father, William, son of
Thomas, second duke of Norfolk, was lord high
admiral of England and lord privy seal. The
son was sent to France in 1559 to congratulate
Francis II. on his accession to the throne, and '
served with credit on land and sea for many I
years. In 1585 he was appointed lord high ad-

i miral, and in 1588 succeeded in averting from
the English coasts the attack of the Spanish ar
mada. In 1590 he participated with the earl
of Essex in the capture of Cadiz and the de
struction of the Spanish shipping there, for
which service he was created earl of Notting
ham. The appointment of Essex in the suc
ceeding year to be hereditary earl marshal,
with precedence over the lord high admiral,
induced Lord Howard to resign the latter
office ; but he subsequently resumed it, and in
1599, during the alarm at the prospect of
another Spanish invasion, and of an insurrec
tion under Essex in Ireland, was appointed
by the queen lieutenant general of England.
He commanded the party which captured Essex
in London, and retained his office under James
I. until a few years before his death, when he
resigned it in favor of Buckingham, receiving
in compensation a pension of £1,000, and the
acquittal of a debt of £1,800 due the crown.

HOWARD, Henry, earl of Surrey. See SURREY.

HOAVARD, John, an English philanthropist,
born in Entield, Sept. 2, 1720, died in Kherson,
Russia, Jan. 20, 1790. At 10 years of age he
was apprenticed to a grocer in London ; but
upon the death of his father soon after, ho
purchased his indentures and travelled on the
continent. Returning to England, he occupied
himself with medical and scientific studies at
Stoke Newington. About the age of 25 he ex
perienced a severe attack of illness, and upon
his recovery testified his gratitude to his land
lady, who had nursed him, and who was 27
years his senior, by marrying her. She died
at the end of three years, and Howard in 1756
embarked for Lisbon, with a view of doing
something to alleviate the calamity of the
great earthquake. On the voyage he was
taken prisoner by a French privateer and car
ried into Brest, where he witnessed the inhu
man treatment of prisoners of war. Having
procured the exchange of himself and his
fellow captives, he returned to England, mar
ried a second time in 1758, and settled upon
an estate at Cardington, Bedfordshire, which
he had inherited from his father. His career
of active philanthropy may be said to date
from this time. He built schools and model
cottages for the peasantry, the latter the first
erected in England for their benefit ; and Car
dington, formerly a wretched and filthy village,
now attracted attention by its neatness and
the healthful and thrifty appearance of its in
habitants. In 1765 his second wife died, and
for several years he was employed in his stu
dies and reformatory plans, and in travelling
on the continent. He was named for the office
of sheriff of Bedfordshire in his absence, and
upon his return in 1773 accepted, and visited
in his official capacity the Bedford jail, in
which John Bunyan wrote his " Pilgrim's
Progress." The wretched condition of the
prisoners made a deep impression upon him ;
and the confinement of many innocent persons
for months and sometimes for years, from in-

HOWARD

ability to pay their fees of jail delivery, so
shocked him that he proposed to the magis
trates to pay regular salaries to the jailers, in
place of the fees collected from the prisoners.
The magistrates, unprepared for such an inno
vation, asked for a precedent, and, in his fruit
less exertions to find one, Howard visited every
town in England containing a prison. He col
lected a mass of information respecting prison
ahuses, which he communicated in a report to
the house of commons, who gave him a vote
of thanks, and in 1774 passed hills "for the re
lief of acquitted prisoners in the matter of
fees" and "for preserving the health of pris
oners." At his own expense he caused copies
of the new laws to he sent to every jailer in the
kingdom. The prominence thus given to his
name secured his election from Bedford to the
house of commons ; but his sympathy with the
American revolution aroused the ministry to
oppose him, and a parliamentary scrutiny un
seated him. He never afterward participated
in political life, but gave his whole time to the
philanthropic plans in which he had embarked.
He reexamined the principal penal establish
ments of England, and visited those of France.
Germany, and the Low Countries ; then made a
new tour through England, examining the opera
tion of the new jail act, and relieving much dis
tress among poor debtors, and revisited a large
portion of the continent. The result of these
researches appeared in his " State of the Prisons
in England and Wales, with Preliminary Ob
servations and an Account of some Foreign
Prisons " (4to, 1777). One of the first fruits
of this publication was the determination of
the ministry to make a trial of the discipline
of hard labor in one of the large prisons. But
as no building was adapted to the purpose,
Howard undertook in 1778 another tour to
collect plans and information, in the course of
which he visited the Low Countries, Germany,
Italy, and France, and travelled upward of
4,600 miles. In the succeeding year he made
another survey of English prisons, and in 1780
published an appendix to his work. A bill,
drafted by Sir William Blackstone and Mr.
Eden, was now passed for building two peni
tentiaries on the hard labor system, of which
Howard was appointed the first supervisor.
To escape controversy as to the site of the
buildings, he resigned his office, and between
1781 and 1784 travelled through Denmark,
Sweden, Russia, Poland, Spain, and Portugal,
publishing in 1784 a second appendix and a
new edition of his work. His labors for a
period of more than ten years had left him I
with impaired pecuniary resources and shat
tered health ; but he embarked upon a second
series of philanthropic researches with a zeal
surpassing his physical powers, volunteering
to procure for the British government informa
tion relating to quarantine establishments. The
French government was incensed against him
for having published in 1780 a translation of a
suppressed French account of the interior of

the Bastile, and refused him a passport. He
therefore travelled through the country in vari
ous disguises, and, after a series of romantic
adventures and several narrow escapes from
the police, who were constantly on his track,
succeeded in visiting the new lazaretto at
Marseilles. He proceeded thence to Malta,
Zante, Smyrna, and Constantinople, fearlessly
exposing his person in infected places. That
he might speak with authority on the subject
of pest houses, he went to Smyrna, sought out
a foul ship, and sailed in her for Venice.
After a voyage of GO days, during which he
assisted the crew in beating off" an attack of
pirates, he arrived at his destination and was
subjected to a rigorous confinement in the
Venetian lazaretto, under which his health
suffered severely. He returned to England in
February, 1787, after an absence of 10 months,
and published his second great work, "An
Account of the Principal Lazarettos of Europe,
with various Papers relating to the Plague,
together with further Observations on some
Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and additional
Remarks on the Present State of those in Great
Britain and Ireland " (4 to, 1780), in the preface
to which he announced his intention to pursue
his inquiries in the same direction, observing
that his conduct was not from rashness or en
thusiasm, but a serious conviction of duty. In
the summer of 1789 he started on his last con
tinental tour, meaning to pass through Russia
to the East, but was cut oft" by camp fever
which he contracted from a patient at Kher
son, on the Black sea. He expended nearly
the whole of his fortune in various benefactions.
In his private relations he was pure-minded,
pious, and upright. — See Hep worth Dixon's
" Howard and the Prison World of Europe "
(2d ed., London, 1850); also the memoirs by
Dr. Aikin, J. B. Brown, the Rev. J. A. Field,
and T. Taylor. A marble statue of him was
erected in St. Paul's cathedra), London.

HOWARD, John Eager, an American revolu
tionary soldier, born in Baltimore co., Md.,
June 4, 1752, died Oct., 12, 1827. In 1776 he
commanded a company in the flying camp un
der Gen. Mercer, which took part in the bat
tle .of White Plains. Upon the disbanding of
his corps in 1776, he was commissioned major
in the 4th Maryland regiment of the line, with
which he took part in the battles of German-
town and Monmouth. In 1780, as lieutenant
colonel of the 5th Maryland regiment, he
fought at Camden under Gates (Aug. 16), and
in the latter part of the year joined the army
under Greene. In the battle of Cowpens, Jan.
17, 1781, he displayed great gallantry, and the
bayonet charge of the Maryland troops under
his command secured victory to the Ameri
cans. At one period of the day he held in his
hands the swords of seven officers of the 71st
British regiment who had surrendered to him.
This was said to have been the first occasion
in the war on which the bayonet was effective
ly used by the American troops. For his ser-

HOWARD

HOWARD UNIVERSITY

vices in this battle Col. Howard received from
congress a silver medal, lie fought at Guil-
ford Court House (March 15), materially aiding
Greene in effecting his retreat, and again at
Hohkirk's Hill (April 25). After the latter
battle he succeeded to the command of the 2d
Maryland regiment. At Eutaw Springs (Sept.
8) his troops were so cut up that the com
mand was reduced to Col. Howard, a single
commissioned officer, and 30 men. With this
small force he was returning to the charge
when he was severely wounded. He was
governor of Maryland from 1789 to 1792, Uni
ted States senator from 1796 to 1803, and in
1798 was selected by Washington, in anticipa
tion of war with France, for one of his briga
dier generals. During the panic in Baltimore
subsequent to the capture of Washington by
the British troops in 1814, he was one of the
most earnest opponents of the capitulation.

HOWARD, Oliver Otis, an American soldier,
born at Leeds, Maine, Nov. 8, 1830. He gradu
ated at Bowdoin college in 1850, and at West
Point in 1854, and became instructor in mathe
matics there in 1857. He resigned his com
mission as first lieutenant June 4, 1861, to take
command of a regiment of Maine volunteers.
At the battle of Bull Run he commanded a bri
gade, and was made brigadier general of volun
teers, Sept. 3. He was assigned to a brigade
in the army of the Potomac, and in the battle
of Fair Oaks, June 1, 1862, lost his right arm.
After the battle of Antietam he took command
of a division of the 2d corps, and at the battle
of Chancellorsville he commanded the llth
corps. At Gettysburg, after the death of Rey
nolds, he commanded during the first day of
the battle. lie afterward received a commis
sion as major general of volunteers, dating from
Nov. 29, 1862. He was engaged at Lookout
Valley, Oct. 29, 1863, at Chattanooga, Nov.
23-25, and in the operations for the relief of
Knoxville in Deeemher. On July 27, 1864, he
took command of the army of the Tennessee.
He was in most of the battles of the Georgia
campaign ending in the capture of Atlanta,
and commanded the right wing of Sherman's
army in its march to the sea and through the
Carolinas. He was appointed a brigadier gen
eral in the regular army, his commission to
date from Dec. 21, 1864 ; and brevet major gen
eral March 13, 1865. On May 12, 1865, he was
appointed commissioner of the freedmen's bu
reau, and held that office until the closing of
the bureau by law, June 30, 1872. lie was
made a trustee of Howard university March
19, 1867, president of that institution April 6,
1869, and resigned in 1873. He was appoint
ed special commissioner to the Indians March i
6, 1872, and spent eight months on that duty
in New Mexico and Arizona. In March, 1874, i
he was tried by court martial on charges of
pecuniary dishonesty in the management of the |
freedmen's bureau, and was acquitted. .

HOWARD, Thomas, third duke of Norfolk,
an English statesman, born about 1473, died j

July 18, 1554. In 1513 he became high admi
ral of England, and in the same year aided his
father in gaining the battle of Flodden field,
for which he was created earl of Surrey. He
afterward quelled an insurrection in Ireland
under O'Neal, and one incited by the Catho
lics in the north of England. Though a stanch
Catholic, he succeeded by his prudent conduct
in disarming for a long time the suspicion and
jealousy of Henry VIII., who however con
demned to death his son, the accomplished earl
of Surrey. The duke himself was finally con
demned to be beheaded for treason ; but the
king dying before his execution, a respite was
granted him, and he was kept a prisoner in
the tower throughout the reign of Edward VI.
On the accession of Mary in 1553 he was re
stored to his rank and property.

HOWARD, Thomas, earl of Arundel. See

AllTJXDEL.

HOWARD UNIVERSITY, an institution of learn
ing in Washington, D. C., organized by a special
act of congress in 1867, and named from Gen.
O. O. Howard, one of its founders. It was de
signed to afford advanced instruction especial
ly to colored students, but in the admissions
no distinction is made as to color or sex, and
among its instructors and students are white
and colored persons of both sexes. The uni
versity grounds are near the head of Seventh
street, where are grouped nine buildings, the
chief of which is four stories high and contains
rooms for lectures and recitations, a chapel,
library, philosophical apparatus, museum, and
offices. Miner hall is three stories high, with
rooms for 100 young women, while Clark hall
has accommodations for 200 male students.
The general management of the institution is
vested in a board of 21 trustees. The univer
sity comprises a normal department with a
two years' course of study, including also, for
younger students, the model school and the
Miner school ; the preparatory, with a course
of three years; the collegiate, four years; the
theological, two years; the law, two years;
the medical, three years; and the military,
commercial, and musical departments. An ex
amination is required for admission to the col
legiate department, and upon the completion
of the course the degree of A. B. is conferred.
Special efforts have been made to give the law
department the most complete facilities for im
parting a thorough legal education. From
this school have graduated 49 young men and
one young woman. The whole number of in
structors connected with the university is 28,
including 4 in the collegiate, 5 in the theologi
cal, 3 in the law, and 9 in the medical depart
ment, The number of students in 1872-'3 was
238 in the normal, 100 in the preparatory, 35
in the collegiate, 26 in the theological, 67 in the
law, 45 in the medical, 84 in the commercial,
and 21 in the musical department ; total, after
deducting repetitions, 567. About two thirds
of the students are colored. Indigent students
may be relieved from paying the tuition fee.

HOWE

The university possesses a library of 7,500 vol
umes, a mineralogical cabinet, a museum of cu
riosities, and a picture gallery. Although the
government of the United States aided in the
establishment of the university, it is now de
pendent upon contributions and fees received
from students. More than $100,000 toward a
proposed endowment of $300,000 has been
subscribed. Gen. Howard was president of
the university until the latter part of 1873,
when he resigned, and John M. Langston (col
ored), dean of the law department, was ap
pointed vice president.

HOWE, the name of three British officers con
nected with American history, all of them sons
of Emanuel Scrope Howe, Viscount Howe in
the peerage of Ireland. I. George Augnstns,
general, born in 1724, killed at Ticonderoga,
July 8, 1758. In 1757 he was sent to America
in command of the GOth regiment, and arrived
at Halifax in July. On Sept. 28 he was put
in command of the 55th foot, and on Dec. 29
was made brigadier general. On July G, 1758,
he landed under Abercrombie at the outlet of
Lake George. Coming suddenly upon a French
force, he fell in the ensuing skirmish. The
general court of Massachusetts appropriated
£250 for a monument to him, which, was erect
ed in Westminster abbey. II. Hi chard, admi
ral, born in London in 1725, died there, Aug.
5, 1799. He entered the navy at the age of
14, and served with distinction against the
French from 1745 to 1759. After the conclu
sion of peace he obtained a seat at the admiral
ty board. In 1705 he was appointed treasurer
of the navy, and entered parliament for Dart
mouth. Five years later he was made rear
admiral of the blue, and commanded a fleet in
the Mediterranean. In 177G he sailed for North
America with the rank of vice admiral of the
blue, and as joint commissioner with his brother
William for restoring peace. He was variously
employed against the American forces for two
years, and in August, 1778, had an indecisive
encounter with a superior French fleet under
Count d'Estaing, off the coast of Rhode Island,
both fleets being much shattered by a severe
storm. In April, 1782, he was made a peer
of Great Britain, under the title of Viscount
Howe, having since 1758 borne the Irish title
of the same grade, inherited from his brother
George. In the latter part of 1782 he succeeded
in bringing into the harbor of Gibraltar the
fleet sent to the relief of (Jen. Eliott, then be
sieged there by the combined French and Span
ish forces. For these and previous services he
was in August, 1788, created Earl and Baron
Howe of Lungar. In 170:5 he was put in com
mand of the channel fleet. On June 1, 1794,
he gained a victory over the French off the
western coast of France, and received the
thanks of parliament. In the succeeding year
he was made admiral of the fleet, and in 1797
a knight of the garter. His last important ser
vice was the suppression of the mutiny in the
fleet at Spithead in 1797. His memoirs were

compiled by Sir John Barrow (London, 1838).
III. William, general, born Aug. 10, 1729, died
July 12, 1814. lie commanded the light in
fantry under Wolfe in the battle on the heights
of Abraham, near Quebec (1759), and in 1775
succeeded Gen. Gage as commander of the
British forces in America. He commanded at
the battle of Bunker Hill, and after the evacua
tion of Boston retired to Halifax. Subsequently
he defeated the Americans on Long Island,
Aug. 27, 1776, took possession of New York,
Sept. 15, directed the movements in the Jer
seys and in Pennsylvania, and repelled the
American attack at Gerrnantown, Oct. 4, 1777.
He was succeeded by Sir Henry Clinton in May,
1778. His conduct was severely criticised, but
an investigation ordered by parliament in 1779
freed him from blame. He succeeded his bro
ther Richard in the Irish viscounty, and at the
time of his death was a privy councillor and
governor of Plymouth.

HOWE, Ellas, an American inventor, born in
Spencer, Mass., July 9, 1819, died in Brooklyn,
N. Y., Oct. 3, 18G7. He lived with his father,
who was both farmer and miller, till 1835,
working upon the farm and in the mill, and
attending the district school during the winters.
He then went to Lowell, and was employed in
a manufactory of cotton machinery, and after
ward worked in a machine shop in Boston.
Here he developed his invention of the sewing
machine, completing his first machine in May,
1845, and securing a patent Sept. 10, 1846.
After constructing four machines in the L r nited
States, he visited England in 1847, and re
mained two years. He returned to Boston en
tirely destitute, and resumed his trade. From
this period till 1854 he was involved in expen
sive lawsuits, when the principal infringers of
his patents acknowledged his rights, and ar
ranged to manufacture sewing machines under
licenses from him. His income now steadily
increased, reaching $200,000 ; and his fortune
realized from his invention is said to have
amounted to $2,000,000. During the civil war
he enlisted as a private in a Connecticut regi
ment, and when the payment of the regiment
was delayed by the government, he advanced
the necessary money. (See SEWING MACHINE.)

HOWE, John, an English clergyman, born
at Loughborough, Leicestershire, May 17, 1630,
died in London, April 2, 1705. He gradu
ated at Christ's college, Cambridge, became
pastor of a nonconformist church in Great Tor-
rington, and was selected by Cromwell in 1657
for his domestic chaplain. After the restora
tion and the act of uniformity he led a wan
dering life, and continued to preach in private
houses. He passed five years in Ireland, where
he was chaplain to Lord Massarcne in the par
ish of Antrim, was pastor of a congregation in
London from 1675 to 1684, travelled on the
continent with Lord Wharton in 1685, became
pastor of the English church at Utrecht, and
returned to England in 1687, when James ll.
published his declaration for liberty of con-

HOWE

HOWITT

science. A complete edition of his works,
with a life by the Rev. John Hunt, appeared in
London in 8 vols. (1810-'22 ; new ed., 1868),
and with a life by Edmund Calainy in 1 vol.
(1838). A biography, by Henry Rogers, was
published in 1830.

HOWE. I. Samuel Gridley, an American phi
lanthropist, born in Boston, Nov. 10, 1801. lie
studied in the Boston grammar school, thence
went to Brown university, where he gradu
ated in 1821, and studied medicine in Boston.
In 1824 ho went to Greece, and served as a
surgeon in the patriot army and in various oth
er capacities till 1830. In 1831 he returned
to the United States, and soon became inter
ested in the project for establishing an institu
tion for the blind in Boston. lie accepted the
charge of it, and embarked at once for Europe,
to acquire the necessary information and en
gage teachers, visiting the schools of France
and England for this purpose. While in Paris
he was made president of the Polish commit
tee, and undertook to carry and distribute
funds for the relief of the detachment of the
Polish army which had crossed into Prussia.
In the discharge of this duty he was arrested
and imprisoned for about six weeks by the
Prussian government. lie was then liberated,
and escorted over the French frontier by night.
In 1832 the Perkins institution for the blind,
in Boston, was put in operation under his
charge. A notable achievement in this insti
tution is the education of Laura Bridgman, a
blind deaf mute. (See BEIDGMAX, LAURA.)
He took a prominent part in founding the ex
perimental school for the training of idiots,
which resulted in the organization, in 1851, of
the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feeble
minded youth. He was actively engaged in the
anti-slavery movement, and was a freesoil can
didate for congress from Boston in 1846. He
engaged earnestly in the sanitary movement
in behalf of the soldiers during the civil war.
In 1807 he again went to Greece as bearer of
supplies for the Cretans in their struggle with
the Turks, and subsequently edited in Boston
" The Cretan." In 1871 he was one of the
commissioners to visit Santo Domingo and re
port upon the question of the annexation of
that island to the United States, of which he has
since been an earnest advocate. He has pub
lished a " Historical Sketch of the Greek Revo
lution" (1828), and a " Pveader for the Blind,"
in raised characters (1839). I!. Julia Ward, an
American poetess, wife of the preceding, born
in New York, May 27, 1819. Her early edu
cation comprised an unusually wide range of
studies. In 1843 she was married to Dr. Howe,
with whom she made a tour in Europe. In
1850 she again went to Europe, being absent
more than a year, a great part of the time in
Rome. After her return she published " Pas
sion Flowers," a volume of poems (1854) ;
44 The World's Own," a drama (1855) ; " Words
for the Hour" (1850); " Lenore," a tragedy
(1857); and "Ilippolytus," a tragedy (1858).

During the winter of 185S-'9 she visited Cuba,
and in 1800 published "A Trip to Cuba." A
volume of poems, " Later Lyrics," appeared in
1860. In 1807 she accompanied her husband
to Greece, and published " From the Oak to
the Olive " (1808). She is a prominent speaker
in behalf of woman's rights.

IIOWTLL, a S. county of Missouri, bordering
on Arkansas, and drained by Spring river and
affluents of the N. fork of the White; area,
about 900 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 4,218, of whom
24 were colored. The surtace is hilly, and the
soil in the valleys fertile. There are large
forests of pine. The chief productions in 1870
were 15,350 bushels of wheat, 115,728 of In
dian corn, and 8,454 of oats. There were
1,132 horses, 3,201 cattle, 2,707 sheep, and
5,656 swine. Capital, West Plains.

HOWTLL, James, an English author, born near
Brecknock, Wales, in 1596, died in 1600. He
was educated at Jesus college, Oxford, and
passed many years on the continent, as a mer
cantile agent, as travelling tutor, or in a diplo
matic capacity. In 1040 he was appointed
clerk to the council at Whitehall, but after the
breaking out of the civil war he was thrown
into the Fleet, where he languished until after
the death of Charles I. After the restoration
he was appointed historiographer royal, an
office which he retained until his death. How-
ell's publications number about 40, the greater
part as well as the best of them being in prose.
His Epistolm Ho-Elianc?, or "Familiar Let
ters," first printed in 1045-'5o, and of which
many editions have appeared, was the second
published collection of epistolary literature in
the English language.

HOWELLS, William Dean, an American author,
born in Martinsville, Belmont co., Ohio, March
1, 1837. He learned the printing business in
his father's office, and worked at that trade
for 12 years. lie then became connected
with the "Ohio State Journal" as assistant
editor, and up to 1800 had published six po
ems in the "Atlantic Monthly," besides a life
of Abraham Lincoln, and, with John J. Piatt,
a volume of verse called "Poems of Two
Friends." He was appointed by President
Lincoln United States consul at Venice, where
he remained till 1805. On his return home he
joined the staff of the "Nation," and shortly
after became assistant editor of the "Atlan
tic," which magazine passed into his sole con
trol as editor in July, 1871. His publications
are : " Venetian Life " (London and New York,
1800) ; " Italian Journeys " (1 807) ; " No Love
Lost," a poem (1808); "Suburban Sketches"
(1809); "Their Wedding Journey" (1872);
and "A Chance Acquaintance" (1873).

HOWITT. I. William, an English author,
born at Heanor, Derbyshire, in 1795. His pa
rents were members of the society of Friends,
and in 1823 he married Mary Botham, also a
I member of the society. They made a pedes-
j trian excursion through Great Britain, and
I subsequently embarked in literature, writing

HOWITZER

HUACA

several books in common, the first being " The
Forest Minstrel and other Poems" (1831). In
1840 lie went to Heidelberg for the education
of his children. In 1847 he established "IIow-
itt's Journal," which was published only a
short time. In 1852-'4 he was engaged in
gold mining in Australia. His principal works
are: kv Book of the Seasons" (1831); "Popu
lar History of Priestcraft" (1834); "Rural
Life of England" (1837); "Colonization and
Christianity" (1838); "Boy's Country Book "
(1839) ; " Visits to Remarkable Places " (1839) ;
"Student Life of Germany" (1841); "Rural
and Domestic Life of Germany" (1842);
" Jack of the Mill " (1844) ; " The Aristocracy
of England" (1846); "Homes and Haunts of
the British Poets " (1847) ; " The Year Book
of the Country" (1847); "The Hall and the
Hamlet" (1847); "Stories of English Life"
(1853); "Natural History of Magic " (1854);
Land, Labor, and Gold" (1855); "The Man
of the People" (1860); "Illustrated History
of England" (1861); "The Ruined Castles and
Abbeys of Great Britain" (1861); "History
of the Supernatural in all Ages and Nations "
(1863); "Discoveries in Australia" (1865);
and " The Mad War Planet, and other Poems "
(1871). II. Mary Botham, an English authoress,
wife of the preceding, born at Uttoxeter about
1804. She is joint author with her husband
of several of the books above mentioned.
Among her numerous separate publications
are the novels "Wood Leighton" (1836) and
"The Heir of Wast Wayhmd" (1851). She
has written many volumes, in prose and verse,
designed for the young, and has made numer
ous translations from the Swedish of Fre-
drika Bremer, the Danish of Andersen, and
the German of various authors. Her later
works are: "Biographical Sketches of the
Queens of England" (1862); "The Cost of
Caergwyn" (1864); "Birds and their Nests"-
(1871); 'and "A Pleasant Life" (1871).— AN
NA MARY, daughter of the preceding, married
in 1859 to Mr. A. A. Watte, has published
"An Art Student in Munich" (1853), and
"The School of Life" (1857). Her sister
MARGARET has published " Twelve Months with
Fredrika Bremer in Sweden" (2 vols., 1866).

HOWITZER. See ARTILLERY, vol. i., p. 786.

HOVFSON, John Saal, an English clergyman,
born in 1816. lie graduated at Trinity col
lege, Cambridge, a double first, in 1837, and
in each of the next three years obtained a
prize for an essay. In 1845 he took orders
and became senior classical master in Liver
pool college, of which he was principal from
1849 to 1865. In 1866 he was made vicar of
Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, and in 1867 dean
of Chester. He has made numerous con
tributions to Biblical literature, his principal
publication being " The Life and Epistles of
St. Paul" (2 vols. 4to, 1850-'52), which he
wrote conjointly with the Rev. W. J. Cony-
beare, furnishing the historical, geographical,
and descriptive matter. He has also published

"The Character of St. Paul" (1864) and
"Metaphors of St. Paul" (1868).

HOWTH, Hill of, a peninsula of Ireland, county
Dublin, forming the N. boundary of Dublin
bay. It is a rocky and picturesque elevation,
rising to the height of 563 ft., 3 m. long and 2
m. broad, having at its extremity a lighthouse.
Ilowth gives the title of earl to the family of
St. Lawrence, the descendants of its Anglo-
Norman conquerors. A harbor of 52 acres
has been formed at Howth, costing £500,000.

IIOXTER, a town of Prussia, in the province
of Westphalia, on the Weser, crossed here by a

I stone bridge, 28 m. E. N. E. of Paderborn ; pop.

| in 1871, 5,041. It is a thriving manufacturing

i and commercial place, and paper, cotton goods,
and linen are made. Hoxter was formerly the

! capital of the ecclesiastical principality of
Korvei, and belonged to the Hanseatic league.
It abounds Avith reminiscences of the battles
of Charlemagne against the Saxons, and the
watch tower on the neighboring Brunsberg is
according to some traditions the relic of a for
midable Saxon fortress built by Bruno, brother
of Wittikind. The town endured many mili
tary vicissitudes during the 17th century.

H01LE, Edmund, an English writer on games,
born in 1672, died in 1769. So generally is
his principal work accepted as authority in
card playing, that " according to Iloyle " has
become a proverb. There have been many
editions of his book, among which are "Hoyle's
Games, Improved and Enlarged by G. II."
(London, 1853) ; " Iloyle's Games made Famil
iar" (London, 1855); and "Hoyle's Games,
containing the Rules for playing Fashionable
Games" (Philadelphia, 1859).

HRABAMS MAIMS. See RABANI s.
HUACA, a Peruvian word, signifying some
thing sacred, applied particularly to sepulchral
mounds. Among the Peruvians all persons
remarkable for their inventions, or for having in
any way ameliorated the condition of mankind,
were the recipients of a kind of hero worship.
Few had temples, their shrines being generally
their tombs, called huacas. The Peruvians
made sacrifices to the huacas, which were sup
posed to respond to petitions and questions
supported by appropriate offerings made in a
proper spirit. The inner chambers of these
oracular tombs were sometimes inhabited by
priests; and generally they seem to have been
devices whereby an inferior class of priests ob
tained their support. Some were of great ex
tent, and erected over the remains of the in-
cas, who were entitled to divine honors after
death, and over the chiefs of provinces. In ac
cordance with an invariable custom, the wealth
of these high personages was buried with
them. The violation of their tombs was com
menced soon after the conquest, and from some
of them vast treasures were taken. A single
huaca among the ruins of Chimu, near the port
of Trujillo in Peru, opened in 1563 by Garcia
Gutierrez, afforded so large a treasure of gold
and silver, that he paid 85,547 castellanos of

24:

IIUALLAGA

IIUBBAKD

gold, as the royal fifth, into the treasury of
Trujillo. But he did not obtain the whole of
it, for in 1592 it was again opened, and 47,020
castellanos of gold were paid into the treasury
as the royal fifth. So it seems that not less
than 677,600 castellanos of gold, equal to
$931,000, were taken from this single tomb.
The name huaca, as applied to aboriginal
graves, gradually became extended to the
provinces adjacent to Peru on the north, where
they were also found to contain more or less
of treasure. The name has also been applied
to Indian graves in the district of Chiriqui in
Colombia, whence many golden ornaments
and images have been extracted.

HUALLAGA, a river of Peru, rising on the E.
slope of the Eastern Cordillera, about lat. 10°
S. and Ion. 75° 30' W., flowing tf. W. parallel to
that range as far as lat. 8°, where it curves to
the N". E., and joining the Maranon or Upper
Amazon at La Laguna, lat. 4° 50' S. and Ion.
75° 40' "W., after a tortuous course of some
600 m., mainly through the Pampa de Sacra
mento, a region of which little is definitely
known. For 60 m. from its mouth the Hua-
llaga is navigable by the largest vessels ;
above that point rapids occur at intervals of
about 50 m., but these do not impede the
passage of canoes, especially in the upper por
tion of the river.

IIIAMANGA. See AYAOUCIIO.

HIANCAVELICA. I. An inland department of
Peru, occupying a portion of the valley bor
dered by the Eastern and Western Cordilleras
S. E. of the department of Lima. The surface
is intersected by numerous hills, and watered
by the Jauja and other rivers, and numerous
lakes. The climate is mostly very cold, and the
soil rather inferior to that of other parts of the
republic. There being no forests, wood is scarce,
and the chief combustible used is a species
of grass called ichu. Gold is found, silver is
abundant, and there is some copper; but the
principal mineral product is mercury, es
pecially that from the mine in the Cerro de
Santa Barbara, discovered in 1563, the mean
annual yield of which for 200 years was from
400,000 to 600,000 Ibs. Large numbers of cat
tle, sheep, and llamas are reared, and wool of
excellent quality is exported. II. A city, cap
ital of the department, and of a province of
the same name, 150 in. S. E. of Lima; pop.
about 8,000. The streets are regular, and the
houses solidly constructed of stone ; several
stone bridges cross the streams intersecting the
town. Owing to the elevation, 12,670 ft. above
the sea, the climate is very cold, and the town
is Exposed to fierce tempests, thunder, hail, and
frost. Husbandry, cattle rearing, and mining
are the chief occupations. In the immediate
vicinity are numerous mercury furnaces ; and
excellent colors are extracted from a peculiar
species of metalliferous clay which abounds in
the neighborhood.

HIAXTA, a town of Peru, in the department
of Ayacucho, 205 m. S. E. of Lima ; pop.

about 5,000. It is in a very picturesque and
fertile region, is well built of stone, and has a
large trade in cattle, sheep, grain, fruit, coca,
dragon's blood, cinnamon, honey, &c.

IIUANUCO. I. An inland department of Peru,
occupying a portion of the valley bordered by
the Eastern and Western Cordilleras, N". of the
department of Lima. The surface is irregular,
being intersected by hills mostly densely wood
ed, and delightful vales, watered by the Hua-
llaga, Jauja, and numerous minor streams.
The climate, hot in the low and cold in the
elevated regions, is very salubrious, and the
soil is extremely fertile and well cultivated.
Precious woods, particularly cedar, and coca
leaves are important articles of commerce.
The sugar cane thrives well, and sugar is man
ufactured in several places ; and coffee of su
perior quality is grown. The plains, though
of inconsiderable extent, afford good pasturage
for large herds of cattle and sheep ; and the
horses of Concepcion are highly esteemed.
The district of Cerro de Pasco, formerly the
capital of the department, has long been cele
brated as the principal mining region of Peru.
There are weaving factories at Tarma and else
where. Ruins of towns, temples, palaces, and
fortresses, in various parts of the department,
attest the opulence and civilization of the an
cient Incas, once the exclusive lords of the
soil. II. A city, capital of the department, and
of a province and district of the same name,
near the river Iluallaga, 165 m. N". X. E. of Li
ma; pop. about 7,000. The only objects of
interest still remaining in this once nourishing
city are the ruins of edifices attesting its early
splendor, and particularly a palace and temple
of the sun, built by the Incas. Besides mining
and agriculture, the manufacture of sweet
meats, much prized in Lima, occupies many of
the inhabitants. It was founded in 1539 by
Gomez Alvarado, who named it Leon de los
Caballeros.

IIUARAZ, an inland city of Peru, capital of
the department of Ancachs, and of a district of
its own name, 192 m. N. N. W. of Lima; pop.
about 6,000. It is situated in the valley of
Iluaraz, one of the most fertile in the republic,
and derives its importance from the large quan
tities of wheat and other grains, sugar, fruit,
and cattle which it exports. Wood is here ex
tremely scarce, and in its stead a species of
peat called champa\s used for fuel. The min
eral productions, including gold, silver, and
copper, are of considerable value. A railway
is in course of construction (1874) from Iluaraz
to Chimbote, 172 m.

HIASTECAS. Sec QTJETZALCOATL.

IIUBBARD, William, an American historian,
born in England in 1621, died in Ipswich,
Mass., Sept. 14, 1704. He graduated at Har
vard college in 1642, and was ordained in
1658 as minister at Ipswich, where he contin
ued during the remainder of his life. In 1688
he was temporary rector or president of Har
vard college. He is the author of " A Narra-

HUBBARDTON

IIUBER

tive of the Troubles with the Indians from
1G07 to 1077, with a Discourse" (4to, Boston,
1677), the map accompanying which is sup
posed to he the first executed in America, and
" Memoir of Gen. Denison " (1(384). He left
also in manuscript a general, history of New
England, for which the colony paid him £50.
For the most of the earlier annals he was in
debted to AVinthrop's MS. journal, and his
MS. has been used by other historians and an
nalists. It was published by the Massachusetts
historical society in 1815 (8vo, Cambridge).

IHBBARDTON, a town of Rutland co., Ver
mont, 48 m. S. W. of Montpelier ; pop. in
1870, 606. It is noted for a battle between
the British and Americans, July 7, 1777. The
American army under Gen. St. Clair having
been forced to evacuate Ticonderoga, July 6,
their main body marched through Ilubbardton
to Castleton, leaving a rear guard of 1,000 half
equipped men under Cols. Warner, Francis,
and Haile, to wait at Ilubbardton for the str'ag-
glers. Here on the following morning they
were overtaken by about double their number
of British, commanded by Gen. Fraser. The
battle began at 7 A. M. The charge of the
Americans at first forced the enemy to give
way, but they soon formed again, while at the
same time Col. Francis was mortally wounded,
his men fell back, and Gen. Riedesel appeared
on the field with a heavy reinforcement for
the British. Warner was obliged to retreat,
leaving 30 of his men killed and 294 wounded
and prisoners, while the British acknowledged
a loss of 183 killed and wounded, though, ac
cording to Ethan Allen, they lost 300. Col.
Ilaile withdrew from the field with 300 men
without corning into action. He demanded a
court martial to investigate the charge of cow
ardice brought against him, but died in captiv
ity before it could be held. A monument on
the battle field was inaugurated July 7, 1859.

HIBER,. Francois, a Swiss naturalist, born in
Geneva, July 2, 1750, died in Lausanne, Dec.
21, 1831. At 15 years of age a too close devo
tion to the study of the natural sciences,
which he had followed from childhood, affect
ed his health and eyesight, and he was taken
to Paris for medical treatment. His health
was soon restored, but the disease of his eyes
was pronounced incurable, and he soon after
became totally blind. Before that time he
had won the affections of a young lady, Mile.
Lullin, who married him, and until the close
of his life was unremitting in her devotion to
him. Being left by his father in comfortable
circumstances, he resumed his investigations
in natural science, in which he was aided by
his wife, and a faithful attendant named Bur-
nens, who ultimately became his reader and
amanuensis. lie had previously given much
attention to the habits of bees, and believing
tli at many of the statements of Reaumur and
Bonnet on the subject were erroneous, he pro
ceeded, with the assistance of his wife and at
tendant, to make a vast number of original

observations, which, having been digested and
systematically arranged by him, were first pub
lished in his "Lettres d Cli, Bonnet (1792). The
work was reprinted in 1796, and again in 1814,
under the title of Nourelles observations sur les
abeilles, both times with important additions.
The last edition contained his Memoire sur
Vorigine de la cire, in preparing which he was
assisted by his son Pierre. The impregnation
of the queen bee, and many other important
facts in the economy of the beehive, were first
made known in this work, which from its in
trinsic merits, as well as the unusual circum
stances under which it was prepared, made
Huber's name famous throughout Europe.
Subsequently, with the cooperation of Sene-
bier, he produced a Memoire sur V influence de
Vair et des diverscs substances gazeuses dans la
germination des differentes plantes (Geneva,
1801). — PIERRE, his son, born in Geneva in
1777, was the author of several valuable papers
relating to bees and butterflies, and published
Itccherches sur les fourmis indigenes (1810).
He died at Yverdun in 1840.

HUBER, Jean Rodolphe, a Swiss painter, born
in Basel in 1668, died in 1748. He studied in
Switzerland and in Italy, and executed works
for various German princes, including histori
cal pictures for the palace of the duke of Wtir-
temberg at Stuttgart. He excelled in correct
ness of drawing and vigorous coloring, and on
account of his surprising facility in portrait
painting was called the Tintoretto of Switzer
land, though greatly inferior to that master.

IIUBER, Johann Ncpomuk, a German theolo
gian, born in Munich, Aug. 18, 1830. lie
graduated at the university of Munich in 1854,
and became professor in 1859. His Philosophic
dcr Kirchenrater (Munich, 1859) was in 1860
placed on the prohibitory index, and an effort
was made to prevent students from attending
his lectures. His rupture with the ultramon-
tanes became still wider in 1863, when in an
assembly of Roman Catholic scholars he stood
alone in asserting the right of free investigation
in theology. In 1871 he became the foremost
adversary of the society of Jesus, and one of
the principal leaders of the Old Catholic move
ment in Bavaria, in opposition to the papal de
cree of infallibility. Ilis works include Joliann
Scotus Erigena (Munich, 1859); Idee dcr Un-
sterUichlceit (1861); Die Proletarier (1864);
Professor Stockl in Minister, and Offener Brief
an ^Professor Ktocl'l, exposing the pantheism
of Thomas Aquinas (1864); Studicn (1867);
Freiheiten der franzosischen Kirch e (1870);
Das Papstthum uud <ler M<rnt (1870); Die
Lehre Darwin* kritisch betrachtet (1870); and
Kleine ScJiriften (1871).

HIRER, Mario, a Swiss authoress, born in
Geneva in 1695, died in Lyons, June 13, 1753.
She was the daughter of a merchant, received
a scientific education, never married, and spent
her whole life in seclusion, study, and charita
ble labor. Her principal works are: Systemcs
des theologiens anciens et modcrnes concilies

IIUBER

HUO

(Geneva, 1731 ; enlarged ed., 1T39); and Let- \
tres sitr la religion essetitielle d Vhomme (1739; !
ne\v ed., enlarged, G vols., 1754).

IIIBER. I. Michael, a German scholar, born
at Frontenhausen, Bavaria, in 1727, died in j
Leipsic, April 15, 1804. lie resided in Paris
for several years, and went to Leipsic in 1706,
where he became a teacher of the French lan
guage, lie translated into French many poems \
of Klopstock, Wieland, Lessing, and others |
(Choixdepoesie8allernandes,4 : vo]s.,'P&ris,l f 7()Q), j
and other Avorks, among which is Winckel-
m&nn's Kunstgeschichte (3 vols., Leipsic, 1781),
and wrote Notices generates des graveurs et ties
peintres (Dresden, 1787). II. Lndwig Ferdinand, i
son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1764, I
died near Leipsic, Dec. 24, 1804. In 1798 he
became editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung in
Stuttgart. He translated dramas from the
English and French, and Avrote a number of
plays and collections of tales. He also pub
lished Friedempraliminarien (10 vols., Ber
lin, 1793-'6). A collection of his later works
was published by his widow (4 vols., Tubin
gen, 1806-'19). III. Therese, wife of the pre
ceding, born in Gottingen, May 7, 1764, died
in Augsburg, June 15, 1829. She was a
daughter of lleyne, and Avas first married to
the traveller Johann Georg Forster, and after
ward in 1794 to Huber, under Avhose name
many of her writings Avere published. In
1819 she became editor of the Morgeriblatt at
Stuttgart, and published Forster^s BriefwecJisel
with a biographical sketch (2 vols., Leipsic,
1828-'9). A collection of her Erzahlungen
was published by her son (6 vols., Leipsic,
1830-'33). IV. Victor Aime, son of the prece
ding, born in Stuttgart, March 10, 1800, died at
Wernigerode, July 19, 1869. He studied med
icine, travelled extensively, and Avas professor
in various places, lastly in 1843 of languages
and literature at Berlin, retiring in 1850. As
a publicist he opposed the revolutionary move
ments of 1846-' 9, but subsequently left the
ranks of the ultra conservatives. His later
writings embrace popular politico-economical
subjects, but his reputation rests mainly on his
works relating to the English and Spanish
languages and literature. The more celebrated
of them, besides those treating of the history
of the Cid, are: Skizzen aus Spanien (4 vols.,
Gottingen, 1828-'3o) ; Die nevromantische Poe-
eie in Frankreich (Leipsic, 1833) ; Die englischen
Unifier sitaten (2 vols., Cassel, 1839-'40); and
JReiselriefe aus Jlelgien, Frankreich inid Eng
land (2 vols., Hamburg, 1855). His biography
by Elvers was published in 1872.

IliJB\ER, Karl, a German painter, born in
Konigsberg, June 14, 1814. lie is a disciple
of the Diisseldorf school, and excels in genre
pictures. In 1864 he Avas appointed profes
sor at Diisseldorf. Many of his Avorks have
been brought to the United States.

IIIBXER, Rudolf Jnlins Benno, a German his- |
torical painter, born in Prussian Silesia in 1806. |
He studied in Berlin under Schadow, and fol- j

lowed his master to Diisseldorf. Among his
earlier works were illustrations of Goethe's
ballad of the "Fisherman," and " Orlando de
livering Isabella," a scene in Ariosto's epic. He
has also gained reputation as a painter of car
toons and portraits. He became a resident of
Dresden in 1839, and professor at the academy
there in 1841. lie sent to the universal expo
sition of 1867 a historical painting of the "Dis
cussion between Luther and Eck," and two re
ligious paintings, "Jesus at the Age of twelve,"
and the," Magdalen by the Body of Christ."

IIUC, Evariste Regis, a French missionary and
traveller, born in Toulouse, Aug. 1, 1813, died
in Paris, March 31, 1860. He studied theology
in his native city, and taught in the seminary
there for a while, aftef which he entered, the
order of Lazarists, and Avas ordained priest in
Paris in 1839. Resolving to devote himself to
the Chinese missions, he set sail from Havre a
few days after his ordination, and reached Ma
cao about the month of August. He passed 18
months in the Lazarist seminary at this place,
preparing himself for the work he Avas about
to undertake, and in the early part of 1840,
shaving his head Avith the exception of the
queue which. he had carefully cultivated since
his arrival, dyeing his skin, and putting on the
Chinese costume, he started from Canton for
the interior of the empire. After directing a
Christian mission in the southern provinces, he
Avent to Peking, where he perfected himself in
the Chinese language, and subsequently estab
lished himself at He-Shuy (valley of Black
Waters), in Mongolia, just north of the great
Avail and not far from Peking, where there AA r as
a considerable population of Chinese Chris
tians. He visited various parts of Mongolia,
acquiring the dialect of the country, and trans
lating into Mongol several books of prayer and
instruction. In 1844 the vicar apostolic of
Mongolia directed M. Hue and another French
Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, to make a journey
through the vicariate, for the purpose of ascer
taining its extent and studying the character
and manners of the Tartars. Adopting the
costume of the Thibetan lamas or priests, and
accompanied by a young lama convert, named
Samdadshiemba, they set out in September,
travelling S. W. along the Mongolian side of
the great wall. Their caravan consisted of a
horse, a mule, and three camels. Their only
guides were a map and a compass. At night
they slept in tents, and their food during 18
months Avas generally confined to tea and a lit
tle meal. After a few days' journey they ar
rived at the city of Tolon-noor, Avhere they
completed their outfit. At the large neAv toAvn
of Shagan-kooren they crossed the Hoang-ho
river and entered the sandy steppes of the Or-
toos country, Avhere they suffered for Avant of
water and forage. Crossing the Hoang-ho
again Avith great difficulty at a season of inun
dation, they entered the N. E. part of the Chi
nese province of Kansu in the early part of
November, and remained two days at a frontier

IIUC

IIUDDERSFIELD

town. In January, 1845, they reached Tang-
kinul, on the boundary between Kansu and
the territory of Koko-nor. From Lassa, the
capital of Thibet, their point of destination,
they were yet distant four months' journey
across a desert utterly uninhabited except by
robbers. They consequently resolved to wait
here eight months for the arrival of a Thibetan
embassy on its way home from Peking, under
whose escort they might travel in safety.
During their stay they studied the Thibetan
language and Buddhist books with the assis
tance of a teacher, and after awhile they were
invited to take up their abode in the famous
lamasery of Koonboom, about 80 in. distant.
In this establishment, which numbers about
4,000 lamas, they remained three months,
treated, as they were in all parts of Mongolia,
with great kindness. At the end of that time
they removed to Chogortan, a summer estab
lishment belonging to the lamasery. Toward
the end of September the embassy arrived, and
the missionaries joined the caravan, which
consisted of 2,000 men and 8,700 animals. In
crossing the desert and climbing the snow-
covered mountains over which their route led
them, they suffered the most terrible hard
ships. M. Gabet fell ill and was every moment
expected to die, but they were obliged to press
on with the sick man fastened to his camel.
On Jan. 29, 1846, they entered Lassa. After a
few days they were summoned before the Act
ion or regent, the real ruler of the country un
der the nominal supremacy of the grand lama,
who received them well, gave them a residence
of his own, and allowed them to preach and
set up a little chapel. The Chinese ambassador,
Keshen, who had conducted the negotiations
with the British at Canton in 1840-'41, soon
interposed on political grounds, and they were
sent to Chingtoofoo, capital of the Chinese
province of Sechuen, ami their neophyte Sarn-
dadshiemba back to his own country. MM.
Hue and Gabet left Lassa March 15, and trav
elled in palanquins with great state, having a
mandarin and a body of soldiers for escort.
They wore the richest Chinese robes, and in
sisted upon putting on the yellow cap and red
girdle reserved for members of the imperial
family. These precautions secured respectful
treatment throughout their journey. Their
expenses w r ere defrayed by government. At
Chingtoofoo they were puc on trial, and it was
resolved to send them to Canton. The journey
was performed in the same state, sometimes
overland, sometimes on the Yangtse-kiang and
other navigable rivers. In October, 184(5, they
arrived at Canton, and soon went to the Laza-
rist seminary at Macao. Here M. Hue remain
ed between two and three years, arranging for
publication his notes of travel. M. Gabet re
turned to Europe in November, and thence
proceeded to South America, where he died
soon afterward at Rio de Janeiro. In 1840 M.
Hue set out for Peking, intending to revisit
the missions in Mongolia; but an inundation

obliged him to remain six months at a Chris
tian station in the province of Chekiang, and
shortly after his arrival at the capital the shat
tered state ot! his health induced him to return
home. He sailed from Macao Jan. 1, 1852,
visited Ceylon, India, Egypt, Palestine, and
Syria, and landed at Marseilles in June of the
same year. He subsequently iixed his residence
in Paris. His Souvenirs (Tun voyage dans la
j Tartarie, le Thibet et la Chine appeared in 1852
[ (2 vols. 8vo, Paris), and was translated into
English by William Hazlitt (London, 1852).
This work is not only one of the most interest
ing books of travel which have been written
during the present generation, but is stored
with valuable information with regard to the
history, inhabitants, and geography of the pre
viously almost unknown region of Mongolia.
V Empire chinois (2 vols. 8vo, 1854 ; English
translation, London, 1855) relates the adven
tures of the missionaries during their journey
from Lassa to Canton ; it is written in an at
tractive style, enlivened with much humor,
and a large part of it is devoted to a general
account of the manners, customs, government,
laws, and internal condition of the Chinese
empire. He also wrote Le Christianisme en
Chine, en Tartarie et au Thibet (4: vols., 1857-
'8 ; translated into English, 3 vols.).

HUCKLEBERRY. See WHORTLEBERRY.

HtDDERSFIELD, a market town and par
liamentary borough of England, in the West
riding of Yorkshire, on the Colne, 85 m. S. W.
of York, and 204 m. by railway N. N. W. of
London; pop. in 1871, of the borough, 70,253,
of the town, 38,058. There are in the town
34 places of worship, of which 9 belong to the
established church, 5 to the Congregationalists,
and 14 to the Methodists. There are two col
leges, a philosophical hall, and a mechanics'
institute. It is connected by canals with the
Mersey and the Humber. It is one of the chief
seats of the woollen manufacture in England,
of which nearly every variety is produced. It
has an extensive cloth hall, where a fair is held
each Tuesday attended by upward of 000 manu
facturers. There are also cotton mills, brew
eries, chemical works, and dye houses.

HUDSON, a N. E. county of New Jersey,
bounded E. by the Hudson river and New
York bay, S. by the Kills, separating it from
Staten island, S. W. and W. by Passaic river
and Newark bay, and N. W. by the Ilacken-
sack, Avhich also intersects the S. W. part ;
area, 75 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 129,007. It has
a diversified surface, rising into hills on each
side of the Hackensack. Limestone, copper,
and magnetic iron ore are found. The Morris
canal passes through it, and numerous railroads
radiate from Jersey City and Hoboken. The
value of farms in 1 870 was $3,134,000 ; of farm
productions, chiefly market vegetables, $312,-
920. There were 333 manufacturing establish
ments, with an aggregate capital of $3.280,526,
and an annual product of $24,250,017. The
most important were 1 manufactory of boxes,

HUDSON

19 of bread, &c., 1 of cars, 25 of clothing, 1 of
cooperage, 3 of crucibles, 2 of drugs and chemi
cals, 1 of feathers, 3 of gas, 1 of heating appa
ratus, 1 of India-rubber goods, 11 of iron, 3 of
jewelry, 11 of machinery, 5 of marble and
stone work, 2 of molasses and sirup, 4 of oak
um, 1 of castor oil, 2 of paints, 2 of paper, 1 of
polishing preparations, 3 of silk goods, 4 of soap
and candles, 3 of steel, 8 of tin, copper, and
sheet-iron ware, 37 of cigars, 1 of watches, 1
Hour mill, 4 breweries, 2 saw mills, and 4 pork-
packing establishments. Capital, Jersey City.
HUDSON, a city and the capital of Columbia
co., New York, situated on the E. or left bank
of the Hudson river, at the head of ship navi
gation, IK) m. above New York city and 29 m.
below Albany; pop. in 1850, 0,280; in 1800,
7,187; in 1870, 8,015. It is beautifully situ
ated on rising ground, and presents a highly
picturesque appearance, especially when seen
from the river at a distance. A slate bluff
rises abruptly from the water to a height of GO
ft., whence a ridge slopes upward for 1-^ m.,
terminating in Prospect hill, 500 ft. above the
river. The principal street runs along this
ridge, from Prospect hill to a public square
laid out on the summit of the bluff. The city
is divided into four wards, and is regularly laid
out, with streets crossing each other at right
angles. The principal public buildings are the
court house, a handsome marble and limestone
building, 110 ft. long and GO ft. high, sur
mounted by a dome and faced by an Ionic
portico, and the city hall, a brick edifice, con
taining the post office. Hudson is a terminus
of the Hudson and Boston railroad, and an im
portant station on the Hudson River railroad.
It has regular steamboat communication with
Albany and New York ; and from Athens on
the opposite bank of the river, with which it is
connected by a steam ferry, a branch of the
New York Central railroad extends to Sche-
nectady. The wharves are built on two bays
at either side of the public square, and are ac
cessible by large ships. It is said that at one
time Hudson owned a larger amount of ship
ping than New York. It was made a port of
entry in 1795, had an extensive commerce with
the West Indies and Europe, and owned a num
ber of whaling and fishing vessels. Its com
merce was destroyed during the embargo and
the war of 1812; and although the whaling
business was resumed, it has since been entirely
abandoned. Its trade, however, is still im
portant, the principal article of export being
pressed hay for the New York market. The
chief manufactures are of iron. The Hudson
iron company and the Columbia iron works to
gether turn out from 00 to 75 tons of pig iron j
per day. There are two machine shops, two
iron foimderies, a stove foundery, manufacto
ries of steam fire engines, paper car wheels,
tiles, and pianos, six carriage factories, two j
breweries, three rectifying establishments, knit- ;
ting mills, a spoke factory, a pump and block
factory, a tannery, a fiour mill, three national

banks w r ith a capital of $750,000, a savings
bank, and 10 hotels. The city is lighted with
gas, is supplied with drinking water through
iron pipes from a spring 2 m. distant, and has
an efficient fire department. There are six
public schools with about 1,000 pupils, an acad
emy, three public libraries, two daily and three
weekly newspapers', an orphan asylum, and 12
churches. — Hudson, originally known as Clave-
rack Landing, was settled in 1783. It was in
corporated as a city in 1785. A lunatic asy
lum was established here in 1832, but given up
on the opening of the state asylum at Utica.

HUDSON, a township and village of Summit
co., Ohio, at the junction of the Cleveland and
Pittsburgh and the Cleveland, Mt. Vernon, and
Columbus railroads, 25 m. S. by E. of Cleveland
and 120 m. N. E. of Columbus; pop. in 1870,
1,520. The village is pleasantly situated and
neatly built. It is the seat of the Western Re
serve college, chartered in 1820, which has
handsome grounds and five substantial college
halls. In 1872-'3 the academical department
had 8 professors and instructors, 52 students,
and a library of 10,000 volumes ; the prepara
tory department had 2 instructors and 47 pu
pils. The medical department (Cleveland med
ical college) is in Cleveland ; it was founded
in 1843, and in 1871-'2 had 14 professors and
instructors, 70 students, and a library of 0,000
volumes. There is also a female seminary.

HUDSON, Henry, a British navigator and dis
coverer, born about the middle of the 10th
century. He was first employed by a compa
ny of London merchants to search for the N.
W. passage in 1007, when he sailed in a small
vessel with a crew of only ten men and a boy
to the E. coast of Greenland, lat. 80°, where
he was stopped by ice. After three months of
fruitless exploration he returned to England,
whence he sailed again, April 21, 1008, hoping
to find the passage between Nova Zembla and
Spitzbergen, but was again hindered by ice,
not being able to get to the eastward of the
former land. On April 0, 1009, he began
another voyage to the N. E. of Asia, sailing
from Amsterdam in the service of the Dutch
East India company. His crew being unable
to endure the climate, he sailed for Davis strait,
but came to the American coast in lat. 44°.
Sailing S., he discovered the mouth of the river
which has received his name. Having sailed
up the river to the head of navigation and ex
plored it in a boat for some miles further, and
afterward followed the coast S. as far as Chesa
peake bay, he returned to England. In April,
1010, he began his fourth voyage Avith 23 sail
ors, passing in June and July through the strait
and into the bay which now bears his name.
Finding, however, that this did not give him
an open route westward, he resolved to winter
there and resume explorations in the spring.
His provisions ran short, and he was compelled
to return. It is said that he incautiously de
clared that in their destitute condition he would
have to leave some behind, and in a mutiny he

HUDSON

HUDSON RIVER

was seized and placed with his son and seven
others who remained faithful to him in an open
boat, and abandoned. His fate was revealed |
by one of the mutineers, and an expedition was
sent from England in quest of him, but no trace
of him was ever discovered. "A Collection
of Documents forming a Monograph of the
Voyages of Henry Hudson," edited, with an
introduction, by George Asher, was published
in London hy the Hakluyt society in 1860. See
also a " Historical Inquiry concerning Henry
Hudson," by J. M. Read, jr. (Albany, 1866).

HUDSON, Henry Norman, an American essayist,
born in Cornwall, Vt., Jan. 28, 1814. His early
youth was passed on a farm ; from his 18th to
his 21st year he lived in Middlebury as an ap
prentice at the trade of coachmaking, during
which time he prepared himself for college.
He graduated at Middlebury college in 1840,
and went to Kentucky, where he remained a
year engaged in teaching, an occupation which
he subsequently follow r ed for two years in
Huntsville, Ala. Having during this time ap
plied himself especially to the study of Shake
speare, he wrote and delivered at Huntsville a
course of lectures on the great dramatist, which
he subsequently delivered in different parts of
the country, and finally printed (2 vols. 12mo,
New York, 1848). In 1844 he became a com
municant of the Episcopal church, and was or
dained to the priesthood in New York in 1849.
He has since edited the works of Shakespeare
(11 vols. 12mo, Boston, 1850-'57), and for a
short time edited the "Churchman." He was
rector of the Episcopal church in Litchfield,
Conn., in 1859 and 1860. In the winter of
1860-'61 he delivered a new course of Shake
spearian lectures. During the civil war he
was a chaplain, in the army, and subsequently
taught school in Boston, and for two years
edited the "Saturday Evening Gazette." He
has published " A Chaplain's Campaign with
Gen. Butler" (1865), a "School Shakespeare"
(1870), " Shakespeare, his Life, Art, and Char
acters" (1872), and "Sermons" (1874).

HUDSON, Jeffery. See DWARF.

HUDSON BAY, an inland sea of British North
America, between lat. 51° and 64° N., and Ion.
77° and 95° W. It is of irregular shape, 850
m. long N. and S., and 600 m. broad. Its S.
extremity is called James bay. In its mouth,
at the northeast, lies Southampton island ; out
side of this it communicates with Davis strait
by means of Hudson strait, and E. of South
ampton island Fox channel extends N. The
coasts are generally high, rocky, and rugged.
The depth of the middle of the bay has been
taken at 150 fathoms, but it is probably more.
Southampton island is formed of high rocky
masses, and seems to be composed of several
small islands separated by straits, always closed
however by ice. There are many other islands,
and many reefs and sand banks. The princi
pal rivers flowing into the bay are the Great
Whale river, on the E. coast ; the Main, Abbi-
tibbe, Moose, and Albany, into James bay ; and

the AVeenisk, Severn, Hayes, Nelson, QJiurchill,
and Seal, on the AV. coast. It was formerly
supposed that there were two tides in the bay,
one from the east and another from the west;
and this error led to the belief in a channel
communicating with the western sea, which
was thought to be not far distant. Navigation
is possible only during two months, the bay
being completely frozen over or obstructed by
drift ice during the rest of the year. Before
the navigation of the bay was understood, it
was usual to take two seasons for a voyage
from England ; and the captain who succeeded
in returning the same year was awarded a prize
of £50. Accounts differ as to the abundance
of fish in Hudson bay. The Hudson bay com
pany gave little attention to fisheries, yet the
white whale is found there, and the whale
fisherv was once of considerable importance.

HUDSON BAY TERRITORY. See NOETIIWEST
TERRITORIES.

HUDSON RIVER, in New York, one of the
most beautiful and important rivers in the
United States. Its remote sources are in the
Adirondack mountains, in the N. E. part of the
state, more than 4,000 ft. above the sea. Its
principal head streams rise in Hamilton and Es
sex cos., serving as the outlets to a great num
ber of small highland lakes. Several of these
streams unite in the S. AV. part of Essex co.,
and the river formed by their junction flows
in a tortuous course S. E. to about the centre
of AVarren co., where it receives the outlet of
Schroon lake on the east, about 8 m. AV. of the
S. part of Lake George. It runs from this
point nearly S. to the town of Corinth, on the
boundary between AA r arren and Saratoga cos.,
receiving on its way the Sacondaga river from
the west, and some smaller streams, and then
turns sharply to the east, following that gene
ral direction with several bends until it reaches
Glen's Ealls, where it has a fall of 50 ft. Soon
after passing this point it sweeps around to the
south, and flows in that direction with little
deviation to its mouth, a distance of about 190
m., separating AVashington, Rensselaer, Colum
bia, Dutchess, Putnam, AVestchester, and New
York cos., on the east, from Saratoga, Albany,
I Greene, Ulster, Orange, and Eocklandcos., and
the state of New Jersey on the west. From
Glen's Falls to Troy its course is much broken
by rapids, but at the latter place, 151 m. from
its mouth, it is aftected by the tide and becomes
a broad, deep, sluggish stream. From Albany,
6 m. below Troy, its general width is from 300
to 700 yards, though it greatly exceeds this
in certain places. Its banks are elevated and
picturesque throughout nearly its whole course.
i The upper part of the river is bordered by gen
tle eminences, covered with cultivated fields,
interspersed with pleasant towns and villages,
I while in Greene and Ulster cos. its valley is
i bounded AV. by the Catskill mountains, which
i in the former approach within 7 m. of the
river. A short distance below Newburgh, 61
m. from New York, it begins its passage through

HUDSON RIVER

HUfi

the beautiful hills called the Highlands, which
rise abruptly from the water ; in some places
vessels following the channel pass so near the
shore that one can almost touch the cliffs from
their decks. The most remarkable of these
hills are Breakneck (1,187 ft. in height), Bea
con, so named from the signal tires which
used to burn on its summit during the revo
lutionary war (1,085 ft.), Butter (1,500 ft.),
Crow Nest (1,428 ft.), Sugarloaf mountain,
Bull hill, Anthony's Nose (1,128 ft.), and
Dunderberg (Thunder Hill) or Donderbarrack
(Thunder Chamber). The Highlands cover
an area of about 16 by 25 m., and the river
flows through them with many windings,
which add greatly to its beauty. In the midst
of them, on a bold promontory commanding
magnificent views both N. and S., is West
Point, the seat of the United States military
academy. Fort Putnam, the ruins of which
remain, was built here during the war of inde
pendence by the Americans, and a chain was
stretched across the river at this place to pre
vent the passage of British ships. Several other
sites memorable in the history of that period
are pointed out to tourists in various parts of
the river. Shortly after emerging from the
Highlands the Hudson widens into the expanse
kno\vn as Haverstraw bay, immediately below
which is Tappan bay, extending from Teller's
Point to Piermont, about 12 m. long and 3 to 4
m. wide. On the TV. shore a range of trap
rock called the Palisades rises perpendicularly
from the water's edge to a height of from 300 to
500 ft., extending from the New Jersey boun
dary just below Piermont to Fort Lee, 9 m.
from Ne\v York bay, the range being thus
about 15 m. long. From this place to its mouth
the Hudson is between 1 and 2 m. wide. It
falls into New York bay in lat. 40° 42' N., Ion.
74° 1' 30" TV., its whole length being a little
over 300 m. Its fall from Albany to its
mouth, according to the United States coast
survey reports, is only about 5 ft. On the
E. side of its mouth lies New York city, on the
TV. side Jersey City and Iloboken. The Hud
son has few tributaries, the largest being the
Iloosac, Mohawk, TValkill, and Croton. Spuyten
Duy vil creek connects it with the Harlem river,
which flows into the East river, forming the
N. boundary of Manhattan island. The basin
of the Hudson occupies about two thirds of the
E. border of the state, and a large part of the
interior. The principal cities and towns on its
banks are Lansingburgh, Troy, Hudson, Pough-
keepsie, Peekskill, Sing Sing, Tarry town, Yon-
kers, and New York, on the east, and Water-
ford, West Troy, Albany, Catskill, Kingston,
Rondout, Newburgh, Ilaverstraw, Nyack, Pier
mont, Iloboken, and Jersey City on the west. It
is navigable by ships to Hudson, by steamboats
to Troy, and by sloops, by means of a dam and
lock, to Waterford, at the mouth of the Mo
hawk. The passenger steamers from New
York to Albany and Troy are noted for their
elegance and tine proportions. A little below

Albany the navigation is at times obstructed
by shifting sands called the Overslaugh, for the
removal of which large expenditures have been
made by the United States government. New
York is indebted for much of its prosperity to
this river, which forms one of the principal
channels of communication between the east
and west, and is connected with the great lakes
by the Erie canal and the Erie and New York
Central railroads, with Lake Champlain and
Canada by canal and railroad, and with the
Delaware river and the Pennsylvania coal re
gion by the Delaware and Hudson canal. The
Hudson River railroad runs along its east bank
from New York to Troy, and a railroad has
been commenced along its west bank from Jer
sey City to Albany. — In 1524 Verrazzani, sail
ing under a commission from Francis I. of
France, entered the bay of New York and
sailed a short distance up the river in a boat.
Henry Hudson discovered it Sept. 11, 1009, ex
plored it above the mouth of the Mohawk, and
called it " river of the mountains." This name
was soon changed to Mauritius, in honor of
Prince Maurice of Nassau; and about 1682 it
became generally known as the North river, to
distinguish it from the Delaware or South river.
The name Hudson's river had been applied to
it by the English not long after its discovery in
1609. The Indians are said to have called it
Shatemuc and Cahohatatea. The first success
ful attempt at steam navigation was made on
the Hudson by Robert Fulton in 1807.

HUDSON STRAIT, in British North America,
connects Hudson bay with the ocean and Da
vis strait, between lat. 60° and 64° N., and Ion.
65° and 77° TV. Its length is 450 in., its average
breadth 100 m., and its least breadth 60 m.

Hl'E, a city of Asia, capital af the empire of
Anam, and of the province of the same name,
on the Hue roadstead, about 10 m. from the
China sea ; lat. 16° 28' N., Ion. 107° 32' E. ;
pop. estimated at from 80,000 to 100,000. It
is composed of two cities, an outer and an in
ner. The former is surrounded by the river,
and by walls 5 m. in circumference and 60 ft.
high, fortified in the European manner. It is
entered by ten bridges and as many correspond
ing gates, and contains the palaces of the king's
near relatives, the different public offices, bar
racks, prisons, magazines, granaries, and the
dwelling houses and shops of the citizens. In
the centre of the outer city is the inner one,
which is also walled, and in which are the pal
aces and seraglio of the king, the palace of his
mother, the palace wherein the sovereign re
ceives his mandarins, and guard rooms for the
sentinels on duty. Hue is a naval station, and
has extensive ship yards and a large cannon
foundery. The streets arc traversed by navi
gable canals. The roadstead is an excellent
and well sheltered harbor. The citadel is for
tified after the European fashion, and would
require 50,000 men to fully garrison it. The
commercial and manufacturing activity of Hue
is extensive. In 1787 the city was formally

IIUELVA

IIUFELAND

ceded to the French, but has never been occu
pied by them.

HIELVA. I. A S. W. province of Spain,
forming the W. extremity of Andalusia, bor
dering on Portugal, the Atlantic, and the prov
inces of Cadiz, Seville, and Badajoz ; area,
4,118 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 196,409. The
larger portion of the province is a picturesque
mountain land, being traversed by a continua
tion of the Sierra Morena, known as the Sier
ra de Aroche. It is but little cultivated and
thinly peopled. It has mines of copper, iron,
lead, and coal, salt works, and mineral springs.
The copper mines on the Rio Tinto are cele
brated. The chief rivers are the Guadiana,
which forms part of its western frontier, and
the Tinto. The principal towns, besides the
capital, are Moguer, Ayamonte, Cartaya, La
Palma, Yalverde del Camino, and Aracena.
II. A town, capital of the province, situated on
a peninsula between the mouths of the Tinto
and the Odiel, 50 m. W. S. W. of Seville ; pop.
about 10,000. It has broad, clean streets, two
churches, two hospitals, a high school, a thea
tre, barracks, a beautiful promenade, and an
ancient aqueduct. Copper is largely exported,
and there is a brisk coasting trade with Cadiz
and Seville. It is the site of the ancient
Onoba, of which considerable remains exist.

IIUERFANO, a S. county of Colorado, drained
by a river of the same name ; area, about
2,000 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 2,250. The sur
face is generally mountainous. The land along
the Huerfano and its branches is fertile, and
Indian corn grows well, but stock raising is
the chief industry. Some gold and silver is
found in the mountains. The Denver and Rio
Grande railroad traverses the county. The
chief productions in 1870 were 5,597 bushels
of wheat, 13,080 of Indian corn, 2,170 of oats,
and 37,779 Ibs. of wool. There were 281
horses, 1,987 milch cows, 2,349 other cattle,
30,704 sheep, and 413 swine. Capital, Badito.

HUESCA. I. A province of Spain, in Aragon,
bordering on Franco and the provinces of Le-
rida, Saragossa, and Navarre; area, 5,872 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 274,023. The N. part, which
is covered by offsets of the Pyrenees, is rugged
and mountainous ; but the S. is level and fer
tile. The principal rivers are the Cinca, Alca-
nadre, Isuela, Gallego, and Aragon, all tribu
taries of the Ebro. Wine, oil, and cattle are
produced. Iron, copper, and lead are found,
but there is little mining. The manufac
tures are linen, woollen, and hempen fabrics,
&c. The principal towns are Iluesca, Barbas-
tro, Fraga, Monzon, and Jaca. II. A town
(anc. Osca], capital of the province, on the
Isuela, 35 m. 1ST. E. of Saragossa; pop. about
10,000. It is a place of great antiquity. Ser-
torius founded here a college for the instruc
tion of Iberian youth in Greek and Roman
learning. Julius Ca?sar raised it to the dignity
of a municipium, and honored it with the title
of Osca Urbs Victrix. In 1096 Pedro I. of
Aragon recovered this city from the Moors,
YOL. ix. — 3

who called it Weshha, and annexed it to his
dominions. It is the seat of a bishop, has a
beautiful Gothic cathedral, four churches, an
episcopal seminary, two colleges, a theatre, and
barracks. The university, which was founded
by Pedro IV. of Aragon in 1354, has recently
been abolished. The industry is confined to
tanning and weaving of coarse linen.

HIET, Pierre Daniel, a French scholar, born
in Caen, Feb. 8, 1030, died in Paris, Jan. 26,
1721. lie studied at Caen and Paris, and trav
elled in Holland and Sweden in 1052. In 1670
he was appointed by the king sub-preceptor un
der Bossuet of the dauphin, and he directed for
his royal pupil the preparation of the Delphin
edition of the classics (advsvm Ddpldni). He
was received into the French academy in 1674,
became bishop of Avranches in 1089, resigned
that office after ten years, and soon afterward
entered an establishment of the Jesuits at Paris.
His principal works are: De Interpretatione
(Paris, 1661); Lettre sur Vorigine des romans
(1670), full of curious researches; Demonstra-
tio Evangelica (1079) ; Censura Philosophies
Cartesianm (1689), in which he appears as an
opponent of Cartesianism ; Histoire du com
merce et de la navigation des ancic?is (Lyons,
1716); and Traite philosoptiique de lafaiblesse
de Vesprit humain (Amsterdam, 1723), which
caused him to be classed among skeptics. He
wrote memoirs of his life in Latin (1718;
French translation by Charles Nisard, Paris,
1853). His complete works appeared in 1856,
in 6 vols.

HiFELAND, Christoph Willielm, a German phy
sician, born at Lanirensalza, Thuringia, Aug.
12, 1762, died in Berlin, Aug. 25, 1836. He
studied at Jena and Gottingen, graduated as
M. I), in 1783, and was appointed professor of
medicine at Jena in 1793. In 1798 he removed
to Berlin, and after the establishment of the
university of Berlin (1809) he became profes
sor there of special pathology and therapeutics.
His work on the art of prolonging life (3fakro-
l)iotiJc; oder die .Kunst das memchliclie Lelen- zu
verlangern, Jena, 1796 ; 8th ed., Berlin, 1860)
was translated into several European lan
guages. Among his other works is one on
scrofulous diseases (Ueber die Natvr, Erkennt-
nissmittel vnd Heilart der STcropTielkrankheit,
Jena, 1795). His work on the physical train
ing of infants (Outer Path an Mutter uler die
icicJitigsten Punkte der physischen Erziehung
der Kinder in den erstcn Jahren, Berlin, 1799 ;
10th ed., 1866) produced many reforms in the
system of education; Avhile his Enchiridion
Medicum (Berlin, 1836; 10th ed., 1857), which
gives the experiences of his 50 years of practice,
is still consulted. His System der praktisclien
Ileilkiinde (Jena and Leipsic, 1800-'5), and his
GeschicJite der Gcmindheit (Berlin, 1812), are
much esteemed. He introduced the system of
mortuary houses for the prevention of burying
alive, the first of which was erected at Weimar
under his superintendence ; and endowed char
itable institutions for poor physicians and phy-

IltGEL

HUGH CAPET

sicians' widows. His autobiography, edited by
Goschen, was published in 1863.

IlilOEL, Karl Alexander Anselm, baron, a Ger
man traveller, born in Ratisbon, April 25, 171)6,
died in Brussels, June 2, 1870. lie studied
law in Heidelberg, served as an Austrian officer
in 1813-'! 4, and held an appointment in the
embassy sent to induce Christian, the tempo
rary king of Norway, to resign. In 1821 he
went in a diplomatic capacity to Naples, and
afterward lived several years in Vienna. In
1831 he set out to visit Greece, Asia Minor,
Egypt, Barbary, and remote portions of India
and central Asia. He returned to Europe in
1837, bringing with him a collection illustra
ting ethnography and natural history, as well as
antique coins, manuscripts, jewelry, paintings,
and silver vessels. The whole collection was
purchased for the imperial museum in Vien
na. He wrote Botanisches Archiv (Vienna,
1837) ; Kaschmir und das Reich der Sikhs (4
vols., Stuttgart, 1840-'42); and Das.BecTcen
von Kabul (2 vols., Vienna, 1851-'2).

HUGER. I. Isaac, an American revolutionary
general, born at Limerick plantation, S. C.,
March 19, 1742, died in Charleston in Novem
ber, 1797. He was one of five patriot broth
ers active in the revolution. Their parents
were wealthy, and the sons completed their
education in Europe. Isaac first served under
Col. Middleton in the expedition against the
Cherokees in 1760. He was made lieutenant
colonel of the 1st South Carolina regiment,
June 17, 1775, and subsequently colonel of the
5th regiment ; took a conspicuous part in the
engagements connected with the siege of Sa
vannah in 1778; was made a brigadier general
Jan. 19, 1779 ; commanded a force of cavalry
at the siege of Charleston in 1780, which was
surprised and dispersed by Tarleton ; and com
manded the Virginia brigade which formed the
right wing in the battles of Guilford Court
House, March 15, 1781, and Hobkirk's Hill,
April 25, 1781. II. Francis Kinlock, an Amer
ican officer, nephew of the preceding, born in
1764, died in Charleston, S. 0., Feb. 15, 1855.
His father, Major Benjamin Huger, was killed
before the lines of Charleston in 1779. After
being a pupil of Dr. John Hunter, and a fellow
student of Dr. Physick in Philadelphia, he join
ed with Dr. Eric Bollmann in a daring but un
successful attempt to rescue Lafayette from Ol-
miitz. (See BOLLMAXX.) Huger was arrested
and for eight months kept in severe confine
ment. He returned home, and in 1798 became
a captain in the army, was a colonel in the war
of 1812, and served in both branches of the
legislature of his state. HI. Benjamin, son of
the preceding, born in Charleston in 1806. j
He graduated at West Point in 1825, and was
commander at Fortress Monroe from 1841 to
1846. He served as chief of ordnance to Gen.
Scott in the Mexican war, was successively bre-
vetted as major, lieutenant colonel, and colonel,
and from 1854 to 1860 was in command of
the arsenal at Pikesville, Md. He resigned

his commission in April, 1861, entered the con
federate service, and was soon made major
general. His conduct during the campaign on
the peninsula was severely censured, and he
was removed from active service soon after.

HUGGL\S, William, an English astronomer,
born in London, Feb. 7, 1824. He was edu
cated at the city of London school and by pri
vate tutors, and devoted himself successively
to natural philosophy, astronomy, and micro
scopy, attaining great proficiency in each. In
1855 he erected an observatory near his resi
dence at Upper Tulse hill, furnishing it with a
transit instrument and an equatorial of 8 in.
aperture manufactured in Cambridge, Mass.
At first he was occupied with observations of
double stars, and he also made drawings of
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; but later he gave
almost his entire attention to the application
of spectrum analysis to the examination of
comets and nebulae, and his most valuable
achievements have been in this field. In 1862,
as a preliminary task, he spent several months
in mapping the spectra of 26 chemical ele
ments ; the results are published in the " Phi
losophical Transactions " for 1864. In his pris
matic observation of the stars he was assisted
by Dr. William A. Miller, and the gold medal
of the royal astronomical society was awarded
to them jointly in 1867, Mr. Huggins having
received one of the royal medals in 1866. He
has proved that the proper motion of a star in
the line of sight can be determined by any
small change of position in the lines of the
spectrum, and thus he calculates that Sirius is
moving away from the earth at the rate of 27
m. a second. He has made valuable observa
tions on the solar prominences, showing how
their forms may be seen, and has detected the
heat received at the earth from some of the
fixed stars. In 1869 he delivered the Rede
lecture at Cambridge, in which he gave an ac
count of his discoveries. In 1871 the royal
society placed at his disposal a telescope of
15 in. aperture, which was placed in a new ob
servatory at Upper Tulse hill. For an account
of his observations of the spectra of comets,
see COMET, vol. v., p. 141.

HUGH CAPET, king of France and the found
er of the Capetian dynasty, born about 940,
died Oct. 24, 996. When still a child he in
herited from his father, Hugh the Great, the
duchy of France and the county of Paris, thus
taking rank among the most powerful princes
of his country. On the death of Louis V., the
last of the Carlovingian kings, a number of no
bles and bishops from all parts of the country
assembled at Senlia to settle the succession,
and selected Hugh Capet in preference to the
Carlovingian duke Charles of Lorraine, the un
cle of the late king. Hugh was consequently
crowned at Noyon, July 3, 987, by the arch
bishop of Rheims. Notwithstanding this elec
tion, Charles supported his claims to the crown
of France by the sword, and after four years'
hostilities was apparently on the point of sue-

HUGHES

ceeding, when lie was treacherously made
prisoner by Adalberon, bishop of Laon, who
delivered him to his rival. The unfortunate
prince was sent to Orleans, where he soon
breathed his last in a dungeon. Hugh, having
thus secured possession of the crown, associa
ted his son Robert in the government, which
he settled on the principle of hereditary suc
cession. (See CAPETTANS.)

HUGHES, Ball, an American sculptor, born in
London, England, Jan. 19, 1804, died in Bos
ton, Mass., March 5, 1868. When only 12
years old he made out of wax candle ends a
bass-relief copy of a picture representing the
wisdom of Solomon, which was afterward cast
in silver. He spent seven years in the studio
of Ed \vard Hodges Bailey, and competed suc
cessfully for the prizes awarded by the royal
academy and the society of arts and sciences.
Among his works at this period, besides sev
eral ideal statues, were busts of George IV.
and the dukes of Sussex, York, and Cambridge.
In 1829 he emigrated to New York, where he
executed a marble statue of Hamilton, which
was destroyed in the merchants' exchange, in
the great fire of 1835. He also made a monu
mental alto-relief, of life size, in memory of
Bishop Hobart, which is now in Trinity church.
Several of his casts are in the Boston athe-
najum, and his bronze statue of Nathaniel Bow-
ditch is in Mt. Auburn cemetery, Cambridge,
Mass. He also appeared as a lecturer on art.

HUGHES, Joliu, an American archbishop, born
near Clogher, county Tyrone, Ireland, in 1797,
died in New York, Jan. 3, 1864. He was,
to use his own words in his well known letter
to Mayor Harper, " the son of a farmer of
moderate but comfortable means." Being the
youngest of three sons, he was allowed to in
dulge an early passion for books, and was sent
for a time to a Latin school. In 1816 his father
came to the L T nited States. John followed
him in 1817, and in 1818 the whole family set
tled near Chambersburg, Pa. Toward the end
of that year John obtained admission to the
college of Mount St. Mary's, at Emmettsburg,
Md. " I was to superintend the garden," he
afterward wrote, "as a compensation for my
expenses, until I might be appointed teacher,
prosecuting meanwhile my studies under a pri
vate tutor." Toward the close of 1825 he was
ordained priest, and placed in charge of a small
mission at Bedford, Pa. A few weeks after
ward he was appointed pastor of St. Joseph's
church, Philadelphia, where he soon gained
reputation as a pulpit orator. On May 31,
1829, he preached a sermon on Catholic eman
cipation, which was published in pamphlet
form and dedicated to O'Connell. In 1830 he
accepted a challenge from the Rev. John Breck-
enridge, D. I)., a distinguished Presbyterian
clergyman, to discuss through the press the
question, " Is the Protestant religion the reli
gion of Christ ? " In 1831-'2 he built St. John's
church, Philadelphia, of which he was the rec
tor as long as he remained in that city. In 1834

he accepted a second challenge from Dr. Breck-
enridge to a public oral discussion of the ques
tion, "Is the Roman Catholic religion hostile
to liberty ? " The debate created much inter
est, was brought to an unsatisfactory termina-
i tion, and afterward appeared in book form.
| Mr. Hughes was appointed coadjutor bishop of
| New York in 1837, received episcopal conse
cration Jan. 7, 1838, and in 1839 became ad
ministrator of the diocese, which then com
prised the entire state of New York and part
of New Jersey, with a Catholic population of
200,000, and only 40 clergymen. He forthwith
set to work to remedy the evils springing from
the " trustee system " of holding church prop
erty. The titles were vested in laymen, who
frequently came into conflict with the episco
pal authority, and were sometimes supported
in their opposition by priests suspended from
their office. Several churches had in conse
quence been closed to divine worship; most of
them had become deeply involved in debt, and
of the eight churches in New York city, five
were on the point of being sold. Bishop
Hughes set about consolidating these debts,
removing the lay trustees, and securing the
titles in his own name. In spite of every ob
stacle he succeeded, and thus put an end to
scandalous contentions. lie next purchased a
large property at Fordham,' Westchester co.,
with the intention of opening there a college
and theological seminary. For the purpose of
obtaining money and the aid of religious com
munities for the institutions which he planned,
he went to Europe in 1839. During his ab
sence the Catholics of New York set up an or
ganized opposition to the public school system.
To prevent this movement from becoming a
purely political one, Bishop Hughes on his re
turn took himself the lead, and drew up a pe
tition to the common council praying, in the
name of the Catholic citizens, that seven pa
rochial schools should be designated as "enti
tled to participate in the common-school fund,
upon complying with the requirements of the
law." Remonstrances to this petition were sent
in by the public school society and the pastors
of the Methodist Episcopal church, and on Oct.
29 both parties appeared before the common
council. Bishop Hughes met and answered,
for several days in succession, the array of
eminent counsel opposed to him, and support
ed his petition in an elaborate speech ; but his
demands were rejected by the common coun
cil. The matter was then brought before the
legislature ; but being baffled in his suit there,
he recommended Catholics to nominate inde
pendent candidates in the ensuing elections ; a
movement which developed such unexpected
strength that a modification of the school sys
tem was soon afterward effected. In 1841 he
I was able to open regular courses of classical
] and theological instruction in St. John's col-
i lege, Fordham. In 1842, after the death of
I Bishop Dubois, Dr. Hughes succeeded him as
! titular bishop of New York. In August of

HUGHES

HUGO

that year was held the first diocesan synod
of New York, whose decrees on secret soci
eties and the tenure of church property were
published officially by the bishop in Septem
ber; and this legislation was further supple
mented by the publication in 1845 of "Rules
for the Administration of Churches without
Trustees." On March 10, 1844, he consecrated
as his coadjutor the Rev. John McCloskey, D. D.
During the spring and summer of this year
fears were entertained of anti-Catholic riots in
New York, such as had taken place in Phil
adelphia. Bishop Hughes thereupon address
ed a letter to Mayor Harper, which calmed
the public excitement, and in a series of let
ters denounced the editor of the " New York
Herald " for attacks on himself. A second
visit to Europe in December, 1845, enabled
him to secure the services of the Jesuits, Chris
tian brothers, and sisters of mercy. On his
return he was solicited by President Polk to
accept a peace mission to Mexico, which he
declined. In 1847 he delivered in the hall of
representatives at Washington, by request of
both houses of congress, a discourse on " Chris
tianity, the only Source of Moral, Social, and
Political Regeneration." During this year his
diocese was divided by the creation of the sees
of Albany and Buffalo. In 1850 the see of
New York was raised to metropolitan rank, and
Bishop Hughes received the pallium as arch
bishop in Rome at the hands of the pope. In
1853 the sees of Brooklyn, Burlington, and
Newark were erected, and the new bishops
were consecrated by the nuncio, Archbishop
(afterward Cardinal) Bedini, Oct. 30. Arch
bishop Hughes presided in 1854 over the first
provincial council of New York ; was in Rome
at the proclamation of the dogma of the im
maculate conception, Dec. 8 ; and on his return
was involved in a controversy with Mr. Eras-
tus Brooks, the letters on both sides being pub
lished in a volume entitled " Brooksiana."
On Aug. 5, 1855, he laid the corner stone of a
new cathedral on Fifth avenue, New York, the
largest yet planned in the United States. In
the preceding autumn, while accompanying the
nuncio to Canada, he was seized with lung fe
ver, from the effects of which he never wholly
recovered. He persisted nevertheless in the
discharge of his daily duties, causing himself
toward the end of his life to be carried to the
altar when conferring confirmation. At the
breaking out of the civil war, and before ac
tive operations had begun in Virginia, Arch
bishop Hughes, though in very feeble health,
went to Washington to proffer the aid of his
priests, sisters of charity, and sisters of mer
cy. In November, 1861, at the solicitation of
President Lincoln, he went to Europe in com
pany with Mr. Thurlow Weed, in order to se
cure the friendly neutrality of some govern
ments, particularly of the French court. Af
ter visiting France and Italy, he preached at
the laying of the corner stone of the Catho
lic university of Dublin, June, 1862. He ap

peared at the New York academy of music
in April, 1863, to make an appeal in favor of
the famishing Irish, and in July made his last
public address to quell the draft riots. Thence
forward his strength steadily declined until
his death. His works have been published by
L. Kehoe (2 vols., New York, 1864-'o) ; and
his life has been written by John R. G. Ilassard
(Svo, New York, 1866).

HUGHES, Thomas, an English author, born
near Newbury, Berkshire, Oct. 20, 1823. He
was educated at Rugby, and graduated at Oriel
college, Oxford, in 1845. He studied law, was
called to the bar in 1848, and beeame queen's
counsel in 1869. From 1865 to 1868 he was a
liberal member of parliament for the borough
of Lambeth, and from 1868 to January, 1874,
for the borough of Frome, which was not con
tested by the liberals in the election of Feb
ruary, 1874, and consequently a conservative
took his place. While in parliament he sup
ported the bills for the disestablishment of the
Irish church, and for secularizing the universi
ties, abolishing tests, and admitting dissenters
to fellowship in Oxford and Cambridge. He
took an active interest in educational and so
cial questions and in all measures for the im
provement of the laboring classes. In 1869
and 1870 he visited the United States, lecturing
in the principal cities, and was well received.
He is the author of "Tom Brown's School
Days," a graphic description of life at Rugby
school under Dr. Arnold (1856) ; a sequel to it
entitled "Tom Brown at Oxford" (1861);
" The Scouring of the White Horse " (1858) ;
" Religio Laici," a semi-theological essay (1862) ;
"Alfred the Great" (1869); and "Memoirs
of a Brother " (1873). He has also written
critical prefaces to English editions of a work
on "Trades Unions" by the count de Paris,
Lowell's " Biglow Papers," and the poems of
Walt Whitman.

HIGHS, a S. county of Dakota, bounded S.
W. by the Missouri, recently formed and not
included in the census of 1870 ; area, about
800 sq. m. It is intersected by East Medicine
Knoll river, and watered by several small
affluents of the Missouri.

HUGO, Gnstav, a German jurist, born at Lor-
rach, Baden, Nov. 23, 1764, died in Gottingen
Sept. 16, 1844. He studied at Gottingen from
1782' to 1785, and first became known by his
edition of the " Fragments of Ulpian " (Gottin
gen, 1788). In 17H8 he was appointed professor
extraordinary and in 1792 regular professor of
law at the university of Gottingen. He was
one of the first to follow the example of Leib
nitz and of Putter, presenting the Roman law
classified with reference to the principal eras
of its history. His principal works are : Lehr-
Imch der Q-eschichte des romischen Reclits (Ber
lin, 1790; 9th ed., 1824); Lehrluch eines
cimlistiscJien Curms (7 vols., 1799-1812) ; and
Beitrage zur cimlistischen Bucherkenntniss der
letzten merzig Jahre (2 vols., 1829). He edited
the Civil istische Magazin from 1814 to 1837.

HUGO

HrCO, Victor Marie, a French poet and novel
ist, born in Besancon, Feb. 26, 1802. The son
of an officer whose military duties called him
out of France, he was carried in childhood to
Elba, Corsica, Switzerland, and Italy. In
1809 he was taken to Paris ; and here for two
years, under the exclusive supervision of his
mother and the care of an old priest, he com
menced his classical studies in company with
an elder brother, Eugene, and a young girl
who afterward became his wife. In 1811,
his father having been made general and
appointed major-domo of Joseph Bonaparte,
the new king of Spain, Victor went to Madrid,
and entered the seminary of nobles with a
view of becoming one of the pages of Joseph ;
but subsequent events defeated this design.
In 1812 Mine. Hugo returned to Paris with her
two sons, and had their classical education
continued by the same clergyman who had
already instructed them. On the fall of the
empire a separation took place between the
general and his wife ; and thenceforth the
young man was placed entirely under the con
trol of the former. He entered a private
academy to prepare himself for admission to
the polytechnic school. Here he evinced some
taste and ability for mathematics, but a much
stronger inclination toward poetry; and his
first poems gave promise of such talent that
his father was finally persuaded to allow him
to follow literature as his vocation. In 1817
he presented to the French academy a poem
upon Les wantages de V etude. He afterward
won three prizes in succession at the Toulouse
academy of floral games. His first volume of
Odes et ballades (1822) created a sensation.
Two novels, Han d^Islande (1823) and Bug-
Jargal (1825), exhibited him as an original
and forcible prose writer, but already displayed
that predilection for the horrible and mon
strous which characterizes most of his greater
productions. His second volume of Odes et
ballades appeared in 1826. About this pe
riod, in conjunction with Sainte-Beuve, An-
toine and £mile Deschamps, A. de Vigny, Bou-
langer the painter, and David the sculptor,
he formed a kind of literary association, called
the Cenacle, in the meetings of which new
literary and artistic doctrines were debated.
They also established a periodical, called La
m-use franpaise, which attracted little attention.
The drama of Cromwell (1827), although un
suitable for the stage, was presented as a spe
cimen of the literary reforms aimed at by the
new school ; but it had much less importance
than the preface, which was a treatise on «3S-
thetics. Thenceforth Victor Hugo was the
acknowledged leader of the romanticists, wlib
waged earnest war against their opponents,
the classicists. His claims to this distinction
were strengthened in 1828 by the publication
of Les orientates. Le dernier jour d'un con-
damne, which followed, fascinated the public
by its vivid delineation of the mental tortures
of a man doomed to execution. The contest

between the two opposite schools reached its
climax when, on Feb. 26, 1830, the drama of
Hernani was produced at the Theatre Fran-
£ais. In 1831 Hugo won another dramatic
triumph with Marion Delorme, while his lyri
cal poems Les feuilles d'automne and his nov
el Notre Dame de Paris were received with
enthusiasm. The performance of his dramas,
Le roi s 1 amuse (1832), Lucrece Borgia and Ma
rie Tudor (1833), Angela, tyran de Padoue
(1835), Euy Bias (1838), and especially Les
burgraves (1843), drew forth marked appro
bation; his political poems, Les. chants du
crepuscule (1835), Les voix interieures (1837),
and Les rayons et les ombres (1840), were high
ly popular ; and his miscellaneous writings,
Claude Gueux, Etude sur Mirabeau, Littera-
ture et pliilosopJiie melees (1834), and Le Rhin
(1842), were scarcely less successful. His lite
rary reputation had secured his election to the
French academy in 1841, notwithstanding the
opposition of the members attached to the old
classic school ; and having thus reached the
highest distinction in literature, he now in
dulged in political aspirations, which were
partly gratified by his being created in 1845 a
peer of France by King Louis Philippe. On
the revolution of February, 1848, he was
elected a deputy to the constituent assembly,
where he generally voted with the conserva
tive party. On his reelection to the legislative
assembly, he evinced more democratic and so
cialistic tendencies. In vehement speeches he
denounced the reactionary tendencies of the
majority, and the secret policy of President
Louis Napoleon. On the coup cVi'tat of Dec.
2, 1851, Hugo was among .those deputies who
vainly attempted to assert the rights of the as
sembly and to preserve the constitution. His
conduct led to his proscription ; he took refuge
in the island of Jersey, where, while resuming
his literary pursuits, he continued his opposi
tion to Louis Napoleon, publishing Napoleon
le Petit (1852), and his bitter satires Les clid-
timents (1853). Two years later he Avas com
pelled, on account of some hostile manifesta
tion to the French government, to remove to
the island of Guernsey. He refused to accept
the amnesty offered to political exiles in 1859.
In 1856 he published Les contemplations, a
collection of lyrical and personal poems, and
in 1859 La legende dcs sieclcs (2 vols. 8vo), a
series of poems mainly of an epical character.
Les miseral)les, a romance which had been an
nounced several years before, appeared in nine
languages simultaneously at Paris, London,
Brussels, Madrid, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Tu
rin, and New York (April, 1862). Its success
equalled that of any of his previous works.
An illustrated edition, published, in parts
(Paris, 1863-'5), attained a sale of 150,000 cop
ies. In 1865 he published Chansons desrues et
des J0&, in which all the peculiarities of the
author were exhibited in an exaggerated de
gree. Les travaillenrs de la mer (1866) was
j also very popular ; but Uliomme qui rit (1869),

HUGO

HUGUENOTS

in which the author's fondness for monstrous
caricature was carried to its height, did not
attain so great a success. In 1809 he again
refused to avail himself of the privilege of
returning to France afforded him by the em
peror's proclamation of amnesty of Aug. 15.
He published in the Rappel a protest against
the plebiscite of May 8, 1870, ratifying the
new reforms of the empire, the violence of
which caused it to be officially condemned.
After the fall of the emperor and the procla
mation of the republic he returned to Paris,
and soon after issued an address to the Ger
mans calling upon them to proclaim a Ger
man republic and extend the hand of friendship
to France. On Feb. 8, 1871, he was elected
one of the 43 representatives of the department
of the Seine in the national assembly. He
there vehemently opposed the parliamentary
treaty of peace between France and Germany.
This aroused against him the anger of the par
ty of "the right," and on March 8, when he
attempted to address the assembly, the oppo
sition was so violent that he left the tribune
and immediately resigned his seat. Returning
to Paris when the insurrection of the commune
broke out, he vainly protested in the Rappel
against the destruction of the Vendome col
umn, and soon after went to Brussels, where on
May 26 he wrote a letter protesting against
the course of the Belgian government in re
gard to the insurgents of Paris, and offering
an asylum to the soldiers of the commune.
This excited the hostility of the Belgian gov
ernment and of the populace of Brussels; his
house was surrounded in the night by a mob,
and he escaped only by the intervention of the
police. Being required by the government to
quit Brussels, he went to London, and after
the condemnation of the leaders of the com
mune he returned to Paris and interceded
with M. Thiers energetically, though vainly,
in behalf of Rossel, Rochefort, and others of
the communist leaders. At the election in
Paris on Jan. 7, 1872, he was presented by all
the radical newspapers as their candidate, but
was defeated. During the siege of Paris a
new edition of Les clidtiments was published,
and more than 100,000 copies were sold. In
1872 he published a volume of poetry entitled
VAnnee terrible, depicting the misfortunes of
France. On May 10 of that year he com
menced, in company with his son Francois and
others, the publication of a democratic journal
called Le Peuple Souverain. His latest novel,
Quatre-mngt-treize (1874), relates to the war
in the Vendee, and introduces Robespierre,
Danton, and Marat. It was published simul
taneously in French, English, Russian, Italian,
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Hungarian, and
other languages, Hugo deriving 80,000 francs
from these translations alone. The latest edi
tion of Hugo's works, complete to the time of
publication, was published in Paris in 1862-'3,
in 20 vols. 12mo. — Two of his sons, CHARLES
VICTOR (born in 1826, died March 16, 1871),

\ and FRANC, ois VICTOR (born in 1828, died Dec.

; 26, 1873), distinguished themselves as pupils of
the Charlemagne college, and^in 1848-'50 con
tributed to the newspaper L 'Evenement, which
supported the politics of their father. The
elder, on account of an article on the death

| penalty, was sentenced to six months' impris
onment. Both accompanied their father in his
exile, and devoted their leisure hours to litera-

I ture. Charles published several light novels,
among which La Boheme dorec was especially
successful. Francois, after translating with
considerable success the sonnets of Shake
speare into French, began in 1859 a translation
of his dramatic works, which he completed in
1865. The brothers returned to France in
1869, and commenced the publication of the
Rappel in company with Rochefort, who how
ever soon separated from them. Francois at
the time of his death had nearly completed
an edition of a posthumous work by his broth
er Charles, Les homines de Vexil. — One of the
two brothers of Victor Hugo, JULES ABEL
(born in 1798, died in 1855), deserves mention
as a literary man. Among his many publica
tions were : Ilistoire de la campayne d Espagne
en 1823 (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1824); France pit-
toresque, ou Description des departements et
colonies de la France, &c. (3 vols. 4to, 1833) ;
France militaire, histoire des arinees francaises
de terre et de mer de 1792 d 1833 (5 vols. 4to,
1834) ; and France historique et monumentale,
Ilistoire generale de France depuis les temps les
plus recules jusqii* d nos jours (5 vols. 4to, with
maps and plans, 1836-'43).

HUGUEXOTS, a name of uncertain origin, first
applied by the Roman Catholics of France to
all partisans of the reformation, but subse
quently restricted to the Calvinists. Some de
rive it from one of the gates of the city of
Tours called Hugons, at which these Protestants
held some of their first assemblies ; others from
the words Hue nos, with which their protest
commenced ; others from aignos (Ger. Eidge-
noss), a confederate. The Dictionnaire de Tre-
voux suggests its derivation from the hiding in
secret places and appearing at night like King
Hugon, the great hobgoblin of France. Prof.
Malm, in his Etymologisclie Untersuchiingcn,
who quotes no fewer than 15 different deriva
tions, derives the word himself from Hugues,
the name of some conspirator or heretic, from
which it was formed by the addition of the
French diminutive ending ot. The reformation
in France was but little influenced by Luther,
and before Calvin took the lead was almost
entirely self-developing. "It was not," says
D'Aubigne, "a foreign importation. It was
born on French soil ; it germinated in Paris ;
it put forth its shoots in the university itself,
that second authority in Romish Christendom."
Anti-Catholic influences had been at work in
France from an early age. Arianism had for
several centuries been the prevailing religion

j of a part of southern France, and though it

| was finally rooted out by the victory of the

HUGUENOTS

Catholic Franks, there remained a widespread j
dissatisfaction with the religion of the victors. :
Throughout the middle ages the national senti- j
ment of the race of Languedoc, as the history
of the Albigenses and kindred sects amply ,
proves, was prone to sympathize and to iden- j
tify itself with demands for religious reform,
and even with open secession from the church
of Home. (See CATIIARISTS.) To these influ
ences was added during the reign of Francis I.
the very important aid of courtly fashion, or
rather the sympathy of those nobles and schol
ars who had become interested in the revival
of letters, and who in France, as in Germany
and other countries of Europe, were involved
in animated conflicts with the monks and the
prominent theologians of the churches. These
elements of courtly, scholarly, or popular op
position to the church gave birth not merely
to the humor of Rabelais, but to the poetry
and philosophy which sprung up around the
beautiful Marguerite of Valois, queen of Na
varre, from whom the spirit of the reforma
tion was transmitted to Jeanne d'Albret, the
mother of Henry IV. At this court all poets,
scholars, and clergymen more or less tinctured
with the spirit of reform, such as Lefevre,
Farel, and Roussel, were welcome; and for a
time it seemed as though the court and the
government of France might be gained for the
cause of the reformation. But at length Fran
cis I., like his opponent the emperor Charles
V., decided in favor of the old church, as the
papal nuncio succeeded in convincing him that
" a new religion disseminated among the peo
ple must result in a change of kings." In the
city of Meaux, around its bishop Briconnet, a
large body of men inclined to the new faith
began, without formally professing schism, to
act as reformers. Among these were Gerard
Roussel, Francois Vatable, Martial Mazurier, j
Josse" Clicthou, Michel d'Arande, and Guil-
laume Farel. Their labors, joined to the po
litical and social agitations of the day, soon at
tracted persecution. It is remarkable that this
persecution in France acted so effectually on
the French reformation as to free it in a great
measure from excesses such as those of the
Anabaptists in Germany. Yet it would prob
ably have fallen away had not the strong hand
of Calvin taken it up (1528). Hence wo find
the French reformers embodying Calvin's ideas
of church government ai.d discipline in a com
mon confession of faith, which was formally
done at the celebrated general synod in May,
1559. During the reign of Henry II. (1547-'59) j
the Huguenots gathered such strength as to i
entertain hopes of becoming the dominant po- I
litical party ; hopes which were confirmed by
the fact that several of the royal family, such
as the king of Navarre, his brother the prince \
de Conde, and many of the nobility, including
the Chatillons and Admiral Coligni, favored j
the reformation. From this blending of re- I
ligious reform with politics arose the conspira
cy of Amboise, whose object was to overthrow |

the power of Duke Fran9ois of Guise and his
brother the cardinal de Lorraine, who with
Mary of Scotland ruled the kingdom through the
feeble-minded boy-king Francis II. The king
of Navarre and prince de Conde were deeply
involved in this plot, and would have suffered
death with their Calvinist friends had it not
been for the unexpected demise of the king.
This occasioned a pause in persecution, of which
the queen mother, Catharine de' Medici, and
the ruling party availed themselves for politi
cal purposes, becoming more moderate in their
treatment of reformers. By extending tolera
tion to the Augsburg confession, the cardinal
de Lorraine shrewdly fomented quarrels be
tween the Calvinists and Lutherans. This
state of affairs, which led to terrible commo
tions, was again temporarily checked by the
edict of January, 1502. At this time, during
the reigns of two successive kings whose in
tellectual inferiority rendered a regency always
necessary (after 1559), Catharine de' Medici
held the reins of authority, while the dukes
of Guise supported by the Catholics, and the
princes of Bourbon by the Huguenots, contend
ed for the regency. Some liberal concessions,
made for the sake of policy by Catharine and
the Guises to the Huguenots, excited the anger
of the Catholics, and to allay these feelings war
was renewed and raged till the peace of St.
Germain (1670), when full liberty was guaran
teed the Huguenots, and the king's sister given
as wife to Henry of Navarre. The leading
Protestants were invited to Paris to the nup
tials, where on the day of St. Bartholomew,
1572, a general massacre of Protestants was at
tempted at the instigation of the queen mother.
The Huguenots, with Henry of Navarre as lead
er, now battled against the holy league formed
by the Guises and Philip II. of Spain. Charles
IX. died a victim to nervous excitement (1574),
and Henry III., disgusted with the tyranny of
the league, had Henry, duke of Guise, and the
cardinal put to death, and fled for safety to
the Protestant camp. He was himself assassi
nated by the Dominican Clement (1589), and
was succeeded by Henry of Navarre, who, to
pacify these terrible disorders in France, be
came a Catholic, but secured full freedom of
conscience and all political and religious rights
to the Huguenots by the edict of Nantes (1598).
The murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac (1G10)
left the Protestants without a protector. Under
his young son and successor Louis XIII. their
rights were soon attacked. Cardinal Richelieu,
determined to build up royal power and crush
all jarring elements, at one time made war
upon the Protestants, driving them into an un
lucky league with England, which resulted in
the siege and capitulation of La Rochelle. But
his treatment of them was on the whole toler
ant, though its ultimate result was to greatly di
minish their numbers and weaken their power.
From 1G29 to 1001, under Richelieu and espe
cially under his successor Mazarin, there was
comparative rest. After the death of Mazarin

HUGUENOTS

HULL

several edicts were again published in rapid
succession which aimed at reducing and finally
exterminating the Huguenots. Colbert, from
considerations of national economy, made the
utmost efforts to secure toleration for them,
but they were of little avail. Two years after
his death, in 1G85, Louis XIV. published the
celebrated revocation of the edict of Nantes,
on which occasion at least 500,000 Protestants
took refuge in foreign countries. From this
time, for many years, their cause was com
pletely broken in France. In the wild moun
tains of the Cevennes, the religious peasants,
under the name of Camisards, waged war
against the royal troops for the defence of
Protestant principles ; but they had finally to
succumb. In 1705 there was not a single or
ganized congregation of Huguenots left in all
France. Soon, however, the scattered rem
nants were again collected and the church re
organized by the indefatigable Jean Court.
Although under the reign of Louis XV. severe
ordinances were again issued against them,
they continued to increase, and in the middle
of the century found a powerful aid in men
like Montesquieu and Voltaire. Their position
was greatly improved on the accession of Louis
XVI. (1774), and finally the revolution restored
to them their full rights, which have been sub
stantially respected by all the succeeding gov
ernments of France. The right of convening
general synods of the church was, however,
not recovered till 1872. The term Huguenot
had long before ceased to be the common name
of the church, which is now known as the Re
formed church of France. — So early as 1555,
Coligni attempted, but without success, to es
tablish a Huguenot colony in Brazil. In 1562
he sent out two ships, under the command of
Jean Ribault, on a voyage of exploration to
Florida, but the attempt to establish a colony
was unsuccessful. Many departed for North
America even before the revocation of the
edict of Nantes. Some settled in and around
New Amsterdam, now New York, where their
family names are frequent. Others found homes
in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Virginia.
But South Carolina was their favorite resting
place, and a large number of the foremost
families in that state are of Huguenot origin.
This class of emigrants has contributed, in
proportion to its numbers, a vast share to the
culture and prosperity of the United States.
Wherever they settled they were noted for
severe morality, great charity, and politeness
and elegance of manners. Of seven presidents
who directed the deliberations of the congress
of Philadelphia during the revolution, three,
Henry Laurens, John Jay, and Elias Boudinot,
were of Huguenot parentage. — Among the co
pious existing sources of Huguenot history,
the pjincipal are : Beza, Ilixtoire cede sin utiqiie
dcs Eglises reformees du royaume de France
(Antwerp, 1580); Weiss, Hlstoire des refugies
protfutanta de France (Paris, 1843 ; translated
by H. W. Herbert, New York, 1854) ; Gieseler,

Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte (Bonn, 1845-
'7) ; Berthold, Deutschland und die Hugenotten
(Bremen, 1848) ; Felice, Plistoire des protes-
tants de France (Paris, 1851); the Bulletin
de la societe de Vhistoire du protestantisme
francais ; La France protestante, by Eugene
and Emile Ilaag (9 vols., Paris, 1859) ; Smiles,
" The Huguenots: their Settlements, Churches,
and Industries in England arid Ireland " (Lon
don, 1867 ; American edition, New York, 1869,
containing a valuable appendix on the Hugue
nots in the United States, by G. P. Disosway,
a descendant of a Huguenot family); Hugues,
Histoire de la restauration du protestantisme
de France au XV III* siecle (2 vols., Paris, 1872).
HULIN, or Hnllin, Pierre Augnstin, count, a
French general, born in Paris, Sept. 6, 1758,
died Jan. 9, 1841. He enlisted in the army
when scarcely 13 years old, entered the regi
ment of French guards, and was a sergeant
when the revolution broke out. He sided with
the people, distinguished himself by his valor
and humanity at the taking of the Bastile,
July 14, 1789, and was appointed captain in the
national guards under Lafayette. During the
reign of terror he was imprisoned, but was
liberated after the fall of Robespierre. In
1796 he joined the army of Italy under Bona
parte, who appointed him adjutant general ;
he was governor of Milan in 1797-'8, and was
in Paris on the 18th Brumaire, when he sup
ported his general. He followed Bonaparte in
Italy during the campaign of Marengo ; was
made brigadier general in 1803 ; presided over
the court martial which sentenced the duke
d'Enghien to death, March 21, 1804; received
the rank of general of division and the com
mand of the first military division in 1807 ;
and was the next year created count of the
empire. He held the command of Paris until
the first restoration; and although, after the
abdication of Napoleon, he had sent in his
adhesion to the new government, he was dis
missed by the Bourbons. He resumed his post
during the hundred days, was arrested on the
second restoration, and compelled to leave
France, but was allowed to return in 1819.
Under the title of Explications offertcs aux
hommes impartiaux au si/jet de la commission
militaire instituted e'n Van XII pour juger le
due (PEngliien (Paris, 1823), he published a
plain account of his part in that tragedy.

HILL, or Kiiigston-upoii-Hnil, a municipal and
parliamentary borough and seaport of Eng
land, in the East riding of Yorkshire, on the
river Hull, at its mouth in the Humber, 34 m.

I S. E. of York, 154 m. N. of London, and 20
in. from the sea; pop. in 1871, 121,598. It is
built on a low plain, protected against inunda
tion by artificial means, and extends more than
2 m. along the W. bank of the Hull, and near-

j ly the same distance along the N. bank of the
Humber. The streets are very irregular, but
are mostly well paved, lighted, and drained.
The residences of the wealthy inhabitants are
principally in the parish of Sculcoates and the

HULL

quarter called Myton. A part of the town
built along the left bank of the Hull is con
nected with the remainder by a bridge of four
arches. On the point of land formed by the
junction of the two rivers there is a fort which
commands the whole harbor. Adjoining it is
the Victoria dock. The old dock, opened in
1778 on the Hull, is nine acres in extent, and
can accommodate 100 square-rigged ships.
There is also a railway dock at the terminus
of the Hull and Selby railway. Other docks
have been built of late years, and the total
area of all the docks of Hull in 1874 was
about 87i acres. The principal public build
ings are the custom house, exchange, post

Town Hall, Hull.

office, mansion house, courts of law, jail and
house of correction, assembly rooms and muse
um, concert rooms, two theatres, several banks,
and corn exchange. The Holy Trinity church
is a handsome cruciform edifice of several
dates; the oldest portion was built in 1270.
The town has several charitable schools, one
of which educates 30 boys to be seamen, and
is connected with the Trinity house founded in
1300 for the relief of decayed seamen and the
widows of seamen. There is a marine hos
pital attached to it. Hull college, founded in
1838, occupies a fine Grecian building. There
are also a lunatic asylum, a general infirmary,
a school of medicine and anatomy, various lit
erary associations with libraries, and botanic

and zoological gardens and a " People's Park "
of 27 acres given by Sir Z. C. Pearson in 18(54.
The manufactures include canvas, chains, ma
chinery, earthenware, chemicals, leather, su
gar, cotton and linen goods, &c. There are
ship-building yards, rope walks, saw mills,
grist mills, bone mills, and oil mills. The
principal exports are hardware and manufac
tures of cotton and woollen ; the imports,
timber, tar, pitch, rosin, grain, wool, flax,
hemp, iron, hides, tallow, horns, bones, &:c.
The trade is chiefly along the coast, with the
Baltic ports, and with Germany, Holland, Bel
gium, Denmark, and America. Hull is an im
portant station for steam packets which connect
it with various ports of Great Britain and the
continent, and also has railway communication
with nearly all parts of the kingdom. The to
tal imports in 1871 were valued at £15,076,095,
the exports at £27,387,071. The entrances
were 3,417 vessels, of 1,188,841 tons; clear
ances, 2,911 vessels, of 1,044,158 tons. Hull
ranks as the third port in the kingdom.

HILL, Isaac, an American naval officer, born
I at Derby, Conn., March 9, 1775, died in Phila-
j delphia, Feb. 3, 1843. He commenced his ca
reer in the merchant service, and was commis
sioned as lieutenant in the navy at the com
mencement of hostilities with France in 1798.
In 1800 he was first lieutenant of the frigate Con
stitution, and performed a very gallant achieve
ment in cutting out a French letter of marque
from under the guns of a strong battery in the
harbor of Port Platte, Santo Domingo. During
the war with Tripoli, 1802-'o, Hull served with
distinction in the several attacks on the city of
Tripoli in July, August, and September, 1804,
and subsequently cooperated with Gen. Eaton
in the capture of Derne. In 1800 he was made
captain. At the opening -of the war of 1812
between the United States and Great Britain,
he was in command of the frigate Constitu
tion, and in July of that year, while cruising
off Few York, he fell in with a British squad
ron consisting of a razee of 64 guns and four
frigates, which chased the Constitution closely
for nearly three days and nights. By the
greatest efforts, and the exercise of a skill in
handling his ship which excited the admiration
of his pursuers, he succeeded in escaping. Af
ter this remarkable feat, Hull went into Boston
for a few days, whence he sailed Aug. 3, and
on Aug. 19, in Lit. 41° 41' K, Ion. 55° 48' W.,
discovered a ship to leeward, which was soon
made out to be an English frigate. The course
of the Constitution was shaped to close with
this vessel, which hove to to await an engage
ment. At 5 P. M. the English frigate opened
her fire at very long range, and at a little after
the Constitution closed with her. After a
desperate fight of about half an hour the Eng
lish frigate was reduced to a Avreck and sur
rendered. She proved to be the Guerriere,
Capt. Dacres, one of the ships which had
recently chased the Constitution. Possession
was taken of her soon after 7 P. M. The next

HULL

HUMBOLDT

day she was discovered to be in a sinking con
dition, and after the removal of the prisoners
she was set on tire and soon afterward blew up.
The Constitution suffered somewhat aloft in
this action, though but little in her hull. Her
loss in killed and wounded was 14, and that of
the Guerriere 79. The Constitution was the
larger and heavier ship, mounting 54 guns,
long 24s and 32-pounder carronades, the Guer
riere mounting 49 guns, long 18s and 32-pound
er carronades. As this was the first naval action
of the war, it was regarded as very important.
Capt. Hull carried his prisoners into Boston,
where he was enthusiastically received. Con
gress at its next session presented a gold medal
to him, and silver ones to each commissioned
officer under his command in this engagement.
After the war his principal services were in
command of the navy yards at Boston and
Washington, of the squadrons in the Pacific
and Mediterranean, and in the board of navy
commissioners.

HULL, Willi.im, an American soldier, born in
Derby, Conn., June 24, 1753, died in Newton,
Mass., Nov. 21), 1825. He graduated at Yale
college in 1772, studied law at Litchfield,
Conn., and was admitted to the bar in 1775.
He entered the army of the revolution at Cam
bridge in 1775 as captain of a Connecticut com
pany of volunteers ; was made major in the
8th Massachusetts regiment in 1777, and lieu
tenant colonel in 1779, and was inspector of
the army under Baron Steuben. He was in
the battles at White Plains, Trenton, Prince
ton, Stillwater, Saratoga, Monmouth, and
Stony Point. He commanded the expedition
against Morrisania, for which he received the
thanks of Washington and of congress. After
the war he was major general of the 3d division
of Massachusetts militia, and a state senator,
and was appointed by Jefferson governor of
Michigan territory in 1805. He remained in
this office till 1812, when he was appointed as
brigadier general to the command of the north
western army. He marched his troops through
the wilderness to Detroit, heard of the decla
ration of war, and of the fall of Michilimack-
inac, which let loose the Indians of the north
west upon him, crossed into Canada, but found
his communications cut off, recrossed, and on
the arrival of Gen. Brock surrendered to that
officer the post of Detroit and the territory.
For this act he was tried two years after by a
court martial, and sentenced to be shot. The
execution of the sentence was remitted by the
president in consideration of his age and revo
lutionary services. In 1824 Gen. Hull pub
lished a series of letters in defence of his con
duct in this campaign. In 1848 a volume was
published in New York on his revolutionary
services and the campaign of 1812, written by
his daughter, Mrs. Maria Campbell of Georgia,
and his grandson, the Rev. James F. Clarke of
Massachusetts.

Ill LLlll, John, an English composer and
teacher of music, born in Worcester in 1812.

| His comic opera " The Village Coquettes,"
' written in conjunction with Dickens, and pro
duced in 1836, first made him known to the
public. After the production of two other
operas, he turned his attention about 1838 to
the establishment in England of popular sing
ing schools, similar to those which had proved
so successful in Paris. In 1847 a spacious
music hall was erected in London for his con
certs, which was burned down in I860. He is
professor of vocal music and harmony in King^,
Queen's, and Bedford colleges, London, organ
ist of the Charterhouse, conductor of the or
chestra and chorus in the royal academy of
music, and musical inspector for the United
Kingdom. He is the author of numerous
works, essays, and lectures on the science and
history of music.

HULTSCH, Friedrich Otto, a German philologist,
born in Dresden, July 22, 1833. He became
a teacher at Leipsic in 1857, subsequently at
Zwickau, and afterward at Dresden, where in
1868 he became rector of the Kreuzschule.
His principal works are Griechische und ro-
mlsche Metrologie (Berlin, 18G2), and editions
of the Scriptores Metrologici (Leipsic, 1864-'6),
of Heron's Geometrici et Stereometrici (Berlin,
1864), of Censorinus De Die Natali (Leipsic,
1867), and of the "Histories" of Polybius
(Berlin, 1867-'72).

HUMBER, a river or estuary of England, sep
arating the counties of York and Lincoln. It
is principally formed by the junction of the
Ouse and the Trent. Its course is nearly E. as
far as Hull, and S. E. thence to where it falls
into the North sea. It is about 40 m. in length,
and varies in breadth from 2 to 7 m. 'The
chief towns on its banks are Hull, Goole, and
Great Grimsby. By means of its numerous
tributaries it drains an area of 10,000 sq. m.
It is navigable for the largest ships to Hull, 20
m. from the sea, and throughout for vessels
of considerable burden.

HIMBOLDT. I. A N. W. central county of
Iowa, intersected by the Des Moines river and
its W. branch ; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
2,596. It has an undulating surface and a fer
tile soil. There are quarries of good building
stone. The chief productions in 1870 were
59,101 bushels of wheat, 107,950 of Indian
corn, 60,316 of oats, 12,416 of potatoes, 83,985
Ibs. of butter, and 9,133 tons of hay. There
were 999 horses, 1,021 milch cows, 1,614
other cattle, and 1,393 swine ; 1 saw mill, and
2 flour mills. Capital, Dakota City. II. A
N. W. county of California, bordering on the
Pacific, and drained by Eel, Mad, and Bear
rivers, and other streams ; area, 2,800 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1870, 6,140. Humboldt bay lies near
the N. W. corner, and Cape Mendocino, the
westernmost point of the state, projects into
the Pacific near the centre of the coast line.
The surface is mountainous, and mostly cov
ered with forests of redwood, pine, spruce, &c.,
which attain an enormous size. The bottom
lands are fertile, but lumber is the chief source

HUMBOLDT

of wealth. Petroleum has been found in the [
S. part. The streams swarm with salmon. ,
The chief productions in 1870 were 32,284 |
bushels of wheat, 137,022 of oats, 31,907 of j
barley, 54,316 of peas and beans, 372,924 of j
potatoes, 112,580 Ibs. of butter, 51,867 of wool, |
and 7,426 tons of hay. There were 4,329
horses, 5,691 milch cows, 12,056 other cattle,
12,660 sheep, and 10,050 swine ; 3 manufac
tories of carriages, 1 flour mill, and 8 saw
mills. Capital, Eureka. III. A N. "VV. county
of Nevada, bordering on Oregon; area, 19,000
sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 1,916, of whom 220 were
Chinese. The surface is generally mountain
ous, the E. portion being occupied by the Ilum-
boldt range. Humboldt, Reese, and Quins
rivers, and other streams that lose themselves
in " sinks," or lakes without outlet, water por
tions of the county. There are several lakes in
the W. part. On Humboldt river and in Para
dise and other valleys is some arable land, and
the hills afford grazing ; but the chief wealth
is in the silver mines, which are mostly S. of
the Humboldt river. Gold, copper, and lead
are also found. By the census of 1870, 14
mines were returned, of which 12 were of sil
ver, 1 of gold, and 1 of lead. There were 10
quartz mills, all except one for the production
of silver. It is traversed by the Central Pa
cific railroad. The chief productions were
4,419 bushels of wheat, 30,209 of barley, 5,504
of potatoes, and 2,219 tons of hay. There were
365 horses, 2,186 cattle, 700 sheep, and 786
swine. Capital, Unionville.

HOIBOLDT, Friedrich Heinrieh Alexander TOD,
baron, a German naturalist, born in Berlin,
Sept. 14, 1769, died there, May 6, 1859. He
was less than ten years old at the death of his
father, who had been adjutant of Duke Ferdi
nand of Brunswick in the seven years' war,
and afterward a Prussian royal councillor.
He and his elder brother Wilhelm were edu
cated at home, with special care in the natural
sciences. In 1787 he studied at the university
of Franktbrt-on-the-Oder, returned to Berlin
in the following year, and applied himself to
the technology of manufactures and to the
Greek language. An acquaintance with the
botanist Willdcnow led him to study the cryp-
togamous plants and the family of grasses. lie
passed a year (1789-'90) at the university of
Gottingen, studying philology under Heyne,
and extending his knowledge of natural history
under the guidance of Blumenbach, Lichten-
berg, and others. His first published work,
the fruit of an excursion from the university,
was Uel)er die Basalt e am Bhein, nelst Unter-
suchungen uler Syenit und Basanit der Alten
(Berlin, 1790). A rapid journey which he
made in 1790, in company with George For-
ster, through the Low Countries, England, and
France, gave him a desire to visit the tropics.
He returned to Germany with the purpose
of devoting himself to finance, and repaired
to a mercantile academy at Hamburg, where
he learned bookkeeping, familiarized himself

with counting-house affairs, and practised the
modern languages. On a visit to his mother
in the following year he obtained permission
to engage in practical mining ; and he went
to the mining academy at Freiberg, where
for eight months he enjoyed the private in
struction of Werner and the friendship of
Freiesleben, Yon Buch, and Del Rio, the last
of whom 12 years later he found settled in
Mexico. He wrote while there a description
of the subterranean flora and an account of his
experiments on the color of plants withdrawn
from the light and surrounded by irrespirable
gases, entitled Flora Siilterranea Frilergensis,
et ApTiorismi ex PJiysiologia Chemica Plant a-
rum, which first appeared in 1793. With Frei
esleben he made the first geognostic descrip
tion of one of the Bohemian mountain ranges.
In 1792 he was appointed assessor in the mi
ning department, and subsequently became
superior mining officer in the Fichtelgebirge.
In l793-'4 he explored the mining districts in
Upper Bavaria, Galicia, and various parts of
Prussia. In 1794 he accompanied the minister
Hardenberg to Frankfort, and was employed
in his cabinet correspondence. On his return
he experimented on the nature of fire-damp
in mines. In 1795 he made a geognostic jour
ney through Tyrol, Lombardy, and Switzer
land. In 1796 he was sent on a mission to
the headquarters of Gen. Moreau in Swabia.
From the time when he first heard of Gal-
vani's discovery he had accumulated materials
for his work Uder did gereizte Musl'el- itnd
Nervenfascr, nelxt VermutJiungen filer den
chemise-hen Process des Lclens in der Thicr-
vnd Fflanzenwclt (2 vols., Berlin, l797-'9).
He also familiarized himself with practical
astronomy, especially with the use of the sex
tant for determining geographical positions.
On the death of his mother he resolved to
prosecute his purpose of a great scientific
expedition. Leaving Baireuth in 1797, he
passed three months at Jena, and then be
gan a second journey to Italy, with a desire to
see the volcanoes Vesuvius, Stromboli, and
Etna. The disturbed condition of Italy made
his purpose impracticable, and he passed the
winter in Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, occu
pied with meteorological observations. There
he accepted the invitation of Lord Bristol to
accompany him on an excursion to Upper
Egypt, intending also to proceed to Syria and
Palestine. He visited Paris to procure the
requisite scientific instruments, but in May,
1798, he learned that Lord Bristol had been
arrested at Milan charged with having secret
political designs in Egypt. Remaining in
Paris, he became intimate with the future
companion of his travels, the young botanist
Bonpland. At this time the public were inter
ested in the voyage of circumnavigation which
the directory had decreed and put under the
command of Capt. Baudin. The expedition
was to explore the E. and W. coasts of South
America from Buenos Ayres to Panama, to

HUMBOLDT

touch at many islands of the South sea, New
Zealand, and Madagascar, and to return by the
cape of Good Hope. Uumboldt received per
mission to join the expedition, and to leave it
when and where he wished. After several
months of suspense, the necessities of war
obliged the government to postpone the under
taking. Thus disappointed in his hopes of
travel, Humboldt accepted an invitation to
accompany the Swedish consul Skjoldebrand,
who had been appointed to carry presents to
the dey of Algiers, and he intended to proceed
by way of Tunis to Egypt. The delay of the
Swedish frigate, and the news from Barbary
that during the war bet ween, the Turks and
French every person arriving from a French
port was thrown into prison, thwarted this
purpose. He therefore, in company with Bon-
pland, resolved to spend the winter in Spain ;
and passing through Perpignan, Barcelona,
Montserrat, and Valencia, making botanical,
astronomical, and magnetic observations by
the way, they reached Madrid in February,
1799. He was received with distinguished fa
vor, and the Saxon minister at Madrid, Baron
Forell, having overcome the scruples of the
Spanish government and procured for him an
interview with King Charles IV., all the Span
ish possessions in Europe, America, and the
East Indies were opened to him, with free
permission to use all instruments for astro
nomical and geodetic observations, the meas
urement of mountains, the collection of objects
of natural history, and investigations of every
kind that might lead to the advancement of
science. Such extensive privileges had never
before been granted to any traveller. He left
Madrid, measuring the elevations on his way
through Old Castile, Leon, and Galicia, and
on June 5, 1799, embarked with Bonpland in
the frigate Pizarro from Corunna. Avoid
ing the English cruisers, they reached Tene-
rilfe on June 19, where they tarried to ascend
the peak and to make many observations on
the natural features of the island, and arriv
ed at Cumana, in Venezuela, July 16, 1799.
After exploring the Venezuelan provinces for
18 months, residing the latter part of the time
at Caracas, they set out for the interior from
Puerto Cabello over the grassy plains of Cala-
bozo to the river Apure, a branch of the Orino
co. In Indian canoes they made their way to
the most southern post of the Spaniards, Fort
San Carlos, on the Rio Negro, within two de
grees of the equator. They could have ad
vanced only by taking their boats over land,
and therefore returned through the Cassiquiare
to the Orinoco, which they followed to Angos
tura, proceeding thence to Cumana. This
journey through wild and unfrequented re
gions was the first which furnished any posi
tive knowledge of the long disputed bifurcation
of the Orinoco. They sailed to Havana, but
after a few months hastened to seek some
southern port, hearing a false report that Bau-
din, whom they had promised to join, had ap

peared on the W. coast of South America.
They embarked in March, 1801, from Batabano,
on the S. coast of Cuba. The season of the
year forbade the execution of their plan of
going to Cartagena and Panama, and they
sailed for 54 days up the river Magdalena to
Honda, in order to reach the high plateau of
Bogota. Thence they made excursions to the
most remarkable natural features of the sur
rounding country. In September, 1801, in
spite of the rainy season, they began to jour
ney southward, passed Ibngua, the Cordillera
de Quindiu (at an altitude of 12,000 ft., their
highest encampment by night), Cartago, Po-
payan, Almaguer, and the lofty plain of Los
Pastos, and reached Quito, after experiencing
the greatest difficulties for four months, Jan.
6, 1802. The next five months they passed in
investigations of the elevated vale of Quito,
and of the snow-cupped volcanoes which sur
round it, ascending some of these to heights
not before attained. On Chimborazo they
reached (June 23, 1802) the altitude of 19,286
ft., about 3,500 ft. higher than the point reached
by La Condamine on the Corazon in 1738, and
they were prevented only by a dee]) crevasse
from advancing to the summit. They were
joined at Quito by a young scholar, Carlos
Montufar, son of the marquis of Selvalegre,
who attended them throughout their wander
ings in Peru and Mexico and back to Paris.
Over the pass of the Andes in the paramo of
Asuay, by Cuenca and Loja, they descended
into the vale of the upper Amazon at Jaen de
Bracamoras, and traversing the plateau of Ca-
jamarca, by the mountain city Micuipampa (up
ward of 11,000 ft. high, near the silver mines
of Chota), they reached the western declivity
of the Peruvian Andes. From the summit of
Guangamarca (about 9,500 ft. high) they en
joyed for the first time the long-sought view
of the Pacific. They reached the coast at Tru-
jillo,.and travelled through the sandy deserts
of Lower Peru to Lima, After one of the prin
cipal designs of their Peruvian journey, the ob
servation of the transit of Mercury over the sun,
was fulfilled, they embarked from Callao in De
cember, 1802, and reached Acapulco in Mexico,
March 23, 1803. They arrived in the city of
Mexico in April, remained there a few months,
and then visited Guanajuato and Valladolid,
the province of Michoacan near the Pacific
coast, and the volcano of Jorullo, which had
first broken out in 1759, and returned by way
of Toluca to the capital, where they remained
long enough to arrange their rich collections
and to reduce their various observations to
order. In January, 1804, after having mea
sured the volcano of Toluca and the Cofre de
Perote, they descended through the oak forests
of Jalapa to Vera Cruz, where they escaped
from the then prevalent yellow fever. They
compared their barometric measurement of the
eastern declivity of the highland of Mexico
with that which they had formerly completed
of the western declivity, and made a profile

HUMBOLDT

of tlie country from sea to sea, the first that
was ever Driven of any entire country. On
March 7, 1804, llumboldt sailed from the coast
of Mexico for Havana, where during a two
months' residence he completed the materials
for his Exsai politiqiie sur Vile de Cuba (Paris,
1826). He embarked thence with Bonpland
and Montufar for Philadelphia, enjoyed a
friendly reception at Washington from Presi
dent Jefferson, and leaving the new world
landed at Bordeaux, Aug. 3, 1804, having
spent five years in America, and gained a
larger store of observations and collections in
all departments of natural science, in geog
raphy, statistics, and ethnography, than all
previous travellers. He selected Paris for his
residence, and remained there till March, 1805,
arranging his numerous collections and manu
scripts, and experimenting with Gay-Lussac
in the laboratory of the polytechnic school on
the chemical elements of the atmosphere. He
was accompanied by Gay-Lussac in a visit to
Koine and Naples, and also by Von Buch on
his return through Switzerland to Berlin,
where, after an absence of nine years, he ar
rived Nov. 16, 1805. In the hope of modify
ing the ignominious treaty of Tilsit by nego
tiation, the government resolved in 1808 to
send the young brother of the king, Prince
"William of Prussia, to the emperor Napoleon
at Paris. During the French occupation of
Berlin llumboldt had been busy in his garden,
making hourly observations of the magnetic
declination, and he now received the command
of the king to accompany Prince "William on
his mission. As the condition of Germany
made it impracticable to publish there his large
scientific works, he was permitted by Frederick
"William III., as one of the eight foreign mem
bers of the French academy of sciences, to
remain in Paris, which was his residence, ex
cepting brief periods of absence, from 1808 to
1827. There appeared his Voyage aux regions
equinoxiales du nouveau monde (3 vols. fol.,
with an atlas, Paris, 1809-'25 ; translated into
German, 6 vols., Stuttgart, 1825-'32). "When
in 1810 his elder brother resigned the direc
tion of educational affairs in Prussia to be
come ambassador at Vienna, the former post
was urged upon Alexander von llumboldt ;
but he declined it, as the publication of his
astronomical, zoological, and botanical works
was not yet far advanced. He had also already
decided upon a second scientific expedition
through upper India, the region of the Hima
laya, and Thibet, in preparation for which he
was diligently learning the Persian language.
He accepted from Count Rurniantzeff in 1812
an invitation to accompany a Russian expe
dition over Kashgar and Yarkand to the high
lands of Thibet, but the outbreak of war be
tween Russia and France caused the abandon
ment of the plan. The political events be
tween the peace of Paris and the congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle gave him occasion for several
excursions. He went to England in the suite of

the king of Prussia in 1814, again in company
with Arago when his brother Wilhelm was ap
pointed ambassador to London, and again in
1818 with Valenciennes from Paris to London
and from London to Aix-la-Chapelle, where
the king and Ilardenberg wished to have him
near them during the congress. He also ac
companied the king to the congress of Verona
and thence to Rome and Naples, and in 1827,
at the solicitation of the monarch, gave up his
residence in Paris, and returned by way of
London and Hamburg to Berlin, where in the
following winter he delivered public lectures
on the cosmos. In 1829 began a new era in
his active career. He undertook, under the
patronage of the czar Nicholas, an expedition
to northern Asia, the Chinese Dzungaria, and
the Caspian sea, which was magnificently fit
ted out by the influence of the minister, Count
Cancrin. The exploration of mines of gold
and platinum, the discovery of diamonds out
side of the tropics, astronomical and mag
netic observations, and geognostic and botan
ical collections, were the principal results of
this undertaking, in which llumboldt was ac
companied by Ehrenberg and Gustav Rose.
Their course lay through Moscow, Kazan, and
the ruins of old Bulgari to Yekaterinburg,
the gold mines of the Ural, the platinum mines
at Nizhni Tagilsk, Bogoslovsk, Verkhoturye,
and Tobolsk, to Barnaul, Schlangenberg, arid
Ustkamengorsk in the Altai region, and thence
to the Chinese frontier. From the snow-cov
ered Altai mountains the travellers turned to
ward the southern part of the Ural range, and,
attended by a body of armed Cossacks, trav
ersed the great steppe of Ishim, passed through
Petropavlovsk, Omsk, Miyask, the salt lake of
llmen, Zlatusk, Taganai, Orenburg, Uralsk (the
principal seat of the Uralian Cossacks), Sara
tov, Dubovka, Tzaritzyn, and the Moravian set
tlement Sarepta, to Astrakhan and the Cas
pian sea. They visited the Calmuck chieftain
Sered Jab, and returned by Voronezh, Tula,
and Moscow. The entire journey of over 10,-
000 miles was made in nine months ; its results
are given in Rose's Mmeralogisch-geognostische
Reise nach dem Ural, Altai und dem Kaspischen
Meere (2 vols., Berlin, 1837-'42), and in Hum-
boldt's Asie centrale, reclicrches sur les cJiaines
de montagnes et la climatologie compavee (3
vols., Paris, 1843 ; translated into German by
Mahlmann, 2 vols., Berlin, 1843-'4). This ex
pedition extended the knowledge of telluric
magnetism, since in consequence of it the
Russian imperial academy established a series
of magnetic and meteorological stations from
St. Petersburg to Peking, an example which
was followed by the British government in
the southern hemisphere. The convulsions of
1830 gave a more political direction to Ilum-
boldt's activity for several years, without in
terrupting his scientific career. He had ac
companied the crown prince of Prussia in May,
1830, to "Warsaw, to the last constitutional
diet opened by the emperor Nicholas in per-

44:

nUMBOLDT

son, and he attended the king: to the baths
of Teplitz. On the news of the French revo
lution and the accession of Louis Philippe, he
was selected to convey to Paris the Prussian
recognition of the new monarch, and to send
political advices to Berlin. The latter office
fell to him again in 1834- 1 5, and he was called
upon to fulfil it five times in the following
twelve years, residing four or five months in
Paris on each mission. To this period belongs
the publication of his Examen critique de la
geographic du nouveau continent (5 vols., Paris,
1835-'8 ; translated into German by Ideler, 5
vols., Berlin, 1836 et seq.}. He made a rapid
journey with King Frederick William IV. to
England in 1841, to attend the baptism of the
prince of Wales, to Denmark in 1845, and re
sided in Paris several months in 184T-'8, from
which time he lived in Prussia, usually in
Berlin, pursuing his scientific labors in his
advanced age with undiminished zeal and en
ergy. — Ilumboldt was distinguished, as a man
of science, for the comprehensiveness of his
researches, and especially for the skill and
completeness with which he connected his own
observations with all the stores of previous
knowledge, and for the clearness with which
he expounded facts in their relations. This
tendency appeared in one of his earliest works
on the contraction of the muscles and nerves,
in which, after the progress of physiology for
more than half a century, may still be seen I
the sagacity of his experiments on galvanism, |
and the truth of most of the inferences which
he drew. In his travels he measured eleva
tions, and investigated the nature of the soil
and the thermometrical relations, at the same
time collecting herbariums, and founding, by a
combination of the materials in his hands, the
new science of the geography of plants. Linno3us
and some of his successors had observed some
of the more palpable phenomena of the migra
tions of plants, without, however, considering
elevation or temperature. It remained for Ilum
boldt to bring together the vast series of facts
collected from the most remote points, to com
bine them with his own observations, to show
their connection with the laws of physics, and
to develop the principles in accordance with
which the infinitely numerous forms of the
vegetable world have been spread over the
earth. He was the first to see that this dis
tribution is connected with the temperature
of the air, as well as with the altitudes of the
surface on which they grow, and he systema
tized his researches into a general exposition
of the laws by which the distribution of plants
is regulated. Connected with this subject he
made those extensive investigations into the
mean temperature of a large number of places
on the surface of the globe which led to the
drawing of the isothermal lines, so important
in their influence in shaping physical geography
and giving accuracy and simplicity to the mode
of representing natural phenomena. By as
sociating many important questions with bot

any, he made it one of the most attractive
of the natural sciences. He showed the pow
erful influence exercised by vegetable nature
upon the soil, upon the character of a people,
and upon the historical development of the
human race. This view of the connection be
tween the physical sciences and human history
opened a path which has been followed by a
school Of subsequent investigators with novel
and important results. Though wholly free
from mystical meanings and obscure phrase
ology, his works are marked by poetical con-
j ceptions of nature wherever it is his aim to
I present broad and complete pictures. His de
lineations of the tropical countries give delight
to readers who have no special knowledge of
or interest in natural history. At the beginning
of this century even the coasts of the immense
Spanish colonies in America were scarcely
known, and but little confidence was placed
in the best maps. More than 700 places of
which he made astronomical measurements
were calculated anew by Oltmanns, whose work
(2 vols., Paris, 1808-' 10) forms the fourth part
of Humboldt's "Travels." lie himself made
the map of the Orinoco and the Magdalena,
and the greater part of the atlas of Mexico.
He travelled with the barometer in his hands
from Bogota to Lima, ascended the peaks of
TenerifFe, Chimborazo, and numerous other
mountains, and made 459 measurements of al
titude, which were often confirmed by trigo
nometrical calculations. His measurements in
Germany and Siberia, combined with those
made by other travellers, furnished valuable
results to geography, and were the foundation
of theories of the dispersion of plants and ani
mals. Climatology was intimately connected
with his researches. By his daily record of the
meteorological, thermometrical, and electrical
phenomena of the countries through which he
passed, he instituted the science of comparative
climatology. He was the first to entertain the
idea of estimating the average elevation of con
tinents above the sea, previous geographers and
geologists having considered only the altitude of
mountain chains and of the lower lands. His
principal works in this department are : Phy
sique generale et geologie (Paris, 1807); Essai
geognostique sur le gisement des roches dans les
deux hemispheres (1823-'6); and Fragments de
geologie et climatologie asiatique (2 vols., 1831 ;
translated into German by Lowenberg, Berlin,
1832). The phenomena of the volcanoes of
South America and Italy he keenly observed
and explained. With Bonpland he made very
important observations on the sites, uses, and
structure of plants. His principal botanical
works are Essai sur la geographic des plantes
(Paris, 1805), and De Distrihutione Geographi-
ca Plantarum secundum Cceli Temperiem et
Altitudinem Montium (1817). The rich her
barium collected by him and Bonpland con
tained more than 5,000 species of phaneroga
mous plants, of which 3,500 were new. They
were arranged and illustrated by Humboldt,

IIUMBOLDT

Bon pin nd, and Kunth, in the following works, !
which form the sixth part of his "Travels:"
Plantes equinoxiales, recueillies au Mexique,
dam rile de Cuba, &c. (2 vols., 1809 et seq., with
144 plates) ; Monographic des melastomes et
autres genres du meme ordre (2 vols,, 1809-'23, j
with 120 colored plates) ; Nova Genera et Spe- I
cies Plantarum, &c. (7 vols., 1815-25, with TOO
plates); Mimeses et autres plantes leg urn ineu-
ses du nouveau continent (1819-'24, with 00
plates) ; Synopsis Plantarum, &c. (4 vols.,
1822-'G); fievision des graminees (2 vols.,
1829-'34, with 220 colored plates). The zo
ological results of his travels are contained in
his Recueil d* observations de zoologie et d'ana-
tomie comparee (2 vols., 1805-'32), in the pub
lication of which he was aided hy Cuvier,
Latreille, and Valenciennes. Another costly
work, the Vues des Cordillercs et monuments
des peuples indigenes de VAmerigue (1810, with
69 plates), contains elaborate pictures of the
scenery of the Andes and of the monuments of
the ancient civilization of the aborigines. The
study of the great architectural works of the
ancient Mexicans and Peruvians led Humboldt
to investigations of their languages, records,
early culture, and migrations. In this de
partment his treatment was peculiar, for his
Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle
Espagne (2 vols., 1811) contained statistics
united with the facts of natural history, a<nd
presented various doctrines of political econo
my from a new point of view. Especially ori
ginal and influential were his reflections on the
culture of the soil under different climates and
on its effects upon civilization, and on the cir
culation of the precious metals. Besides his
general works, he made many special investi
gations, as his treatise on the geography of the
middle ages, in which he appears at once as
historian, astronomer, and savant, his chemical
labors with Gay-Lussac, his system of isother
mal lines, his experiments on the gymnotus
and on the respiration of fishes, and numerous
contributions to physical geography. Soon
after his return from America he gave a gen
eral sketch of the results of his inquiries in
his Ansicliten der Natur (Stuttgart, 1808), in
which he aimed to present a picture of the
physical world, exclusive of everything that
relates to the turmoil of human society and
the ambitions of individual men; and in the
evening of his life he determined to give a sys
tematic view of the results of his investigation
and thought in the whole domain of natural
science. This was the design of his Kosmos (5
voK, Stuttgart, 1845-'G2), which explains the
physical universe according to its dependen
cies and relations, grasps nature as a whole
moved and animated by internal forces, and
by a comprehensive description shows the
unity which prevails amid its variety. He
lived to complete this work, but the last
volume was published after his death. It was
translated into almost all the European lan
guages, and has been without an equal in giving

an impulse to natural studies. To his personal
influence is due nearly all that the Prussian
government did for science in the latter part
of his life. Agassiz says of him: "The per
sonal influence he exerted upon science is in
calculable. With him ends a great period in
the history of science ; a period to which Cu
vier, Laplace, Arago, Gay-Lussac, De Candolle,
and Robert Brown belonged." His personal
habits were peculiar, lie slept but four hours,
rose at 6 in the winter and 5 in the summer,
studied two hours, drank a cup of coffee, and
returned to his study to answer letters, of
which he received hundreds every day. From
12 to 2 he received visits, and then returned to
study till the dinner hour. From 4 till 11 lie
passed at the table, generally in company with
the king, but sometimes at the meeting of
learned societies or in the company of friends.
At 11 he retired to his study, and his best
books are said to have been written at mid
night. Many of the works of Ilumboldt are
now almost inaccessible on account of their
great cost. A new edition of his select works
was published in Stuttgart in 1874, in 80 num
bers, including Kosmos, with a biographical
sketch by Bernhard von Cotta ; Ansicliten der
Natur, with scientific explanations ; and Eeise
in die Aequinoctialgegendcn des neuen Conti
nents, by Hermann Hauff, the only authorized
German translation of this work. English
translations of his "Travels," "Views of Na
ture," and "Kosmos" are contained in Bolm's
"Scientific Library," of which they constitute
nine volumes. The translation of "Kosmos"
has been republished in New York in 5 vols.
12mo. The centenary of Ilumboldt' s birth,
Sept. 14, 1809, was celebrated in Germany
and the United States, and eulogies were pro
nounced by many of the foremost scientific
men of the day, among whom were Bastian,
Dove, Ehrenberg, Virchow, and Agassiz.
Many biographies of him have been published,
the best being Alexander Ton Ifumloldt, eine
uissensclinftliche Biograpliie, edited by Karl
Bruhns, a joint production of Ave-Lallemant,
Cams, A. and H. W. Dove, Ewald, Grisebach,
Lowenberg, Peschel, AViedemann, Wandt, and
the editor, aided by the friends and relatives
of Ilumboldt, and by the Prussian government
(3 vols., Leipsic, 1872 ; English translation by
Jane and Caroline Lassells, "Life of Alexan
der von Ilumboldt," 2 vols., London, 1872).
See also his Briefe an Varnnagen Ton Ense aus
den Jaliren 1827-'58, published by Ludmille
Assing, with extracts from Varnbagen's diaries
(Leipsic, 1800) ; and Les barons de ForeU, by
Alexandre Daguet (Lausanne, 1873), containing
many letters of Ilumboldt and an interesting
account of his negotiations in 'Madrid for the
exploration of the Spanish possessions in both
hemispheres.

HIMBOLDT, Karl Wilhelm von, baron, a Ger
man scholar, brother of the preceding, born in
Potsdam, June 22, 1767, died at Tegel, April
8, 1835. In 1788 he went to the university of

HUMBOLDT

Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and thence to Gottin-
gen, where he studied philology under the
care of Ileyne. lie here became intimate with
George Forster, and through- him Avith Jacob!
and Johannes von Miiller. When the French
revolution broke out, Wilhelm llmnboldt, who
had long been a reader of Rousseau, went to
Paris (July, 1780), in company with Campe;
and the result of his observations there was a
great distrust of many theories and abstract
ideas which he had previously held. Two
years later he published his first work on the
subject, a memoir in the Berliner Monatschrift
(1702), entitled Ideen iiber Staatsverfassung
(lurch die neue franzdswche Constitution veran-
lasst, in which he combated the possibility of
establishing a constitution on untried theories.
He discussed the subject more fully at a later
date in a separate book : Idees sur un essai de
determiner les limites de V action que doit ex-
ercer Tetat. After completing this work he
laid it aside, judging the time inopportune for
its publication, and afterward lost the manu
script, which was not found or published until
after his death ; bnt there is every reason to
believe that he always entertained the opinions
expressed in it. The keynote of the work is
individual liberty. It presents a lofty ideal of
the rights and duties of the individual, and of
the dignity and nobleness to which human na
ture is able and ought to attain. The govern
ment which hinders individual development
the least is to him the best. About this time
philology and archaeology had become promi
nent objects of investigation, and Ilumboldt,
under the guidance of Heyne and Wolf, entered
upon the study of Greek literature and art.
An early result of his studies appeared in his
" Essay on the Greeks " (1702). In July, 1791,
he had married Caroline Dacheroden, a brilliant
woman, who shared with him his Greek studies.
In 1703, at Jena, he contracted with Schiller
an intimacy which had great influence on his
studies, the poet inducing him to apply him
self more closely to philosophy and aesthetics.
To this intimacy was added that of Goethe,
who was then writing " Hermann and Doro
thea." This work owed much to the criti
cisms and care of Ilumboldt, who not only
superintended its printing, but wrote a com
mentary on it which ranks as a masterpiece
of German criticism. In 1707, having lost his
mother, he began his travels. After remain
ing with his family some time at Dresden, he
went to Vienna and tlience to Paris, where
he arrived in November. He resided a year
and a half in Paris, and then went to Spain,
where he travelled during six months. At
this time he was occupied with his system of
comparative anthropology, or a philosophical
history of mental development, in which every
phase of literature should be traced to a corre
sponding civilization. This he based on phi
lology, and his first studies were directed to
the old Spanish languages, and particularly the
Basque. lie returned to Germany in 1801,

and was soon after appointed Prussian resident
minister in Home, where he distinguished him
self as much in diplomacy as in letters. His
knowledge of art enabled him to cultivate
friendly personal relations, and his residence
became a point of union for the most intelli
gent men in Home. His letters to Goethe 4 and
Schiller, his translations of Pindar and /Eschy-
lus, and the poems written during this period,
indicate great activity and versatility. In 1806
the defeat of Prussia at Jena rendered his
political position a most trying one. He re
mained unwillingly at Rome during 1807, be
ing desirous of contributing his aid to his
country while recovering from its disasters.
In 1808 he was recalled by family affairs, and
was immediately appointed minister of state
for the departments of religion, public educa
tion, and medical establishments. He was
called under very trying circumstances, in
January, 1800, to reorganize public instruction
in Prussia ; and the prominent position which
that country at present holds in education is
in a great measure due to him. In the midst
of the apathy and despondency bordering on
despair which at that time affected the peo
ple and government of Prussia, he succeeded
in establishing the university of Berlin, and
from its foundation until his death his contri
butions formed the chief glory of its trans
actions. All his reforms were effected during
a period of general confusion, and in the face
of opposition which demanded great firmness,
and often severity. When they were fairly es
tablished, he reentered the diplomatic service,
and on June 14, 1810, was appointed minister
at the court of Vienna. At Prague he met
with the minister Stein, who was then flying
from the pursuit of Napoleon, and with him
concerted the part he was to take in the po
litical struggles of the day. Stein had been
greatly interested in the energetic reforms of
Ilumboldt, and now gave him his full confi
dence. His task at the court of Vienna was to
effect the reconciliation of Prussia and Austria,
to consolidate the strength of Germany, and to
excite it against Napoleon. The difficulty of
the effort was greatly increased by the passive
position assumed by Austria after the campaign
of 1800, and the marriage of Maria Louisa
to Napoleon in 1810. Finally in 1813, when
Prussia rose against Napoleon, the conference
of Prague was held. At this most critical pe
riod the perseverance of Humboldt succeeded
in overcoming the hesitation of Metternich.
Stein, at least, declared that the new course
taken by Austria was entirely due to Ilum
boldt, and Talleyrand said of him that there
were not in all Europe three statesmen of
his ability. He manifested the same shrewd
ness, reserve, and energy at the conferences
of 1813-'15 at Frankfort, Chatillon, Paris, and
the congress of Vienna. But with the forma
tion of the treaty known as the "holy alli
ance " Ilumboldt had nothing to do, the em
peror of Russia insisting that the king of Prus-

HUMBOLDT RIVER

HUME

sia should not permit Humboldt to know any
thing of the treaty until it was concluded.
During his diplomatic career he showed great
genius in debate, quickness of reply, and
a most delicate, cutting irony. In 181 G he
went to Frankfort as ambassador, and in 1818
to London and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1819
he was called to the ministry. At this time
the king of Prussia determined not to in
troduce the representative system which he
had promised to the people. Other points
of difficulty arose, and Humboldt disagreed
with his colleagues. By a decree of Dec.
31, 1819, he was dismissed from the minis
try and deprived of his state appointments.
He now retired to private life, and devoted
himself to literature. His contributions to phi
lology from this time were very extensive,
and of such importance that it has been said
that before him great minds, such as Herder,
Adelung, and Friedrich Schlegel, had led the
way, but Humboldt was the first who made of
philology a science. Having formed the inten
tion to follow all the languages of the Pacific in
detail in order to establish the connection be
tween India and Europe, he began with his
work Ueber die Kaicisprache auf der Jnsel
Java (3 vols. 4to, Berlin, 1836-'40), in which
ho traces the languages, history, and literature
of the Malay races. The most valuable portion
of the work is its introduction, Ueber die Ver-
schiedenheit des menschlicJien SpracTibaues und
ihren Ewfluss avf die geistige EntwicTcelung
des Menschengeschlechts. This was published
separately (4to, Berlin, 1836), and embodies
the conclusions at which he had arrived in
regard to the origin, development, and na
ture of language in general. Besides this, his
principal works are a number of criticisms col
lected in the AcsthetiscJie VersucJie (Bruns
wick, 1799); a translation of the "Agamem
non " of xEschylus, a work containing also
valuable researches into the Greek language
and metres; the Berichtigungen und Zitsatze
zu Adelung' 1 s Mithridatcs (Berlin, 1817); Pru-
fung der Untersuchungen uber die Urbewohner
Spaniens, &c. (1821); BhagavatlgUta (1826) ;
and Ueber den Dual'is (1828). His collected
works were published by his brother Alexander
(7 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1841-'52). His Brief e an
eine Freundin (2 vols., Leipsic, 1847; 6th ed.,
1856; and in 1 vol., 2d ed., 1863; English
translation by Catharine M. A. Couper, 2 vols.,
London, 1849), containing his letters to Char
lotte Diede, whose acquaintance he had made
in Pyrmont in 1788, are renowned for beauty
of thought and feeling. Among other English
translations of his writings is " The Sphere
and Duties of Government," by J. Coulthard
(1854). The best biography of Wilhelm von
Humboldt is by Haym (Berlin, 1856). His col
lection of MSS. and books he bequeathed to
the royal library of Berlin.

HFMBOLDT RIVER, a stream which rises in
the N. E. part of Nevada in Elko county, flows
first "W. by S., then bends X., and afterward
VOL. ix. — 4

flowing S. S. TV. loses itself after a winding
course of about 300 m. in the Humboldt " sink "
or lake, on the border of Humboldt and Chur
chill counties, in the TV. part of the state. It is
! in no part more than a few yards wide, and is
' not navigable. It flows through a treeless re
gion, the valley, except immediately along the
stream, consisting of sandy land covered with
sage brush, which, however, by irrigation might
be rendered productive. Numerous streams
on either side of the valley rush down the
mountain gorges, but sink before reaching the
Humboldt, except in the case of a few in sea
sons of more than usual snow and rain in the
mountains. Of these streams the principal are
the Little Humboldt on the north, and Reese
river on the south. Near its source in Elko
county, the Humboldt receives its N. and S.
forks. As the only considerable stream flowing
E. and TV. through the Great Basin, its valley
formed the ordinary emigrant route from the
Great Salt lake to California ; the Central Pa
cific railroad now follows its banks through
out its whole course. The Humboldt " sink"
has no outlet, and is merely a marshy spot in
a sandy plain, 10 or 15 m. long and 30 or 40 m.
in circumference ; the extent of water surface
is variable, the capacity of the sands to absorb
and of the atmosphere to evaporate being gen
erally in excess of the supply from the river.

HIME, David, a Scottish historian, born in
Edinburgh, April 26, 1711, died there, Aug. 25,
1776. His father, proprietor of the estate of
Ninewells in Berwickshire, died during David's
infancy, leaving three children. Hume was
intended for the bar. He passed through the
university of Edinburgh, but was drawn away
from his legal studies by that love for literature
which became the ruling passion of his life.
At 16 he was a skeptic in matters of religion.
His inheritance as a younger son being small,
in 1734 he entered a counting room at Bristol,
whence after a few months he passed over into
France, and lived for three years with great
economy while composing his "Treatise of
Human Nature." In 1738 he printed his work
in London, which, as he says, " fell dead born
from the press." Returning to live at Nine-
wells, he printed anonymously at Edinburgh,
in 1742, the first volume of his " Essays." Ho
next sought a professorship in the Edinburgh
university, but his skeptical principles pre
vented his success. In 1745 he went to live
as companion to the insane marquis of Annan-
dale. In 1746 Gen. St. Clair invited him to
become his private secretary, in an expedition
designed for the invasion of Canada, but which
was finally directed against the coast of France.
Hume was also made judge advocate in the
army, and was highly popular with his military
associates. TVhcn St. Clair went as minister
to Turin, he took Plume with him as his secre
tary. On his way to Italy he passed through
Germany, sailed down the Danube, and at
Vienna was presented to the empress Maria
Theresa. While at Turin, his " Inquiry con-

HUME

cerning the Human Understanding," a new cast
ing of the unfortunate " Treatise," was printed
at London. On his return from Italy in 1749, he
lived with his brother and sister at Nine wells,
his mother being now dead, and there wrote
the " Inquiry concerning the Principles of
Morals" and Ms " Political Discourses" (1752).
In 1752, after strong opposition, he was chosen
librarian of the advocates 1 library of Edinburgh,
and now began his " History of England."
The first volume of the " History of the House
of Stuart," containing the reigns of James I. and
Charles L, came out toward the end of 1754,
and was unfavorably received. In 1756 he
published a second volume, embracing the
reigns of Charles II. and James II., which was
better received. Hume had now formed a
wide acquaintance among the professional and
literary men of Scotland, his amiable manners
and pure morals having conquered the preju
dices excited by his skeptical opinions. The
general assembly of 1755, however, condemned
his writings, and even threatened him with
excommunication. In 1757 appeared his " Nat
ural History of Religion," which Dr. Hurd
attacked in a violent pamphlet. Hume mean
while became the patron of the rising litera
ture of Scotland. He aided the blind poet
Blacklock, and encouraged Wilkie, author of
the " Epigoniad." Toward the end of 1758 he
went to London to publish the " History of the
House of Tudor." It appeared in 1759, and
was severely criticised. In 1761 he published
two volumes containing the earlier portion of
the English annals. He proposed to write two
more volumes to embrace the reigns of William
III. and Anne, but this design was not fulfilled.
By the sale of his copyrights he had now gath
ered a moderate fortune, and lived in Edin
burgh in philosophic ease. But in 1763 the
marquis of Hertford invited him to accompany
him to Paris, where the marquis was appointed
minister. Hume at first declined the invitation,
but finally attended the marquis, and was re
ceived at Paris with signal distinction. The
whole royal family, the French philosophers,
the nobility, and particularly the ladies of high
rank and fashion, overwhelmed him with their
attentions ; and Hume wrote to his friends in
Scotland that Louis XIV. had never suffered
so much flattery in three weeks as he had done.
When Lord Hertford left Paris Hume became
charge d'affaires. In the beginning of 1766 he
returned to England, bringing with him Rous-
eeau, who sought there a refuge from persecu-
•tion ; he provided him with retired lodgings
in Derbyshire, and obtained for him a pension
from the king. But Rousseau soon afterward
wrote a letter to Hume, accusing him of desiring
to destroy his fame. Their quarrel made a
great sensation, and Hume in self-defence pub
lished the letters that had passed between
them. In 1766 Hume went to Edinburgh, but
was invited by Gen. Conway the next year to
become undersecretary of state. He remained
.in 'London until Conway was superseded, and

in 1769 returned to Edinburgh. His income
being now £1,000 a year, he engaged in build
ing a house, and in the pleasures of society.
In March, 1775, his health began to decline.
The next spring he wrote a congratulatory let
ter to Gibbon, who had sent him the first vol
ume of the "Decline and Fall." In April,
1776, he finished his "Own Life," a concise
narrative of his literary career. After a jour
ney to Bath he returned to Edinburgh to die.
Five days before his death he wrote to the
countess de Boufflers : u I see death gradually
approach without any anxiety or regret." He
was buried in Calton hill graveyard, Edin
burgh, where a monument to him was erected.
As a historian Hume holds a high rank among
English writers. His narrative is interesting,
his style clear, and with happy ease he blends
profound thought, distinct portraiture, and
skilful appeals to the feelings. He lacks, how
ever, accuracy and impartiality. His philo
sophical writings do not form a complete sys
tem. He discussed detached questions of meta
physics, and aimed at the refutation of what
he considered erroneous opinions rather than
at the attainment of positive results. He re
garded utility as the basis of morals, maintain
ing that the moral quality of actions was to
be decided by their consequences. He asserts
that the mind is conscious only of impressions
and ideas, the latter following the former, and
that there is no clearer proof of the existence
of the mind than there is of matter. He traces
the course of thought to the law of association,
which he founds upon resemblance, contiguity,
and cause and effect. But the doctrine of
cause and effect is only a habit of the mind,
resulting from experience. Thus all is uncer
tainty, and the mind reduced to skepticism.
His history was continued by Smollett down
to the death of George II., and after that by
various authors. A new edition of his "Phil
osophical Works," edited by T. H. Green and
T. H. Grose, has been commenced in London
(4 vols., 18*74: et seq.). — See "Life and Corre
spondence of David Hume," edited by John
Hill Burton (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1847).

HUME, Joseph, a British statesman, born in
Montrose, Scotland, in January, 1777, died in
Burnley hall, Norfolk, Feb. 20, 1855. At about
the age of nine he lost his father, the master
of a small vessel, but was enabled by his moth
er, who established a crockery shop in Mont-
rose, to receive a tolerable education. About
1790 he was placed with an apothecary of
Montrose, and three years later he became a
student of medicine at the university of Edin
burgh, where he remained till 1796, when he
was admitted a member of the college of sur
geons of Edinburgh. Being appointed surgeon
to an East Indiaman, he made two voyages to
India, and in 1799 joined the medical establish
ment in Bengal. Finding that few of the com
pany's servants had acquired the native lan
guages, he applied himself to the study of them,
j and was soon able to speak them with fluency.

HUMMEL

HUMMING BIRD

At the outbreak of the Mahratta war he was
attached to the army, and upon a sudden
emergency officiated as Persian interpreter
with so much efficiency, that he was appointed
to that office permanently. At the same time
he was at the head of the medical staff, and
for long periods acted as paymaster, post
master, prize agent, and commissary general.
These employments brought him reputation
and emoluments; and in 1808 he was able to
retire from professional life, and to return to
England with a considerable fortune. For
several years he devoted himself to travel arid
study. In January, 1812, he was for a valuable
consideration returned to the house of com
mons for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis,
commencing his political career as a tory.
Before the parliament was dissolved, in the
succeeding July, he opposed a ministerial mea
sure for the relief of the Nottingham frame
work knitters, on the ground that the masters
would be thereby so much injured that the
workmen would be reduced to a worse state
than before. This so alarmed the conservative
patrons of his borough that at the next elec
tion they refused him a seat, although he had
bargained for a second return. This proceeding
probably opened the eyes of the new member
to the evils of the borough system, for, although
offered Beats from other boroughs, he refused
to enter parliament again except as a perfectly
free member, a contingency which did not oc
cur for several years. During this interval he
busied himself with a variety of projects for
the improvement of the laboring classes; but
his chief efforts were directed against the
abuses of the East India direction. In Janu
ary, 1819, he reentered parliament as a radical
member for the Aberdeen district of burghs,
comprehending his native town, Montrose. He
continued to represent the Scotch burghs till
1830, when he was returned unopposed as one
of the members for Middlesex. In 1837 he
was defeated, but was immediately returned
through the interest of Mr. CTConnell for Kil
kenny, which he represented till 1841, when
he was an unsuccessful candidate for the town
of Leeds. In the succeeding year he offered
himself once more to the electors of Montrose,
in whose service he died. His legislative zeal
and labors were hardly equalled by those of
the most eminent of his contemporaries. He
urged reforms in every department of gov
ernment ; and he lived to see the adoption of
almost every important measure which he had
advocated. In 1859 a statue of him was erect
ed in his native town.

HUMMEL, Joliann Neponmk, a German compo
ser, born in Presburg, Hungary, Nov. 17, 1778,
died at Weimar, Oct. 17, 1837. At seven years
of age he showed so much talent that Mozart
assumed the direction of his musical studies.
Later he received lessons in harmony, accom
paniment, and counterpoint from Albrechts-
berger, and valuable suggestions from Salieri.
In 1803 he entered the service of Prince Ester-

hazy, and composed his first mass, which won
the approval of Haydn. From 1811 to 1816
he taught at Vienna, and after that was suc
cessively chapelmaster to the king of Wiirtem-
burg and the grand duke of Saxe-Weimar. He
made many tours through Germany, France,
Great Britain, and Russia, winning renown as
a pianist. He excelled as a pianist, improvisa
tor, and composer. His improvisations were
remarkable for their originality and brilliancy,
and were so carefully worked out as to have
all the character of finished compositions. He
took high rank as a composer, but it was un
fortunate for his reputation that he was the
contemporary of Beethoven, by whose genius
he was overshadowed. He composed for the
stage, the church, and the concert room. His
compositions of the first class consist of ope
ras, pantomimes, and ballets ; of the second, of
three masses for voice, organ, and orchestra.
The third class is the most numerous, consist
ing of concerted pieces for various instruments,
trios, quartets, quintets, and septets, with many
works for the piano alone. He wrote also a
complete pianoforte method, which in spite of
its many merits has been superseded by later
works in stricter relation to the requirements
of modern art.

HUMMING BIRD, the common name of a large
family (trochilidce) of beautiful slender-billed
birds, found in America and its adjacent islands.
There are three subfamilies, grypince or wedge-
tailed humming birds, lampornince or curved-
billed humming birds, and trochilince or
straight-billed humming birds. The most bril
liant species live in the tropical forests, amid
the rich drapery of the orchids, whose mag
nificent blossoms rival the beauty of the birds
themselves. As we leave the tropics their
numbers decrease, and but a few species are'
found within the limits of the United States,
some however reaching as high as lat. 57° N.
In whatever latitude, their manners are the
same ; very quick and active, almost constantly
on the wing, as they dart in the bright sun they
display their brilliant colors. When hovering
over a flower in which they are feeding, their
wings are moved so rapidly that they become
invisible, causing a humming sound, whence
their common name, their bodies seeming sus
pended motionless in the air. They rarely
alight on the ground, but perch readily on
branches; bold and familiar, they frequent
gardens in thickly settled localities, even en
tering rooms, and flitting without fear near
passers by ; they are very pugnacious, and will
attack any intruder coming near their nests.
The nest is delicate but compact, and lined
with the softest vegetable downs ; it is about
an inch in diameter, and the same in depth,
and placed on trees, shrubs, and reeds. The
eggs, one or two in number, average about
one half by one third of an inch, and are
generally of a white color, and hatched in 10
or 12 days. It is very difficult to keep these
birds in cages; but they have been kept in

HUMMING BIRD

rooms and conservatories for months, feeding
on sugar or honey and water and the insects
attracted by these, and have become so tame
as to take their sweetened fluids from the end
of the linger. They are incidentally honey eat
ers, but essentially insectivorous ; their barbed
and viscid tongue is admirably adapted for
drawing insects from the depths of tubular
flowers, over which they delight to hover. The
family of trochilidce may be recognized by their
diminutive size, gorgeous plumage, long, slen
der, and acute bill, but little cleft at the base,
and peculiar tongue ; the species are very nu
merous, probably as many as 400, some of
which have a very limited range. The bill
when closed forms a tube, through which the
long, divided, and thread-like tongue may be
protruded into deep flowers; there are no
bristly feathers around its base, as in birds
which catch insects on the wing ; the tongue
has its cornua elongated backward, passing
around the back to the top of the skull, as in
woodpeckers ; the wings are long and falci
form, with very strong shafts, the first quill of
the ten the longest ; the secondaries usually
six ; the tail is of various forms, but always
strong, and important in directing the flight ;
the tarsi short and weak ; the toes long and
slender, and capable of sustaining them in a
hanging position, as is known from their be
ing not unfrequently found hanging dead from
branches in the autumn after a sudden cold
change in the weather. — The subfamily gnj-
pince have the bill slightly curved, and the
tail long, broad, and wedge-shaped ; of these

Euff-necked Humming- Bird (Selasphorus rufus).
1. Male. 2. Female.

the genus pJiostornis (Swains.) is found in the
warmer parts of South America, and is nu
merous in species ; oreotrocliilus (Gould) in
habits the mountains of the western side of
South America immediately beneath the line

of perpetual snow, feeding upon the small he-
mipterous insects which resort to the flowers ;
grypm (Spix) is found in the neighborhood of
Rio de Janeiro. The ruff-necked humming bird
(selasphorus rufus, Swains.), of the western

Anna Humming Bird (Althis Anna).
1. Male. 2. Female.

parts of North America, is about 3£ in. long,
with a wedge-shaped tail ; in the male the
upper parts, lower tail coverts, and tail are
cinnamon-colored, the latter edged or streaked
with purplish brown ; throat coppery red, with
a ruff, and below it a white collar ; in the fe
male the back is greenish, and the metallic
reflections are less brilliant. The Anna hum
ming bird (altJiis Anna, Reich.) is somewhat
larger, also inhabiting California and Mexico;

Mango Humming Bird (Lampornis mango).
1. Male. 2. Female.

the tail is deeply forked ; top of head, throat,
and ruff metallic red, with purple reflections;
rest of upper parts and band on breast green ;
tail purplish brown ; in the female the tail
is somewhat rounded, barred with black and

HUMMING BIRD

HUMPHREYS

tipped with white, and the general color above
metallic green. A second species of the last
two genera is described by Prof. Baird in vol.
ix. of the Pacific railroad reports. — The curved-
billed humming birds, more than 100 species,
are not represented in the United States, un
less the mango humming bird (lampornis man
go, Swains.) be admitted ; this may be distin
guished from the common species by the ab
sence of metallic scale-like feathers on the
throat, and by the serrations of the end of the
bill ; the prevailing colors are metallic green
and golden above, and velvety bluish black be
low, with a tuft of downy white feathers under
the wings. — The common species throughout
the eastern states, extending to the high cen
tral plains, and south to Brazil, is the ruby-
throated humming bird (trochilus colubris,
Linn.). The length of this " glittering frag
ment of the rainbow " (as Audubon calls it)
is about 3J in. with an extent of wings of 4J

7 )

Euby-throated Humming Bird (Trochilus colubris).

in. ; the upper parts are uniform metallic green,
with a ruby red gorget in the male, a white
collar on the throat, and the deeply forked tail
brownish violet ; the female has not the red
throat, and the tail is rounded, emarginate, and
banded with black. The corresponding spe
cies on the Pacific coast is the black-chinned
T. Alexandri (Bourc. and Mulsant). The last
two belong to the subfamily of trocliilince or
mellisugina>, having straight bills ; their genus
is given by Gray as mellisuga (Briss.), of which
there are more than 100 species. The largest
of the humming birds belongs to this subfam
ily, and is the JiylocJiaris giyds (Vieill.) ; it is
nearly 8 in. long, brownish green above and
light reddish below ; the wings are longer than
the deeply forked tail, and the general appear
ance is that of a brilliant swallow, with a long
straight, bill. — Those wishing to study in detail
the complicated arrangement of this beauti
ful family are referred to the illustrated works
of Lesson, Temminck, Audebert, and Vieillot,

and especially to Gould's monograph on the
trochilidce ; also to vols. xiv. and xv. of the
"Naturalists' Library."

HUMPHREY, Neman, an American clergyman,
born in Simsbury, Conn., March 26, 1779, died
in Pittsfield, Mass., April 3, 1861. From the
age of 16 he was engaged for several succes
sive winters as a teacher in common schools.
He graduated at Yale college in 1805, studied
theology, and was pastor of the Congregational
church in Fairfield, Conn., from 1807 to 1817,
and in Pittsfield, Mass., from 1817 to Octo
ber, 1823, when he became president of Am-
herst college, then unincorporated. Principally
through his influence it obtained an act of in
corporation the next year, and he presided
over it till 1845, when he resigned, and devoted
himself to literary pursuits, residing in Hat-
field, Mass., and afterward in Pittsfield. He
was one of the earliest advocates of the tem
perance cause. In 1810 he preached six ser
mons on intemperance, and in 1813 drew up a
report to the Fairfield consociation which is
believed to have been the earliest tract on the
subject. Among his writings are : a prize
essay on "The Sabbath" (1830); "Tour in
France, Great Britain, and Belgium " (2 vols.
12mo, New Y'ork, 1838); "Domestic Educa
tion " (1840) ; " Letters to a Son in the Minis
try" (Amherst, 1845); "Life and Writings of
N. W. Fiske" (1850); " Life and Writings of
T. H. Gallaudet" (1857); "Sketches of the
History of Revivals" (1859); and "Revival
Sketches" (1860). A volume entitled "Me
morial Sketches of Heman and Sophia Hum
phrey," by Z. M. Humphrey and Henry Neill,
was printed for the use of the family.

HUMPHREYS, a N. W. county of Tennessee,
bounded E. by Tennessee river, and intersected
near its S. border by Duck river, a tributary
of the former stream ; area, 375 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1870, 9,326, of whom 1,295 were colored.
The surface is moderately uneven, and the soil
is fertile. The Nashville and Northwestern
railroad passes through it. The chief produc
tions in 1870 were 27,783 bushels of wheat,
491,355 of Indian corn, 29,967 of oats, 62,766
of peas and beans, 18,502 of Irish and 17,829
of sweet potatoes, 113,177 Ibs. of tobacco,
and 107 bales of cotton. There were 1,971
horses, 914 mules and asses, 2,355 milch cows,
4,488 other cattle, 8,937 sheep, and 18,418
swine; 1 manufactory of woollen goods, 1 of
ground bark, 2 saw mills, 6 tanneries, and 5
currying establishments. Capital, Waverley.

HOIPHREYS, Andrew Atkinson, an American
soldier, born in Pennsylvania about 1812. He
graduated at West Point in 1831, and served
mainly in topographical duty till 1836, when
he resigned his commission in the army, and
became a civil engineer in the United States
service. In 1838 he was reappointed in the
army, serving generally in the topographical
department, and from 1844 to 1849 had charge
of the coast survey office at Washington. In
1849-'50 he was engaged in making topographic

HUMPHREYS

IIUNFALVY

and hydrographic surveys of the delta of the
Mississippi, continuing in general charge of the
work till 1861, when he published a volumi
nous and very valuable "Report upon the
Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Riv
er." During the civil war he was on the staff
of McClellan until his supersedure by Burnside,
was made brevet colonel for his services in the
battle of Fredericksburg, commanded a divi
sion at Chancellorsville and at Gettysburg, and
after the last battle became chief of the staff
of Gen. Meade, being appointed major general
of volunteers, July 8, 1863. He took an ac
tive part in the campaigns of 1864 and 1865,
succeeding Hancock in the command of the
2d corps. He was brevetted brigadier gen
eral in the regular army for gallant conduct at
Gettysburg, and major general for services at
the battle of Sailor's Creek, the closing battle
of the war (April 7, 1865). From July to De
cember, 1865, he commanded the district of
Pennsylvania, and thereafter he was in charge
of the examination of the Mississippi levees till
August, 1866, when he was appointed chief of
engineers of the United States army, with the
rank of brigadier general.

HUMPHREYS, David, an American poet, born
in Derby, Conn., in July, 1752, died in New
Haven, Feb. 21, 1818. He was educated at
Yale college, entered the army at the begin
ning of the revolutionary war, and in 1780
became a colonel and aide-de-camp to Wash
ington. He resided more than a year with
Washington after his retirement to Virginia,
and again in 1788. He accompanied Jefferson
to Europe as secretary of legation in 1784,
was elected to the legislature of Connecticut
in 1786, and was soon associated with Lemuel
Hopkins, John Trumbull, and Joel Barlow in
the composition of the "Anarchiad," a series
of poems which appeared in the "New Haven
Gazette " and the " Connecticut Magazine."
These poems were satirized as being the pro
duction of "four bards with Scripture names."
An edition of them, purporting to be "the
first published in book form, edited, with notes
and appendices, by Luther G. Riggs," was pub
lished at New Haven in 1861. Humphreys
was minister to Lisbon from 1791 to 1797, and
afterward minister to Spain till 1802, and on
his return imported from Spain 100 merino
sheep, and engaged in the manufacture of
woollens. He held command of two Connec
ticut regiments in the war of 1812, after which
he lived in retirement. His principal poems
are : an " Address to the Armies of the United
States" (1782); a "Poem on the Happiness
of America;" a tragedy, entitled "The Widow
of Malabar," translated from the French of
Le Mierre ; and a "Poem on Agriculture."
His "Miscellaneous Works" (New York, 1790
and 1804) contain besides his poems a biogra
phy of Gen. Putnam and several orations and
other prose compositions.

HUMUS (Lat. humus, the soil), vegetable
mould, or the product of the decay of vegeta-

| ble matter. When portions of a decayed stump
or the decayed matter of peat is digested in
a weak solution of caustic potash or soda, a
brown liquid is formed, which on the addition
of an acid deposits a dark brown precipitate.
This is a mixture, according to Mulder, of three
substances, which he considers as compounds
of water, or of water and ammonia, with three
different acids, viz. : 1, geic acid, C^ll^Oi ;
2, humic acid, C 2 oHi 2 O 6 ; 3, ulmic acid, C 2 o
Hi 4 O 6 . It has been doubted, however, wheth
er humus has so definite a composition. Mul
der also found that the brown substances form
ed by the prolonged action of boiling dilute
acids upon sugar resemble ulmic and humic
acids derived from mould, both in chemical
composition and properties. Humus may be
regarded as in a state of continuous decompo
sition or eremacausis, a species of slow com
bustion (see EKEMACAIJSIS), in which the hy
drogen of the vegetable matter is more rapidly
removed by oxidation than the carbon, so that
it contains an excess of the latter element.
The formation of water, carbonic acid, and
ammonia, and the elimination of mineral con
stituents in the decay of woody fibre is one
cause of the beneficial action of vegetable ma
nures in promoting the growth of plants.

HUMUYA, a river of Honduras, rising at the
S. extremity of the plain of Comayagua, and
flowing due N. for a distance of about 100 m.
to a point N. of the town of Yojoa, where it
unites with the rivers Blanco and Santiago or
Venta, forming the great river Ulna, which
falls into the bay of Honduras, about 25 m.
N. E. of the port of Omoa. For the greater
part of its course it is a rapid stream, and only
navigable for canoes. It is principally inter
esting in connection with the interoceanic rail
way through Honduras, in course of construc
tion (1874) through its valley. Comayagua,
the capital of Honduras, stands on its E. bank.

HUNDRED, the name given in some parts of
England to the subdivision of a shire, which
may have received the appellation from having
comprised 100 families, 100 warriors, or 100
manors. The existing divisions of this name
differ greatly in area and population. The
hundred is by some considered to have been
a Danish institution, adopted by King Alfred
about 897, each county being divided into
tithings, of which 10 or 12 made a hundred,
presided over by a decanus, head borough, or
hundred man. The hundreds were represent
ed in the "shiremote," which, under the presi
dency of its earl and bishop or sheriff, regula
ted the affairs of the county. The jurisdiction
of the hundred was vested in the sheriff, al
though it was sometimes a special grant from
the crown to individuals, and he or his deputy
held a court baron, or court leet. The hun
dred was held responsible for felons until de
livered up. — The townships of the state of
Delaware are called hundreds.

HUNFALVY. I. Pfil, a Hungarian philologist,
born at Nagy-Szalok, March 12, 1810. He

HUNGARY

became in 1842 professor of jurisprudence at
Kasmark, was a member of the Hungarian
diet of 1848-'9, and has since lived in Pesth.
He has written and edited a number of philo
logical and ethnological publications, inclu
ding Clii'estomathia Fennica (Pesth, 1801), and
"The Land of the Voguls" (3 vols., 18G3),
after the accounts of the Hungarian traveller
Reguly. II. Jauos, a Hungarian geographer,
brother of the preceding, born at Gross-Scbla-
gendorf, June 8, 1820. He became in 1846
professor of statistics and history at Kasmark,
took part in the revolutionary movement of
1848-'9, and was imprisoned, but in 1850 re
sumed his duties at Kasmark, and was sub
sequently suspended for advocating the in
dependence of Protestant education, lie re
moved to Pesth in 1853, and became professor
of statistics, geography, and history at the
polytechnic institute of Buda. His works in
clude a "Universal History" (3 vols., Pesth,
2d ed., 1862), "Physical Geography of Hun
gary" (3 vols., 1863-'6), the text to the pic
torial work " Hungary and Transylvania " (3
vols., Darmstadt, 1859-'64), and a Hungarian
edition of the " Travels " of Ladislas Magyar
(Pesth, 1859).

HOiGARY (Hung. Magyarorszdg, Magyar
land ; Ger. Ungarit), a country of Europe, for
merly an independent kingdom, subsequently
united with Austria, from 1849 to 186V a crown-
land or province of the latter, and since 1867 one
of the two main divisions of the Austro-Hun-
garian monarchy. Before 1849 it embraced
in a constitutional sense, besides Hungary
proper, Croatia, Slavonia, and the Hungarian
Littorale (coast land on the Adriatic), and in
its widest acceptation also Transylvania, the
Military Frontier, and Dalmatia, with an ag
gregate population of about 15,000,000. All
these dependencies were in 1849 detached, and
besides them from Hungary proper the coun
ties of Middle Szolnok, Zarand, and Kraszna,
and the district of Kovar, to be reunited with
Transylvania, and the counties of Bacs, Toron-
tal, Temes, and Krasso, to form the new crown-
land of the Servian Waywodeship and Banat.
In 1867 the changes made in 1849 were re
pealed ; the Way wodeship was abolished, Tran
sylvania reunited with Hungary, and Croatia
and Slavonia recognized as a dependency of
the Hungarian crown, which has its own pro
vincial assembly, but also sends deputies to
the Hungarian diet, and is subordinate to the
Hungarian ministry. The Military Frontier,
which formerly had its separate administration,
was destined to gradual incorporation partly
with Hungary proper and partly with Croatia.
Dalmatia was united with Cisleithan Austria.
Thus Hungary in the wider sense, also called
Transloithania or Transleithan Austria, from
the little river Leitha which constitutes part of
the frontier between the two main divisions of
the monarchy, now comprises (the reorgani
zation of the Military Frontier having become
complete in 1873) Hungary proper, Transyl

vania, Croatia and Slavonia, and Fiume. The
lands of the Hungarian crown have in common
with Cisleithan Austria an imperial ministry,
consisting of the departments of foreign affairs
and the imperial house, of finances, and of war.
hi the article ATSTRIA we have treated of the
Austro-IIungarian monarchy as a whole; arid
the articles CROATIA, MILITARY FRONTIER, SLA
VONIA, and TRANSYLVANIA will contain what is
or lately was peculiar to those sections. In
this article we shall treat of the lands of the
Hungarian crown with special reference to that
section which is called Hungary proper. Hun
gary (in the wider sense) is situated between lat.
44° 11' and 49° 35' K, and Ion. 14° 25' and 26°
30' E., and is bounded N. E., N"., and W. by Cis
leithan Austria, S. and E. by the Turkish prov
inces and dependencies Bosnia, Servia, and
Roumania. The total area of the lands of the
Hungarian crown is 125,045 sq. m., of which
87,045 belong to Hungary proper. The popu
lation, according to the census of 1869, was
15,509,455, of whom 11,530,397 lived in Hun
gary proper. — Hungary in its chief parts forms
a large basin surrounded almost entirely by
mountain ranges, of which the principal are :
the Carpathians, which encircle the north, with
their various offshoots, the Hungarian Ore
mountains between the "Waag and the Eipel,
the Matra E. of the preceding, and the wine
growing Hegyalja between the Theiss and the
Ilernad ; the Leitha range, the wooded Ba-
kony, and the Vertes, mostly continuations of
the Noric and Carnic Alps, in the S. TV. divi
sion; and the Transylvanian Alps on the S. E.
frontier. The chief artery of the country is the
Danube, which enters it between Vienna and
Presburg, and on its course to the Black sea
receives the waters of all the other rivers, ex
cepting only the Poprad, which rises near the
N. boundary and flows to the Vistula. The
principal of these affluents of the Danube are :
on the right, the Leitha, Raab, Sarviz, and the
Drave, which separates Hungary proper from
Slavonia, with the Mur, its affluent ; on the left,
the March, AVaag, Keutra, Gran, Eipel, Theiss,
and Temes. The Theiss rises in the northeast,
in the county of Marmaros, and its chief afflu
ents are the Bodrog, Hernad, Sajo, and Zagyva
on the right, and the Szamos, Koros, and Maros
on the left. Most of the rivers of Croatia and
Transylvania are also tributaries of the Danube ;
among others, the Save on the Turkish frontier
and the Alt from Transylvania. The S. TV. di
vision, which has the fewest rivers, includes
the two principal lakes of the country, the
Balaton and the Neusiedler. Various marshes,
moors, soda lakes, and swamps extend near the
banks of the great rivers, especially of the
Theiss. There are also numerous mountain
lakes called "eyes of the sea," and caverns, of
which that of Agtelek in the county of Gomor
is the most remarkable. Extensive islands are
formed by the branches of the Danube ; among
others, the Great Schiitt and Csepel in its up
per course. The climate is in general mild,

HUNGARY

owing to the great northern barrier of the Car
pathians. Often, when snow covers the north
ern mountain regions, the heat is considerable
on the lowlands of the south, especially near
the Maros. The climate of the great central
plain resembles that of northern Italy; its
sandy wastes, however, greatly contribute to
the aridity of the summer winds. Blasts of
wind and hailstorms are not unfreqwent in the
Carpathians. The spring is the most agreeable
season, but the autumn often partakes of the
character of the Indian summer in the United
States.— The fertility of the soil, with the ex
ception of several mountainous and sandy
regions, is almost extraordinary. Among the
vegetable productions are : the different species
of grain, especially wheat, maize, hemp, flax,
rapeseed, melons, often of immense size, apples,
pears, apricots, and plums ; cherries, mulber
ries, chestnuts, filberts, and walnuts ; tobacco,
which is now monopolized by the crown ; wine
of the most various kinds, including the Tokay
of the Hegyalja; almonds, figs, and olives, on
the southern border ; anise, Turkish pepper,
sweet wood, safflower, madder, and other dye
plants; oaks, which yield large quantities of
galls, the beech, fir, pine, ash, alder, and nu
merous other forest trees, often covering ex
tensive tracts of land in the mountainous re
gions. Among the animals are the bear, wolf,
lynx, wild cat, boar, chamois, marmot, deer,
fox, hare ; many fine breeds of horses and cat
tle (including buffaloes), dogs, sheep, and swine,
the last of which are fattened in the forests
on acorns. The birds comprise the golden and
stone eagle, hawk, kite, bustard, heron, par
tridge, woodcock, nightingale, and lark. Fish,
bees, and leeches abound. Of minerals, there
are gold, iron, and copper in large quantities ;
silver, zinc, lead, coal, cobalt, nitre, antimony,
arsenic, sulphur, alum, soda, saltpetre, potas
sium, marble, crystal, chalk ; salt in immense
mines, especially in Marmaros ; jasper, chalce
dony, hyacinths, amethysts, agates, and beau
tiful varieties of opal (in Saros). There are
more than 300 mineral springs, of which those
of Buda, Trentschin, Posteny, Bartfeld, Parud,
and Szobnincz are among the most renown
ed. The chief articles of export are wheat,
rapeseed, galls, honey, Avax, wine, tobacco,
copper, alum, potash, wood, cattle, sheep,
swine, hides, wool, dried fruits, and brandies,
especially sliwvitw or plum liquor. For im
ports and manufactures Hungary relies mainly
on Austria, the chief home manufactures, be
sides metals, being linen and woollens, leather,
paper, pottery and clay pipes, soap and can
dles, and tobacco. The means of communica
tion, formerly scanty, are now rapidly extend
ing. Steamers ply on the Danube and Theiss ; <
a network of railways connects the various
parts of the country with eacli other and with
the neighboring provinces. The principal seats ,
of learning are at Pesth, which is also the lit- I
erary centre, Presburg, Kaschau, Debreczin,
Patak, Papa, Erlau, Veszprem, Miskolcz, Sze- :

gedin, Stuhl-Weissenburg, and Grosswardein.
— The variety of nationalities and languages
rivals that of productions. There are Magyars
or Hungarians proper, the predominant race
(according to the census of 1869, about 5,688,-

000 in the lands of the Hungarian crown, in
cluding the Szeklers of Transylvania ; 5,024,000
in Hungary proper), chiefly in the fertile re
gions of the centre and in the southwest; Slo
vaks (1,841,000) in the mountain regions of the
northwest and north ; Ruthenians (448,000) in
those of the northeast ; Croats and Serbs (Ras-
cians) in the south and southwest (about 2,405,-
700, of whom about 800,000 are in Hungary
proper); Roumans in the southeast (about
2,477,700, of whom about 1,270,000 are in
Hungary proper) ; Germans (1,894,800; in Hun
gary proper, 1,592,000) and Jews (552,000,
mainly in Hungary proper), chiefly in the towns
of all regions ; gypsies (50,000), settled in towns
and villages, or migratory ; besides Armenians,
French, Bulgarians, &c. These various ele
ments are distinguished not only by language,
but also by peculiar costumes, manners, and
moral characteristics. Of the inhabitants in
1869, 7,558,000 (in Hungary proper, 5,933,000)
were Roman Catholics, 1,599,000 (in Hungary
proper, 981,000) united Greeks, 2,589,000 (in
Hungary proper, 1,414,000) non-united Greeks,
2,031,000 (in Hungary proper, 1,720,000)
Calvinists (Reformed, popularly Hungarian
church), 1,113,000 (in Hungary proper, 887,-
000) Lutherans, and 552,000 Jews. Public edu
cation was reorganized in 1868. The common
schools are of two grades : elementary schools
with from one to three classes (14,685 in 1869),
and schools of a higher grade with as many
as six classes (569 in 1869). Education is com
pulsory, and children are bound to attend
school from their 6th to their 12th year, and
after that until their 15th year a " school of
review." The actual attendance, however, is
as yet unsatisfactory, and in 1869 amounted
to only 50 per cent, of the children of school
age, the number of attendants being 1,226,000.
In 1869 there were 152 gymnasia, 25 Eeal-
schulen, and a university at Pesth. In 1872 a
second university was opened at Klausenburg.
— The Hungarian diet consists of two houses,
the table of magnates and the table of depu
ties. The former in 1873 was composed of
the 3 archdukes who had landed estates in
Hungary, 31 Roman Catholic and Greek arch
bishops, bishops, and high church dignitaries,
12 imperial banner bearers, 57 presidents of
counties, 5 supreme royal judges, the count of
the Saxons in Transylvania, the governor of
Fiume, 3 princes, 218 counts, 80 barons, and
3 "regulists" of Transylvania. The table of
deputies had 444 members, of whom 334 be
longed to Hungary proper, 75 to Transylvania,

1 to Fiume, and 34 to Croatia and Slavonia.
The diet meets annually, and new elections
must take place every three years. The right
of voting belongs to all who have a regular
business or pay a small amount of direct taxes,

HUNGARY

as provided by law. The language of the diet
is the Hungarian, but the representatives of
Croatia and Slavonia are permitted to use the
Croatian language. The Hungarian ministry
consists of a president and the heads of nine
departments, viz. : the ministry of national de
fence, the ministry near the king's person {ad
latus\ the ministry of finance, of the interior,
of education and public worship, of justice; of
public works, of agriculture, industry, and com
merce, and for Croatia and Slavonia. The ad
ministration of communes was regulated by
law in 1871 ; that of municipia, which class
comprises counties, districts, and the royal free
cities, in 1870. The supreme court of the
kingdom is the royal curia in Pesth, consist
ing of two divisions, the court of cassation
and the supreme court. The royal tables of
Pesth (for Hungary proper and Fiume) and of
Maros-Vusarhely (for Transylvania) are courts
of the second resort ; 102 royal courts and
306 district courts have original jurisdiction.
The public revenue of Hungary for the year
1872 amounted to $82,187,809, the expendi
ture to $112,853,705. To meet the interest on
the common debt of the monarchy contracted
prior to 1808, Hungary pays an annual contri
bution ^f $13,030,000. It has also a special
debt amounting to $219,000,000. Politically,
Hungary proper, according to ancient custom,
is divided into four natural divisions or circles,
subdivided into counties, and called, from the
standpoint of Pesth, the Cis-Danubian (N. and
E. of the Danube), Trans-Dan ubian (S. and W.
of the Danube), Cis-Tibiscan (N. and W. of the
Theiss), and Trans-Tibiscan (S. and E. of the
Theiss), and three districts: Jazygia (Jdszsdg),
with Great and Little Cumania (Kunsag} ; the
Hayduk towns (ffajdu-Vdrosok); and Kovar.
The counties are as follows : Cis-Danubian
circle — Presburg (Pozsony), Neutra (Nyitra),
Trentschin (Trencseny\ Arva, Turocz, Bars,
Lipto, Zolyom, Hont, Nograd, Pesth (Pest),
G;TKQ.(E8ztergom), Bacs. Trans-Danubian circle
— Wieselburg (Mosony), Oedenburg (Soprony\
Vast, Zala, Somogy, Baranya, Tolna, Vesz-
prem, Raab (Gyor), Comorn (Iiomarom), Weis-
senburg (Fejer). Cis-Tibiscan circle — Heves,
Borsod, Gornor, Zips (Szepes), Saros, Torna,
Abauj, Zemplen, Ung, Bereg. Trans-Tibiscan
circle — Ugocsa, Marmaros, Szatmar, Szabolcs,
Bihar, Bekes, Arad, Csanad, Csongrad, Toron-
tal, Temes, Krasso, Middle Szolnok, Kraszna,
Zarand. — Among the nations who occupied
parts of Hungary before its conquest by the
Magyars or Hungarians, we find the Dacians,
Illyrians, Pannonians, Bulgarians, Jazyges,
Alans, Avars, Huns, Gepid.T, Longobards, and j
Kliazars. The Romans held the S. W. part
of the country under the name of Pannonia,
while the S. E. belonged to their province of
Dacia. Various Slavic tribes, together with
Wallachs, Bulgarians, and Germans, were the
chief occupants at the time of the Magyar
invasion. The Magyars, a warlike people of
the Turanian race, had made various migra

tions, and long dwelt in the vicinity of the
Caucasian mountains, and afterward in the re
gion between the Don and the Dniester, before
they approached and crossed the Carpathians
(about 887) under the lead of Almos, one of
their seven chiefs (Kezer), and elected head
(fejedelem) or duke. They were divided into
seven tribes and 108 families, had a compact,
consecrated by oaths, which guaranteed justice
and equality among themselves, and a religion
which in various features resembled the Aryan
element worship of the Medo-Persians, but also
included the notion of a supreme being (hten).
Arpad, the son of Almos, conquered the whole
of Hungary and Transylvania, organized the
government, and also made various expeditions
beyond the limits of these countries, among
others against Svatopluk of Moravia, being in
vited by Arnulf of Germany. These expedi
tions were further extended under his son Zol-
tan (907-946) and grandson Taksony (946-972),
spreading terror and devastation as far as the
Xorth sea, the south of France and Italy, and
the Euxine. But various bloody defeats, es
pecially near Merseburg (933) by the emperor
Henry L, on the Lech (955) by Otho I., and in
Greece (970), finally broke the desire of the
Hungarians for booty and adventurous ex
ploits, and turned the attention of their princes
to the consolidation of their power within the
natural limits of the country. Gejza (972-997),
the son of Taksony, who married a Christian
princess, promoted the introduction of Chris
tianity, which was almost completed under his
son Stephen I. (997-1038), whose religious zeal
gained him a crown and the title of apostolic
king from Pope Sylvester II. (1000), and after
ward the appellation of saint. Assisted by
Roman priests and German knights, he pro
claimed the freedom of Christian slaves, intro
duced Latin schools, established bishoprics,
built churches, chapels, and convents, elevated
the bishops to the foremost rank in the state,
compelled the people to pay tithes to the new
clergy, and subdued the rebellious adherents
of the national religion. The political and ad
ministrative institutions of the state were also
organized. The original equality of the con
querors was limited by imitations of the west
ern feudal aristocracy. The higher clergy, the
higher nobility, consisting of distinguished na
tional families and of foreign lords, and the
common nobility, embracing the bulk of the
national warriors, were the ruling classes; the
two former, together with the dignitaries of
the state, the palatine (nddor), the court judge
(afterward land judge), &c., formed the senate,
or the higher division of the legislative body.
Against this new and foreign order of things
the national party more than once violently
rose, both under Stephen and his successors,
Peter (1038-'40), against whom Aba Samuel
was elected king, and who twice lost his
throne, Andrew I. (1040- 1 01), who perished
after being defeated by his brother Bela, and
Bela I. (1061- ? 63), under whom the resistance

HUNGARY

of the defenders of the ancient religion was
finally broken. The civil strifes were not only
kept up by the undefined succession to the
throne by the house of Arpad, but also foment
ed by the intervention of the popes and the
emperors. The emperor Henry III. in the
reign of Andrew repeatedly invaded the coun
try. The son of the latter, Solomon (1063-
'74), lost his throne chiefly in consequence of
his ill treatment of his gallant cousins and suc
cessors Gejza (1074-'77) and Ladislas (1077-
'95), to whom he owed his elevation, and some
splendid victories over invaders ; and he vainly
applied for aid both to the emperor Henry IV.
and his antagonist Pope Gregory VII., who
each claimed the rights of suzerainty over
Hungary. Solomon died in exile. Ladislas was
equally brave and pious. He is a saint in the
Roman calendar, and his victories over the
Cumans, who invaded Transylvania and the
neighboring districts, and the conquest of
Croatia and Ilalicz (eastern Galicia), made
him one of the favorite princes of his nation.
His nephew Coloman (1095-1114), surnamed
the Scholar, was an enlightened and able ru
ler. He introduced various reforms, refused
to accept the lead of the first crusade, closely
watched the hosts which passed through his
country, and routed or repulsed the more dis
orderly, though he received Godfrey of Bouil
lon as a friend. He annexed Dalmatia, but
stained the close ^ of his reign by cruelty to
ward his brother Almos, who conspired against
him. His son, the profligate Stephen II. (1114
-'31), waged war against almost all his neigh
bors. Bela II., the Blind (1131-'41), the son
of Almos, and like his father the victim of
Coloman, took bloody revenge on his former
enemies on the occasion of the diet at Arad.
Under his son Gejza II. (1141-'61) numer
ous Saxon colonies were settled in Zips and
Transylvania, while their countrymen who
joined the second crusade desolated the re
gions through which they passed. The dis
puted rights to Galicia and Dalmatia, and the
often changing relations with the Byzantine
empire, were now sources of frequent wars in
the north and south. Stephen III. (1161-'73),
Gejza's youthful son, who overcame the in
trigues of Manuel Cornnenus and the opposi
tion of two rivals, Ladislas II. and Stephen
IV., but succumbed to poison, was succeeded
by his brother Bela III. (1173-'96), who, hav
ing been educated at the Greek court, and
supported by it, introduced various imitations
of its administrative organization, and was
successful in Galicia, as well as in Dalmatia
against the republic of Venice. His connection
with the West in consequence of his marriage
with Margaret of France induced numerous
noble youths to visit the chief cities and schools
of France, England, and Italy. His son Emeric
(1196-1205) was tormented by the revolts of
his brother Andrew, and in vain had his son
Ladislas III. crowned before his death. An
drew II. (1205-'35) was successively under

the influence of his unscrupulous wife, who
finally was assassinated; of the pope, who
compelled him to undertake a crusade; of his
financiers, Christian, Saracen, and Jewish,
who monopolized the revenues of the impov
erished kingdom; of the nobility, who in 1222
extorted from him the " Golden Bull," a Hun
garian Magna Charta of freedom and privi
leges, including the right of armed resistance
to tyranny ; and finally of a combined violent
opposition, to which belonged his son and suc
cessor Bela (IV.). The long reign of the latter
(1235-'70) commenced with salutary reforms,
but was afterward disturbed by the immigra
tion of the Cumans and the invasion of the
Tartars, who annihilated the Hungarian army
on the Sajo (1241), and marked their way from
the Carpathians to the Adriatic by sword and
fire, famine and pestilence. Bela did his best
to restore order and repeople the country by
new immigrants, bestowed various rights on
the cities, and promoted the culture of the
vine ; but his wars with Austria, Styria, &c.,
and the revolts of his son Stephen, destroyed
order, and promoted only the usurpations of
the high nobility. Stephen V. (1270-'72) was
successful against Ottokar of Bohemia. His
son Ladislas IV. (1272-'90), who succeeded at
the age of 10, caused violent commotions and
endless misery by his Cumanian amours and
predilections, and was murdered at the instiga
tion of one of his mistresses. A nephew of
Bela IV., Andrew III. (1290-1301), was the
last of the Arptids, and after a disturbed reign,
which various diets held on the plain of Rakos
near Pesth could not consolidate, died proba
bly by poison. The throne was now open for
competition, and the royal dignity became
purely elective. Charles Robert of Anjou, a
nephew of the king of Naples, and by his
mother a descendant of the extinct dynasty,
being supported by the see of Rome, was the
first elected ; while another party, the leader
of which was the powerful count Matthias
Csak, successively elected Wenceslas, son of
the king of Bohemia (1301-'5), and Otho of
Bavaria (1305-'8), both of whom were by
a similar title descendants of the Arpiids.
Charles Robert's reign (1309-'42) was marked
by great successes at home and abroad. The
regal power was extended and consolidated,
chiefly by a new military and financial organi
zation ; western refinement and luxury made
the Hungarian lords more docile, and the suc-

| cession to the thrones of Poland and Naples
was secured to the two sons of the king, Louis
and Andrew. Visegrad, hoAvever, which re
placed Stuhl-Weissenburg as the royal resi
dence, witnessed many a princely crime. Buda

| became a still more splendid residence under
Louis, surnamed the Great (1342-'82), who
further developed the regal power, but with it

i the oppressive feudal institutions ; and, except
ing his repeated expeditions to Italy to revenge

i the assassination of his brother Andrew by his

i own wife, Joanna, he was successful in all his

HUNGARY

undertakings, conquering among other terri
tories Moldavia and Bulgaria. He also suc
ceeded his uncle Casimir the Great, the last of
the Piasts, as king of Poland. lie was chival
rous, luxurious, and bigoted ; he promoted com
merce, but burdened the peasants, persecuted
the Cuman pagans, and expelled the Jews,
whom, however, his son-in-law Sigismund of
Luxemburg brought back into the country.
This prince having liberated his wife Mary, who
had got rid of a rival, the Neapolitan Charles
the Little, by assassination, but subsequently
lost her throne and freedom, reigned together
with her (1387-'95), and after her death alone
(1395-1437), being also elected German em
peror, and succeeding to the throne of his
house in Bohemia. His long reign was full of
civil strife, including the Hussite war in Bo
hemia, a revolt in Hungary, which for a short
time deprived him of his liberty, and a rising
of the peasants, in Transylvania, and of wars
against Venice and the Turks, who under Ba-
jazet routed him in the battle of Nicopolis ;
but it was also marked by some salutary re
forms in favor of the lower classes. Sigismund
was succeeded by his son-in-law the emperor
Albert (II.) of Hapsburg (1437-'9). He died
after an unsuccessful campaign against Sultan
Amurath, leaving his thrones to his wife Eliza
beth, who offered her hand to Ladislas III.
of Poland, a grandson of Louis the Great. The
young Polish king after some struggle became
also king of Hungary under the name of Ula-
dislas I. (Hung. Uldszlo), but, after several vic
tories of his great general John Hunyady over
the Turks, fell at Varna (1444), having broken
his oath of peace to the infidels. Ladislas (V.),
the posthumous child of Albert, whom his
mother Elizabeth, shortly before her death,
had carried together with the crown to her
brother-in-law the emperor Frederick III., was
now acknowledged as king (1445), Hunyady be
ing appointed governor or regent. Frederick
of Hapsburg, however, had to be compelled to
restore the prince ; powerful lords caused end- j
less disturbances, and the Turks menaced Hun- \
gary, while preparing to strike the last blow |
at the Byzantine empire. Hunyady himself ;
was defeated, but made good his escape, and |
died victorious, having repulsed Mohammed :
II., the conqueror of Constantinople, from the i
walls of Belgrade (1450). Of his two sons, j
Ladislas was executed by command of the un- j
grateful king, but Matthias, surnamed Corvi- j
nus, ascended the throne after the death of the !
latter (1457) and a protracted election struggle. |
The ablest monarch of Hungary (1458-'90), he •
subdued the rebellious lords, and in numerous j
campaigns vanquished the emperor, Podiebrad
of Bohemia, and the armies of Mohammed II.
He restored order, law, and prosperity, pro- j
moted science and art more than any other !
prince of his age, and administered his king- j
dom with an impartiality the glory of which '
survived him in the popular adage, u King Mat- |
thias is dead, justice gone." But his works ;

j perished with him. The indolent Uladsilsa
\ (II.) of Bohemia (1490-1510) was as poor as he
was contemptible, and let his lords do as they
chose. Of these John Zapolya, waywode of
I Transylvania, suppressed with dreadful blood-
, shed a great insurrection of the peasantry un-
' der Dozsa (1514). Under the young and weak
j son of Uladislas, Louis II. (1510-'20), the
j country gradually ripened for a catastrophe.
j While the nobles disputed, Belgrade fell, and
! finally the battle of Mohacs was rashly fought
j against Sultan Solyman the Magnificent. The
Hungarian army was destroyed, Louis perished
j on his Might, and his wife, the sister of Ferdi-
nand of Austria, hastened to carry the crown
to her brother. This prince inaugurated the
| still reigning dynasty of the Ilapsburgs, being
acknowledged as king (1527-'04) by the nobil
ity of the western counties, while the national
party elected John Zapolya, who prevailed in
Transylvania and the adjoining parts. The
latter put himself under the protection of Soly
man, who took Buda and even besieged Vienna
(1529). Long campaigns and negotiations and
short-lived treaties now followed each other,
the final result of which was that Hungary
was for about 150 years divided into three parts
with often changing limits, under the Ilaps
burgs as kings, the pashas of the sultans, and
! the princes of Transylvania. The greater part
I of Hungary proper, however, including the
j whole northwest, was in the hands of the royal
or imperial armies, the monarchs holding also
the crown of Germany after the abdication of
Charles V., and finding many a hero among
their Hungarian subjects. Maximilian (1504-
'70) was saved by the self-sacrificing heroism
of Zrinyi, who fell with his little fortress Szi-
get and the last of his men only after the death
of the besieger Solyman and the destruction
of a part of his army (1500). All these ser
vices of the magnates, as well as of the nation,
were ill repaid by the Austrian dynasty. The
diets of Hungary, which for centuries remained
the blood-covered bulwark of Christendom,
more than once had to complain that the impe
rial soldiery did more to devastate the country
and famish the people than the infidel con
querors. Rudolph I. (1570-1608) commenced
the persecution of the Protestants. These,
however, not only had a free home in Transyl
vania under the enlightened Stephen Bathori,
afterward king of Poland (who had succeeded
the younger Zapolya), but also a protector of
their rights in Hungary in Bocskay, the Tran-
sylvanian successor of Sigismund Bathori, who
suddenly raised the banner of freedom, sweep
ing all over the north, crushing the generals of
Rudolph, and finally compelling the latter to
the humiliating peace of Vienna (1000). The
old emperor finally resigned his Hungarian
crown to his brother Matthias (II.), whose tol
erant reign, however, was too short for the
pacification of the country (1008-'19). His
successor Ferdinand II. (1619-'37), who com
menced his reign amid the first flames of the

HUNGARY

thirty years' war, was prevented from tearing
the Hungarian charter of liberty, as he did the
Bohemian, by the victories of the Transylva-
nian prince Bethlen Gabor (Gabriel Bethlen),
the successor of the profligate tyrant Gabriel
Btithori, who extorted from him the treaty of
Nikolsburg (1622), which again sanctioned the
rights of the Protestants. A similar treaty
was concluded at Linz by Ferdinand III. (1637-
'57) with George I. Rakoczy of Transylvania
(1645). Leopold I. (1657-1705), whose long
reign in Hungary was but a series of wars, in
surrections, and executions, found a less able
opponent in the ambitious George II. Rakoczy
of Transylvania, and excellent generals against
the Turks in Montecuculi, who gained the bat
tle of St. Gothard (1664), and Nicholas Zrinyi
(the poet), but made an ignominious peace with
the sultan, and sent against the insurgents of
the northern counties the bloodthirsty Caraffa,
Strasoldo, and others. The people rose again
"for God and freedom" under Tokolyi (1678),
who, being allied with Apafi of Transylvania,
the Porte, and Louis XIV. of France, was near
uniting the whole of Hungary under his ban
ner, when the reverses of the Turks before
Vienna (1683), and the subsequent victories of
the imperialists, sealed the fate of the insurrec
tion. Caraffa made the scaffold permanent in
Eperies ; the diet of Presburg had to consent
to the demands of the emperor in making the
throne hereditary in the house of Austria and
abrogating the clause of the golden bull which
guaranteed the right of resistance to oppres
sion (1687) ; Prince Eugene completed the vic
tories over the Turks, and conquered the peace
of Carlovitz (1699) ; Transylvania was occu
pied, and Tokolyi, who tried in vain to recov
er it, died in exile in Asia Minor. Hungary
was now a province of Austria, and treated as
such, when the noble-hearted Francis Rakoczy,
who had long lived in exile, suddenly appeared
on the N. E. borders (1703) and renewed the
struggle for religious and civil liberty. Prot
estants and Catholics flocked to his banners,
which were triumphantly carried into the very
vicinity of Vienna, when the emperor died. His
son Joseph I. (1705-' 11) was inclined to peace,
and Riikoczy was not opposed to it, though as
sisted by Louis XIV. and the perplexities of the
new emperor in the war of Spanish succession.
Diets and negotiations followed each other, but
without success, while the victories of Eugene
and Marlborough and violent dissensions in the
camp of the insurgents enabled the emperor to |
restore the fortunes of the war in Hungary.
In the absence of Rakoczy, who had gone to
Poland to procure the alliance of Peter the
Great, a peace was finally concluded at Szat-
mar (1711) with the representatives of the em
peror, toleration and a strict observance of the
constitution being promised. Joseph's succes
sor Charles (VI. as emperor, III. as king,
1711-'40) ratified the treaty, while Rakoczy
absolved his followers from their oath of al
legiance to him. The new emperor's favorite

scheme, the pragmatic sanction, which was to
secure the succession of the female line to all
his possessions, was agreed to by the diet of
1722, which also enacted various other impor
tant laws. The peace of Passarovitz (1718),
the result of Eugene's new victories, enlarged
the kingdom with the Banat, the last prov
ince of the Turks in Hungary ; but after an
other war Belgrade was ceded to the Turks
by the treaty concluded in that city in 1739.
Charles's mild reign disposed the nation to de
fend the disputed rights of his daughter Maria
Theresa (1740-'80), who appeared in person be
fore the diet of Presburg, and was greeted with
lively acclamations by the chivalric nobles.
Their ILoriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa
was no vain promise, for Hungarian blood was
shed profusely in her wars against Frederick the
Great and other enemies. She rewarded the
fidelity of the people by mildness, and various
ameliorations of the condition of the peasantry
(the Urbariuin) are among the merits of her
reign ; but she too was far from strictly observ
ing the constitution, which her son Joseph II.
(1780-'90), in his immoderate zeal for reforms
and centralization, was eager to destroy. To
avoid binding himself by the constitutional
oath, he refused to be crowned in Hungary,
autocratically dictated his liberal reforms, and
imposed upon the country foreign officials, a
foreign language, the German, and foreign
official costumes. But his violent though well
meant measures were opposed everywhere,
and the rising in his Belgic provinces, the un
favorable issue of his war against Turkey, and
finally the threatening events in France, com
pelled the philanthropic despot to revoke his
decrees shortly before 'his death. His mild
and dissolute brother Leopold II. (1790-'92),
afraid of the growing storm in the West, has
tened to appease the Hungarian nation, which
had been aroused by ignominious treatment
and the spectacle of its perishing neighbor
Poland to a general desire of national regen
eration. The diet of 1791 again sanctioned
the most essential constitutional rights of the
kingdom in general, and of the Protestants in
particular, and for a series of years Francis,
the son and successor of Leopold (1792-1835),
was satisfied during his wars with France
with the continual subsidies of Hungary in
money and men. The rare manifestations of
democratic convictions he stifled in the dun
geons of his fortresses, or, as in the case of the
priest Martinovics (1795), in the blood of the
offenders. The magnates were flattered and
remained faithful. "Thus Napoleon in vain
called upon the Hungarians to rise for national
independence (1809). Scarcely, however, was
Napoleon fallen, when Francis's minister Met-
ternich began to undermine the constitution of
Hungary, the only check on the unlimited sway
of the Austrian rulers. Every means, secret
or open, was resorted to, but in vain. The
progress of enlightenment, the warning exam
ple of Poland, and the spirit of nationality, re-

HUNGARY

kindled by the activity of Francis Kazinczy
and others, had prepared the nation for a
struggle for constitutionalism and liberal re
forms, which Metternich, both under Francis
and his imbecile son Ferdinand V. (I. as empe
ror of Austria, 1835-'48), was unable effectively
to resist. The Hungarian constitution had du
ring the last few centuries undergone numerous
modifications, without having at any period of
its existence lost its vitality. As it was now,
it was at the same time a charter of freedom,
which shielded the people at large, and espe
cially the non-Catholics, against bureaucratic
sway, and secured to the nobility the greatest
degree of personal liberty and immunity en
joyed by any class in Europe, and on the other
hand an instrument of oppression in the hands
of the nobility against all plebeian inhabitants
of the country, especially the peasantry, which
was degraded by numerous feudal burdens.
The nobles were free from every tax and per
sonal service, except in case of a hostile attack
on the country itself, when they were obliged
to rise in a body at their own expense ; they
enjoyed all the privileges of the right of habeas
corpus, governed the counties by their regular
assemblies ("congregations"), elected magis
trates, and exercised the right of legislation by
their deputies to the lower house of the diet.
The higher nobility, or magnates, together with
the chief dignitaries of the crown and the
church, formed the upper house of the diet un
der the presidency of the palatine. The repre
sentation of the free royal towns was almost
nominal. The diet was now regularly con
voked by the monarch at Presburg, at intervals
not exceeding three years. Its duration was
unlimited. The chief royal organs of general
administration w r ere the Hungarian aulic chan
cery at Vienna, and the royal council at Bud a,
whose decisions, however, very often met with
opposition or delay in the county assemblies.
This vis inertia of the latter was the principal
check on all despotic or unconstitutional at
tempts of the Vienna ministry, while their pub
licity and jealously guarded freedom of debate
were the chief elements of progress and politi
cal enlightenment. Gradually to abolish the im
munity of the nobles and the feudal burdens of
the peasantry, to endow the great bulk of the
people with political rights, and at the same
time to fortify the old bulwarks of the consti
tution, now became the task of the patriots ;
and the great movement offered the rare spec
tacle of an aristocracy contending for the abo
lition of privileges and the equality of the peo
ple. Paul Nagy and Count Stephen Szechenyi
were the champions of nationality at the diet of
1825, which inaugurated a long period of mod
erate but gradual reforms, the most important
of which were carried through at the diets of
1832-'0, 1839-'40, and 1843^'4. The rights of
the non-noble citizens, peasantry, and Jews, |
the equality of the Christian confessions, the j
official use of the Hungarian language, and the
freedom of speech were extended, the majority j

of the educated lower nobility and a minority
of the higher ardently contending against old
abuses and aristocratic immunities, against
bureaucratic despotism and religious intoler
ance. Among the leaders of the "liberal op
position " under Ferdinand were the members
of the upper house Count Louis Batthyanyi
and Baron Eotvos ; the deputies Beak, Beothy,
Klauzal, Raday, Balogh, and Kubinyi; the
Transylvanian agitator Baron AVesselenyi, and
the publicist Kossuth. The cabinet of Vienna
chose the last five as its victims, prosecuting
them for treason, and imprisoning Wesselenyi
and Kossuth for years. The old palatine Jo
seph, the uncle of the emperor, and the con
servatives under the lead of Szechenyi and oth
ers, in vain strove to check the agitation. It
reached its culminating point when Kossuth,
after a lively struggle, was elected as represen
tative of Pesth to the diet of 1847. A conflict
with the government seemed imminent, when
the general shock which followed the French
revolution of February overthrew the rule of
Metternich (March 13, 1848). Kossuth was
greeted as liberator by the people of A'icnna,
and together with L. Batthyanyi intrusted with
the formation of an independent Hungarian
ministry by Ferdinand. Pesth had its revolu
tionary journee on March 15. Batthyanyi was
president of the new ministry, Kossuth minis
ter of finance. Having enacted the abolition
of feudality, a new election law, and various
other radical changes in the constitution, the
last diet of Presburg dissolved, the new na
tional assembly being appointed to meet in
July at Pesth. The cabinet of Vienna com
menced its intrigues against the new order of
things on the very day when it sanctioned it.
Jellachich and others were sent openly or se
cretly to organize insurrections among the south
ern Slavic tribes and the "Wallachs and Saxons
in Transylvania, the diet of which proclaimed
its reunion with Hungary. Every new mea
sure met with opposition or delay through the
Vienna government or its tools. Negotiations
had no result. The whole south of the coun
try was soon in a flame. Croatia and Slavo-
nia proclaimed their independence of Hungary,
and Ban Jellachich occupied the Littorale, and
threatened to cross the Brave. Against all
these contingencies the only resource of the
government was its own zeal and the enthusi
asm of the people. Volunteer troops (honveds,
defenders of the land) were raised in the coun
ties, contributions toward a national treasury
were collected, and the militia was organ
ized. The diet assembled in July and voted
extensive levies and ample means for defence,
but Ferdinand refused to sanction its resolu
tions. The Austrian troops which were still
sent against the insurgents were led by trai
tors. A serious attempt under Meszaros against
the Rascians in Bacs (August) failed ; the
new troops were slowly gathering. Jellachich
finally crossed the Brave, and the Vienna gov
ernment, having reconquered Lombardy, threw

HUNGARY

off its mask and sent Count Lamberg to dis
perse the diet by force. The Batthyanyi min
istry now resigned, and a committee of de
fence was formed under the presidency of Kos-
suth. The revolution began. The old troops
were transformed and blended with the new.
Kossuth's eloquence brought the people of the
centra] plain under arms. Single detachments
of Hungarian troops returned with or without
their officers from abroad. The fortress Co-
morn was secured. The archduke Stephen,
the new palatine, fled from the country. Lam-
berg was massacred on the bridge of Pesth by
a mob. Jellachich was defeated at Pakozd
near Buda (Sept. 29) and fled toward Vienna,
which rose in revolution (Oct. 6). The prin
cipal fortresses hoisted the national flag. On
the other hand, Temesvar and Arad hoisted
that of Austria. The war of races raged with
terrible fury and varying success. Transylvania
was entirely lost. The pursuit of Jellachich
was executed with hesitation by Moga, a late
Austrian general, the frontier river Leitha was
crossed too late, and the hastily collected vol
unteers fled after a short fight at Schwechat
(Oct. 30) against TVindischgratz and Jellachich,
who thus became masters of Vienna. Katona,
sent to reconquer Transylvania, was routed at
Dees. Count Schlick entered Hungary from the
north, and occupied Kaschau (Dec. 11). The
Rascian Damjanics alone led the honveds to
victory on the S. E. frontier, while Perczel suc
cessfully defended the line of the Drave on the
S. TV. Unable to defend the TV. frontier against
TVindischgratz, Gorgey, the new commander of
the army of the upper Danube, retreated on the
right bank of that river, evacuating Presburg,
Raab, and, after the rout of the equally retreating
Perczel at Moor (Dec. 29) and an engagement
at Teteny, the capital Buda-Pesth itself (Jan.
5, 1849)1 The day before, Schlick dispersed
the undisciplined army of the north under Me-
szaros, the minister of war. Thus the govern
ment and diet, which transferred their seat to
Debreczin, would have had little prospect of
security if the Polish general Bern had not be
gun in the latter half of December a new Tran-
sylvanian campaign, which cheered the patriots
with a nearly unbroken series of successes over
the imperialists. Gorgey, too, who according
to a new plan of operations returned westward
on the left bank of the Danube, leaving a part
of his troops with Perczel on the middle Theiss,
succeeded in diverting the Austrian main army
under TVindischgratz from a march on Debre
czin. Then turning northward, he skilfully
fought his way through the rugged region of
the Ore mountains, amid continual perils, and,
after a signal victory of his vanguard under
Guyon over Schlick's corps on Mount Brany-
iszko (Feb. 5), finally effected a junction with
the army of the upper Theiss, which under
Klapka had been successful against that Aus
trian general. The activity of Kossuth and
his associates in supplying all these bodies
of troops with men, ammunition, money, and

officers was admirable. The zeal of the com
mittee of defence was worthily responded to
by the confidence of the people, who, even
when two thirds of the country were in the
hands of the enemy, almost as willingly accept
ed "Kossuth's bills" as specie, and by the gen
eral bravery of the troops. But new dangers
arose with the invasion of the Russians from
the Danubian principalities into Transylvania,
where Bern, after a triumphant march (Janu
ary), was suddenly checked before Hermann-
stadt, and could save his position at Piski (Feb.
9, 10) only after the loss of a part of his
troops; and within the national camp by the
stubborn disobedience and intrigues of Gorgey,
which caused the unfavorable issue of the great
battle of Kapolna (Feb. 26, 27), the retreat of
the united main army beyond the Theiss, the
deposition of its commander, the Pole Dem-
binski, and a considerable loss of time. An
other heavy loss was that of the isolated for
tress Eszek, which was surrendered with im
mense stores by its cowardly commanders.
Elated by the despatches of Prince TVindisch
gratz, the young emperor Francis Joseph, who
had succeeded his uncle at Olmiitz, Dec. 2,
184:8, now promulgated a new constitution
(March 4), which with one stroke annihilated
the constitution and national independence of
Hungary, making it, with narrowed limits, a
crownland of Austria. But the next few days
brought a new series of Hungarian victories.
Damjanics, who had been recalled from the
south, routed the Austrians at Szolnok (March
5). Bern took Ilermannstadt and drove the
Russians through the Red Tower pass into
TVallachia. After the occupation of Cronstadt,
all Transylvania, except Carlsburg, was in the
hands of the Polish general. Perczel swept
over the Rascian Vendee. The temporary
chief commander of the main army, Vetter,
having fallen ill, Gorgey finally received the
command, and the offensive against TVindisch
gratz was resumed. He crossed the Theiss at
various points, and, advancing toward the cap
ital, defeated the enemy at Hatvan (April 2),
Bicske, Izsaszeg, TVaitzen, and Nagy Sarlo, res
cued Comorn, which had withstood a long siege"
and bombardment, crossed the Danube, and
gained a victory at Acs (April 26). During
this short campaign the diet at Debreczin pro
claimed the independence of the country (April
14), appointing Kossuth its governor, and Au-
lich entered Pesth. Instead, however, of con
tinuing his victorious march to the capital of
the enemy, Gorgey returned with the bulk of
his army to the siege of Buda, while' a new and
extensive Russian invasion was approaching.
Buda was stormed (May 21), the government
and diet returned to the capital, and Gorgey
again took the field, but injudiciously chose the
N. bank of the Danube for his new campaign,
and, without profiting by Ivmetty's victory at
Csorna, S. of that river (June 13), wasted the
blood of his army on the Wang. The Russian
armies and fresh Austrian troops under Hay-

HUNGARY

nau were in the meanwhile pouring into the
country from various quarters. Wysocki, the
successor of Dembinski in command, retreated
before Paskevitch ; Temesvar was unsuccess
fully besieged by Vecsey ; Bern was paralyzed
by a new and more terrible rising of the Wal-
lachs, while his province, too, was invaded by
the Russians. After various unsuccessful strug
gles on the line of the Waag, the loss of Raab,
and a great battle at Szony (July 2), Gorgey,
leaving Klapkain Comoro, finally retreated to
ward the middle Theiss; but after a bloody
fight against Paskevitch at Waitzen (July 15),
he turned northward, again and again repulsing
the Russians, and crossed the Theiss at Tokay.
The Russians crossed it at Fiired, while the
central Hungarian forces under the chief com
mand of Dembinski retreated toward Szegedin.
The government, leaving the former place,
where the last session of the diet had been
held, retired to Arad, which, having recently
surrendered, was made the last point of general
concentration, after the rout of Bern at Schiis-
burg by the Russians under Luders, of one of
Gorgey's divisions under Nagy-Sandor before
Debreczin by the army of Paskevitch, and of
Dembinski at Szoreg by Haynau. Dembinski,
however, retreated toward Temesvar, where
his army suffered a terrible defeat (Aug. 9).
Gorgey, who now arrived at Arad, summoned
Kossuth to resign, and received from him the
supreme civil and military command, Klapka's
sally from Comorn and signal victory over the
besieging Austrian army (Aug. 3) being un
known at Arad. Two days later Gorgey sur
rendered his army at discretion to the generals
of the czar at Vilagos (Aug. 13). Damjanics
followed his example, and surrendered Arad.
Kossuth, the late ministers Szemere and Casi-
mir Batthyanyi, the generals Bern, Dembinski,
Meszaros, Vetter, Perczel, Guyon, Kmetty,
Wysocki, and others, fled into Turkey. Mun-
kacs, Petenvardein, and Comorn capitulated.
But scarcely had the tricolor disappeared from
the ramparts of the last named fortress, Oct.
4, when the work of revenge commenced on
the side of the victors. Count Louis Batthy
anyi, who had been made captive on a mission
of peaceful mediation, was executed at Pesth,
Oct. G, and the commanders Xis, Aulich,
Damjanics, Nagy-Sandor, To'rok, Lahner, Ve
csey, Knezich, Poltenberg, Leiningen, Schwei-
del, Dessewffy, and Liizar, all of whom had sur
rendered at discretion, were executed on the
same day at Arad. Other executions followed.
The dungeons of the empire were filled with
prisoners for life or long terms. Gorgey was
confined at Klagenfurth. The remnants of the
Hungarian troops were impressed into the Aus
trian army, and the estates of the rich patriots
confiscated. The country remained under mar
tial law, receiving new divisions, authorities, i
and tax regulations, and foreign officials. The
German was made the language of the reor- j
ganized higher courts, offices, and schools. !
New contributions, military levies, and so-called

voluntary loans, followed each other. A con
spiracy and an attempt on the emperor's life
led to the resumption of wholesale executions
in 1853. The Protestants and Jews were sub
jected to particular restrictions. This state
of affairs ended with Austria's defeat in Italy
(185U). The dismissal of the centralizing min
ister Bach, the appointment of Goluchowski,
and the diploma of Oct. 20, 18GO, were fol
lowed by the convocation of a Hungarian diet.
This was opened in April, when Schmerling
had taken the place of Goluchowski, and the
patent of Feb. 26, '1861, that of the October
diploma. (See AUSTRIA, vol. ii., pp. 14U, 150.)
As no representatives from Transylvania had
been summoned, the diet considered itself in
complete, and this was to be expressed, to
gether with other grievances, either by an ad
dress to Francis Joseph, as Deak proposed it,
or merely by a resolution ignoring the royal
rights of that emperor. When the debate
was to open, May 8, the leading defender of
the latter policy, Count Teleky, was found to
have put an end to his career by a pistol shot.
(See TELEKY.) Deak's address was carried, but
as he emphatically demanded the restoration
of the laws of 1848, the diet was dissolved in Au
gust. The country maintained its opposition to
the Vienna schemes, and only the Saxons and
Roumans of Transylvania were persuaded in
1863 to send representatives to the imperial
Reichsrath. The joint intervention with Prus
sia in the Schleswig-Holstein affairs proving
detrimental to Austria, chiefly from want of
ready support on the part of the Hungarian
and Slavic nationalities, Francis Joseph re
paired to Pesth in June, 1865, dismissed Schmer-
ling, replacing him by a federalist minister,
Belcredi, suspended the imperial constitution,
and convoked a new Hungarian diet. Deak
ruled this as he did the preceding, and re
mained firm in his demands. Francis Joseph,
on the eve of the great struggle with Prussia,
prorogued the diet, but after the disastrous
battle of Sadowa (July 3, 1866) was ready to
submit to the demands of the Hungarians.
His new leading minister Beust undertook the
task of carrying through a compromise, and the
result was the dualistic system of the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy, as finally sanctioned in
December, 1867. (See AUSTRIA, vol. ii., p. 141.)
A national Hungarian ministry was appointed in
February, 1867, of which Count Andnissy was
the head. A general amnesty was proclaimed,
and the emperor was crowned as king of Hun
gary (June 8) at Buda, with extraordinary
pomp. The diet, having carried through va
rious reforms, including the emancipation of
the Jews, and settled the relations of Croatia to
the Hungarian crown on a basis analogous to
the relation of Hungary to the monarchy, closed
its sittings in December, 1868. Two principal
parliamentary parties had been formed, the
conservative or Deak party, which had a de
cided majority, and the opposition party of the
left, under Ghyczy and Tisza, aiming at a mere

HUNGARY (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE)

personal union with Cisleithan Austria under
the house of Hapsburg. The revolutionary
extreme left numbered few adherents. The
same was the position of affairs in the diet
of 18G9-72. Andnissy, who in the war of
1870 restrained Beust from interfering against
Prussia, succeeded that statesman in Novem
ber, 1871, as foreign minister of the monarchy,
Lonyay taking his place in Hungary. A new
agreement was entered into with Croatia, and
the Military Frontier districts were gradually
placed under civil jurisdiction. The finances
of the country, however, became rapidly em
barrassed by state subsidies, and Lonyay fell
under personal attacks, Szlavy becoming his
successor (December, 1872). The new cabinet
was even le>s successful, and in March, 1874,
made room for a coalition ministry under Bitto.
HUNGARY, Language and Literatnre of. The
Hungarian language (Hung. Magyar nyelv) is
an isolated branch of the Uralo- Altaic family,
constituting a peculiar group with the now ex
tinct idioms of the Uzes, Khazars, Petchenegs,
and ancient Bulgarians. Leo Diaconus (10th
century) called the Magyars Huns, and the peo
ple liked to consider themselves as such, being
proud of Etele (Attila) and his brother Buda,
The chronicle of the monastery of St. Wan-
drill and Dankovszki connect them both with
the Huns and Avars. Some connect them
with both the Uigurs and the westerly Ogors
or Yugri. There are also various fanciful
derivations of the nama Magyar from roots
belonging to the Hungarian language, The
Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogeni-
tus names the people Turkoi. The Magyars
and the Osmanlis agree in the belief that they
are kindred, and the former are called "bad
brothers •" by the latter for having resisted
them. Klaproth deduces the Hungarian lan
guage from a mixture of Tartaric or Turk
ish with Finnic. Malte-Brun considers the
Magyars as Finns who were subjected to the
Turks and to an unknown Uralian people.
Bese found that Balkar tribes in the Caucasus
boasted of being Magyars, and that the ruins
of a Magyar town were yet visible S. W. of
Astrakhan. Csoma de Koros, who went in
search of the cradle of his nation, found many
words in the Thibetan and other tongues of
middle Asia akin in sound and sense to the
Magyar, but was unable to solve the mystery
of the original home of the race. Many Hun
garian writers report that their ancestors
brought from Asia works written in their na
tional 34 characters, which were suppressed
at the command of Pope Sylvester II. and with
the aid of Stephen I., but which were taught
as late as the beginning of our century in
remote places among the Szeklers, and may
be seen in S. Gyarmathy's grammar as well as
in George Ilickes^ Linguarum Veterum Sep-
tentrionalium Thesaurus (3 vols. fol., Oxford,
1703-'5), under the name of Hnnnorum littercp.
The language is now accommodated to the Lat
in alphabet, and consists of 20 simple and G

compound sounds, agreeing, unless otherwise
noticed, with the Italian, viz. : 8 vowels : a
(like English a in what, sicaUou'\ e, e (French),
i (also ?/), 0, w, d (Fr. eu), it (Fr. «); 18 conso
nants : b, d, /, g hard, h (German), j (German),
&, I, m, n, 2^ r t s (Eng. s?i), t, v (also ic\ z
(French), sz (Eng. s\ zs (or '*, Fr. j) • 4 com
pounds with y: gy (dy, as in gydr, factory,
pron. dyar, in one syllable), ly (as in Fr.jtfWe),
ny (Fr. gn), ty ; and 2 compound sibilants:
cs (written also ch, ts ; Eng. tcJt) and cz, c, or
tz (Eng. ts). With the addition of the vowels
marked as long with the acute accent, as for
instance a (long Italian a\ i, 6, o, u, u, there
are 38 sounds in all, besides x, which is used
only in foreign names, as in Xerxes. As in
Turkish and other kindred tongues, the whole
mass of words and grammatical forms is divi
ded into two groups, viz., into those of high
and low sound. The former is determined by
the presence of e, i), ii, the latter by that of a,
0, u, in the roots or stems; those with e or i
constitute a neutral ground. All formative and
relative suffixes have therefore a double form,
in harmony with the roots to which they are
attached; thus: vdll, shoulder, vdllal (shoul
ders), undertakes, vdllalat, enterprise ; but liecs,
worth, becsi'd, (he) respects, lecttulet, respect.
Whatever changes the Magyar language may
have undergone under adverse circumstances,
amid hostile nations, it has yet retained its essen
tial peculiarities of phonetism, grammar, and
construction. Although it contains many Slavic,
Latin, German, Greek, and other foreign words,
it has digested them in its own way, assimila
ting them otherwise than the western nations
have done with the same element ; thus, schola,
Slav. Mas, Ger. Schmir, became iskola, kaldsz,
sinor. The concurrence of harsh sounds and
of consonants is as much avoided as in all the
languages of central and eastern Asia. The
roots remain unaltered, and most frequently
bear the accent in all their derivatives. — The
most peculiar feature of Hungarian grammar
is its system of suffixes. In the possessive
forms of nouns they are varied according to
the number and person of the possessor and
the number of the object, giving 12 distinct
terminations, as follows: Tidzam, my house,
Jidzaim, my houses; Tidzad, thy house, Mzaid,
thy houses; Tidza, his or her house, hdzai, his
or her houses; hdzunk, our house, Mzninl^
our houses ; hdzatok, your house. lu'tzaitoTc,
your houses; Juizob, their house, Jidzaifc, their
houses. In verbs they are made to indicate
not only the voice, mood, and tense, and the
person and number of the nominative, but the
definiteness or indefiniteness of the object,
and in one form (indicative present, first person
singular) the person of the object, as vdi'lafc, I
expect thee; kerlek, I ask thee. The follow
ing table exhibits the suffixes of the indicative
present, the root being always the third per
son singular of the indefinite form, and the
vowels varying, as above stated, in consonance
with that of the root :

HUNGARY (LANGUAGE AND LITEEATUEE)

IRr

ACTIVE.

i.N.

finite.

Indefinite.

1 -om,

-cm (-ora)

-ok,

-ek (-6k)

-atom,

-etem

-od,

-ed (-Od)

-sz

-atol,

-etel

-i

(Root)

-atik,

-etik

1 -i»k,

-juk

-unk,

-unk

-atunk.

-etiink

2 ! -jutok,
3 j -juk

-itek
-ik

-tok,
-nak

-tek(-tok): -attok,
-nek j -atnak,

-ettek
-etuek

Examples : vdrom, I expect him, her, it, them,
T the man; xdrok, I expect, wait; vdratom, I
am expected ; leered, thou askest him, &c. ;
Teem, thou askest ; keretel, thou art asked ;
Idtja, he or she sees it; hit, he or she sees;
Idtjuk, \ve see it; Idtunk, we see, &c. Other
moods and tenses are formed by inserting new
letters or syllables between the above suffixes
and the root, or in a few cases by a change of
the final vowel or consonant, and by auxilia
ries ; thus : xdra, waited ; xdrdnk, we waited ;
vdrtunk, we have waited ; xdrndnk, we would
wait; xdrandok, I shall wait; xdrjatok, that
ye wait. The auxiliaries are : volt or xala, for
the pluperfect ; legyen, for the conjunctive
past ; wlna, for the optative past. The infini
tive is formed by suffixing ni to the root, as
xdrni, to expect. A combined future is formed
by the infinitive with the auxiliary verb fog ;
thus, vdrnifogok, I shall wait; vdrnifogom, I
shall expect it. Possession is indicated by the
irregular verb lenni, to be; van, is; xannak,
are ; volt, was ; lesz, will be, &c. ; thus : any dm
van (mother-ray is), I have a mother ; also with
the mark of the dative, nekem xannak kerteim
(to-me are gardens-my, milii aunt horti), I
have gardens. Negation is expressed by nem,
not; nines, is not, nincsenek, are not; sines, is
neither. Various kinds of verbs are made by
affixing certain syllables, thus : at or tat, cau
sative; gal, gat, &c., frequentative ; dul, incep
tive; inserting n, diminutive; licit, potential;
it, int, &c., transitive; kodik, reciprocal; odik,
kozik, reflexive, &c. Examples: xer, he beats;
xeret, he causes to beat ; xereget (vcrf7.cs, xerde-
gel), he beats often ; xerint, beats softly ; xere-
kedik, fights with ; xerodik, beats against ;
xergodik, beats himself (breaks) through ; ver-
het, can beat ; xeretJiet, can cause to beat ;
verintJiet, can beat gently ; verekedhetik, can
fight with somebody; xcrodJietik, can knock
against; vergtidhetik, can break through, etc.
All these and similar derivatives can be con
jugated throughout in the same way as the
simple verb. There are besides these other
compounds with prefixes : aid, down ; dltal,
through, by ; ~be, in ; ~bele, into ; el, of, away ;
ellen, against ; fel, up ; ki, out ; ossze, together,
<fec. ; and especially meg, which is an emphatic
particle denoting attainment of the aim, ac
complishment (like the German er and be in
erlangen, bcgrdberi). — There is no gender; he
and she are expressed by the same word. The
definite article az or a' is of recent use. The
adjective precedes the substantive, and receives
the marks of relations only when standing by I
itself. The relations called cases and those
VOL. ix. — 5

expressed by prepositions in Indo-European
languages are denoted in all Altaic tongues by
suffixes. The plural is formed by k. Cases : e,
genitive; nak, genitive and dative; t, at, accu
sative; l)an, in ; 5«, into; 1)61, out of; ert, for;
hoz, to ; ig, till ; kent, like, instead, as ; kep, in
manner of; kor, at the time of (about); ndl
(Latin apud, German bci), at ; on, upon ; rol,
down; id, instead, as; xd, (changed) into; xal,
with, by, &c. ; almost all the suffixes being har
monized with the stem. Examples: szemeink-
ben, eyes-our-in ; ebedeikkor, dinners-their-at-
the-time-of. The separable postpositions are of
three categories : 1, answering to three ques
tions, where? whither? whence? thus: elott,
before (where ?); ele, before (whither?); elol,
from before; such are alatt, below; korott,
around ; kdzott, between, among ; megctt, be
hind ; mellett, near by ; 2, of two forms, as Jie-
gyett, hegye, upon, &c. ; 3, of one form, as ellen,
against; irdnt, regarding, &c. The compara
tive degree is formed by suffixing l>b ; the super
lative by prefixing leg to the comparative ; thus :
nagy, great, nagyolb, greater, legnagyobl, great
est. Pronouns : 1st person, en, I ; enyem, mine ;
nckem, to me; engemet, me; mi, we; mienk,
ours ; nekunk, to us ; minket, us ; 2d person, te,
tied, neked, tegedet ; ti, tietek, nektek, titeket ;
3d person, of both genders, 6, ore, neki, ot ; 6k,
ovek, nekik, b'ket. These are joined with relative
prefixes, thus : Icnnem, in me ; lelolcd, out of
thee; hozzdjok, to them; alattam, under me;
alattad, under thee, &c. In addressing a per
son we say on (self), plural i'mok, or kegyed (thy
grace), plural kegyetek, for both genders; or
az ur, sir (the lord or gentleman) ; urcsagod,
sirship-thy; az asszony, lady; asszonsdyod, la-
dyship-thy; formerly maga, self; to persons
of lower standing, kend, you. Numerals: egy,
1; kettS, ket, 2; Mrom, 3; negy, 4; ot, 5;
hat, 6; het, T; nyolcz^S; kilenez, 9; t\z, 10;
tizenegy, 11, &c. ; husz, 20; harmincz, 30;
ncgyven, 40, &c. ; szdz, 100; ezer, 1,000. Or
dinals: clso, 1st; mdsodik, 2d; the others are
formed by suffixing dik, as negyedik, szdzadik,
&c. All other varieties are formed by suita
ble suffixes. The formation of parts of speech,
and of various categories of signification, is ex
tremely luxuriant by means of suffixed letters
or syllables, so that an indefinite and yet ever
intelligible mass of words may be made to
suit all conceptions and shades of meaning.
This plasticity of the Magyar, together with
its free syntax, renders it capable of expressing
the turns of other tongues and the Greek and
Latin metres with more ease and fidelity than
almost any other language. We subjoin an
example of construction and of elegiac distichs :

Pfrfiak! 'iqy Kzhlott Pannon vcsz-ifttcnf Jiairtan:
Men ! so spake Pannonia's war-god (its) of old :

J]ol<log foldet artok, r'tjcrtok <r1e IHI k^tf.
Blessed country give-J, fight-yc for-it if need,

\9 v'lttanak elszuvtan nagy bator nemsetek < : >ic
and fought decidedly great brave nations for-it

'.9 Tf-rf-Kftt a^ dinrtalt, n'flre kinyerte iiiaci'ijdr.
and bloodily the victory lastly gained (the) Hungarian.

HUNGARY (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE)

All dc- • ri&z&ly maradott a? nepeV lelkein: a? fold
Alas, but discord remained the nations' souls-in : the land

BoldoggA item tud lenni as fitok alatt

happy-made not knows (can) be the curse under.

(Vorosmarty.)

This language is spoken by more than one third
of the population of Hungary in its wider
sense, by more than one fourth of that of
Transylvania, and in some places of Moldavia,
"\Vallachia, and Bukowina. It consists of four
dialects, which do not differ so much as those
of other tongues, viz. : the Gyori, of Raab, or
Trans-Danubian, and the Bihari on the Theiss,
both represented in books ; the Palocz in the
Matra mountains, in the contiguous districts
of the counties of Ileves, Borsod, Gomor,
Hont, and Xograd, with more genuine ancient
Magyar words than the preceding; and the
Szekely in Transylvania and the contiguous
countries, with many Tartaric words, and of a
drawling pronunciation. The language has
varied very little in progress of time. — HUN
GARIAN LITERATURE is comparatively of late
date. The introduction of the religion of
Rome under King Stephen I. (997-1038) made
the Latin, the language of its priests and
teachers, predominant in the court, the higher
institutions for education, administration, and
justice, and among the higher classes in gen
eral, who found it the most convenient medium
for communication with the representatives of
the cultivated AVest and South in diplomacy,
literature, or religion. Of the time of the
Arpads and the next following period only
Latin chronicles are preserved, of which those
of the "Anonymous Secretary of King Bela"
(IL) and Simon Keza, the Chronicon Budense,
and the Chronicon Rerum Ilungaricarum of
John Turoczy (Thurocius), are the most re
markable. The court of Matthias Oorvinus
(1458-'9G) at Buda was adorned by distin
guished native and foreign scholars. Of the
latter, Bonfinus wrote an interesting though
often legendary history of Hungary in De
cades IV., which was published Avith a con
tinuation by Sambucus (Basel, 1568). Galeo-
tus wrote on Matthias himself, whose libra
rian he was, and Callimachus on Attila and
Uladislas I. Among the natives the poet Ja
nus Pannonius holds the foremost rank. The
preserved remnants of Hungarian writings of
that period are very scanty. The spread of
the reformation in the following century, as
in most countries of Europe, promoted" the
culture of the native tongue. But the simul
taneous disasters of the country, the Turk
ish and civil wars, and chiefly the introduc
tion of the German element with the dynasty
of the Hapsburgs, checked the development
of a flourishing national literature. Parts of
the Scriptures were translated into Hunga
rian during the 16th century by Komjati,
Erdosi, lleltai, Szekely, Juhasz, Karolyi, and
others. Gal, Juhasz, Kulcsar, Telegdi, Dec-si,
and Karolyi distinguished themselves as ora
tors. Tinodi, Valkai, and Temesvari sang the

warlike exploits of their times in light verses,
Kakonyi the deeds of Cyrus, Csaktornyi the
heroes of the siege of Troy; Balassa, Rimai,
and Erdosi composed lyrical poems of incom
parably higher merit. In the 17th century the
Hungarian muse found votaries in Zrinyi, the
grandson of the defender of Sziget, who cele
brated in rhymed alexandrines the deeds and
death of that hero, in Liszti, Pasko, and Ko-
hary, and especially in Gy ongydsi, who sang the
defence of Murany by Maria Szecsi. Molnar and
Kaldi translated the Scriptures ; the primate
and cardinal Pazman and Kecskemeti were
distinguished as orators ; Csere even published
a cyclopaedia of sciences and a treatise on
logic in Hungarian. This national movement
in literature was paralyzed by the growing in
fluence of the German dynasty ; the bloody
persecutions of the patriots under Leopold I.
(1657-1705) suppressed it almost entirely. The
Latin again became predominant, being cultiva
ted in the 18th century by a large number of
scholars in every branch, who vied with each
other in the purity of their dead idiom, and
compared with whom the Magyar writers Fa-
ludi and Bessenyei, the founders of a classical
and a French school in poetry, Orczy, Count
Teleky, Baroczi, Revay, and' others, formed
but a feeble minority. A new and fertile pe
riod began about the close of the last century,
chiefly in consequence of the Germanizing mea
sures of Joseph II. (1780-'90), which caused
a lively and general reaction. Societies for
the cultivation of the national tongue were
formed, literary, political, and scientific peri
odicals started, national theatres established,
and various linguistic theories developed. This
movement, being identical with the general
regeneration of the nation, triumphed over
all foreign elements after the first quarter of
the present century, about the beginning of
which Francis Kazinczy, the great reformer
of the language after Revay, and the popular
poet Csokonai, appear as the foremost in liter
ature. The poets Dayka, Verseghy, and Vi-
rag, and the novelist Dugonics, were their con
temporaries. The lyrical " Loves of Ilimfy "
(Ilymfy szerelmei), by Alexander Kisfaludy
(1801), were received with general admira
tion, and were followed by his " Tales " (Regelc)
and other poems. Berzsenyi wrote glowing
odes in Roman metre. The poets Andrew
Ilorvath, Dobrentei, Vitkovics, Kis, and Paul
Szemere, belong both to the period of regener
ation and to the golden age of Hungarian liter
ature, which embraces the 30 years preceding
the revolution of 1848-'9. This period opens
with the simultaneous activity of five classical
writers, Charles Kisfaludy, the brother of Alex
ander, Kolcsey, Fay, Czuczor, and Vorosmarty,
of whom only the last three survived it. Kis
faludy may be regarded as the creator of the
Hungarian drama by his tragedies, and still
more by his really national comedies, some of
which are as yet unsurpassed. Kolcsey's lyri
cal poems, ballads, and prose writings, inclu-

HUNGARY (LANGUAGE AXD LITERATURE)

ding orations, are distinguished by a spirit of
ardent patriotism. Fay's "Fables" (Mesefy
are excellent specimens of that kind of poet
ry, in the manner of Lessing. Czuczor, dis
tinguished also as a grammarian and lexicog
rapher, is chiefly renowned for his popular
songs and his historical epics in hexameter, the
" Battle of Augsburg " (Aitgsliirgi utkozet) and
" Assembly of Arad " (Aradi gyules). The
latter, however, were excelled by the more nu
merous epics of Vorosmarty, "Cserhalom,"
"The Flight of Zalan " (Zaldn futdsa), "Er-
lau " (Eger), &c., which, together with his
tragedies, short novels, songs, and especially
odes and ballads, gave him the foremost rank
among the writers of his nation. In lyrical
poetry, next to Vorosmarty and Kolcsey we
find Bajza, who is also remarkable as an ces-
thetical critic and historical writer, Peter Vaj-
da, John Erd61yi, Kunoss, Alexander Vachott,
Csusziir, and Garay, whose ballads also rival
those of Vorosmarty. Toward the close of the
period appear the three youthful popular poets
Tompa, Arany, and Petofi, of whom the first
two excelled chiefly in tales and legends, and
the last in light and playful songs, whose sub
jects are love, liberty, independence, nature,
and all that can touch the heart or inspire the
imagination. Fictitious literature was chiefly
cultivated, if not created, by Josika, whose
historical novels, "Abafi," "The Last of the
Biithoris" (Utolso Bdihory), "The Bohemians
in Hungary" (Csehek Magyarorszdgbari), &c.,
exercised the greatest influence upon the de
velopment of Hungarian prose after Kazinczy.
Smaller though not inferior works were written
by Peter Vajda. In many respects both were
surpassed by Eotvos, whose " Carthusian " (A
carthausi), a philosophical romance, "Village
Notary " (A falu jcyyzoje), an admirable pic
ture of recent political life in Hungary, and
"Hungary in 1514" (Magyar or szdg 1514 ften ), a
historical novel, place him among the most
eminent writers of his age. Kuthy is often
eminent in pictures of nature, and Ignatius
Nagy in caricaturing characters ; both pro
duced imitations of Sue's "Mysteries," taken
from Hungarian life, but disfigured by unnatu
ral exaggerations. Kemeny and Jokai belong
also to a more recent period, both as novelists
and publicists. The principal dramatic authors
besides Kisfaludy and Vorosmarty were Katona
(Barikbdri), L. Toth, Garay, Szigligeti, who is
eminent in popular plays. Gal (" The Notary
of Peleske"), I. Nagy, Emeric Vahot, Paul
KOVJ'ICS, and Czako. Travels were written by
Belenyei (America), Csaszar (Italy), Bartholo
mew Szemere, Irinyi, L. Toth, and Gorove
(western Europe), Mehes (Switzerland), Jerney
(southeastern Europe), and Reguly (northern
Russia), the work of Szemere being one of the
most remarkable productions of the period ;
political works by Szechenyi, Wessclenyi, Kos-
suth, Eotvos, Szalay, B. Szemere, and others;
the best histories by M. Horvath, Peczely, and
Jaszay (Hungary), Bajza (the ancient world),

and Toldy (national literature); philosophical
treatises by Szontagh, Marki, Gregus, and oth
ers ; the best statistical works by Feuyes, Vallas,
and Kovary. Natural sciences, theology, lan
guages, and antiquities also found numerous
representatives. The best grammatical and lex
icographical works on the national language
were written by Czuczor, Fogarassy, and
Bloch. The beautiful songs of the people
were published in various collections, among
others by Erdelyi; miscellaneous writings by
Pulszky, Lukacs, Frankenburg, Gabriel Ka
zinczy, Gondol, Berecz, Pompery, Amelia
Bezer6dy, Theresa Karacs, and others. Of
translators we will mention only Szabo, who
published an admirable metrical version of
Homer. During the revolution of 1848-'9
the muses were silent, excepting only the
stirring songs of war. The battle field closed
many a glorious career, as in the case of Pe
tofi, and destroyed many an incipient genius,
as in that of the eloquent Vasvari. After the
close of the war the dungeon, the scaffold, and
exile doomed the most gifted of the nation
to silence. The last quarter of a century is
therefore in a literary respect inferior to the
preceding period, though productive of a large
number of publications of different degrees of
merit. Some of them, mostly belonging to
the surviving representatives of the preceding
period, are worthy of their great popularity.
In poetry the imitators of Petofi have been
numerous. Among the most remarkable pro
ductions are the poems of Tompa, Arany, Su-
rossy, Lisznyai, Levai, Gyulai, Nicholas Sze
mere, Szasz, Jambor (Iliador), Stikei, Szeles-
tei, Bozzai, Losonczy, Sz6kely, and others ;
the novels of Kemeny, Josika, Jokai, Pally,
Gyulai, and Berczy ; the humorous writings
of Bernat and Radakovics (Vas Gereben) ; the
historical works of Szalay, Joseph Teleky,
Jaszay, Toldy, Csengery, Palugyai, M6szaros,
Fejer, J. Hunfalvy, &c. ; the political writings
of Eotvos and Kemeny ; the translations of Ste
phen and Charles Szabo, P. Hunfalvy, Csen
gery, Irinyi, Szasz, and Siikei ; the travels of
Emanuel Andrassy (India), Nendtwich (Ameri
ca), Podrnaniczky (northern Europe), Magyar
(southern Africa), Emma Teleky (Greece),
&c. ; and the dramas of Szigligeti and others.
Journalism and oratory, both of which at
tained their highest development during the
later period of Kossuth's agitation, have been
revived by the restoration of the Hungarian
constitution. This sketch, which includes va
rious Magyar productions of the Transylvanian
press, excludes all more modern non-Magyar
literary productions of Hungary belonging to
the Slavic, German, or other literatures. —
Among the principal works on Hungarian his
tory (in various languages) are those of Bel,
Pray, Gebhardi, Katona, Fessler, Engel, Maj-
Itith, Horvuth, Peczely, Toldy, A. de Gt-rando,
Szalay, and Ker£kgyarto. See also A. J. Pat
terson, "The Magyars : their Country and In
stitutions" (2 vols., London, 1869).

HUNGARY (WIXES OF)

m:\GARY, Wines of. In respect to climate and
soil Hungary may be considered a country un
usually well adapted to the culture of the grape ;
but although wine is produced in almost every
portion of it, only a comparatively small amount
is available for the purposes of commerce. The
total production may be estimated at nearly
400,000,000 gallons, not more than 50,000,000
of which are capable of being rendered fit for
export. The amount annually leaving the
country is in fact very much less than this,
owing to the imperfect system of viticulture
practised by the producers, and to defective
and primitive treament of wine in the cellar.
The wines are of three kinds : samorodny or
"natural wine;" mdslds, which is made of
dry and plump grape berries, used in certain
proportions; and ordinary wine, made from
plump grapes only. It is a peculiarity of the
Hungarian vines that the grapes ripening ear
liest often burst and discharge a portion of
their juice, after which they dry up and are
converted into lumps of sugar, called aszu (Ger.
Trockeribeeren) or dry berries. These very
rarely comprise an entire bunch, but are inter
spersed with fully ripe and plump grapes. It is
customary at the vintage to separate the dry
berries from the others ; but when the clusters
are put into the press without undergoing this
process, the product is known as natural wine.
The choice varieties are made from the ordina
ry wine, with the addition of dry berries. This
is maslas. It is of four qualities, according
to the quantity of dry berries added to each
cask of wine. When reenforced beyond these
proportions, it is called aszulor or Ausbruch,
the choicest kind of which is that running spon
taneously from the musk-infused dry berries,
known as " essence." These fortified wines are
as a rule very alcoholic and sweet, and are the
chief wines of commerce. The most famous
product of the Hungarian vines is the Tokay
wine, which is made in the vineyards covering
the slopes of the Hegyalja range of hills, near
the town of Tokay, in northern Hungary.
Five qualities are classified : Essence, aus-
bruch, maslas, samorodny, and ordinary. Of
these the first is probably the most costly
wine in the world, selling, when 50 years old
and upward, at from $5 to $15 the small Tokay
bottle. Dr. Druitt in Ins " Report on Cheap
Wines," commending the use of Tokay by in
valids, describes the essence as "a wine of
delicate pale tint, in which the sweetness and
fragrance of the grape, though perceptible,
are partly hidden by, or converted by age into, .
an exceedingly rich, aromatic, mouth-filling
wine flavor, so that, rich as it may be, it is not
cloying nor sickly ; and in its admirable aroma
there is a decided remembrance of green tea."
This has long been considered peculiarly the
wine of crowned heads and princes, and is
rarely if ever for sale. The ausbruch and
other qualities of Tokay also command high
prices, and are usually found in limited quanti
ties wherever costlv wines are in the market.

Among other Hungarian wines of the first
class, but ranking below the Tokays, may be
enumerated theMenes Magyarat, red and white
ausbruch, and natural wines, yielding about
3,000,000 gallons, find the wines of Rust, pro
duced in the country lying west of the river
Raab, and yielding annually between 800,000
and 900,000 gallons of white, strong, sweet
ausbruch and natural wine. Wines of the
second class comprise those of Somlyo, Bada-
csony, Neszmely, £rmellek, Szerednye, Nograd,
and Krasso, which are white ; and Erlau, Yi-
sonta (called also Schiller), Szcgszard, Yillany,
Buda (Ofner), and Krasso, red wines. Those
of the third and fourth class are scarcely known
beyond the confines of the region in which
they are produced. Hungarian wines, though
comparatively new at the present time to
Great Britain and the United States, were
introduced into the former country as early as
the reign of James I., and, on the authority of
a German author of the last century, Helve-
tius, " were the favorite wines of the court
and all over the kingdom." They were sub
sequently supplanted by port, sherry, and ma
deira. Friedrich. Hoffmann, professor of medi
cine at Halle, and a man of great mark in his
profession, declared in 1085, in an essay "On
the Excellent Nature, Virtue, and Use of Hun
garian Wines," by which he means the sweeter
wines of the Tokay order, that they excel all
other wines, in that they are strong, preserve
their sweetness, have spirit, odor, and aroma ;
are strengthening, and yet open the pores of
the skin and other organs, so that they cause
no headache nor languor; and that the better
wines keep for an unlimited time. — In connec
tion with the wines of Hungary may be con
sidered those of Austria, in many parts of
which country the vine is largely cultivated.
The average yield may be estimated at be
tween 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 gallons, in
cluding many wines of fair quality and good
keeping properties. Most of this is consumed
within the country. The finest varieties are
those of Voslan, Goldeck, and Steinberg, of
each of which there is a red and a white kind.
The vines employed are those of Portugal, and
their products are said to bear some resem
blance both to port and burgundy. They re
semble Madeira wines also in returning greatly
improved from a sea voyage of several years.
The sparkling Voslauer, an effervescent wine,
has considerable flavor and a delicate aroma.
The vineyards producing these wines lie S. of
Vienna, between the Hungarian hills and the
Styrian Alps, and enjoy a climate well adapted
to the maturing of delicntc-ly flavored wines.
Dr. Druitt sums up his opinion of them as
follows : " The richness of the overripe white
grapes destined to produce the cabinet wine ;
the amplitude of the cellars excavated in the
bowels of a hill ; the vicinity of sulphur springs
and volcanic debris ; and the immense care,
activity, and conscientiousness employed, be
speak a great future for these vines."

HUNGER

HUNS

HrVGER, the sensation by which the neces
sity for food is made known to the system, re
ferred to the stomach, hut indicating the wants
of the system at large ; impelling us to supply
the waste of the tissues consequent on all vital
acts, and in proportion to the activity of the
animal functions from exercise, &c. If the
desire cannot be gratified, or if ahsent from
disease, the phenomena of inanition or of star
vation are induced, with a diminution of the
bulk of nearly all the tissues and proportionate
weakness. Hunger is greatest in the young
and growing state, and least in old age, when
the vital operations are deficient in activity.
It varies with the amount of heat to be gen
erated in the body ; external cold increases
hunger, while heat diminishes it ; hence the
voracious appetite of the arctic regions, and
the general use of stimulating condiments in
the tropics ; it is also increased by any unusual
drain upon the system, when accompanied by
febrile action, as in lactation and diabetes, in
the last of which especially hunger is almost
insatiable. In health, the feeling of hunger
is a very good indication of the demands 1 of
the system for food, and it becomes the stimu
lant to mental operations, automatic in infancy,
but directed by intelligence in the adult, which
have for their object the gratification of the
desire. Hunger depends rather upon the de
mand of the system for aliment than upon the
state of emptiness of the stomach. The sense
of hunger may be, however, immediately de
pendent on some condition of the stomach; it
is well known that the swallowing of indiges
tible and non-nutritious substances will tem
porarily relieve it. The demands of the stom
ach and of the general system in this respect
are probably communicated to the sensorium
by the pneumogastric nerves and by the sym
pathetic. On the other hand, mere emptiness
of the stomach does not produce hunger, as is
evident from the fact that an ample supply of
food passes entirely from the stomach hours
before this sensation is felt, and that in disease
there may be no desire for food for many days
with total abstinence from it. Moreover, hun
ger may be relieved by the injection of alimen
tary fluids into the large intestine, when the
stomach cannot receive or retain food.

Hl'XS (Lat. Hunni), a people of northern
Asia who in the '5th century invaded and con
quered a great part of Europe. Of their ori
gin little is known with certainty. Under the
name of Chuni they were known to the Greeks,
and are mentioned by Ptolemy as early as the
2d century. According to the theory of De
Guignes in his Ilistoire des JTuns, the Huns
were a Tartar nation, the Iliung-nu, whose
original country was the region immediately
north of the great wall of China, which was
built to protect that empire against their in
cursions. For several ages they carried on
successful wars against the Chinese emperors,
who were compelled to pay them tribute in
order to purchase a precarious peace. Their

power was at length broken by the arms of
the emperor Youti and by their own dissen
sions, and in the first century of the Christian
era the unconquered remnant of the/' nation
abandoned their country and marched west
ward in search of a new home. One division
established themselves on the E. side of the
Caspian sea, where they became known as
White Huns. The main body of the nation
established themselves for a while in Russia on
the banks of the Volga. In the 3d century
they crossed this river and invaded the terri
tory of the Alans, whom they conquered and
amalgamated with themselves. The united na
tions pressed onward, and attacked the Goths
in 375. The Goths were defeated, their king
Ermanric put to death, and the Gothic nation
driven to seek an asylum within the bounds
of the Roman empire. The Huns established
themselves on the banks of the Don and the
Dnieper and in Pannonia. They soon became
involved in war with the Romans, and in the 5th
century under the leadership of Attila attained
to a high degree of power and empire. (See
ATTILA.) Their dominion fell to pieces after
the death of Attila (about 453), and the peo
ple themselves were lost and swallowed up in
fresh invasions of barbarians from the north
and east. The Huns of the Byzantine authors
included many distinct tribes which invaded Eu
rope in successive waves, including the Avars.
Howorth identifies the Hunnic Avars with the
louan-Iouan, who appear in Chinese history in
the beginning of the 3d century A. D. Some
time later they are found on the Jaxartes, and
invading Transoxiana, where they intermarried
with the Yethas or Ephtalitre. They compelled
these latter to emigrate to the south of the
Oxus, and during the 4th and 5th centuries
extended their power as far as India. The
whole frontier of eastern Persia is then de
scribed by western writers as infested by ene
mies, to whom the name of White Huns is
given. Cosmas Indicopleustes, who was in In
dia about 525, gives the name of Hunnia to
the vast territory separating India from China.
Thus, while Europe and the west were flood
ed by one wave of Huns, eastern Persia and
the Indian border were flooded by another.
Howorth has also attempted to prove that the
Khazars or Akatzirs were the same race as the
Ephtalitro of the Persian frontier. According
to some writers, the Huns were a tribe of Fin
nish stock, and the ancestors of the Hungari
ans or Magyars. They are described by the
Roman writers as hideous in appearance, with
broad shoulders, flat noses, and small black
eyes, deeply buried in the head. "A fabulous
origin was assigned to them," says Gibbon,
"worthy of their form and manners; that the
witches' of Scythia, who for their foul and
deadly practices had been driven from socie
ty, had copulated in the desert with infernal
spirits; and that the Huns were the offspring
of this execrable conjunction. The tale was
greedily embraced by the credulous terror of

HUNT

the Goths ; but, while it gratified their hatred,
it increased their fear, since the posterity of
demons and witches might he supposed to in
herit some share of the preternatural powers as
well as of the malignant temper of their pa
rents." — See Histoire generale des Hum, Turcs,
Moyols et autres Tartares occidentaux, by Jo
seph de Guignes (5 vols. 4to, Paris, 1756-'8);
and Histoire (VAttila et de ses successeurs, by
A. Thierry (3d ed., Paris, 1805).

HUNT, a 1ST. E. county of Texas, drained by
the head streams of the Sabine river and by the
S. fork of the Sulphur ; area, 935 sq. in. ; pop.
in 1870, 10,291, of whom 1,078 were colored.
It has a rolling and in some places hilly sur
face, and is well wooded. The soil is fertile.
The chief productions in 1870 were 342,411
bushels of Indian corn, 31,480 of sweet pota
toes, 163,267 Ibs. of butter, and 4,272 bales of
cotton. There were 9,941 horses, 977 mules
and asses, 9,672 milch cows, 2,077 working
oxen, 25,141 other cattle, 7,194 sheep, and 23,-
347 swine ; 1 flour mill, and 1 wool-carding
establishment. Capital, Greenville. .

HUNT) Henry, an English politician, born at
Upavon, Wiltshire, Nov. 6, 1773, died at Al-
resford, Hants, Feb. 13, 1835. He was a
wealthy farmer, and in early life was noted
for extreme loyalty, having in 1801, during the
alarm at the projected French invasion, offered
to place his personal property, valued at £20,-
000, at the disposal of government. He subse
quently retired in disgust from the Everly
troop of yeomanry on account of their refusal
to volunteer their services out of the county,
and joined the Marlborough troop. Having
challenged his commander, Lord Bruce, he
was tried and sentenced to pay a fine of £100,
and to be imprisoned for six weeks in the
king's bench. During his confinement he was
visited by several prominent reformers, under
whose influence he became a champion of the
most radical section of the party, and the po
litical associate of Sir Francis Burdett, Home
Tooke, and William Cobbett. For many years
he attempted without success to secure a seat
in parliament, addressing popular meetings in
the large manufacturing towns and in other
parts of the kingdom. In August, 1819, he
presided over the reform meeting in Manches
ter, which for alleged illegality was dispersed
by the military, after 11 persons had been
killed and upward of 600 wounded ; and an
indictment for conspiracy was found against
him. He was sentenced to 2£ years' confine
ment in Ilchester jail, and after his release
made a public entry into London on Nov. 4,
1822. In 1830 and 1831 he was returned to
the house of commons from Preston ; but fail
ing of an election to the next parliament, he
made the tour of England in a handsome
equipage, speaking in the principal towns, and
offering for sale, under the name of " radical
coffee, 1 ' roasted grains of wheat, as a substitute
for the heavily taxed coffee of the West and
East Indies. Subsequently he' made his ap

pearance in London in a coach drawn by white
horses, from which he sold a new kind of
blacking invented by himself. He died of a
stroke of paralysis while on a tour.

HUNT. I. James Henry Leigh, an English au
thor, born in Southgate, Middlesex, Oct. 19,
1784, died at Putney, Aug. 28, 1859. His father,
a West Indian, married an American lady, and
practised law in Philadelphia till the revolu
tion broke out, when he warmly espoused the
cause of the crown and had to leave the coun
try. He went to England, took orders, and
became tutor to Mr. Leigh, nephew of the
duke of Chandos, after whom he named his
son. Leigh Hunt was educated at Christ's
hospital, which he left in his 15th year, spent
some time in the office of his brother, an at
torney, and then obtained a place in the war
office. He had written many verses while a
boy, and in 1801 his father published for him
"Juvenilia, or a Collection of Poems written
between the Ages of Twelve and Sixteen."
He now began to contribute to periodicals, and
in 1805 became the dramatic critic of the
"News," a Sunday paper established by his
brother John, to which also he contributed lit
erary articles. A volume of his theatrical crit
icisms was published in 1807. In 1808 he left
the war office, and with his brother established
the "Examiner," a liberal journal, which he
edited for many years and rendered exceed
ingly popular ; it was noted for the fearlessness
of its criticism and the freedom of its political
discussions. Three times the Hunts were pros
ecuted by the government : first, for the words,
"Of all monarchs, indeed, since the revolu
tion, the successor of George III. will have
the finest opportunity of becoming nobly pop
ular;" second, for denouncing flogging in the
army ; third, when a fashionable newspaper
had called the prince regent an Adonis, for
adding " a fat Adonis of fifty." On the first
the prosecution was abandoned, on the second
the verdict was for acquittal, but on the third
the brothers were sentenced to a fine of £500
each, and two years' imprisonment. They re
jected offers to remit the penalties on condi
tion that the paper should change its tone, and
underwent the full sentence ; but so much pop
ular sympathy was excited in their behalf that
the cells were transformed into comfortable
apartments, constantly supplied with books
and flowers. Here Leigh was visited by By
ron, Moore, Lamb, Shelley, and Keats, and
here he wrote "The Feast of the Poets"
(1814), "The Descent of Liberty, a Mask"
(1815), and "The Story of Rimini " (1816),
which immediately gave him a place among
the poets. He also continued to edit the "Ex
aminer" while in prison. In 1818 he pub
lished " Foliage, or Poems original and trans
lated," and in 1819 he started the "Indica
tor," a small weekly on the model of the
" Spectator." A selection of his best essays
| from this was published under the title of
i "The Indicator and Companion" (2 vols.

HUNT

Svo, 1822). But his pecuniary affairs had be- I
come badly involved, and in June, 1822, on j
the invitation of Byron and Shelley, he went
to Pisa, Italy, to assist them in editing the
''Liberal," a journal intended to be ultra-lib- !
eral in both literature and politics. Shelley's |
death occurred in July, and Hunt resided with I
Byron for several months ; but the journal i
proving a failure and the association uncon
genial, the poets separated with decidedly un
pleasant impressions of each other. Hunt re
mained in Italy for some years, and after his
return to England published "Recollections
of Lord Byron and some of his Contempora
ries" (4to and 2 vols. Svo, 1828). In this
book the character of Byron was set forth in
so unfavorable a light that his friends, espe
cially Moore, retorted upon its author in the
severest manner. Years afterward Hunt con
fessed that he was ashamed of it. From this
time his life was constantly devoted to the pro
duction of books. He had always been sneered
at as a cockney by certain critics, and was fre
quently in great pecuniary straits, until in 1847
he received a literary "pension of £200, but
plodded on with unceasing industry. He trans
lated Tasso's Aminta, Redi's Bacco in Toscana,
Boileau's Lutrin, and numerous other works;
edited the plays of Wycherly, Congreve, Van-
brugh, Farquhar, and Sheridan, and an expur
gated edition of Beaumont and Fletcher ; and
was a frequent contributor to the literary and
political columns of newspapers and maga
zines. Among his other works are the follow
ing : "Sir Ralph Esher," a novel (1832; new
ed., 1850) ; " Captain Sword and Captain Pen,"
a metrical satire against war (1835); "The
Legend of Florence," a drama (1840); "The
Seer," a collection of essays (1841) ; " The Pal
frey," a love story in rhyme (1842); "Stories
from the Italian Poets, with Lives of the Wri
ters" (2 vols., 1840); "Men, Women, and
Books " (2 vols., 1847) ; " The Town " (2 vols.,
1848); "Autobiography" (1850); "Table
Talk, with Imaginary Conversations of Pope
and Swift" (1851); "Religion of the Heart"
(1853) ; and " The Old Court Suburb " (1855).
Shortly before his death he collected and ar
ranged a complete final edition of his poems.
A selection from his correspondence was pub
lished in 1802. II, Thornton, an English author
and art critic, son of the preceding, born in
London, Sept. 10, 1810, died June 24, 1873.
lie studied the art of painting, but soon aban
doned it for journalism, conducted the political
department of the "Constitutional" until that
journal ceased to exist, edited successively the
"North Cheshire Reformer" and the "Glas
gow Argus," and from 1840 to 18GO was con
nected with the London "Spectator." lie j
published "The Foster Brother," a romance I
(1845), and edited his father's "Autobiogra
phy" (1850) and "Correspondence" (1862).

HUNT, Richard Morris, an American architect,
born in Brattleboro, Yt., Oct. 28, 1828. In
184-3 he went to Europe, where he studied his !

profession at the school of fine arts in Paris,
and under Hector Lefuel, and made a tour
through various parts of Europe, Greece, Asia
Minor, and Egypt. Returning to Paris, he was
engaged as inspector under Lefuel, then archi
tect to the emperor, on the new building con
necting the Louvre and the Tuileries. On his
return to America in 1855, he was employed
upon the capitol extension at Washington.
Since then he has executed many public and
private works, of which the most important
are the Presbyterian hospital, the Stevens
apartment house, the Lenox library, and the
Tribune building in New York ; the Yale di
vinity college in New Haven ; the Stuy vesant
building, New York ; the Brimmer houses,
Boston; the residence of J. Q. A. Ward, New
York; and several villas at Newport, R. I.

HOT, Thomas Sterry, an American chemist,
mineralogist, and geologist, born in Norwich,
Conn., Sept. 5, 1820. He studied medicine for
a time, but, devoting himself to chemistry, be
came in 1845 a private student with Prof. B.
Silliman, jr., of New Haven, acting meanwhile
as chemical assistant to Prof. Silliman, sr., in
the laboratory of Yale college. After two years
thus spent he was in 1847 made chemist and
mineralogist to the geological survey of Canada,
then just begun under the direction of Sir
William Logan. He held this post for more
than 25 years, but resigned it in 1872, and ac
cepted the chair of geology in the Massachu
setts institute of technology, where he succeed
ed Prof. William B. Rogers. His earlier studies
were directed especially to theoretical chem
istry, then assuming shape from the labors of
Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, and Gerhardt. It
was as the reviewer, interpreter, and critic of
these chemists that Mr. Hunt first became
known, while he at the same time developed
from some germs in the writings of Laurent
a new system essentially his own, in which all
chemical compounds are deduced from simple
types represented by one or more molecules of
water or of hydrogen. These views, maintained
by him in a series of papers in the " American
Journal of Science," beginning in 1848, have
at length been universally adopted, and are
now recognized as one of the foundations of
modern chemical theory. His philosophy of
the sciences has been influenced by the study of
Kant, and still more of Hegel and Stallo, as may
be seen in his essays on " Solution," " Chemical
Changes," and " Atomic Volumes," which first
appeared in the "Journal " (1853-'4), and were
republished in England and Germany. In these
he attacks the atomic hypothesis and all its
consequences, and asserts that solution is chem
ical union, and chemical union identification.
His researches on the equivalent volumes of
liquids and solids were a remarkable anticipa
tion of those of Dumas, while in his inquiries
into the polymerism of mineral species he has
opened a new field for mineralogy, as set forth
later in his essay on the " Objects and Meth
od of Mineralogy." His philosophical studies

HUNT

have however been only incidental to his
labors in chemical mineralogy and chemical
geology. His researches into the chemical and
mineral composition of rocks have probably
been more extended than those of any other
living chemist ; and his investigations of the
chemistry of mineral waters, which are not
less so, have enabled him to frame a com
plete theory of their origin and formation,
and their relations to the origin of rock masses
both crystalline and uncrystalline, and to lay
the basis of a rational system of chemical ge
ology. From his long series of studies of the
salts of lime and magnesia he was enabled to
exp]ain for the first time the true relations of
gypsums and dolomites, and to explain their
origin by direct deposition. His views on this
subject are now, after many years, finding rec
ognition among geologists. He has also care
fully investigated petroleum both in its chem
ical and geological relations. The phenomena
of volcanoes and igneous rocks have been dis
cussed by him from a new point of view, and
he has revived and enforced the almost for
gotten hypothesis of Keferstein that the source
of these is to be sought in chemical reactions
set up in the sedimentary deposits of the
earth's crust through the agency of internal
heat. In this discussion he was the first to
point out and explain the relation between
modern volcanic phenomena and great accu
mulations of comparatively recent sedimentary
formations, as well as the nature of the rela
tions between these and folded and contorted
strata. He has sought to harmonize the facts
of dynamical geology with the notion of a solid
globe, which he early adopted in opposition to
the generally received one of a globe with a
liquid interior, and has also developed a theory
of cosmogony based upon the chemical and
physical conditions of a world consolidating
from a vaporous mass, and has endeavored to
show how the earth, air, and ocean have as
sumed their present condition under the slow
operation of natural causes. His views on
these questions will be found in an essay on
"The Chemistry of the Earth" in the report
of the Smithsonian institution for 1869 ; while
his conclusions on many points of geology are
embodied in his address delivered as retiring
president before the American association for
the advancement of science at Indianapolis
in 1871, on "The Geognosy of the Appa
lachians and the Origin of Crystalline Rocks,"
and in others of his recent papers, such as
"Notes on Granitic Rocks," "The Geognos-
tical Relations of the Metals," and " The His
tory of the Names Cambrian and Silurian in
Geology." Besides his papers in the "Amer
ican Journal of Science," which number more
than 100, and numerous articles communicated
to the French academy and the scientific jour
nals of France, England, and Canada, he has
contributed largely to the reports of the geo
logical survey of Canada, and to the work
entitled "Geology of Canada" (1863), the

latter half of which is from his pen. He is
also the author of a summary of organic chem
istry forming a part of Prof. Silliman's "First
Principles of Chemistry " (1852). A volume
of his collected scientific essays is now in
press (1874). He is also known for his re
searches, both theoretical and practical, into
the chemistry and metallurgy of iron and of
copper, some of which will be found in the
"Proceedings of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers." Dr. Sterry Hunt received
I in 1854 the honorary degree of A. M. from
I Harvard college, and later the degrees of LL. I),
and Sc. D. from the universities of Montreal
I and Quebec, in both of which he was for many
years a professor, and in the latter of which ho
lectured in the French language. He was a
member of the international jury at the ex
hibitions of Paris in 1855 and 1867, and is a
member of various academies and learned so
cieties both in Europe and America, lie was
made a fellow of the royal society of London
in 1859, and of the national academy of the
United States in 1873. He is also an officer
of the French order of the legion of honor.

HUNT, William Henry, an English water-color
painter, born in London in 1790, died Feb". 10,
1864. He became a member of the old society
of painters in water colors in 1824, and from
that time regularly contributed to their annual
exhibitions. As a colorist he ranked among
the first painters of the day.

HUNT, William Holinan, an English painter,
born in London in 1827. He studied in the
school of the royal academy, and in 1846 ex
hibited his first picture, entitled u Hark,"
which was followed by a scene from " Wood
stock " (1847), the " Flight of Madeline and
Porphyro," from Keats's "Eve of St. Agnes"
(1848), and "Rienzi vowing to obtain Justice
for the Murder of his Brother," from Bulwer's
novel (1849). In 1850 appeared his "Con
verted British Family sheltering a Christian
Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids,-"
the first fruits of the new " pre-Raphaelite "
movement in British art. He had in the pre
vious year associated himself with John Ever
ett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, for tho
purpose of restoring to the art the earnestness
and conscientious accuracy that animated the
painters who preceded Raphael. Medievalism
in theology and architecture was the prevail
ing mode of the day, and the young artists
showed the influence which it had perhaps
unconsciously exerted upon them, by styling
themselves "pre-Raphaelites ;" although they
distinctly avowed their object to be chiefly the
study of nature, to which they looked for in
spiration, and the minutest details of which
they proposed to copy with scrupulous accura
cy. By common consent Hunt was regarded
as the leader of the new school, which was
shortly joined by Charles Collins and other
young artists ; and notwithstanding much hos
tile criticism and ridicule, he continued year
by year to develop the idea with which ho

HUNT

HUNTER

started. In 1851 appeared his "Valentine
rescuing Sylvia from Proteus," in 1852 " The
Hireling Shepherd, "and in 1853 " Claudio and
Isabella " and u Our English Coasts," a pre-
Kaphaelite study of the downs at Hastings,
all strongly imbued with the characteristics of
the new style. In 1854 he produced two pow
erful pictures, "The Awakened Conscience"
and " The Light of the World." The summer
of 1855 was spent by Mr. Hunt on the shores
of the Dead sea, where he took minute studies
of the surrounding scenery, which were sub
sequently embodied in his picture of the
"Scape Goat," exhibited in the succeeding
year. To the universal exposition of 1867 in
Paris he sent " After Sunset in Egypt." Mr.
Hunt resided for some years in Jerusalem en
gaged in painting a picture recently finished,
" The Shadow of Death," for which he received
10,000 guineas.

HUNT, William Morris, an American painter,
born in Brattleboro, Yt., March 31, 1824. He
entered Harvard college in 1840, but went to
Europe on account of his health before the
completion of his course, and in 1846 entered
the academy at Dtisseldorf, with the intention
of studying sculpture. At the expiration of
nine months he went to Paris, and in 1848 be
came a pupil of Couture. In 1855 he returned
to the United States, and has since resided at
Newport, R. I. His paintings comprise por
traits, history, and genre, and among the most
successful are several representing picturesque
types of city life in Paris, of which the artist
published a series of lithographs executed by
himself in 1859. Among his later works are
the "Morning Star," and the "Drummer
Boy " and the " Bugle Call," illustrating inci
dents in the civil war.

Hl'XTER, John, a British surgeon and physiol
ogist, born at Long Calderwood, Lanarkshire,
July 14, 1728, died in London, Oct. 10, 1793.
He was the son of a farmer, and the young
est of ten children. At IT' years he went to
Glasgow to assist his brother-in-law, a cabinet
maker ; but soon returned home, and wrote to
his brother William, who was already successful
as a lecturer on surgery, offering to assist him
in his anatomical labors. His brother's reply
was favorable, and he went to London in Sep
tember, 1748. He soon gave evidence of his
abilities in the dissecting room. In 1749-'50 he
attended the practice at Chelsea hospital, and
in 1751 became a pupil at St, Bartholomew's
hospital, continuing at the same time his labors
in the dissecting room of his brother. In 1754
he became surgeon's pupil at St. George's hos
pital, of which he was appointed house surgeon
two years later; and in the winter of 1755 he
became a partner in the lectures of his brother.
In the mean time he had succeeded in following
more minutely than had before been done the
ramifications of the olfactory nerve, in tracing
the branches of the fifth pair of nerves, in dis
covering the system and functions of the lym
phatic vessels in birds, and the cause and mode

of descent of the testis in the foetus. In 1759
he obtained the appointment of staff surgeon
Jin the army, accompanied the expedition to
Belleisle in 1761, and after the siege of that
place served in Portugal until the peace of
1763. During this time he collected the ma
terials for his work on gun-shot wounds, which
was published after his death. He returned to
London, was put' on half pay, and was obliged
to receive pupils in anatomy and surgery as
a means of subsistence. Purchasing a small
piece of ground about two miles from London,
he built a house, and carried on there his inves
tigations in comparative anatomy. He bar
gained with the keepers of menageries for the
bodies of dead animals, spent all his available
means in procuring rare species, and often ex
posed himself to personal danger in watching
their habits and instincts and experimenting
on their dispositions. His papers communi
cated to the royal society drew attention to
his labors, and in 1767 he was elected a fellow
of the society, and the following year surgeon
of St. George's hospital and a member of the
college of surgeons. In 1771 he married the
sister of Sir Everard Home, his pupil and sub
sequently his biographer, and in the same year
published his first original work, " Natural
History of the Human Teeth" (4to), of which
the second part appeared in 1778. In 1773
he commenced his first regular course of lec
tures, a task which he seldom succeeded in
discharging with satisfaction to himself or his
pupils, and as a preparation for which he was
accustomed to dose himself with laudanum.
In 1776 he was appointed surgeon extraordi
nary to the king, and at the request of the
| royal humane society drew up a paper on the
j best mode of restoring apparently drowned
I persons. He also published papers on the ac
tion of the gastric juice upon the stomach after
death, the torpedo, electric eel, &c. Between
1777 and 1785 appeared his papers on the heat
of vegetables and animals, the structure of the
placenta, the organs of hearing in fishes, &c.,
and the six Croonian lectures on muscular mo
tion. The paper on the placenta, claiming for
the author the discovery of the union between
the uterus and placenta, which William Hun
ter had claimed in 1775 in his "Gravid Ute
rus," caused an estrangement between the
brothers which only terminated a short time
before the death of William. In 1785 he re
moved his whole museum to a house erected
for the purpose in Leicester square, to which
he admitted the public in May and October of
each year. It had now assumed enormous di-
| mensions, and such was his reputation as a
naturalist that no new animal was brought
to the country which was not shown to him.
' In the same year he was prostrated by a se-
' vere spasmodic attack, and was obliged to re-
| linquish practice for a time; and thenceforth
| until his death he was a constant sufferer, his
j paroxysms occurring after any mental excite-
j merit. He nevertheless persevered in his ex-

HUNTER

periments, and was constantly performing op
erations tlieii ne\v to the art of surgery. Soon
after his attack in 1785 he practised the new
method of tying the artery for popliteal aneu
rism, which has been called the most brilliant
surgical discovery of the century. In 1786
appeared his " Treatise on the Venereal Dis
ease " (4to, London ; new ed. by Sir Everard
Home, 1809, and by Joseph Adams, 1818),
and "Observations on Certain Parts of the
Animal Economy " (4to, London ; new ed.
by Prof. Owen, 1800, 1837), the latter a re-
publication of papers from the " Philosophical
Transactions," and of others on anatomical
and physiological discoveries by the author.
In the same year he was appointed surgeon
general of the army, and in 1787 he received
the Copley gold medal from the royal society
for papers on the ovarinm, the specific identity
of the wolf, jackal, and dog, and on the struc
ture and economy of whales. Soon after he
published valuable papers on the treatment of
inflamed veins, on introsusception, and on the
mode of conveying food into the stomach in
cases of paralysis of the oesophagus ; and in
1792 he contributed his last paper to the " Phi
losophical Transactions," entitled ''Observa
tions on the Economy of Bees." In this year
he resigned his lectureship at St. George's hos
pital, and devoted himself to the completion
of his work on inflammation. On Oct. 16,
1793, while attending a meeting of the board
of directors of St. George's hospital, he became
violently excited by a remark made to him by
one of his colleagues, and leaving the room
instantly expired. — As a surgical operator John
Hunter was undoubtedly one of the greatest
men of his time. As an anatomist and phys
iologist, he displayed a keenness of intellect,
a faculty of generalization, and a philosophic
turn of mind, which must rank him among the
greatest of modern natural philosophers, and
of which he has left an enduring monument in
the celebrated museum named after him, and
in 1799 purchased by the nation and placed
in the keeping of the college of surgeons. At
the time of his death it contained more than
10,000 preparations illustrating human and
comparative anatomy, physiology, pathology,
and natural history, so arranged as to exhibit
the gradations of nature from the simplest
form of life up to man. The physiological se
ries, which comprised considerably more than
half the collection, contained 1,000 skeletons,
3,000 animals and plants illustrating natural
history (the animals stuffed or preserved in
spirits), and 1,200 fossils, besides monsters and
other eccentric forms of animal life. He left
in addition 19 MS. volumes of materials for a
catalogue of his museum, the preparation of
which occupied him during the last few years
of his life. The completion of the work was
assigned to Sir Everard Home, his executor,
who was intrusted for that purpose with the
ten most valuable volumes, which he subse
quently burned, in accordance, as he said, with

Hunter's express desire ; although there is little
doubt that he destroyed them to conceal his
own appropriation of their contents in the prep
aration of the anatomical papers which pass
under his name. After his death appeared his
"Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and
Gun-shot Wounds," preceded by a biography
by Sir Everard Home (4to, 1794); and in
1835-'7 his surgical works, with notes by J.
F. Palmer, were published in 4 vols. 4to, with
an atlas of 60 plates. Biographies of him have
also been published by Jesse Foot (8vo, 1794)
and Joseph Adams (8vo, 1816). His remains,
after a repose of more than half a century
under the church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields,
were in March, 1859, disentombed by the royal
college of surgeons, and on the 28th of the
month deposited with much ceremony in West
minster abbey, next to the remains of Ben
Jonson. — His wife, ANNE HOME HUXTEK (born
in 1741, died in 1821), published in 1802 a
volume of poems, several of which were set to
music by Haydn.

HUNTER, Robert Mercer Taliaferro, an Ameri
can statesman, born in Essex co., Va., April
21, 1809. He graduated at the university of
Virginia, studied law, and commenced practice
in 1830. Having served in the Virginia house
of delegates, he was in 1 837 elected to congress,
and in 1839 chosen speaker of the house of rep
resentatives. He was defeated in 1843, but re-
elected in 1845. In 1846 he was chosen sena
tor in congress, taking his seat in December,
1847. In 1849 he was made chairman of the
committee on finance, which post he held until
the opening of the civil war. In the mean
while he bore a large part in the political dis
cussions of the day. In 1860 he was a promi
nent candidate for the democratic nomination
to the presidency, receiving upon several bal-

| lots in the convention at Charleston the next
highest vote to that for Mr. Douglas. lie took
a leading part in the secession movement, and

j according to the original scheme was to have
been president of the new government, Jeiferson
Davis to be commander-in-chief of the army.
He was formally expelled from the United
States senate in July, 1861. The confederate
plan had been changed, Davis having been
made president, and Robert Toombs secretary

j of state. Toombs was soon superseded by Hun
ter, and he in a short time by Judah P. Ben
jamin. Hunter, having been elected senator
from Virginia, was classed in the opposition
to the administration of Davis. In February,
1865, Hunter, Stephens, and Campbell were
appointed peace commissioners to meet Presi
dent Lincoln and Mr. Seward upon a vessel in
Hampton Roads. The conference was futile,
Lincoln refusing to treat upon the basis of rec
ognizing the independence of the confederacy.
A war meeting was then held in Richmond,
over which Hunter presided, and resolutions
were passed to the effect that the confederates
would never lay down their arms until they

t should have achieved their independence.

HUNTER

About this time Gen. Lee urged upon the con
federate congress the passage of a law author
izing the employment of negroes as soldiers,
those thus employed to be made freemen. A
bill to this effect was passed in the house of
representatives, but was defeated in the senate
by a single vote. Mr. Hunter at first voted
against it, but having been instructed by the
legislature of Virginia to vote for it, he did so,
accompanying his vote with an emphatic pro
test against the passage of the bill, for which
he was compelled to vote. He said: "When
we left the old government, we thought we had
got rid for ever of the slavery agitation. We
insisted that congress had no right to interfere
with slavery. We contended that whenever
the two races were thrown together, one must
be master and the other slave. We insisted
that slavery was the best and happiest condi
tion of the negro. Now, if we offer slaves their
freedom as a boon, we confess that we were
insincere and hypocritical. If the negroes are
made soldiers, they must be made freemen. If
we can make them soldiers, we can make them
officers, perhaps to command white men. If
we are right in this measure, we were wrong
in denying to the old government the right to
interfere with the institution of slavery and
to emancipate slaves." After the close of the
civil war he was arrested, but was released
upon parole, and was in 1867 pardoned by
President Johnson. In 1874 he was an unsuc
cessful candidate before the legislature of Vir
ginia for the office of United States senator.

HINTER, William, a British physician and anat
omist, elder brother of John Hunter, born at
Long Calderwood, Lanarkshire, May 23, 1718,
died in London, March SO, 1783. At the age
of 14 he was sent to the university of Glasgow
with the intention of studying for the minis
try ; but in 1737, not being inclined to the
study of theology, he went to reside in Dr.
William Cullen's family as a medical student.
Three years after he formed a partnership
with Cullen, by which he was to take charge
of the surgical part of their practice. To pre
pare himself for this he studied in Edinburgh,
and in 1741 wen't to London with letters of
introduction to Dr. James Douglass. Douglass
offered to employ him as tutor of his son and
as dissector for a work on the anatomy of the
bones which he was preparing. Hunter ac
cepted the offer. Douglass died the following
year, but Hunter continued to reside with the
family as tutor, and to pursue his studies in anat
omy and surgery. Concluding to remain in Lon
don, the partnership with Cullen was dissolved,
but they remained warm friends through life.
In the winter of 1740 he made his first ap
pearance as a lecturer on surgery before the
society of navy surgeons, and such was the
favor with which he was received that he
was invited to extend his course to anatomy.
About the same time he began to acquire an
extensive practice both as a surgeon and an
accoucheur; but having in 1748 received the

appointment of surgeon accoucheur to the
Middlesex hospital, and in 1749 to the British
lying-in hospital, he abandoned surgery, and
thenceforth devoted himself almost exclusively
to obstetrics. About this time he established
himself in a house in Jermyn street, where he
commenced the formation of a large anatomi
cal museum. In 1754 he entered into a pro
fessional partnership with his brother John,
whose industry was of great use in adding to
the contents of the museum. In consequence
of the illness of John, however, the partner
ship terminated in 1759. In 1762 he officiated
as consulting physician to Queen Charlotte,
and two years later was appointed her physi
cian extraordinary. In 1762-'4 appeared his
"Medical Commentaries, Part I." (4to, Lon
don). In 1765 he applied to Mr. Grenville,
then minister, for a piece of ground in the
Mews for the site of an anatomical museum.
Notwithstanding that he offered to expend
I £7,000 on the building, and to endow a pro-
| fessorship of anatomy, the application was
i unfavorably received, and he accordingly pur-
| chased a spot of ground in Great Windmill
I street, and erected the necessary buildings,
I into which he removed in 1770 with his whole
! collection. From time to time the collections
I of eminent practitioners were purchased and in
corporated with it, and the zeal of friends and
pupils procured him a great number of mor-
bicl preparations. Not contented with his ana
tomical collection, he began to accumulate fos
sils, books, coins, and other objects of antiqua
rian research. His library was said to contain
" the most magnificent treasure of Greek and
Latin works accumulated since the days of
Mead ;" and his coins, of a portion of which a
description was published under the title of
Nummorum Veterum Populorum et UrMum,
gui in Museo Guilielmi Hunteri asservantur,
Descriptw^ figuris Illustrata, cost upward of
£20,000. In 1781 Dr. Fothergill's collection
of shells, corals, and other objects of natural
history, was added to the museum at an ex-
i pense of £1,200. The whole collection, with
I a fund of £8,000 for its support and augmenta-
i tion, was bequeathed to the university of Glas
gow, where, under the name of the Hunterian
museum, it is now deposited. In 1774 appear-
ed his Anatomia Humani Uteri Gr<iridi, in
' Latin and English (atlas fol., with 84 plates,
Birmingham; fol., London, 1828), on which
i he had been engaged since 1751. It has been
called one of the most splendid medical works
of the age. A work describing the engravings,
| entitled "An Anatomical Disquisition of the
| Human Gravid Uterus and its Contents" (4to,
| London), was published in 1794 by his nephew
Dr. Baillie. The subsequent claim of John
Hunter to the discovery of the mode of union
i between the placenta and the uterus, as de-
, scribed by William in this work, caused a
; bitter hostility between the brothers, which
lasted until the elder was on his deathbed,
i when a reconciliation took place. In 1768 he

HUNTERDON

HUNTINGDON"

was appointed by the king professor of anat
omy in the royal academy of arts. In 1767 he
was elected a fellow of the royal society, and
two years before his death he succeeded Dr.
John Fothergill as president of the medical
society. He contributed important papers to
the medical and scientific periodicals of the
day, and left several lectures and unfinished
works in manuscript. He was esteemed one
of the chief ornaments of the medical pro
fession in the 18th century, and by his anat
omy of the gravid uterus, and his description
of varicose aneurism, materially advanced the
sciences of anatomy and midwifery.

HUNTERDON, a W. county of New Jersey,
separated from Pennsylvania on the W. by
Delaware river, bounded N. W. by the Mus-
conetcong, E. in part by the Lamington, and
drained by branches of Raritan river ; area, 480
sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 36,963. The surface is
level in the centre and mountainous toward the
N. and S. Limestone and freestone are abun
dant, and the hills are well timbered. The soil of
the valleys is fertile. The New Jersey Central,
the South Branch, the Belvidere Delaware, and
Flemington branch, and the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna, and Western railroads traverse it. The
chief productions in 1870 were 340,393 bushels
of wheat, 26,799 of rye, 1,021,251 of Indian
corn, 902,737 of oats, 41,527 of buckwheat,
86,807 of potatoes, 67,863 Ibs. of wool, 226,936
of flax, 965,243 of butter, and 38,110 tons of
hay. There were 9,520 horses, 12,983 milch
cows, 7,588 other cattle, 22,790 sheep, and 15-
311 swine; 33 manufactories of carriages, 23
of clothing, 2 of cordage and twine, 1 of cot
ton goods, 2 of mirror and picture frames, 6 of
hubs and wagon material, 1 of India-rubber
goods, 5 of iron, 24 of masonry, 2 of wrapping
paper, 19 of saddlery, 9 of sash, doors, and
blinds, 48 flour mills, 24 saw mills, and 2 rail
road repair shops. Capital, Flemington.

HUNTINGDON, a S. central county of Penn
sylvania, drained by the Juniata river and its
tributaries; area, 730 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
31,251. It has a very diversified surface, oc
cupied in part by mountains, and noted for its
fine scenery. Iron, lead, coal, salt, and alum
are found, and timber is abundant. The val
leys are fertile. The Pennsylvania Central
and the Huntingdon and Broad Top railroads
traverse it. The chief productions in 1870
were 388,859 bushels of wheat, 78,480 of rye,
503,807 of Indian corn, 410,479 of oats, 148,-
679 of potatoes, 54,110 Ibs. of wool, 465,027
of butter, and 27,815 tons of hay. There
were 7,098 horses, 7,120 milch cows, 11,289
other cattle, 17,780 sheep, and 12,909 swine;
15 manufactories of carriages, 7 of clothing,
12 of furniture, 3 of bricks, 2 of bread, 3 of
pig iron, 8 of iron castings, 5 of blooms, 5 of
plaster, 8 of saddlery and harness, 13 of tin,
copper, and sheet-iron ware, 4 of woollen
goods, 14 flour mills, 20 tanneries, 9 currying
establishments, 1 distillery, 2 planing mills,
and 7 saw mills. Capital, Huntingdon.

HUNTINGDON, an extreme S. W. county of
Quebec, Canada, divided into two parts by the
angle of Chateauguay co., bordering S. on New
York, and N. W. on the St. Lawrence river;
area, 400 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 16,304, of whom
6,386 were of Irish, 4,924 of French, 3,184 of
Scotch, and 1,033 of English origin or descent.
It is drained by the Chateauguay river and
other streams, and is traversed by the Province
Line division of the Grand Trunk railroad.
The surface is undulating and the soil fertile.
Capital, Huntingdon.

HUNTINGDON, Selina, countess of, a patron
of the English Calvinistic Methodists, born in
1707, died June 17, 1791. She was the daugh
ter of Washington Shirley, earl of Ferrers,
and was married to Theophilus Hastings, earl
of Huntingdon. The Hastings family early be
came interested in the Methodists, and through
their influence and from severe family afflic
tions the countess was led to cherish a strong
sympathy with the methods and principles of
the evangelists, especially Whitefield. She was
accustomed to frequent the Moravian societies
in London ; but at the withdrawal of Wesley
she favored the Methodist party, and specially
encouraged the leaders in the promotion of a
lay ministry, which she considered an absolute
necessity to the successful evangelization of the
masses. Her house at Chelsea, near London,
was the resort of fashionable and aristocratic
persons, and after Whitefield was appointed her
chaplain many of the wits and scholars of the
age became his hearers. Her house was like
wise the centre of a circle of women of noble
rank, who were zealous in the cultivation of a
high-toned piety in an irreligious age. Mean
while the rapid success of Wesley, Whitefield,
and their coadjutors had created a demand
throughout the kingdom for chapels and meet
ing houses for the poor. The countess under
took to supply this need, and promoted in every
way the labors of the evangelists. She dis
pensed with her luxurious equipage, and even
sold her jewels, to obtain the means for carry
ing out her plans. Halls and theatres were
purchased in London, Bristol, and Dublin, and
fitted up for chapels, and accommodations for
the societies were provided in England, Ire
land, and Wales. She interested many of the
noble and wealthy in her plans, met them in
frequent conference, and often accompanied
the preachers on their missionary tours. By
her advice England was divided into six dis
tricts, and a scheme perfected for supplying
destitute districts with religious instruction.
The pressing need for a larger number of min
isters led her at length to found a theological
seminary at Trevecca in Wales, where pious
candidates for the ministry, irrespective of
sectarian character, were provided with board,
tuition, and other aid, at the countess's ex
pense. While strongly attached to the church
of England, she was at length compelled to
the avowal of dissent in order to protect the
numerous chapels which she had founded from

HUNTINGDONSHIRE

HUNTINGTON

suppression or appropriation by the establish
ment. Hitherto, by iier strong practical sense
and moral power, she had virtually controlled
and directed the movements of Calvinistic Meth
odism. After the " Lady Huntingdon Connec
tion " had taken their position among dissenters,
the countess attempted to devise a plan for a
closer and more organic union among the vari
ous societies. Its provisions were very similar
to Wesley's model. In these attempts, however,
she met with very little sympathy from her
preachers, and after her death the chapels that
she had founded became mostly Independent.
At her decease she left £5,000 for charitable
purposes, and the rest of her fortune for the
support of 64 chapels which she had built.

HUNTINGDONSHIRE, an inland county of
England, bordering on Cambridgeshire, North
amptonshire, and Bedfordshire ; area, 359 sq.
m., being the smallest county of England except
Rutland and Middlesex; pop. in 1871, 63,672.
The N. portion forms part of the fen district
(see BEDFORD LEVEL), and is devoted chiefly
to grazing. In the "W. and S-. parts the surface
is slightly varied by the swell of two low ridges
of hills. In the S. E. is an extensive plain of
fertile land, and along the banks of the Ouse
and Nene are rich meadows overflowed at high
tides. The general character of the soil is
either gravelly or clayey loam. Although the
greater part of the county was once a royal
forest, it is now very bare of timber. Agri
culture is the only industry. The products are
wheat, oats, and beans, with some barley, hops,
hemp, turnips, and mustard seed. The chief
rivers are the Ouse within the county, and the
Nene along the border, with their tributaries.
There were formerly several small meres or
shallow lakes in the county, but these have all
been drained and brought under cultivation.
The principal towns are Huntingdon, St. Ives,
St. Neots, and Ramsay. Huntingdon is on the
Ouse, 59 m. N. of London ; pop. of the mu
nicipal borough in 1871, 4,243. It was the
birthplace of Oliver Cromwell.

HUNTINGTON, a N. E. county of Indiana,
drained by "W abash and Salamonie rivers ; area,
384 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 19,036. The surface
is slightly uneven and the soil fertile. The
Wabash and Erie canal, and the Toledo, "Wa-
bash, and Western railroad, pass through it.
The chief productions in 1870 were 367,521
bushels of wheat, 288,840 of Indian corn,
81,425 of oats, 42,655 of potatoes, 66,257 Ibs.
of wool, 320,098 of butter, and 12,079 tons of
hay. There were 5,902 horses, 5,094 milch
cows, 5,582 other cattle, 31,058 sheep, and 20,-
565 swine ; 7 manufactories of carriages, 1 of
baskets, 1 of boots and shoes, 4 of furniture,
3 of wagon material, 8 of lime, 5 of saddlery
and harness, 2 of cigars, 3 of woollen goods, 3
tanneries, 3 currying establishments, 6 flour
mills, and 25 saw mills. Capital, Huntington.

HUNTINGTON. I. Daniel, an American paint
er, born in New York, Oct. 14, 1816. While
pursuing his studies at Hamilton college, he

made the acquaintance of Charles L. Elliott,
the portrait painter, from whom he received a
decided bias for art. In 1853 he entered the
studio of S. F. B. Morse, then president of the
national academy of design, and soon after pro
duced " The Bar-Room Politician," "A Toper
Asleep," &c., besides some landscapes and por
traits. In 1836 he spent several months in the
vicinity of the Hudson highlands, and execu-
| ted views near Verplanck's, the Dundcrberg
mountain, and Rondout creek at twilight and
sunset. In 1839 he went to Europe, and in
Florence painted " The Sibyl " and " The Flor
entine Girl." Removing to Rome soon after,
he painted " The Shepherd Boy of the Cam-
pagna" and "Early Christian Prisoners."
Upon his return to New York he was em
ployed for a time almost exclusively upon
portraits, his only historical pieces of impor
tance being "Mercy's Dream" and "Chris
tiana and ner Children," from "Pilgrim's
Progress." For two years he was compelled
by an inflammation of the eyes to relinquish
his labors, and in 1844 went again to Rome,
where he passed the succeeding winter, and
whence he sent back to America " The Roman
Penitents," J' Italy," "The Sacred Lesson,"
" The Communion of the Sick," and some land
scapes. After his return to New York in 1846
he again devoted himself chiefly to portraits.
From 1862 to 1869 he was president of the
national academy of design. Among his works
are "Lady Jane Grey and Feckenham in the
Tower," " Henry VIII. and Queen Catharine
Parr," " The Marys at the Sepulchre," " Queen
Mary signing the Death Warrant of Lady Jane
Grey," and another picture of " Mercy's
Dream," all of which have been made familiar
by engravings. II. Jedidiali Vincent, an Ameri
can clergyman, brother of the preceding, born
in New York, Jan. 20, 1815, died in Pau,
France, May 10, 1862. He studied medicine
and practised for several years, but subsequent
ly took orders in the Episcopal church, officia
ting for a time as rector in Middlebury, Vt.
He afterward went to Europe, where in 1849
he became a Roman Catholic. Returning to
America, he edited the " Metropolitan Maga
zine " in Baltimore, and subsequently the
"Leader" in St. Louis. He afterward re
sided in New York, and finally again went to
Europe. He published a volume of "Poems "
(1843), and the novels "Lady Alice, or the
New Una" (1849), " Alban " (1850), "The
Forest " (1852), "Blonde and Brunette " (1851)),
and "Rosemary" (1860).

HUNTINGTON, Frederick Dan, an American
bishop, born in Hadley, Mass., May 28, 1819.
He graduated at Amherst college in 1839, and
spent the three following years in the Cam
bridge divinity school. In 1842 he was ordained
pastor of the South Congregational church
in Boston, and in September, 1855, became
preacher to Harvard university and Plummer
professor of Christian morals. Although edu
cated in the Unitarian belief, his views of

HUNTINGTON

HUPPAZOLI

theology gradually underwent a change, and
having become convinced that the doctrine of
the Trinity is the true doctrine of the Scrip
tures, he applied for orders in the Episcopal
church, was admitted to the ministry in 1860,
and resigned his office at Harvard in 1864. He
hecame rector of Emmanuel church, Boston,
was elected bishop of Central New York in
January, 1869, and was consecrated April 8.
His principal publications are : " Sermons for
the People " (1856 ; 9th ed., 1869) ; " Sermons
on Christian Living and Believing " (1860); a
course of lectures on " Human Society as illus
trating the Power, "Wisdom, and Goodness of
God" (1860); "Lessons on the Parables of
our Saviour;" "Elim," a collection of ancient
and modern sacred poetry (1865) ; "Helps to
a Holy Lent " (1872) ; and " Steps to a Living
Faith (1873). He has also edited various works
of the Rev. William Mountford (1846), Arch
bishop Whately's "Christian Morals" (1856),
and " Memorials of a Quiet Life," that is, of
the Hare family (1874).

HUNTIfiGTON, Samuel, one of the signers of
the American Declaration of Independence,
born in "Windham, Conn., July 3, 1732, died in
Norwich, Jan. 5, 1796. lie was educated to
the law, and previous to 1775 held the offices of
king's attorney and associate justice of the su
perior court of Connecticut. In January, 1776,
lie entered the continental congress as a delegate
from his native state. In September, 1779, he
succeeded John Jay as president of congress,
and filled that office till 1781, when he re
sumed his seat on the Connecticut bench. He
served again in congress from May to June,
1783, and in the succeeding year was appointed
chief justice of the superior court of Connecti
cut. In 1785 he was elected lieutenant gover
nor of Connecticut, and in 1786 he succeeded
Roger Griswold as governor, to which office
he was annually reflected until his death.

HUNTINGTOBT, William, an English preacher,
born in 1744, died at Tunbridge Wells in Au
gust, 1813. His early life was passed in menial
service and dissipation; but having been con
verted he came to be a zealous preacher among
the Calvinistic Methodists, travelling through
the country, and gaining many followers. He
finally settled in London, and having married
for his second wife the widow of a rich alder
man, his later years were spent in affluence.
He published a great number of discourses and
tracts, which were collected in 20 vols. (Lon
don, 1820). A selection from these was pub
lished by his son (6 vols., London, 1838; 2d
ed., 1856). To his name he appended the let
ters S. S., which he thus explained: "As I
cannot get a D. D. for the want of cash, nei
ther can I get an M. A. for want of learning;
therefore I am compelled to fly for refuge to
S. S., by which I mean sinner saved."

HINTSVILLE. I. A city and the capital of
Madison co., Alabama, on the Memphis and
Charleston railroad, about 10 m. N. of the
Tennessee river, and 165 m. N. of Montgom

ery; pop. in 1870, 4,907, of whom 2,375 were
colored. It is noted for its magnificent scene
ry, is well built, and contains a handsome court
house and other public buildings, a foundery,
two planing mills, gas works, water works, a
bank, a tri-weekly and two weekly newspa
pers, and 11 churches, of which 5 are for col
ored people. Iluntsville female seminary, un
der the charge of the Presbyterians, organized
in 1829, in 1872 had 7 instructors and 101 stu
dents. Huntsville female college, Methodist,
organized in 1853, had 11 instructors and 132
students. II. A town and the capital of Walk
er co., Texas, at the terminus of a branch (8
m. long) of the International and Great North
ern railroad, about 12 m. S. W. of Trinity
river and 135 m. E. by N. of Austin ; pop. in
1870, 1,599, of whom 638 were colored. It is
pleasantly situated on high ground, in the midst
of a rich cotton region, has an active business,
is well built, and is the seat of Austin college,
a flourishing institution under the care of the
Presbyterians, of the Andrew female institute
(Methodist), and of the state penitentiary. The
penitentiary was built in 1848-' 9, and has a
large tract of land connected with it, and fa
cilities for the manufacture of cotton and wool
len goods. A semi-weekly and a weekly news
paper are published.

HUJVYADY, Janos (JonN HUNXIADES), a Hun
garian general and statesman, born toward the
close of the 14th century, died in 1456. His
birth and youth are wrapped in legendary ob
scurity, as is the origin of his surname 'Corvinus
(Holl6si). Under the reign of Albert (1437-'9)
he became ban of a province south of the
Danube, and under Uladislas I. (1439-'44) count
of Temes and commander of Belgrade. Short
ly after the latter appointment he repulsed a
Turkish army of invasion from his province,
and soon after routed the same in Transylvania
(1442). In the following year he made a vic
torious campaign through Servia and across
the Balkan, which conquered peace from the
Turks. Uladislas, however, was induced by
the legate of Eugenius IV. to break it, and
perished with the greater part of his army at
the battle of Varna (1444). Hunyady, who
escaped, was made governor of Hungary du
ring the minority and absence of Ladislas the
Posthumous, son of Albert, who was detained
by the emperor Frederick III. In 1448 Hun
yady was defeated by Sultan Amurath at Ko
sovo, on the confines of Servia and Bulgaria,
but in 1454 he was again victorious over the
enemies of his country and Christendom, whose
expulsion from Europe he made the task of his
life. The heroic defence of Belgrade closed his
career. Of his two sons, Ladislas died inno
cently on the scaffold, and Matthias (Corvi
nus) ascended the throne of Hungary.

HUPPAZOLI, Francesco, a Piedmontese cente
narian, who lived in three centuries, born in
Casale in March, 1587, died Jan. 27, 1702.
His parents sent him to Pvome to be educated,
and obliged him to enter holy orders. He

IIURD

IIURLBUT

travelled in Greece and the Levant, and in
1625 was married at Scio and engaged in com
merce. At 82 years of age he was appointed
consul of Venice at Smyrna. His habits were
regular ; he drank no fermented liquors, ate
little, and chiefly of game and fruits, never
smoked, and went to bed and rose early. lie
was sick for the first time in 1701, when he
had a fever which lasted 15 days, and he re
mained deaf for three months after his re
covery. At the age of 100 years his hair,
beard, and eyebrows, which were white, be
came again black. At the age of 112 years
he had two new teeth, but lost all his teeth be
fore his death, and lived on soup, lie suffered
in the last year of his life from the gravel, and
died of a cold. He was five times married,
and had 24 legitimate and 25 illegitimate chil
dren. By his fifth marriage, which took place
in his 99th year, he had four children. He left
a journal of the principal events of his life.

HlllD, Richard, an English prelate, born at
Congreve, Staffordshire, in 1720, died at Har-
tlebury in 1808. He was the son of a farmer,
and was educated at Cambridge, where he be
came a fellow of Emmanuel college in 1742.
He continued to reside at Cambridge till 1757,
when he became rector of Thurcaston. He
was preacher to the society of Lincoln's Inn
in 1765; archdeacon of Gloucester in 1767;
bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1775 ; pre
ceptor to the prince of Wales and the duke
of York in 1776 ; and bishop of Worcester in
1781. In 1783 George III. offered him the
archbishopric of Canterbury, but he declined
it. His principal publications are : " Commen
tary on Horace's Ars Poetica" (1749); "Dia
logues" (1758); "Select Works of Abraham
Cowley" (1769); " Introduction to the Study
of the Prophecies " (1772) ; several volumes
of " Sermons " (1776-'80) ; " Works of Bishop
Warburton" (7 vols. 4to, 1788); "Life of
Warburton" (1794) ; and " Addison's Works"
(6 vols., 1810). There is a collection of his
works, with an autobiography (8 vols., 1811).

HURDWAR, a town of British India, in the
province and 100 m. N. N. E. of the city of
Delhi; pop. about 5,000, besides many fakirs
or members of the mendicant order, who dwell
in caves. It is a celebrated place of pilgrim
age, beautifully situated at the foot of the Him
alaya mountains, and on the right bank of the
Ganges. Immense multitudes annually assem
ble here at the vernal equinox to bathe in the
river, the religious ceremony consisting only in
immersion ; but the desire of being among the
first to plunge into the water is so strong that
the crowding on the narrow passage leading to
the bathing spot has often been attended with
riotous disturbances. Every 12th year is re
garded as especially holy, and as many as
2,000,000 pilgrims are said to assemble on such
occasions. The fairs held at the time of the
pilgrimage are renowned.

HURLBERT, William Henry, an American jour
nalist, born in Charleston, S. C., July 3, 1827.

He graduated at Harvard college in 1847,
and at the Cambridge divinity school in 1849.
After preaching for some time at Salem, he
went to Europe in 1849 and attended the lec
tures of Ritter, Von Raumer, and Ranke at
Berlin, and returning to Cambridge in 1851
studied during the two following years in the
law school. In 1855 he went to New York,
joined the staff of " Putnam's Monthly " mag
azine, and was dramatic critic of the "Al
bion." From February, 1857, till after the
presidential election of 1860, he was. on the
staff of the New York "Times." In 1861 he
was a delegate to the peace convention at Al
bany. In June of that year, having gone on
private business to Charleston, he was arrested
as a suspected emissary from the north, and
without trial was sent to Richmond, where he
was imprisoned 14 months, but made his es
cape through the lines to Washington in Sep
tember, 1862. In October following he joined
the editorial staff of the New York " World,"
and is still (1874) connected with that journal.
He has been an indefatigable traveller, and in
the discharge of his professional duties has
visited at different times nearly every part of
Europe, has been three times to Mexico, and
has made extended tours in Central and South
America. In 1867 he attended and reported
for the "World" the celebration of the 18th
centenary of the martyrdom of St. Peter at
Rome, and in the same year the meeting of the
emperors of Austria and France at Salzburg;
in 1869 he was present at the opening of the
Suez canal and the subsequent fetes at Con
stantinople ; in 1869-'70 he attended the open
ing and session of the oecumenical council
at Rome; in 1871 he accompanied and re
ported the proceedings of the United States
commission to Santo Domingo; and in 1873
he described in a series of letters the first pas
sage by steam of the higher Andes of Bolivia,
and wrote fully concerning the earthquakes of
San Salvador. He has written numerous po
ems, including hymns that hold a place in
Unitarian collections; has published " Gan-
Eden, or Pictures of Cuba," written during
a health trip to that island in 1853 (Boston,
1854, and London, 1855), and " General Mc-
Cleilan and the Conduct of the War " (New
York, 1864) ; has contributed to numerous peri
odicals in the United States and Great Brit
ain; and is now (1874) preparing a work on
the Pacifi® countries of South America.

HIRLBIT, Stephen Augustus, an American
soldier, brother of W. H. Hurlbert, born in
Charleston, S. C., March 24, 1815. He served
as adjutant of a South Carolina regiment in the
Seminole war in 1835, and practised law in
Charleston till 1845, when he removed to Belvi-
dere, 111. He was a delegate to the state consti
tutional convention in 1847, and subsequently
was repeatedly elected to the legislature. In
May, 1861, he was appointed a brigadier gen
eral of volunteers, commanded at Fort Donelson
after the capture, commanded the 4th division

HURON

in Gen. Grant's army in the movement up the
Tennessee river, took part in the battles of
Shiloh and Corinth, held command at Mem
phis in 1803, commanded a corps in Gen. Slier-
man's army in the movement to Meridian in
1864, succeeded Gen. Banks in command of
the department of the gulf in May, 1864, and
was mustered out of the service at the close
of the war. lie was minister to the United
States of Colombia from 1869 to 1873, when
he returned to Illinois, having been elected a
member of congress.

Hl'ROX. I. A N. county of Ohio, drained
by Huron and Vermilion rivers ; area, 455 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 28,532. It has a nearly level
surface, and an excellent sandy soil. The
Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and Indian
apolis, the Lake Erie division of the Baltimore
and Ohio, and the Lake Shore and Michigan
Southern railroads pass through it. The chief
productions in 1870 were 472,496 bushels of
wheat, 777,083 of Indian corn, 519,905 of
oats, 169,312 of potatoes, 445,909 Ibs. of wool,
809,801 of butter, 60,842 of cheese, and 43,-
747 tons of hay. There were 8,550 horses,
10,113 milch cows, 10,182 other cattle, 92,627
sheep, and 15,244 swine; 5 manufactories of
agricultural implements, 2 of boots and shoes,
12 of carriages, 2 of cheese, 12 of cooperage,
5 of iron castings, 2 of machinery, 1 of malt,
12 of saddlery and harness, 1 of sewing ma
chines, 7 of tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware,
5 tanning and currying establishments, 4 dis
tilleries, 1 brewery, 7 flour mills, 2 planing
mills, and 15 saw mills. Capital, Norwalk.
II. An E. county of Michigan, forming the ex
tremity of a point of land between Lake Hu
ron on the E. and N. E. and Saginaw bay on
the 1ST. W. ; area, 850 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
9,049. The surface is nearly level, watered by
Pigeon, Willow, and Berry rivers, and in some
places marshy. Most of the county is covered
with forests, from which in 1872 were pro
duced 49,000,000 ft. of lumber. There are also
salt wells, from which were obtained 30,615
barrels of salt. The chief productions in 1870
were 58,251 bushels of wheat, 50,194 of oats,
20,778 of peas and beans, 99,005 of potatoes,
10,097 Ibs. of wool, 131,265 of butter, and
7,597 tons of hay. There were 624 horses, 1,788
milch cows, 1,197 working oxen, 1,596 other
cattle, 2,576 sheep, and 1,933 swine; 4 manu
factories of barrels and casks, 2 of hones and
whetstones, 1 of salt, and 29 saw mills. Cap
ital, Port Austin.

HURON, a W. county of Ontario, Canada,
bordering on Lake Huron, and watered by the
Maitland and its tributaries; area, 1,288 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1871, 66,165, of whom 23,740
were of Irish, 19,388 of Scotch, 16,558 of
English, and 5,220 of German origin or de
scent. It is an excellent farming region, and
has good facilities for lumbering and ship build
ing. Near Goderich are extensive salt wells.
The county is traversed by the Grand* Trunk
raihvay. Capital, Goderich.

HUROX, Lake, one of the great lakes on the
boundary between the United States and Brit
ish America, lying between lat. 43° and 46° 15'
N M and Ion. 80° and 84° 40' W. It receives at
its N. extremity the waters discharged from
Lake Superior by St. Mary's river or strait, and
also those of Lake Michigan through the strait
of Mackinaw. Its outlet at the 8. extremity
is the St. Clair river. It is bounded W. and
S. W. by the southern peninsula of Michigan,
1ST. and E. by Ontario, Canada. Georgian bay,
120 rn. long and 50 m. wide, lies wholly within
Ontario, and is shut in from the main body of
the lake by the peninsula of Cabot's head on
the south and the Manitoulin chain of islands
on the north ; and N. of these islands is Mani-
tou bay or the North channel. The whole
width of Lake Huron, including Georgian bay,
is about 190 m., and its length about 250 m.
Its area is computed to be about 21,000 sq. m.
Its elevation above the sea is rated by the
state engineers of Michigan at 578 ft. ; the
Canadians make it 3 ft. less. The level of its
waters fluctuates several feet at irregular pe
riods, as is observed also of the other lakes.
Various estimates are made of its average
depth, the least being 800 ft., and the highest,
which is that of the Michigan state report of
1838, 1,000 ft. In this report it is stated that
soundings have been made in the lake of 1,800
ft. without finding bottom. Few harbors are
found along the W. shore of Lake Huron.
About 70 m. N. of the outlet Saginaw bay
sets back into the land a distance of 60 m.
toward the S. W., and under its islands and
shores vessels find shelter from the storms
which prevail from the N. E. or S. "W. up and
down its wide mouth and across the broadest
expanse of the lake. Thunder bay is a much
smaller extension of the lake into the land,
about 140 m. from the outlet. Steamers
usually stop here for supplies of wood, chiefly
pine and birch, which, with the white pine
largely cut for lumber, and excellent grind
stones obtained from the sandstone rocks, con
stitute the only valuable products of these
shores. At Presque Isle, 28 m. further N., is
another harbor, where the land turns round
toward the N. W., and a straight course is
thence made for Mackinaw, 70 m. distant.
This island is famous as a trading post and fort
in the history of the northwest and of the fur
trade, and is still a point of importance on the
lake. The harbor is deep and well sheltered,
on the S. side of the island, under high hills,
upon which stands the United States fort. The
fishing business is extensively carried on, white-
fish of excellent quality abounding in the lake
near by, and those of the northern part of
Lake Michigan also finding a market here. —
The shores on the Michigan side present few
features of interest. The rock formations are
sandstones and limestones of the several groups
from the Helderberg to the coal measures, the
latter being found in the upper portion of Sag-
j inaw bay, where, however, they are of little

IIUPvONS

importance. Beaches of sand alternate with
others of limestone shingle, and the forests
behind are often a tangled growth of cedar,
fir, and spruce in impenetrable swamps, or a
scrubby scattered growth upon a sandy soil.
Calcareous strata of the upper Silurian stretch
along the E. coast from the outlet nearly to
Georgian bay, and are succeeded by the lower
members of 'the same series down to the Hud
son river slates and the Trenton limestone,
which last two stretch across from Lake On
tario to Georgian bay. In the metamorphic
rocks found in the upper portions of Manitoti-
lin bay copper ores begin to appear, and have
been worked at the Bruce mines. With the
change in the rock formations the surface be
comes more broken and hilly, rising to eleva
tions 600 ft. or more above the lake. — The
rivers that flow into Lake Huron are mostly of
small importance. The principal streams from
Michigan are Thunder Bay river, the Au Sable,
and the Suginaw; from Ontario, the French
(outlet of Nipissing lake), the Muskoka, the
Severn (outlet of Lake Simcoe), and the Notta-
wasaga, all emptying into Georgian bay, and
Saugeen, Maitland, and Aux Sables. The
chief towns on its shores are Collingwood and
Owen Sound (on Georgian bay), Goderich, and
Sarnia (at the entrance of St. Clair river), in
Ontario ; in Michigan, Bay City at the head of
Saginaw bay, and Port Huron opposite Sarnia.
The season of navigation in Lake Huron is
usually from the last of April or early part of
May into December; and the finest season,
during which the waters often continue smooth
and the air mild and hazy for two or three
weeks, is the latter portion of November.

HURONS, a once powerful tribe of American
Indians, originally occupying a small territory
near Georgian bay, a part of Lake Huron.
They were the most northwesterly branch of
the Huron-Iroquois family, the Hochelagas, oc
cupying Montreal island in Cartier's time, being
the most easterly, and the Tuscaroras the most
southerly. 'When the French under Champlain
began to occupy the St. Lawrence in 1609,
the Ilurons were allies of the Algonquins and
Montagnais against the Iroquois or Five Na
tions, the most powerful tribe of the family to
which the Hurons belonged. Champlain joined
the alliance, and in 1C>09 accompanied a Huron-
Algonquin party on an expedition, which de
feated an Iroquois force on Lake Champlnin.
In 1015 he went up to the Huron country with
the Franciscan missionary Joseph le Caron,
and thence accompanied the Hurons on an ex
pedition against a tribe in New York, belong
ing or allied to the Five Nations. The Fran
ciscans continued missions among the Ilurons
till 1629, and Frdre Sagard in his Grand voy
age, (iu pays des Nitrons (Paris, 1632), and ///*-
toire du Canada (Paris, 16-36), describes them
fully and gives a dictionary of their language.
They consisted of four divisions : Attigna-
wantans, Attigneenonguahac, Arendahronon,
and Tohonteenrat ; the first and second being

VOL. IX. — 6

primitive, and the others subsequently adopted.
They called themselves, as the Iroquois did,
Ontwaonwes, real men, and as a tribe Wendat.
Their country was of very limited extent for
an Indian tribe, being only about 75 m. by 25,
lying, as was estimated, in lat. 45° 30' N., near
Lake Huron. In this space there were 30,000
Ilurons in 25 towns of various size, Ossossane
being the chief one. Those on the frontiers
were fortified by a triple palisade, and gallery
within, while many of the others were unpro
tected. The houses were long, containing sev
eral families, two to each fire ; they were built
of poles covered with bark. The Hurons raised
corn, squashes, beans, and tobacco. When
Canada was restored in 1632, the Jesuits be
gan their famous Huron missions, which lasted
till the destruction of the nation. Diseases
had greatly enfeebled them. Then the Iro
quois, supplied with firearms by the Dutch, took
Ossossane in 1 648, killing the missionary Dan
iel among his flock; the next year two other
large towns were destroyed, Brebeuf and Lale-
mant perishing at the stake. The Hurons then
dispersed. The Tohonteenrat surrendered in
a body and removed to the Seneca country.
The rest fled to Charity island in Lake Huron
and to Manitoulin, but famine swept many off.
In 1650 Pere Eagueneau led a few hundred to
Quebec, w r ho were placed on Isle Orleans, and
were soon joined by those left at Manitoulin.
In 1656 the Mohawks carried off a number be
fore the eyes of the French garrison, and the
Onondagas compelled others to join their can
ton. Under more vigorous French rule the
Hurons began to thrive, and in 1667 they re
moved to Notre Dame de Foye, and in 1693 to
Lorette, then after a time to Jeune Lorette,
| which has since been their abode. It is 8 or
9 m. from Quebec, on the river St. Charles, on
an eminence, and consists of 40 or 50 houses
of stone and wood. Their number in 1736
was reported at 60 or 70 men able to bear
arms, and these by 1763 were reduced to 40.
In 1815 the tribe numbered 250, and the offi
cial report of the Canadian government in
I 1872 gives 264, although in 1870 there were
! 329 reported. There are few of pare blood.
Their own language has been superseded by
French, and they have long been practical
Catholics. — Their early Huron cosmogony was
curious. A woman, Ataensic, flying from heav
en, fell into an abyss of waters. Then the tor
toise and the beaver, after long consultation,
dived and brought up earth on which she
rested and bore two sons, Tawescaron and
louskeha, the latter of whom killed his broth
er. The son of louskeha, called Tharonhia-
wagon or Aireskoi, was the great divinity
worshipped by the Hurons and Iroquois. The
tribe was divided into clans or families, and
governed by sachems hereditary in the female
I line. The totem of the whole nation was the
I porcupine. The Tionontates, called by Eng-
! lish colonial writers Dinondadies, were neigh-
I bors of the Hurons, and were crushed soon

HURRICANE

after them. These fled to "Wisconsin, and are
also called Hurons, but after their removal to
Sandusky they assumed the name Wyandot.
(See W YANDOTS.) A grammar of the Huron lan
guage, compiled by Pere Chaumonot, founder
of Lorette, was published at Quebec in 1831.

HURRICANE (Span, huracan), a word of un
determined origin, signifying a violent storm
of wind and rain, generally accompanied with
intense displays of lightning and thunder. Al
though this term was originally special in its
application, it is now frequently used to desig
nate not a peculiar class of storms, but in gen
eral the strength of the most violent winds
known to mariners ; thus we may have storms
in any part of the world whose severest winds
may attain to the force either of a gale, a
storm, or a hurricane, according to the circum
stances that attend their development. The
hurricanes of the Pacific ocean, the China sea,
and the northern portions of the Indian ocean
are called typhoons, and are from a scientific
as well as a practical point of view to be
classed in the same category with the hurri
canes proper ; but in what follows we shall
give only such facts and theoretical views as
belong specially to the hurricanes of the Atlan
tic and southern Indian oceans. The gen
eral subject of storms in their various aspects
will be treated under that title. — To a per
son occupying a stationary position toward
which a hurricane is approaching, it is said
that the storm is frequently heralded a day
beforehand by a peculiar haziness of the at
mosphere, a cessation of the regular trade
winds, a lassitude perhaps induced by the hy-
grometric condition of the air, and an ominous
stillness. Then follow a steady slow fall of
the barometer, light breezes increasing to high
winds from some new quarter of the compass,
generally in the West Indies between S. E. and
N. E., and the obscuration of the entire heavens
by a uniform sheet of cloud of increasing den
sity. When the storm has, in the course of
from 4 to 24 hours, finally arrived at its great
est severity, the fury of the wind and the con
fusion of the scene become indescribable ; in
the midst of a drenching rain and a steady wind
that fills the air with a deafening roar, there
occur prolonged gusts whose violence equals
or excels the force of the strongest waves ; in
such gusts the largest trees are uprooted, or
have their trunks snapped in two, and few if
any of the most massive buildings stand unin
jured. In the midst of the confusion incident
to the general destruction of property and life,
there occurs a mysterious calm, while a break
in the clouds and the diminished rainfall seem
to denote the end of the storm. But in the
course of from five minutes to five hours the
wind bursts with additional force from a direc
tion opposite to that which had before pre
vailed ; whatever had escaped the destructive
force of the first half of the hurricane is likely
to yield to its subsequent fury, and the ship
ping which before perhaps had been blown out

to sea, is now driven back upon the shore. If
now, instead of watching the storm from a
fixed standpoint, we take a general survey of
the ocean over which it rages, we shall observe
that the interval of calm in the midst of the
storm, as observed at the fixed station, corre
sponds to a central spot in a large region of
violent winds and heavy rain ; these winds are
found to blow in spiral lines toward and around
the central region of calms, increasing in force
as they approach that centre. It will also be
seen that the whole system of winds moves
bodily over the surface of the earth. It is thus
easily understood why the stations over which
the centre of the hurricane passes should ex
perience, after the central lull, a wind from
the opposite quarter to that which prevailed
immediately before. — In the u Philosophical
Transactions" for 1G98 Langford represents
the hurricanes of the West Indies as whirlwinds
advancing in a direction opposite to that of the
trade wind. Dampier (1701) says the West
Indian hurricanes and the Chinese typhoons
are of the same nature. In 1801 Capper pub
lished a work on winds and monsoons, in which
he advanced the opinion that the hurricanes
at Pondicherry (1760) and Madras (1773) were
of the nature of whirlwinds whose diameter
would not exceed 120 miles. In 1820 and 1826
Brande broached the theory that the currents
of air in great storms flow from all directions
toward a central point. Dove (1828), in con
troverting the views of Brande, explained the
observed directions of the winds on the as
sumption of general rotary currents or whirl
winds. In 1831 Mitchell expressed the opinion
that the phenomena of storms are the result
of a vortex or gyratory motion. The scanty
observations accessible to the authors previous
ly mentioned were supplemented in 1831 by
Mr. Redfield of New York, who then published
the first of a series of remarkable papers on
the phenomena of storms, in all which he main
tained that hurricanes were progressive vorti
cose whirlwinds. His views were for a long
time controverted in America by Espy and
Hare. Sir William Reid published his first
papers on hurricanes in 1838, and subsequently
other works, in which he developed views simi
lar to those of Mr. Redfield. Of the authors
previously mentioned, some laid a special stress
on the tangential, and others on the centripetal
movements of the winds ; at present, however,
following the studies of Redfield (1839-V56),
Espy (1840-'57), Thorn (1845), Piddington
(1839-'54), Reid (1838-'50), Ferrel (1858), Mel-
drum (1851-"T3), Mohn (1870), Reye (1872),
and many others, it is generally acknowledged
that the combination of both these movements
with an upward one is an essential feature of
every hurricane, so that the movement of the
surface wind is more correctly described as an
ascending spiral. Concerning the direction of
this movement, Dove, and independently of
him Redfield, concluded that in the storms of
Europe and the American coast the winds move

HURRICANE

in a circuit about the storm centre, contrary
to the direction of the motion of the hands of
a watch when the latter is laid on the ground
with its face upward. Furthermore, Dove
made the important remark that in the hurri
canes of the southern hemisphere the air re
volves in an opposite direction ; this general
ization, announced by him, apparently with
some limitations, was by the labors of Reid
(1838) converted into an accepted law. The
law of the rotation of winds around the storm
centre is considered to be of the highest im
portance in its practical bearings on the in
terests of navigation, and may be stated in
other words as follows : If in the northern (or
southern) hemisphere you stand with the cen
tre of the hurricane on your left (or right)
hand, the wind will be on your back. The
determining cause of this law of rotation, and
of the distinction between the hurricanes of
the northern and southern hemispheres, was
imperfectly understood by early writers, as
Taylor and Ilerschel, but was rigidly demon
strated in a remarkable mathematical memoir
by Ferrel in 1858, who showed that the rota
tion of the earth on its axis affects the direc
tion not merely of north and south winds, but
of every wind, in such a manner that in the
northern hemisphere winds tend as they move
forward to deflect to the right hand, but in the
southern hemisphere to the left hand. This ten
dency, which is known either as Poisson's or
as Ferrers law, is in largo storms sufficient
to determine the direction of rotation, while in
storms of comparatively small dimensions acci
dental circumstances may conspire to annul or
even reverse the direction of rotation. Thus
we are provided with the means of harmoni
zing, at least in great part, the views of Hare,
Espy, and others, with those of Redfield and
Reid. — There are unfortunately but few actual
measurements of the velocity of the stronger
winds that occur within the limits of a hurri
cane. In general it appears that the velocity
increases as we proceed from the outer limits
toward the centre of the storm, but suddenly
diminishes to feeble irregular winds and calms
within the central space. From the observed
destructive force of some gusts it has also been
contended that a velocity of 10 m. per min
ute must have been momentarily attained, but
such computations are not very satisfactory.
The highest hurricane winds that have ever
been actually observed have on the British
coast attained a velocity of 130 m. per hour;
in the comparatively small hurricane of August,
1871, the observers in Florida of the United
States army signal corps recorded a velocity
of 85 m. per hour ; all these winds of course
were interspersed with gusts of great violence.
The diameter of the region of calms varies
from 30 m. to a much smaller size, and prob
ably even to nothing. It would seem that in
some hurricanes, as frequently in the smaller
tornadoes on land, the so-called axis of the
storm rises temporarily above the surface of

the earth. The central space in general, ac
cording to Redfield, increases in diameter as
the storm moves away from the equator north
ward or southward. — A heavy rainfall extend
ing far beyond the region of most violent winds
attends all hurricanes. The quantity of water
that falls during the prevalence of these storms
forms a large percentage of the total animal
rainfall over the hurricane regions, and in this
respect they perform an important service to
mankind. At Mauritius in the Indian ocean a
single storm has been known to be attended by
a rainfall of more than 10 inches. The area of
cloud and rain is especially extended on the
1ST. and E. quadrant of the storms of the North
Atlantic ; it is sometimes much contracted,
though rarely wanting, on the west side of the
hurricanes of both the northern and southern
hemispheres. The movements of the clouds
have been carefully observed, especially by
Redfield (1832-'42) and Ley (18G6-'70), and
the result is well expressed by Reye (1872):
"While on the earth's surface the storm wind
in spiral curves gradually flows inward, it
forces the flying storm clouds in spiral curves
outward, and removes them away from the
axis of the cyclone." This generalization was
fully explained from a theoretical mechanical
point of view by Ferrel, and was shown by
him to be a consequence of the rising or up-
w r ard movement of the masses of air that are
drawn into the whirlwind. The clouds then
must move in spirals opposed to the move
ments of the lower winds. Redfield estimates
the angle between the winds below and the
clouds above to be about 22-5°. — The baro
metric disturbance is one of the most remarka
ble features of a hurricane. The nearer one
approaches the centre, the lower is the baro
metric pressure, and at the centre the depres
sion is frequently two or three inches. The
first notice of an approaching hurricane, when
it is yet 100 to 400 m. distant, is usually given
by the steady fall of the barometer ; as we
approach the centre the fall is more rapid.
The law by which the pressure diminishes, as
well as the variations from it, may be illus
trated by two examples, the first showing a
very regular depression, the second giving a
great and rapidly increasing rate of fall. The
first example is Redfield's Cuba hurricane of
Oct. 4-7, 1844, for which we have the follow
ing pressures: at the centre, 27*7 in. ; at 100
m. distance, 28'0 in. ; at 200 m. 29*0 in. ; at
300 m., 29-5 in. ; at 400 m., 29'8in. The
second example is from Buchan (1871), and re
lates to the Bahama hurricane of October,
1866. On the evening of the 1st of October
we have the following pressures : at the cen
tre, 27'7 in. ; at 15 m. distance, or the radius
of the central column, 27*8 in. ; at 300 m.,
29-7 in.; at 500 m., 29*8 in. ; and at 800 m.,
30-0 in. The ratio at which at a fixed station
the barometer falls on the approach of a hurri
cane differs from the preceding by reason of
the progressive motion of the storni toward or

HURRICANE

from the station ; on -board a vessel, the baro
metric fall is further complicated by the move
ment of the observer. The best idea of the
barometric disturbance is given by a chart of
synchronous observations on which isobaro-
metric lines are drawn. These isobars will
be found to be crowded together on one side
(generally the advancing half) of the storm
more than on the other, and to enclose a small
oval or circular region of lowest pressure, al
most if not quite identical with that of the
area of calms, though sometimes apparently in
advance of it. In a general way it may be
stated that the velocity of the wind increases
with the crowding of the isobarometric lines.
The exact relation between the two is quite
complicated, and may be deduced from the
formulas of the above mentioned treatise by
Ferrel, combined with the considerations in
troduced by Peslin in 1867 and Reye in 1872.
It is evident that the law above given for the
rotation of the wind may be converted into a
rule for finding the centre of calms, which will
also hold good for finding the centre of lowest
barometer ; this latter is generally spoken of
as the storm centre or axis. Buys-Ballot has
expressed this generalization in the form known
as Buys-Ballot's rule, viz. : in the northern
hemisphere stand with your back to the wind,
and the lowest pressure will be on your left
hand and somewhat in front thereof; a rule
that applies especially to, and was apparently
suggested by, the behavior of the winds of
hurricanes and similar storms. — The dimen
sions of hurricanes generally increase from day
to day until the dissipation of the entire storm,
while the intensity of the winds is believed on
the average to diminish somewhat ; this will
however depend upon the atmospheric condi
tions favoring the development or the deca
dence of the disturbance. Given a proper sup
ply of warm moist air, and it can be shown that
the central depression with the attendant wind
and rain must steadily increase up to a certain
limit. These favorable circumstances are gen
erally found combined in a remarkable degree
in the region of the Gulf stream, the Kuro Siwo,
and similar ocean currents; accordingly, on
reaching these the area of cloud and rain ex
pands, as also do the diameters of the isobaric
curves. The dimensions of the central depres
sions vary quite irregularly, but appear on the
average to increase as the storm continues;
while the actual height of the barometer at
the centre changes much less, but is believed
to diminish gradually so long as the intensity
of the wind increases. If a curve, enclosing
a region in which the winds attain the force
ordinarily described as a moderate gale, be as
sumed as the limit of the storm, it will be
found that in the earliest stages of the hurri
cane it has a diameter of from 50 to 200 m.,
which increases in the course of 5 or 10 days
to from 400 to 1,200 m.; thus a disturbance
that may have been originally designated as
small or local, increases so as to involve half

the surface of the North Atlantic ocean. — The
track of the centre of the hurricane is a fair
indication of the progress of the storm over
the earth, and much labor has been bestowed
upon such collations of logs of vessels as would
elucidate this important branch of the subject.
But notwithstanding the labor expended, there
have as yet been very few hurricanes traced
back to what appears to be very near their
origin, and in not a single instance has unmis
takable evidence of their origin been adduced.
The general position of hurricane tracks in the
earlier parts of their course therefore remains
obscure, although the immense accumulation
of material by the labors of the various na
tional government weather bureaus is rapidly
dissolving our ignorance on this point. So far
as the known hurricane tracks are concerned,
it may be stated that in the North Atlantic
ocean each uniformly appears to be a segment
of a parabola having its axis coincident with
the parallels of 25° to 35° N. latitude, and the
longitudes of whose apices fall between the
meridians 40° and 100° west of Greenwich,
but mostly between 65° and 85°. At the
southern extremity of the parabolic track, the
branch passes either to the north of or over the
Windward islands, while the northern branch
passes to the south of or over Newfoundland.
In a few cases the first portion of the track
has been traced southeastward nearly to the
coast of Senegambia, and the latter portion
of the track northeastward to the ocean be
tween Iceland and Scotland ; some tracks that
curve northeastward before reaching Ion. 40°
may even strike England or France. The hur
ricanes of the southern hemisphere describe
similar parabolic tracks, which lie at a corre
sponding distance south of the equatorial belt
of calms, and are symmetrically disposed with
reference thereto. Very few have been traced
in the South Atlantic ocean, but in the south
ern Indian ocean the majority of the hurricanes
pass from Sumatra and Java southwestward
to within 500 m. of Madagascar, then south
ward and southeastward. In general, Mohn
(1870) and Reye (1872) state that all cyclones
(of which hurricanes are the grandest examples)
move in the direction in which for the longest
time the warmest and moistest air has been
rising, and producing the heaviest cloud and
rainfall. If we combine with this law the
tendency of the whirlwind as a whole to move
away from the equator, as proved by Ferrel,
it seems to the writer that we have a very
close approximation to the full statement of
the reason for the parabolic form of their orbits.
— The rate of progression of the West Indian
storm centres varies from 50 m. per hour in a
few cases to 10 or 15 as the other extreme ;
that of the storms of the southern Indian
ocean varies from 1 to 20 m. The rate in gen
eral in the North Atlantic increases with the
growth and northward movement of the hurri
cane, and, though sometimes quite variable, is
not so much so as in the case of the similar

HURRICANE

storms of the Indian ocean. The rate of
progress must be carefully distinguished from
the velocity of the wind, as the latter has no
known relation to and far exceeds the former.
—The waves and swells produced by the hur
ricane winds are a most important feature;
these waves are the largest arid most formi
dable known to the mariner. They form with
greatest regularity at points directly in advance
of the approaching storm centre ; at other
points they form a confused mass of crossed
sea; in the neighborhood of the land the con
fusion is increased by the waves reflected from
the shores. Such is the equality of the con
test of opposing waves, that near the central
region these sometimes lose their progressive
movement and become stationary pyramidal
waves, simply rising and falling. The smaller
waves that are propagated in all directions
from the region of severest w r inds, degenerate
into long gentle swells that outrun the storm
in its progress, and announce its presence sev
eral hours or a day in advance of its arrival.
Besides these waves, it is believed that the
extended region of low barometer allows the
formation of a peculiar " cyclone wave," which
is similar to the tidal wave of mid-ocean. The
cyclone wave is coextensive with the area of
low barometer ; it is highest at the central
lowest pressure, where its elevation above the
ordinary sea level should be a foot or more for
each inch of barometric depression. — From
the earliest times the months from July to Oc
tober have been known in the West Indies as
the " hurricane season.' 1 A table published by
Poeyin 1855 gives the distribution by months
of 355 hurricanes recorded on the Atlantic
between 1493 and 1855. According to this
work, there are recorded in this period in all
in January 5, February 7, March H, April 6,
May 5, June 10, July 42, August 96, Septem
ber 80, October 69, November 17, December
7 ; but the annual period is probably not very
correctly shown by this list, because of the
imperfections of the earlier records. More
recently Poey has revised his list and added
many later hurricanes, and has published in
the Paris Comptes Rendus for Nov. 24, 1873,
and Jan. 5, 1874, the results of a comparison
between hurricanes and the frequency of solar
spots. His results seem to remarkably confirm
those of Meldrum, who had previously stud
ied the hurricanes of the Indian ocean from
the same point of view. Poey states that in
the majority of cases the years of the great
est number of hurricanes are also the years
of the greatest sun-spot frequency. The ex
tensive researches of Koppen (1873) have
shown that the amount of heat received from
the sun varies annually with the sun spots,
whence we infer that the variations in solar
heat produce a similar variation in the terres
trial evaporation, and an increased tendency
to the formation of hurricanes. The actual
number of hurricanes visiting any limited re
gion is of course very small. Since the year

1700 the centres of about 25 have been known
to pass quite near the coast of Georgia and
South Carolina, which is by far the most fre
quently visited portion of the United States.
Nearly all those of the Indian ocean pass near
to the islands of Mauritius, Rodriguez, &c. —
Concerning the origin and cause of the hurri
canes of the Atlantic ocean comparatively
little is positively known, but it seems by
analogy that they may originate wherever
the lower stratum of warm moist air is rapidly
elevated above the sea level, whether (1) by
being pushed up over an elevated plateau or
mountain chain, or (2) by the under-running
of a layer of cold dry air, or (3) by the conflict
of two opposed and nearly balanced currents
of warm moist air. In numerous instances one
or the other of these cases seems to have oc
curred; and as these, combined with (4) the
radiation of heat into space, are the prevailing
causes that determine the origin and growth
of storms in general, there seems no reason
in the case of hurricanes to appeal to more
forced theories. The immense mechanical
power stored up in the heat and vapor of
moist air has been abundantly demonstrated
by Espy, Peslin, and Reye. Whenever, by the
action of either of the four causes just men
tioned, the process of condensation of vapor
into cloud, rain, or snow begins, there at once
occurs an influx of air from all sides, and from
below as well as from above, to fill up the par
tial vacuum thus created; this influx toward
a central region is immediately followed, as
shown by Ferrel, by the formation of a whirl
whose subsequent development is entirely de
pendent on the supply of moist air. The hur
ricanes of the southern Indian ocean are thus
generated in the region of calms between the
N. "W. monsoons and the S. E. trade winds of
that ocean. Similarly hurricanes have been
known to originate in the neighborhood of
Florida when a cold north wind has swept
under the warm moist air of the gulf and
ocean. Another class originates in a similar
manner in the western portion of the gulf of
Mexico after a Texas norther has prevailed for
a few days. A few begin in the interior of
Texas when a high barometric pressure on the
gulf, or a low pressure in the western territo
ries, forces or draws the air of the gulf up over
the plains of Texas. But by far the larger class
of the Atlantic hurricanes, including those of
greatest extent and violence, appear to origi
nate between the Windward islands and the
African coast, and generally quite near to the
latter; apparently these begin with heavy rains
in the region of calms, such as are accompa
nied on the African mainland by the peculiar
harmattan and tornadoes of that coast, which
may be, so far as we know, either the conse
quence or the determining cause of the heavy
rains. The storms that originate here may
either move as far west as the American coast
before recurving toward Iceland and Norway,
or may describe a much shorter route, and

HURST

HUSBAND AND WIFE

finally arrive at Great Britain, or possibly at
Portugal. — Rules for the Avoidance of Hurri
canes at Sea. The researches of Bedfield first
led to the suggestion of certain rules for the
direction of navigators. The erroneous theo
ries of the purely circular and of the radial
movement of the hurricane winds early led
their respective advocates to the suggestion of
rules for avoiding the dangers of these storms,
which later and more correct views as to the
spiral or vorticose movement have somewhat
modified. It may in general be said that a
vessel's safety can only be assured by the pos
session of a reliable barometer, either aneroid
or mercurial ; and having this, the navigator
should proceed thus : First, as soon as the
ocean swell, the falling barometer, the clouds,
and the rain announce that a hurricane exists,
though it may be 500 m. from him, he should
at once lay to long enough to ascertain how
rapidly the barometer is falling and the wind
increasing, and in which direction the course
of the wind is changing. If the wind increases
without materially changing its direction, the
storm centre is advancing directly toward him ;
if, however, the wind veers or backs, the di
rection in which the centre is at any moment
may be approximately determined by the rule
above given, viz. : "in the northern or south
ern hemisphere, stand with your back to the
wind, and the centre will be on your left or
right hand, and in front." The mariner may
then by due consideration of his own desired
course, and the customary track of hurricanes
in that part of the ocean, so alter his course as
to avoid the storm centre on the one hand and
a lee shore on the other, and may indeed, if
there be plenty of sea room, take advantage
of the strong wind to hasten his own course.
Further details on this subject are given in all
works on navigation. It is very rare that a
navigator cannot by cautious manoeuvring thus
avoid the dangerous portions of a hurricane;
on the other hand, it is said that many ocean
steamers, relying upon the power of their en
gines, the strength of their build, and their
great speed, deliberately plough through the
heart of the severest storms rather than incur
a possible delay of a few hours in order to
avoid them. The hurricane of August, 1873,
which destroyed over 1,000 vessels on our At
lantic coast, and those of October, 1873, and
February, 1874, afforded numerous instances
of such bravado.

HURST, John Fletcher, an American clergy
man, born near Salem, Md., Aug. 17, 1834. He
graduated at Dickinson college in 1853, taught
ancient languages two years at Ashland, N.
Y., went to Germany and studied theology at
Halle and Heidelberg, returned to the United
States in 1858, and for eight years was pas
tor of Methodist Episcopal churches, chiefly in
Passaic and Elizabeth, N. J. In the autumn of
1860 he took charge of the theological depart
ment of the mission institute of the German
Methodist church in Bremen, Germany, which

' was afterward removed to Frankfort under
the name of the Martin mission institute, where
he continued to be its director for three years,
meantime visiting Russia, the Scandinavian
countries, France, Switzerland, Italy, Great
Britain, Greece, Syria, and Egypt. In 1871
he returned to the United States to become
professor of historical theology in the Drew
theological seminary at Madison, N. J. In
1873 he was elected president of that institu
tion, retaining his chair of historical theology.
Dr. Hurst has published a "History of Ration
alism" (1865), "Outlines of Bible History"
(1873), "Martyrs to the Tract Cause" (1873),
and "Life in the Fatherland: the Story of a
Five Years' Residence in Germany " (1874).
He has translated portions of Hagenbach's
" History of the Church in the 18th and 19th
Centuries" (2 vols., 1869), Van Osterzee's
" Lectures in Defence of St. John's Gospel "
(1869), and Lange's " Commentary on the Epis
tle to the Romans," with additions (1870).

HURTER, Friedrich Emanuel von, a Swiss his
torian, born in SchafFhausen, March 19, 1787,
died in'Gratz, Aug. 27, 1865. He studied the
ology at Gottingen, and was gradually pro
moted to high ecclesiastical offices ; but he was
opposed on account of his high-church views,
and his Geschichte Papst Innocenz III. itnd
seiner Zeitgenossen (4 vols., Hamburg, 1834-
'42) resulted in 1841 in his withdrawal from
the church over which he presided in SchafF
hausen, and he joined the church of Rome in
1844. In 1846 he was appointed historiog
rapher of the emperor of Austria, who en
nobled him. Among his later publications is
GescJiichte des Kaisers Ferdinand II. mid sei
ner A eltern (11 vols., SchafFhausen, 1850-'64).
HUSBAND AND WIFE. The laws which gov
ern the marital relation, and determine the
mutual rights and obligations of the parties, are
among the most important of all laws ; and it
| is to be regretted that in the United States
they are less accurately determined and less
ascertainable than any others of equal conse
quence. The reason is that we received from
England this portion of the common law, and
have only of late years perceived its repug
nance to reason and justice. We now know
that the feudal system, upon which the com
mon law is founded, did not give to woman
that place and those rights which she ought to
have. It not only regarded husband and wife
as one, but the husband as that one. The sen
timent that the law needs vast change in this
respect is proved to be universal by the fact
that there is no one of our states in which it
has not undergone great modification; and the
difficulty in making the change in such a way
that the essential character of the marriage re
lation may not be impaired, is proved by the
great diversity in the provisions recently in-
' troduced. in the frequent changes among them,
• and in the very frequent expression of opinion
! that much harm has already been done. In
I the East woman has always been regarded as

HUSBAND AND WIFE

a servant of her husband, as his property, and
as his plaything; and man has always been
held in absolute political subjection. In Greece
there were republics and democracies, in name
at least ; and certainly that political tyranny
which had prevailed among eastern nations
was greatly lessened, and the domestic tyran
ny of the husband over the wife was modified
about equally. But the liberty of Greece was
the liberty of comparatively few, who were
masters of the many ; and the most conspicu
ous of the women of Greece were those who,
like Sappho and Aspasia, had indeed escaped
from the gynceceum, but had not found a home.
In Koine there was- a wider spread and bet
ter protection of personal right, for even un
der the most despotic emperors municipal
rights and privileges were generally preserved
throughout the Roman world ; and woman had
also advanced so far, that the Roman matron
has been since regarded as the type of female
dignity and purity. But much was yet want
ed. The feudal system, built upon the ruins
of western Rome by the Teutonic nations, a
new race, acknowledging the new influence
of Christianity, made an immense advance, be
cause it gave to every man, even the serf, a
definite place and definite rights, and in theory
at least knew nothing of unlimited power ; and
to woman it gave the unspeakable advantage
of Christian marriage. It introduced, proba
bly as a means of remedying or of mitigating
social mischiefs which it could not otherwise
restrain, the spirit of chivalry, whose control
ling principle was the sentiment of honor; and
while this newly developed sentiment exerted
a very wide and beneficial influence upon all
the relations and all the departments of socie
ty, in nothing was it more useful than in the
profound respect and tender care which it
sought at least to inspire toward woman. It
was under this feudal system that the law grew r
up which forms the basis of the law under
which we live. It was by the gradual eleva
tion of woman in social and domestic life, by
the side of man as he rose toward the posses
sion of political rights, that so much good was
attained as exists in that law. That the law
of husband and wife in the United States is in
advance of any that has existed or now exists
elsewhere, we are confident. The tendency
of the law, however incomplete it may yet be,
is to respect and secure the rights of woman
in such wise as to preserve her influence and
her happiness; and to make the relation of
husband and wife not a form of servitude or
the means of oppression, but the central origin
of blessings which could spring from no other
source, and may pervade the whole life of both
sexes. As much the greater part of the com
mon law is still in force with us, and whatever
laws wo have are but various modifications of
that law, we purpose, first, to give a condensed
view of the principles of the common law in
its reference to the relation of husband and
wife ; and then to present a brief statement of

the principal variations from this law in all
the states of this Union. Promises to marry,
the contract of marriage, and settlements or
contracts in view of marriage, will be consid
ered in the article MAERIAGE. Here we shall
treat only of the effect of marriage on the
property of a woman, and of the husband's
liability for her debts contracted previous to
marriage, and of her power to bind him by her
contracts, and of his obligations for her, after
marriage. — 1. A woman's real estate remains
her own after marriage ; but her husband ac
quires a right to it (or, in law language, an es
tate in it) for her life, and an estate in it for
his own life as soon as a living child is born
to them, by what is called tenancy by cur-
tesy. lie has therefore a life estate in her
land either for her life or for his own life ;
but when this life estate ceases, her rights,
or the rights of her heirs, revive absolute
ly. He cannot transfer her land by his deed,
nor can she by her deed ; but in this coun
try it may be transferred by the joint deed
of the two. In different states different pre
cautions are provided by law, to make it sure
that she executes such a deed of her own free
will. Thus, in many of the states, she must
be examined apart from her husband, by some
magistrate, as to her willingness and her mo
tives for thus disposing of her land. On the
other hand, by her marriage, she acquires an
indefeasible right of dower to the use of one
third of his lands during her own life, of which
she cannot be divested but by her own act. In
this country she usually releases her right of
dower, when she wishes to do so, by adding her
release to her husband's deed of the premises;
but his creditors cannot generally get it in
any way without her consent. (See DOWER.)
2. A woman's personal property in possession
becomes absolutely the husband's property by
marriage. By this is meant all the money in
her hands, and all her chattels, as furniture,
plate, pictures, books, jewels, &c. Nor can he
by common law give to her either of these or
chattels of his own during marriage, because
transfer of possession is essential to a valid
transfer by gift, and her possession is his pos
session in law. lie however may give to her
by his will what ho chooses to, and may doubt
less make a valid transfer of anything in pos
session as a gift causa mortis. (See GIFT.) The
reason why the personal property of the wife
is thus absolutely transferred to the husband
may have been, in part, the lingering influence
of the falsity which regarded the wife herself
as only the property of the husband ; but it was
much more, probably, the comparative worth-
lessness of personal possessions in the feudal
ages, when the common law began. "NY hat-
ever were the reasons, they have little force or
application at present. A single woman may,
in general, make whatever contracts a man
can. If by such a contract she acquires and
receives into her own hands any property, it is
property in possession, of which we have spo-

HUSBAND AND WIFE

ken. But if the thing which she purposes to
obtain by the contract be money, or the right
to dividends, or any other right, and it remains
to be received or acquired after her marriage,
she herself possesses not the thing, but a right
to demand and receive the thing ; and this right
is a thing in action (usually called by the Nor
man French phrase a chose in action), and not a
thing in possession. This chose in action, be
longing to the wife, passes by marriage to the
husband, but not absolutely. What he acquires
is the right to reduce it to possession, and
thereby make it absolutely his own. But he
is not obliged to reduce it to possession ; and
if he does not, and dies, the wife surviving him,
all his right is gone, and the chose in action re
mains as absolutely the property of the widow
as it would have been had she never married.
The principal choses in action to which this
rule applies are notes, bills of exchange, and
evidences of debt generally, and scrip or stocks
standing in her name. The principal ways of
reducing it to his possession are four : by col
lecting and receiving the debt for his own use;
making a new contract with the debtor in his
own name, in substitution for her name; hav
ing the scrip or certificates or other evidences
of debt transferred to himself and his own
name ; or suing the debt and recovering a judg
ment upon it. If she dies before him, and be
fore he has reduced them to his own posses
sion, he may now do so as her administrator,
and then retain them for his own benefit. If
he dies (having survived her) without having
reduced them to possession, his next of kin
may take out letters as her administrator, and
reduce the choses in action to possession for
his heirs. In regard to the debts she owes at
the time of marriage, the general rule is that
the husband is answerable for all of these. The
creditor may demand payment of the husband,
and may sue him. This is equally true of the
debts which had matured and become due
before marriage, and of those which were
not payable until afterward ; and his liability
for her debts is the same, whether he re
ceives much with her, or little, or nothing.
But this liability is not absolute ; for if she
dies before he pays the debt, and before a
judgment is recovered against him, his lia
bility ceases. But if she leaves choses in ac
tion not reduced to the husband's possession,
these are still liable for her debts, and the hus
band, or whoever becomes her administrator,
must apply them to pay these debts, and retain
only the surplus for the husband or his next
of kin. If he dies before he pays her debts,
and before judgment is rendered against him,
his estate is not liable, but the wife's liability,
which was suspended during his life, revives
at his death. This is true although he received
a large property with her. But when a wife
thus brings a considerable property to her hus
band, courts of equity sometimes interfere on her
application and compel him and his assignees
to make an equitable settlement out of it for the

support of herself and of the children of the
marriage, if any. 3. We will now consider the
contracts or obligations of the wife made or en
tered into during marriage. In the first place, a
married woman has at common law no power
whatever to make a valid contract which shall
bind herself or her husband. If money is due
for her services, or for money lent by her, it
is due not to her, but to him. Her time and
her labor and her money are all his. But she
may act as his agent in making a contract, and
if authorized by him, he is bound. This au
thority may be express, or it may be implied
from frequent acts of agency recognized by
him, as when she acts as his clerk, accepting
or paying bills, &c. ; and then it does not differ
in law from a common agency. There is, how
ever, an important and peculiar agency of the
wife, growing out of her duties ; and this is an
implied agency for the husband in all domestic
matters, as the hiring of servants, and the pur
chase of provisions and of clothing for the family.
As this grows out of necessity, it is measured
by it ; but the law means a reasonable neces
sity, and this is only an appropriateness. For
any contract of this sort made by her, which
is in due conformity with her husband's means,
station, and manner of life, would bind him,
and he would not be permitted to deny his
authority. If they exceeded this necessity or
appropriateness, the husband could be held
only on some evidence of authority or assent,
as that he knew the contract, or saw the things
bought, and made no objection. The question
then occurs, How far is the husband bound to
supply the necessities of the wife? The gen
eral rule on this subject is, that he is bound
to supply her with all necessaries, which
means in this case all her reasonable wants,
while they live together. If they separate be
cause he drives her away without sufficient
cause, the same liability continues ; and then
he is responsible for any debts she may con
tract for this purpose. Even Lord Eldon de
clared that " where a man turns his wife out
of doors, he sends with her credit for her rea
sonable expenses." (3 Espinasse, 250.) There
can hardly be a sufficient cause for thus casting
her off without his liability for her subsistence,
unless it be her adultery ; but this certainly is
sufficient. If, however, she voluntarily leaves
him, she cannot carry his credit with her, un
less she leaves with sufficient cause ; and while
it is not easy to determine in all cases what
would be sufficient cause, perhaps it would be
safe to say that any cause which would be suf
ficient for divorce, either from the bonds of
matrimony or from bed and board, would jus
tify her leaving. While the law is now pretty
well settled, both in England and in this coun
try, as to when the husband is liable for neces
saries furnished to the wife, and when he is
not, a question of much moment remains, and
of late years has been much considered, viz. :
On what ground does this liability rest? It
must rest on his authority as proved, or as im-

HUSBAND AXD WIFE

plied by law ; or else upon his marital duty as [
husband. It' it stands upon the former foun
dation, it must follow that he may always pre- |
vent his liability by express refusal and prohi- j
bition ; or, in other words, that he always has j
the power to limit or prevent his liability. If j
it stands on the foundation of his marital duty, |
this he is bound to discharge, and his prohibi- j
tions are of no effect. The former was the
unquestionable rule in England and here until I
very recently, no other ground for the husband's j
liability being recognized in any way than his |
authority express or implied ; and therefore it j
was held that if a wife lived with her hus- j
band, no one could recover from him the price j
of any necessaries supplied to her, under any j
circumstances, against his prohibition. Thus, ;
Chief Justice Hale said (1 Siderfin, 109): "The
law will not presume so much ill, as that a |
husband should not provide for his wife's ne
cessities." At length, however, it began to be
seen that there might be cases of incapacity,
as where the husband was wholly insane, and
could not be supposed to constitute an agent
or confer authority upon any one ; and yet it
could not be supposed that the wife was to be
deprived of the necessaries of life which her
husband's means were amply sufficient for, be- 1
cause he could not authorize the purchase of |
them. Again, we have seen that the husband ;
who drives his wife abroad sends his credit |
with her; but the absurdity of supposing that
he constitutes her his agent struck the court, j
Baron Alderson said (Read v. Legard, 6 Exch., I
636) : "It is a monstrous proposition that a j
man who drives a woman out of doors, who j
hates, who abominates her, actually gives her j
authority to make contracts for him." In that I
case the principle was recognized that the
right of a wife to a proper support grows out '
of the marital relation, and that the liability
of the husband for necessaries supplied to her j
is a consequence of that right. This case was ;
so decided in 1851 ; but like decisions had pre- ]
viously been made in this country, and are now !
the settled law. It must be remembered, how- ;
ever, that there is an essential difference be
tween the case where husband and wife cohabit, '
and that where they live apart. In the first, i
the presumption of law is strong against the
husband ; and he can resist payment for sup
plies furnished only by showing that they were j
not necessaries, either because they were un- i
reasonable and inappropriate in kind or in j
amount, or that the wife was sufficiently sup
plied elsewhere. But if she have separated
from him. no such presumption exists. Who
ever supplies the -wife now, takes upon himself
the risk of being able to show that she needed
what he gave her, and that there was no such
sufficient cause for the husband's withdrawing
his support of her as would destroy his liability
for what was furnished to her. — As to the sep- \
aration of husband and wife by mutual con
sent, the law has always regarded it as a kind
of voluntary divorce, and formerly refused to

admit or acknowledge it in any way. Of late
years, however, it seems to be otherwise. It
is still a rule of the common law that husband
and wife cannot contract with each other, be
cause they are not two persons, but one. Hence
no bargain which they can make directly with
each other has any force or effect at law. But
if they make their bargain through and by
means of a third person, by way of trustee, and
enter into certain covenants with him, a court
of equity, and for some purposes a court of law r ,
would permit this trustee to maintain such
actions as might be necessary to give full effect
to the bargain, although its only purpose were
to provide for the separation of the parties.
There are, however, two qualifications to this
rule. One is, that if the court see that the
terms of separation are catching, oppressive,
or unreasonable, they will not carry them into
effect. The other is, that the locus poenitenticB
is always kept open. Although the bargain
provides that the separation shall be perpetual,
and all its terms are founded upon this suppo
sition, and are clothed for this purpose in the
most stringent language, yet, as soon as either
party wishes the separation to cease, it must
cease. The husband cannot deprive himself
of his right to recall his wife ; and she cannot
deprive herself of her right to return. By
the " custom of London," a married woman
may be a sole trader there, but nowhere else
in England. In the United States, partly by
statute and partly by adjudication, a married
woman would generally be permitted to carry
on business on her own account, much as a
single woman might, in case of continued aban
donment, or long imprisonment of the hus
band, or alienage and non-residence, or with
the knowledge and consent of the husband,
which might be inferred from circumstances.
It should be added that the husband is liable
for the wife's wrong doings in many cases ; as
for her libel, slander, fraud, cheating, and gen
erally for injurious misconduct. If she com
mit a crime in his presence, the law presumes
that he ordered it ; but he may remove this
presumption by evidence of its falsity. — Im
portant changes have been made in the com
mon law by statutes in the several states of
the American Union. In Maine, the property
owned by the woman at marriage or acquired
afterward remains hers, and she has the same
rights as any other owner in respect to it, ex
cept that if the property came from the husband
she cannot dispose of it without his joining.
In Xew Hampshire, after three months' deser
tion or any act of the husband entitling her to
divorce, she may hold and dispose of the prop
erty by her acquired and the earnings of the
minor children, and the judge of probate may
order provision made for her from her hus
band's property in the state, and her property
shall descend on her death as if she were single.
A married woman may will her property to
any one except her husband, but not cut off
his right by the curtesy. In Vermont, the su-

HUSBAND AND WIFE

preme court may authorize a deserted wife to
convey her estate and the personal estate
which came to the husband by the marriage,
and require the debtors of the husband in her
right to make payment to her ; and the pro
ceeds of the earnings of herself and the minor
children are to be at her disposal. The rents
and profits of the wife's real estate, and the in
terest of the husband in it, are exempt from
execution for his debts, and can only be con
veyed by her joining in the deed. The wife
may dispose of her property by will. In Mas
sachusetts, a married woman may be a sole
trader, and may dispose of her real estate by
will, leaving to the husband his estate by the
curtesy, and also her personal estate, but not
more than one half of it away from the husband
without his consent. She holds as her own
all property howsoever acquired except by
gift from her husband, but she cannot convey
real -estate or shares in a corporation except
with his consent, or the consent of a judge of
the supreme, common pleas, or probate court.
Her real estate and corporate shares are not
liable for the husband's debts. In Rhode
Island, a married woman may dispose of her
real estate by will, saving to the husband his
estate by the curtesy, and whatever deposits
are made by her in savings banks are her own.
In Connecticut, the personal property acquired
by the husband in right of the wife he holds
as trustee for her, except to the extent he may
have paid ante-nuptial debts, and his interest
in her real estate cannot be taken for his debts
during her life or the life of children. The
proceeds of her real estate are deemed hers in
equity and not subject to his debts, and all ac
quired by her personal services is hers abso
lutely. Her savings deposits are also her own,
and there are further provisions in case of
abandonment or abuse by the husband. In
New York, the wife's property, acquired be
fore or after marriage, is subject to her own
control, and not liable for the husband's debts,
but is liable for her own debts, while the hus
band is not liable except in case of neglect to
take out administration on her estate on her
death. In New Jersey, the real and personal j
estate of the wife, whenever acquired, remains
hers, free from her husband's control and not
liable for his debts. In case of his desertion
she may have provision made for her from his
estate. In Pennsylvania, the property of the
married woman, acquired before or after mar- '
riage, remains hers, free from any control by ;
the husband, and liable for her debts, but no"t >
for his. The husband is not liable for the j
wife's ante-nuptial debts. In case of desertion [
or neglect by the husband to provide for her, |
she has the rights of a feme sole. In North i
Carolina, the interest of the husband in the
real estate of the wife cannot be taken on
execution for his debts, nor can it be disposed j
of by the husband except with her consent. ;
In Florida, the property of the wife remains
hers, and the husband is not liable for her

ante-nuptial debts. The same is true in Ala
bama, and substantially so in Mississippi. In
Louisiana the laws are peculiar, but it is com
petent for the married woman to carry on
business as a sole trader, and to have all her
property secured to her own use, or the prop
erty of the two may be in common. In Texas
the laws are also peculiar, but the property of
the wife owned at the marriage, or acquired
by gift, devise, or descent afterward, remains
her own, though subject to the husband's
management. In California, the property
owned by either the husband or wife at the
time of the marriage remains his or hers, as
does also any that either may acquire by gift,
bequest, devise, or descent afterward, with the
rents, issues, and profits thereof; but all other
property acquired by either afterward is com
munity property. Husband and wife may con
tract with each other or with third persons re
specting property, as they might if unmarried ;
his separate property is not liable for her ante
nuptial debts, nor her separate property or
earnings for his debts, and dower and curtesy
are abolished. "While the husband is liable for
the wife's support, the wife is also liable for
his support if he has no separate property and
they have no community property, and he from
infirmity is incompetent to support himself.
The husband has the management of commu
nity property, and may dispose of it otherwise
than by will. In Kentucky, a married wo
man may dispose of her separate property by
will, and the husband during her lifetime has
only the use of it. In Ohio, a married woman
may dispose of her separate property by will,
and the interest of the husband in any of her
property cannot be taken for his debts during
her life or the life of children. In Indiana, the
wife's property remains hers and may be dis
posed of by will, and is not liable for the hus
band's debts. In the other western states, it
may be said generally, the real and personal
estate owned by the wife before marriage or
acquired by her afterward is at her absolute
disposal, by contract, conveyance, or will, and
not subject to her husband's debts ; while the
husband is not liable for her debts contracted
before marriage nor for those contracted after
ward, except where she may have acted as his
agent and with the proper authority. The re
cent changes in the southern states have been
in the same direction. It is not easy to say
exactly how the estate by the curtesy stands
in the states where it is not expressly saved by
statute, but we should say any valid convey
ance of the wife's estate would cut it off, and
in some states it has been -decided that the
broad terms in which statutes secure to mar
ried women their property will preclude cur
tesy attaching. — In other respects statutes
have made important changes respecting the
rights of women which do not depend on
the status of marriage. Thus, in the territory
of Wyoming the distinction of sex in the ex
ercise of the elective franchise has been abol-

HUSBANDRY

HUSBANDS

ished, and women of the requisite age are ad
mitted to vote and are eligible to office. In Il
linois, by statute, women passing the necessary
examination may be admitted to the bar, and
in some of the other states they have been ad
mitted by the courts without question. Wo
men who pay school taxes are voters at school
meetings in a number of the states, and in re
cent elections in some, notably in Illinois and
Iowa, women have been chosen county super
intendents of schools. In Michigan a woman
has for several years been state librarian.

HUSBANDRY, Patrons of, an organization of
agriculturists in the United States. Its origin
is attributed to Mr. O. II. Kelley, a native of
Boston, who in 1866, being then connected
with the department of agriculture in Wash
ington, was commissioned by President John
son to travel through the southern states and
report upon their agricultural and mineral re
sources, lie found agriculture in a state of
great depression consequent upon the radical
changes wrought by the civil war and the
abolition of slavery. At the same time there
was much dissatisfaction among the farmers of
the west and northwest in consequence of the
alleged high charges and unjust discriminations
made by railroad companies in the transporta
tion of their products. The farmers also com
plained of the exorbitant prices exacted by mid
dlemen for agricultural implements and stores.
Mr. Kelley conceived the idea that a system of
cooperation, or an association having some re
semblance to 'the order of odd fellows or ma
sons, might be formed with advantage among
the dissatisfied agriculturists. For this purpose
a plan of organization was determined upon
by him and Mr. William Saunders, of the de
partment of agriculture. The name chosen for
the order was "Patrons of Husbandry," and
its branches were to be called granges (Fr.
grange, a barn). The constitution of the or
der provides for a national grange and state
and subordinate granges. There are ceremo
nies of initiation, rituals, and injunctions of
secrecy, though in some respects the order is
not secret. The officers of a grange, whether
national, state, or subordinate, are elected by
the members, and comprise a master, over
seer, lecturer, steward, assistant steward, chap
lain, treasurer, secretary, gate keeper, Ceres,
Pomona, Flora, and lady assistant steward.
Women are admitted to membership upon the
same terms and with equal privileges as men,
but only those persons interested in agricultural
pursuits are eligible. Regular meetings of the
national and state granges are held annually,
while subordinate granges usually meet monthly
or oftener. The constitution was adopted, and
on Dec. 4, 1867, the national grange was or
ganized in AVashington ; its headquarters are
now in Georgetown, D. C. In the spring of
1868 Mr. Kelley founded a grange in Harris-
burg, Pa., one in Fredonia, N. Y., one in Co
lumbus, O., one in Chicago, 111., and six in
Minnesota. The number of granges soon began

! to multiply rapidly, and in 1874 they lyid been
I organized in nearly every state and territory
of the Union. In 1871, 125 granges were es
tablished ; in 1872, 1,160 ; in 1873, 8,667 ; and
in the first two months of 1874, 4,618. At the
beginning of 1874, the number of granges in
the United States was 10,015, with a member
ship of 750,125. The total number of members
in April, 1874, was estimated at about 1,500,-
000. The order has its greatest strength in
the northwestern and western states, and is
well represented in the south. At the annual
meeting of the national grange in St. Louis,
Mo., in February, 1874, a declaration was
adopted setting forth the purposes of the or
ganization as follows: "To develop a better
and higher manhood and womanhood among
ourselves ; to enhance the comforts and attrac
tions of our homes, and strengthen our attach
ment to our pursuits; to foster mutual under
standing and cooperation ; to maintain invio-
I late our laws, and to emulate each other in
labor ; to hasten the good time coming; to re
duce our expenses, both individual and corpo
rate ; to buy less and produce more, in order
to make our farms self-sustaining ; to diversity
our crops, and crop no more than we can cul
tivate ; to condense the weight of our exports,
selling less in the bushel, and more on hoof and
in fleece ; to systematize our work, and calcu
late intelligently on probabilities ; to discoun
tenance the credit system, the mortgage sys
tem, the fashion system, and every other sys
tem tending to prodigality and bankruptcy.
We propose meeting together, talking together,
working together, buying together, selling to
gether, and in general acting together for our
mutual protection and advancement as occasion
may require. We shall avoid litigation as much
as possible by arbitration in the grange. We
shall constantly strive to secure entire harmony,
good will, vital brotherhood among ourselves,
and to make our order perpetual. We shall
earnestly endeavor to suppress personal, local,
sectional, and national prejudices, all unhealthy
rivalry, all selfish ambition. Faithful adherence
to these principles will insure our mental, moral,
social, and material advancement." One of
the chief aims of the organization is to bring
producers and consumers, formers and manu
facturers, into direct and friendly relations ;
for this purpose cooperation is encouraged
among farmers in the purchase of agricultural
implements and other necessaries direct from
the manufacturer. The organization therefore
is maintained for social and economic purposes,
and no grange can assume any political or sec
tarian functions.

HUSBANDS, Herman, an American revolu
tionist, born in Pennsylvania, died near Phila-
| delphia about 1794. Removing to Orange co.,
! N. C., he became a member of the legislature
and leader of the "regulators," a party which
was organized in 1768 for the forcible redress
of public grievances. He published in 1770 a
full account of the rise of the troubles. A

HUSH

HUSS

battle took place in 1771 between Gov. Try on
with 1,100 men and 2,000 of the insurgents on
the banks of the Alamance, in which the latter
were defeated. Husbands escaped to Penn
sylvania, where he was concerned in the whis
key insurrection in 1794, and was associated
with Albert Gallatin, Breckenridge, and oth
ers, as a committee of safety. ^

HUSH, a town of Roumania, in Moldavia,
near the Pruth, 36 m. S. E. of Jassy ; pop.
about 13,000. It is the seat of a Greek bishop,
and has a normal school. Here, on July 25,
1711, the peace was concluded between Rus
sia and Turkey which saved Peter the Great
and his army on the Pruth from destruction
or captivity.

HISKISSOtf, William, an English statesman,
born at Birch-Moreton, Worcestershire, March
11, 1770, died at Eccles, Lancashire, Sept. 15,
1830. lie was originally intended for the
medical profession, and in his 14th year went
to Paris to pursue his studies. Here he resi
ded for several years, and adopted the revolu
tionary doctrines of the day ; but he afterward
abandoned them, and became private secre
tary to the British ambassador, Lord Gower,
with whom he returned to England in 1792,
and in 1795 was made undersecretary of state
for Avar and the colonies. In 1796 he entered
parliament, of which, with the exception of
two years, from 1802 to 1804, he remained a
member until his death. Following the for
tunes of Mr. Pitt, he retired from office with
him in 1801, and became secretary of the
treasury on the formation of the new Pitt
ministry in 1804. He attached himself to Mr.
Canning, taking office with him in 1807 and
retiring in 1809. In 1814 he was appointed
chief commissioner of woods and forests, and
in 1823 entered the cabinet as president of
the board of trade and treasurer of the navy,
which offices he retained until the death of
Canning. In the Goderich cabinet and in that |
of the duke of Wellington he held the office |
of secretary for the colonies till May, 1829,
when the redemption of a pledge formerly
given obliged him to vote against his col
leagues, and he resigned. As a public man he
was chiefly known by his speeches on finan
cial and commercial subjects ; and he is re
garded as the great pioneer in the free-trade
movement. In 1823 he carried through par
liament an act for removing various restric
tions upon commerce. He was also active in
procuring the repeal of the combination laws
and the relaxation of the restrictions on the
exportation of machinery. He was present at
the opening of the Liverpool arid Manchester
railway, and at Parkside, while conversing
with the duke of Wellington, was run over by
a locomotive, and died the same evening.

Hl'SS, John, a Bohemian religious reformer,
born about 1373, burned at Constance, July
6, 1415. His surname was derived from his
place of birth, Hussinetz, near the border of
Bavaria. lie studied first in his own town,

then in Prachatitz, and finally at the uni
versity of Prague, AYhere he graduated in 1393.
In 1398 he began to give lectures in philosophy
and theology ; in 1401 he became president of
the university faculty of theology ; and in 1402
he was installed preacher in the Bethlehem
chapel, which had been established ten years
earlier for the purpose of enabling the people to
hear preaching and the Scriptures in the Bohe
mian tongue. He became the confessor of the
queen, and the head of a party of priests and
scholars who meditated reforms in discipline
and in doctrine. His first polemical treatise,
De Sanguine Christi Glorificato, was occa
sioned by the pilgrimages to Wilsnack to see
and worship the miraculous blood of Christ
there shown on the consecrated host. In suc
cessive sermons preached before the arch
bishop, Huss next arraigned the misconduct
of the clergy even in high places ; demanded
the despoiling of the churches of useless orna
ments, that the poor might be fed and clothed ;
and called upon the secular officers to hinder
and punish the open vices of ecclesiastics.
This excited strong opposition, which was in
creased when the ordinance of Charles IV.,
giving special privileges to the native over
the foreign students, was revived by IIuss,
and the Poles and Germans deserted the uni
versity, depriving the city of thousands of its
population. Soon afterward he became rec
tor of the university. Other circumstances,
connected with the papal schism, aided to em
broil Huss with the archbishop and his friends.
It became a warfare between the university
and the cathedral. The pope interfered for
the latter ; and, fortified by his bull, at the
close of the year 1409 the archbishop Sbinko
burned 200 volumes of the works of Wycliflfe,
which had been deposited in his palace.
Against this act Huss protested, in a spirited
treatise addressed to the new pope, John
XXIII., with arguments of such weight that
a commission of doctors condemned the arch
bishop for irregular action. The cry of heresy
was now raised against Huss, and he was sum
moned to Rome to answer this charge. The
] court, the university, and even the archbishop
sent a defence of his orthpjd^xypand Huss sent
advocates to plead his cause before the cardi
nals, but they were not heard. He was con
demned as a heretic, and ordered to quit
Prague ; and the city was placed under ban so
long as he should remain there. Finding it
vain to resist, he left the city ; but his retire
ment only inflamed the zeal of his partisans.
The books which he wrote at this period, half
apologetic, half polemic, tended more and
more to widen the breach and to arouse acts
of violence. An outbreak in the city followed ;
| the partisans of IIuss were victorious, the arch-
I bishop fled, and IIuss came back to his chapel,
' emboldened to preach more and more vehe
mently against prevalent corruptions. He
i praised the king for upholding the cause of
\ truth and purity against the mandates of eccle-

HUSS

siastical power; and in his treatise Contra
Occultum Adversarium, written at this time,
he maintains the doctrine that kings have the
right to rule the clergy not less than the laity.
Soon more serious trouble arose. The pope
had issued bulls of excommunication against
King Ladislas of Naples. Political reasons in
duced the court and university to side with
the pope ; but IIuss immediately published two
tracts against the papal bulls. A reaction fol
lowed. The partisans of the pope were insult
ed in the streets, and IIuss had great difficulty
in restraining the fury of his followers. This
was followed by tracts which maintained that
the clergy were only stewards of the wealth
in their possession, which belonged to the
people and not to the church. Huss contended
that not the priest's word, but the power of
God, wrought the change of transubstantiation ;
claimed that any one moved by the Spirit had
the right to preach ; and asserted the right of
conscience as against the edicts of popes and
councils. He was accused of denouncing the
veneration of saints and the worship of the Vir
gin, but defended himself against these charges.
lie was again summoned to Rome, but took no
heed of the order. Repeated attempts were
made by the king to compose the difficulties,
but without success. A decree was procured
from Rome, putting Huss again under ban as
an incorrigible heretic ; and at the earnest re
quest of the king, he left Prague for a time,
and found shelter in his native town. In a
long treatise upon "The Church," he holds that
the papacy began to exist at the time of Con
stantino, and that its usurpations threatened to
secularize and so to destroy the gospel.. Fre
quent letters and occasional secret visits con
firmed the zeal of his partisans. lie continued
to preach in the cities to immense crowds ;
and after a time, to be nearer Prague, he re
moved his residence to the castle of Cracowitz,
which had been offered him as a refuge. In
1414, at the instigation of the emperor Sigis-
mund, Pope John XXIII. summoned a general
council at Constance, and IIuss was cited to
appear. Trusting to the safe-conduct which
the emperor granted him, he resolved to obey.
On his arrival at Constance he was welcomed
by the pope Avith a fraternal greeting, and was
promised that the former interdict should be
suspended. For some timo IIuss was free to
come and go, to discuss and preach. Expect
ing a special trial, he had prepared his defence.
But on NY>A T . 28 he Avas arrested and imprisoned
in the cathedral, and several days later trans
ferred to the Dominican convent, on an island
in the lake. An accusation against IIuss had
been drawn up, and three commissioners \vere
appointed to visit him in prison, question him,
take down his ansAA'ers, and report to a council
of doctors. IIuss asked, but was not allowed,
the assistance of counsel. His private letters
Avere opened, his appeals to the emperor disre
garded, and the kind treatment of his prison
keepers could hardly compensate for the in

justice of his enemies. The flight of the pope
only aggravated his suffering. He was trans-
furred to the strong castle of Gottleben, heav
ily chained. A new commission was appoint
ed to examine and decide in his affair, and
at the beginning of June, 1415, he Avas re
moved to the Franciscan convent in Con
stance. On June 5 he had his first hearing
before the council, which had already at a
previous session condemned the heresy of Wyc-
liffe. The attempt of IIuss to ansAver the first
article of accusation was met by such a storm
of outcries that he was unable to proceed ; and
the hearing was adjourned until the 7th, when
it Avas reneAved in presence of the emperor.
He Avas accused of denying transubstantiation ;
of treating St. Gregory as a buffoon ; of teach
ing the doctrines of Wycliffe ; of encouraging
his friends to resist the mandates of the arch
bishop ; of exciting a schism of the state from
the church ; of appealing from the pope to
Christ ; of counselling the people to violent
and aggressive measures ; and of boasting that
he could not have been forced either by pope
or emperor to come to Constance, unless he
had chosen to come. Some of these charges
he admitted ; some he denied. A third hear
ing Avas allowed him on the next day, Avhen
39 articles, extracted from three of his works,
were read, touching various points of his
teaching concerning the church, its officers and
sacraments. Huss was then summoned to re
tract these heresies, which he declined to do,
affirming that he could not retract what he had
never said, nor ought he to retract what he had
said until its falsity was shown. On June 24
the books of IIuss Avere condemned to be
burned as heretical, and on July G he Avas
brought before the council to receive sentence.
After a discourse by the bishop of Lodi, from
the text, " that the body of sin bo destroyed,"
the 39 articles Avere read, together with the
sentence of condemnation of the books of Huss,
and finally the sentence of himself, to be de
graded from the priesthood as an incorrigible
heretic, and given over to the secular arm.
He Avas then conducted out of the city to an
open field, in which a stake and a pile of Avood
had been erected. Here he was again sum
moned to abjure his heresies, but at the sum
mons he only knelt and prayed, using the words
of the psalms of David. As the fire was
kindled, he began to sing Avith a loud A'oice the
Christe cleison, and only ceased Avhen he Avas
suffocated by the rising flame. The ashes of
the pile were gathered and cast into the Rhine ;
all traces of the event were carefully oblitera
ted, and to this day the exact spot remains un
certain. — The writings of IIuss, not including
the minor pieces lately published by Palacky,
are of four kinds, dogmatic and controversial,
exegetical, sermons, and epistles. Of the first
class, there are 27 separate treatises, besides
fragments. Of the class of exegetical writings,
there are fiVe treatises, on the acts of Christ,
the passion of Christ, a commentary on seven

HUSSARS

HUTCHINSON

chapters of the first epistle to the Corinthians,
notes on other canonical epistles, and an ex
planation of ten of the Psalms. In the class
of sermons there are 38, two of which were
written at Constance, hut never preached.
There are two series of letters, the first of
14, written before, and the second of 56, writ
ten after his departure from Prague to Con
stance. The complete works of IIuss were
published in quarto at Strasburg in 1525.
For his biography, see Neander's "Church
History" (vol. v., Torrey's translation), Gil-
lett's " Life and Times of IIuss" (2 vols., Bos
ton, 1863), and Palacky's Documents Magistri
Joannis Vitam, Doctrinam, etc., illustrantia
(Prague, 1869). (See HUSSITES.)

HUSSARS (Hung, husz, 20, and dr, rate), the
national cavalry of Hungary and Croatia. The
name is also applied to some bodies of light
cavalry in the armies of other countries of Eu
rope. It is derived from the fact that in the
loth century every 20 houses in Hungary were
required to furnish a soldier with a horse and
furniture. The arms of the hussars are a sabre,
a carbine, and pistols. Their regimentals were
originally a fur cap with a feather, a doublet,
a pair of breeches to which the stockings were
attached, and a pair of red or yellow boots.
There were five regiments of hussars under
Tilly at Leipsic in 1631. The name first be
came general in the 18th century, when regi
ments of hussars were organized in the princi
pal European armies.

HUSSITES, the name of the followers of John
Huss in Bohemia, who, on his death in 1415,
organized as a sect, making the offering of the
cup to the laity in the sacrament of the eucha-
rist the badge of their covenant. Upon the
death of Wenceslas (1419) they refused to rec- f
ognize the emperor Sigismund as king, where- I
upon the Hussite civil war broke out. They |
were divided into two parties, the more mod- |
erate Calixtines and the more rigid Taborites.
Ziska, the leader of the latter party, assembled
them on a mountain which he fortified and
called Mt. Tabor, captured Prague, pillaged the I
monasteries, and in several engagements de
feated Sigismund. (See ZISKA.) After the death
of Ziska (1424) his place was filled by a monk
named Procopius, who defeated the mercena
ries sent under the name of crusaders by the
emperor and the papal legates in the battles
of Mies (1427) and Tachau (1431), and whose
troops ravaged Austria, Franconia, Saxony,
Catholic Bohemia, Lusatia, and Silesia. A
council held at Basel in 1433 made concessions
which were accepted by the Calixtines. (See
PROCOPIUS.) The Taborites, rejecting the com
promise, were vanquished in the battle of Prague
(1434), and by the treaty of Iglau (1436) the
compromise of Basel was accepted by Bohe
mia, and Sigismund was recognized as king.
On the death of Sigismund (1437) controver
sies again arose, and civil wars were prosecu
ted with no decisive results, till at the diet
of Kuttenberg (1485) a peace was established

by King Ladislas which secured Catholics and
Calixtines in the possessions they then held. —
See Schubert, Geschiclite des Hussitenkr legs
(1825); Grunhagen, Geschiclitsquellen der Hus-
sitenkriege (1871); Bezold, Konig Sigmund
und die Reichskriege gegcn die Hussiten (1872) ;
and Palacky, UrkundlicJie Beitrdge zur Ge-
schichte des Hussite nkrieges (1872).

HUTCHESON, Francis, a Scottish philosopher,
born in Ireland, Aug. 8, 1694, died in Glasgow
in 1747. He studied theology at Glasgow, and
became pastor of a Presbyterian congregation
in Ulster. His "Inquiry into the Original of
our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue" (1720) gave
him distinction among philosophers. In 1728
he published a treatise on the "Nature and
Conduct of the Passions and Affections," and
in the following year was appointed professor
of moral philosophy in the university of Glas
gow. His Synopsis MetapJiysiccB Ontologiam
et Pneumatologiam complectens, and his Phi
losophic Moralis Institutio, were written as
text books for his classes. His most complete
and elaborate work, the "System of Moral
Philosophy," appeared after his death (2 vols.,
Glasgow, 1755;, with a biography by Dr. Wil
liam Leechman. Truth he divides into logical,
moral, and metaphysical. Logical truth is the
agreement of a proposition with the object it
relates to ; moral truth is the harmony of the
outward act with the inward sentiment ; and
metaphysical truth is that nature of a thing
wherein it is known to God as that which ac
tually it is, or in other words it is its absolute
reality. He maintained that besides the five
external senses we possess also internal senses,
one of which occasions the emotions of beauty
and sublimity, and another gives rise to the
moral feelings. He introduced the term moral
sense, and maintained the existence of certain
universal propositions, derived not from ex
perience, but from the connate power of the
mind (menti congenita intelligendi vis).

HUTCHIMSON, a S. E. county of Dakota, in
tersected by the James or Dakota river ; area,
432 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 37. The surface is
diversified, the soil good. Capital, Maxwell.

HUTCHINSON, Anne, founder of a party of An-
tinomians in New England, born at Alford,
Lincolnshire, England, in 1591, died near
New Amsterdam (now New York) in August,
1643. She was the daughter of the Rev.
Francis Marbury. Becoming interested in the
preaching of John Cotton, and of her brother-
in-law John Wheelwright, she followed the
former to New England with her husband,
arriving in Boston Sept. 18, 1634. She was
admitted a member of the Boston church, and
rapidly acquired influence. She instituted
meetings of the women of the church to dis
cuss sermons and doctrines, in which she gave
prominence to peculiar speculations which even
on her voyage had attracted the attention and
caused the displeasure of her fellow passengers.
Such were the tenets that the person of the
Holy Spirit dwells in every believer, and that

HUTCHINSON

the inward revelations of the Spirit, the con
scious judgments of the mind, are of paramount
authority. Two years after her arrival the
strife between her supporters and her oppo
nents broke out into public action. Among
her partisans were Vane, Cotton, Wheelwright,
and the whole Boston church with the excep
tion of live members, while the country clergy
and churches were generally united against
her. •' The dispute," says Bancroft, "infused
its spirit into everything; it interfered with
the levy of troops for the Pequot war ; it in
fluenced the respect shown to the magistrates,
the distribution of town lots, the assessment
of rates ; and at last the continued existence
of the two opposing parties was considered in
consistent with the public peace." The pecu
liar tenets of Mrs. Hutchinson were among
the 82 opinions condemned as erroneous by
the ecclesiastical synod at Newtown, Aug. 30,
1637; and in November she was summoned
before the general court, and after a trial of
two days was sentenced with some of her as
sociates to banishment from the territory of
Massachusetts, but was allowed to remain du
ring the winter at a private house in Roxbury.
It was her first intention to remove to the
banks of the Piscataqua, but changing her
plan she joined the larger number of her
friends, who, led by John Clarke and William
Coddington, had been welcomed by Roger
Williams to his vicinity, and had purchased
by his recommendation from the chief of the
Narragansetts the island of Aquidneck, subse
quently called Rhode island. There a body
politic was formed on democratic principles, in
which no one was to be " accounted a delin
quent for doctrine." The church in Boston,
from which she had been excommunicated,
vainly sent a deputation to the island with the
hope of reclaiming her. After the death of
her husband in 1642, she removed with her
surviving family into the territory of the Dutch.
The Indians and the Dutch were then at war,
and in an invasion of the settlement by the
former her house was attacked and set on fire,
and herself and all her family, excepting one
child who was carried captive, perished either
by the flames or by the weapons of the savages.
" HtTCHL\SOi\, John, an English Puritan revo
lutionist, born in Nottinghamshire about 1616,
died in Sandown castle, Kent, Sept. 11, 1664.
He was a man of family and of good education,
and was married at Richmond, July 3, 1638, to
Lucy, daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, governor
of the tower of London, with whom he sub
sequently settled on his estate at Owthorpe.
After the commencement of the civil war he
declared for the parliament and was appointed
governor of Nottingham castle, which he held
until the close of the war. lie afterward rep
resented Nottingham in parliament, and, as a
member of the high court of judiciary ap
pointed for the trial of the king, concurred in
the sentence pronounced on him. The subse
quent course of Cromwell, however, met with

the disapproval of Ilutchinson. At the res
toration he was comprehended in the general
act of amnesty, but was subsequently arrested
on a suspicion of treasonable conspiracy, and

| after a detention of ten months in the tower
was removed to Sandown castle, where he died
of an aguish fever brought on by confinement
in a damp cell. His wife survived him many
years, and left a memoir of him, which is
valuable as a record of events. It was first
published from the original manuscript in 1806
(4to, London), and several other editions have
since appeared.

mJTUUKSON, John, an English philosopher,
born at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, in 1674, died
Aug. 28, 1737. After receiving a careful pri
vate education, he served as steward in several
noble families. As riding purveyor of the
duke of Somerset, master of the horse, he
made a large collection of fossils. In 1724
appeared the first part of his "Moses's Prin-
cipia," in which he disputed the Newtonian
theory of gravitation. In the second part
(1727) he continued his criticisms of Newton,
and maintained, on Biblical authority the doc
trine of a plenum in opposition to that of a
vacuum. From this time one or more of his
uncouthly written volumes, containing a sort
of cabalistic interpretation of the Hebrew
Scriptures, appeared annually. His leading
idea is that the Scriptures contain the ele
ments of all rational philosophy as well as of
general religion. The Hebrew language has
not only its literal but its typical sense, every
root of it being significant. His philosophical
and theological works were published in Lon
don in 13 vols. (1749-' 65).

HITCHIASON, Thomas, governor of the prov
ince of Massachusetts, born in Boston, Sept.
9, 1711, died at Brompton, near London, in
June, 1780. He was the son of a merchant of
Boston who was long a member of the coun
cil, and graduated at Harvard college in 1727.
After engaging without success in commerce,
he began the study of law. He represented
Boston for ten years in the general court, of
which he was for three years speaker. lie be
came judge of probate in 1752, was a council
lor from 1749 to 1766, lieutenant governor from
1758 to 1771, and was appointed chief justice
in 1760, thus holding four high offices at one
time. In the disputes which led to the revo
lution he sided with the -British governor. The
mansion of Ilutchinson was twice attacked in
consequence of a report that he had written
letters in favor of the stamp act, and on the
second occasion (Aug. 26, 1765) it was sacked,
the furniture burned in bonfires in the street,
and many manuscripts relating to the history
of the province, which he had been 30 years
in collecting and which could not be replaced,
were lost. He received compensation for
his losses, but none of the assailants were
punished, although the proceedings were de
nounced by resolution in a public meeting.

i In 1767 he took a seat in the council, claiming

HUTTEN

it ex officio as lieutenant governor ; but both
the house and council resisted his pretension,
and he abandoned it. The legislature was
inclined to restore him to the council in 1768,
until it was announced by his opponent James
Otis that he received an annual pension of
£200 from the crown. When in 1709 Gov.
Bernard was transferred to Virginia, the gov
ernment of Massachusetts fell to Hutchinson.
The popular excitement had already been in
creased by the arrival of British troops, and
after the Boston massacre a committee of citi
zens, headed by Samuel Adams, forced him to
consent to the removal of the regiments. He
received his commission as governor in 1771,
and his whole administration was characterized
by duplicity and avarice. In 1772 Benjamin
Franklin, then in London, procured some of
the confidential letters of Hutchinson and his
brother-in-law Andrew Oliver ; these were
forwarded to Massachusetts, and proved that
he had been for years opposing every part of
the colonial constitution, and urging measures
to enforce the supremacy of parliament; and
the result was a petition to the king from the
assembly and the council praying for his re
moval from the government. The last of his
public difficulties was when the people of Bos
ton and the neighboring towns determined to
resist the taxation on teas consigned by the East
India company, two of the consignees being
sons of Gov. Hutchinson. The popular com
mittees were resolved that the tea should not
be landed, but should be reshipped to Lon
don. A meeting of several thousand men, held
in Boston Dec. 18, 1773, demanded the return
of the ships, but the governor refused a pass.
On that evening a number of men disguised
as Indians repaired to the wharf, and emptied
342 chests of tea, the whole quantity that had
been imported, into the bay. In the following
February the governor sent a message to the
legislature that he had obtained his majesty's
leave to return to England, and he sailed on
June 1. The privy council investigated his
official acts, and decided in favor of " his
honor, integrity, and conduct." He was re
warded with a pension. lie published the fol
lowing works: "The History of the Colony
of Massachusetts Bay, from the First Settle
ment thereof in 1628 until the Year 1750 " (2
vols., London, 1765-7); "A Brief State of
the Claim of the Colonies" (1764); and a
" Collection of Original Papers relative to the
History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay "
(1769). From his manuscripts a history of
Massachusetts from 1749 to 1774 was prepared
by his grandson, the Rev. John II. Hutchin
son, of Trentham, England (1828).

HUTTEN, llrich Yon, a German scholar and
reformer, born in the castle of Steckelberg,
near Fulda, April 20 or 22, 1488, died in Switz
erland, Aug. 29, 1523. When 11 years old he
was placed in the monastery of Fulda, that he
might there become a monk ; but at 15 he ran
away from the cloister to the university of

Erfurt, where he was supported by his friends
and relatives. A disease then new to Europe
raged in many places, and when it appeared in
the summer of 1505 in Erfurt both students
and teachers took to flight. Hutten went to
Cologne, where he studied the writings of
Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. This city
was the stronghold of the old system, led by
Ortwein, Hoogstraten, Tungern, Pfetferkorn,
and all who were then termed Dunkelmanner
or "Obscurants." Here, in the headquarters
of monkish peculiarities, Hutten collected ma
terials for the sketches of the Epistolcc Olscu-
rorum Virorum. Even in Cologne, however,
the new spirit of classic study had found a
home under the care of Johannes Rhagius,
who endeavored to form a taste for the works
of classical antiquity and what was then termed
poetry, a word limited by the Obscurants to
pure and ancient Greek and Latin metrical
composition. Hutten became his friend and
pupil, and, when he was driven away under
the accusation of corrupting youth and theol
ogy, followed him to Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
where a new university was opened in 1506.
At the inauguration Hutten published his first
poem, Carmen in Laudem MarcMce, in praise
of the mark of Brandenburg. Here he re
ceived the degree of M. A., and remained till
1508. The disease which had driven him from
Erfurt again seized on him, and he sought
health in travel. In northern Germany he was
everywhere warmly received, but was wrecked
on the Baltic and reduced to great poverty.
In this condition he went to the university
of Greifswald, and was kindly provided with
clothing and hospitably entertained by the
burgomaster Wedeg Lotz, and by his son, a
professor in the university. An unexplained
change in their treatment of him compelled
him to leave the town ; and on the way, late
in December, he was set upon by their ser
vants, lying in wait for him, beaten, stripped
of the garments furnished him, and robbed
of all his money and papers. In this condi
tion, diseased and wounded, he came to Ros
tock, where he wrote a famous satire on Lotz
(Klagen gegen Lbtz), calling on all the schol
ars of the new school in Germany to avenge
him. In Rostock he lectured on the classics,
established intimate relations with the profes
sors, and worked for the interests of the clas
sic school. In 1511 he went to Wittenberg,
where he published his Ars Versificatoria, re
garded in its day as a masterpiece. Thence he
wandered through Bohemia and Moravia to
Vienna, where for a time he appears to have
been prosperous and courted. Finally arriving
at Pavia in April, 1512, Ilutten resolved to
study law. But three months later the city
wns besieged by the emperor Maximilian, and
Hutten, who had taken part in the contest, be
lieved himself in danger of death, and wrote
his famous epitaph. Plundered of all he pos
sessed, he fled to Bologna. Here his disease
broke out again, and, repulsed by every one,

IIUTTEX

IIUTTON

badly treated, and starving, lie enlisted as a
soldier in the emperor's army. The results of
his Italian studies were embodied in the satire
of QVTIC (" Nobody "). He returned to Ger
many, suffering from his old disease, in 1514.
He thought he had succeeded in effecting a
cure by the use of gum guaiacum, and wrote a
treatise, De Gualaci Medicina etMorbo Galileo.
An accident now brought him into note.
Duke Ulrich of Wurtemberg had fallen in
love with the wife of his cousin Johanri von
Ilutten, and murdered the husband. When
llutten heard of this he wrote his u Deplora-
tions," in which he cried for vengeance. He
availed himself of this deed to call on German
towns to free themselves from ducal tyranny.
His denunciations made the tyrant a byword.
But a short time elapsed before llutten found
himself in a new quarrel, ardently defending
Reuchlin, who as a scholar was protesting
against the wholesale destruction of all lie-
brew books, for which the Cologne Obscurants
were clamoring. With the aid of many friends
he published the celebrated EplstolcB Ol)scu-
Torum Virorum, a work which greatly aided
the reformation, and previous to this his Tri-
wnplms Capnionis ("The Triumph of Reuch
lin"), the publication of which was long de
layed by the scruples of Erasmus. In 1515 he
again went to Rome, ostensibly to study law ;
but having become involved in a quarrel, he
fled to Bologna, which he was obliged to quit
for a like reason. After visiting Ferrara and
Venice, he found it necessary to return to
Germany. At Augsburg he was presented to
the emperor, who gave him in public the
spurs of knighthood. He was then sent by
the elector of Mentz on a mission to Paris,
where he established intimate relations with
the learned. Retiring to his family castle of
Steckelberg, Huttcn, having written by way
of introduction several epigrams on Pope Ju
lius IT., edited the work of Laurentius Valla
entitled De Falso Credita et Ementita Dona-
tione Constantinl Maf/ni (1517). In 1518
he found a protector in Albert, margrave of
Brandenburg, whom he invited in a glowing
panegyric to place himself at the head of united
Germany. In the same year he accompanied
the margrave to the diet of Augsburg, where
Luther was to reply to Caietan. But "Hut-
ten, now the brilliant knight, troubled himself
but little as to the poor Augustinian monk ;"
he was full of a project for uniting the princes
of Europe against the Turks, and was fascinated
with the idea of becoming an influential states
man. The work in which he preached this
crusade he printed himself at Steckelberg in
1519, entitling it Ad Principes Germanic?, ut
Bellum Turds Invehant Exhortatoria. In it
he upbraids the court of Rome and the German
nobility. These latter had been previously
more fiercely attacked in his " Dialogue of the
Court Enemy," in which Hutten boldly as
sumes a tone like that of modern republican
ism. In 1519 he left the margrave to join
VOL. ix. — 7

Franz von Sickingen in the Swabian league
against his old enemy Ulrich of Wurtemberg.
Yet during this war he wrote the "Triad," a
most vehement diatribe against Rome, and
edited two books of Livy hitherto unpublished.
The war over, he retired to the castle of Sickin
gen, whence he sent forth the bitterest attacks
on Rome. He discovered in the library of Ful-
da a manifesto of Henry IV. against Gregory
VII., and turned its German sentiment to such
account that Leo X. demanded him as a pris
oner. Driven from his castle, he took refuge
in Ebernburg, and now began to write in
German prose and verse ; and these tracts are
among his most daring productions. For a short
time he fought in the army of Charles V. at
the siege of Metz ; and at this time Francis I.
offered him the place of councillor at his court,
llutten next wandered to Switzerland, and
(Ecolampadius led him to Basel, where he
hoped for support from Erasmus, who however
turned against him, and even took pains to set
the council of Zurich against him. Finally
Zwingli obtained for him an asylum on the
island of LTnau in the lake of Zurich, where,
worn out by war and suffering, he ended his
short and tumultuous life. Among his works
not mentioned above are Dialog}, Fortuna,
Fclris (including the Trias, Mentz, 1520), and
his poems (Frankfort, 1538). His collected
works were published by Munch (6 vols., Ber
lin, 1821-"7). An Index BibliograpJiicus Ilut-
tenianus was published by Booking at Leipsic
in 1858, and a new edition of his works in 7
vols. in 1859. Many biographies of llutten
have been written ; one of the best and most
recent is that by Strauss (2 vols., Leipsic, 1857 ;
2d ed., 1871).

IIITTON, Charles, an English mathematician,
born in Newcastle-on-Tyne, Aug. 14, 1737,
died Jan. 27, 1823. At the age of 18 he be
came an usher in the village of Jesmond, and
some years later the master of the school. In
1700 he removed to Newcastle, where he wrote
his "Practical Treatise on Arithmetic and
Book-Keeping" (17G4). His "Treatise on
Mensuration " (1771), and " Principles of Bridg
es, and the Mathematical Demonstration of the
Laws of Arches" (1772), led to his being
chosen in 1773 professor of mathematics in
the military academy of Woolwich. He was
elected fellow of the royal society in 1774, and
was foreign secretary of that body from 1779
to 1783, when he resigned. He published a
large number of papers in its "Transactions,"
and made all the mathematical calculations for
Maskelyne's experiments for determining the
mean density of the earth. About 1795 he un
dertook, aided by Drs. Pearson and Shaw, the
labor of abridging the " Philosophical Transac
tions." The work was completed in 1809, Hut-
ton receiving £6,000 for his share in it. Being
compelled by bad health to resign his profes
sorship at Woolwich, he received a retiring
pension of £500. His principal works, in ad
dition to those above mentioned, are: "Tables

BUTTON

HUXLEY

of the Product and Powers of Numbers " (Lon
don, 1781); "Mathematical Tables" (1785);
"Course of Mathematics" (3 vols., 1793); and
"Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary "
(2 vols. 4to, 1795). He was also for many
years editor of the "Ladies 1 Diary."

BUTTON, James, a British natural philoso
pher, born in Edinburgh, June 3, 172G, died
March 20, 1797. He entered the university of
Edinburgh in 1740, and began the study of
law, which he subsequently abandoned for
medicine, taking the degree of M. D. at Ley-
den in 1749. He engaged in the manufacture
of sal ammoniac from coal soot, inherited from
his father a small estate in Berwickshire, be
took himself to agriculture, finally removed to
his native city in 1768, devoting himself es
pecially to the study of geology, and made sev
eral important discoveries. In 1795 he pub
lished the results of 30 years' study in his
" Theory of the Earth," assuming that heat is
the principal agent of nature.

HUXLEY, Thomas Henry, an English natural
ist, born in Ealing, Middlesex, May 4, 1825.
He spent two and a half years at Ealing school,
in which his father was ono of the masters, but
with this exception his education was 'carried
on chiefly at home. In 1842 he entered the
medical school of Charing Cross hospital, and
in 1845 received the degree of M. B. from the
university of London, being placed second in
the list of honors for anatomy and physiology.
He began his literary career while yet a student
by contributing to the '• Medical Times and
Gazette" a paper on that layer in the root
sheath of hair which has since borne his name.
In 1846 he joined the medical service of the
royal navy, and was stationed at Ilaslar hospi
tal, whence he was selected the same year to
accompany Capt. Stanley, as assistant surgeon
of the Rattlesnake, in his expedition to the
South Pacific. After a four years' voyage of
circumnavigation, during which surveys of the
east coasts of Australia and Papua were made,
the ship returned to England in November,
1850. While absent Mr. Huxley, who made
extensive observations on the natural history
of the seas traversed, sent home a number of
communications, the first of which, read before
the royal society in 1849, is " On the Anatomy
and Affinities of the Family of the Medusae."
On his return some of these papers were elab
orated by him and published in the "Philo
sophical Transactions" of the royal society, of
which, in June, 1851, he was elected a fellow.
In 1853 he resigned his position in the navy,
and in the following year he succeeded Prof.
Edward Forbes as professor of natural history
in the royal school of mines, an office which
he still holds (1874). lie has since resided in
London, where he has devoted himself to
constant scientific labor and research. In ad
dition to his annual course of lectures on gen
eral natural history, he has delivered many
lectures on kindred subjects to mixed audi
ences, and has done much to popularize sci

ence. He was Ilnnterian professor in the
royal college of surgeons from 1863 to 1869,
and was twice chosen Fullerian professor of
physiology in the royal institution. In 1869
and 1870 he was president both of the geologi
cal and the ethnological society ; in 1870 he
was president of the British association for the
advancement of science ; and in 1872 he be
came secretary of the royal society. Since
1870 he has been a member of the royal corn-
mission on scientific instruction and the ad
vancement of science. From 1870 to 1872 he
served on the London school board, where he
was chairman of the committee which drew up
the scheme of education adopted in the board
schools. During this time he took an active
part in its deliberations, and became conspicu
ous by his opposition to denominational teach
ing, and particularly by his denunciation of the
doctrines of the Roman Catholic church. In
1872 he was elected lord rector of the univer
sity of Aberdeen. — Prof. Huxley has done as
much probably as any living investigator to
advance the science of zoology, and the world
is indebted to him for many important discov
eries in each of the larger divisions of the ani
mal kingdom. His earlier labors were devoted
chiefly to the lower marine animals, with which
he formed a most thorough empirical acquaint
ance during his Pacific voyage, and he has
described many which previously had been
either unknown or very imperfectly studied.
During the past ten years he has devoted him
self assiduously to the comparative anatomy
and the classification of the vertebrata, and
has embodied the results of his more important
researches in numerous monographs. In his
first published work, on the medusas, he called
attention to the fact that the body of these
animals is formed of two cell layers, which may
be compared to the two germinal layers of the
higher animals; an idea which has since found
its complete expression in the gastrraa theory
of Haeckel. To him also is due the vertebral
theory of the skull, which has since been de
monstrated so clearly by Gegenbaur ; and he
was the first to extend to man Darwin's theory
of natural selection. In his three lectures on
"Man's Place in Nature," delivered in 1863,
he made an elaborate exposition of the doctrine
of evolution as applied to man, asserting that
the anatomical differences between man and
the highest apes are of less value than -those
between the highest and the lowest apes.
Among his many popular lectures, that " On
the Physical Basis of Life," delivered in 1868,
has attracted much attention. In it he ad
vances the idea that there is some one kind of
matter common to all living beings ; that this
matter, which he designates ns protoplasm,
depends on the preexistence of certain com
pounds, carbonic acid, water, and ammonia,
which when brought together under certain
conditions give rise to it ; that this protoplasm
is the formal basis of all life, and therefore all
living powers are cognate, and all living forms,

IIUY

KUYGENS

from the lowest plant or animalcule to the
highest being, are fundamentally of one char
acter. Prof. Huxley is a corresponding mem
ber of the principal foreign scientific societies,
and lias received honorary degrees from the
universities of Breslau and Edinburgh. His
works are as follows : "The Oceanic Ilydro-
zoa" (1857) ; "Evidence as to Man's Place in
Nature" (1863); "Lectures on the Elements
of Comparative Anatomy" (1864); "Lessons
in Elementary Physiology" (1806); "An In
troduction to the Classification of Animals"
(1869); "Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Re
views" (1870); and "Critiques and Address
es" (1873). He is the author also of a large
number of papers published in the journals
of the royal, the Limifeaii, the geological, and
the zoological societies, and in the memoirs of
the geological survey of Great Britain.

HIT, a town of Belgium, in the province and
16 m. S. W. of the city of Liege, at the entrance
of the Hoyoux into the Meuse ; pop. in 1866,
11,055. It has a handsome Gothic church, a
college, manufactories of paper, leather, and
faience, distilleries, and an active trade. The
former abbey of Keufmoutier contained the
tomb of Peter the Hermit, by whom it had
been founded ; in 1858 a statue was erected in
his honor in the garden of the abbey. In the
neighborhood there are mines of iron, zinc,
and coal, and several mineral springs.

IICYGEKS (incorrectly HUYGIIEXS), Christian, a
Dutch natural philosopher, born at the Hague,
April 14, 1629, died there, July 8,1695. He
was the second son of Constantino Iluygens,
secretary and counsellor of the stadtholders
Frederick Henry, William IT., and William III.
His father taught him the rudiments of educa
tion and the elements of mechanics. At the
age of 15 he became the pupil of Stampion,
and at 16 he was sent to Ley den to study law
with Vinnius, who dedicated to him his first
commentary on the Institutes of Justinian. lie
there also pursued mathematical studies, and
afterward at Breda in the university, which
was under the direction of his father. In 1650,
after a journey to Denmark with Henry, count
of Nassau, he began those mathematical and
physical researches which afterward made him
famous. In 1651 he published at Leyden his
first work, on the quadrature of the hyperbola,
the ellipse, and the circle, and in 1654 a paper
entitled De Circuit Magnitudine ivventa noxa.
In 1655 Huygens went for the first time to
France, and received the degree of doctor of
laws from the faculty of the academy of An
gers. On his return to Holland he turned his
attention to the construction of telescopes, in
connection with his elder brother Constantino.
With one of these instruments, having a focal
length of 10 ft., and more powerful than any
ever before made, he discovered the first (now
called the fourth) satellite of Saturn, and pub
lished the discovery at the Hague in 1656.
During'the next year he wrote a paper on the
calculus of probabilities. Pascal and Fermat

had already written upon the subject, but the
treatise of Huygens was more profound, and
50 years afterward James Bernoulli employed
it as an introduction to his Ars Cortjectandi.
It was also translated into Latin .by his former
tutor Schooten under the title De Ratiociniis
in Lndo Alea>, by which it is also known in
's Gravesande's edition of Huygens's works.
Schooten published it in his Exercitationes
Mathematics, to demonstrate, as he says, the
utility of algebra. About this time Huygens
sent a paper to Wallis on the area of the cis-
soid, and to Pascal a calculation for hyperbolic
conoids, and spheroids in general, and on the
quadrature of a portion of a cycloid, in which
papers he employed methods having the high
est characteristics of original thought. But
his attention was not wholly devoted to mere
ly theoretical mathematics, for about this time
he introduced one of the most practical and
important of all inventions. Galileo had ob
served the isochronism of small vibrations of
the pendulum, and had employed it as a mea
surer of time, but his method required an as
sistant to count the oscillations, and was of
course far from being exact. To keep the
pendulum in motion and cause it to register its
successive vibrations was one of the problems
which Iluygens attempted, and which he suc
ceeded in solving by the invention of the pen
dulum clock, a description of which, under the
title of Horologium, he dedicated to the states
general of Holland in 1658. (See CLOCKS AND
WATCHES.) In 1659 he constructed a tele
scope of 22 ft. focal length, in which he used
a combination of two eye pieces, and again
examined Saturn, making the discovery of the
ring of the planet. The singular appearance
which it sometimes presents of being accom
panied by two luminous bodies, one on either
side, had been observed by Galileo, but his
telescope had not sufficient power to permit
him to discover its cause. Huygens 1 s instru
ment enabled him to make out that the phe
nomenon in question, which at regular times
appeared and disappeared, was produced by
the oblique position of the ring with regard
to the earth and to the sun. From an analysis
of the phenomenon he predicted the disap
pearance of the ring in 1671, and the predic
tion was verified. He published an account
of these observations at the Hague in 1659,
in a volume also containing an account of sev
eral other discoveries, such as that of the great
nebula in the sword of Orion, the bands upon
the disks of Jupiter and Mars, and the fact that
the fixed stars have no sensible magnitude. It
was also accompanied by a description of a
method for measuring the diameter of the
planets. The micrometer used by him has been
superseded by others, but it served the pur
pose of making correct measurements. In
1660 he visited France and England, and soon
after published his celebrated theorems on the
laws of the impact of bodies, in which most
of the principles of the laws of motion are es-

IIUYGENS

tablished. In 1GG5, at the invitation of Col
bert, he went to France and became a mem
ber of the academy of sciences, then recently
formed. Apartments were assigned to him in
the royal library, and he resided in Paris for the
greater part of the next 15 years, during which
time he presented many papers to the acade
my, some of which still remain unpublished
in its archives. In 1670 lie visited Holland to
restore his health, which had become impaired
by his great labors ; and on his return to Paris
in the following year he completed his great
work Horologium Oscillatorium (fol., Paris,
1673). To this book are appended 13 theorems
on centrifugal force, which will be noted fur
ther on. About this time he invented the
spiral spring which is applied to the balance
wheel of watches, a description of which was
published in the journal of the academy of sci
ences in 1675. The invention was claimed by
Hooke of England and Hautefeuille of France,
but the evidence that it is the invention of Huy-
gens is too strong to be any longer questioned.
It is said that the first watch provided with a
hair spring was made by Thuret under Huy-
gens's direction, and was sent to England. In
1675 he again went to Holland for the benefit
of his health, and in 1676 he read before the
academy of sciences his famous treatise on
light, and also a treatise on the cause of grav
ity, in which he attempts to account for the
force by supposing that ethereal matter revolves
about the earth with a velocity greater than
that of the planet, and compares it to the force
which causes bodies a little heavier than wa
ter, and lying lightly upon the smooth bottom
of a cylindrical vessel containing water, to
move toward the centre when the circular mo
tion of the vessel by which its fluid contents
have been caused to revolve is arrested. In
1681 he returned to his native country, and
immediately began the construction of an au
tomatic planitarium to represent the true mo
tion of the bodies of the solar system. This
invention led to the important discovery of
continued fractions, which he found it neces
sary to employ in order to establish the rela
tion between the number of teeth contained in
two wheels which play into one another.
After this he resumed for several years, in
conjunction with his brother Constantine, the
construction of telescopes. lie made two ob
jectives, one of 170 and another of 210 ft.
focal length, which he presented to the royal
society of London. As a telescope of such di
mensions would be difficult to manage, Huy-
gens proposed to dispense with the tube and
place the object glass in an elevated position
so that it could be adjusted to any angle, and
then to place the eye piece at the focus. This
arrangement continued to be used until the
introduction of reflecting telescopes. While
Huygens was absorbed in these occupations a
great revolution was going on in the mathemat
ical world. Leibnitz had invented the differ
ential calculus, which he published in 1684, and

had proposed as a test to the followers of the
old methods the problem of finding the curve
of equable approach, or that which a sus
pended body must follow in order to approach
or recede from equal heights in equal times,
lluygens accomplished the solution by the old
methods, but he was the only one who suc
ceeded. Soon after this Newton published
his Printipia, and Huygens, with a desire of
becoming acquainted with the author, visited
England for the third time, and on his return
published his treatise on light under the title
Traite de la lumiere, ou sont expliquees les
causes de ce qui lui arrive dans la reflexion,
dans la refraction et particulierement dans
Vetrange refraction du cristal d'lslande (Ley-
den, 1690). Soon after this he investigated
the properties of the catenary curve, a problem
which had just been proposed by James Ber
noulli, who had become proficient in the meth
ods of the differential calculus ; but Huygens
solved the question by the old methods, which
was considered a wonderful achievement. lie
nevertheless found the task so difficult that
his opposition to the differential calculus was
shaken, and he entered at once into corre
spondence with Leibnitz, lie had previously,
whenever meeting with difficulties, attributed
them to himself and not to defects in the
methods. After examining the differential
calculus he admitted its superiority, imme
diately commenced its use, and soon gave a
wider development to the invention than it
had yet attained. At his death he left his
manuscripts to the library of Leyden, intrust
ing their publication to two of his pupils, Voi
der and Fullen. — Huygens was never married,
and aside from his scientific pursuits his life
was not eventful. He had a fine personal ap
pearance, and his character was eminently
noble. Newton spoke of him as the summits
ITugenius, and considered his stylo as an au
thor more classic than that of any other mathe
matician of that time. He was affable and
kind, and was easily accessible to young stu
dents, whom he was always delighted to assist
in their investigations. His labors were im
mense, and the practical value of their results
is inestimable. His discovery of the laws of
the double refraction of light in Iceland spar,
and of polarization, perhaps as much as any
other cause, led to the reexamination of the
undulatory theory, and, with the necessary
adaptations, to its employment to account for
all the phenomena of radiation of both heat
and light. In accordance with this theory the
most important researches in modern physics
have been made, as those upon the diather-
manous properties of bodies, and upon the ab
sorption of radiant heat by gases and vapors,
by which great light has been thrown on the
science of meteorology. Besides his invention
of the pendulum clock and of the balance
wheel to the watch, the first chronometers
taken aboard ships were made under his direc
tion, and he was far in advance of all others

HYACINTH

of his day in astronomical observations. His
discovery of the isochronism of the cycloid was
one of the most important in mathematics ;
and not inferior to it is the invention of the in
volution and evolution of curves, and the es
tablishment of the proposition that the cycloid
is its own evolute. He also, in his Horologium
Oacillatorium, gives a method for finding the
centre of oscillation, which was the first suc
cessful solution of a dynamical problem in
which connected material points are supposed |
to act on one another. The difficulty of this
subject is shown by the fact that Newton fell
into an error in regard to it in attempting to
solve the problem of the precession of the
equinoxes. The question of the centre of os
cillation had been proposed by Mersenne in
1046, and although some cases had been solved
on the principle of the centre of percussion, it
was beyond the reach of any methods then
known. 1 1 uy gens was only a boy of 17 when
the question was proposed, and could then see
no principle by which it could be solved ; but
when he published his Horologium Oscillato-
rium in 1673, the principles which he assumed
led to correct results in all cases. The two
first theorems appended to that work state : 1,
that if two equal bodies move in unequal cir
cles in equal times, the centrifugal forces will
be proportional to the diameters of the circles ;
and 2, that if the velocities are equal, the cen
trifugal forces will be in the inverse ratio of
the diameters. To arrive at these conclusions
required the application of the second law of
motion (i. e., that the motion which a force
gives to a body is compounded with the motion
which it previously had) to the limiting ele- I
mcnts of the curve, in the manner in which
Newton afterward demonstrated the theorems
of Huygens in his Principia. Huygens's own
demonstrations of these theorems were found
after his death among his papers. In his
treatise on the impact of bodies (De Motu
Corpornm ex Percnsxione), Huygens must have
assumed the third law of motion, which New
ton afterward expressed by saying that " action i
and reaction are equal and opposite," by which
we understand that the quantity of motion in
the impact of bodies remains unchanged, one
of the first grand principles in the doctrine of
the conservation of force. His works were
edited by 's Gravesande under the titles of
Opera varia (2 vols. 4to in 1, Leydcn, 1724) and
Opera Rcliqua^ vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1728).
HYACINTH, a genus of Uliacca>, containing
several species, the most important of which is
hyacinthus oricntalis, a native of the Levant.
This has an onion-like bulb, which throws up
long, narrow-channelled leaves, from among
which arises a scape bearing a raceme of bell-
shaped drooping flowers; the parts of the pe
rianth are united to about the middle, and the
free portions reflexed ; flowers often very fra
grant, appearing in early spring. This being
one of the florists 1 flowers, great changes have I
been produced in it by cultivation ; the size of !

the flower cluster has been greatly increased,
the flowers are semi-double and double, and
there is a great variety of colors and tints,
from pure white, through various shades of red
and blue, to nearly black. The number of
named varieties is very large, and includes not
only self-colored ones, but double and single
kinds, with flowers variously striped and sha
ded. The bulb growers near Haarlem in Hol
land supply the world with hyacinths, which
form a large share of what are imported under
the name of "Dutch bulbs." The eminence
of the Dutch florists in the culture of this and
other bulbs is in part due to a favorable soil
and climate, and in part to the patient care
given to their cultivation ; these, with the low
price of labor, have enabled them to hold a
monopoly of bulb growing. Near Haarlem
over 100 acres of land are annually devoted to
hyacinths ; the soil is a mixture of sand and
alluvium, and permanently supplied with the
requisite moisture. New varieties are obtained
by sowing seed, and it is necessary to cultivate
the seedlings for six years before their ix-al

s {{/>

\ '/fer
Hyacinth Bulb and Section.

merit can be decided upon. Established va
rieties are multiplied from the small bulbs
which form at the base of the larger ones ; a
bulb will naturally produce several of these,
and the cultivators increase the number by
wounding and cutting the bulb in various
ways. The small bulbs are carefully cultiva
ted until of a proper size for market ; in or
der to increase its size as rapidly as possible,
the bulb is not allowed to exhaust its strength
in producing flowers, but the flower stem is
cut away as soon as it appears. Millions of
bulbs are annually imported into this country
and England, and large quantities go to other
countries. The best are imported by the deal
ers direct from the growers; it is only the
poorer bulbs, from which the finer ones have
been selected, that are usually offered at auc
tion. The different varieties are put up in
bags of heavy paper, with an abundance of the
hulls of buckwheat, and the bags are packed
in cases. The heaviest bulbs, which show no
signs of decay by being soft at the top, are

100

HYACINTH

HYAENA

to be preferred. Named sorts cost much more
than assorted kinds, which for the general cul
tivator may he quite as satisfactory as those
with names. The
bulbs for outdoor
culture are usually
planted in October.
A rich light soil is
best, and well decom
posed cow manure
is the best fertilizer ;
the bulbs should be
set 8 in. apart and
covered to the depth
of 4 in. ; when cold
weather conies on, the
bed is to be covered
with litter, which is
to be left on un
til spring; when the
plants come into flow
er each spike will
need the support of
a small stick or wire,
which may be so
placed as not to be
noticed ; when the
flowers decay their
stalks are cut away,
and the bulbs allowed
to remain until the
fading of the leaves
shows that they have
finished their growth ;
they are then taken
up, dried in the sun,
each wrapped in a paper with its label, and kept
in a cool dry place until time to plant in autumn.
They do not bloom in subsequent years so well
as the first. In some gardens the bulbs are left

English Bluebell.

from year to year ; they increase and form
large clumps, which produce small spikes of
flowers. The hyacinth is an easy plant to force

in the greenhouse or in an ordinary room ; the
bulbs should be potted in October, and the
pots placed in a cool dark cellar, or in a shady
corner, and covered with coal ashes ; when an
inspection of the pots shows that the ball of
earth is well filled with roots, they may be
brought to a warm and light place, when
growth of leaves and flowers will soon com
mence ; frequent failure is due to not first se
curing a good growth of roots by keeping the
bulb cool and from the light. The bulbs are
often forced in glasses made for the purpose,
filled with water ; the base of the bulb should
just touch the surface of the water, and the
glass should be kept in the dark until the roots
are well developed. Bulbs that have been
forced are of little value ; single varieties are
preferred for forcing. — The wild hyacinth, the
bluebell of England, II. nonscriptus of the older
botanists, has been successively placed in several
different genera, and is probably nearer a squill
(scilla) than a hyacinth.

HYACINTHE, Pere. See LOTSON, CHARLES.

HYACINTHUS, in Greek mythology, son of the
Spartan king Arayclas and Diomede, or of
Pierus and Clio, or of CEbalus and Eurotas.
He was a boy of great beauty and the favorite
of Apollo, but was also beloved by Zephyrus,
who from jealousy caused his death as he was
playing with Apollo, by blowing the quoit of
the god against his head. From his blood
sprang the flower hyacinth, upon whose leaves
appears the Greek exclamation of woe AI, AI,
or the letter Y beginning his name ("YaKtvOoc;).

HYADES, in Greek mythology, nymphs vari
ously described as being from two to seven in
number, and bearing 18 names. . According to
some authorities, Jupiter placed them among
the stars in honor of their care of the infant
Bacchus ; while others say it was to reward
them for their long mourning for their brother
Hyas, who had been killed by a wild boar.

HY/ENA, a digitigrade carnivorous mammal,
most numerous in Africa, but found also in
southern and middle Asia, where the genus has
probably spread while following the track of
armies and caravans. Zoologists are not agreed
as to the position of this animal ; the older au
thors place it in the feline family, with which
it agrees in the single true molar on each side
of both jaws, and in the single tuberculato
tooth on each side of the upper jaw only ;
Waterhouse regarded it as a small divergent
group of viverrina or civet cats ; Linnaeus
ranked it in his genus canis ; and Hamilton
Smith puts it in juxtaposition to the dogs. It
seems to be an osculant type, united on the
one hand to the dogs by the genus lycaon, and
on the other to the civets by the genus protelcs
(aard-wolf) ; its general aspect is decidedly ca
nine, as also are most of its habits. The dental
formula, according to Owen, is : incisors |, ca
nines |, premolars, £l|, and molars \~\ — 34 in
all. The disposition of the hyama is fierce and
cowardly, and its habits are revolting; it is
able to withstand any temperatures and priva-

HYAENA

101

tions, revels in the foulest air, and gorges on
the filthiest substances when living prey fails ;
of powerful form, thick skin, and strong jaws
and teeth, the bands of hyrenas fear not the
lion and tiger, and will attack even man in the
night time. Its appearance is very repulsive ;
the head is large and truncated, the neck short
and stout, the body thick and short, high at
the shoulders and declining rapidly toward the
tail, a long stiff mane from the nape to the
rump, and a short tail ; the gait is clumsy, the
voice harsh and frightful, the expression of the
face malignant, and its body offensive from its
carrion food and the strong odor of its anal
pouch. The feet are all four-toed, with strong
non-retractile claws fitted for digging, the dor
sals and the pairs of ribs 15 or 10, and the
lumbar vertebrso 4 or 5 ; the tibia and fibula
are much shorter than the radius and ulna ;
the tongue is covered with horny papilla?, the
irides elliptical above and circular below, the
erect ears Jong and pointed, and mammas four.
The prevailing color is an ochrey gray, with
dark stripes or spots. The hyrena is among
mammals what the vulture is among birds, the
scavenger of the wilderness, the woods, and
the shore, and useful in this way in disposing
of carcasses which otherwise would pollute
the air; often it attacks cattle and disabled
animals, prowls in the rear of the larger car-
nivora, whose leavings it devours, and digs up
when possible the dead bodies of man and
beast ; from this last undisputed habit, the
hyrena has been regarded as a horrible and
mysterious creature, and is the subject of many
superstitious fears and beliefs among the Semi
tic races. Its teeth are so powerful that they
can crack the bones of an ox with ease, and
their grip is tenacious to the last degree ;
were its speed great and its courage equal to
its strength, it would be among the most dan
gerous of the carnivora; it sometimes burrows
in the earth or hides in caverns, but generally

Spotted llya-na (Hyaena crocuta).

passes the day in the desert, insensible to the
scorching sun. The spotted hyrena (//. crocuta,
Erxl.) is the most dog-like of the genus; it is
about 4i ft. long from nose to base of tail, the
latter measuring about 13 in. and the head
about 12 ; the height at the shoulders is 2£

ft. ; the general color is a dingy whitish gray,
with small round brown spots, the muzzle as
far as the eyes and lower limbs sooty, and the
tail dark ; the mane is rather short. It is
found in South Africa, and on the coasts of
Senegal and Guinea, and with the next spe-

Striped Hyaena (Hyaena striata).

cies is generally called wolf by the Dutch
colonists. It is fierce but cowardly, and will
sometimes approach camps and make severe
gashes on the limbs and faces of persons
asleep; it is said sometimes to drag off chil
dren, which from its strength it could easily do ;
from the resemblance of its voice to a human
laugh, it has received the name of the laugh
ing hyrcna; it rarely burrows, but occupies the
retreats of other animals, prowling about at
night. The striped hyrena (//. vulgari*, Desm.,
or H. striata, Zimm.), a rather larger animal,
is found in Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, and Per
sia ; the head is wider, the muzzle fuller, and
the eyes further from the nose, than in tho
preceding species; the hair is coarse and thick,
of a dirty gray color, with transverse dark
stripes on the sides and limbs ; there is a stiff
mane along the back ; the habits are the same
as those of the spotted hyrena. There are some
varieties of smaller size, and one .with a skin
almost naked, in the Nubian deserts. The
brown hyaena, or strand wolf of the Dutch
colonists (//. Irunnea, Thunb.), is only 4 ft.
long to the end of the tail, and a little over 2
ft. high at the shoulders ; the hair is long and
shaggy, of a dirty yellow color, with tawny tints
on the back and irregular stripes on the sides;
it is less in size than the other species, and less
destructive to cattle. The hvrenas act very
much the part of the wolf of northern climates,
being equally fierce, cowardly except at nifiht
and when in packs, and annoying to the herds
man by their destruction of sheep and oxen. —
There are in Africa certain dog-like animals,
the uilde Jtonde,noit\\Q Dutch, constituting the
genus h/caon (Brooks), which seem to connect
the dogs with the hvrenas, and which are be
lieved by Hamilton Smith to be partly the pro-

102

HYBRID

genitors of the mastiff races. The head is
short and truncated, the mouth broad, the
teeth strong and dog-like ; the ears erect and
large ; neck long, body short, the limbs slender
and highest before ; tail short, hanging down,
and inflexible; four toes on all the feet; pupils
round ; mammee eight or ten. They hunt in
packs, being swift, active, hardy, with excel
lent scent and acute sight ; they do not bur
row. They are found in Africa south of the
great desert, and in Arabia, and as far as the
Indus in Asia. The hunting hyaena (lycaon
venaticus, Burcli.) of the Cape is about as tall
as a large greyhound, with long legs; the color
is ochrey, white on the breast, with spots of the
same edged with black on the neck, shoulders,
loins, and croup, with wavy black streaks on
the sides; the muzzle and cheeks black, the
color passing up on the nape and down on the
throat. It hunts in packs both by day and
night, frequently destroying sheep, and some
times surprising cattle, biting off their tails ; it

Hunting Hyaena (Lycaon venaticus).

is considered untamable. The painted hyaena
(L. pictus, Temm.) is by many thought to be a
mere variety of the last ; it is about 3 ft. long,
the tail 1 ft. more, and If ft. high at the shoul
ders; the colors are much the same as in the
preceding animal ; it hunts also in packs, sur
prising antelopes, and attacking when hard
pressed for food cattle and even man ; Riippell
says it looks much less like a hytena and more
like a dog than the L. venaticus. — In anterior
geological epochs the hyrenas were not confined
to tropical Africa and Asia, nor to the old
world. They appeared in Europe toward the
end of the tertiary age, but were most numer
ous during the diluvial period, and were found
in England, Belgium, and Germany ; there
were about half a dozen species, numerous in
individuals, and of a size sometimes superior to
the living animal. In the Kirkdalo and other
caverns of Europe three species are found, of
which the best known is the //. spelwa (Goldf.).
In Asia they were numerous in the Himalaya

region, of which the most remarkable is the IT.
Siwilensis (Cautl. and Falc.). In the caverns
of Brazil Lund has found abundant remains of
a hyiena which he calls H. neogcea, mixed with
the bones of rodents, peccaries, megalonyx,
and other American types, seeming to show
that the geographical distribution of animals in
the modern faunae is in no way connected with
their ancient distribution. The bones of the
caverns bear unmistakable marks of the teeth
of hyaenas, even if the remains of the latter
did not prove their existence ; and this animal
seems to have been the principal consumer of
the great proboscidians and ruminants of the
diluvial age.

HYBLA, the name of several cities of ancient
Sicily, the most considerable of which were the
following. I. Hybla Major, or Magna, situated on
the southern declivity of Mt. Etna, near the
river Symeethus. It was founded by the Siculi,
and was one of those which Ducetius, a chief
of that people, sought to unite into a confeder
acy against the Greeks and Carthaginians. In
the time of Cicero Ilybla Major was an opu
lent municipium, but in that of Pausanias it
was a poor decayed place. Its site was prob
ably at Paterno, where an altar has been dis
covered dedicated to Venus Victrix Hyhlensis.
II. Ilybla Minor, which stood so near Megara
on the E. coast, N". of Syracuse, that the two
cities were often confounded, was likewise of
Siculic origin. It was chiefly celebrated for
the honey produced in its vicinity.

HYBRID (Gr. v/tywf), an animal or plant pro
duced by the sexual union of individuals be
longing to t\vo different species. As a rule,
in nature sexual union takes place only be
tween individuals of the same species, and the
offspring accordingly presents the specific char
acters common to both its parents. It is in
this way that the species is indefinitely main
tained, with its distinctive characters, by the
constant production of new individuals similar
in appearance to the old and endowed with
similar powers of reproduction. But union
between a male and a female of different spe
cies, when fertile, produces an offspring which
does not precisely resemble either of its pa
rents, but presents a mixture in nearly equal
proportions of their separate characters. Thus
a mule, which is the most commonly known
example of a hybrid, is neither a horse nor an
ass, but something intermediate between the
two, and is without the complete distinctive
marks of any recognized animal species. One
of the most important questions relating to
hybridity is that of the possible fertility of
sexual union between different species, and
that of hybrids of the same or different kinds
between themselves. In nature, the occur
rence of hybridity is extremely rare. This
may be due to the more or less complete in
aptitude of the male and female generative
products to unite with each other in such a
way as to produce a fertile result. Thus the
germ and pollen of different flowers, or the

HYBRID

103

ovum and spermatic fluid of different animals,
may be incapable of fertilization, owing to pe
culiarities of their own internal constitution ;
and consequently their physical contact would
produce no result. But there are other rea
sons upon which the non-occurrence of hy
brids in nature may partly depend. Among 1
animals there is an instinctive preference for j
sexual union with their own species rather ,
than with others, and a similarity of habits, of
locality, and general disposition, corroborates j
this preference, and alone makes it much more j
likely that sexual union, as a matter of fact,
will take place between animals of the same
species. A certain degree of similarity in the
physical structure of the parents is essential to
the fertility of their sexual union. Thus all
the most frequent and most useful forms of
hybridity occur between different species be
longing to the same genus. The horse, for ex
ample, will breed with the ass, the zebra, and
the quagga ; the dog has been certainly known |
to breed with the wolf, and probably with the
fox ; the goat with the sheep, the ram with
the roe; and it has been comparatively easy to j
obtain hybrids from the union of the rabbit
and the hare. But a cross union is not neces
sarily fertile, even between species of the same
genus ; between those of different genera it
is still more exceptional ; and it is doubtful
whether hybridity, either natural or artificial,
has ever occurred beyond these limits. The
second question of interest relating to hybrid
ity is that of the fertility of hybrids among
themselves. As a rule it may be said that hy
brids are not fertile. Thus the mule does not
reproduce itself, but is only obtained by a repe
tition of the union of the ass and the mare. The
female mule will sometimes reproduce by union
with either the horse or the ass; but in this
case the offspring is no longer a mule, but re
verts to the type of the original stock in pre
cise proportion to the admixture of blood re- !
suiting from the union. Notwithstanding, \
therefore, that the mule and its mode of pro
duction have been known from time immemo
rial, and notwithstanding the recognized use
fulness of its qualities in some respects, we
have never been able to obtain an indepen
dent and self- reproductive breed of mules;
that is, the hybrid has rover acquired the
physiological characters of a natural species.
— The terms hybrid and hybridization are of
ten vaguely used as applied to plants, and many
are called hybrids which are only crosses be
tween varieties. The name hybrid should be
restricted to plants resulting from the seeds of
one species fertilized by the pollen of another
species ; those forms produced by cross breed
ing between varieties of the same species should
never be called hybrids, but crosses. It is to
be regretted that horticulturists generally ig
nore this distinction and use the terms hybrid j
and cross as synonymous. Hybrid plants some- |
times occur in nature, and are frequently pro
duced artificially. In hybridizing, it is neces

sary to prevent the flower used as the mother,
or seed-bearer, from being fertilized by its own
pollen both before and after the artificial appli
cation of the strange pollen ; the operator is
favored by the fact that pollen retains its vital
ity for some time after it is removed from the
flower which produced it. It is probable that
with this, as with seeds, the duration of vitality
varies in different species ; at all events, it is
known that some pollen will keep for weeks
and even months. The flower selected as the
seed-bearer is taken just as it is about to open
and before any insects can have visited it ; the
envelopes are carefully opened or removed, and
if a perfect flower its still unopened stamens
are cut away with a delicate pair of scissors,
the foreign pollen applied to the stigma with a
small brush, and the flower or flowers enclosed
in a bag of gauze to prevent the access of in
sects, which would probably bring pollen of the
same kind to interfere with the action of the
strange pollen. This is a brief outline of the pro
cess ; there are details which can be learned by
practice. It is not possible to know beforehand
whether two species will hybridize ; two species
of a genus that seem to be the most nearly related
will sometimes refuse to be hybridized, while
other two that seem most unlike will readily
form a union. It makes a difference also which
plant is chosen as the seed-bearer and which
as the pollen-bearer ; for instance, the pistil
of A will refuse to be fertilized by the pollen
of B, while the pistil of B will readily accept
the pollen of A. Seeds from the flowers thus
fertilized may produce plants quite intermediate
between the two parents, or may more strongly
resemble the one or the other. Sometimes a hy
brid will have the leaves of one parent and the
flowers and fruit of the other. By this means
horticulturists have produced useful varieties
of fruit, notably in grapes and strawberries,
and some of the finest flowers are the result of
hybridizing. Among hardy flowers, the rho
dodendrons and azaleas are striking examples
of the improvement that may be effected in
this manner; the fine rhododendrons are hy
brids between the hardy R. Oatawbiense of
the southern Alleghanies and J?. Fonticum, a
greenhouse species from Asia Minor. It is a
singular fact that the English hybrids, in which
J?. Catairliicnse is the mother plant, are gen
erally hardy, while the Belgian hybrids are
very much less hardy for the reason that the
Belgian florists use It. Ponticum as the seed-
bearer. When a desirable form is obtained by
hybridizing, it can be continued nnd multiplied
indefinitely by means of layers, cuttings, or
grafts. Hybrid plants are sometimes fertile;
the progeny from them shows a tendency to
revert to the one or the other parent, and in a
few generations all trace of the admixture is
obliterated ; sometimes the progeny is too weak
to bear seeds, and thus becomes extinct. More
generally hybrid plants are wholly or partly
sterile ; the degeneration shows itself most
prominently in the anthers, which fail to pro-

104:

HYDASPES

HYDERABAD

duce pollen ; the pistil in this case will be fer
tilized, if at all, by pollen from either parent,
and thus a reversion of its progeny to a normal
form assured ; sometimes the pistils are abor
tive also. It will be seen that while hybrids
may be produced among plants in a wild state,
and are often produced in cultivation, there is
abundant provision against the perpetuation
of a race of monsters. — Another kind of hybrid
in which fertilization plays no part has recent
ly received the attention of vegetable physiol
ogists. There are a number of well authenti
cated cases in which a graft or bud has so in
fluenced the stock in which it was inserted
that the stock, even below the point of union,
put out branches partaking of the characters
of both stock and scion. Some of these graft
hybrids, as they are called, have been propa
gated. An account of this kind of hybrids, as
well as a very full resume of the whole subject
of hybrids, will be found in Darwin's " Varia
tion of Animals and Plants under Domestica
tion." See also his " Origin of Species," and
E. A. Carriere's Production et fixation des
varietes dans les vegetaux (Paris, 1865).

HYDASPES, a river of ancient India. See
JHYLUM, and PUXJAUB.

HYDATIDS. See ENTOZOA, vol. vi., p. 666.

HYDE. I. An E. county of North Carolina,
bordering on Pamlico sound, and bounded W.
by Pango river ; area, about 650 sq. m. ; pop.
in 1870, 6,445, of whom 2,378 were colored.
It has a level surface, a large part of which is
occupied by pine, cypress, and cedar swamps.
The products of the pine are the staples of ex
port. The chief productions in 1870 were 21,-
319 bushels of wheat, 163,216 of Indian corn,
11,033 of oats, 235 bales of cotton, and 171,-
548 Ibs. of rice. There were 378 horses, 681
milch cows, 1,484 other cattle, and 3,706 swine.
Capital, Swan Quarter. II. A S. E. county
of Dakota, recently formed, and not included
in the census of 1870 ; area, about 1,000 sq. m.
Its S. W. corner touches the Missouri river.

HYDE, Edward. See CLARENDON.

HYDE, Thomas, an English orientalist, born
nt Billingsley, Shropshire, June 29, 1636, died
in Oxford, Jan. 18, 1703. lie studied at Cam
bridge and Oxford, took orders, became libra
rian of the Bodleian library, succeeded Po-
cocke in 1691 as Laudian professor of Arabic,
and soon after was appointed regius professor
of Hebrew. In 1678 ho was made archdeacon
of Gloucester. He understood Hebrew, Syri-
ac, Arabic, Persian, Armenian, Malay, and
Chinese, and was interpreter of oriental lan
guages to the court during the reigns of Charles
II., James II., and William III. The most im
portant of his works is Vetcrum Persarum et
Medorum Religionis Ilistoria (Oxford, 1700;
best ed., 1760). A complete edition of his
other writings appeared at Oxford in 1767.

HYDE DE NEUVILLE, Jean Gnillanmc, baron,
a French politician of Scottish descent, born
at La Charite-sur-Loire, Jan. 24, 1776, died in
Paris, May 28, 1857. He was one of the most

active agents of the Bourbons after the death
of Louis XVI., and mingled in nearly all the
intrigues for the subversion of the revolutionary
governments. After the 18th Brumaire, in an
interview with Bonaparte, he tried to persuade
him to restore the Bourbons. He was charged
by Fouche with being an accomplice in the
infernal machine plot, but cleared himself from
the accusation. He subsequently removed to
the United States, settled in the vicinity of
New York, became acquainted there with Gen.
Moreau, then an exile, and is said to have been
instrumental in persuading him to return to
Europe. Early in 1814 he returned to France,
and was welcomed by the Bourbons, who had
just been reinstated on the throne. He was
engaged in all the negotiations and transactions
which took place during 1814 and 1815, and
on the second restoration was elected by his
native department a deputy to the chambre in-
trouvable, where he was an uncompromising
advocate of the most reactionary measures.
In 1816 he was appointed minister plenipoten
tiary to the United States, and held that office
till 1821, when, after being created a baron,
he was recalled to France. Being ambassador
at Lisbon in 1824, he cooperated in restoring
to power the old king John VI., whom his son
Dom Miguel had imprisoned. Thenceforth he
gradually estranged himself from the ultra-
royalist party. In 1828 he entered the Mar-
tignac cabinet as minister of the navy, made
several improvements in the colonial system,
enforced measures against the African slave
trade, and favored the independence of Greece.
On the breaking out of the revolution of 1830,
he asserted the claims of the duke of Bordeaux
to the throne, in the chamber of deputies, and
resigned his seat on Louis Philippe being se
lected. From that period he devoted himself
mainly to agriculture.

HYDERABAD. I. A native state of the Dec-
can, India, called also the Nizam's Dominions,
lying between lat. 15° and 21° 30' N., and Ion.
74° 40' and 81° 30' E., bounded N. by Berar,
N. E. by the Central Provinces, N. W. and W.
by the presidency of Bombay, and S. and S. E.
by that of Madras ; area, 95,337 sq. m. ; pop.
about 11,000,000. The surface consists chiefly
of a high table land 1,800 to 2,000 ft. above the
sea, several granite masses rising to an eleva
tion of 2,500 ft. The geological formation of
this region is simple. Resting on a base of
granite, gneiss, and talc slate are clay, horn
blende, feldspar, limestone, and sandstone ; and
in some parts columnar basalt is conspicuous.
j The principal rivers are the Godavery, flowing
j through the middle of the country, the Kistnah,
j which winds along its southern limits, and the
; AVurda and Paingunga in the north, all flowing
in an easterly direction. The minerals com
prise iron (the iron ore in the Nirmal hills
being magnetic) and coal, which is found near
the junction of the Godavery and Wurda.
Near the Godavery are also mines of garnet,
, and at Parteal near Condapilly are diamond

HYDERABAD

HYDER ALI

105

mines, from which the treasury of Golconda
was formerly supplied. The soil of the coun
try is fertile, but not well cultivated. There is
a considerable area of waste and forest lands.
Wheat and cotton are the principal agricultu
ral products ; other productions are barley,
rice, oil plants, cucumbers, gourds, hemp, su
gar cane, tobacco, sweet potatoes, aromatic
seeds, jowary (Indian millet), and bajree, a spe
cies of grain which forms the chief sustenance
of the laboring classes. The principal manu
factures are silks, brocades, and carpets, and
in the southeast calico printing by means of
wooden blocks is carried on to some extent.
The chief exports are steel, cotton, and teak.
The climate, owing to the elevated position of
the country, is colder than is usual in this lati
tude. The territory is crossed by several good
military roads, and the Great Indian Peninsula
railway traverses the eastern and southern
parts of the country. Branch lines are pro
jected from this main line to the city of Hy
derabad, and from Hy
derabad to Masulipatam
on the Madras coast.
The government is Mo
hammedan, but nearly
nine tenths of the peo
ple are Hindoos. — Hy
derabad was anciently
subject to the rajahs of
Telingana and Bijana-
gur. It was erected
into a separate kingdom
in 1512 by a Turkish
adventurer, and in 1 GST
became a province of
the Mogul empire. Azof
Jah, an officer of the
court of Delhi, who in
1719 governed this and
the five other provin
ces of the Deccan with
the title of Nizam ul-
Mulk (" regulator of the
state ''), made himself

independent. On his death in 1748 the suc
cession was disputed by his son Nazir Jung,
whose cause was espoused by the English, and
his grandson Mirzapha Jung, who was favored
by the French. The latter finally triumphed,
and governed under the direction of the French
commander Dupleix until ho was put to death
by some Pat an chiefs. During a period of
anarchy which followed, the French and Eng
lish supported rival claimants for the sover
eignty. Nizam Ali, who came to the throne
in 1701, ravaged the Carnatic, but was over
powered by a British force, and induced to
sign a treaty in 1760 which gave to the East
India company the Northern Circars. The
English bound themselves to maintain a mili
tary force for the nizam's protection. In the
war between the British and Ilyder Ali, how
ever, the nizam sided with the sultan of My
sore, but in that with Tippoo Saib he formed

an alliance with the company and thepeishwa,
and received a share of the spoils of victory.
The accession of territory which he then ob
tained he subsequently ceded to the British in
lieu of payment for the support of the British
contingent. On the conclusion of the first
Mahratta war in 1804 his dominions were
again enlarged. The misgovernment of the
country under the successors of Nizam Ali
plunged Hyderabad deeply in debt. The East
India company was at one time creditor to the
amount of £500,000 or £600,000, and in liqui
dation they accepted a cession of the province
of Berar, part of the revenues of which were to
be devoted to the support of the subsidiary na
tive force known as the nizam's contingent.
The nizam remained true to the British du
ring the mutiny of 1857-'8, and his dominions
were little disturbed except by marauders. II.
A town, capital of the Nizam's Dominions,
situated on the river Mussi, about 300 m. N.
N. W. of Madras ; pop. variously estimated at

British Eesidcncy in Hyderabad.

80,000, 120,000, and 200,000, a large majority
of whom are Mohammedans. It is a weakly
fortified town, crowded with buildings, some
of which are large and imposing, having nu
merous mosques, and surrounded by gardens
of remarkable beauty. The British residency
is a magnificent edifice on the opposite side
of the river, connected with the town by a
stone bridge. In the neighborhood there are
largo water tanks, one of which is 20 m. in
circuit. A Inrge British garrison is maintained
at Hyderabad, and there is an extensive mili
tary cantonment at Secunderabad, a few miles
N. E. of the town. The celebrated city of
Golconda is 7 m. distant to the northwest.

IIYDER ALI, sultan of Mysore, born in Dina-
velli, Mysore, about 1718, died Dec. 7, 1782. He
was of Arabian descent, and son of a petty chief.
Entering the service of the rajah of Mysore in
1749, he rose in the course of ten years to be

106

HYDRA

HYDRANGEA

commander of the forces, and, having thus the
power in his own hands, set aside the rajah
with a pension of three lacs of rupees, and
took possession of the sovereignty. The East
India company, becoming alarmed at his in
creasing power, formed an alliance with the
Mahrattas and the nizam of the Deccan against
him ; hut Ilyder not only gained over the ni
zam to his side, but for two years waged ve
hement war on the British. By a series of
skilful manoeuvres he managed to draw their
force to a distance from Madras, and then at
the head of 6,000 horsemen rode 120 m. in
three days and appeared before the city. The
outlying country being at his mercy, the gov
ernment of the presidency was compelled to
come to terms, and Ilyder agreed to a treaty
of which the principal feature was that the
British should form an alliance with him in
his defensive wars. In 1770, the Mahrattas
having invaded his dominions, he applied to
the British for their promised aid, but could
obtain from them nothing more than neutrality.
By the year 1778 he had recovered from the
disadvantages their defection had caused him.
Being .once more threatened by the same war
like people, he again invited British assistance,
but with a like result. Incensed by this con
duct, he formed an alliance with the Mahrattas
and the nizam, and in 1780 invaded the Brit
ish territory of the Carnatic, which he ravaged
with fire and sword, capturing many of the
strong places, but avoiding battle in the open
field. The desolation he brought on the coun
try during the two years' war was such that
the British force, and even the city of Madras,
were in danger from famine. This war elicited
a remarkable display of military talent by the
British general Sir Eyre Coote on the one
side, and by Ilyder and the French officers, of
whom he had many in his service, on the other.
The Mysore leader had already rejected terms
of adjustment offered by Lord Macartney, the
governor of Madras, when he died, and was
succeeded by his son Tippoo Saib.

HYDRA. See HERCULES.

HYDRA. I, An island in the Grecian archi
pelago, off the E. coast of the Morea, belong
ing to the nomarchy of Argolis and Corinth;
greatest length N. E. to S. W. about 12 m.,
greatest breadth 3 m. ; pop. about 20,000. Its
surface is rocky, sterile, and mountainous. The
inhabitants are esteemed the best sailors of
Greece. II. A town, capital of the island, situ
ated on a barren rugged height on the N. W.
shore; pop. in 1870, 7,428. The streets are
steep and uneven, and the houses substantially
built. The manufactures are silk and cotton
stuffs, soap, and leather. The harbor is formed
by a deep bay, but is neither spacious nor well
sheltered. During the war of the revolution
Hydra was a place of general refuge for peo
ple from all parts of Greece.

HYDRABAD, a town of British India, in the
province of Sinde, situated on an eminence
belonging to the Gunjah hills, 4 in. E. of the

E. bank of the Indus ; pop. about 20,000. Part
of it is built on an island 15 m. long, which
is formed by the Indus and an offset of that
stream called the Fulailee. It is defended by
a fortress of imposing appearance but no great
strength, and has manufactures of matchlocks,
swords, spears, and shields, and of ornamental
silks and cottons. The town is connected with
Kurrachee on the Arabian sea by a railway
120 m. long. Ilydrabad was formerly the resi
dence of the chief amirs of Sinde, who governed
the southern and principal part of the coun
try. A victory was gained over a Sindian
force near here by Sir C. Napier, Feb. 24, 1843.
HYDRANGEA (Gr. txtap, water, and ayyof, a
vase), a genus of shrubby plants, to which the
name was applied for no obvious reason, be
longing to the natural order saxifragacece, and
natives of Asia and of North America. The
species best known (//. Hortensia), the com
mon hydrangea, was introduced into England
from China in the year 1790 by Sir Joseph

Garden Hydrangea (H. Hortensia).

Banks. Commerson, wishing to honor his
friend Mine. Hortense Lapeaute, called the
plant Lapeautia;. but thinking the compliment
not sufficiently pointed, he changed the name
to Hortensia, by which it is still known in
France ; when it was found to belong to the
old genus hydrangea, Commerson's generic
name was retained for the species ; it is often
incorrectly written hortensis. It is a smooth,
dwarf, vigorous shrub, with opposite, coarsely
toothed, oval leaves, and bears immense globu
lar clusters of sterile flowers, which are white,
pink, or blue, according to the nature of the
soil. Cuttings of the wood or of the growing
stems will root without difficulty. The hydran
gea delights in an unlimited supply of water,
fading at once on its being withheld. There is
a variety with variegated foliage, nearly all sil
very white, which is fine in the greenhouse, but
does not endure our hot sun. Specimens are
mentioned in England of 30 ft. circumference,

IIYDRAST1S

HYDRAULIC RAM

107

and producing on a single clump more than '
1.000 Leads or corymbs of flowers. In the
United States, even so far north as Boston, it
will survive the winter it' slightly protected by
the stems being covered. The wild hydran
gea (//. arborescens, Linn.) is a shrub 4 to G

Oak-leaved Hydrangea (II. quercifolia).

ft. high ; its flowers, which are borne on flat
cymes, are white or yellowish, and usually all
fertile, but sometimes with a row of sterile
ones around the margin ; the species ranges
from Pennsylvania southward. The oak-leaved
hydrangea (//. quercifolia} was first discovered
by Bartrara in Georgia; it was carried to Eng
land in 1803, and is the finest North American
species; it has deeply lobed, oak-like leaves,
and fine large corymbs of nearly white flowers,
which change afterward to purple. In the gar
dens at the north is often seen the snowy-leaved
hydrangea (II. nivea, MX.), a shrub from to
8 ft. high, with large leaves of a silvery white
ness beneath, and flowers in terminal cymes,
having a few showy, white, sterile florets en
closing many small, green, fertile ones ; it grows
in the upper part of Georgia and the Caroli-
nas. Within a few years several fine hydran
geas have been introduced from Japan, some
of which, though they have received specific
names, are varieties of //. Hortensia, while
others are distinct; preeminent among these
is II. paniculata grand (flora (sometimes called
//. deutzifolia), which is one of the finest hardy
shrubs in cultivation; it produces an oblong
panicle, often a foot long, of sterile 'flowers,
which are at first white, then gradually turn
pink, and by the time frost comes they are
brownish red.

HYDRASTIS. See Puocoox.

HYDRATES (Gr. vdup, water), compounds con
taining water, or its elements in the proportion
to form water. Tims lime (oxide of calcium)
slaked with water forms a chemical combina
tion with a portion of this, and falls to a white

powder, which is a hydrate of lime. Hydrate
of potassa is a combination of potassa and
water, and is permanent even when exposed to
high temperature. Common oil of vitriol is
also a chemical combination of water and sul
phuric anhydride.

HYDRAULIC RAM, a machine for raising water
by employing its own momentum, acquired by
a fall, a portion of the water only being raised.
The accompanying diagram, fig. 1, will serve
to explain its action. An impulse pipe, II,
leads from a cistern or reservoir, C, and has a
fall depending on the amount of impulse re
quired, and corresponding with the other parts
of the machine, and on the height the water is
required to be raised. The lower end of this
impulse pipe turns up at A, where there is a
large valve, usually conical and opening down
ward. This valve is of such a weight that the
simple pressure of the water in the cistern and
pipe, or the head, will not raise it, a certain
degree of momentum being required for that
purpose. "When the valve is open the water
rushes through it and soon attains this required
momentum, and the valve rises and shuts
against its seat. The motion of the water in
the end at A is arrested, but not entirely so in
that portion of the pipe between II and the
cistern, for the impulse opens the valve B and
forces water into the bell-shaped chamber I),
and eventually into the delivery pipe E. AVhen
the impulse of the water flowing through the
valve B becomes less than the pressure upon
it, the valve closes and prevents the water
which has passed through from returning. The
time of this flow is very short, because the ar
rest of motion of the water in the end of the
impulse pipe so reduces the force exerted
against the impulse valve that it falls after a
brief interval, when the water again rushes out
and relieves the pressure at B. But it soon
acquires sufficient momentum to again raise
the impulse valve, when the shock is repeated,
and the acquired momentum again expends it
self principally against the valve B, and the

FIG. 1.— Hydraulic Itaiu.

water ascends into the air chamber and deliv
ery pipe. The use of the air chamber is obvi
ously to produce a constant pressure in the
pipe E, as nearly as practicable, and to relieve
it from the sudden shock which would other
wise be caused by the shutting of the valve B.

108

HYDRAULIC RAM

HYDROCHLORIC ACID

The expenditure of force in this machine is
obtained by multiplying the amount of water
discharged at A into the head, or height of
water in the cistern above the valve A. The
economy of force is found by multiplying the
amount of water delivered by the pipe E into
the height to which it is raised. The proportion
in good rams is from 60 to 70 per cent. The
head of water should be from 4 to 6 ft. for rais
ing water vertically 30 ft. There is a differ
ence of opinion in regard to the proportional
increase of head to increase in height of the
delivery pipe, and machines of different modes
of construction will require variation in this
particular. The height of head is, however,
practically restricted in consequence of the
wear and strain produced by the shock when
the head is great. A practical difficulty in the
machine is to preserve the necessary quantity
of air in the air chamber. This is constantly
being absorbed by the \vater, so that in time
its volume becomes too small to yield sufficient
elasticity. The difficulty is obviated to a great
degree by the application of what is called a
shifting valve, opening inward at G. There is
a moment of time after the shutting of the im
pulse valve when there is in certain parts of
the machine a diminution of internal pressure
to a degree below that of the pressure of the
atmosphere. During this moment a bubble of
air will enter at G and ascend into the air
chamber, but it is difficult so to regulate the
supply that it will not be necessary to remove
the air chamber and introduce a fresh supply
of air. In large European machines there is
often placed at B an inner air chamber with
two valves at its base, suspended by hinges
and opening laterally. The impulse pipe may
be straight, and inclined as shown in the fig
ure, or have a vertical and a horizontal limb ;
or it may be curved. There are several prac
tical points in regard to its size and length
which should be observed in the erection of
the ram. In general, it may be stated that if
the impulse pipe is very wide and short, it will
not maintain a sufficient impulse to lift the
water against great pressure in a long delivery

FIG. 2,— Whitehurst's Machine.

pipe, because of the tendency to a reactionary
movement of its contents, which is prevent
ed by the resistance offered by a longer and
smaller pipe. The invention of the hydraulic
ram is ascribed to the elder Montgolfier, and
its improvements to his son. The principle,

however, was previously employed by John
Whitehurst of Cheapside in a machine con
structed by him in 1772, an account of which
was published in the " Philosophical Transac
tions " in 1775. Fig. 2 is a representation of
Whitehurst's machine, and it will be seen that
the principal difference between it and Mont-
golfier's ram is that it has a stopcock in place
of the automatic impulse valve. Leading from
the cistern II is a long pipe, A E, much longer
in proportion than is represented in the figure,
which is the impulse pipe. Its contents re
ceive momentum from the opening of the cock
B, which is several feet below E. When suf
ficient force has been obtained the cock is shut,
and the column of water in A B is urged by its
momentum along the direct branch of the pipe
G, through its depressed extremity D, into the
bottom of the air chamber C. This part of
the pipe contains a valve opening toward the
air chamber, corresponding to the one in Mont-
golfier's machine. F is the lower section of
the delivery pipe. The principle of action is
precisely the same in the two machines, and
the explanation of the ram will answer for
that of Whitehurst's machine.

HYDRAULICS. See HYDROMECHANICS.

HYDROCEPHALUS. See BEAIN, DISEASES OF
THE, vol. iii., p. 197.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID, or Clilorohydric Acid, a
gaseous compound of one equivalent of chlo
rine and one of hydrogen (IIC1), of combining
proportion 36'5, long known in its aqueous
solution by the names of muriatic acid, ma
rine salt, and spirit of salt, in reference to its
being prepared from sea salt (murias). Priest
ley first obtained it as a gas in 1772, and Gay-
Lussac, Thenard, and Davy long aftenvard
showed that it consists of equal volumes of
chlorine and hydrogen, and occupies the same
space as the gases which produce it. Its ele
ments mixed together slowly combine by the
action of the light, but instantly with explo
sion if exposed to the direct rays of the sun,
or if an electric spark is passed through the
mixture, or a lighted taper is brought in con
tact with it. The gas is obtained by adding
concentrated sulphuric acid to common salt
placed in a retort, and collecting over mer
cury. The chlorine of the salt (chloride of
sodium) unites with the hydrogen of the sul
phuric acid, producing hydrochloric acid and
acid sulphate of soda; or, by symbols, NaCl
+ H 2 S0 4 = HCl + lS T aHSO4. The gas is col
orless, but escaping in the air it instantly
unites with moisture present, and forms a
white cloud. It has a strongly acid taste and
a pungent odor. Taken into the lungs it is
irrespirable, but when diluted with air is not
so irritating as chlorine. It neither supports
combustion nor is itself inflammable. Under
a pressure of 40 atmospheres, at 50° F., it is
condensed into a liquid of specific gravity 1'27,
which dissolves bitumen. The density of the
gas is '1209-5, air being 1000. Its affinity for
water is such that it can be kept only in jars

HYDROCHLORIC ACID

109

over mercury. If a piece of ice be introduced j
into a jar containing the gas, the ice is in
stantly' liquefied, and the gas disappears. If j
the jar be opened under water, the water
rushes up as into a vacuum. Water at 40° F. |
absorbs nearly its own weight, or about 480
times its bulk of hydrochloric acid gas, in
creasing in volume about one third, and ac
quiring a density of 1*2109 ; at this strength it
contains nearly 43 per cent, of acid. The j
aqueous solution is the form in which the acid
is commonly known. It is of various degrees
of strength, the strongest readily obtained
having 6 equivalents of water to 1 of acid,
40*60 per cent, of real acid, and being of spe
cific gravity 1-203. This loses acid by evapo
ration, coming, according to Prof. Graham, to
12 equivalents of water to 1 of acid, this con
taining 25*52 of real acid, and being of spe
cific gravity 1-1197. When reduced by dis
tillation till it changes no more, it contains 10*4
equivalents of water and 20 per cent, of real
acid, and is of specific gravity 1*0947. The fol
lowing table by Mr. E. Davy gives its strength
at different densities :

Sr. frr.
1-21

Quantity of
acid per cent.
42-43

Sp. C r.
1-10.

Quantity of
acid i er cent.
20-20

1'20.

40-40

1-00.

18*18

1-19

3S-38

1-08

KMG

1-18...

3G-36

1-07

14-f4

1-17

34-34

1-06...

12-12

1-16

32-32

1-05.

10-18

1-15.

80-30

1-04

8-08

1 14

20-28

1-03.

6-06

1-13.

2G-26

ro2

4-04

1-12

24-24

1-01.

2-02

1-11...

.. 22-22

An approximate result is obtained by multiply- j
ing the decimal of the specific gravity by 200. '
— The pure concentrated acid is colorless, and j
fuming when exposed to the air. It is conve- j
niently used for most purposes diluted to aspe- |
cific gravity of about I'l, at which it does not j
fume. Though powerfully acid, it is not so
corrosive as sulphuric acid. It is decomposed |
by substances which yield oxygen freely, as |
the manganese dioxide, and is thus made to |
furnish chlorine gas, its hydrogen combining
with the oxygen of the metallic oxide. Ni
trate of silver, AgNO 3 (old AgO,NO 6 ), detects
its presence by the formation of a white curdy
precipitate of chloride of silver, AgCl, which
is soluble in ammonia, but not in nitric acid. —
Ingredients used for preparing hydrochloric acid
either upon a large or small scale are common !
salt, sulphuric acid, and water. Different pro
portions are adopted, the most usual being
equal weights of concentrated acid and of salt,
or in the large way G parts of salt to 5 of acid,
being an equivalent of each, to which 5 parts |
of water are usually added. The acid mixed j
with about half water is poured when cool |
upon the salt contained in a large retort, and j
the remainder of the water is placed in the
vessel serving as a condenser to receive the i
gas. Heat is applied to the retort, and the acid !
gas distils over ; the water in the condenser ;

allows none of it to escape, so long as it is kept
cool and is not saturated. The aqueous solu
tion obtained is of specific gravity about 1*17,
and contains 34 per cent, of dry acid. The
residuum is common sulphate of soda or Glau
ber's salt. The acid is so cheaply prepared in
large chemical works, that it is seldom made in
the laboratory. It is an incidental product in
the manufacture of carbonate of soda, and was
formerly allowed to go to waste. The com
mercial article is often contaminated with iron,
which gives it a yellow color, though this is
sometimes owing to organic matter, as cork or
wood. Sulphuric acid is almost always present
in it, and sometimes free chlorine and nitrous
acid. Sulphurous acid, II 2 SO 3 , has also been
found, to the amount of 7 to pearly 11 per
cent. Sulphuric acid is detected by the forma
tion of a white precipitate of sulphate of bary
ta, produced when chloride of barium, BaCl 2 ,
is added to a diluted portion of acid. Traces
of sulphurous acid are detected by a mixture
of perchloride of iron and ferrocy anide of potas
sium, Prussian blue being formed by the re
ducing action of the acid on the mixture. Arse
nic and chloride of lead, PbCJ 2 , may sometimes
be detected bva current of sulphuretted hydro
gen, II 2 S (PbCl 2 + HS 2 = 2IIC1 + PbS). The
common method of purifying is to dilute, add
chloride of barium, and distil. — Hydrochloric
acid is largely employed in the arts, especially
as a solvent for mineral substances. In combi
nation with nitric acid it makes the aqua regia,
used for dissolving gold and platinum. It is used
to furnish chlorine in the preparation of bleach
ing and disinfectant salts, and in the production
of sal ammoniac ; and is employed to extract
gelatine from bones. When neutralized with
basic oxides, it docs not combine as an acid
with these, but gives its hydrogen to their oxy
gen, and its chlorine unites with the metallic
base of the oxide. — In medicine hydrochloric
acicl may be employed with advantage, largely
diluted, to assist the process of digestion, which
it does by replacing the deficient portion of the.
normal acid and of the gastric juice. When
administered with pepsine it forms a sort of ar
tificial gastric juice. It has also been employed
as a tonic in various diseases, and as an in
gredient of gargles, when sufficiently diluted.
The strong acid may be used as an escharotic.
It is much less corrosive than sulphuric acid.
When poisoning has occurred from swallowing
the strong acid, it should be neutralized by
magnesia or soap, and the case then treated as
other kinds of corrosive poisoning are. The
principal indications for the therapeutic admin
istration of hydrochloric acid are to be found
in calculous affections, in certain forms of dys
pepsia, in typhus and typhoid fevers, and in
aphthous affections of the mouth and stomach.
It may be given in the dose of from 10 to 80
drops three or four times a day, freely diluted
with water. Its local application in cases of ul
cerated, putrid, and diphtheritic sore throat has
often been attended with the happiest results.

110

HYDROCYANIC ACID

HYDROCYANIC ACID, or Prnssic Acid (IICX =
HCy; chemical equivalent 27), was first ob
tained in its aqueous solution by Scheele in
1782, who described it correctly as consisting
of hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen ; but the
true nature of the compound was determined
by Gay-Lussac 30 years later, who first ob
tained the anhydrous acid. This is a colorless,
inflammable liquid, possessing a strong odor,
which is recognized in peach blossoms; but
when exhaled from the pure acid it is so pow
erful as to cause immediate headache and gid
diness, involving the most serious consequen
ces to life itself. The vapor is so remarkably
volatile, that a drop of the acid congeals upon
a piece of glass by the rapid evaporation of
a portion of the liquid. It boils at 80°, and
freezes at 5° into a fibrous mass. At 45° F. its
specific gravity is 0'70o8. Its taste (a hazard
ous test) is acrid and bitter like that of bitter
almonds. Its acid properties are feeble ; the
faint red tinge it imparts to litmus paper soon
disappears ; and it fails to decompose salts of
carbonic acid. It exists in parts of many plants,
as the kernels of peaches, almonds, plums, &c.,
and in the leaves of the peach, laurel, &c. It
is also generated in the processes contrived -for
extracting it from various vegetable matters.
The chief source of the acid, however, is the
blood, hoofs, horns, and tissues of animals,
which are made to furnish cyanogen to potas
sium on being ignited with carbonate of pot
ash, and the cyanide thus obtained and other
cyanides of the same derivation are employed
to furnish the cyanogen for the acid. Its col
oration in Prussian blue gave it the name of
Prussic acid. Many methods have been de
vised for preparing the anhydrous acid. The
cyanide of mercury has been decomposed to
gether with hydrochloric acid, thus producing
chloride of mercury and hydrocyanic acid ;
and sulphuretted hydrogen and also diluted
sulphuric acid have by suitable processes been
substituted for the hydrochloric acid. But the
aqueous solution or medicinal acid is common
ly prepared direct by some one of the numer
ous processes of the pharmacopoeias. The fol
lowing, adopted in the United States, is rec
ommended for its simplicity and convenience :
Of cyanide of silver 50£ grains are dissolved
in 41 grains of hydrochloric acid diluted with
a fluid ounce of distilled water; the mixture
is shaken in a well stopped phial, and the clear
liquor, poured off from the insoluble matter
which subsides, is kept in tight bottles exclu
ded from the light. Single equivalents of the
acid and cyanide salt are employed ; and by
their mutual decomposition hydrocyanic acid
is obtained in solution, and chloride of silver
falls as a precipitate. By this method the acid
may always be prepared as wanted ; a matter
of no little importance in its medicinal applica
tions, in consideration of its liability to decom
pose spontaneously, and its consequent uncer
tain composition and strength. The aqueous
solutions prepared by the different processes

adopted are not uniform in their proportions
of anhydrous acid; but their strength ought
not to exceed 3 per cent, of pure acid. Vari
ous methods are given in the chemical books
of ascertaining this strength and the degree
of purity. Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids
are the most common foreign bodies present.
The quantity of real acid is usually determined
by the weight of cyanide of silver precipita
ted on adding nitrate of silver. By the Uni
ted States formula 100 grains of pure acid
must accurately saturate 12 '7 grains of nitrate
of silver dissolved in distilled water, and pro
duce a precipitate of cyanide of silver, which,
washed and dried at a temperature not exceed
ing 212°, shall weigh 10 grains and be wholly
soluble in boiling nitric acid. If a residue re
main, it is chloride of silver, indicating the
presence of hydrochloric acid in the original.
Sulphuric acid would be indicated by a pre
cipitate formed on adding chloride of barium
to a portion of the acid. — Hydrocyanic acid is
well known as one of the most powerful of
poisons, destructive to vegetable as well as ani
mal life. Seeds immersed in it lose their ger
minating power, and the stems of sensitive
plants lose their peculiar property by its appli
cation. Small doses of hydrocyanic acid give
rise to a bitter taste, a tingling in the throat, a
feeling of warmth in the stomach, and an in
creased secretion of saliva. If the dose is in
creased, there are in addition headache, dizzi
ness, confusion, drowsiness, and sometimes
nausea and labored breathing. After the long
continued use of small doses the pulse becomes
less frequent. As the dose is increased the
symptoms above mentioned increase in inten
sity, especially the dyspnoea, while the pulse be
comes frequent and small. Consciousness may
be completely lost, the pupil dilated, and con
vulsions occur, and yet recovery take place.
Fatal cases occur with aggravation of these
symptoms, except when death takes place so
rapidly that no symptoms are developed be
yond sudden loss of consciousness, a short pe
riod of labored breathing, disappearance of the
pulse, and collapse. When continuously ap
plied externally, hydrocyanic acid lessens the
irritability of the sensitive nerves. It is used
in medicine to diminish pain and irritation ; in
some affections of the stomach to check vom
iting; and in chest affections to allay icoiigh,
especially of a spasmodic character. Oil of
bitter almonds, has been used to produce the
effect of hydrocyanic acid, but the amount of
acid contained therein is so variable that it
is an uncertain preparation. When poisoning
takes place, death often approaches so rapidly
as to preclude the employment of any efficient
treatment. But if the heart is still beating,
stimulants, especially ammonia, should be very
cautiously applied. Cold affusion may also act
as an excitant, and artificial respiration may
sustain life long enough for a portion of the
poison to be eliminated, and life saved. The
subcutaneous injection of atropia has also been

HYDRODYNAMICS

HYDROGEN

111

proposed, but lias not been proved to be of
much value as an antidote. After death and
before decomposition has taken place, the pres
ence of hydrocyanic acid is rendered apparent
in the blood vessels and also in the brain by
its peculiar odor. To obtain the acid, the con
tents of the stomach should be washed with
distilled water and filtered, and the filtrate dis
tilled in a water bath. The product may then
be subjected to the various tests given in the
chemical works. The therapeutic value of
hydrocyanic acid is limited chiefly to a few
nervous affections of the stomach, to the vom
iting of pregnancy, and to whooping cough
and spasmodic derangements of the respiratory
organs. Only the dilute form is used medi
cinally, of which the dose varies from two to
five or six drops.

HYDRODYNAMICS. See HYDROMECHANICS.

HYDROFLUORIC ACID. See FLUORINE.

HYDROGEN (Gr. i>6up, water, and yew&eiv, to
produce), an elementary gaseous body, named
from its property of forming water by com
bining with oxygen. Its symbol is II ; chemi
cal equivalent 1 ; weight compared with air
0-06920 ; 100 cubic inches weigh under ordinary
pressure and temperature 2 - 14 grains, being 16
times less than an equal volume of oxygen, and
14*4 times less than air. One litre of hydro
gen gas at 0° 0. and 760 mm. pressure weighs
0-08936 gramme. It was known near the
close of the 17th century, and was termed in
flammable air from its burning with a flame ;
it was also called phlogiston, from the suppo
sition of its being the matter of heat. Its real
nature was first described by Cavendish in
1766. The gas is not found uncombined, but
is readily obtained by decomposing water, of
which it constitutes about one ninth by weight,
the remainder being oxygen. This process is
effected very much as metallic oxides are de
composed, some substance being presented to
the compound which has a strong affinity for
the oxygen, and combining with it liberates
the hydrogen or other element. The vapor, of
water passed through an iron tube filled with
iron shavings and kept at a red heat is thus
decomposed, the oxygen uniting with the iron,
and the hydrogen escaping. The common
method of preparing the gas is to place some
bits of zinc in oil of vitriol c" sulphuric acid di
luted with five or six times its bulk of water.
Chemical action immediately takes place, and
the zinc is dissolved with effervescence, owing
to the bubbles of hydrogen separating from
the liquid. The reaction is represented by
the formula Zn + H a S0 4 = ZnSO 4 + II a . With
an ounce of zinc there may be obtained 615
cubic inches of hydrogen. A common flask
answers very well for the apparatus, by in
serting a bent tube through the cork for the
exit of the gas, and a straight tube, termi
nating above in a small funnel, and reaching
below the cork nearly to the bottom of the
flask, at least so as to be covered by the
liquid. Through this tube the acid is poured
VOL. ix. — 8

in as required, the zinc and water being first
introduced. The sulphur and carbon which
are present in almost all zinc appear in the hy
drogen as traces of sulphuretted hydrogen and
carbonic acid. They may be separated by agi
tating the gas with lime water. When pure, hy
drogen has neither taste, smell, nor color. It
is destructive to animal life when inhaled for a
short time, and extinguishes a burning taper
plunged into it. Yet it is itself highly com
bustible, burning with a faint bluish yellow
flame at its contact with atmospheric air or
oxygen ; and when mixed with proper propor
tions of ether and ignited by flame, an electric
spark, or a glass rod heated hardly to redness,
its combustion is instantaneous and explosive.
A piece of spongy platinum introduced into the
mixture also causes combustion to take place.
The most violent effects are produced by a mix
ture of two volumes of hydrogen and one of
oxygen. The only product of the combustion
of hydrogen is water. The gas is made to en
ter into combination with the oxygen of the
air, producing heat sufficient to cause its igni
tion, by directing a jet of it upon a piece of
spongy platinum, or even upon a perfectly clean
surface of sheet platinum. The metal becomes
red hot, the gas ignites, and thus a light may be
instantaneously obtained. A little apparatus
was devised for this purpose by Prof. Dobe-
reiner, which would be an excellent means of
obtaining a flame in the absence of the cheap
matches in common use. Though the flame of
hydrogen is very slightly luminous, a bright
light is emitted from the heated platinum ; and
an apparatus based on this principle has been
applied to purposes of illumination in the place
of ordinary gas lights. Such lights were at one
time in practical use in France and England.
The hydrogen was produced by the decompo
sition of water, effected by passing its vapor
over incandescent charcoal contained in a tube ;
some carbonic oxide and carburetter! hydrogen
were generated, which burned with the hy
drogen, the jet of mixed gases being direct
ed against a basket constructed of fine gauze
of platinum, which became intensely hot and
highly luminous. Hydrogen produces intense
heat by its combustion, taking up more oxygen
than is required by the same weight of any
other combustible. It is this property that has
led to its application in the oxyhydrogen blow
pipe for melting the most refractory substances.
(See BLOWPIPE.) The levity of hydrogen early
suggested its use for filling balloons. The quan
tity required to fill one of the capacity of 2,000
cubic feet would weigh only 10*57 Ibs., while
the same volume of air would weigh 153-26 Ibs.,
giving an ascensional power of 142*69 Ibs. Illu
minating gas is heavier, but is commonly used
instead of hydrogen only on account of its
greater cheapness. Hydrogen is so subtle and
penetrating a gas that it passes with facility
through paper and also through gold and silver
leaves. A stream of the gas directed against
one side of the leaf may be ignited on the

112

HYDROGRAPHY

other. Hydrogen combines with one equiva
lent of oxygen to form hydrogen monoxide or
water ; with two equivalents to form the di
oxide or oxygenated water, a liquid discovered
by Thenard in 1818, and now prepared by
chemists for medicinal purposes ; also with one
equivalent of nitrogen to form ammonia ; and
with one of chlorine to form hydrochloric acid.
From his researches on the occlusion of hydro
gen by palladium, Prof. Graham was led to in
fer the existence of an alloy of palladium and
hydrogen gas condensed to a solid form, to
which he gave the name of Jiydrogenium. As
suming that the hydrogen enters into the com
bination with the density which it would ex
hibit if solidified in the free state, he calculates,
from the observed density of this so-called alloy
of palladium and hydrogenium, and of similar
alloys containing in addition gold, silver, or
nickel, that the density of this hypothetically
solidified hydrogen varies between the limits
0*711 and 0-7545; mean, 0'733. The presence
of hydrogen in the atmosphere of the sun and
in the planets has been shown by spectrum
analysis. On the sun four lines are attributed
to hydrogen.

HYDROGRAPHY is the science which, by rep
resentation of the figure of the bottom of the
ocean and its tributaries by means of soundings,
by observations of tides and currents, and by
investigations of the winds and their action
and of the law of storms, aims to diminish the
risk attending the navigation of dangerous
waters. The results of these investigations
are shown upon charts, which give the out
lines of the coasts and harbors, the depths of
water in the navigable channels, the rocks and
shoals with the soundings upon them, and
various tidal and magnetic information. In
the course of the investigations specimens of
the bottom are also obtained by apparatus at
tached to the sounding lead ; and the tempera
ture of the water is frequently taken as an
additional guide to determine the mariner's po
sition. By such sea charts as are now pre
pared and published by the English and French
hydrographic ofiices and by the coast survey
of the United States, the risks attending nav
igation have been greatly diminished. (See
COAST SURVEY.) Hydrography, as it now ex
ists, belongs to modern times, although various
rude attempts at hydrographic examinations
and the construction of sea charts were made
in early times. The invention of charts for
mariners is commonly ascribed to Henry the
^Navigator (1394-1460), although earlier ones
exist. Of necessity such were rude and im
perfect, the size and even the true shape of
the earth being then unknown, the log for
measuring nautical miles not in use, the only
instrument for determining latitude being the
sea astrolabe, and none existing for determin
ing the longitude. Little was accomplished
through national instrumentality toward the
improvement of our knowledge of the sea and
its tributaries until the middle of the 18th cen

tury; what little was known being the result
of the enterprise of individuals, such as Co
lumbus, Cabot, Drake, and other navigators.
The researches of Capt. James Cook of the
English navy, which were begun at Quebec
in 1759, when he was master of the frigate
Mercury, and were continued for about 20
years, may be considered as the commence
ment of a new era in hydrography. (See COOK,
JAMES, and DBS BARRES.) The success of the
English captain excited the rivalry of the
French ; and in 1785 La Perouse was placed
in command of an expedition consisting of
two frigates, with a corps of scientists, and
sent to continue the work which Cook's un
timely fate had left unfinished. They were
never heard from after their departure from
Botany bay ; but La Perouse had sent home
from there duplicates of the journals and charts
of his discoveries up to the date of his arrival.
D'Entrecasteaux's unsuccessful expedition in
search of him in 1791 gave rise to a text book
on marine surveying by his navigating officer,
Beautemps-Beaupre, published as an appendix
to the narrative of D'Entrecasteaux's voyage
(1808). This, with the exception of Alexander
Dalrymple's "Essay on the most Commodious
Method of Marine Surveying" (1771), was the
first treatise published in a practical shape.
About the time of its publication Beautemps-
Beaupre took charge of the survey of the French
coast, and trained a corps of hydrographers,
who formed the nucleus of a body of scientific
engineers to be furnished to future expeditions
for surveying and exploration. Spain has also
done a great deal for hydrography, although in
a more indirect way. The legal provision for
the examination of officers of the mercantile
marine as to their competency to navigate a
vessel, before promoting them, has given a
high reputation to its merchant service ; and
the nautical information obtained from that
source has been found exceedingly valuable.
Her example has of late years been followed
by almost every nation having much commerce.
But in our own times, with improved instru
ments, trained professional hydrographers, and
liberal appropriations of money and men, hy
drography has become a recognized branch of
public works, and the knowledge of it an ab
solute necessity to the complete seaman. Re-
connoissances of large extents of coast have
been made by men trained to the practice of
the science, with such success as to be scarcely
capable of correction by the results of detailed
surveys. In the latter the aid of geodesy (by
which the positions of points on shore are
accurately determined) is called in; and no
such examination is considered complete or ac
curate unless it depends upon triangulation.
(See COAST SURVEY, vol. iv., p. 757.) Great
Britain, France, Spain, the United States, and
other nations have now their hydrographic
offices as established branches of government ;
and under the direction of these departments
close and accurate survays are made of the

HYDROGRAPHY

113

home coasts, and their surveying vessels fre
quent all parts of the globe, and penetrate
seas hitherto almost unknown, mapping the
limits of harbors, determining with precision
the geographical position of headlands and en
trances, and of rocks, shoals, and sands, many
of them hitherto unknown. In this science
England is far in advance of all other nations.
Not content with a most complete and admira
ble survey of her own coasts, she has extended
her work to all of her possessions and to the
coasts of foreign nations. Many eminent sur
veyors are numbered among her naval officers ;
but it is probable that few have done so much
or displayed so much zeal and devotion to the
science as the late Admiral Beaufort, so long
at the head of the hydrographic office of the
admiralty. His surveys were sometimes ac
tually carried on at his own expense. Much
importance is attached to the results expected
from the scientific cruise of the British ship
Challenger, which at the present time (1874)
is engaged in a voyage around the world,
probably the most important of its kind ever
undertaken. She carries a large number of
men familiar with almost all the branches of
science and art, whose labors, it is hoped, will
be productive of much information in natural
science and in marine surveying and deep-sea
dredging. Although surpassed by England in
the number and completeness of her foreign
surveys, the hydrographic work on our own
coasts is unequalled for accuracy and rapidity
of execution. Under the charge of the coast
survey of the United States it has progressed
in company with the trigonometrical and topo
graphical work of that service ; and it is safe
to assert that the completed charts of the coast
and the various harbors stand alone in the an
nals of surveying for beauty of execution, ac
curacy, and completeness of detail. A large
corps of skilled professional hydrographers are
constantly employed prosecuting the surveys
of the numerous harbors on the Atlantic, Pa
cific, and gulf coasts; and others are engaged
in deep-sea explorations along the course of
the Gulf stream, in the gulf of Mexico, and
on the coasts of California and Oregon. These
deep-sea expeditions have been especially use
ful in determining the routes suitable for sub
marine cables, several of wlrch have been laid
over lines previously sounded and surveyed by
officers belonging to the coast survey. One
of the most successful hydrographic expeditions
of modern times was that undertaken between
1851 and 1853 under the auspices of the coast
survey of the United States, by Lieut, (now
Rear Admiral) James Alden of the navy, in the
schooner Ewing and steamer Active. More
than 1,300 m. of the Pacific coast was ex
plored, from lat. 32° 30' to 48° 20' K, and
the geographical positions of all the prominent
headlands and of the entrances to the har
bors were determined by astronomical observa
tions, from the southern boundary of the Uni
ted States to the strait of Fuca; lines of

soundings were carried along the coast through
out its entire length, and hydrographic recon-
noissances made of most of the harbors, with ac
curate views of the different entrances and of
prominent points on the coast ; and subsequent
careful detailed surveys, based upon accurate
geodetic determinations, have failed to change
the results of this work in any important par
ticular. The immediate result of this recon-
noissance was the publication of a chart of the
Pacific coast for the use of mariners, and sub
sequently of a marine directory, which has
since been elaborated and published as a
" Coast Pilot of the Pacific Coast of the United
States." — The method of hydrographic survey
ing, as now practised both in this country and
in Europe, is as follows : 1. Reconnaissance, as,
for instance, the hydrographic survey of a har
bor on a foreign coast, or any place where ac
curate geodetic information cannot be obtained.
The hydrographer, obliged himself to make all
the determinations of points on shore and the
outlines of the coast, applies the principles of
geodesy and topography, but of course in a com
paratively rude manner. A base line may be
measured, if on land, in the ordinary way ; but
if the working ground is so far from shore as to
render points on shore useless (as is sometimes
the case in surveys of shoals off a low and
flat coast), or if the coast is occupied by an
enemy, a base line is sometimes measured by
anchoring a boat at each end of it, and noting
the interval between the flash of a gun fired
from one boat and the report as heard at the
other. But this very rude method is only ad
missible where no other is possible. Where
the surface to be surveyed is small, good re
sults have been obtained from a base line mea
sured by a cord, the two ends being marked
either by boats or buoys. Signals are erected
at each end of the base line and on prominent
points along the shore, the latter being deter
mined by horizontal angles measured from each
end of the base line. Not only the angle be
tween each end of the base and each signal is
measured, but the angles between the differ
ent signals themselves ; and the triangles thus
formed are either computed by trigonometry
or platted by intersections upon the chart.
The latitude and longitude of some prominent
points are also determined. The outlines of
the coast or harbor are drawn between inter
mediate points determined by horizontal angles,
and the chart is then ready for platting the
sounding lines. Next, a tide gauge is erected.
This is generally a plain staff, graduated to
half feet; and by continuous observations of
the rise and fall of the tides, and of the times
of high and low water, the hydrographer ob
tains an approximate establishment for the
port, and also the means of correcting his
soundings for the rise of the tide, which is
called "reducing them to the level of low
water." The shore line having been rudely
determined, and such natural and artificial
features mapped as may be considered neces-

114:

HYDROGRAPHY

HYDROIDS

sary, a boat is started from any point in the
harbor to run the lines of soundings. The
boat is steered on a certain course, and sound
ings are taken at intervals as nearly regular as
possible. These soundings, together with the
time at which they are taken and the horizon
tal angles for position, are recorded. The end
of the line is also determined by angles ; and
the boat is then started on a new line. Thus
the harbor or bay is crossed and recrossed by
lines of soundings intersecting each other in
numerous places ; and these soundings, re
duced to low-water level and laid down upon
the chart, show the depth at low water not
only in the channel but on the various shoals.
2. Deep-Sea Soundings. In this kind of hydro
graphy the position of the vessel is determined
from time to time by careful and numerous ob
servations of the sun and stars, and by dead reck
oning. The line used has recently been success
fully replaced by a wire, and the lead or shot at
the end of it is so arranged as to be detached
on striking the bottom. An instrument called
an indicator is attached to the sounding line,
which, by means of revolving disks put in mo
tion by a screw-propeller wheel, registers the
depths to which it descends; when relieved
of the weight of the lead, it is thrown out of
gear and drawn up. The line is drawn in by
a reel worked by a small steam engine ; and by
means of all these appliances soundings are
taken at great depths with a rapidity and ac
curacy utterly unknown until of late years.
Specimens of the bottom are obtained by means
of specimen cups attached to the sounding line,
or by the dredge. The best indicators now in
use are those of Trowbridge and Brooke, the lat
ter gentleman's having given thus far the best
results. 3. Hydrographic Surveys. The pro
cess in a detailed survey is similar to that in a
reconnoissance, but more elaborate. The hy-
drographer is furnished with the positions of
numerous points on shore and with a map
of the shores of the harbor in detail, on a scale
to suit his own work. Upon this map are
platted the points furnished him from the geo
detic survey ; and upon it he also constructs his
lines of soundings. Usually two, and sometimes
three officers are employed in each boat in run
ning the lines, the advantage of this arrange
ment being that the two angles necessary to
determine the position of the boat can be taken
at the same moment by two observers without
stopping the boat. Sometimes, especially where
the work lies at a distance from the shore, two
observers are placed on prominent points on
shore, each with a theodolite. At stated in
tervals the surveying boat or vessel hoists a
ball or flag, when both observers direct their
instruments to her, and upon the instant of its I
being lowered measure the angle between the I
boat and some fixed point. The intersection ]
of their two lines of sight when platted upon
the chart gives the position of the boat. The
lines of soundings are run more closely than
in reconnoissance, and as far as possible are

made to cross each other at right angles. Tidal
observations are made to tenths of a foot ; and
the box gauge, and at certain central points
the self-registering gauge, are used. (See
COAST SURVEY, vol. iv., p. T62.) The survey
ing parties, from the chief to the leadsman,
are specially trained for the work, and the re
sulting accuracy of such a survey is corre
spondingly great. — Physical hydrography inves
tigates the laws of the formation of shoals, the
eti'ect upon harbors and channels of the tidal
currents, of the extension of wharves, and of
the dumping of earth and ballast ; and endea
vors to provide remedies for the changes which
injure a harbor, and to suggest means for im
proving the channels. This branch of the sci
ence has of late years attained to great impor
tance both in Europe and the United States,
and the researches of those who have devo
ted themselves to its study have resulted in in
calculable benefits to commerce. (See COAST
SUEVEY, vol. iv., p. 761.) In regard to cur
rents, and other hydrographic details, see AT
LANTIC OCEAN, and DBEDGIXG (DEEP-SEA).

HYDROIDS, the lowest order of acalephs or
jelly fishes, including, according to Agassiz,
two distinct forms, one resembling polyps, the
other like the jelly fishes, there being every
possible gradation between the two. , It is in
this order that the phenomena of alternate
generation have been specially studied by Sars
and others. (See JELLY FISH.) There are many
plant-like forms which give a mossy cover-
ering to seaweeds and stones, producing buds,
developing in some cases into free medusa),
and in others remaining attached to the parent
stalk, both discharging ova which swim off by
ciliary processes to establish ne\v fixed hydroid
communities. In the tubularians the hydroid
is pedunculated, and the bell-shaped medusas
are either free as in coryne or persistent as
in tiibularia. In the sertularians the hydroid
is always pedunculated and attached, protected
by a horny sheath, forming a cup around the
head, with free medusaa as in campanularia,
or free generative buds as in scrtularia ; their
medusa? are flatter than in tubularians. The
siphonopJiora, like the Portuguese man-of-war,
are also hydroid communities. — The common
green hydra of fresh water (hydra viridis) is
easily seen by the naked eye ; the body is a
cylindrical tube, with thread cells, and a green
coloring matter believed to be the same as the
chlorophyl of plants ; at the base is a disk -like
sucker for its attachment to foreign bodies ;
it is usually suspended, head downward, from
some aquatic plant, changing its position at
will. The mouth is at the opposite end, sur
rounded by 5 to 15 very contractile tentacles,
armed with lasso cells, hollow, and communi
cating with the general and stomachal cavity
of the body ; by these they obtain their food,
which consists of minute aquatic animals.
There are no internal organs of any kind,
and they are therefore very little higher than
the protozoa. They resist without destruc-

HYDROMECHANICS

115

tion a very great degree of mutilation, each
fragment into which they may be divided be
ing capable, according to Trembley, of be
coming a complete individual. Reproduction
is either non-sexual, by gemmation in summer,
or sexual, by ova and sperm cells in autumn ;

Hydra.

the buds develop a mouth and tentacles at the
free end, and are soon detached, each in its
turn producing similar buds ; both ova and
sperm cells are produced in the same individu
al, coming in contact in the water ; the em
bryo is at first ciliated and free swimming,
afterward becoming fixed, losing the cilia, and
developing a mouth and tentacles.

HYDROMECHANICS, that branch of natural
philosophy which treats of the mechanics of
liquids, or of their laws of equilibrium and of
motion. It includes the consideration of those
molecular properties of liquids which affect
their mechanical applications, such as fluidity
and slight compressibility. The science which
is here termed hydromechanics has been some
times treated under the title of hydrodynam
ics, this being made to include hydrostatics
and hydraulics, which is the nomenclature
adopted by Sir David Brewster ; while others
treat of hydrodynamics and hydrostatics as
two independent subjects, hydraulics being
embraced by hydrodynamics; but the title
hydromechanics which was adopted in the first
edition of this Cyclopedia seems to be the
most comprehensive and exact, and wiH be re
tained. — Hydromechanics is comparatively a
modern science, having received its greatest
development in the 16th, 17th, and 18th cen
turies. The ancient mathematicians and hy
draulic engineers, who constructed the aque
ducts of Egypt and Assyria, must have been
acquainted with many of the more obvious
principles of hydraulics and hydrostatics ; and
at the time of the construction of the Roman
aqueducts hydromechanics may be considered
as having become entitled to be called a sci
ence ; but the more purely mathematical prin
ciples by which its laws can be well under
stood were not discovered till centuries after.

j Some of the general principles which lie at
the foundation of the science, and are suscep
tible of analytical and experimental demonstra
tion, were first given by Archimedes in the
latter part of the 3d century B. C. ; and it is
to him that we owe the demonstration of the
fundamental principle of the equilibrium of
liquids, that each particle in a liquid at rest
receives equal pressure in every direction, and
also that a solid immersed in a liquid loses an
amount of weight equal to that of the water
displaced, from which he deduced the method
of obtaining the specific gravity of bodies. We
also owe to him the method of raising water
by means of the screw known by his name.
Other advances in the construction of hydrau
lic machinery were made about the same time
in the Greek school at Alexandria by Ctesibius
and Hero, who invented the syphon and forc
ing pump, and also the fountain known as
Hero's ; but their limited knowledge of pneu
matics, and the imperfection in the machinery
of those times, prevented them from bringing
the force pump to anything like its present
degree of efficiency. The first attempt at a
scientific investigation of the motions of liquids
was made by the consul Frontinus, who was
inspector of the public fountains at Rome un
der the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, and whose
book De Aguceductibus UrMs Roma Commen-
tarius, describing the nine great aqueducts of
Rome, to which he afterward added five, con
tains all the knowledge of hydromechanics pos
sessed by the ancients. From the statement
of Pliny that water will rise to a level with its
source, and that it should be elevated in leaden
pipes, it appears that this metal was used by the
ancient Romans for small conduits. Frontinus
was the last of the ancients who paid much at
tention to the subject, the next investigator
of importance being Stevinus, born about 1550,
who was engineer of dikes for the government
of Holland. He published a work in Dutch in
1586 on the " Principles of Statics and Hydro
statics," in which he restates the principle of
Archimedes, and deduces from it the " hydro
static paradox," that the pressure of a liquid
on the bottom of a vessel may be much great
er than its weight. By a method approaching
| the infinitesimal calculus, he found the pres-
I sure on the oblique bottom of a vessel ; and
I Whewell remarks that his treatment of the
subject embraces most of the elementary sci
ence of hydrostatics of the present day. Ga
lileo, in his " Discourse on Floating Bodies "
(1612), shows a clear knowledge of the fun-
, damental laws of the science; but it is to his
• discovery of the uniform acceleration in fall-
, ing bodies that we owe one of the chief fouii-
| dations of hydromechanics. This law was
I afterward more fully applied by Torricelli in
! his celebrated theorem that the velocities of
liquid jets are proportional to the square roots
I of the depths at which they issue below the
' surface, which he published at the end of his
, treatise De Motu Grarium naturaliter accel-

116

HYDROMECHANICS

rato (1643). Pascal's work, written ten years
•later and published after his death, Swr Vequi-
libre des liqueurs, in which he treats the sub
ject in a more systematic manner than any
previous writer, contains complete and elegant
demonstrations of most of the principles of hy
drostatics, but does not treat of the motions
of liquids. The next great student of hydro
mechanics was Sir Isaac Newton, who investi
gated the subject of friction and viscosity in
diminishing the velocity of flowing water, and
also of the velocity of jets; but upon the latter
point he fell into an error by supposing that
the velocity with which water issues from an
orifice is equal to that which a body would at
tain by falling through half the vertical dis
tance between the surface of the liquid and
the orifice. His subsequent discovery of the
vena contracta modified his conclusions, but
his theory of efflux is open to objections. He,
however, investigated the subject of waves,
one of the most difficult in the science of hy
drodynamics, in a manner worthy of his ge
nius. In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli published IIy- 4
drodynamica, sen de Viribus et Motibus Flu-
idorum Commentaria, in which he founds his
theory of the velocity of the motion of fluids
through orifices upon the supposition that the
surface of a fluid which is discharging itself by
an orifice preserves a level, and that if the
liquid is divided into an infinite number of
horizontal strata, all the points in these strata
will descend with velocities inversely propor
tioned to their breadth, or to the horizontal
section of the reservoir. To determine the
motion of each stratum, he employed the prin
ciple of "conservation of living forces;" and
from the elegance of his solutions his work is
pronounced by the abbe Bossut one of the
finest productions of mathematical genius. But
the uncertainty of the principle which he em
ployed rendered the results of his work of less
value than their mathematical excellence. The
science afterward received the attention of
D'Alembert and of Euler, who enriched it by
the application of special mathematical meth
ods of great acuteness and originality. The
abbe Bossut also experimentally investigated
the discharge of liquids by orifices, and added
much to the stock of knowledge on the sub
ject. To the experiments of Venturi, Eytel-
wein, and others, the science is indebted for
many facts in regard to the flow of water
from conically diverging tubes. The flow of
water over barrages has been from time to
time investigated experimentally by the che
valier Dubuat, D'Aubuisson, Castel, and M.
Prony, and also by Smeaton, Brindley, Robin
son, Evans, Blackwell, and others. — Before
considering the separate branches of the sub
ject, we will notice two important physical
properties of liquids, as upon them the action
of hydrostatic and hydraulic forces depends.
The first important property of a liquid is the
perfect mobility of its particles over each other,
and one which results from their slight cohe

sion. That there is a certain degree of cohe
sion is shown by the fact that liquids will form
drops. There is no active repulsion between
the particles until they have been heated to a
certain degree ; or the repulsion, if there is
any, on the hypothesis that both forces are
always in action, is less than the cohesion.
A certain degree of cold, varying with the
liquid, will cause an increase of the cohesive
force, so that the liquid will become viscous
and then solid; and it is found that the flu
idity of a liquid is promoted by heat, and
that water when cold will not flow through
pipes as rapidly as when warm. The second
important physical property of liquids is their
great resistance to compression, so that for a
long time it was doubted whether water was
compressible. The experiment of Bacon, who
hammered a leaden vessel filled with water
till it was forced through the pores of the
metal, was cited as a proof of the incompressi-
bility of water; but a remark of Bacon's to
the effect that he estimated the diminished
space into which the water was driven, indi
cates that he drew a different conclusion. The
experiment of the Florentine academicians in
forcing water in a similar manner through the
pores of a silver vessel w r as for some time re
garded as indisputably establishing the incom-
pressibility of water; but the apparatus de
vised by Oersted proves in a conclusive man
ner that water and all
other liquids are slight
ly c o rnp re ssibl e . C ant on
had previously shown
that liquids were com
pressible, but the degree
could not be ascertained
with any accuracy in
consequence of the dif
ficulty of determining
the amount of expansion
which had been pro
duced in the containing
vessel. This was obvi
ated by Oersted in pla
cing it within another,
so that it would re
ceive equal pressure up
on equal surfaces with
out and within, and thus
preserve a uniform ca
pacity. His apparatus
is shown in fig. 1. The
liquid to be subjected
to pressure is placed in
the inner glass vessel «,

FIG> 1> ~ ratfs^ 8 ApPa " from * he to P of which
a capillary tube turns

downward, its open extremity dipping beneath
the surface of a layer of mercury contained in
the bottom of the outer vessel. Another tube,
&, graduated and used as a manometer, also
open at the lower end and dipping in the mer
cury, is placed along with the vessel a in a
strong glass cylinder, which is provided at the

HYDKOMECHANICS

117

top with a smaller metallic cylinder which ad
mits the compressing screw c, and also a funnel,
d, for introducing the liquid. The vessel a with
its capillary stem, having been filled with the
liquid, is placed in position, together with the
manometer; the outer cylinder is filled with
water, the stopcock of the funnel closed, and
pressure produced by turning the screw with
a lever. Mercury will be seen to rise in the
capillary tube connected with the vessel «,
showing that its contents are diminished in
volume. The air contained \vithin the ma
nometer, being reduced in bulk in proportion to
the force exerted, according to the law of Boyle
and Mariotte, will therefore be a measure of
that force. Oersted at first assumed that the
external and internal pressure on the vessel
was precisely the same ; but the external pres
sure is slightly the greater, because the exter
nal surface is greater than the internal, so that
the capacity of the vessel is diminished, instead
of being increased as in all preceding experi
ments. Colladon and Sturm with the use of
this apparatus made very exact experiments,
in which they calculated the change of capa
city of the vessel «•, and estimated that an
additional atmospheric pressure would reduce
the volume of water -00005, mercury -000005,
and sulphuric ether -000133. For water and
mercury it was found that within certain limits
the decrease in volume is proportional to the
pressure. I. HYDROSTATICS. In consequence
of the mobility of the particles of a liquid over
each other, they yield to the force of gravity,
and consequently when at rest present a level
surface ; and for the same reason each particle,
and therefore each portion of the liquid, must-
exert and receive equal pressures in all direc
tions. If this were not true, the particles of a
liquid could not come to a state of rest. From
this principle it follows that equal surfaces
of the sides of a vessel containing a liquid re
ceive equal pressures at equal depths below the
surface ; and also that if a close vessel is filled
with a liquid which we will suppose to have
no weight, and if an aperture of the size of
one square inch be made in one side of it and
fitted with a piston upon which there is exert
ed a pressure of 10 Ibs., there will also be ex
erted the same pressure of 10 Ibs. upon every
square inch of the internal surface of the ves
sel. Consequently, if another aperture of 100
square inches area is made in the side of the
vessel, and a cylinder of the same size is fitted
to it, a piston fitted to this will receive a pres
sure of 1,000 Ibs. Upon this principle (which
has been ascribed to Pascal, but which, as we
have seen, was before his time explained by
Stevinus) the hydraulic press is constructed,
as represented in fig. 2. A suction and force
pump, «, supplied from the cistern B, forces
water through the tube C into the strong cylin
der V, which communicates pressure to the
piston A. The power gained is the proportion
which the cross section of the large piston or
plunger bears to the small one. It will be ob

served that the pistons do not fit the cylinders
in the usual manner, but only fit tightly at the
collar. This mode of construction greatly in
creases the efficiency of the machine, which,
though described by Stevinus and by Pascal,
remained practically useless in consequence of

FIG. 2.— Hydraulic Press.

the escape of water between the cylinder and
the piston, until Bramah invented the cupped
leather collar, which makes the apparatus
equally water-tight under all pressures. This
engine is a good illustration of the law in
mechanics that " what is lost in velocity is
gained in power." If the cross section of
the large piston is equal to 100 square inches,
and that of the small piston to 1 square inch,
the latter must be moved through a space of
100 inches to cause the large piston to move
through one inch, but it will move with 100
times as much power as the small one. The
hydrostatic bellows, shown in fig. 3, acts upon
the same principle as the hydrostatic press,
the cover of the bellows, upon which the
weight is placed, performing the office of the
large piston, while the column
of water in the tall vertical pipe
acts the part of the small pis
ton of the press. The hydro
static bellows also illustrates the
principle of the hydrostatic par
adox, for the vertical pipe and
the bellows are virtually one
vessel, w r hose base is the bottom
of the bellows. Now the pres
sure exerted by the liquid in the
pipe upon the upper plate of
the bellows is received by the
lower plate, which also has an
additional pressure equal to its
distance below the upper plate ;
and if the water in the pipe is
ten times as high as that in the bellows, it
follows that the pressure on the bottom plate
will be ten times as great as that which would
be produced by the liquid contained within
the bellows itself, for that only is equal to
its own weight. If a barrel of water there
fore have a tall tube inserted in one head

118

HYDROMECHANICS

and standing vertically, a pressure may be
produced on its bottom several thousand times
that due to the weight of the water alone.
In accordance with this law of hydrostatic
pressure, a liquid will rise to the same height
in different branches of the same vessel, wheth
er these branches
be great or small.
Thus, water con
tained in the U-
shaped vessel, fig. 4,
will rise to the same
height in both
branches, which is
an illustration of the
principle that the
pressure of a column
of liquid is in pro-

x 1 IG. **. i • i • i i • i j

portion to its height

and not to its quantity. This principle, how
ever, if it is entitled to such a name, proceeds
directly from the principle of Archimedes that
each particle in a liquid at the same depth
receives an equal pressure in all directions.
If however one leg of
a U-shaped tube con
tain mercury and the
other water, the col
umn of water will
stand 13|- times as
high as that of mer
cury. It follows from
the fact that a liquid
presses equally upon
equal areas of a con
taining vessel at the

same depth, that if a hole is made in one side
of a vessel, less pressure will be exerted in
the direction of that side ; and therefore if the
vessel is floated on water, as in fig. 5, it will
be propelled in the direction of the arrow.
Barker's centrifugal
mill, a small model of
which is shown in fig.
6, acts upon the same
principle of inequality
of pressure on opposite
sides. The propelling
force has been ascribed
to the action of the
escaping liquid press
ing against the atmos
phere, by which a cor
responding reaction is
obtained ; but if the
machine is placed in
a vacuum, it will ro-
Barkers Mill. tate 'with greater ve

locity than in the open

air, which proves that the propelling force is
the preponderance of pressure in one direction.
The two following are important laws of hy
drostatics : 1. The hydrostatic pressure against
equal areas of the lateral surfaces of cylindri
cal or prismoid vessels, commencing from the
surface of the liquid, varies as the odd num-

FIG. 5.

bers 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. 2. The hydrostatic pres
sure against the entire lateral surfaces of cylin
drical or prismoidal vessels is proportional to
the square of the depth. The first law is de
monstrated as follows : Hydrostatic pressure
in any direction at any point in a liquid is in
proportion to the depth, a result due to the
action of gravity ; therefore the mean pressure
against any rectangular lateral area will be
on a horizontal line midway between the up
per and lower sides of such area. The depth
of this line, proceeding from the surface of the
liquid downward, varies as the odd numbers
1, 3, 5, 7, &c., as will be seen by an inspection
of the adjoining diagram, fig. 7. The figures
placed upon the dotted lines in the centre of
the areas indicate the pressures upon those
lines, and also the propor
tional pressures against those
areas. The figures on the
right side of the diagram in
dicate the pressures at points
of equal vertical distances,
while those upon the left in
dicate the total lateral pres
sures, which it will be ob
served are the squares of the
number of areas included ;
by which is demonstrated
the second law, that the
total lateral pressure against
rectangular areas is in pro
portion to the square of the
depth. The weight of a
cubic foot of water is 62 '5
Ibs. ; therefore the lateral
pressure against a surface
of a square foot, whose upper side is in the
surface of the liquid, is 31-25 Ibs. From this
it is easy to ascertain the pressure against a
square foot, or any area, at any depth below
the surface. Simply multiplying the number
of feet below the surface by 2 and subtracting
1, multiplying the remainder by 31 '25 and this
product by the number of horizontal feet, will
give the pressure of a stratum of water a foot
deep, at any depth below the surface and of
any length. To ascertain the entire pressure
against the sides of a vertical cylindrical or
prismoidal vessel, square the depth of the liquid
in feet or inches, and multiply this by the lat
eral pressure against an upper vertical square
foot or inch, as the case may be, remembering
that the weight of a cubic inch of water is
•5792 of an ounce, and therefore that the pres
sure against an upper lateral side is -2890 of an
ounce. The total pressure exerted against the
sides of a cylindrical pipe 60 ft. high and 2 in.
in diameter is found as follows: 60 3 x31'25 =
112,500. The diameter of the pipe being 2
in., the circumference of the inner surface is 2
x 3-141592 (the constant ratio) = 6-283184 in.,
or A-i^Lti of a foot. Therefore, 112,500 x
J.-IR^I_H± = 58,904-92 Ibs. or 29'95 tons. The
lateral pressure on the lower foot would be
(60 x 2) — 1 = 119 x 31-25 x A'iS^ULi = 1,959'64:

FIG. 7.

HYDROMECHANICS

119

Ibs., or a little less than one ton. In the con
struction of walls for resisting only the hydro
static pressure of water, as that pressure is in
proportion to the depth, the strength of the
wall should be in the same proportion. If
strength were not given to the lower layers by
superincumbent pressure, the inclination of the
slope should be 45° ; but in consequence of this
pressure it may be less, varying with the mate
rials and their manner of being put together.
In the construction of dams or barrages the
varying circumstances of cases allow of the dis
play of a good deal of engineering skill. A
barrage suitable for restraining a body of water
which is never strongly moved in a lateral di
rection against it, as at the outlet of a canal
or a reservoir fed by an insignificant stream,
would not be adapted to a mountain torrent,
where the surface of the reservoir can scarcely
ever be large enough to prevent, by the inertia
offered by a large mass of water, the walls from
being subjected to a strong lateral force from
the action of the current. Under such circum
stances it is usual to give a curved surface
to the facings, in a vertical as well as in a hori
zontal direction; the curves in both directions
being calculated from the following elements :
1, the ascertained hydrostatic pressure ; 2, the
nature of the materials, such as the weight
of stone and tenacity of the hydraulic cement
used; and 3, an estimate of the maximum
force of flowing water which may at any time
be brought against the structure during a
freshet. This force, it will readily be seen,
will have a different direction and a differ
ent point of application in different cases,
depending upon the depth and extent of the
reservoir. The top of the dam is therefore
given a greater horizontal section than would
be called for if hydrostatic pressure alone had
to be opposed. The hydrostatic pressure at
any point against the surface of a contain
ing vessel is the resultant of all the forces
collected at that point, and is therefore at
right angies to that surface. In a cylindrical
or spherical vessel these resultants are in the
direction of the radii,
and in the sphere vary
in direction at every
point, — Cen tre of Pres
sure. The centre of
pressure is that point in
a surface about which
all the resultant pres
sures are balanced.
The cases are innumer
able, and often require
elaborate mathemati-
FIG. S.-Centre o"f Pressure. Cal investigation. The

simplest case and its

general application only will be considered
here, viz., that of the centre of pressure
against a side of a rectangular vessel. Let
any base in the triangle A B C, fig. 8, rep
resent the pressure at B ; then will D E rep
resent the pressure at E, and all lines paral-

lel to it will represent the pressures at corre
sponding heights. The finding of the centre of
pressure now consists in finding the centre of
gravity of the triangle ABC, which will be
at II, the intersection of the bisecting lines
E C and D B, and at one third the height of
the side A B ; consequently the centre of hy-
drostatic pressure against the rectangular side
A B is at (T, one third
the distance from the
bottom to the surface
of the liquid. Theave-
rage intensity of pres-
sure against A B being
atE, one half the depth

FIG. 9.— Principle of
Archimedes.

of A B, therefore the
total pressure on the
rectangular side A $
will be the same as if it formed the bottom of
the vessel and was pressed upon by a column of
water of half the depth of A B. In general,
the total pressure on any surface, plain or
curved, is equal to the weight of a liquid col
umn whose base is equal to that surface, and
whose height is the distance of the centre of
gravity of the surface from the surface of the
liquid. — Principle of Archimedes. A solid im
mersed in liquid loses an amount of weight
equal to that of the liquid it displaces. This
is called the principle of Archimedes, and is
demonstrated as follows: Let a I. fig. 9, be a
solid immersed in a liquid. The vertical sec
tion c d will be pressed downward by a force
equal to the weight of the column of water
e c, and it will be pressed upward by a force
equal to that exerted by a column of water
equal to e d ; therefore the upward or buoyant
pressure exceeds the downward pressure by
the weight of a column of water equal to the
section c d. Xow, this section also exerts a
j downward pressure ; and if the body is denser
I than the liquid, the downward pressure will
be greater than the excess of the upward pres-
; sure of the liquid, and the body will sink if not
supported ; but if the body is less douse than
the liquid, the downward pressure of the col-
, umn e d will be less than the upward pressure
exerted against it,
and the body will
float. This principle
may be experimen
tally demonstrated
by the hydrostatic
balance, fig. 1 0. From
a balance, 5, is sus
pended a cylindri
cal vessel, «, from
which again is sus-
Fi«. 10.— Experimental Vorifi- pended a solid cylin-

catioM of the Principle of der, C,whicll ISOf SUCll

Archimedes. in IT

bulk and dimensions

i as just to fill the vessel a when introduced.
i The whole system is first balanced by weights
! at the other end of the beam, and then c is
immersed in water. The equilibrium will bo
; destroyed, and that the body c loses a portion

120

HYDROMECHANICS

FIG. 11.
Cartesian Diver.

of its weight equal to that of an equal bulk
of water is proved by filling the vessel a with
water, when the equilibrium of the balance
will be restored. It is by means of a similar
apparatus that the specific gravities of solids
is ascertained (see GRAVITY, SPECIFIC) ; and
upon the principles already laid down hy
drometers, or instruments for ascertaining the
specific gravity of liquids, are constructed.
(See HYDROMETER.) It is thus also shown
why it is easier to raise weights in water
than in air, and why fat persons sustain them
selves in water more easily
than those who are lean. The
air bladder in fishes is for the
purpose of enabling them to
rise or descend in the element
in which they live. This rise
and fall by varying the specific
gravity is beautifully illustrated
by means of the little toy called
the bottle imp or Cartesian
diver, fig. 11. A bottle is near
ly filled with water, and a hol
low image of glass or metal and
lighter than water, or several
little balloons of glass, each of
them having an opening below
through which water may flow
in and out, are introduced into
the bottle or jar, which then has its mouth cov
ered with a sheet of caoutchouc, or some elastic
membrane. Pressure upon this will compress
the air beneath it, and to the same degree the
air which is contained in the upper part of
the image or the balloons, so that their specific
gravity is increased enough to make them sink.
Removal of pressure will allow the confined
air to resume its former bulk, by which the
specific gravity will again become less than that
of the water, and they will again ascend. If
their surfaces have oblique or spiral directions,
and the air is properly distributed, the images
may be made to perform various curious evo
lutions. — Stability of Floating Bodies. There
are certain points to be observed in determining
the stability of floating bodies ; these are : 1,
the centre of gravity of the floating body; 2,
the centre of buoyancy ; and 3, the metacentre.
When a body floats upon water it is acted on
by two forces : 1, its own weight, acting verti
cally downward through its centre of gravity ;
2, the resultant force produced by the upward
pressure of the liquid, which acts through the
centre of gravity of the fluid that is displaced,
which point is called the centre of buoyancy
of the body. It follows, therefore, that these
two points, the centre of gravity and the centre
of buoyancy, must be in the same vertical line
for the body to be in a state of equilibrium ; for
otherwise the two forces, one acting downward
and the other upward, would form a couple i
which would cause the body to turn. When |
these two centres are in the same vertical line,
but the centre of gravity is above, the body, j
except in some cases to be noted presently, is j

in a state of unstable equilibrium ; but when
the centre of gravity is beneath, the body is in
a state of stable equilibrium. If a body is
floating in a liquid and is entirely immersed, it
will not come to a state of stable equilibrium
until the centre of gravity is vertically below
the centre of buoy
ancy. This is shown
in fig. 12, in the case
of bodies which are
less dense at one end
than at the other,
where B and B' are
the centres of buoy
ancy and G and
G' those of gravity.
But in many cases, when a body is only partially
immersed, the centre of gravity may be above
that of buoyancy, and yet the action of turn
ing cannot take place, so that a condition of
stable equilibrium will be attained under these
circumstances. If a flat body, such as a light
wooden plank, is placed in water, it will float,
and a portion will be above the surface, as

FIG. 12.

FIG. 18.

FIG. 14.

shown in fig. 13 ; and therefore, if the cen
tre of gravity is not below the centre of vol
ume, it will be above the centre of buoyancy,
and yet the body will be in a state of stable
equilibrium For if it be tipped as represent
ed in fig. 14, the centre of buoyancy will be
brought to the position B', on the depressed
side of the vertical passing through the centre
of gravity, and this will cause the body to re
turn to its former position. But if the body
has such a shape that when it is displaced the
centre of buoyancy is brought to that side of
the vertical passing through the centre of
gravity, which is elevated as represented in fig.
15, then the body will turn over. When the
body is in the new position, a vertical drawn
through the changed position of the centre of '
buoyancy will intersect the line which in the
first position passed vertically through the cen
tre of gravity, and this point of intersection is
called the metacentre, represented at M in figs.
15 and 16. When the metacentre is above the
centre of gravity, as in fig. 16, the body will
tend, by the action of the centre of buoyancy,
to return to its former position ; but when it is
below, as in fig. 15, the action of the centre of
buoyancy, being upward on the elevated side,
will tend to turn the body over. Its proper
place therefore, as its name would indicate, is
above the centre of gravity, but it cannot be a
fixed point. In all well built ships, however,
its position is pretty nearly constant for all
inclinations. For example, in fig. 16, as long
as increase of inclination of the vessel carried

HYDROMECHANICS

121

the centre of buoyancy B to the left, the point
M might remain " at nearly the same distance
from G, because it would also move to the
left. But if the inclination of the vessel in the
same direction carried the centre of buoyancy

FIG. 15.

FIG. 16.

to the right, the height of the metacentre M
would diminish until it would be in G, when
the equilibrium would be indifferent, and at
last below G, when the ship would turn over.
It is desirable to have the metacentre as far
as possible above the centre of gravity, and
this condition is secured by bringing the cen
tre of gravity to the lowest practicable point,
by loading the ship with the heaviest part of
the cargo nearest to the keel, or by employing
ballast. II. HYDRODYNAMICS, although it em
braces many of the principles of hydrostatics,
treats more particularly of the laws of liquids
in motion. One of the most important prin
ciples of hydrodynamics is that which deter
mines the velocity of jets which issue from
orifices at various depths in the sides of ves
sels containing liquids, and depends upon the
laws of hydrostatic pressure. If an orifice is
made in the side of a vessel containing a liquid,
the liquid will issue from it with a velocity
equal to that which a heavy body would ac
quire in falling through the vertical distance
between the surface of the liquid and the ori
fice. If the jet is directed upward, it will as
cend, theoretically, to a level with the surface
of the liquid ; but practically it will fall short
of this in consequence of friction at the orifice,
and of the resistance offered by the air. At
first sight it would appear that the velocity of
efflux would be proportional to the pressure,
but an analysis of the case, aside from the test
of experiment, will show that this cannot be,
for in no instance can the jet be projected
higher than the surface of the liquid. If, in
general terms, the velocity of a jet were in pro
portion to the pressure at the point of issue, a
column of mercury would throw a jet with 13Jr
times the velocity that an equal column of wa
ter would ; but it must be perceived that a
column of mercury can only propel a jet as
high (theoretically) as the surface, and there
fore to the same height as an equal column of
water can. Now, there can bo no doubt that
the pressure of mercury at the same depth is
13£ times that of water; but mercury, being
also 13^- times as heavy as water, has 13i
times as much inertia, and therefore requires
so many times as much force to give it the
same initial velocity. The velocity with which
a liquid escapes from an orifice varies as the

square root of the depth below the surface ; so
that when the points of escape are 1, 4, 9, and
1C ft. in depth, the initial velocities will be as
1, 2, 3, and 4. This is the celebrated theorem
of Torricelli, which he deduced from the laws
of falling bodies. As the velocity of a falling
body is in proportion to the time of its fall, it
will be in proportion to the square root of the
height fallen through, and is represented by
the formula V = 4/2^, in which g is the ac
celerating force of gravity (= 82'2), and h the
height. (See MECHANICS.) A jet issuing from
the side of a vessel describes, theoretically, a
parabola, precisely as in the case of a solid
projectile ; for the impelling force and the
force of gravity act upon the jet in the same
manner, and the resultant force gives it the
same direction. The range, or distance to
which the jet is projected, is greatest when the
angle of elevation is 45°, and is the same for
elevations which are equally above or below
45°, as 60° and 30°. The resistance of the air
however alters the results, and the statement
is only true when the jet is projected into a
vacuum. If a vessel filled with water have
orifices made in its side at equal distances in a
vertical line from the top to the bottom, u
stream issuing from an orifice midway between
the surface and the bottom will 'be projected
further than any of the streams issuing from
the orifices above or below. This may be de
monstrated by the adjoining diagram, fig. 17.
Let a semicircle A F E be described on the
side of a vessel of water, its diameter being
equal to the height of the liquid. The range
of a jet issuing from either of the orifices B,
C, or D will be equal to twice the length of
the ordinates B F, C I, or D K respectively ;
and therefore jets issuing from B and D will
meet at a point II on a level with the bottom,
and twice the length of the ordinates B F and
D Iv. Now, as the ordinate C I is the great

est, the range of the jet issuing from C will
be greater than that of any other jet. The
amount of water escaping in one second from
an orifice would, theoretically, be equal to a
cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the
orifice, and a length equal to the distance

122

HYDROMECHANICS

FIG. IS. — Vena Contracta.

through which a body will move with a uni
form velocity after it has fallen through a
height equal to the vertical distance between
the surface of the liquid and the orifice. If
this distance is 16'1 ft., the velocity acquired
will be 32 '2 ft. per second, and therefore the
theoretical quantity discharged from an ori
fice 4 in. in diameter, whose centre is KM ft.
below the surface, would be equal to a cylin
der 4 in. in diameter and 32 -2 ft. long, and
containing 4,828-5 cubic inches, or about 21'83
gallons. The actual discharge from a thin ori
fice not furnished with an ajutage is however
much less, being only
about two thirds
of the theoretical
amount. The loss is
owing partly to fric
tion, but mainly to
the interference of
converging currents
moving within the
vessel toward the ori
fice. This interfer
ence may be shown
by employing a glass
vessel having a per
foration in its bottom, as represented in fig.
18. If particles of some opaque substance
having nearly the same specific gravity as wa
ter, so that they will remain suspended in it
for a space of time, be mingled with the wa
ter, they will be seen, to move in the direc
tion indicated by the lines in the figure, which
are nearly direct. If the jet is carefully ob
served, it will be seen that it is not cylin
drical, and that for a distance from the orifice
of about half its diameter it resembles a trun
cated cone with the base at the orifice. This
contraction of the stream is
called the vena contracta, and
its smallest diameter is stated
to be from 0-6 to 0'8 of that of
the orifice. When the stream
has a direction downward near
ly vertical, it continues to dimi
nish beyond the vena contracta,
in consequence of the increased
velocity caused by the force of
gravity, the size being in the
inverse proportion to the velo
city. The increased velocity at
the vena contracta is due to the
pressure which forces the par
ticles of water into a narrower
channel. As the jet continues to
fall, it forms a series of ventral
and nodal segments, as shown in
fig. 19. The ventral segments
are composed of drops elon
gated horizontally, as shown at a a, while the
nodal segments are elongated vertically, as
seen at l> l> ; and as the segments have fixed
positions, it follows that the drops in falling
are alternately elongated vertically and hori
zontally. If the orifice is in the side of the

a [o|

FIG. 20.

FIG. 19.

vessel and discharges horizontally, the size of
the stream does not diminish in the same man
ner as when fulling vertically, and it is sooner
broken. If a cylindrical tube or ajutage whose
length is from two to three times its diameter
is fitted to the orifice, the rate of efflux may be
increased to 80 per cent, of the theoretical
amount. The velocity will be somewhat di
minished, but the vena contracta will be larger
in proportion. If the inner end of the ajutage
has a conical shape with the base toward the
interior, the efflux may be further increased to
95 per cent. ; and it has been found that if
the outer end of the tube is also enlarged, the
efflux may be still further increased to very
nearly the theoretical amount, say 98 per cent.
When a cylindrical ajutage is used, there will be
a partial vacuum formed between the sides of
the tube and the
contracted vein, as
shown in fig. 20.
If a pipe ascending
from a reservoir of
water is let into this
part of the ajutage,
the water will rise
in the pipe; and if
the height is not too
great, the vessel may
be emptied. — The re
sistance offered by
conduits is a sub
ject of great importance in practical hydro
mechanics, upon which extended experiments
have been made. When the length of the aju
tage bears more than a certain proportion to
its diameter, the efflux is reduced to about the
same amount as when the stream issues through
a thin orifice, that is, about 62^>er cent, of the
theoretical amount. With a pipe of 1-J- in. in
diameter and 30 ft. long, the efflux will be only
about half that from a thin orifice, or 31 per
cent, of the theoretical amount. This reduc
tion is caused by friction between the liquid and
the tube, as well as between its particles, and
is greater with cold than with warm liquids.
This resistance to motion, or approach to rigid
ity, which is conferred by cold, is called vis
cosity, and is a principle which has to be taken
into account in nearly all very careful hydrau
lic calculations. — Resistance' of Liquids to the
Motion of Solid Bodies. This will depend upon
the form and size of the body. The following
are two important laws: 1. With the same ve
locity, the resistance is proportional to the ex
tent of surface applied by the solid to the li
quid in the direction of motion. 2. With the
same extent of surface, the resistance is pro-
i portional to the square of the velocity. These
laws may be demonstrated experimentally, but
their truth will also be apparent from the fol
lowing considerations. In regard to the first
law, it will be easily understood that with the
same velocity the amount of water displaced
will be the measure of resistance, and that a
surface of two square feet will displace twice

HYDROMECHANICS

123

as much as one of one square foot. The sec
ond law is not so evident, but will be made
clear by considering that with a given surface,
when the velocity is doubled, twice the quan
tity of liquid will move through twice the
space in the same time, and will therefore, ac
cording to the principles of mechanics, have
a fourfold momentum. The resistance, there
fore, offered to a plane surface moving, at
right angles against a liquid, is measured by
the area of the surface multiplied into the
square of the velocity. It has been found
that a square foot surface, moved through
water with a velocity of 32 ft. per second,
meets with a resistance equal to a weight of
1,000 Ibs. When the motion of a body in a
liquid is very slow, say less than 4 in. per sec
ond, depending on the size of the body, the
larger body requiring to move more slowly,
the above laws are not rigidly followed, but
the resistance is divided into two components,
one of which is proportional to the simple ve
locity, and the other to the square of the ve
locity. The most accurate results in experi
menting with slow motions were obtained by
Coulomb, who used his torsion balance. One
of the most interesting problems in mathemat
ics has been to determine the form of a solid
which will meet with the least resistance in
moving through water. This form is called the
"solid of least resistance, 1 ' and is approached
as near as practicable in the construction of
ships. — Theory of Wares in Liquids. When
a pebble is dropped into still water, a series
of circular waves is formed upon its surface,
•which extend themselves from the centre in
all directions. These waves consist of alter
nate elevations and depressions, which have
the appearance of following one another in the
direction of the radii of the circle. It is how
ever only an appearance, as may be readily
proved by throwing a cork upon the undu
lating surface, when it will be observed only
to rise and fall, and the undulations will ap
pear to glide beneath it. The wave then is an
oscillation of the liquid upward and down
ward, and the force which causes it is gravity.
The pebble when it strikes the water displaces
a portion, which rises on every side to a cer
tain height, and then, its momentum being
lost, and being higher than any portion of
liquid around it, it falls; but the momentum it
has acquired carries it below the level, and
an exterior ring is forced upward, which in j
descending also produces a successor; and
thus a series of circular waves is formed of
gradually diminished height but of increased
diameter, until, at a very great distance in
calm water, the force of the primary impulse is
lost. When two waves proceeding from dif
ferent centres meet one another in such a way
that the elevations coincide, a united wave will
be produced having a height equal to that of
its two components, and a depression equal to
that of the other two ; but if the elevation of
one corresponds to the depression of the other,

FIG, 21.

the resulting elevation and depression -will be
equal to the difference of elevation and depres
sion respectively of the original waves. If
they are equal, the result will be the oblitera
tion of both. This phenomenon is called the
interference of waves. It is susceptible of de
monstration that the undulations of waves are
performed in the same time as the oscillations of
a pendulum whose length is equal to the dis
tance between two eminences, or the technical
breadth of the wave. — Form of Surface of Rota
ting Liquid. From the principle of the equilib
rium of fluids, that the surface of the liquid at
rest must be a level which is
perpendicular to the direction
of the force of gravity, it fol
lows that when two or more
forces act upon a liquid to
change the position of its sur
face, the resultant of these
forces will be perpendicular to
the surface. Therefore, if a
cylindrical or conical vessel,
fig. 21, containing a liquid,
is rotated on its axis A B,
all the particles on the sur
face will be acted upon by two forces, that of
gravity, in a vertical direction represented by
A C or C E, and the centrifugal force, repre
sented by C D or E F, which is horizontal,
and varies in intensity with the distance of the
particles from the axis or centre of motion.
The surface of the liquid will therefore be de
pressed in the middle, and will be at every
point perpendicular to the resultants A D, C
F, &c., which will therefore be normals; and
it may be demonstrated that the subnormals
A C, C E, &c., are equal, and therefore that
the surface of the liquid is a paraboloid. —
A Level Surface. Let it be assumed that if
the earth were entirely covered with water,
and at rest, with no force acting upon the
water except gravity, it would have the form
of a perfect sphere. But it has been found
to have the form of an oblate spheroid, the
ratio of its polar to its equatorial diameter
being about 299 to 300. Its oblate form is
caused by its rotation on its axis. Let a J c d,
fig. 22, be the section of a liquid sphere, pass
ing through its axis
of rotation a Z>, and
let f be any point
on its surface. The
revolution of the
sphere on its axis
will generate a cen
trifugal force in the
direction of/*?, par
allel to the plane of
the equator c d, and
perpendicular to the axis a 7). Now, if,/ Ji repre
sent the force of gravity and/<? the centrifugal
force, f g will represent the resultant of these
two forces, and the surface of the liquid, being
free to move, must become perpendicular to
this resultant at every point. The surface of a

22.

HYDROMETER

revolving body, like the earth, if covered with
a liquid, would have a form like that repre
sented in section by the dotted line, and it may
be demonstrated that this form is that of a
spheroid formed by an ellipse revolving about
its minor axis. Its surface, to which that of
the earth approaches, is called a level surface.
HYDROMETER, or Areometer, an instrument
for determining the specific gravity of liquids.
It generally consists of some buoyant body, as
hollow glass or copper, weighted at the bot
tom and supporting a graduated stem, or one
having a definite mark. There are two kinds,
those of constant and those of variable im
mersion. Those of constant immersion are
made to sink in the tested liquid, whether
dense or light, to
the same depth,
by balancing with
weights. Those
of variable immer
sion have no mov
able weights, but
rise or fall accord
ing to the den
sity of the liquid.
Nicholson's hy
drometer, fig. 1, is
of the first kind.
As usually con
structed, when
this instrument is
immersed in wa
ter it requires a
weight of 1,000
grains to make it
sink to a certain
mark on the stem.
According to the
principle of Archi
medes (see HYDRO
MECHANICS), the

weight of the instrument, together with the
1,000 grains which it sustains, is equal to the
weight of the volume of water displaced. If the
instrument is placed in a liquid lighter or heavi
er than water, and the weight changed until it
sinks to the same depth, the specific gravity
of the liquid will be indicated by the formula

? = w+iooo' wliere w is tlie weight of the in
strument, and w that of the weights placed
upon the pan. If w is less than 1,000 grains it
will show that the liquid is lighter, and if it is
more than 1,000 grains it will show that it is
heavier than water. This instrument may also
be used to find the specific gravity of solids,
or as a delicate balance. For these purposes
it has a small cup or wire cage suspended at
the bottom to hold the body, which may be
either heavier or lighter than water. To find
the specific gravity of a solid, let it be first
weighed in air, by placing upon the pan a piece
of the substance which weighs less than 1,000
grains. Suppose the substance to be sulphur,
and that 440 grains are required to be added

FIG. 1. — Nicholson's Hydrometer.

to make the instrument sink to the mark on
the stem, the weight of the sulphur is, evi
dently, 1,000 — 440 = 560 grains. Now, what
it loses if weighed in water will be the weight
of an equal bulk of water, and this will be
found by placing it in the cup or cage at the
bottom, and adding sufficient weights to those
in the pan at the top to bring the mark to the
level of the water. If it requires the addi
tion of 275 '2 grains, that amount will represent
the weight of a volume of water equal to the
sulphur ; consequently the specific gravity of
the sulphur will be -ffifa = 2 -03. ' If the body
is lighter than water, it will of course require
the addition of more than its weight to the
pan, and for immersion it will require to be
placed in the wire cage. Fahrenheit's hydro
meter diners from Nicholson's in being con
structed of glass, and having a constant weight
of mercury in a bulb at the lower end. Its
use is therefore restricted to the weighing of
fluids. — Of hydrometers of variable immersion,
Baume's is the one most frequently used, and
furnishes a good example of the class. Two
instruments, of different forms, are represent
ed in figs. 2 and 3. They are made of glass ;
their stems are hollow and lighter than the
fluid in which they are immersed. Fig. 2 is
called a salimeter, and is used for estimating
the proportion of a salt or other substance in
solution. It is graduated in the following
manner : Being immersed in water at a tem
perature of 12° 0., the point to which it sinks
is marked 0° ; it is then placed in a solution
containing 15 parts of common salt to 85 of
water, the density of which is about 1-116,
and the point to which it sinks is marked 15,
and the interval divided into 15 equal parts ;
the graduation is then
extended downward,
generally terminating
at 66°, which corre
sponds to the density of
sulphuric acid. "When
the instrument is to bo
used for liquids lighter
than water, the zero is
not placed at the point
to which it sinks in
pure water, but at a
point to which it sinks
in a solution contain
ing 10 parts of com
mon salt to 90 of wa
ter. The point to which
it sinks in pure water
was marked by Bau-
me 10°, and the grad
uation was continued
upward to the high
est point to which the stem might bo immersed
in the lightest liquid. Fig. 3 represents the in
strument for liquids lighter than water. The
graduation of these hydrometers is arbitrary,
and is an indication of the strength of the li
quid only after trial. — Hare's hydrometer, a

FIG. 2. Fio. 8.

ilimeter. Alcoholimeter.
Baume's Hydrometers.

HYDROPATHY

125

FIG. 4. — Hare's
Hydrometer.

very valuable instrument, but one which has not
been much employed, acts upon the principle
of the barometer, and yields directly results of
definite comparison; it is represented in fig.
4. A n -shaped tube has its legs, of equal
length, placed in shallow ves
sels, one containing the liquid
to bo tested, and the other a
liquid taken as a standard, as
water. A partial vacuum is
then produced in the tube by
exhausting the air by means of
an air pump, the mouth, or oth
erwise, making use of the stop
cock to facilitate the opera
tion. It is evident that the
height of the liquid column will
be in the exact inverse propor
tion to the specific gravity of
the liquids. — Hydrometers have
various names, according to
the purpose for which they
are used : as lactometers, for estimating the
amount of cream in milk, or the quantity of
sugar of milk in the whey; vinometers, for
estimating the percentage of alcohol in wine
or cider; and there are acidometers and sac-
charometers.

HYDROPATHY (Gr. vdup, water, and Trd6oc,
affection or disease), a system of treatment of
diseases mainly or exclusively by the use of
water and of the known hygienic agencies.
Hygienic management in some form, as a re
sort to exercise, or, in diseases induced by
luxurious living, to abstemiousness, dates from
the earliest conception of a healing art ; and it
has kept pace with the growth of physiological
science, until within the present century the
laws and claims of hygiene have become ap
preciated as never before. The physicians of
very early times seem also to have employed
water as a remedy in certain febrile, inflamma
tory, and surgical maladies; a usage recom
mended, among other early medical writers,
by Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna. In the
18th century Sir John Floyer and Dr. Bay-
nard, in England, resorted to bathing almost
exclusively in chronic diseases ; as did F. Hoff
mann and Hahn on the continent. Dr. James
Currie in 1797 published highly favorable re
ports of the effects of water, chiefly by affusion,
in many diseases. But the distinctive u water
cure," or hydropathy, owes its origin to the
fertility of invention of a Silesian peasant,
Vincenz Priessnitz. Having at the age of 13
sprained his wrist, young Priessnitz intuitively
applied it to the pump ; and afterward, to con
tinue the relief thus obtained, ho bound upon
it an Umschlag, or wet bandage. Rewetting
this as it became dry, ho reduced the inflam
mation, but excited a rash on the surface of
the part. Soon after, having crushed his
thumb, he again applied the bandage, and the
pain once more subsided, but the rash reap
peared. He inferred that the rash indicated
an impure blood ; and this conclusion was

strengthened by the result of experiments
which he was induced to try upon injuries
and ulcers in the case of some of his neigh
bors, since the rash in some instances appeared
after the treatment, and in others did not.
Thus he was led to frame for himself a hu
moral pathology of all diseases, and a doctrine
of the elimination of morbific matters by
" crisis." According to this view, the cure of
disease is to be effected by favoring the activity
of those organs through which the purification
of the system is carried on, and, through a
regulated and pure dietary and correct regi
men, preventing further morbid accumulations.
In his 19th year, being run over by a cart,
Priessnitz had some ribs broken and received
severe bruises ; on learning that the physicians
pronounced his case hopeless, he tore off their
bandages, and recovered under the renewed
application of the Umschlag, and replaced his
ribs by inflating the lungs while pressing the
abdomen against a window sill. This incident
confirmed the idea and initiated the practice
of the water cure. In the ne\v practice, its au
thor discovered in rapid succession the means
of securing either cooling, heating, or sooth
ing effects by compresses; then, the sponge
bath, the wet-sheet packing, the sitz, foot,
arm, and other partial baths, the douche, the
stream bath, the dripping sheet, the plunge, the
tepid shallow bath, dry-blanket packing, &c.
The pail douche of Dr. E. Johnson is one of
the very few additions since made to this list
of measures. Unquestionably, Priessnitz's ear
lier treatment, especially after the opening in
1826 of the famous Grafenberg cure, was too
incessant and severe, and often borne only
through the vital tenacity, whatever their mal
adies, of the class of invalids with whom he
had to deal. Along with this was introduced
a rigorous, but in some respects mistaken hy
giene, including the very free use of a plain
and peculiar diet, much walking in the open
air, and the disuse of flannel undergarments
and of soft beds. The water appliances have
since been rendered more mild, and in the
United States necessarily so. The number of
instances, however, of decided restoration to
health among the invalids who flocked from all
parts of Europe and of the United States to
the Grafenberg cure, sufficiently explains the
rapid spread of the new system. This was
first distinctly brought to the notice of the
English public about the year 1840, by a book
put forth by a former patient of Priessnitz,
Capt. Claridge, and entitled "Hydropathy, or
the Cold Water Cure." In Germany, under
Francke, Weiss, Munde, and others, the enthu
siastic treatise of the first of whom did much
to spread the system, several new establish
ments had already sprung up. On March 17,
1842, the hydropathic society was organized in
London, for the purpose, among others, of cir
culating information in regard to Priessnitz,
and the authenticity of the reported cures. Drs.
Wilson, Johnson, and Gully were first to em-

126

HYDROPHOBIA

brace the practice, the first two early lecturing
before the new society, and all soon establish
ing institutions of their own. The writings of
Drs. Gnlly and Johnson contributed much to
spread the system in England, and at a later
day they were ably seconded by Bulwer's
" Confessions of a Water Patient," detailing
incidents of his restoration to health at the
Malvern establishment. The earliest popular
information concerning water treatment in the
United States was through a letter published
about 1843, from H. 0. Wright, himself at the
time a patient under Priessnitz ; and this was
soon followed by the earnest statements and
appeals, through a like channel, of J. H. Gray
of Boston and A. J. Colvin of Albany. Drs.
Schieferdecker, Wesselhoeft, and Shew seem
to have been the first to enter upon the new
practice in the United States ; while the first
establishment appears to have been that opened
in 1844 at No. 63 Barclay street, New York.
Of this, David Cambell, also the originator of
the " Water-Cure Journal," was proprietor,
and Joel Shew physician. In May, 1845, an
establishment was opened at New Lebanon
Springs, N. Y., under the management of Dr.
Shew, and another at Brattleboro, Vt,, under
the management of Dr. Wesselhoeft, who,'hav-
ing explored the country from Florida to Maine,
selected Brattleboro on account of the supe
rior purity of the water of a spring there. At
the present time there are in this country
and Europe several hundred establishments in
which the application of water in one form or
another is the chief remedial agent relied upon
in the treatment of diseases, but medicines in
many cases are nsed to a greater or less ex
tent. The name hydropathy is not in general
use among its practitioners, that of u hygienic
medicine " being adopted instead. — Of books
upon the subject may be mentioned, besides
those above referred to, " Hydropathic En
cyclopaedia," by R. T. Trail, M. D. (New York,
1852); u The Bath," by S. R. Wells (New
York) ; and u Water Cure in Chronic Diseases,"
by J. M. Gully, M. D. (London).

HYDROPHOBIA (Gr. v6up, water, and $6,%$,
fear ; Lat. rabies canina, canine madness), a
rare but well marked disease in the human
subject, characterized by excessive nervous
excitement, the secretion of an unusually viscid
saliva, a difficulty and sometimes a dread of
swallowing liquids, and a rapidly fatal termi
nation. It is caused by inoculation from the
bite of a dog, already in a similar rabid condi
tion. Although hydrophobia in the human
subject is so infrequent that many practition
ers of considerable experience have never met
with a case, it is still of sufficient importance
to merit serious attention, and to demand every
possible precaution for its prevention ; particu
larly since, when once developed, it is inva
riably fatal, no single well authenticated case
of recovery having yet been recorded, and be
cause the affection itself is so terrible in the
distress suffered by the patient, and the horror

which it excites in the minds of the spectators.
In France, with a population of 36,000,000,
during the six years from 1853 to 1858 inclu
sive, there were 107 cases of hydrophobia, or
one case annually for every 2,000,000 inhabi
tants. In the department of the Seine, with an
average population of upward of 1,000,000, du
ring the 40 years from 1822 to 1862, there were
94 cases, or a little more than 2£ per annum.
The greater proportional frequency of the dis
ease in the metropolis and its immediate vicin
ity is no doubt due to the greater concentration
of the population, both human and canine,
which would of course be favorable to its com
munication from one animal to another and
from animals to man. In the city of New
York, with a population of 1,000,000, during
the six years from 1866 to 1871 inclusive, there
were 22 cases, or an average of 3f per annum.
— When a man is bitten by a rabid dog, the
wound does not differ in any visible character
from that inflicted by a healthy animal. It is
seldom severe and often slight, the animal fre
quently making only a single momentary at
tack. The wound thus made heals without
difficulty, and is not especially painful or other
wise troublesome. In a majority of instances
no further trouble comes of it. The danger
from the bite of a rabid dog consists in the
inoculation of the animal's saliva, which, owing
to the disease under which he is suffering,
contains a subtle but communicable organic
poison. But there are various circumstances
which may interfere with the poison's taking
effect. First, the individual may be, habitually
or at the time, insusceptible to its action. There
is reason to believe that the human species
as a whole are decidedly less susceptible to the
poison of hydrophobia than dogs ; and accord
ing to the experiments of M. Renault, at the
veterinary school of Alfort, the proportion of
dogs themselves, bitten by a rabid animal, who
afterward become rabid, is not more than 33
per cent. Secondly, when the bite is inflicted
upon parts of the body covered with clothing,
the saliva, which is the only vehicle of the
poison, may have been arrested by the gar
ments and may not have come in contact with
the wound at all. Thirdly, the poison may
have been extracted from the wound imme
diately afterward by the free discharge of blood,
or by the instinctive manipulations of the
wounded person, or may have been neutralized
by surgical appliances. At all events, statis
tics seem to show conclusively that the bite
of a rabid animal by no means invariably causes
hydrophobia. M. Bouley, professor in the vet
erinary school at Alfort, estimates that in the
department of the Seine no fewer than 100
dogs annually become rabid. In 25 cases of
hydrophobia recorded at Alfort in the year
1861, 10 of these animals were known to have
bitten 15 persons; that is, 15 bites had been
inflicted by 25 rabid dogs. This would give,
for 100 dogs annually affected by hydrophobia,
60 persons bitten during the same time. But

HYDROPHOBIA

127

there are only from two to three cases of death
from this disease annually in the department
of the Seine; and, according to these results,
not more than 3 in 00, or 5 per cent, of the
persons bitten by rabid dogs, afterward become
hydrophobic. But even this proportion of cases
constitutes a terrible danger, considering the
nature of the disease with which the individual
is threatened. — For some time after the inflic
tion of the wound no symptom manifests itself.
The poison may have found its way into the
tissues, but it is quiescent, and it remains so
usually for several weeks. The exact period
during which it may thus lie dormant, and
afterward become fully developed, undoubtedly
varies in different cases. Instances have been
related in which hydrophobia has declared
itself after an interval of several years, but
these statements are evidently wanting in au
thenticity, and are almost universally regarded
as extremely doubtful. It seems positive, how
ever, that the period of quiescence may be ex
tended to one year, and possibly to 17 or 18
months. Nevertheless these instances, if they
exist, are very rare exceptions ; and in the im
mense majority of cases the disease shows itself,
if at all, between the end of the first and the
end of the third month ; so that after the lapse
of three months from the date of the injury,
the chances of escape increase rapidly with
every succeeding week. By the end of six
months the patient may be pronounced prac
tically safe. When, however, the disease is to
show itself, usually during the second or third
month, its first manifestation is a sense of itch
ing or discomfort at the seat of the wound.
The cicatrix may become swollen and reddened,
and a red line, following the course of the lym
phatic vessels, is said to appear upon the limb,
between the cicatrix and the trunk. This is
the preliminary period of the disease, and may
last for two or three days, rarely more than
six, during which the patient is only slightly
uncomfortable. Then the unmistakable signs
of hydrophobia come on with great rapidity,
and are aggravated from hour to hour. There
is a feeling of stiffness about the neck, extend
ing to the jaw and the base of the tongue. An
indescribable anxiety and agitation of mind
takes possession of the patient, often accom
panied with paroxysms of momentary delirium
and hallucinations. The breathing is hurried
and irregular. There is great thirst ; but there
is also a difficulty of deglutition, apparently
consisting in an irresistible spasm of the pha
rynx or glottis, which is so distressing that the
patient sometimes rejects fluids after vainly
attempting to swallow them, with violent de-
j .monstrations of irritation and despair. This
is what has given rise to the idea that the pa
tient dreads the liquid itself, and has unfortu
nately attached the name hydrophobia to the
disease in question. The saliva becomes re
markably viscid and tenacious, and appears to
add much to the distress of the patient, who
endeavors constantly to detach it and expel it
VOL. ix. — 9

from his mouth. This condition of nervous
irritation rapidly exhausts the strength of the
system, and death takes place, usually on the
second or third day. — Such are the symptoms
and course of hydrophobia in man. The treat
ment includes only a single measure, but this
must be adopted at once on the receipt of the
injury, and must be carried out in the. most
thorough manner. It consists in neutralizing
the poison by cauterization of the wound. Some
authorities recommend first cutting out the
wound by an incision passing all round it
through the sound flesh, and subsequently cau
terizing the fresh surface. The objection to
the procedure is that it requires seme time and
skill to perform it thoroughly, particularly as
the wound is generally narrow and deep ; and
also that if the knife or the blood happen to
penetrate the wound itself, they may become
themselves contaminated with the virus and
thus bring it in contact with a new and larger
surface. It seems desirable to cauterize thor
oughly the original wound without delay. Then,
if thought proper, the eschar may be cut out,
and the caustic again applied tolthc fresh sur
face of the new wound. On rhe whole, the
particular caustic which is recommended by
the highest authorities for this purpose is a solid
stick of nitrate of silver. Its advantages are :
1, that it can almost always be readily pro
cured ; 2, that it can easily be cut into a form
adapted to penetrate to the bottom of a deep
and narrow wound ; 3, that it readily dissolves
in the animal fluids, and, when held for a few
minutes in contact with the tissues, forms a
tolerably deep and firm eschar, and coagulates
thoroughly all the organic matters which may
be present. It has been thought that during
the period of quiescence the virus remains lo
calized in the original cicatrix, and does not
begin to disseminate itself through the sys
tem until the appearance of signs of irritation
in the part. If this be so, it would of course
be highly proper « to cut out the cicatrix
and cauterize the wound, in cases where this
operation had not already been performed
at any time between the receipt of the in
jury and the first manifestations of the dis
ease. — But for the protection of the communi
ty from hydrophobia, the prevention of the bite
of a rabid animal is much more important than
its treatment. Any well educated surgeon, if
within reach and called in time, will apply the
proper remedies after the wound is inflicted.
But he may not be applied to in season. The
animal may not be suspected of rabies at the
time of the injury ; and even if everything be
done for the sufferer which circumstances per
mit, he must still pass through several weeks
or months of anxious uncertainty, until the
extreme limit of possible incubation has been
reached. The most important thing, in every
point of view, is to diminish as far as possible
the chance of a bite being inflicted at all ; and
by far the best means of accomplishing this
object is to put the public on their guard by

128

HYDROPHOBIA

an accurate knowledge of the symptoms of
hydrophobia in the dog. The great danger at
present consists in the fact that these symp
toms are not usually recognized until after a
wound has been inflicted; and animals may
thus propagate the disease among their own
species and communicate it to man at a time
when they are not themselves known to be
hydrophobia. There are three capital errors,
commonly entertained by the public in this
respect, which add very much to the danger
spoken of: 1, that the mad dog has a horror
of water and will not drink ; 2, that he is lia
ble to the disease more especially or exclusive
ly in hot weather ; and 3, that he always man
ifests a ferocious and aggressive disposition.
Neither of these things is true ; and the conse
quence is that a dog in cool weather, who is
seen to drink freely, and is not especially fero
cious, is looked upon without suspicion and
treated with familiarity ; and yet he may be
hydrophobic and capable of inflicting a mortal
wound, or of communicating a fatal disease by
licking an abraded spot upon the hand of his
master. It is evident, therefore, that it is of
the greatest consequence that the true signs of
canine hydrophobia should be recognized at an
early period ; for as soon as a dog is known to
be rabid, there is but little danger of his being
allowed to bite. Rabies in the dog may occur
at any season, and -is not more likely to show
itself in warm than in cool weather. Conse
quently all police regulations intended to sup
press or exterminate hydrophobia, which are
enforced in the summer months and suspended
at other times, fail of their object, and may
even do harm by inducing a fancied security
during the cool season. According to the ob
servations made by Prof. Rey at the veterinary
school of Lyons, in France, the number of ca
ses in that district was greater during the rainy
than during the dry months. Of 190 cases
recorded at the veterinary school of Alfort,
during the ten years from 1853 to 1863, the
following list shows the aggregate numbers in
each month of the year, arranged in the or
der of their frequency : In April, 25 ; March,
21 ; January, 20; June, 18; May, 16; August,
16; September, 16; November, 14; July, 12;
December, 12 ; February, 10 ; October, 10 ;
total, 190. The first symptoms of hydrophobia
in the dog, as described by Youatt and Bouley,
consist in a gloomy and sombre disposition,
together with a nervous agitation and disqui
etude, which is betrayed by frequent changes
of position. The animal, usually cheerful and
desirous of companionship, seeks to avoid his
master or his playmates. He skulks into his
kennel, into a closet, into the corners of the
enclosure, underneath pieces of furniture, and
endeavors to escape notice. If called out, he
obeys, but slowly and unwillingly, and as soon
as possible again betakes himself to his retreat.
In a few minutes he is dissatisfied with it, and
leaves it for another. Then he goes back to
his litter, and takes it apart or arranges it in a

variety of ways, without being able to suit him
self with any. The expression of his eye is
suspicious and uneasy ; and in a few minutes
he is again wandering from place to place.
Now these signs, when taken singly, are not
decisive indications of rabies. It is natural to
the dog, when suffering under almost any tem
porary illness, to withdraw himself from ob
servation, and seek a retreat in some dark cor
ner ; but he generally remains there quiet un
til he begins to recover. It is this desire to
avoid observation, combined with an incessant
restlessness, which is peculiar to commencing
hydrophobia ; and whenever an animal shows
these two symptoms together, moving constant
ly from place to place, and searching in every
corner as if looking for something which he
never finds, he should at once be an object of
suspicion, and properly watched until his mal
ady either disappears or becomes distinctly
pronounced. The next sign of hydrophobia
is that the animal has slight and temporary
attacks of hallucination. He thinks he hears
a sound or sees an object which does not exist.
This condition is fully recognized by veteri
nary experts, although its signs are often over
looked by others. The dog suddenly pricks
up his ears and runs to a particular spot, as if
he had heard a noise on the other side of a
door or partition. Sometimes he will snap at
the empty air, as if he were catching a fly.
Sometimes he will stand immovable and atten
tive for a few moments, as if he were listening
or watching for something which is only an illu
sion. These signs are exceedingly important,
and should redouble the vigilance of those
having charge of the animal, who should from
this moment be kept in a position to prevent
his doing an injury. All this time the animal
may show no disposition to bite. A rabid dog
often varies in this tendency according to his
individual character. The evidence of all the
best observers shows that a dog, naturally
good-tempered and mild in disposition, will
sometimes refrain from biting until very late
in the disease. Furthermore, the same dog
will often show no tendency to bite his master,
for whom he still retains his natural affection,
but may at the same time be easily provoked
by a stranger. This circumstance forms one
of the most insidious sources of danger in the
case of a rabid dog not yet known to be such.
Even the master may be misled by finding the
animal submissive as usual to his word, and
even to a slight correction, while a second
blow or a threatening gesture may be followed
by a sudden and ungovernable attack on the
part of the animal, and the infliction of a fatal
wound. During all this period, furthermore,
and also during the entire course of the dis
ease, there is no hydrophobia in the strict
sense of the word. The rabid dog has no hor
ror of water, and he does not refuse to drink.
On the contrary, he drinks frequently, and
when, the disease being fully established, the
constriction of the fauces renders deglutition

HYDROPHOBIA

HYDROSTATICS

129

difficult, he no less endeavors to satisfy his
thirst, sometimes by plunging his muzzle deep
ly under the surface of the water. No sin
gle error in regard to the disease is more un
fortunate than this; for when a dog drinks,
the bystanders conclude that he is not hydro-
phobic, and consequently overlook the other
symptoms which might indicate the nature
of the malady. The rabid dog does not at
first refuse his natural food, but soon ceases
to take it with his accustomed relish. An
important sign, however,, is an unnatural or
depraved appetite. The animal gnaws and
even swallows all kinds of indigestible sub
stances. Pieces of wood, bits of stone, furni
ture, clothing, the stuffing of cushions, leather,
horse dung, and even his own excrements, are
torn, gnawed, and swallowed. This is always
a very suspicious circumstance. Some dogs
are habitually mischievous in this respect, but
even they only injure or destroy these sub
stances; they do not swallow them. And
particularly the disposition in question, mani
festing itself in an animal to whom it is not
habitual, and who is also evidently sick from
some cause or other, should always put his
owners upon their guard. Another symptom
is now to be spoken of which is decisive and
pathognomonic, namely, the rabid bark. It is
difficult to give an accurate idea of this sound
by mere verbal description ; but the best au
thorities all agree that, when once recognized,
it is entirely conclusive. The natural voice of
the animal is altered. Instead of the usual
succession of explosive sounds, equal in in
tensity and duration, it is hoarse, veiled, lower
in tone, and begins with a single open bark,
followed immediately by three or four dimin
ishing howls from the bottom of the throat,
during which the jaws, instead of closing com
pletely at each bark, are only partly approxi
mated to each other. Prof. Bouley says that
both he and his pupils have been able to recog
nize distinctly the rabid dog by his bark alone,
when the animal was not yet in sight, and was
still at the other extremity of the courtyard
of the Alfort veterinary school. The saliva is
at first increased in abundance ; but this symp
tom is of short duration, lasting, according to
Yotiatt, not more than 12 hours, and is never
so abundant as in the profuse salivation which
attends an attack of epilepsy, a malady very
common in dogs, but perfectly harmless. The
true salivation of hydrophobia consists in a
secretion of saliva which is scanty, but viscid
and ropy, and which the animal endeavors to
clear away from the mouth by the aid of his
paws. This often gives the idea that he is an
noyed by a bone accidentally lodged in his
teeth ; and fatal accidents have happened from
attempting to aid the animal to get rid of the
supposed annoyance. This preliminary period
of the disease may last for one or two days.
Now, however, comes the second and fully
developed stage of the disorder, characterized
by sudden paroxysms of fury, the true rabies

or canine madness. A very characteristic and
important fact is that an animal in this condi
tion is especially excited by the appearance of
one of his own species. The sight of another
dog drives him into an excess of sudden and
immeasurable fury, followed by an immediate
and aggressive attack. This often happens
while he is still inoffensive toward other ani
mals, and particularly toward his master. But
it is a sign that the full development of his dis
order is at hand, and in an hour or two after
ward he may snap at every bystander indis
criminately, in the blind insanity of his excite
ment. At this time, or even at an earlier pe
riod, he often disappears from home, probably
with the instinct of finding some more solitary
place in which to hide. But meeting constant
ly with new sources of irritation, and his ner
vous excitability increasing at the same time,
he becomes more furious, haggard, and threat
ening with every hour. He is now at the
height of the disease. Wandering along the
streets or open highways, with head and tail
drooping, his hide disordered and dusty, the
ropy saliva hanging in strings from his open
jaws, every man and animal that he encounters
provokes him to a fresh attack. After 24 or
36 hours of this continuous excitement, with
out food or rest, and incessantly upon his feet,
exhaustion begins to come on ; his motions are
less vigorous, his steps grow vacillating and
irregular, and he no longer leaves the direct
path, and offers violence only to those whom
he unavoidably meets. At last, if not pursued
and killed, a general paralysis takes posses
sion of his system, and he dies exhausted by
the intensity and continuance of the nervous
agitation. The entire duration of the malady
in the dog, from the first signs of disordered
health until its fatal termination, is from two
to six days. No distinct morbid change in
any of the internal organs has ever been found
after death, either in the dog or in man, which
could be regarded as the pathological cause of
this singular disease. Finally, the important
symptoms of commencing hydrophobia in the
dog, which should always be borne in mind,
maybe summed up as follows: 1, an unac
customed gloomy and suspicious disposition,
with nervous agitation and restlessness ; 2,
momentary attacks of hallucination both as to
sights and sounds ; 3, an unnatural and de
praved appetite for indigestible or innutritions
substances ; 4, a peculiar and unnatural bark ;

5, a ropy and viscid condition of the saliva,
with dryness of the mouth and fauces; and

6, an insane and aggressive irritability of
temper, most easily excited by the sight of
other dogs, and at first manifested only toward
them. — The best accounts of hydrophobia are
to be found in the chapter on " Hydropho
bia " in Gross's " System of Surgery " (Phila
delphia, 1866); the chapter on "Rabies" in
Youatt "On the Dog" (London, 1859); and
Bouley, Rapport sur la rage (Paris, 1863).

HYDROSTATICS. See HYDEOMECIIANICS.

130 HYDROSULPIIURIC ACID

HYGIENE

HYDROSILPHIRIC ACID, Snlphydrie Acid, or
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, a gaseous compound first
examined by Scheele in 1777; symbol, H 2 S ;
chemical equivalent, 34. It consists of two
volumes of hydrogen and one of sulphur vapor
condensed into two volumes, which form its
combining measure. Its density is 1191-2, air
being 1000. It is a colorless gas, has a slight
acid reaction, and a most offensive odor, rec
ognized in rotten eggs, dock mud, cesspools,
many mineral waters, and putrefying organic
matters containing sulphur. It extinguishes
flame, but burns itself in contact with air
with a blue flame, depositing sulphur. It is
condensed by a pressure of 17 atmospheres at
50° into a colorless liquid, and was solidified
by Faraday by cooling to — 122° into a white
crystalline translucent substance. Water ab
sorbs 2^ times its volume of the gas ; alcohol
6 volumes. It blackens the salts of lead and
of many other metals, forming sulphides of
the metals. These being insoluble and made
readily visible by their peculiar colors, even in
minute quantity, the acid is a convenient test
for determining the presence of the metals in
solutions, and distinguishing them by the color
of the precipitate and its other properties. Its
aqueous solution and its solution in ammonia
(hydrosulphide of ammonium) are among the
useful chemical reagents. The gas is exceed
ingly noxious to inhale. Thenard found that
a small bird would die in air containing j-jVo
part of it, and a horse in air that contained
Tfl-B of it. The gas is neutralized and de
composed by chlorine and iodine, which unite
with its hydrogen ; and the former, furnished
by chloride of lime wet with strong vinegar, is
a convenient antidote and disinfectant of the
gas. Nitrate of lead, chloride of zinc, sulphate
of iron, and sulphate of manganese are also
efficacious in this respect. The presence of
the gas is detected by its odor, and by its black
ening a paper wet with a solution of acetate
of lead. It is the cause of the discoloration
of white lead paint in the apartments of houses,
also of the blackening of silver spoons when
these are used with boiled eggs, the albumen
of the white of the egg furnishing the sulphur
for the production of the gas. — To prepare
hydrosulphuric acid, the ingredients employed
are a ferrous sulphide, made by exposing to a
low red heat 4 pjjrts of coarse sulphur and 7
of iron filings, and diluted sulphuric acid. By
pouring the acid upon broken lumps of the
compound in a gas bottle, the gas is evolved,
and may be collected in a bell glass over water
at 80° or 90°, or over brine. It is absorbed
by cold water. It may also be obtained by
the action of hydrochloric acid upon antimo-
nious sulphide. The reactions in each case are
thus expressed: FeS + II 2 SO 4 = FeSO 4 + U 2 S.
Sb 2 S 3 + (I1C1). = (SbCl 3 ) 2 + (II 2 S) 3 .

IIYDRl \TIM. See OTKANTO.

HYERES, a town of France, in the depart
ment of Yar, on the S. declivity of a hill, 9 in.
E. of Toulon, and 3 m. from the Mediterranean ;

pop. in 1866, 10,878. The principal edifices
are the old church, one of the most singular
structures in France, and an ancient chateau,
now used as a town hall. In the principal
square is a column, surmounted by a white
marble bust of the celebrated Massillon, who
was a native of the town, llyeres is consid
ered one of the healthiest winter residences in
the south of France, and is much resorted to
by invalids. Eemains of an ancient Roman
city exist in its vicinity. In the roadstead op
posite the town, and belonging to it, is a group
of small islands called the isles of llyeres (an
cient Stoschades), two of which are fortified.
During the middle ages the place was called
Hiedera, and was a favorite port of the pilgrims
to Jerusalem.

HYGIEA, or Hygea, in Greek mythology, tho
goddess of health, a daughter of ^Esculapius.
She was represented by artists as a virgin in
flowing garments feeding a serpent from a cup ;
the poets speak of her as a smiling goddess
with bright glances, and a favorite of Apollo.
By the Romans she was in time identified with
the old Sabine goddess Salus.

HYGIENE (Gr. vyieivds, healthy), the science
and art of preserving health, by the appro
priate nourishment of the body and the proper
regulation of its surrounding conditions. The
first subject of importance in a hygienic point
of view is always the location or residence
of the individual, family, or community whose
interests are involved. Other conditions may
be altered or modified with comparative readi
ness, but the place and character of the habi
tation, when once fixed, usually remain so for
a considerable time, and thus exert a con
tinued influence for good or evil. The habi
tation, when in the country, should always
be placed upon such an elevation as to secure
a thorough natural drainage. This is the first
requisite ; for there is no other single cause of
disease so hurtful and insidious as the slow ac
cumulation and stagnation of the refuse mat
ters, in however small quantity, which are
daily produced in and about an occupied habi
tation. Even standing pools, or hollow basins
without an outlet, the result of a depression
in the surface of the ground, should not be
allowed in the immediate neighborhood of the
house; for although it is only the rain water
which at first collects in them, yet there is
always more or less accumulation of organic
matter from vegetable growth and from the
aquatic animals and birds which make such
places their resort ; and as a pool of this kind
is alternately filled and dried up, sometimes
several times a year, the effluvia exhaled during
this process will always become more or less
injurious, and may be even dangerous to life.
When a large number of inhabitants are col
lected within a small space, as in towns and
cities, the question of drainage becomes of
course still more important. The production
of refuse materials is here exceedingly rapid,
and corresponding provision should be made

HYGIENE

IIYGROMETRY

131

for their immediate and complete removal.
Besides the necessary provisions for drainage,
the house and apartments should also be fully
and completely ventilated. Effluvia and or
ganic vapors of various kinds necessarily be
come developed in every occupied dwelling,
from the daily culinary operations and the or
ganic matters of the food and their remains.
These effluvia are harmless when fresh ; but
they are subject to early decomposition, and
at once become noxious if allowed to accumu
late and stagnate. Every house, according-ly,
should be swept throughout each day by a cur
rent of fresh air, sufficient to renovate its at
mosphere and remove all vestiges of impurity.
A free opening of the windows on opposite
sides, early in the morning, is the best way of
accomplishing this. In addition, each inhabited
apartment should be constantly ventilated in
such a manner as to remove the carbonic acid
and other products of respiration, by open fires
or other effectual means. — Proper clothing,
adapted to the season and the degree of indi
vidual exposure, is also an important element
of hygiene. There are few causes of disease
more prolific than undue exposure to cold and
dampness, and particularly to sudden changes
of weather or draughts of cold air upon un
protected parts. The clothing should be so
regulated, as a general thing, that the ordina
ry vicissitudes of the weather shall not be felt
by the individual in such a way as to make a
permanent impression upon the system. A
sufficient suit of Avoollen underclothing is the
best protection in this respect. It is important
to remember, however, that for a person in
health exposure to cold and dampness is sel
dom injurious so long as the body is in a state
of muscular activity. It is remaining in a cold
apartment in an inactive condition, or keeping
on the wet or damp clothing after muscular ex
ertion has ceased, that gives rise to dangerous
consequences. — The quality and quantity of
the food, and the regularity with which it is
taken, are of the next importance in a hygienic
point of view. The food, as a rule, should be
simple in character, but nutritious, and each
article of the best possible quality and proper
ly cooked. An imperfect or careless mode of
cooking may often injure materially the nutri
tious and digestible qualities of an article of
food, originally of the best kind. Individual
peculiarities are to be consulted in regard to
the kind of food used by each person ; certain
articles being sometimes more or less indiges
tible for one person, which are quite harmless
for another. The natural and healthy appe
tite is the best general criterion in regard to
the quantity of food to be used, provided it be
simple and nutritious in character. It is of
great importance, finally, that the food be
taken with regularity at the accustomed time,
that it be properly masticated, and that its
digestion be not interfered with by hurry,
anxiety, or any unusual mental or physical dis
turbance at and immediately after the time of

meals. — A regular and sufficient bodily exer
cise should be taken every day to keep all the
organs in a healthy state of activity. The ex
ercise should be neither deficient nor excessive
in amount; for bodily exertion which is so

I violent or so prolonged as to produce a sense
of exhaustion and fatigue, instead of being

j beneficial to the system, is positively injurious

j to it. Neither can a deficiency of muscular
exertion during one period be compensated by
an excessive amount taken at another. It is
the necessary and appropriate quantity of ex
ercise, taken regularly day by day, which pre
serves the vigor of the system, and keeps it
in a condition to resist the attacks of disease.
The periods of exertion, furthermore, should
alternate daily with periods of repose ; and
especially the natural amount of sleep should
always be taken with regularity, and in apart
ments which are not too confined and the ven
tilation of which is properly provided for. It
is during sleep that the main process of the
nutrition and restoration of the nervous and
muscular systems takes place ; and if an indi
vidual deprive himself of sleep, wholly or even
partially, for one or two nights in succession,
he will invariably experience its damaging ef
fects in the consequent temporary failure of
the vital powers. An imprudence or neglect,
like either of those mentioned above, may bo
counteracted in a strong and healthy person
by subsequent care, so that he may recover
from its immediate and more perceptible ef
fects ; but it is a principle which lies at the basis
of hygiene, that causes of disease, however
slight, by constant repetition day after day, or
even at longer intervals, will certainly at last
undermine the health, and produce a perma
nent and often irremediable injury. The easi
est as well as the surest way of avoiding such
a result is a constant and regular attention
to all the necessary hygienic conditions. (See
ALIMENT, BATH, DIETETICS, and GYMNASTICS.)
IIVGROMETRY (Gr. vyp6^ moist, and /jerpov,
measure), the method of determining the
amount of moisture in bodies, more especially
in atmospheric air. A hygrometer is an in
strument used for this purpose ; and a hygro-
scope is any substance that absorbs moisture

| from the air, and is in consequence changed in
form or weight. Various salts absorb moisture
and deliquesce, and are consequently called
hygroscopic. These serve as hygrometers in
chemical analysis; thus chloride of calcium
placed in a glass tube absorbs the moisture
from the air passed through the tube, and its
increase of weight determines the quantity.
The property is exhibited in hemp and cotton
ropes, and in small fibres, as those of whale
bone, and in hairs. Paper by absorption of
moisture expands to such a degree that it is
an imperfect material for preserving accurate
plans. Its variation in length in extremely
dry and in moist air sometimes exceeds 1 in
40. If a substance could be found which ab
sorbed moisture in proportion to the quantity

132

HYGROMETRY

in the air, and its form was proportionally af
fected thereby, this change could be readily
indicated upon a dial, the extreme points of
which are determined, the one by the least
length produced by the greatest dryness, and
the other by the greatest elongation caused by
the most humid air that could be produced, the
intermediate space being divided into 100 or
other convenient number of degrees. Such an
instrument would be a perfect hygrometer ; but
no such substance is known, and the properties
of the same body in this respect are not con
stant at all times. The best instrument of this
sort, which is after all only a hygroscope, was
contrived by De Saussure. It is a human hair,
cleansed by boiling in alkaline water. The
zero point of the scale to which it is attached
is fixed by drying the hair in air rendered by
chemical absorbents as dry as possible; and
then, by exposing it in a receiver to air satu
rated with moisture, the other extreme of the
scale is found. The equal divisions between
these are assumed to indicate proportional de
grees of moisture or dryness. One end of the
hair is fixed, and to the other is suspended a
small weight. A grooved wheel or pulley car
rying an index is placed so as to be moved by
the hair as it contracts or expands. Various
other hygrometers of this class have been de
vised, some on the principle of determining
the moisture by the increased weight imparted
to bodies by its absorption, and others by the
torsion thereby induced in cords and in vege
table fibres ; but all these methods have proved
very imperfect. — Two other methods are to be
noticed by which the humidity of the air is
ascertained. The first depends on the deter
mination of the dew point, or the degree of
temperature to which the air must be reduced
that its moisture shall begin to separate and
condense upon cold surfaces. This difference
alone is sometimes used to express the dryness
of the air, as aifording an indication of how
near it is to its point of saturation. In tem
perate regions this sometimes amounts to 30° ;
but in a dry and hot climate, under the lee of
cold mountains which first strip the air of its
moisture, it amounts to 60° or more ; such is
the case upon the hot plains of the Deccan, to
which the air is brought from the other side of
the Ghauts. Cooled down upon these to a low
temperature, its moisture is precipitated in rain
and sno\v, and when immediately after this it
is raised to a temperature of 90°, it is found
that no deposition of moisture again takes
place until the temperature is reduced to 29°.
The observation, however, is used to furnish
more exact results. Tables have been prepared
with the utmost care which give the elastic
force of aqueous vapor at different degrees and
even tenths of degrees of temperature, ex
pressed in the height of a column of mercury
sustained by the vapor. The temperature of
the dew point of the air being ascertained, the
elastic force corresponding to this temperature
in the table represents the absolute humidity

of the air, and may be converted into the ac
tual weight of moisture to the cubic foot under
a given barometric pressure by the formulas
prepared for this purpose, or directly by the
tables constructed to reduce the labor of the
calculation. By comparing the elastic force
obtained from the table with that correspond
ing to the temperature of the air itself, the
ratio between the two expresses the relative
humidity of the air. This also is ascertained
at sight by the tables specially constructed for
this object. The most highly approved hygro-
metrical tables are those derived from the ex
periments of Regnault, made by direction of
the French government to determine the ex
pansive force of steam at different tempera
tures, which is also that of the vapor suspended
in the air at the same temperatures. These
tables are published in Regnault's Etudes sur
Vhygrometrie, in the Annales de cliimie et de
physique (1845) ; and formulas also are given
from which other tables, besides that of the
elastic forces, have been prepared by others.
The most complete series of these is furnished
in the volume of "Tables, Meteorological and
Physical," prepared for the Smithsonian insti
tution by Arnold Guyot, and published in the
" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections," 1858.
In the same series is also presented the table
of elastic forces of vapor deduced from the ex
periments of Dalton, together with others based
upon it, and in general use in England. These
are also found in Glaisher's " Hygrometrical
Tables" (London, 1847), and in the " Green
wich Observations." — Various forms of the
dew-point instrument or hygrometer have been
devised. That of Prof. Daniell, which has been
much used, is of the following construction : A
bent tube, blown out at each end to a bulb, is
laid across the top of a pillar, which serves as
a stand, the two bulbs hanging down one on
each side. One arm of the tube is long enough
to contain a delicate thermometer, the bulb of
which terminates in some ether contained in
the external bulb. By boiling the ether be
fore closing the tube the air is nearly ex
pelled. When in use the empty bulb is cov
ered with a piece of muslin, which is kept
wet with ether. The evaporation of this con
denses the vapor within, causing the liquid in
the other bulb to evaporate and grow cool.
The bulb becomes at last sufficiently cool for
the moisture to condense upon it, and the in
stant this makes its appearance in the form
of a ring of dew encircling the bulb at the
level of the surface of the ether, the temper
ature is to be noted by the thermometer with
in, while that of the air is observed upon
another thermometer attached to the stand.
Another observation of the enclosed thermom
eter is made as the dew disappears by the bulb
returning to its former temperature ; and the
mean of the two observations will give a close
approximation to the dew point. — A better in
strument is that of Regnault. Two glass tubes
are suspended by a small tubular arm near the

IIYGROMETRY

IIYLJ20SAURUS

133

top of each, both opening into the hollow stand
that supports the tubes. A pipe for exhausting
the air by means of a sort of bellows or the
flow of water connects with the hollow in the
stand by an opening near its base. The two
tubes are closed, each with a cork through
which a thermometer tube is fitted, the bulb in
one reaching nearly to the bottom. Over the
lower end of this one a very thin and highly
polished thimble of silver nearly two inches
long is fitted, and a fine tube open at each end
is passed through the cork, reaching from the
external air nearly to the bottom of the tube.
Ether is poured into this bulb, covering the
lower end of the thermometer, and rising an
inch or two higher than the upper edge of the
silver thimble. To determine the dew point,
the apparatus for exhausting the air from the
hollow stand is set in action. This causes the
air to pass through the fine tube, and bubble
through the ether, keeping it in motion and
taking up its vapor. The liquid, the thermom
eter bulb, and the silver coating of the tube
equally feel the reduced temperature, and the
instant this reaches the dew point, the whole
surface of the silver is covered with moisture.
The temperature of the thermometer placed in
the ether is then observed, while the other
marks the temperature of the air. By stopping
the current of air the temperature rises, and the
moisture disappears from the silver. The ther
mometer is to be noted again, and the mean of
the two observations taken for the dew point ;
or several trials may be made in rapid succes
sion. To avoid affecting the result by the
warmth radiated from the body, a small tele
scope may be used in reading the thermometer.
The instrument has been modified by Prof.
Connell in substituting for the tube a small flask
of highly polished brass or silver, into the neck
of which is secured an exhausting syringe. — The
second of the two methods above referred to,
by which the humidity of the air is ascertained,
involves the determination of the temperature
of evaporation ; and the instrument used is the
wet-bulb thermometer or psychrometer invent
ed by Prof. August of Berlin, and described
in his work Uebcr die Fortschritte der llygro-
metrie (Berlin, 1830). It consists of two deli
cate thermometers placed mar together. The
bulb of one is covered with muslin, which is
kept wet by water supplied from a vessel close
by through capillary conduction. The instru
ment is placed in a light draught of air, and as
evaporation goes on the mercury in the wet-
bulb thermometer sinks to a certain point ; the
temperature of both is then noticed. If the air
was nearly saturated with moisture, the differ
ence will be found to be very slight. The baro
metric pressure is observed at the same time,
and data are thus afforded for calculating the
elastic force of aqueous vapor in the air. The
formula for this calculation, modified by Re-
gnault, and the psychrometrical tables deduced
from it, are given in the volume of tables re
ferred to above, and are equally applicable to

the estimation whether the dew-point instru
ment or wet-bulb thermometer is used. To
render them more convenient, they have been
converted by Prof. Guyot into English measures.
The series also contains tables of the weight of
vapors in a given space at different tempera
tures. The method by the wet bulb, though
regarded as decidedly the most convenient
means of determining the elastic forces of the
vapor, and thence the humidity of the air, is
still rendered somewhat uncertain in its results
from the impossibility of keeping the wet bulb
uniformly moist, and from other causes also.
The uncertainty of its results is indeed in some
cases so great that Regnault in 1872 recom
mended that, for accurate meteorological pur
poses, resort should be uniformly had to the
chemical methods of extracting and weighing
the aqueous vapor in a given volume of air.
To this end he has devised a simple arrange
ment by which concentrated sulphuric acid may
be exposed to the atmosphere and absorb its
aqueous vapor; a method that is specially ap
plicable at very low temperatures. — The ulti
mate object of these hygrometrical investiga
tions is, by enabling the meteorologist to ascer
tain at all times, in all localities, and at all ac
cessible elevations, the true condition of the
atmosphere as to moisture, to furnish him with
accurate data for studying the laws which con
trol its variations. The following table of rela
tive humidity is prepared for every 5° F. from
5° to 95° above zero, and for a difference of
temperature between the air and the dew
point, technically called the complement of the
dew point, ranging from 0° to 18°. (See DEW
POINT, in article DEW.)

TABLE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF THE AIE.

TEMP. OF

DIFFERENCE OF TEMPERATURE OF THE AIK
AND OF THE DEW POINT.

1° 2° ,3° 4° 5°J6° 7° S°9°

10°

1-2

14°

16°

47
47
48
48
4^
49

r.i
52
58
M
55
56
56
57
58
58
:>;>
59
60

18°

4::
4::
14
14
45
45
46
48
49
Tin
51
52
52
53
54
M
55
56
56

5° 10

10 10

09691 8783 80'7672'69 66 63
96 91 67 83 80,76 73 70 66] 68
D 96 91 87838076787066 64
0,9691 878380,767369 66: C3
96 91 87 84 80|76 73 70 67^ 64
09692888481:77747067 65
096928S'8482|777471 68. 66
96 92 89 85 82,78 75 72 69 67
) 96 93 89 85 83179 75 73 70; 68
96 93 89 86 83 '80 76 74 71 69
96 93 90 86 S3 '80 77 74 72 69
96 93 90 86 84 81 77 75 72 70
97 : 93 90 87 84 '81 787572 70
97 93 90 87 84 81 78 76 73' 71
97'94 91 87 84 82 79 76 73 71
097 '94 91 88 85 82 79 77 74 72
0979491 888583807774 72
97,94 91 8S 85 83 80 77 75 73
97 94 91 88 85 83 80 78 75 73

r.7

58
58
58
58
59
60
62
68
63
64
64
65
65
66
67
67
68
68

52
53
58

r.:;
58
54
55
56
57
68
59
60
61
61
62
(;•>.
68
,;:;
64

15 10
20 10
25 10

30 10

35 10

40 . . 10
45 10
50 10

55 10

CO 10
G5 10
70 10
75 10
80 .. ..10

85 .. 10
90 '10
95 10

IIYKSOS, or Shepherd Kings. See EGYPT,
vol. vi., p. 460.

HILEOSAIRIS (Gr. vlaios, belonging to wood,
and CTGiipof, lizard), the name given by Dr. Man-
tell to an extinct dinosaurian reptile, from the
Jurassic strata of Tilgate forest, having the
usual mammalian characters of its tribe, viz. :
long bones with a medullary cavity, pachy-

134:

IIYLAS

HYPERBOLA

derm-like feet, and sacrum of five united verte
bra. It attained a size of 20 to 25 ft., and was
believed by Mantell and Buckland to have had
an enormous dorsal dermal fringe like the

JIvlseosaurus.

horny spines on the back of the iguana ; its skin
was covered with circular or elliptical plates.

IIYLAS) in Greek mythology, son of Theoda-
mas, king of the Dry opes, and the nymph Me-
nodice. Hercules, after slaying Theodamas,
adopted Ilylas, and took him on the Argonau-
tic expedition. When they arrived at Mysia,
Ilylas went to a neighboring well for water,
but the maids of that fountain became so fas
cinated with his beauty that they drew him
into the water, and he was never seen again.
When Hercules shouted for him, the youth's
voice was heard from the well like a faint echo ;
and he was so enraged at his loss that he
threatened to ravage the country of the My-
sians if they did not produce Ilylas dead or
alive. They sought him in vain, and ultimate
ly instituted an annual festival, during which
they roamed over the mountains calling out
the name of Ilylas.

HYMEN, in Greek mythology, the god of mar
riage. According to some, he was a son of
Apollo and one of the muses; but according
to others, he was originally a mortal, who,
having rescued some Attic maidens from Pe-
lasgic pirates or other robbers, had his praises
celebrated in token of gratitude in their bridal
songs, which after him were called hymeneal
songs. The practice of singing such songs at
the nuptial season became in time universal,
and the heroic youth was gradually elevated to
the rank of a divinity. Hymen is represented
in works of art as a tall handsome youth, car
rying in his right hand a bridal torch.

HYMEXOPTERA (Gr. v^v, membrane, and
irrepdv, wing), a suborder of insects, so named
from their four membranous, transparent
wings. They have upper horny jaws for biting,
and softer and longer lower jaws with the tip
adapted for collecting honey ; the females and
neuters have a sting or piercer. All undergo
complete metamorphosis ; the larva} of the
stingers are soft, without legs, resembling
maggots ; most of the larval piercers resemble
grubs and caterpillars. They are diurnal, swift
tiiers, and surpass all other insects in the num

ber and variety of their instincts ; of the very
numerous species none are aquatic. They in
clude the bees, wasps, ants, ichneumons, gall
flies, saw flies, &c., which are described under
their respective titles.

HYMETTUS, a mountain range of Attica, form
ing the S. E. boundary of the Athenian plain.
It consists of two summits, the northern or
greater Hymettus, the apex of which is about
3,500 ft. above the sea, and the southern or
lesser Hymettus, denominated Anhydrus, "the
waterless," by the ancients. The honey of
Ilymettus was considered by the ancient Greeks
as inferior only to that of llybla in Sicily ; but
at present, though still abundant, it is said to
be of very poor quality. The excellence of
its marble is a favorite theme with classic
authors. The greater Hymettus is now called
Trelo-Vuno, and the lesser Mavro-Vuno.

HYOSCYAMIS. See HEXBANE.

HYPATIA, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, born
in Alexandria about 370, killed in 415. She
was the daughter of Theon, a distinguished
mathematician and astronomer. She went to
Athens near the close of the 4th century, and
studied under the Neo-Platonist Plutarch, who
expounded to a small circle of disciples the
Chaldean oracles and the secrets of theurgy.
On her return to Alexandria, her talents, beau
ty, eloquence, and modesty made her an object
of admiration. She revived the school of Ploti-
nus, and became its head. But both as a pa
gan and as a philosopher she provoked the hos
tility of Cyril, bishop of Alexandria. Not only
was her lecture room thronged, but she was
consulted by the most considerable persons of
the city, among others by the prefect Orestes,
who was at constant feud with the bishop.
The city was a prey to the violence of parties,
and it was to the influence of Ilypatia that Cy
ril attributed the refusal of Orestes to come to
a reconciliation. " Certain persons, therefore,"
says the ecclesiastical historian Socrates, " of
fierce and over-hot minds, who were headed
by one Peter, a reader, conspired against the
woman, and observed her returning home from
some place ; and having pulled her out of her
chariot, they dragged her to the church named
Ca3sareum, where they stripped her and mur
dered her. And when they had torn her piece
meal, they carried all her members to a place
called Cinaron, and consumed them with fire."
Ilypatia was the author of two mathematical
treatises, which are lost, and there remains
from her only an astronomical table inserted
in the manual tables of Theon. She is the
heroine of Charles Kingsley's "Ilypatia."

HYPERBOLA (Gr. iirepfl&Xfeiv, to transcend),
one of the conic sections, produced when the
cutting plane makes a smaller angle with the
axis of a right cone than is made by the side.
The shado\v of a globe on a flat wall, when
part of the globe is further than the luminous
point is from the wall, gives a hyperbola. Hy-
perboloids are surfaces generated by moving
hyperbolas.

HYPERBOREANS

HYPERTROPHY

135

HYPERBOREANS (from Gr. i^tp, beyond, and
ac, the north wind), a legendary race,
placed by the Greeks in the remote regions of
the north. They first appear in Hesiod and in
the traditions connected with the temples at
Delphi and Delos. The poets conceived of
them as dwelling in perpetual sunshine, pos
sessing abundant fruits, abstaining from the
flesh of animals, and living for a thousand
years. The supposed location of the Hyperbo
reans changed with the progress of geographi
cal knowledge. At first placed in the north
at the sources of the Ister (Danube), they were
transferred by some to the west when this river
was supposed to proceed from the western ex
tremity of Europe ; while others transferred
them to the extreme north of Europe, beyond
the mythical Gryps and Arimaspi, who them
selves dwelt beyond the Scythians. The latter
view at length prevailed ; the character of the
Hyperboreans as a sacred nation was lost sight
of; and their name became only a geographi
cal expression for the extreme north. Modern
ethnologists designate as Hyperboreans a sub
division of the arctic races, inhabiting N. N.
E. Asia. (See ETHNOLOGY.)

HYPERIDES, one of the ten famous Attic
orators, born probably about 395 B. C., died in
yEgina in 322. lie was a pupil of Plato in
philosophy, of Isocrates in oratory, began his
career as an advocate, and was an associate of
Demosthenes as leader of the anti-Macedonian
party. In 358 he and his son equipped two
triremes at their own expense to join the
expedition against Euboea. He displayed an
equal interest in the patriotic cause on an em
bassy to Rhodes (346), in the expedition against
Byzantium (340), as ambassador with Demos
thenes to Thebes after the capture of Elatea I
by Philip (338), and after the battle of Chaero-
neo, when he proposed, by a union of the citi
zens, resident aliens, and slaves, to organize a '
desperate resistance to Philip. For his efforts
on the last occasion he was prosecuted on an
indictment for illegal proposition, but was ac
quitted. Of his defence there remain only the
words : " The Macedonian army darkened my
vision ; it was not I that moved the decree, but
the battle of Chceronca." The affair of Harpa- {
lus (324) for the first time broke his friendly
relations with Demosthenes, against whom he
appeared as public prosecutor. On the report
of Alexander's death (323), it was chiefly by
his exertions that the confederacy was formed
which brought about the Lamian war. lie
fled after the battle of Crannon to JEgina, and
was pursued and put to death by the emissaries j
of Antipater. The number of orations attrib- i
uted to him was 77, but the ancient writers !
rejected 25 of them as spurious. They agree
in extolling his genius, and commend him for
almost every excellence of style. Until late- j
ly only unimportant fragments of his orations
were known to have been preserved. In 1847 j
A. C. Harris, an English resident of Alexan- j
dria, purchased near the ruins of Thebes some \

fragments of papyrus written over with Greek,
which were parts of the oration of Hyperides
against Demosthenes on the charge of having
been bribed by Harpalus. He published a fac
simile of them in 1848. They were edited by
Churchill Babington, with an introduction and
commentary, in 1850. Another Englishman,
Joseph Arden, procured at the same place and
nearly at the same time other fragments of
papyrus, which were found to contain a large
part of his speech for Lycophron, prosecuted
for adultery, and his complete oration for Eux-
enippus, charged with making a false report
of the oracle of Amphiaraus. These were
edited by Mr. Babington in 1853. Another
traveller, Mr. Stodart, brought from Egypt in
1856 another collection of papyrus fragments,
among which were a large part of the funeral
oration on Leosthenes and the Athenian soldiers
who perished in the Lamian war. This was
published by the same editor in 1858. His
orations have been republished in Germany by
Bockh, Ivayser, and others, and in Paris in
Didot's Billiotheca Grceca. The funeral ora
tion has been edited by Cobet (Ley den, 1858).
HYPERTROPHY (Gr. i^tp, over, and rpo<$,
nourishment), an excess of growth of a part
without degeneration or alteration in the struc
ture ; the exact opposite to atrophy. Hyper
trophy may depend on the excess of the mate
rials of certain tissues in the blood ; when this
fluid contains habitually too much fat, there
rnay be an abnormal increase of the adipose
tissue; similar hypertrophy may thus be in
duced in other tissues, but there is no evidence
that the muscles or nerves increase in bulk
from the mere excess of their formative ma
terials. Though an increased supply of blood
is generally rather the consequence than the
cause of excessive nutrition in a part, hyper
trophy may arise from a mere increased circu
lation, and when one kidney cannot perform
its functions, the other has been known to in
crease in size, owing to its increased activity
as an excreting organ. This must be distin
guished from the augmented bulk of long con
gested parts, in which there is not normal
hypertrophy, but an addition of altered and
inferior tissue. Hypertrophy is in most cases
dependent on a preternatural formative capa
city in the part, sometimes congenital (as in
the abnormal growths of fingers and toes, and
even entire limbs), but generally acquired.
The most striking instances of acquired nutri
tive activity are seen in the muscular system,
consequent upon the excessive exercise of its
functional powers. Muscular hypertrophy is
most often seen in the involuntary muscles,
whose action is in some way impeded ; thus
stricture of the urethra or stone in the bladder,
obstructing the exit of the urine and calling
for extra exertion to expel it, causes hypertro
phy of the muscular coat of the bladder ; so it
happens with the gall bladder when its ducts
are stopped by calculi, and with the intestines
when a stricture exists in any portion. Hyper-

136

IIYPHASIS

HYPOCHONDRIASIS

trophy of the ventricles of the heart is often
dependent on narrowing of the cardiac orifices
by disease of the valves, giving the organ dou
ble work to do, and increasing its activity, as
in other muscles. (See HEART, DISEASES OF
THE.) When any of the voluntary muscles are
specially exercised, hypertrophy is observed in
them, as in the arm of the blacksmith or the
legs of a professional dancer ; and such hyper-
trophied muscles generally cause an increased
nutrition of the bones to which they are at
tached, and an enlargement of the points of
origin and insertion. There are certain en
largements of glands, in which their proper
tissue is increased without structural change,
which unite physiological hypertrophy with
pathological tumors, as in the case of the mam
mary, thyroid, and prostate glands. Certain
tumors of the uterus contain only an excess
of the normal muscular and fibrous tissues of
the organ, and yet cannot be regarded as ex
amples of hypertrophy, as they observe no
regular growth, subserve no physiological pur
pose, and constitute a positive deformity and
disease; sucli abnormal growths may exist
upon a uterus itself hypertrophied from in
creased functional activity, and must not be
confounded with the latter. Supernumerary
parts, as additional fingers and toes and vari
ous outgrowths developed during foetal life,
must in like manner be referred to local hy-

Sirtrophy from excess of formative activity,
r. Carpenter sees in this whole series of ab
normal production the operation of a similar
power; that which in simple hypertrophy is
confined to increasing the size of an organ by
the development of new tissue according to
the morphological type of the part, in the for
mation of supernumerary tissues also imparts
to them an independent existence ; on the
other hand, while in ordinary hypertrophy the
tissues in excess are incorporated in the affect
ed organ, in the structure of a tumor the per
fectly formed and independently growing tis
sues constitute a mass whose shape is deter
mined more by surrounding conditions than
by any tendency of their own— the formative
power undirected by the normal morphological
nisus. In malignant growths, the development
of tissues stops short of the limit by which
formative power produces the normal tissues,
and their vital endowments are not sufficient
to resist the tendency to degeneration.

HYPIIASIS, a river of ancient India. See

PUXJAUB.

HYPOCHOXDRIASIS (Gr. M, under, and
X&vSpoq, cartilage), a disease generally classed
among neuroses, characterized by derangement
of various organic functions, and accompanied
by an habitual sadness, often bordering on de
spair, and a disposition to exaggerate every
trifiing symptom into a sign of dangerous
malady ; probably so called because it was
formerly attributed to disorder of the spleen,
an organ situated in the left hypochondrium.
It occurs principally in persons of melancholic

temperament, and in those whose moral and
intellectual faculties have received high and
unnatural development ; it is said to be com
mon in proportion to the elevation of the hu
man mind and to the progress of civilization.
Men of letters, overtasked students and men
of business, and those whose naturally delicate
constitutions and ardent imaginative minds
have been abnormally stimulated, are the most
frequent subjects of hypochondria ; but it may
arise at any age and in the strongest persons
after profound grief or other moral emotion,
whether of love, hope, jealousy, or fear, de
bilitating excesses of any kind, the suppression
of any habitual discharge, a sudden change of
habits of life, or unceasing devotion to any
philanthropic, political, or intellectual pursuit.
The symptoms are as various as its causes and
the constitutions of men ; there is not a part
of the body which may not be the subject of
the hypochondriac's complaint ; the senses are
ordinarily very acute, and the sight, hearing,
smell, taste, and touch are preternaturally ex
citable, and the sources of great real or ima
ginary suffering from the slightest causes ;
there is almost always digestive disturbance,
which enters largely into the explanation of
the causes; without fever or local lesion, the
sensibility is exalted, with flatulence, nausea,
spasms, palpitations, illusions of the senses,
aches and pains simulating most diseases, fear
of trifling dangers, exaggeration of all the
moral sentiments, extreme instability of con-

| duct, and anxiety in regard to the health.

\ The head is full of painful sensations, as fugi
tive as passing clouds, agonizing at one moment

! and forgotten the next; sleep is disturbed and
unrefreshing, and the waking hours rendered
miserable by imaginary troubles. Expressing
complete disgust with life, the sufferers yet
run to the physician with an account of every

| fugitive pain, and consider themselves neg
lected if not listened to, and insulted if their
ailments be called imaginary. Both sexes
suffer from hypochondria, and the female
specially in the reproductive system. Though
in the beginning the disorder may have been
wholly in the digestive organs, and that only
of a functional and curable character, by con
stant and morbid attention to these and other
fancied ailments real and organic disease may
be produced, and a return to health be im
possible. It is generally slow in coming on
and of long duration, and is not incompatible
with long life; if the digestion be tolerably
good, the prognosis is favorable, as such per
sons are apt to observe most rigidly the or-

! dinary rules of hygiene; in some impression-
able but resolute natures, it degenerates into a
settled melancholy, which a slight cause may
convert into temporary insanity and suicidal
mania. It cannot be said to have any special

! organic lesions, though in severe and fatal cases
there have been found various alterations of
the digestive, circulating, and nervous systems.

! There are two opinions as to the nature and

HYPOPHOSPHITES

HYPOSULPHATES

137

seat of hypochondria: one is that it is an
irritation of the nervous system which presides
over the digestive organs, with or without gas-
tro-intestinal inflammation ; and the other that
it is a cerebral neurosis, a kind of melancholy,
as proved by the constancy of the cerebral
symptoms and the efficacy of moral methods
of treatment. Some modify the latter opinion
by tracing it to a disturbance of the intellectual
powers, which acts upon and impedes the func
tions of all the organs by concentrating the
whole nervous energy in turn upon each sys
tem, organic lesions following upon the neurosis
and displaying the morbid symptoms peculiar
to each. As a general rule the disease is of far
less moment than the formidable array of symp
toms, the complaints of the patient, and the
expression of suffering would indicate ; some
times deceitful, and their feelings misinterpret
ed both by themselves and the physician, irrita
ble, suspicious, and versatile, hypochondriacs
are exceedingly troublesome and unsatisfactory
patients. Children of hypochondriac parents,
if they show any signs of uncommon nervous
susceptibility, should be educated in a manner
calculated to diminish the preponderance of
the nervous element, and to increase the physi
cal strength, as by avoiding excess of study
and all excitement, cultivating the generous
sentiments, and by gymnastic exercises; in
this way the ranks of hypochondriacs would
be much lessened. Attention to the causes,
when these can be ascertained, and their re
moval as far as possible, the observance of
hygienic rules adapted to circumstances and
constitutions, avoidance of excess in eating and
drinking, and perhaps an occasional laxative
or a tonic course, are probably all that can be
done in the way of treatment. But in order
to be of any benefit to his patient, the physi
cian must secure his confidence, and accustom
him to the belief that his affection is under
stood, his feelings appreciated, his sufferings
commiserated, and his complaints attentively
listened to ; having inspired this confidence, it
is not difficult to lead even the most confirmed
hypochondriac to change his stereotyped way
of regarding men and things, to interest him
in new enterprises and modes of thought, and
by judicious management to put him in the
way of a return to health by following the
dictates of his own feelings and common sense.
HYPOPIIOSPUITES. The salts formed by hy-
pophosphorous acid with lime, soda, potash,
and ammonia were proposed, mainly on theo
retical grounds, as remedies for phthisis, by Dr.
Churchill of Paris. They have be<-n extensively
used, and are so still to a much less degree.
Although possibly useful as tonics in some cases,
they are as far as all other drugs from being
specifics for consumption. Their chief thera
peutic value is to be found in cases where the
phosphates of the system are morbidly deficient.
This occasionally occurs in the debility that
sometimes follows prolonged lactation, in some
forms of dyspepsia and anamiia, and now and

then in the disturbance or fever of dentition.
The hypophosphites of soda and lime are the
most useful agents, medicinally, of this class.
They are best given in combination with a
hitter or aromatic tincture or infusion. The
dose of each of them is from 2 to 12 grains,
according to age and other circumstances.

HYPOSULPHATES, and Hyposulphites, com
pounds, the one of hyposulphuric and the
other of hyposulphurous acid, with bases. Of
these salts the only one of much interest is
the hyposulphite of soda, which possesses the
property of readily dissolving the chloride,
bromide, and iodide of silver. It has been of
great service in the preparation of daguerreo
types and photographs, being used to dissolve
the sensitive salt of silver which remains un
changed after its exposure in the dark cham
ber of the camera. In chemical analysis also
it is employed to distinguish between the
earths strontia and baryta, precipitating the
latter from its Solutions, but not the former.
It has moreover been adopted as a medicine,
and been found beneficial in cutaneous affec
tions, in visceral obstructions, and in disease of
the stomach attended with yeasty vomiting.
The salt is prepared as follows : A pound of
dry carbonate of soda, finely pulverized, is
mixed with five ounces of flowers of sulphur.
and the mixture is slowly heated until the sul
phur melts. By constant stirring exposed to
the air the sulphide of sodium, which first forms,
is converted into sulphite of soda. This is dis
solved in water and filtered. The hot solution,
concentrated by boiling, is then saturated with
sulphur and allowed to cool, when it deposits
large transparent crystals, which are the hy
posulphite of soda, of composition represented
by the formula KaaSaOs + SHaO. These are
soluble in water, but not in alcohol. The
hyposulphite of soda is the anti-chlor employed
by paper makers for removing the last traces
of chlorine from the bleached pulp. A deli
cate test for the presence of hyposulphurous
acid is the brown red color produced by a few
drops of perchloride of iron. — The hyposul
phites, and especially the hyposulphite of soda,
have been used in medicine for the destruc
tion of animal and vegetable parasites and
the arrest of fermentation. The diseases to
which they have been applied are not only
those which are demonstrably connected with
parasitic growth or fermentation, as yeasty
vomiting and parasitic affections of the mouth
and skin, but also those where similar process
es may be supposed to be essential factors;
such are intermittent and other forms of ma
larial fevers, typhoid, purulent infection, glan
ders, cholera, and the contagious exanthemata.
Although favorable reports have been made of
their action, general experience does not as yet
appear to justify the hopes founded on theory,
or the confident expectations of the physician
most widely known as the originator of the
treatment, Dr. Polli of Milan. No harm, how
ever, has resulted from them, and the presump-

138

HYPOTHECATION"

HYRCANUS

tion in their favor is strong enough to justify
their employment in connection with other
treatment. The hyposulphite of soda may be
given in doses of 10 or 20 grains, or more,
three times a day, dissolved in water. The
action of the sulphite is identical with or anal
ogous to that of the hyposulphite, and it has
been used for the same purposes.

HYPOTHECATION (Gr. vxd, under, and Ofay, a
chest), a word which, in the Roman civil law,
from which it is taken, signifies more nearly
what we understand by mortgage than by
pledge, for which they had a separate word,
pignus; but it is not precisely the same as
either. It was generally used whenever the
title to property was transferred by the owner
to his creditor, by way of security for the debt,
but without that delivery of actual possession
which was necessary to constitute a pledge.
In English and American law, the word is
most frequently used in the law of shipping.

IIYRAX, a small pachyderm, corning nearest
to the rhinoceros family, but looking much
like a diminutive hare, and in some respects
seeming to form one of the connecting links
with the rodents, constituting the family lam-
nungia of Illiger. The old naturalists had
always placed it among the rodents, but Cu-
vier, from its anatomical structure, ranked it
with the pachyderms, of which Swainson calls
it the gliriform type. The number of ribs is
21 pairs, greater by G than in any rodent, of
which 7 are true; the sternum consists of 6
pieces;* there are no clavicles; the suborbit.il
foramen is small ; the dental formula is : inci
sors |, canines none, molars -|c-f or |c£, with
distinct roots ; the extinct pachyderm toxodon
has long and curved molars, without roots, and
incisors with arched sockets, forming another
link in the chain of rodent affinities in this order.
The toes are four before and three behind, as
in the tapir; the hoofs are small and flat, but
the inner toe of the hind foot has a curved
claw. The genus Jiyrax (Hermann) is the only
one in the family, and contains four or five spe
cies. The body is covered with short, thick
far, with a few long bristles scattered among
the shorter hair, and others around the nos
trils and orbits; a tubercle in the place of the
tail. The common name of the species is da
man ; it seems to bear the same relation to the
rhinoceros as the existing sloths to the extinct
megatherium ; it lives among rocks, and is
sometimes called rock rabbit and Cape badger.
The Syrian hyrax (II. Syriacm, Schreb.) is
about 11 in. long and 10 in. high; the upper
parts are brownish gray, the sides yellowish,
and the lower parts white. Its movements
are quick, and its habits much like those of
rodents; it delights in heat, in cold weather
rolling itself up ; it searches for narrow open
ings in which to hide itself, as its soft feet are
not adapted for digging burrows like many ro
dents; its sense of smell is acute, and by it the
food, which is wholly vegetable, is obtained;
it is of mild disposition, with little intelligence

and little fear. It is found on the mountains
near the Red sea, and in Ethiopia and Abys
sinia iii caverns in the rocks, dozens being
seen at a time warming themselves in the sun.
This animal, according to Bruce,- is called in
Arabia and Syria Israel's sheep, and is the

Hyrax Capensis.

shaphan of the Hebrews, generally translated
rabbit or cony. The Cape hyrax (H. Capen-
sis, Pall.) is about the size of the rabbit, but
with shorter legs, more clumsy form, thick
head, and obtuse muzzle ; the color is uniform
grayish brown, darkest along the back; it
lives in the rocky regions of the south of Af
rica; its flesh is delicate and savory. Other
species are described in the woods of Africa.

HYRCANIA, an ancient country of Asia, com
prising the western portion of the mountain
region between the S. E. shores of the Caspi
an (sometimes called the Hyrcanian sea) and
the river Arius (now Heri-rud). It consisted
mainly of the valleys of the Nika, Gurgan,
and Atrek. It was a most productive coun
try, capable of sustaining a dense population,
and deserving Strabo's description of being
"highly favored of heaven." The Hyrcanians
seem to have been a people of Turanian race,
intermixed with Aryans. After a short re
sistance they submitted to Cyrus. When the
Persian empire was organized by Darius Ilys-
taspis into satrapies, Ilyrcania was added to
the satrapy of Parthia. After the Macedonian
conquest, Ilyrcania became a part of the em
pire of the Seleucidre. The Parthian king
Arsaces II., or Tiridatcs. detached it from the
Syrian empire and added it to his own terri
tories. Shortly afterward it was invaded and
devastated by Scythians. It was also invaded
by Antiochus the Great, in his Parthian war,
but seems to have remained unsubdued. A
subsequent revolt against the Parthian rule
was unsuccessful.

HYRCANIS. I. John, a Jewish high priest,
died in 106 (or according to some in 105) B. C.
He succeeded his father Simon Maccabreus
in the high priesthood as one of the Asmo-
nean rulers of Judea, 135 B. C. In that year
Antiochus Sidetes besieged Jerusalem, and
obliged the inhabitants to dismantle its forti
fications and pay a tribute; but after the de
feat and death of Antiochus in 130, Ilyrcanus
reestablished his independence and extended
his dominion. He razed the city of Samaria,

IIYRTL

HYSTERIA

139

took several other cities from the Syrian king
dom, and not only conquered the Idumaeans,
but compelled them to submit to the Mosaic
ritual. He also {brined an alliance with the
Romans. In the latter part of his reign he
abandoned the sect of the Pharisees for that
of the Sadducees, thereby incurring much
odium. He was succeeded by his son Aristo-
bulus, who took the title of king of Judea. II.
llyrcauus II., grandson of the preceding, born
about 109 B. 0., beheaded in 30. He was the
eldest son of Alexander Janna?us and his wife
Alexandra, daughter of John Ilyrcanus. On
his mother's death (71) he succeeded to the
kingdom, but the power was soon wrested
from him by his younger brother Aristobulus.
When Pompey made himself master of Jeru
salem in 63, he reinstated Ilyrcanus in the gov
ernment as a tributary prince. Dissensions
again deprived him of power, but when Ctesar
reconstructed the state he was once more re
stored as high priest, Anti pater having civil
authority as procurator. Herod, the younger
son of Antipater, succeeded his father as pro
curator, and betrothed himself to Mariamne,
the granddaughter of Ilyrcanus. In a new
attack by Antigonus, the only surviving son of
Aristobulus, who was aided by the Parthians,
Ilyrcanus was taken prisoner; his ears were
cut off to render him incapable of holding the
office of high priest, and he was banished to
Babylonia, where the Parthian monarch and
oriental Jews treated him with distinction.
After some years he returned to Jerusalem,
where Herod had now established himself in
the sovereignty and had married Mariamne.
Becoming jealous of his claims to the throne,
Herod caused him to be put to death.

HYRTL, Joseph, an Austrian anatomist, born
at Eisenstadt, Hungary, Dec. 7, 1811. He stud
ied at Vienna, became in 1837 professor of anat
omy at Prague, and was recalled to Vienna in
1845 in the same capacity, became rector of
the university, and retired March 10, 1874. He
is distinguished for his labors in comparative
anatomy, his investigations on the organ of
hearing, and the invention of many anatomical
instruments. He was the first to introduce
a knowledge of topographical anatomy into
Germany, and published a n.nmial relating to
this branch of science (2 vols., 1847; 5th ed.,
1865). His Lehrl)iicli der Anatomic des Men-
Bchen (1847; llth ed., 1870) is a text book in
German universities, and has been translated
into many foreign languages. Among his other
principal works are ll«ndl)ucli der pralctischen
Zcrr/Hederunfjskunst (1860), an elaborate de
scription (1865) of the museum of comparative
anatomy, which he had founded, and Das Nie-
renkecken der Saugethiere iind des Menschen
(Vienna, 1870). His preparations, famous for
many years, demonstrate by colored material
injected through some of the principal arteries
the presence of the microscopic arteries and
veins accompanying the lacteal vessels in the
minute intestinal papilla}. By the same means

he demonstrated in 1874 the presence of a
vascular net in the cornea of the eye, and after
many ineffectual attempts he succeeded in fill
ing the arteries and veins of an infant eight
days old from the umbilical vein with coloring
matter so perfectly as to reach and penetrate
the minute arteries and veins of both cornea).
HYSSOP (hyssopus offi-cinalis, Linn.), a per
ennial aromatic plant, of the natural order
labiatce, a native of Europe, and cultivated
there and in the United States in gardens. Its
flowers, violet-colored or blue, and its leaves,
are used in medicine, though but little by reg
ular practitioners. It is a warm and gentle
stimulant, promotes expectoration of the mu
cus, and is used in chronic catarrhs, especially
by old people. The hyssop of Scripture is the
caper tree, capparis spinosa (Linn.), which
abounds in the south of Europe, in lower
Egypt, and in Syria.

HYSTERIA (Gr. wrcpa, womb), a disease char
acterized by great excitability of the nervous
system, especially of the sensory ganglia, with
out necessary structural lesion, and manifest
ed by disordered states of the emotional na
ture, with loss of the power of controlling
the thoughts and feelings, by spasmodic symp
toms, and occasionally by perversion or sus
pension of the intellectual faculties. It re
ceived its name from the idea that it is peculiar
to the female sex, originating in some disturb
ance of the uterine functions ; but, though by
far the most common in females, and generally
connected with disorder in the generative sys
tem, it may also occur in males; a common
name for it is " the vapors." The nervous
symptoms predominate, varying in character
and intensity according to the temperament
of the individual, the nature of the causes, and
the persistence of the disease. In the beginning
it generally manifests itself by an exaggeration
of the ordinary signs of emotional excitement,
such as smiles and tears, irrepressible laugh
ter and convulsive sobs, brought on by trifling
causes ; the nervous excitability increases, un
til violent convulsions of an epileptic or tetanic
character arise from slight stimuli, with coma,
opisthotonos, trisinus, paralysis, cramps, end
ing often in monomania or moral insanity. The
paroxysms are sometimes of frightful intensity,
requiring the strength of several persons to
restrain a delicate female and prevent self-
injury; after an attack the patient may be ex
hausted and almost insensible, and in a state of
double consciousness, or much agitated, laugh
ing or crying at the strangest fancies; at times
the person falls insensible, breathing at long
intervals, recovering with a sense of fatigue

I and coldness, or with involuntary emission of
limpid urine. In cases where the nervous

• symptoms are less prominent, there are pain
and a sense of heat and fulness in the region
of the uterus, constriction of the throat with

; difficulty and increased desire of swallowing, a
feeling as if a ball were rolling from the abdo-

! men up to the epigastrium and throat with a

140

HYSTERIA

sensation of pressure and suffocation, flatulence
and tympanitic distentlon, hurried respiration,
palpitations, occasional cramps, and great de
pression or exaltation of spirits. An attack of
hysteria may last for several hours, the violent
symptoms recurring every few minutes, with
intervals of partial rest ; or it may consist of
but a single paroxysm of 20 minutes or half
an hour in duration. After the paroxysm has
ceased, tolerable health may be enjoyed for
some time, though the nervous excitability per
sists. In cases of long duration, the intellect
and memory become enfeebled, the strength
fails, and hypochondriasis and various chronic
irritations of the vital organs supervene. Hys
teria is very irregular in its march ; it is the
most protean of diseases, simulating almost
every morbid condition ; its duration is varia
ble, sometimes terminating in health after a
few attacks without medical treatment, and at
others lasting a lifetime in spite of the best
directed efforts to arrest it ; its most dangerous
consequences are convulsions, spasmodic con
tractions, partial paralysis, epilepsy, and ten
dency to insanity. The predisposing causes of
hysteria are the female sex and a hereditary
or acquired nervous irritability ; the exciting
causes are vivid moral emotions, anything
which excites the imagination, especially dis
appointed love, jealousy, and various excesses
of body or mind ; it is often brought on by the
mere force of imitation ; some irregular action
of the sexual functions is found in nearly if not
quite all cases between the ages of 15 and 50.
There has been great diversity of opinion on
the nature and seat of the disease ; its cause
has been located in the uterus, in the brain,
in the spinal cord, and in the stomach and
other abdominal organs. Whatever be its ori
gin, a disordered state of the emotional nature is
an essential character of hysteria, and the con
trol of the feelings rather than of muscular
action is lessened or lost ; it is partly a disease
of the mind, from improper education or self-
abandonment to the power of the emotions.
The habitual indulgence of feelings of a pain
ful character or of sexual tendency affects the
nutrition of the nervous and genital systems,
giving rise to the peculiar phenomena of this
affection. Though hysteria may simulate the
phenomena of epilepsy, tetanus, chorea, hydro
phobia, and other nervous diseases presented
to its imitative disposition, it is dependent on
a state of much less abnormal character ; there
is generally no structural lesion, nor any seri
ous disturbance of the nutritive functions, as is

evident from the long duration of the disease,
and the suddenness with which different forms
pass into each other or disappear entirely; the
strangeness of these combinations and sudden
changes is sufficient to distinguish hysteria
from the more grave diseases which it, imitates.
According to Carpenter, this excitability of the
nervous system, which is only an exaggeration
of that characteristic of the female sex, is caused
by some defect of nutrition, the particular phe
nomena arising either from some morbid con
dition of the blood acting upon the nervous
centre most susceptible to its influence, or from
irritation of the peripheral nerves ; he believes
a gouty diathesis is one of the most frequent
sources of this imperfect nutrition. — The prin
ciples of treatment are threefold : 1, to improve
the nutrition of the nervous system by bring
ing the blood up to its healthy standard by
strengthening diet, hygienic means, and the
judicious employment of tonics; 2, to remove
all irregularities in the menstrual or other func
tions, when they are evident exciting causes ;
3, to act upon the mind, by leading the patient
to repress the first emotional excitement by
the force of the will, and to direct the atten
tion to a different class of objects, substituting
a pleasant for a disagreeable train of thought.
The attack itself requires that the patient should
be kept from injuring herself, and the removal
of all constricting garments, fresh air, sprin
kling with cold water, inspiration of ammonia
or other strong or disagreeable odors, irritating
the nostrils with a feather, and other similar
domestic remedies. To prevent a return, tran
quillity of mind and habits of self-control are
the best remedies ; any disappointment, whe
ther in love, business, or other affairs of life,
should if possible be removed by the realiza
tion of the hopes ; if marriage be unadvisable,
the tendency to hysteric attacks will often
be removed by the change of air, scene, and
habits resulting from a distant journey ; and
a similar course is useful to distract the atten
tion from other consuming cares and passions.
HYTHE, a town and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, on the British channel, 11
m. "W. S. W. of Dover ; pop. of the municipal
borough in 1871, 3,363. It is one of the cinque
ports, and was formerly a place of considerable
importance ; but its harbor has been destroyed
by accumulations of matter thrown up by the
waves, and it is now a fashionable resort for
sea bathing. It has a military school and a
theatre. The parliamentary borough includes
Folkestone and several smaller places.

I THE 9th letter of the Latin and of most
. other European alphabets, derived from
the 10th Phoenician, Hebrew, &c., where it is

named yod (Heb. yad, hand), and considered the llth letter in Armenian, the 28th and last

as a consonant. A dot under other consonants
denotes its vocality in the Hebrew, and other
marks in the other Semitic languages. It is

IAMBLICHUS

IBERIA

141

in Arabic, and the 32d and last in Persian and
Turkish. The Greek 'Ifaa is the 9th letter, but
10th numeral sign, and is sometimes subscribed
to three vowels, thus, a, y, cj. The sound of this
letter is the highest in the vocal scale, the coun
terpart of that of U (00). This sound (not as
pronounced in mine, but as in pique or pin) is
symbolic, in many words of all languages, of
what is little, thin, slim, swift, shrill, light, nit-
ting ; this property is mentioned by Plato. It
is uttered through a broad but very thin inter
stice, wRich the tongue leaves between itself
and the hard palate by being closely raised to
ward it and pressed against the molar teeth,
while the larynx is raised higher than in the
formation of any other vocal. Hence it is con
sidered as a palatal by John Wallis, and as a
dental by C. Amman. Modern Greeks pro
nounce 7], ei, OL, v, and m like i ; whereas the
ancients made at, EL, 01, and m diphthongal, giv
ing to the v a sound like that of the German il,
and to the rj that of German a. The Romans
used I both as a vowel and as a consonant ;
since they, as well as the Egyptians, Hebrews,
and Greeks, knew no such sounds as the French
and English give to J (zli and dzli). The Ital
ian language is impaired in its beauty by the
frequency of I in its grammatic formations.
In Italian it is also used for softening the pro
nunciation of c, g, and sc. In Spanish manu
scripts an initial I is always written Y, for
which I is substituted in printing except where
it has the consonant sound, as in yerlta. In
English the diphthongal sound in mine (Ger.
meiri) is taken for the long sound of I, and its
genuine long sound is transferred to E, as in
mete. The latter sound, long and short, is
written in many different ways, some only in
single words ; as in l)e, lee, sea, people, key, ccecal,
foetus, seize, mien, marine; pin-, sieve, forfeit,
luild, lynx, women, busy, tortoise. Its English
long sound is written in 10 ways, as in mile,
aisle, lie, height, guide, my, ay, eye, buy, rye.
In many words, like bird, stir, I has the sound
of U in fur. The consonantal sound of I is
represented by J in Italian and in German and
other Teutonic languages, and by Y in French,
Spanish, Portuguese, English, &c. (See J, and
Y.) It was formerly the practice to class words
in I and J together in dictionaries and other al
phabetical works ; but this is now nearly aban
doned in all languages. — In Latin abbreviations,
I stands for inv ictus, in, infer i, lulius, lunius,
&c. ; I. C. for iuris consultus, &c. During the
lethargy of literature I was used to denote 100 ;
but in the Roman numeration it stands for 1.
When placed before another numeral it is sub
tracted, and when following is added; as IV,
4; VI, 6. On French coins it denotes Li
moges as the place of coinage. — In music, I
is the name of the 9th tie on the neck of the
lute and of various old musical instruments.
Kirnberger, Fasch, and other organists deno
ted by it a by-tone between a sharp and 6 flat.
lAMBLICIirS, a Xeo-Platonic philosopher,
born in Chalcis, Coele-Syria, flourished in the

first half of the 4th century A. D. He was a
pupil of Anatolius and Porphyry, and after the
death of the latter became the head of the
school in Syria. His pupils and contempora
ries styled him the "most divine teacher," and
declared him the equal of Plato. Little is
known of his life, except that he made an ex
cursion annually to the hot springs of Gadara,
and that miraculous acts were ascribed to him,
which reveal the tendency of the Neo-Platonic
school at this time to combine the thaumaturge
with the philosopher. He had thoroughly
studied the systems of Plato and Pythagoras,
and the theology and philosophy of the Chal
deans and Egyptians, and his speculations pre
sent a confusion of Hellenic and oriental ideas.
The extant books of his work on the Pytha
gorean philosophy have been published under
different titles ; the last edition of the 1st
(which contains the life of Pythagoras) and
2d is by Kiessling (Leipsic, 1813-'15), of the
3d by Fries (Copenhagen, 1790), of the 4th
by Tennulius, &c. (Arnhem, 16G8), and of the
7th by Ast (Leipsic, 1817). His work on
Egyptian mysteries was published by Thomas
Gale (Oxford, 1G78). It was translated into
English by Taylor the Platonist (Chiswick,
1821), who also translated the "Life of Py
thagoras" (London, 1818).

IBARRA, an inland town of Ecuador, capital
of the province of Imbabura, 55 m. N. by E.
of Quito; pop. about 14,000. It is delightfully
situated in the fertile plain of Imbabura, a short
distance X. of the volcano of that name. The
streets are wide and regular, and many of the
houses well built, generally of adobes. The
chief buildings are the governor's residence,
the parish church in the public square, the hos
pital, and a beautiful pantheon. There are a
college or Latin school and a number of pri
mary and grammar schools in buildings for
merly used as convents. Sugar of excellent
quality is manufactured; also cotton and wool
len stuffs, very tine laces, hats, brandy, cordials
or liqueurs, and sweetmeats ; and there are
extensive salt works. The city was almost
totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1868.

IBERIA. I. The ancient Greek name of Spain.
The aboriginal Iberi, from whom the name was
derived, seem to have occupied the entire pen
insula from the strait of Gibraltar to the Py
renees, until the date of the Carthaginian in
vasion. They are also said to have occupied
southern Gaul as far as the Rhone, where they
bordered upon the Ligurians. Ticknor in his
"History of Spanish Literature " says : "The
Iberians are the oldest of the occupants of the
Spanish soil, and the people who, since we can
go back no further, must be by us regarded as
the original inhabitants of the peninsula. They
appear, at the remotest period of which tradi
tion affords us any notice, to have been spread
over the whole territory, and to have given to
its mountains, rivers, and cities most of the
names they still bear ; a fierce race, whose
power has never been entirely broken by any

IBERIA

IBEX

of the long line of invaders who at different
times have occupied the rest of the country."
The Iberians maintained an active commercial
intercourse with the Carthaginians, and dis
played great activity in mining and much ar
tistic skill in the use of the precious metals.
P. A. Boudard has published a work on the
Iberian alphabet and language and Iberian
coins (4to, with 40 plates, Beziers, 1859). (See
CELTIBEKI, and BASQUES.) II. The ancient
name of the Caucasian country now known as
Georgia. This country was bounded by the
Caucasus, Albania, Armenia, and Colchis. The
Asiatic Iberians were divided into four castes.

IBERIA, a S. parish of Louisiana, intersected
by Bayou Teche, and partly occupied by Lake
Chetimaches and Vermillion bay ; area, about
600 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870, 9,042, of whom 4,510
were colored. Part of the parish consists of
an island lying between Vermillion and Cote
Blanche bays and the gulf of Mexico. Tbe
surface is level, and the soil alluvial and fer
tile. Salt is manufactured. The chief pro
ductions in 1870 were 115,843 bushels of In
dian corn, 12,414 of sweet potatoes, 1,297
bales of cotton, 12,500 Ibs. of rice, 1,854 hogs
heads of sugar, and 102.495 gallons of molas
ses. There were 1,271 horses, 834 mules and
asses, 6,543 cattle, 3,511 sheep, and 1,569 swine.
Capital, New Iberia.

IBERIS. See EBRO.

IBERYILLE, a S. parish of Louisiana, hound
ed W. by Atchafalaya bayou and S. E. by the
Mississippi ; area, 450 sq. m. ; pop. in 1870,
12,347, of whom 8,675 were colored. It has
a flat surface, and is frequently inundated.
The lands lying near the rivers are fertile ; the
rest of the parish is mostly uncultivated. The
chief productions in 1870 were 168,645 bush
els of Indian corn, 1,178 bales of cotton, 4,907
hogsheads of sugar, and 323,600 gallons of
molasses. There were 377 horses, 1,938 mules
and asses, 1,602 cattle, 1,483 sheep, and 656
swine. Capital, Plaquemines.

IBERYILLE, a S. W. county of Quebec, Cana
da, bounded W. by Richelieu river ; area, 189
sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 15,413, of whom 13.971
were of French descent. It is traversed by
the Vermont Central and the Stanstead, Shef-
ford, and Chambly railroads. Capital, St.
Athanase.

IBERYILLE, Pierre le IHoyne, si cur d', a Cana
dian naval and military commander, founder
of Louisiana, born in Montreal, July 16, 1661,
died in Havana, July 9, 1706. He was one of
eleven brothers, most of whom were distin
guished in French colonial affairs, three being
killed in the service. (See LE MOYXE.) Iber-
ville entered tbe French navy as a midshipman
at 14, became captain of a frigate in 1692, and
captain of a line-of -battle ship in 1702. In
1686 he served under De Troye in the overland
expedition from Canada against the English
forts in Hudson bay, was at the taking of Fort
Monsipi, and, having with his brother cap
tured two vessels, reduced Fort Quitchitchon-

en. He was there again in 1688-'9, capturing
two English vessels. In 1690 he was one of
the leaders in the retaliatory expedition against
Schenectady, where he saved the life of John
Sanders Glen. In October, 1694, he took Fort
Nelson on Hudson bay, losing his brother
Chateauguay in the assault. In May, 1696, he
was operating on the bay of Fundy with three
vessels ; he defeated three English ships, cap
turing the .Newport near the mouth of the St.
John's, then besieged, took, and demolished
Fort Pemaquid, and ravaged Newfoundland,
taking almost all the English posts. Proceed
ing to Hudson bay in 1697, with the Pelican
he engaged three English vessels, defeated them,
and reduced Fort Bourbon. He was then se
lected to occupy the mouth of the Mississippi,
a point which France had neglected after the
death of La Salle. Iberville sailed from Brest
with two frigates, Oct. 24, 1698, stopped at San
to Domingo and at Pensacola, which he found
occupied by the Spaniards, and on Jan. 31,
1699, anchored at the mouth of the Mobile near
Massacre island. He then, with his brother
Bienville, Pere Anastase Douay, who had been
with La Salle on his last voyage, and about 50
men, went in two barges to seek the Missis
sippi, and on March 2 reached its mouth. He
ascended to the Bayagoulas and Oumas, and
became assured that he was really on the Mis
sissippi by receiving from the Indians a letter
left by Tonty in 1686 for La Salle. Returning
to his ships, Iberville built old Fort Biloxi, the
first post on the Mississippi, placed Sauvolle
in command, and made his brother Bienville
king's lieutenant. Early in May, 1699, he sailed
for France, but again appeared off Biloxi in
the Renommee, Jan. 5, 1700. He then began
a new fort on the Mississippi, over which he
placed Bienville. He also sent Lesueur with
a party to establish a post at the copper mines
on the Mankato. He was again in Louisiana
in December, 1701, and finding the colony re
duced by disease he transferred the settlement
to Mobile, beginning the colonization of Ala
bama. He also occupied Dauphin or Massacre
island. His health was seriously undermined
by fevers, and he was called away from his
Louisiana projects by government. In 1706,
with three vessels, he reduced the island of
Nevis, and was about to operate on the coast
of Carolina, when he was seized with a fatal
malady and died in Havana.

IBEX, a species of wild goat, inhabiting the
mountainous regions of Switzerland, the Py
renees, the Caucasus, and Abyssinia. The ge
neric characters are given in the article GOAT.
The common ibex or steinbock (capra ibex,
Linn.), the louquetin of the Swiss hunters, is
about 5 ft. long and 2|- ft. high at the shoulders ;
the horns are large, flat, with two longitudinal
ridges at the sides and numerous transverse
knobs ; at first nearly vertical, they curve back
ward and outward to a length of about 30 in. ;
they are dark colored and very stout. The
color of the adult is brownish, with a gray tint

IBICUI

IBIS

143

in winter and reddish in summer; the hair is
short and thick ; the under parts are whitish,
and the dorsal stripe blackish brown. The
period of gestation is about 160 days, and the
young are usually born in April. They prefer
the highest and most inaccessible mountains,

Ibex (Capra ibex).

near the line of perpetual snow, and are ac
cordingly hunted with great difficulty and dan
ger. The Abyssinian ibex (C. jaela, II. Smith),
known to the Greek and Hebrew writers, is
rather higher than the preceding species, with
longer horns, more circular and less divergent,
rounded in front and marked with numerous
transverse ridges- the color of the hair is
brownish fawn, with a dark dorsal line ; under
the throat and neck the hair is lengthened. The
Caucasian ibex (C. Caucasica, Guld.) is broader
and shorter than the European species ; the
horns are triangular with distant ridges, very
solid, dark brown, and about 28 in. long. The
color is dark brown above, head grayish, breast
and dorsal line blackish, and throat whitish
gray ; the hair is coarse, having at the roots a
grayish wool. All these animals are remark
able for strength and agility, making immense
bounds among the most dangerous precipices ;
they are said to fall from considerable heights
upon the horns, when pressed by the hunter,
and apparently receive no injury from the
shock. They are all probably more or less
mixed with the common wild goat (C. cegagrus}
of Europe, and have contributed largely to the
production of the numerous varieties of the
domestic goat. (See GOAT.)

IBItll, a river of Brazil which rises in the
Serra de Santa Anna, province of liio Grande
do Sul, about lat. 31° 20' S. and Ion. 54° 30' W.,
and flows first due N., under the name of San
ta Anna, then X. W. and joins the Uruguay
between La Cruz and Restoracion, lat. 29° S.,
after a course of some 400 m. It receives on
both sides the waters of numerous tributaries,
VOL. ix. — 10

and is navigable for 300 m. by barges and ca
noes. The upper branch is called Ituzaingo.

IBIS, a wading bird of the family tantalidce,
including the genera ibis (Moehr.) and geronti-
cus (Wagl.); j;he genus tantalus (Linn.) will be
noticed under WOOD IBIS. The genus ibis is
characterized by a lengthened, slender bill,
curved for its whole length, with the sides com
pressed and tip obtuse ; the nostrils are in a
groove which extends to the tip of the upper
mandible ; forehead and base of bill, to behind
the eyes and on the chin, in most species bare ;
wings long and pointed, the first and second
quills equal and longest ; tail rather short and
nearly even ; tibia bare for half its length, cov
ered with hexagonal scales ; tarsi slender, longer
than the middle toe, with broad transverse
scales in front ; toes long and slender, the late
ral ones united to the middle by a small web ;
hind toe long and slender, claws curved and
rather weak. There are about half a dozen
species, of which three are found in the United
States. The red or scarlet ibis (/. nibra, Linn.)
is about 28 in. long, the extent of wings a little
over 3 ft., and the bill G^ in. The color is a uni
form bright scarlet, with the tips of the outer
primaries black ; in the young the color is ashy,
darkest above, with the under parts and rump
white. Its natural habitat is South America
and the West Indies, but it has been seen in
the southern states by Audubon ; it is some
times called, from the length and shape of the

Scarlet Ibis (Ibis rubra).

bill, the pink curlew. The white ibis, Spanish
or white curlew (/. alba, Linn.), is 25 in. long,
with an extent of wings of 40 in., and the bill
7 in. The color of the plumage is pure white,
with the tips of the outer five primaries shining
greenish black ; the bill is red, entirely so in the
young birds, but with the terminal half black
in the adult ; the head in front of the eye is
bare ; the young birds are of a dull brown color,
with the under parts and rump white. This
species is very common in the southern Atlan
tic and gulf states, occasionally straggling as

IBIS

IBRAHIM PASHA

far north as New Jersey. They breed in large
companies on the Florida keys on trees; the
nest is about 15 in. in diameter, formed of twigs
and roots, flat on the inside ; the eggs are three,
and are laid only once a year, 2J by 1% in., dull
white, with pale yellow blotches and reddish
brown spots ; incubation generally takes place
between the 10th of April and the 10th of May ;
the eggs afford excellent eating, though the
yolk is of a reddish orange color when boiled,
and the white a liver-colored jelly. When
breeding, they fly in liocks of several hundreds
to the mud Hats, sometimes to great distances,
where they feed on crabs, crawfish, and other
crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic animals, until
the tide begins to come in, whether by day or
night. The night is rapid and well sustained,
effected by alternate flappings and sailings;
they often rise very high, performing beautiful
evolutions. They are fond of resorting to
ponds or lakes in the woods, and often breed
in such localities more than 300 m. from the
sea ; though not taking naturally to the water,
they can swim tolerably well when forced to it ;
the walk is light and graceful. The flesh has a
very fishy taste, and is rarely eaten except by
the Indians. The glossy ibis (/. Ordi, Bonap.)
is a smaller species, being about 21 in. long,
with a bill of 4£ in. ; the general color is chest
nut brown, with the back and top of head me
tallic green glossed with purple ; the feathers
continue almost to the bill, which is of a dusky
black color. It exists in great numbers in Mex
ico, and it has been procured as far north as
Massachusetts. The green ibis (/. falcinellus,
Linn.) is a native of southern Europe and
northern Africa ; it much resembles the glossy
ibis, bein,g purplish brown, with a deep green
mantle ; in the young birds the head" and neck
are pointed with whitish. These ibises all live
in warm climates, performing their annual mi
grations, and are generally seen on lands re
cently inundated, and on river banks, seeking
for worms, snails, crustaceans, insects, and the
roots of bulbous plants, or on the sea coast as
above mentioned. — The genus yeronticus has a
stronger bill, a longer and broader tail (the [
third and fourth quills the longest), the tarsi
and toes stouter, and the head and neck more
denuded of feathers than in the preceding ge
nus; in some of the species the scapulars are
long, and consist of decomposed plumes. There
are about 20 species, found in the warmer parts
of Africa, Asia, and South America, of which
only one will be mentioned here, the sacred
ibis of the ancient Egyptians (G-. ^Ethiopicus, I
Lath.). It is about as large as a domestic fowl ; j
the plumage is white, with the ends of the
quills, the elongated barbs of some of the wing
coverts extending over the wings and tail, bill,
feet, and naked part of the head and neck,
black ; it is found throughout northern Africa.
This bird was reared in the temples of ancient
Egypt with the greatest care, and was em
balmed ; it was forbidden to kill one on pain
of death. This superstitious people reverenced \

the ibis, not because they supposed that it de
stroyed noxious reptiles, or that there was any
relation between the changes of its plumage
and the phases of the moon, but because they
associated its annual appearance with the pe
riod of the inundation of the Nile, the source

Sacred Ibis (Geronticus ^Ethiopicus).

of the fertility and healthfulness of the land ;
the crafty priests led the people to believe that
the increase of the river, which brought the
birds there in search of food, was the conse
quence instead of the cause of their visit ; the
educated class regarded the ibis as the harbin
ger of the fruitful epoch of their year, as we
look upon the coming of the bluebird and the
swallow as the signs of spring. A black ibis
was also honored and embalmed. The flight
of these birds is powerful and high, with the
neck and feet extended horizontally, and ac
companied by occasional harsh cries. They
probe the mud with their bills in search of in
sects, worms, mollusks, &c., advancing by slow
steps ; they arrive in Egypt when the Nile be
gins to increase, and migrate about the end of
June, not nesting in that country; they are
caught in great numbers by the modern Egyp
tians in nets, and their bodies are frequently
exposed for sale in the markets. Both species
usually go in small flocks. All the species
have the same habits, frequenting both over
flowed lands and dry open plains; they some
times devour frogs and small aquatic lizards,
but do not destroy serpents as Herodotus and
many writers since have maintained ; when
satiated with food they perch on high trees,
and are very watchful ; the nest is either on a
decayed tree or on the ground, and the eggs
are two or three in number. For full details
on the sacred ibis, see'Savigny's Histoire natu-
rclle de rib is (8vo, Paris, 1805).

IBN BATITA. See BATUTA.

IBRAHIM PASHA, an Egyptian viceroy, the
son, or according to some the adopted son, of

IBRAHIM PASHA

ICA

145

Mehemet Ali, born at Kavala, a village of Rou-
melia, in 1789, died in Cairo, Nov. 9, 1848.
His youth, from his 16th year, was spent in
command of the troops in Upper Egypt, and
in lighting the wild tribes of that region. In
1812 he reduced by famine the fortress of Ibrim
in Nubia, the refuge of the last remnants of
the Mamelukes. In September, 1810, he in
vaded Arabia at the head of the third army
sent to reduce the Wahabees, and displayed
equal skill, courage, perseverance, and cruelty
in organizing his heterogeneous forces, and
creating victory out of defeat. After taking
many strongholds, he laid siege to the Wahabee
capital, which he compelled to surrender. He
returned to Cairo in 1819, and, under the gui
dance of a- French officer, created an army dis
ciplined and equipped after the European
fashion. In August, 1824, he set sail with a
formidable fleet and IT, 000 troops for Greece,
to aid in suppressing the insurrection there.
His army gained many successes, and devasta
ted the Peloponnesus with great cruelty. The
European powers intervened, and his fleet was
destroyed at Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827, by the
combined squadrons of Russia, France, and
England ; and in 1828 he was recalled to Egypt
by the peremptory order of Mehemet Ali.
There again he busied himself in organizing an
army, and in creating, with the aid of French
engineers, a fleet superior to that which he had
lost at Navarino. Both were ready in 1831,
when the disobedience of the pasha of Acre
furnished Mehemet Ali the desired opportunity
of invading Syria. Ibrahim, to whom the ex
pedition Avas intrusted, lost 5,000 men by chol
era before he could leave Egypt. On Nov. 29
he laid siege to Acre, having terrified into sur
render Gaza, Jaffa, and K'aiffa. A Turkish
army came to the relief of Acre, and was sur
prised and routed by Ibrahim near Tripoli, and
on May 27, 1832, he carried Acre by storm.
He pushed on immediately for Aleppo. Da
mascus opened its gates to him. The Turks
were again defeated at Horns, and afterward at
Hamah, and finally the fall of Aleppo left him
master of Syria. Pursuing the Turks, he over
took and routed them at Adana. Meanwhile
his fleet had driven that of the Turks to seek
refuge beneath the forts o^ Constantinople.
Having obtained another brilliant victory at
TJlu Kislak, he marched to Konieh, where on
Dec. 20 he found himself confronting 00,000
Turks commanded by Reshid Pasha. Though
the Egyptians were not half as numerous, they
routed the Turks completely, and the grand
vizier himself was taken prisoner with im
mense booty. His father's commands obliged
him to wait for reinforcements, instead of
marching on Constantinople. This delay ena
bled the sultan to invoke the aid of the czar ;
and on Feb. 20, 1833, a Russian fleet cast an
chor in the Bosporus. The western powers
interfered, and a peace was concluded, leaving
to Mehemet Ali the government of Syria and
the pashalic of Adana. Ibrahim governed these

provinces with firmness, repressed disorders,
and encouraged agriculture, industry, and com
merce. The resentment of the sultan led in
1839 to a renewal of hostilities, which resulted
in another crushing defeat by Ibrahim of the
Turkish forces, at Nizib, on June 24. Here
again, obedient to his father's order, and in
compliance with the request of the French
government, he stopped short in his course of
victory. A treaty concluded July 15, 1840,
between the Porte and the western powers
(without the knowledge of France), stipulated
that Mehemet Ali should either consent to limit
his authority to Palestine, or be compelled to
do so by the united forces of England and
Austria. An insurrection broke out among
the mountain tribes of the Lebanon and spread
rapidly on every side. Beyrout, after a bom
bardment of nine days, was evacuated by the
Egyptian garrison, Sidon yielded without re
sistance, St. Jean d'Acre surrendered after
three hours' fire ; the whole coast of Syria was
in possession of the English, and Commodore
Napier, anchoring in the bay of Alexandria,
sent an ultimatum which Mehemet Ali accept
ed. Ibrahim, who had fallen back to Damas
cus, and found his position extremely difficult,
was now commanded to evacuate Syria. This
retreat, conducted with consummate ability,
but with great losses, closed his military career.
Thereafter he devoted his whole time to the
culture of his immense estates on the plain of
Ileliopolis, until he was placed in charge of the
government on the retirement of his father in
1844. His own infirmities, however, compelled
him to seek a more temperate climate and the
medical skill of western Europe. Returning
to Egypt, he began several reforms suggested
by what he had observed during his travels;
but a violent attack of dysentery again forced
him to a change of climate, and he spent the
winter of 1847-'8 in Italy. He went to Con
stantinople in July, 1848, where he was con
firmed in his rank of viceroy.

IBKAILA. See BRAILA.

IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet who lived in
the middle of the Oth century B. C. He was
a native of Rhegium in Italy, and lived at the
court of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos. It is
narrated that while travelling near Corinth
he was mortally wounded by robbers, and in
voked a flock of cranes, then passing over
head, to avenge his death. The cranes directed
their flight to Corinth, and hovered over the
people in the theatre. The murderers were
present, and one of them on seeing the cranes
exclaimed involuntarily, " Behold the avengers
of Ibycus." This led to an inquiry, and to the
punishment of the assassins. The poetry of
Ibycus was mostly erotic, but sometimes myth
ical and heroic. But a few fragments of his
works are in existence, the best edition of which
is that of Schneidewin (Gottingen, 1835).

ICA, an inland town of Peru, capital of a dis
trict of the same name, in the department and
170 m. S. S. E. of the city of Lima ; pop. about

146

ICARUS

ICE

7,000. It is situated in a sandy plain, and the
heat is excessive ; nevertheless, lea exports im
mense quantities of wheat and other grains,
exquisite olive oil, and superior wines and
brandies, through its port, Pisco, 48 m. JS T . N.W.,
to which place a railway has been in operation
since 1872. The cost of the line was $1,364,-
062 50. An extensive trade is also carried on
in fish taken on the Pacific coast. There are
several schools, which are well attended. In
the adjacent district are found species of stones
called dentritis, which when polished present
curious views of trees, plants, edifices, &c.

ICARl'S. See DAEDALUS.

ICE, water or other fluid solidified by freez
ing. Various liquids become partially solid at
low temperatures, but this is commonly owing
to the water of which they are in part com
posed ; and none of them produce a clear uni
form solid like that of frozen water. At 32°
F. under ordinary circumstances water begins
to crystallize. Slender prisms, usually of six
sides, and terminated by six-sided pyramids,
form in it, and arrange themselves in lines
crossing each other at angles of 60° and 120°.
The presence of salts in solution impedes this
process, and when at last it takes place at a
temperature below 32°, the greater portion of
the foreign matter is excluded from the ice,
which consequently is nearer the composition
of pure water. Advantage is taken of this in
some operations designed to concentrate the
strength of liquors, as of vinegar, the portion
that first crystallizes by cold being removed,
and leaving the residue less diluted. Pure
water contained in a polished vessel and kept
perfectly quiet may be reduced to several de
grees below the freezing point without freez
ing; but agitation or the introduction of for
eign bodies will cause congelation to take place
suddenly, and as the ice is formed latent heat
is liberated, and the temperature rises to 32°.
Saline solutions sometimes exhibit a similar
reluctance to deposit their salts in crystalline
form even when reduced by evaporation below
their point of saturation; and in these cases
crystallization is often suddenly induced by
the same methods that cause the water to con
geal. From about 39° water expands as its tem
perature is reduced, with the exertion of pro
digious force. A hollow globe of brass with a
cavity only an inch in diameter, filled with wa
ter, has been burst by the freezing of this, ex
erting a force, as estimated, of 27,720 Ibs. The
effect of this property is seen in the tenden
cy of ice to plough up the banks of ponds, to
split off masses of rock from mountain cliffs,
and to loosen and pulverize the soil through
which it is diffused. The effect last named is
not perceived till the thaws of spring, when
the frost is said to come out of the ground.
This force has been artificially applied to split
ting rocks and trunks of trees by allowing
water to freeze in their fissures. This expan
sion, estimated by Boyle at one ninth the ori
ginal volume, gives to ice less density than that

of water, so that it floats. Its specific gravity
by this estimate should be 0*9 ; M. Brunner in
his series of experiments found it to vary from
0-918 at 0° C. to 0-92025 at —20° 0. But for
this exception, which is however not a singu
lar one, to the usual law of increase of density
by reduction of temperature, ice as it forms
would sink to the bottom, and there accumu
late beyond the reach of atmospheric heat;
great collections of water would be chilled
throughout, and their fitness for sustaining life
in cold regions be entirely destroyed. But as
the ice, a bad conductor of heat, covers the
water, it serves as a protecting sheet to retain
the warmth below, and preserve the water
from the extreme temperature that prevails
above. As the cold increases, the solid ice is
found to be subject to the usual law, contract
ing as found by .Brunner more than other
solids ; and upon ponds in excessively cold
weather it contracts, and in shrinking parts
asunder in the weakest places with loud re
ports. A form of ice called anchor ice is often
seen in cold weather attached to objects at the
bottom of streams. Its character is explained
by Prof. Dewey on the supposition that the
whole body of water is cooled below the freez
ing point, but under conditions of quietness
opposed to the formation of ice. The sub
stances at the bottom serve as points of con
gelation, like those introduced into saline solu
tions to cause crystallization to take place, and
ice forms upon them. It is observed to gather
in a clear cold night, when the surface of the
water is not frozen, and its temperature is at
the freezing point, that of the air being still
lower. The layers of ice are sometimes 3 in.
thick ; and as soon as they are detached from
the bodies which hold them down they rise to
the surface. In some of the crevasses of the
Alpine glaciers immense icicles from 20 to 30
ft. long were found by Tyndall, hanging from
the coping of snow which lines the edges of
the chasms. Near the poles, and on moun
tains at a certain height in all latitudes, there
are immense masses of what may be considered
permanent ice ; and there are said to be places
in Siberia, even where there is a limited cul
ture of the ground, where ice is always found
at a certain depth below the surface. In a
well which was sunk at Yakutsk the earth was
found firmly frozen to the depth of 382 ft.,
some of the strata being entirely of ice. From
the exposed polar ice fields and glaciers great
masses become detached and form icebergs.
(See ICERERGS.) — The regelation of ice, a phe
nomenon first distinctly observed by Faraday,
has recently attracted much attention, espe
cially in regard to a controversy on the subject
of glaciers. Regelation takes place between
blocks of ice where they are strongly pressed
together, even in warm water, and in cold
water it will take place when the masses only
touch each other. When fragments of ice are
subjected to pressure in a mould, they may be
formed into a solid block. When but little

ICE

147

pressure is used, it is necessary that the ice
should be but little below the freezing point.
This is the explanation of snow-ball making.
As the freezing point of water is lowered by
pressure, it is easy to understand how this for
mation of solid blocks from fragments may
take place. A certain degree of viscosity, ap
proaching liquefaction, is produced, by which
the particles are reunited, and are firmly held
as soon as the pressure is removed or lessened.
The motions of glaciers, attended as they are
by alterations in the form of immense masses
of ice, is explained by this property that ice
has of liquefying under enormous pressure.
Mountains of ice squeezed into crevasses must
exert a force which we probably cannot pro
duce by any artificial means, and as a conse
quence the ice may be made viscous when at
a temperature considerably below the freezing
point. For other properties of ice, see GLA
CIER, Sxow, and FREEZING, ARTIFICIAL. — ICE
TRADE. Ice was little known as an article of
commerce until the early part of the present
century. In the 17th century its use was so
common in France that many dealt in it and in
snow, gathering these in winter and packing
them closely in pits surrounded with straw or
other non-conducting substances and protected
from the air. The Italian peasants also have
long found a profitable business in collecting
the snow upon the Apennines and storing it
in the caves of these mountains to supply the
large demand at Naples. The bodies of ice
found in the recesses of Mount Etna, and ex
cavated sometimes from beneath beds of lava
which have flowed over them, are noticed in
the article ETNA. In the last century the
gathering and storing of ice for summer use is
known to have been practised in some of the
middle states of the American Union, the re
ceptacles for preserving it being deep cellars,
placed so as to be readily drained, or from
which the water was pumped out as it collect
ed ; but though most wanted in countries
where it is not naturally produced, no attempts
had been made to transport it by sea. This
was first done by Mr. Frederick Tudor of Bos
ton, who sailed with a cargo of 130 tons in
his own brig to Martinique in 1805. lie perse
vered in the business, though making little or no
profit, till after the close of the war of 1812. In
1815 he obtained the monopoly of the Havana
business and important privileges from the
Cuban government. In 1817 lie introduced
the trade into Charleston, S. C., the next year
into Savannah, and in 1820 into New Orleans.
Frequent disasters attended his enterprises, and
in 1832 his entire shipments amounted to only
4,352 tons, the whale of which came from
Fresh pond in Cambridge. In May, 1833, he
sent the first cargo of ice to the East Indies,
which was delivered at Calcutta in the autumn
of that year. Of 180 tons, one third was wast
ed on the voyage, and 20 tons more in going
up the Ganges. It was packed in large blocks
closely fitted together between a double plank

casing filled in with dry tan. The ice was sold
immediately at half the cost of that prepared
by the natives. At the present time a waste
of about one half is generally expected on this
voyage. In 1834 the first cargo was shipped
by Mr. Tudor to Brazil. Until 1836 he conduct
ed the whole trade ; but as it became profitable
others began to enter into it, and from other
! ports besides Boston. That port, however, still
I has the great bulk of the trade, the shipments
I having been as follows, according to the incom
plete returns that have been preserved :

In 1805
'• 1816

130 tons.
1 200 "

In 1866
" 1S68

. 124,751 tons.
. 105.818 u

" 1826

4 000 "

" 1870

73 803 "

" 1836

. 12 000 "

" 1871

. 109.298 "

" 1846
" 1856

. 65,000 "
. 146,000 "

" 1872
" 1873

. 98,659 "
. 81,266 lt

Of the amount shipped in 1873, 30,333 tons
went to coastwise and 50,933 tons to foreign
ports. The total exports from the United States
to foreign ports for the year ending June 30,
1873, were 53,553 tons, valued at $188,095, of
which 48,890 tons, valued at $175,848, were
from Boston ; 14,449 tons were shipped to
Cuba, 13,342 to the East Indies, 10,186 to the
British West Indies and British Honduras, 4,392
to British Guiana, and the rest to other por
tions of the West Indies, South America, &c.
Into the interior ice has been carried by rail
road in considerable quantity as far as Knox-
ville, Tenn. Some ice was formerly shipped
to England, but the British market is now en
tirely supplied from Norway, the Norwegian
ice being cheaper than the American, though of
inferior quality. The imports into the United
Kingdom in 1872 amounted to 139,421 tons,
valued at £128,251. The chief difficulty in es
tablishing the ice business in warm countries
has been the necessity of constructing houses
especially adapted for preserving the ice ; and
these to be profitable must be upon a large
scale. One of these erected in 1845 at Cal
cutta, by Mr. Wyeth of Cambridge, covered
more than three fourths of an acre, and was
capable of holding 30,000 tons of ice. Its walls
of brick were triple, with flues or air spaces
between; their length was 198 by 178 ft., and
their height 40 ft. The building was covered
by five roofs, and between every two contigu
ous ones w r ere air spaces. — New York city is
supplied with ice chiefly from small lakes near
the Hudson river, or from the river itself above
Newburgh. The whole amount gathered when
the season is favorable is about 1,160,000 tons,
of which 200,000 tons are from the lakes (Rock-
land lake in Orange co. supplying 80,000 tons),
and the rest from the river. Deducting one
third for wastage, Ave have 774,000 tons, the
amount required to supply the present demand
of New York and Brooklyn. The demand in
creases at the rate of about 70,000 tons a year.
With the growth of the business upon the coast
it has also spread in the interior, where, espe
cially near the large towns, the gathering of
ice is now an important business. The great

148

ICE

ICEBERGS

lakes furnish supplies which are carried by rail
road to the cities lying south, and through
the Illinois river ice is sent down the Missis
sippi. In the autumn the ice boats come up
to the vicinity of Peru, 111., where they are
allowed to be frozen in. In the winter they
are filled, and in the spring when the ice breaks
up they float down with their freight. The ice
produced in deep ponds by the severe cold
weather of New England is particularly adapt
ed by its hardness and compactness to keep
well, while the purity of the water gives it
clearness and renders it especially agreeable.
The ice obtained from the Kennebec river is
most celebrated. That formed upon the shal
low waters of Great Britain is found to be
porous and very inferior in durability to that
from the United States of the same thickness.
— The methods of gathering and storing ice ar6
entirely American. When the ice is 9 in. to a
foot thick, or if for exportation 20 in. thick,
the snow, if there be any, is cleared off the
surface with wooden scrapers, each drawn by
one horse. Another scraper armed *vith a
steel blade planes off the porous upper layer to
the depth of 3 in. or more if necessary. The
surface is then marked off in large squares by
a sort of plough drawn by a horse, which cuts
a groove about 3 in. deep. A machine some
what like a harrow, with three or more paral
lel rows of teeth, which may be 22 in. apart, is
next drawn along the lines already made, one
row of teeth running in the grooves as a guide ;
and as many more cuts are made as there are
more rows of teeth. This is repeated upon the
cross lines, and the whole area is thus cut into
small squares. If necessary, a deeper plough
is afterward run through all the grooves to in
crease their depth. A row of blocks is then
sawn out by hand, and being taken out or
thrust under the others, room is made for
splitting off the adjoining squares, which is
done by an ice spade dropped into the grooves.
In very cold weather the ice yields readily to a
slight wedging force. The blocks are some
times floated through the canals opened in the
ice to the shore, where they are hoisted out ;
and they are also sometimes jerked with a
hook at the end of a pole up a slide upon a
platform placed at the edge of the opening,
and from this platform they are slid along on
the sleds which convey them away. At the
ice houses the blocks are raised often by steam
power up an inclined plane to the top of the
building, and thence let down another plane to
any part within where it is required for pack
ing. The storehouses, huge wooden buildings
without windows standing around the edges
of the ponds or along the banks of the rivers,
present a very singular appearance. They are
from 100 to 200 ft. long and very broad, with
a capacity sometimes exceeding 20,000 tons.
One at Athens on the Hudson holds 58,000
tons, and two at Eockland lake in Orange
co., N. Y., hold 40,000 tons each. Around
Fresh pond at Cambridge, Mass., there is a

large number of these buildings. Between
their walls they are filled in with saw dust. As
the season of the ice harvest is short and uncer
tain, the gathering of the crop is conducted
with the greatest activity at favorable times.

ICEBERGS, and lee Islands, floating masses of
ice gathered on the coast of polar regions, and
set adrift by force of winds and currents.
Many icebergs are produced from glaciers,
which, thrust down from the elevated snowy
lands in the interior, are moved onward into
the deep waters, where the fragments broken
off from the advance border are floated away.
The edges of glaciers extending many miles
along a precipitous coast have been seen to fall
with terrific violence into the sea beneath, and
at once be transformed into floating islands of
ice. These carry with them the masses of rock
gathered up by the ice in its progress as a gla
cier, and transport them to new localities in
warmer latitudes. (See DILUVIUM, and GLA
CIER.) Ice islands of vast extent are also pro
duced by the breaking up of the great fields
of sea-made ice which accumulate along the
shores of the frigid waters. In 1817 the ice
covering several thousand square miles of the
sea 1ST. of Iceland, and chiefly on the E. coast
of Greenland, most of which, it is believed, had
not been moved for nearly 400 years, was sud
denly broken up and dispersed over the waters
of the North Atlantic. Portions of it were
carried far to the eastward of the usual range
of icebergs from the north, and approached
within 800 m. of Ireland, or to Ion. 32° W.
The breaking up of this ice led to the expedi
tion of Capt. Eoss, the second of the present
century in search of a northwest passage, the
opinion prevailing that the climate had essen
tially changed, and that the northern seas
would continue open. The drift of the north
ern icebergs is with the great polar currents,
one of which sets in a S. S. W. direction between
Iceland and Greenland, and another along- the
W. side of Baffin bay, meeting the former near
the coast of Labrador. They are brought
against the American continent and the W.
shores of its bays in consequence of not catch
ing at once the more rapid rotating motion of
the earth as they pass upon larger parallels,
and so allowing this to slip from under them.
The greatest numbers are produced on the "W.
side of Greenland; and, as observed by Dr.
Kane, "perhaps the most remarkable place for
the genesis of icebergs on the face of the globe "
is at Jacob's bight, an inlet a little N. of Disco
island, in about lat. 71° and Ion. 56°. From
Labrador the ice is floated with the current
past Newfoundland, and meeting near the
Great Bank the warming influences of the
Gulf stream, it usually disappears about lat.
42°. The extreme limit is in lat. 40°. Some
times the ice is carried as far to the eastward as
the Azores. In the southern hemisphere ice
bergs drift still nearer to the equator, being
occasionally seen off the cape of Good Hope.
As they reach their southern limit in the north-

ICEBERGS

ICELAND

ern hemisphere their influence is felt in sensibly
cooling the waters of the Gulf stream for 40 to
50 ra. around, and on approaching them the
thermometer has heen known to fall 17° or 18°.
When driven, as they sometimes are, in large
numbers into Hudson bay, they diffuse intense
cold over the northern portion of the conti
nent. The iioating masses assume a variety of
forms. Some spread out into sheets, which
cover hundreds of square miles and rise only a
few feet above the water. These are called
fields, or, when their whole area can be de
fined from the mast head, floes. A number of
sheets succeeding each other in one direction
constitute a stream, or lying together in great
collections, a pack. The surface of the sheets
is often diversified by projections above the
general level, which are called hummocks;
thev are forced up by the floes pressing against
each other, and are sometimes in the form of
great slabs supported by one edge. Dr. Kane
noticed that these become bent by their own
weight, even when the thermometer continues
far below the freezing point. The most solid
clear ice exhibits this yielding property of its
particles. The surface of the ice fields is
usually covered with snow, and when the ice
is no more than 2 ft. thick it gives no trace of
salt on the surface. The thicker ice contains
open pools of fresh water. The bergs are real
floating mountains of ice, rugged and pictu
resque, with peaks jutting high into the air,
and strange forms in the glittering hard blue
ice, which one easily converts into imaginary
castles and grotesque architectural designs.
They are occasionally seen in great numbers
moving on together. Dr. Kane in his first
cruise counted 280 in sight at one time, most
of which exceeded 250 ft. in height, and some
even exceeded 300 ft. The dimensions of the
largest are measured by miles. Lieut. Parry
in the first expedition of Ross encountered one
in Baffin bay, 7 leagues from land, the length
of which was 4,109 yards, its breadth 3,809,
and its height 51 ft. It was aground in 01
fathoms. Its cliffs recalled those of the chalk
on the coast of England W. of Dover. Dr.
Kane saw one aground in soundings of 520 ft.
which with every change of tide swung round
upon its axis ; and Capt. RO&.S describes several
he saw aground together in Baffin bay in water
1,500 ft. deep. The officers of the French ex
ploring expedition in the Southern ocean mea
sured several bergs from 2 to 5 m. each in
length, and from 100 to 225 ft. high. Capt.
Dumont d'Urville reports one in the Southern
ocean 13 m. long, with vertical walls 100 ft.
high. The portion of these masses of ice seen
above the water is only about an eighth part
of their entire bulk. Such bodies, weighing
hundreds of millions of tons, moved on by a
broad current of water, exert a power against
obstacles of which we can form little idea. In
their action upon the bottom of the sea, as ex
plained in the article DILUVIUM, many geolo
gists recognize a repetition of the phenomena

accompanying the distribution of the drift
formation, and the production of its sands and
gravel and rounded bowlders. Dr. Kane re
marks of the display of power exhibited by the
movements of these huge bodies as follows:
' k Nothing can be more imposing than the ro
tation of a berg. I have often watched one,
rocking its earth-stained sides in steadily deep
ening curves, as if to gather energy for some
desperate gymnastic feat; and then turning
itself slowly over in a monster somerset, and
vibrating as its head rose into the new element,
like a leviathan shaking the water from its
crest. It was impossible not to have sugges
tions thrust upon me of their agency in modi
fying the geological disposition of the earth's
surface." — Icebergs occur in great numbers in
the North Atlantic in the latter part of the
summer, and form the chief danger which then
besets the navigation between Europe and
North America. These mountains and fields
of ice, however, have sometimes served as a
means of safety to persons who have taken
refuge on them, or floated off with them acci
dentally. Several members of Hall's exploring
expedition were in 1872 rescued from a floe on
which they had drifted 196 days and a distance
of 2,000 miles. (See ARCTIC DISCOVERY.)

ICELAND, a large island in the North Atlantic
ocean, subject to the Danish crown, geograph
ically belonging to the western hemisphere,
about 160 m. E. of Greenland, 600 m. W. of
Norway, 500 m. N. W. of the Shetlands, and
250 m. N. "W. of the Faroe islands. It is situa
ted between lat. 63° 24' and 66° 33' N., and Ion.
13° 31' and 24° 17' TV. ; greatest length 325 ni.,
greatest breadth 200 rn. ; area, including ad
jacent islands, 39,758 sq. m., of which 16,243
are habitable. The population of Iceland in its
most flourishing period exceeded 100,000; re
cent censuses give it as follows: 1864, 68,084;
1869, 69,506; J870, 69,763. Reykjavik, the
capital, has a population of about 1,400. In
shape Iceland somewhat resembles a heart with
its apex to the south. The coast line on the
south is but little broken, several of its open
ings having been filled up during eruptions of
the neighboring volcanoes ; but in all other di
rections it is deeply indented with bays, fiords,
and jutting promontories. The fiords extend
far inland between lofty mountains, whose
sides are carved into gigantic terraces. The
principal of these is Isatiord in the N. ~\V. pen
insula. The western fiords are studded with
rocky islets, and open, like those of the north
and northeast, to enormous ice drifts. The
chief islands on the coast are the Vestmanna
isles in the south, which form a county by
themselves. The best harbors are those of
Reykiavik, in a bight of Faxafiord, in the
southwest, Ilafnarfiord in the west, Akureyri
on the Eyjafiord in the north, and Vopna-
fiord in the east. — Iceland is apparently of vol
canic origin ; its surface in the interior is com
posed of an elevated band of palagonite tufa
pierced by trachyte, and having basalt on either

150

ICELAND

side. This basalt, the oldest formation, under
lies the other two, the palagonite, which is
next in age, and the lava, comprising all the
strata due to recent volcanic action. Although
the "N". "W. peninsula is composed of lofty ridges
with here and there an extinct volcano, the
chief mountain system is in the south. It
forms a triangular mass, with its apex at
Thrandar Jokull in the east, and its base ex
tending from Ok in the west to Eyjafjalla in
the south. Toward the apex the great Vatna
Jokull group covers an area of 3,500 sq. m.
with its gigantic glaciers and snow fields. The
mountains are distinguished into fells, which
are generally free from snow in summer, and
jokulls or ice mountains, which are shrouded
in perpetual snow. The name of skal is given
to perfectly symmetrical mountains. The prin
cipal jokulls are the Orsefa, 6,405 ft., the east
ern Snsefell, 5,958 ft., and the western Snosfell,
4,699 ft. The volcanoes belong to all three
classes. Beyond the mountain masses lies the
great central table land, from 1,500 to 2,000
ft. above the sea, and forming a wilderness
covered with vast lava beds, barren heights or
rolling rocky uplands, tracts of black volcanic
sand, hillsides and valleys dotted with hot
springs and sulfataras, and bottom lands filled
with bog and mud. Over this desert three
main roads, or rather tracks, connect the set
tlements near the fiords and the rare low plains
and valleys extending inland along the water
courses. The most remarkable and fertile val
leys are those clustering around Eyjafiord in
the north, that of Lagarfljot in the cast, and
those of the Ilvita and Thjorsa in the south..
Volcanic action has manifested itself over a
broad belt of country, extending from Cape
Reykjanes in the southwest to Krafla in the
north. Within this belt are the principal vol
canoes, including Hecla. (See HECLA.) From
27 different spots, counting volcanic craters
in the sea off Cape Reykjanes, 86 eruptions
have occurred since 874, the last being those
of Skapta in 1861 and of Trolladyn-gja in 1862.
The lava has been thrown out from grassy
plains in the north as well as from the enor
mous double chasm of Katla in the south
ern uplands. Of the lava beds, the Odatha
Hraun covers 1,160 sq. m., a second extends
73 m. from Skjaldbreith and Klothufell to
Reykjanes, and a third, around Hecla, is 25
m. long and 10 m. broad. Another peculiarity
is what is called the gjd or rifts in the deep
lava beds, which are zigzag rents running from
northeast to southwest. The most remarkable
are the Almanna-gja and Hrafna-gja at Thing-
vellir, and the rift into which pours the Jokulsa
at Dettifoss. — The principal lakes in Iceland
are the Myvatn (Midge lake) in the north, much
diminished in depth and extent by the lava
streams from Krafla in 1724-'30, and Thing-
vallavatn in the southwest, 10 m. long by 4
wide. There are besides two principal groups
of lakes, those of the Arnarvatn (Eagle tarns)
dotting a large district N. and W. of Eyriks

Jokull, and Fiskivatn (Fish tarns) at the foot
of Skapta, which are the remains of a large
lake that existed previous to the eruption of
1783. The larger rivers take their rise in the
southern mountains. The Jokulsa, reputed the
largest, rises at the foot of Vatna, and flows N.
to the Axafiord. About 30 m. from the sea it
falls over a perpendicular wall in its lava bed,
forming a magnificent waterfall. The Skjal-
fandafljot has its source between Vatna and Ar-
nasfell, and flows N. into Skjalfandi bay. The
Jokuldalsa and the Lagarfljot flow N. E. from
the snow fields of Vatna. The most impor
tant rivers in the west and south are the Hvita
(or, as it is called near its mouth, the Olfusa),
Thjorsa, and Kudafijot. The most celebrated
feature of Iceland scenery is the great number
of intermittent hot springs, chiefly in the S. W.
division, which have given the name of geysers
to similar springs elsewhere. (See GEYSEES.) —
The climate of Iceland seems to have changed
greatly since its first settlement. The ice drifts
from Greenland, which formerly visited its
shores only every other year, have of late come
for 15 years in succession, surrounding two
thirds of the island with a compact mass, and
remaining from three to five months. When it
comes in January or February, it goes away in
March or April ; then it affects the ensuing vege
tation but little, while it brings a welcome sup
ply of whales. If it comes in April or May, it
remains until the end of July, stopping vegeta
tion and destroying all the crops. The average
winter temperature at Reykiavik, 29'3° F., is
higher than at Aberdeen, 26° F. ; the average
summer temperature is 53 - 6°, and that of the
whole year 39'4°, being about the same as that
of Moscow the whole year round. At Aku-
reyri, in the north, the average summer heat
is 45*5°, that of winter 20'7°, and the mean for
the year is 32°. The difference of climate be
tween the north and south of the island is at
tributed to the Gulf stream, which sweeps
round the S. and S. W. coasts. In the south
great quantities of rain fall in winter and sum
mer, and sharp winds are frequent; thunder,
except in winter, is very seldom heard. The
climate of the north is much more dry and
regular. — The lowlands and protected valleys
afford excellent pasturage, where the soil con
tains all the elements of fertility. " The moun
tains," says Baring-Gould, "are generally des
titute of herbage, and the valleys are filled
with cold morasses. Grass springs on the
slight elevations above the swamps, in the
dells, and around the lakes. By drainage a
large percentage of marsh might be reclaimed ;
but some must always remain hopeless bog.
The extraordinary amount of swamp is due to
the fact that the ground is frozen at the depth
of 6 or 8 ft., so that when there is a thaw the
valleys are flooded, and the water, unable to
i drain through, rots the soil." Many bottoms
I are filled with an amazing depth of rich* soil,
i yet the prevalent ignorance of agricultural
i methods prevents their being turned to any ad-

ICELAND

151

vantage. The luxuriant herbage on the sloping
sides of the fields consists of several kinds of
grasses mingled with the leaves of stunted
willow, which is greedily devoured by the
sheep, and with dwarf mountain birch. On the
marshes grow several kinds of sedge, and the
tun or home field is overstrewn with the yel
low ranunculus. Iceland is almost a treeless
country; 'in certain spots are low coppices of
birch, the trees being mere shrubs 10 or 12 ft.
high, and in one or two protected places only
a few mountain ashes about 30 ft. high excite
the admiration of the natives. Hay raised in
the lowlands is the chief crop ; a few patches
of oats are occasionally seen in sheltered situ
ations, but even these do not always ripen. No
other kind of grain is raised ; but a species of
wild corn (elymus arenarius) growing on the
sand flats by the sea affords a much prized har
vest ; the straw is used for thatching and fod
der, and the meal, flavored with cinnamon, is
made into very palatable thin cakes. Pota
toes, carrots, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, pars
ley, cresses, and radishes are cultivated in small
patches. The only other valuable vegetable
production is the Iceland moss of commerce.
Agriculture has greatly improved of late years.
— Among the wild animals are several kinds
of foxes which are hunted for their skins, the
blue fox especially. Bears are frequent visi
tors, borne to the island on the ice drifts from
Greenland. Reindeer were imported from
Denmark about 1770, and now roam in large
herds in the solitudes of the interior; though
so valuable for locomotion, their utility is al
together overlooked. The seal breeds every
where on the coast and its numerous islands ;
the whale is also seen, sometimes in flocks, in
the fiords and bays, as well as a shark indi
genous to these waters (scymnm microceplia-
lm). The cod, herring, haddock, halibut,
trout, salmon, and eels abound in the fiords
and the fresh-water lakes and rivers. Shell
fish, the mussel especially, are present in enor
mous quantities. There arc in Iceland 7 fam
ilies and 34 species of mammals, of which 24
live in the water, and 13 varieties of cetacea.
Birds swarm everywhere ; among the indige
nous ones are the Iceland falcon, ptarmigan,
goldeneye, harlequin duck, and northern wren.
The eider duck is jealously protected by the
inhabitants. There are 6 families and about 00
species of birds, of which 54 are water fowl.
No reptiles have ever been discovered. Of
fish, which are as yet but little known, Faber
mentions 49 varieties, of which 7 are fresh
water fish. Domestic animals constitute the
great wealth of the Icelander ; these are cows,
horses, and sheep, and goats in the north. In
1870 there were in the island 352,443 slice]),
30,078 horses, and 18,189 cattle. The early
colonists introduced geese and swine; but the
geese are now all wild, and the hog has dis
appeared. The dog is of the Esquimaux type,
and of great use to the farmer. — Mineral de
posits, showing the presence of copper, iron,

lead, and silver, are found in many places;
but, from their poorness and the absence of
fuel, no attempt has been made to work them.
Plumbago was discovered near Krafla by Ba
ring-Gould, and magnetic iron abounds among
the volcanic rocks. The chief sulphur depos
its are at the vapor springs of Ilengill near
Thingvalla lake, at Krisuvik, and in the neigh
borhood of Myvatn. In the latter region is
"Obsidian mountain," a ridge in many places
composed of pure obsidian, which might be
a source of public wealth. There are feld
spar, chalcedonies, zeolites, amethysts, topaz,
opal, porpyhry, and malachite. One of the
most singular formations of Iceland is a kind
of brown coal called surturbrandr, which lies
in beds between clinkstone and trap ; it con
sists partly of carbonized stems of trees, partly
of a more coherent layer of coal mixed with
schist, and is of no importance as a source of
national wealth. — The modern Icelanders are
the descendants of the Norwegians who settled
in that country in 874 and the following years ;
a few colonists from Ireland and Scotland had
also settled in the country previous to the Nor
wegian discovery, or came thither afterward.
The language spoken by all is the purest Norse.
The men are tall, fair-complexioned, and blue-
eyed, with frames hardened by constant expo
sure to the weather. Recent travellers com
plain of their tendency to idleness and intem
perance ; but they are strictly upright, truth
ful, generous, and hospitable. The women are
industrious and chaste. Religious faith and
the domestic virtues are traditional in every
household. Education is universal ; it is al
most impossible to find an adult unable to read
and write. The settlements are chiefly scat
tered along the coast, and in certain sheltered
valleys and lowlands, the most populous dis
trict being in the neighborhood of Skagafiord
in the north. Social as well as commercial
intercourse is extremely limited. There is
nothing in the whole island that can be called
a road ; no vehicle of any kind is used on land ;
locomotion both for man and merchandise is
only practicable on horseback and at certain
seasons. A very few houses are of stone, a
few of wood, but the greater number are part
ly of turf and partly of lava blocks pointed
with moss and thatched with sod. Coal is
only to be had in the towns ; elsewhere the-
only fuel consists of sheep dung mixed with
fish bones. No fire is made save in the small
kitchen even in winter, and that only to pre
pare food, the other rooms in the farm house
remaining damp and foul. In the Yestmanna
islands and in many places on the mainland,
portions of the sea parrot and petrel are dried,
mixed with manure, and used for fuel. The
main staple of food is stock fish, which is eaten
with sour butter. The only meat is mutton,
which is boiled, then pressed dry, cut into
lumps, and laid by without salt; sometimes
it is also stewed in milk. The first necessaries
of life are imported. The least mortality (128)

152

ICELAND

is in February, the coldest month, and the
highest (205) in July, the warmest. Cutaneous
diseases, occasioned by want of cleanliness and
proper nourishment, are most prevalent ; diar
rhoea is frequent in spring; typhus and small
pox have often swept away multitudes ; lep
rosy is not uncommon, especially on the isl
ands, where it takes the form of elephantiasis.
Consumption is unknown, owing probably to
the purity of the air and its being charged with
ozone. — There are no manufactures of any kind,
only the simplest articles of consumption being
woven in the homestead. Several of these,
such as guernseys and mittens, are exported.
The commerce- of Iceland had been quite nour
ishing during the period of its independence ;
active commercial relations were kept up with
Norway, England, and Germany till the union
of Norway with Denmark in 1387, when the
Danish crown began usurping a complete mo
nopoly, and finally (in 1602) farmed out the
trade with Iceland to a Copenhagen company.
This monopoly was abolished in 1853, and at
present the only restriction to free intercourse
is the taking out a trade license amounting to
about 50 cents per ton of the ship's burden.
Foreigners enjoy the same rights of residence,
holding property, and trading, which belong
to the natives. The fisheries of Iceland, if car
ried on with a proper degree of intelligence,
would prove an exhaustless source of wealth ;
but only 10 per cent, of the population are
fishermen, and the methods used are inefficient.
Along the coast are 34 authorized trading posts,
of which only 27 are used ; of these, 6 are in
the south, 11 in the west, and 10 in the north
east ; 62 merchants reside in these, 26 being
Icelanders, the others Danes or representatives
of Danish houses. There are no banks. The
trade is by barter ; the Icelander is entirely in
the merchant's power and must accept his
prices. Attempts to break up this monopoly
have recently been made by a Norwegian com
pany of Bergen, which has an establishment
at Reykiavik, and branches in Ilafnarfiord and
other places. There is but one native ship in
the foreign trade. In 1869 the number of for
eign vessels which visited the trading stations
was 99 from Denmark, with a tonnage of 9,358,
and 50 from other countries, with a tonnage
of 4,555. The principal imports are cereals,
wheaten bread, coffee, sugar, spirits, snuff, and
tobacco. A decrease is perceptible of late in
the quantity of brandy imported, although
even now it amounts to 24 quarts annually for
every adult male, besides rum, punch extracts,
and other spirituous drinks. The principal ex
ports are fish, both salted and dried, salt roe,
liver oil, salt meat, tallow, sheepskins, wool,
guernseys, stockings, mittens, coarse woollen
stuff called vadmel, eider down, feathers, and
horses; the whole valued for 1869 at about
$700,000. Formerly considerable quantities of
sulphur were exported; but owing to the ab
sence of fuel and the inaccessibility of the mines,
as well as the want of remunerative demand,

they have not been worked for many years. An
Englishman has lately obtained a 50 years' lease
of .the sulphur mines near Myvatn, which may
acquire commercial importance when those of
Sicily are exhausted. — There are but few pri
mary schools in the island, but parents, besides
teaching their children all they know them
selves, are careful to send them for further in
struction to better informed neighbors. All
the books and manuscripts in the house, as well
as those to be found within a radius of 50 miles,
are read aloud over and over again to the family
and discussed by them. Moreover, there is a
law enabling the pastor or overseer of the
parish to remove the children of careless pa
rents, and board them with others who will
teach them. This is done at the expense of the
parish when the parents are too poor to pay.
At Reykjavik there is a college with six pro
fessors, embracing a complete classical, literary,
and scientific course ; there is also a school of
theology with three professors, and a school
of medicine with two. Students in law and
philology go to Copenhagen. Recently a library
has been formed in Reykiavik, which com
prised 10,000 volumes in 1866. Two political
journals were published in Reykiavik in 1866 :
the Thjotholfr or u National," weekly, and
the Mendingur, fortnightly. The Northanfari,
a weekly, was published at Akureyri. The new
royal charter granted on Jan. 5, 1874, which
went into operation on Aug. 1 of that year,
gives to Iceland a minister residing in Copen
hagen and responsible to the althing for the
acts of the administration in Iceland. The ex
ecutive government of the island is vested in
the stiftamtmand or governor general, resi
ding at Reykiavik, and having under him three
deputy governors, residing respectively in the
northern, western, and eastern amts, while
the stiftamtmand himself has immediate charge
of the southern. The amts are divided into
counties or sysla, each having its own chief
officer or sysclman. All these officials are ap
pointed by the crown. In each county there
is a court presided over by the syselman and
two assessors ; and from its decisions there is
an appeal to the supreme court and the chief
justice at Reykiavik. For the revenue there
is a landfoged, who is both collector general for
the whole country and town collector for the
capital. Akureyri, recently created a commer
cial town, has also its local collector or foged.
The legislative authority, in every tiling that
does not relate to the general interests of the
monarchy, is vested in the althing, composed
of 36 members, 30 of whom are elected by
popular suffrage and 6 nominated by the crown.
The ecclesiastical establishment, which is ex
clusively of the Lutheran faith, consists of the
j bishop of Reykiavik, who with the governor
general forms the spiritual court, and 20 arch
deaconries, subdivided into 196 livings. At
tached to this is the pastoral seminary at Reyk
iavik. The clergy are appointed by the crown,
subject to the consent of the bishop. Their

ICELAND

153

parishes for tlie most part embrace very large
districts, and their revenues being utterly in
sufficient for their support, they have recourse
to farming ; they have the reputation of being
the best blacksmiths in Iceland. There are
six medical districts, with medical officers sta
tioned at Reykjavik, Vatnsdalr, and Akureyri,
a fourth in the west, a fifth in the south, and a
sixth in the Vestmanna islands. Quite recently
three missionary stations have been established
by the Roman Catholic church. Christianity
was voted the national religion in 1000 by the
althing. The island was afterward divided
into the two bishoprics of Ilolar and Skalholt.
" The bishops," says Baring-Gould, u were elect
ed by the althing, and even the saints were
canonized by popular acclamation." With the
introduction of the church came the knowl
edge of Latin letters. In the- year 1057,
Isleif, bishop of Skalholt, introduced the art
of writing with the Latin alphabet. Monas
teries, hospitals, and schools were established.
Several monks, especially the Benedictines of
Thingeyra monastery, contributed largely to
the literature of Iceland's golden era. In 1551
the Lutheran form of worship was introduced
by Christian III., and after much bloodshed
became the only established religion ; but much
of the old ceremonial still remains. There is
no evening service, and the morning service
is still known as "the mass;" the minister
retains the old chasuble and cope, and over
the altar can be seen triptych s, crucifixes, and
pictures of saints. — Iceland was discovered in
8(50 by Naddoddr, a Norwegian viking, who
called it Snjaland (Snowland). In 864 it
was visited by Garthar Svafarsson, a Swede,
who sailed around it and wintered on the east
shore of Skjalfandi bay, and called his discov
ery Garth askolmr. Enticed by the description
which he gave of it, Floki, another viking,
sailed into Vatnsfiord in the west, and took
possession of a portion of land. But the loss
of his cattle during the' winter compelled him
to break up his settlement. After spending
another winter at Hafnarfjorthr, he returned
to Norway in the summer. The island received
its present name from him ; and the glowing
account given of it by soire of his companions
induced two Norwegian chieftains, Iljorleifr
and Ingolfr, to visit it. They formed the first
permanent settlement in 874 at Reykjavik,
and other chiefs with their retainers and thralls
soon followed them. The Islendinga l>6k, the
earliest monument of Icelandic literature, says
that the first colonists, who were all pagans,
found that they had been preceded by Culdee
anchorites and Irish settlers, who abandoned
the island on the arrival of the pagan Norse
men. The report of an Irish monk had first
led several of his brethren to sail for the north,
touching at the Faroe islands, and reaching
Iceland in 725, where they settled on the islet
of Papoen on the E. coast, and at Papyle in
the south. They were called Papar by the
Norsemen, and left behind them bells, crosiers,

[ and Irish books. The oppression of Harold
llarfagr drove a large number of Norwegian
chiefs and their families to Iceland, and this
was further increased under the reign fcf St.
Olaf. About 928 Iceland became a republic,
and so remained for 300 years. In 930 a code of
laws was adopted, and an annual meeting of

I the bonders was fixed for midsummer on the

| plains of Thingvalla ; this gathering was called

| althing. In 1262 the majority of the people
took an oath of allegiance to Haco, king of
Norway, Iceland remaining independent, with
her own laws and constitution, and the althing
continuing to be the supreme legislative au
thority. After the union of the Danish and
Norwegian monarchies in 1387 the king • of
Denmark was acknowledged sovereign of Ice
land. A provision in the act of union of 1262
stipulated that the king should annually sup
ply the inhabitants with six ship loads of goods.
This gradually made the commerce of Iceland
a royal monopoly, and in 1602 it was farmed
out to a Copenhagen company, in whose hands
it remained till 1787. As Iceland only raises
cattle and chiefly exports dried fish and wool,
its people were thus placed at the mercy of
the traders for the bare necessaries of life. The
price of goods rose four fold during the next
three years, while the price of fish fell, the
domestic industries dwindled away, poverty
increased, and the population decreased in the
same ratio. During these three years 800 per
sons died of starvation in one district, and
9,000 perished in the whole island. Notwith
standing these facts, the Danish government
continued to enforce its own trade laws, and

| in 1684 a royal proclamation enacted that all
traffic must pass through the Copenhagen com
pany, and that on no conditions should the
Icelanders trade with others, "neither on land,
nor on sea, nor in the harbors or fiords, cr
in any other place whatsoever." In the 18th
century volcanic eruptions repeatedly desolated
the land, converting some of the most fertile
and populous districts into hideous wastes, and

I followed by famine and disease. In 1762 an
epidemic broke out among the sheep, and 280,-
000 died or had to be slaughtered. In 1783,
the year of the most fearful eruption, 11,000
cows, 27,000 horses, and 186,000 sheep died.
The population, which had steadily decreased
since 1602, had sunk in 1785 to 39,000, and
was further diminished by 9,000 deaths from
starvation. In 1786 the project was seriously
entertained of removing the remnant of the
population from the country, but the royal
commissioners demanded instead a relaxation
of the trade laws. Commercial freedom came
by slow degrees, prosperity returned, and the

! population increased. In the 16th and 17th
centuries, when absolute monarchy was intro
duced, it was expressly stipulated by the Ice-

| landers that, while acknowledging the sover
eignty of the Danish crown, they should retain
their own national laws, rights, and freedom.
By degrees, however, the legislative powers of

ICELAND (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE)

the Icelandic althing were allowed to fall into
desuetude. It was formally abolished in 1800,
but restored in 1843. Subsequent attempts
to supersede it by giving Iceland representa
tives in the Danish rigsdag, and to make Ice
landic taxes flow directly into the Danish ex
chequer, met with unconquerable resistance.
At present, under the royal charter of Jan. 5,
1874, the constitution of Iceland is closely
modelled on that of Denmark, and its national
independence under the Danish crown is ac
knowledged. It enjoys an independent judi
cial as well as legislative system, individual and
religious freedom, municipal self-government,
and equality of all citizens before the law.
Interesting events in the history of Iceland
were the discovery of Greenland by Eric the
Red, and the establishment there of Flourishing
but short-lived colonies, and that of America
by Leif and others, without any practical re
sults. The one thousandth anniversary of the
first permanent settlement of Iceland was cel
ebrated in August, 1874.— The Landndmabok
records the colonization of Iceland from 870
to 930; the Sturlunga saga contains its histo
ry from 1100 to 1264; its church history is
found in the Kristin saga and in the Bisku-
pa sdgur, or lives of the bishops of Iceland.
See "An Historical and Descriptive Account
of Iceland " (Edinburgh " Cabinet Library ") ;
S. Baring-Gould's "Iceland, its Scenes arid Sa
gas" (London, 1863); and C. W. Pajkull's "A
Summer in Iceland" (London, 1869).

ICELAND, Language and Literature of. Menzka,
or Islenzk tunga, the Icelandic tongue, is the
language of the Scandinavians who settled in
Iceland in the 9th century. The earliest name
given to it in the old writings of the north, in
the 11 th and 12th centuries, was either the
"Danish tongue " (Donsk tunga) or " Northern
language " (Norrcena, or Norrmnt mdl). While
the language became much altered in Denmark
and Scandinavia, it remained essentially the
same in Iceland, and the names of Danish,
Norwegian, and Northern being no longer ap
plicable to^it, the term Icelandic came into
use. By Norwegian philologists it is called
old Norse or old Norwegian (gammel Norsk),
while the Danisli and German philologists fre
quently style it old Northern (old nordisk, alt-
nordisch). Icelandic is a daughter of the old
Norse proper, the dialect spoken as late as the
llth century in Denmark, Norway, Sweden,
and the adjacent islands, and a sister of the
old Norse dialect which is the parent of mod
ern Swedish and Danish. It still preserves,
with very slight inflectional and orthographi
cal changes, its earliest known form, and is the
oldest living language of the Teutonic family.
(See GERMANIC RACES AND LANGUAGES.) Al
though its literary monuments, in their exist
ing shape, do not date quite as far back as the
Gothic version of the Bible, it has yet kept |
many old Teutonic forms which the Gothic !
had lost even in the days of Ultilas. Hence its !
importance in Teutonic philology. In conse- j

quence of the invasions of the Northmen, it
influenced to a considerable extent the devel
opment of the English, and has furnished to
the English vocabulary such words as are, take,
call, law, till, to the exclusion of Anglo-Saxon
forms. The stationary character of the lan
guage is partly explained by its secluded posi
tion in an island, and partly by the zealous
study by the Icelanders of the ancient songs
and sagas. The first characters in which Ice
landic was written were the runes (runir),
which are supposed to be adaptations from
the Phoenician alphabet. Each letter consisted
of an upright stroke, to which various cross
strokes were added. The letters were at first
only 16 in number. It cannot be ascertained
when these characters were introduced. They
were chiefly used for inscriptions on stones,
wooden sticks, weapons, and household uten
sils, and hardly for literary purposes proper.
At the time of the introduction of Christianity
they were superseded by the Roman alphabet,
in the form then used by the Anglo-Saxons
and Germans. The alphabet, including ac
cented vowels, consists of 36 letters, and differs
from the English in not using c, g', and w, and
in having the letters -g and )', the former with
the sound of th in this, the latter with that of
th in thin; the double letter <E, sounded like
English i in pine ; and lastly the letter o. Un
til recently also c and q formed part of the Ice
landic alphabet, but they were dropped, as
their sounds are fully represented by * and k.
Vowels are either accented or unaccented, and
are accordingly either long or short. Mascu
line and feminine nouns have four declensions
each, of which the first two have three varia
tions and the last two only two. The neuters
have three declensions, with four variations
for the first and two for the second and third.
There are two numbers and four cases, nomi
native, accusative, dative, and genitive. Ad
jectives have a definite and an indefinite de
clension, which resemble the old and new de
clensions of the substantives. Icelandic has
only a definite article, which is suffixed to
nouns and precedes adjectives, and is inflected
in all cases and genders. The first and second
personal pronouns have also a dual form.
Verbs have active and passive forms ; the in
dicative, infinitive, subjunctive, and imperative
moods ; an active and a passive participle ; and
a supine. They have only two simple tenses,
past and present ; the other tenses are formed
with auxiliary verbs. The language has a
great facility for forming new words. It does
not adopt the common foreign names of sci
ence and new inventions, but a telegraph is
called either frettafleygir, bearer of news, or
rafsegulthrddr, electric thread, and a telegram
hradfrett, quick news. The foreign words for
merly introduced into Icelandic, chiefly by the
clergy, are now so transformed that their ori
gin can hardly be recognized. The dialect of
the old Norse spoken in the Faroes, which
has been illustrated in collections of ballads

ICELAND (LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE)

155

and folk-lore made by Hammershaimb and
others, differs from the Icelandic chiefly in or
thography and in the admixture of Danish
words. The best Icelandic grammar is the
German edition of Wimmer's Altnordische
Grammatik (Halle, 1871) ; the best lexicons
are Cleasby and Vigfiisson's " Icelandic-Eng
lish Dictionary " (Oxford, 1868-'T4), to which
an excellent grammar is prefixed, and for the
early skald ic and eddaic poetry Sveinbjorn
Egilsson's Lexicon Poeticum antiques Lingua
Septentrionalis (Copenhagen, 1800) ; the best
chrestomathy is Dietrich's AltnordiscJies Lcse-
luch (Leipsic, 1864). — The Icelandic literature,
which, with the exception of a few unimpor
tant Norwegian productions, was written whol
ly in Iceland or by Icelanders, may be divided
into two very marked periods, the ancient and
the modern. The first terminated a century
after the fall of the republic ; the other com
prises the period intervening between that date
and the present time. Soon after the settle
ment of the island the genial influence of free
government caused a marked development of
the national spirit, which was early exhibited
in the field of letters. The climate, as well as
the isolated position of the island, had also
much to do with it. In the long evenings of
a long winter, an intelligent people would nat
urally have recourse to literature ; and as soon
as the introduction of Christianity brought
with it the knowledge and use of the Latin
alphabet, the earliest employment of the new
gift was in writing out the pagan songs which
had been orally transmitted from one genera
tion to another. In such a manner the priest
Sicmund Sigfusson, called "the learned" (1056
-1133), or some other early scholar, compiled
the elder or poetic Edda, (See EDDA.) Be
sides these, the poetry that lias come down to
us from the days of the republic consists gen
erally of songs of victory or of praise, elegies,
and epigrams, in which latter the old skalds
especially excelled. The most noted skalds of
the 10th century are Bersi Torfusson, Egill Skal-
lagrimsson (904-990), Eyvind Finsson, Glum
Geirason, Kormak Oegmundarson (died 967),
Gunnlaug Hromundarson (983-1012), Hallfred
Ottarson (died 1014), Tho-d Sigvaldaskald, and
Thorleif Ilakonarskald. The llth century was
very prolific of poets; we have Arnor Thor-
darson, Einar Ilelgason, Eirik, Gisli Illuga-
son, Odd, Ottar, Sigh vat, Skuli Thorsteinsson,
Sneglu-IIalli, Ilallar-Steinn, Stein Skaptason,
Stufur Blindi, Thjodolf Arnorsson, Thorarin,
and Thord Kolbeinsson. The 12th century
presents the names of Bodvar, Einar Skiilason,
Hall, Hallbjorn, Ivar Ingimundarson, and a host
of others. In the 13th century we find scarce
ly any names but those of Einar Gilsson, Gud-
mund Oddsson, Jngjald Geirmundarson, and
Olaf Thordarson, showing that the loss of lib
erty had begun to affect the labors of the
muse. The 14th century has little of value to
show except the singular poem Lilja (" The
Lily "), a song in honor of the Virgin by Ey-

steinn Asgrimsson. Nor were the historians
and romancers less numerous. The sagas
properly fall into two classes, fictitious and
historical. Among the former are the Vvl-
sunga saga, Nornargests saga, the Vilkina
| saga (narrating the exploits of Diederich of
Bern, and thus belonging to the same heroic
cycle as the Heldenbuch and Nibelungenlied\
Hdlfs saga, " Saga of King Hrolf Knika and
his Champions," " Saga of King Kagnar L6d-
brok " (which contains the celebrated Lod-
tbrokarfcmda, or " Death Song of Lodbrok "),
Frithiofs saga, Hervarar saga, Ocrxar Odds
saga, the sagas connected with the Arthurian
and Carlovingian cycles of romance, and
Snorri Sturlason's "Younger or Prose Edda."
Some of these are in part historical, but it is
difficult to distinguish the true from the false.
Far more valuable as well as more numerous
are the sagas of the historical class. They con
sist of histories in the largest sense of the
word, of local and family histories, and of bi
ographies. Of those which relate to Iceland,
the most noted are the Islendingalok, by Ari
Thorgilsson (1068-1148) ; the Landndmabofc, a
detailed account of the settlement of the
island ; the Kristin saga, a narrative of the
introduction of Christianity into Iceland ;
Njdh saga, a classic composition; Gunnlavf/8
Ormstunga saga; Viga Glums saga; Egih
saga, the biography of a renowned poet and
chieftain; Kormaks saga; Eyrbyggja saga, an
abstract of which has been published by Sir
Walter Scott; Laxdcela saga ; Sturlunga saga,
a history of the race of the Sturlungar, so
important in Icelandic history, by one of its
members, Sturla Thordarson; and Grcttis saga.
The chief sagas relating to other countries are:
the Orkneyinga saga, a history of the Ork-
neian jarls; the Fareyinga saga, relating to the
Faroes; the Jomamkinga saga, an account of
the sea rovers, whose seat was at Jomsburg
near the mouth of the Oder; the Knytlinga
saga, a history of the Danish kings from liar-
aid Blaatand to Canute VI. ; the sagas of Olaf
Tryggvason, one by Odd (died 1200), and the
other by Gunnlaug ; the saga of St. Olaf ; the
Tleimskringla, or " Chronicle of the Norwegian
Kings," by the celebrated statesman and histo
rian Snorri Sturlason ; and various minor sagas
relating to Scandinavia, Russia, Great Britain,
and Greenland. The most elaborate codes of law
were the Grtigds, Jdrnstda, Jonsbok, and Kris-
tinrt'ttur. Many of the works enumerated in
this list are masterpieces of style, and are still
read with delight by modern Icelanders. This
list (and it contains but a few of the published
sagas) shows the attention paid to the culture
of letters in a remote corner of the world, at a
time when the whole continent of Europe was
sunk in barbarism and ignorance. — The second
or modern period of Icelandic literature by no
! means commences with the termination of the
I old literature ; a long time of utter mental in
activity followed, and the 15th and 16th cen
turies produced scarcely anything but a few

156

ICELAND (LANGUAGE AXD LITEEATUEE)

unimportant religions books. In the 17th
century the knowledge of the ancient litera
ture and glory of the island hegan to re
vive. Foremost in the movement were Arn-
grim Jonsson (Jonas, 1568-1648), Gudrnund
Andra (died 1654), Eunolf Jonsson (died
1654), Ami Magniisson (Magnaeus, died 1730),
and Thormod Torfason (1636-1719). The
last named, better known under his Latin
ized name of Torfteus, was especially zealous
in his efforts to disseminate a knowledge of the
early history of Iceland. In theology, Gud-
brand Thorlaksson (died 1627), under whose
direction the tirst complete edition of the Ice
landic Bible was issued, Bishop Thorlak Skul-
son, and Jon Vidalin (1666-1720), the author
of a popular collection of homilies, were the
eminent names ; while jurisprudence was rep
resented by Pal Vidalin (1667-1727). But
the true revival of letters dates from the. mid
dle of the 18th century, and was coincident
with the commencement of an increase in pop
ulation. During the last hundreu years no
other nation can show so large a proportion
of literary men. Finn Jon/fson (1704-'89),
author of an elaborate ecclesiastical history of
the island, which has beenyContinued by Petur
Petursson (born 1808), Ilannes Finsson (1739-
'96), Jon Jonsson (1759-1846), and Ami Ilel-
gason (born 1777), were eminent theologians.
Antiquities, philology, and the old literature
have been largely illustrated by Half dan Einar-
son (died 1785), the author of an Icelandic lit
erary history, Bjorn Ilaldorsson (died 1794),
the compiler of a large Icelandic-Latin lexicon,
which was edited by Bask, Jon Olafsson (1731-
1811), S. T. Thorlacius (1741-1815), G. J. Thor-
kelin (1752-1829), Ilallgrim Scheming (1781-
1861), Finn Magnusson (1781-1847), Konrad
Gislason (born 1808), H. K. Fridriksson (born
1819), Jon Thorkelsson (born 1822), Gunnlaug
Thordarson (died 1861), and by Gudbrand Vig-
fiisson, now (1874) the foremost Icelandic
philologist. An elaborate history of the island,
in continuation of the Sturlunga saga, has
been written by Jon Espolin (1769-1836),
while an extensive collection of folk lore has
been made by Jon Arnason. The poetical
literature of the period has been rendered re
markable by the names of Ilallgrim Petursson
(1614-'74), the author of the popular passion
hymns, Jon Thorlaksson (1744-1819), transla
tor of "Paradise Lost" Bjarni Thorarensen
(1786-1841), Jonas Ilallgri'msson (18f>7-'45),
Sveinbjorn Egilsson (1791-1852), translator of
the Odyssey, Benedikt Grondal (born 1826),
translator of the Iliad, and many others. But
the attention of the Icelanders has been large
ly 'given to political economy, and the result
has been a rapid and marked improvement in
the economical condition of the country. Par
ticularly active in this respect have been Jon
Eyriksson (1728-'87), Stepluin Thorarinsson
(1754-1823), Magnus Stephensen (1762-1833),
Bjarni Thorsteinsson, Thord Sveinbjarnarson,
Baldvin Einarsson (1801- 1 33), Jon Jonsson

(born 1806), Pal Melsted (1791-1861), and Jon
Sigurdsson (born 1811), equally noteworthy as
an archaeologist and statesman. In natural his
tory we find recorded the names of Eggert
Olafsson (!726-'68), whose tour through Ice
land in company with Bjarni Palsson is still
one of the most interesting works on the sub
ject, O. J. Hjaltalin (1782-1840), Jon Thor
steinsson (1794-1855), and J. J. Hjaltalin (born
1807). Among the younger writers, most of
whose political opinions are liberal, are Gisli
Brynjiilfsson (born 1827), Jon Thordarson
(born 1819), Magnus Grimsson, Steingrim
Thorsteinsson, Sveinn Skulason, and E. Mag
nusson, who has published English transla
tions of several old Icelandic works. The
series of transactions published by the Lcer-
doms-lista Felag in the latter part of the 18th
century, and the numerous volumes issued
within the past 25 years by the Islenzka Bdk-
menntqfelag, or society of literature, are of
great value. — The best sources of information
in regard to the old literature are Peterson's
Bidrag til den oldnordiske literaturs historic
(Copenhagen, 1866); Gudbrand Vigfusson's Urn
timatal i Islendinga sijgum (" On the Chro
nology of the Sagas of Icelanders," Kaupman-
nahofn, 1855); the introductions to Keyser's
"Pteligion of the Northmen," translated by
Pennock (New York, 1854), to Laing's version
of Snorri Sturlason's Heimskringla (London,
1844), and in Dasent's translation of " The Sto
ry of Burnt oSrjal" (London, 1861). The best
saga texts are those edited by Munch, Keyser,
linger, and Bugge in Christiania, and by the
Arni-Magnrean commission in Copenhagen.
A few valuable texts have been published by
Mobius and Maurer in Germany, and by the
professors in the college at Reykiavik.

ICELAND MOSS (cetraria Mandica, Acha-
rius), a lichen common in the north of Europe
and America. It consists of a tuft of deeply
divided and dentate-ciliate margined, leaf -like,
cartilaginous fronds, flattened out and of a
lighter color at their base, but above incurved
at their edges, so as to render them channelled ;
in general color they are of a dark olive brown.
The fruit (apothecia) is borne upon the extrem
ities and sides of the broadest branches, and
is very broad and flat with elevated borders.
This fruitful condition is only to be met with
in the alpine regions of our northern moun
tains; when the plants occur upon the lower
hills, and more especially in dry exposed pas
tures, they are uniformly infertile. It is pos
sible that these last mentioned forms may yet
prove to be distinct species ; to settle this
point, the occurrence of the apothecia is very
desirable. A very bitter principle is resident
in the alpine forms as well as in the Iceland
moss of the shops ; but this is almost wanting
in the campestral sorts. As an alleviative to
j pulmonary complaints the Iceland moss is well
j known ; the principal part of the stock used in
medicine is brought from Iceland and Norway.
After the intense bitterness, which readily

ICE PLANT

ICHNEUMON

157

yields to cold water, has been extracted, boil
ing water is to be poured upon the mass,
when, by keeping up a considerable heat and
by several hours' steeping, an abundant and
soothing mucilage is given out, and can be
used with freedom, the drink being made pala-

Iceland Moss (Cotraria Islandica).

table with a little sugar. Hooker says that
after being purged of its bitterness the lichen
"is dried, reduced to powder, and made into a
cake or boiled and eaten with milk, and eaten
with thankfulness too, by the poor natives"
of those countries where it grows abundantly,
" who consider that the very stones yield them
bread." The mucilaginous character is owing
to a great abundance of lichen starch. Even
the bitter principle is tonic and useful in the
treatment of disease. Similar alimentary sub
stances are found in other lichens, resulting
from the presence of this kind of starch.

ICE PLANT (mesembryanthemum crystalll-
num, Linn.), the common name of a plant origi
nally brought from the Canary islands and
Greece. In the Canaries it used to be largely
cultivated in order to procure alkali for making
glass. Each plant spreads over the ground
from a small annual root, and has numerous
succulent branches covered with large heart-
shaped or ovate, tender, c ad succulent leaves,
the cuticle of both being elevated into many
crystalline vesicles which contain a gummy prin
ciple insoluble in water ; they give the plant the
appearance of being covered with hoar frost,
and suggested the specific and coinmon name.
Cowper calls it the " spangled beau!" The ses
sile flowers are about half an inch across, and
have numerous linear, white or purplish petals,
but are of little beauty, and only produced in
the middle of bright days. It is raised from
seed which should be started in a pot or hot
bed, and the young plants set out in a dry
warm place. It was formerly much more cul
tivated than at present. In southern Califor
nia the ice plant is naturalized, and grows in
great quantities ; the Spanish inhabitants burn
the stems for the sake of the ashes to use in

soap making. Lender the name of glaciale the
ice plant is cultivated in the French kitchen gar
dens, and is used as an ingredient of soups, as
a garnishing for salads, and as a substitute for
spinach. (See MESEMBRYANTHEMUM.)

ICHNEUMON (Gr. Ixvefaiv, to track), a viver-
rine carnivorous animal, of the genus herpestes
(Illiger). The cheek teeth are £i-f ; the body
is long and the legs short ; head small and
pointed ; ears short and rounded ; feet five-
toed, with sharp semi-retractile claws ; a large
anal pouch, in which the vent opens. Of the
several species described, the best known is
the ichneumon of Egypt (H. ichneumon, Linn.),
known also as Pharaoh's rat. It is a little
larger than a cat, with a gait more like a mar
ten, and the long tail ending in a divergent
tuft ; the muzzle and paws are black, and the
fur of the body has each hair alternately
ringed with brown and dirty yellow. It is an
inhabitant of N. E. Africa, especially Egypt.
It was adored by the ancient Egyptians for its
antipathy to the crocodile, whose eggs it de
stroys in great numbers; they saw in it the

Egyptian Ichneumon (Herpestes ichneumon).

representative of a benign power engaged in
the destruction of one of their most trouble
some enemies. Its natural food consists of
rats, reptiles, birds, and eggs, but it has no
special antipathy to the crocodile. It is itself
destroyed by foxes and jackals. The ichneu
mon is frequently domesticated in Egypt,
where it is used like the cat in ridding houses
of rats and smaller pests ; it forms attach
ments to persons and places, and recognizes
with signs of pleasure the caresses of its mas
ter. The mongous of India (If. mungos, Linn.)
is a little smaller than the ichneumon, paler
and more grayish, and with a pointed tail ; it
has a singular antipathy to serpents, which it
destroys whenever it can, not hesitating to at
tack even the deadly cobra de capello ; against
the bite of the latter it is said to find an anti
dote in the ophiorrhiza mungos, a root which
is considered in Ceylon as a specific against
the cobra's bite in man. It is as mischievous,
and in the same way, as the polecat and wea
sels. The garangan of Java (H. Javanicus,
GeofFr.) is chestnut brown, with yellowish

158

ICHNEUMON FLY

ICHTHYOLOGY

white spots ; its habits are the same as in the
other species, and it is expert in burrowing ;
it is easily domesticated, and is used for de
stroying rats.

ICHXEIMON FLY, an extensive tribe of the
pupivorous family of hymenopterous insects, of
great importance in the economy of nature on
account of their destruction of insects injurious
to vegetation, and very interesting from the
peculiar manner in which this purpose is ef
fected. They are perfect parasites, depositing
their eggs within the body of living insects,
which are devoured by the larvae hatched with
in them. Their forms are various, but they
generally have an elongated body, with a ter
minal, long, divided, bristle-like appendage,
and filiform antennas which, have a constant vi
bratory motion ; the prevailing colors are black,
rufous, and yellow, with lines and spots of
white. The head is prominent ; the mandibles
corneous; the wings four, of thin membrane
and horny ribs or nervures, the anterior long
est, narrow at the base and dilated at the ex-

Ichneumon Fly.

tremity ; the abdomen begins between the two
posterior legs ; the feet are long and slender.
It is difficult to detect the sexes except by the
ovipositor ; this instrument is short or long ac
cording as the eggs are to be deposited in the
bodies of caterpillars on the surface of the |
ground or to be thrust down into their living
nidus through a nest or deep crevice ; in the
former it is retractile and lodged in a groove
on the under side of the body, in the latter of
ten longer than the body, consisting of a cen
tral oviduct and two lateral protecting appen
dages coming from the last abdominal segment.
The eggs are hatched in the body of the larva,
and the young consume the fatty matters in !
the interior of the victim, without injuring the !
vital organs; many eggs are often deposited i
within the same larva ; the young undergo |
transformation within the living insect, or eat j
their way through the skin and spin their
pupa cases on the outside, from which after a
time they come out perfect insects. The lar- ,
vte selected for this deposition are so enfeebled
by the parasites that they perish without going ,

into the pupa state. A common example is
met with in the large green caterpillar, with a
horn on the last segment, generally called the
potato worm ; this is a favorite nidus for the
eggs of a minute black ichneumon fly; the
young, hatched within its body and devouring
its substance, eat through the skin, and spin
their pupa cases so thick upon the outside as
almost to cover the back and sides of this four-
inch caterpillar; each case is attached to the
skin by a short delicate filament, and the place
of exit of each larva is indicated by a black
dot ; this caterpillar is often seen crawling
about and eating, almost covered with a colony
of these tiny silvery w r hite pupa cases, from
which in about a week the shining ichneumon
flies appear ; the caterpillar does not enter the
pupa state, but dies exhausted. These flies are
generally rapid in their movements, and are
taken with difficulty except when depositing
their eggs ; they occur in flowers, on trees and
walls, in houses, and wherever the desired lar-
va3 are found. The perfect insects live upon
the pollen and honey of flowers, and do not
attack other insects except to make a deposit
of eggs ; they are of all sizes, from a fraction
of a line to more than an inch long ; the spe
cies are exceedingly numerous, there being
about 1,500 in Europe alone. The larva) are
without feet, parasitical and carnivorous. The
chalcidians, allied to the ichneumon flies, are
extremely small ; they puncture the eggs of
other insects and deposit their own tiny ones
in them. We can hardly estimate the benefits
conferred upon man by these apparently insig
nificant insects ; their instincts lead them to do
for man's advantage what all his contrivances
could not effect; the best known destructive
insects kept in check by them are the pine
weevils, the lackey caterpillars, the grubs of
many wood eaters of their own order, the gall
insects, the Hessian fly, and hosts of others
which would overrun the forests and fields
were it not for these diminutive creatures.

ICIDiOLOGY (Gr ixvos, a footprint, and A<tyoc,
discourse), the name applied to the modern sci
ence of fossil footprints, or ichnolites. See
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS, and HITCHCOCK, EDWARD.

ICHTHYOLOGY (Gr. ixftv^ a fish, and /<5yof,
discourse), the branch of zoology which treats
of fishes, the lowest of the great divisions of
the vertebrate animals. The class of fishes can
not be said to have been arranged in a strictly
natural manner by any systematist, and such an
arrangement is impossible until their external
and internal structure and embryonic develop
ment are better understood ; and until zoolo
gists are better agreed as to what constitutes
family, ordinal, generic, and specific characters,
little harmony of arrangement can be expect
ed. Most classifications of fishes up to the time
of Cuvier (including his) were based on the or
gans of locomotion and the external integu
ment; after him appeared the anatomical ar
rangement by J. Miiller. The older systems
were very imperfect from the ignorance of fos-

ICHTHYOLOGY

159

sil forms, which supply many links otherwise
wanting in the chain of ichthyological charac
ters. Aristotle, in the 4th century B. C., first
reduced ichthyology, as he did the other branch
es of zoology, to scientific form ; he was well
acquainted with the structure and external char
acters of fishes, which he distinguishes from
cetaceans, laying special stress upon the organs
of respiration and locomotion and the scaly
covering; he gives the names of 117 species,
entering into interesting details on their habits.
The system of compilation without observa
tion prevailed until the middle of the 16th cen
tury, when Belon, Rondelet, and Salviani laid
the foundations of modern ichthyology! Be
lon gives rude figures of 110 species, Salviani
excellent engravings on copper of 99, and Ron
delet woodcuts of 234 species, in all three
mostly fishes of the Mediterranean. Gesner in
the same century borrowed the descriptions of
the last mentioned authors, and added some of
his own, in his Historia Animalium (1551-'6),
all arranged in alphabetical order without any
attempt at method, embracing however many
foreign fishes. Ray and his pupil Willughby,
English naturalists of the 17th century, in their
Historia Piscium (1686), gave the first attempt
at a natural classification of fishes, founded
upon the consistence of the skeleton, the form,
the teeth, presence or absence of ventral fins,
number of dorsals, and character of the fin
rays. They divided fishes into cartilaginous
and osseous ; though their genera are not well
defined, the species are so well described that
it is generally easy to refer them to their prop
er place in subsequent systems; the whole
number of species is 420. The second volume
consists of well executed, tolerably accurate
plates. This work forms an epoch in the his
tory of ichthyology, which from this time be
gan to assume a methodical arrangement. Pass
ing over Plumier, Ruysch, Kiimpfer, Sloane,
Catesby, and many scientific voyagers of this
period, we come to Artedi in the first third
of the 18th century. This Swedish naturalist
completeM the scientific classification of fishes
commenced by Willughby and Ray, defining
genera and giving them appropriate names. In
his PhilosopMa he divides the class into four
orders, founded on the consistence of the skel
eton, the branchial coverings, and the nature of
the fin rays, as follows: 1, malacopterygians ;
2, acanthopterygians ; 3, branchiostegous fish
es ; and 4, chondropterygians (sharks, rays, and
sturgeons). He made a fifth, including cetaceans,
which is inadmissible, and the third is badly
characterized ; the three others are to a certain
degree natural. In his Genera Piscium he
gives names .and distinctive characters of 45
genera, founded on the number of branchioste
gous rays (of which he was the first to see the
value), on the position and number of the fins,
on the parts supplied with teeth, on the form
of the scales, and on the shape of the stomach
and cpeoal appendages; most of these genera
stand at the present day. In his Synonymia Pis-
VOL. ix. — 11

cium he gives the synonymy of 274 species; his
works were published after his death by Lin-
nreus, his early friend, at Leyden, in 1738. — Lin
naeus, in the first edition of the Systcma Natures
(1735), followed Artedi; but in the next (1740)
he began to give the number of the fin rays, a
method of distinguishing since found of great
value. In his 10th edition (1758) he trusted to
his own knowledge, creating a new system, de
fining genera more clearly, and using a scientific
nomenclature ; the most important change was
in removing cetaceans from the class of fishes,
in which since the time of Aristotle they had
been placed, and in uniting them with viviparous
quadrupeds in the class mammalia. Brisson,
in 1756, had already separated them from fishes.
Linnaeus, however, committed the error of
placing the chondropterygians among reptiles,
under the title of amphibia nantes, to which
in the 12th edition (1766) he added the bran-
cJiiostegi of Artedi (ostracion, lophius, tetro-
dous, &c.). He also Suppressed the division
of fishes according to the nature of the fin
rays, and substituted one founded on the pres
ence or absence of the ventral fins and their
position in reference to the pectorals, a method
which violates many of the true relations of
these animals. Though Linnseus neglected
some of the genera of his contemporaries, and
distributed his orders in an unnatural manner,
describing only 480 species, his precision of
definition and the excellence of his binary no
menclature were of great advantage to the
progress of ichthyology, and his division into
apodes, jugulares, thoracici, and altdominalcs
for a long time held its place in the science.
Linna3us gave an impetus to the study of natu
ral history, which resulted in making it in
teresting to all classes, and in inspiring princes
with a desire to extend its domain ; national
expeditions were fitted out by England, France,
Denmark, and Russia, which came back laden
with treasures of the deep for naturalists;
among the workers in this great field we can
only mention the names of Commerson, Son-
nerat, Pennant, Banks, Solander, the Forsters,
Forskal, Steller, Otho Fabricius, O. F. Miiller,
and Thunberg; the scientific journals teemed
with descriptions of new species of fishes from
all parts of the globe. — The next great con
tributor to ichthyology was the German natu
ralist Bloch, whose celebrated work on the
''Natural History of Fishes " consists of two
parts essentially distinct; the first, the "Eco
nomic History of the Fishes of Germany," ap
peared at Berlin in l782-'4, in 3 vols. 4to, with
108 folio plates; the second, the "History of
Foreign Fishes," in 1785-'95, in 9 vols. 4to,
with 324 folio plates; both were translated
into French in a few years after each volume
appeared. Of German fishes he describes 115
species, mostly observed 'by himself. As he
was little conversant with the anatomy of
fishes, some of his genera are based on purely
artificial characters, while others are remark
ably correct. He follows the method of Lin-

160

ICHTHYOLOGY

na?us, bringing back the amphibia nc,ntes, how
ever, into the class of fishes, and dividing them,
with Artedi, into branch iostegi and chondropte-
ri/gii. — Comparative anatomy had made con
siderable progress toward the end of the 18th
century, when Lacepede began his researches
(1798-1803). He divides the class into cartila
ginous and osseous fishes, in each of which
subclasses he makes four divisions: 1, with
neither opercula nor branchial membrane; 2,
without opercula, and with a branchial mem
brane ; 3, with opercula and without branchial
membrane; and 4, with both opercula and
branchial membrane. In each of the eight di
visions he adopts the orders of apodes, jugu-
lares, tlwracici, and abdominales, according to
the absence of ventrals, or their position on
the throat, thorax, or abdomen. The natural
history of fishes in Sonnini's Buff on (ISOS-^)
is essentially a copy of Lacepede without ac
knowledgment. These works of Bloch and
LacepeJe supplied the principal foundation
for most subsequent systems. The classifica
tion of M. Dumeril, in his Zoologie analytique
(1806), resembles that of Lacepede, inasmuch
as it lays stress upon the supposed absence of
opercula and branchial rays and the position of
the ventrals. Pallas, in the third volume of the
Zooqrapliia Russo-Asiatica (1811), gives a list
of 240 species, distributed into 38/genera, with
the exception of three taken from Linnaeus;
he makes two orders, spiraculata or chondro-
pterygians, and Iranchiata, forming with rep
tiles (pulmonatct) the class monocardia (single-
hearted or cokl-blooded animals). In 1815
Kafinesque published a second ichthyological
system in his u Analysis- of Nature, or Tableau
of the Universe " (1 vol. 8vo, Palermo) ; though
containing many errors, this system is valuable
for several true affinities between fishes before
and since regarded as widely separated, as for
instance that of the polypterus with the stur
geon family. — De Blainville in 1816 (Journal
de Physique, vol. Ixxxiii.) published a classifi
cation in which fishes are divided into gnatho-
dontes or osseous and dermodontcs or cartilagi
nous, the latter distinguished by having teeth
adherent only to the skin; the former include
the heterodermes or lranchio$tegi, and the
squammodermes or common fishes; in the
subdivisions the Linnrean character of the posi
tion of the ventrals is adopted, and the families
are established principally on the form of the
body; it doss not employ the Lacepedean
characters taken from the opercula and bran
chial rays.— Cuvier in 1817, in his Ecgne cuii-
mal, divides fishes into chondropterygian and
osseous. The former contain the families of
suckers (lampreys), selachians (sharks and
rays), with fixed branchise, and the stnrionians
(sturgeons), with free branchire. In the osse
ous fishes he suppresses the branch ioxter/i, form
ing of a portion of them the order plcctognathi,
from a peculiar mode of articulation of the
jaws, including the families gymnodonts, scle-
roderms, and lophobranchs. The remaining

osseous fishes he separates into the orders mala-
copterygians and acanthopterygians, after Ar
tedi, according as the rays of the dorsal fin are
soft or spiny. The soft-rayed order he dis
tributes into families according to the Linnrean
method of the position of the ventrals, disre
garding entirely characters drawn from the
opercula and branchial rays. The spiny-rayed
fishes form a single order, with the families
teenioids (ribbon fishes), gobioids (blennies and
gobies), labroids (bass), percoids (perches, a
very extensive family), scomberoids (mackerel-
like, also numerous), squammipenncs (chreto-
dons, &c.), and the flute-mouths (fistularia,
&c.). He thus makes in all 22 families, found
ed on direct observation and comparison, and
not simply compiled from previous authorities.
Goldfuss ( u Manual of Zoology"), in 1820,
adopted the four orders of Gmelin, giving to
them Greek names, and subdividing them into
four families, each according to the shape of
the head, mouth, or body, or other external
character. — Thus far the systems have been
little more than repetitions of the combinations
of Artedi, Linnoeus, and Lacepede. Compara
tive and philosophical anatomy began to be
studied with zeal from the beginning of the
19th century. Oken, Cams, Geoff roy Saint-
Hilaire, Spix, Weber, Van der Iloeven, Meckel,
EVerard Home, Hunter, Tiedemann, and others,
wrote upon different portions of the structure
of fishes, and the results of their studies began
to modify ichthyological classifications. Be
fore mentioning the anatomical and embryo-
logical systems, the classification adopted in
the Hutoire naturelle dcs poissons, by Cuvier
and Valenciennes, beginning in 1828 and com
ing down to 1868, may be alluded to. In this,
fishes are divided into osseous and cartilagi
nous, the latter (or chondropterygians) inclu
ding the families sturionians, plagiostomes,
and cyclostomes. The osseous fishes have the
branchios pectinated or laminated, with the
exception of the lophobranchs, which have
them in the form of tufts ; all the acanthopte
rygians have the tipper jaw free, including 13
families, and all themalacopterygians except the
scleroderms, gymnodonts, and lophobranchs;
the malacopterygians are divided into abdomi
nals, subbrachians, and apodes. Cuvier had
very abundant materials at his command, em
bracing the collections of Peron, and those of
the expeditions under Baudin, Freycinet, Du-
perrey, Dumont d'Frville, and other French
naval officers. — Oken, in his "Physiophiloso-
phy " (Ray society edition), calls the class glos-
sozoa, as those animals in which a true tongue
makes its appearance for the first time, and os-
tcozoa, because in them also the bony system
first appears. He makes four divisions, the
cartilaginous and apodal jngulares, thoracici,
and ab'lominales, the first two having an irregu
lar and the last two a regular body. Among
the systems based upon that of Cuvier are
those of Bonaparte, Swainson, Straus-Durck-
heim, and Pvymcr Jones. The classification of

ICHTHYOLOGY

161

C. L. Bonaparte (Rome, 1831) comprised the or
ders: L, acanthopterygii, with 17 families; II.,
malacopterygii, with 12 families; III., plecto-
gnathi, with 2 families; and IV., cartilaginei,
with 5 families; including in all nearly 3,600
species. The principal improvement on the
system of Cuvier is in the series in which the
genera are placed. Swainson (" Monocardian
Animals, 1 ' inLardner's " Cyclopaedia," 1838-'9),
true to his quinary system, divides fishes into
the five orders acanthopteryges, malacoptcryges,
cartilagines, plcctognatlics, and apodes. Straus-
Durckheim (Traite d\matomie comparative,
Paris, 1843) adopts the eight orders of Cuvier,
but subdivides the choridropterygians with fixed
branchias into three orders, and separates the
sharks as the order selaciens, the rays as the
order Itatoides, and the cyclostomes as the order
galexiens (from Or. yafa6e, lamprey), the term
cyclostoma having been used for a gasteropod
mollusk ; he thus makes ten orders. Rymer
Jones (in the article " Pisces " in the " Cyclo
paedia of Anatomy and Physiology," 1847)
adopts a modification of Cuvicr's system. lie
makes three divisions: L, chondropterygii or
cartilaginous fishes; II., osteopterygii or bony
fishes; III., dermapterygii, with skeleton car
tilaginous or membranous, and with orders
cyclostomata (lampreys) and IrancMoatomata.
— About 1830 Prof. Agassiz, principally from
the study of fossil fishes, established a classifi
cation based on the characters of the scales,
as follows : order 1, placoids, corresponding
to the cartilaginous fishes of authors, but ex
cluding the sturgeons; 2, ganoids, including
the sturgeons, and especially the fossil genera
with enamelled scales; 3, ctenoids, comprising
bony fishes with scales pectinated on the pos
terior border, and corresponding generally to
the acanthopterygians of Artedi, exclusive of
the scomberoids, labroids, arid pleuronectes ; 4,
cycloids, including the malacopterygians with
the above exceptions, and exclusive of the
blennioids and lophioids. This system, soon
abandoned as an exclusive one by its author
from its placing too much stress on external
characters, was valuable as connecting in a
continuous series living and fossil fishes, and
led to the discovery of many important rela
tions between the scales and the internal or
gans. — The system of Johannes M tiller, as
given in the Berlin "Transactions" for 1844,
derives its characters from anatomical struc
ture, leading often to combinations without re
gard to zoological differences. He makes six
subclasses-; L, dipnoi ; II., tclcostci ; III., ga-
noidei ; IV., elasmo-brandiii or scluchii ; V.,
marxipolirancJiii or cyclostomi ; VI., lepto-
cardii. Siebold and Stannius adopt this clas
sification in their "Comparative Anatomy;"
and a slight modification of it may be found
in the third volume of the "Organic Nature"
in Orr's " Circle of Sciences," 1855. Owen's
classification, mentioned below, and adopted
by Sir John Richardson in the article " Ich
thyology" of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica,"

is based partly on that of Mtiller. — Vogt, in
his Zoologisclie Briefe (1851), divides fishes into
the orders leptocardia, cyclostomata, selachia,
ganoidea, and teleostia. Van Beneden's em-
bryological system (1855) is nearly the same ;
his orders are plagiostomi, ganoidei, teleostci,
cyclostomi, and Icjjtocardii. Van der Hoeven's
classification (as given in the English transla
tion of his " Handbook of Zoology," 1858)
makes fishes the 14th class of the animal king
dom, and divides them into 5 sections, with 11
orders and 46 families. The sections are dcr-
mopterygii, chondrojJerygii, g<cnchpidoti, os-
teoi)terygii, and protopteri. Milne-Edwards,
in his Cours elementaire d'histoire naturelle
(1855), divides fishes into osseous and cartila
ginous; the former includes the orders acan-
thopterygii, altdominalcs, subliracliii, apcdcs,
lophobranchii, and plectognathi ; and the lat
ter, the orders sturioncs, selachii, and cyclosto-
mi. — Owen's classification in his " Lectures on
Comparative Anatomy" (1855) made the or
ders dermopteri, malacoptcri, pharyngognatld,
anacantMni, acanthoptcri, plectognathi, lopho-
Iranchii, ganoidci, protoptcri, Iwlcccpliali^ and
pl<igiostomi (sharks and rays). His classifica
tion of 1866 is somewhat different, as follows:
In the division lia'matocrya, or cold-blooded
animals, including fishes, batrachians, and rep
tiles, in the fishes he makes subclasses: 1, dcr-
mopteri, with orders cirrostomi (lancelet) and
cyclostomi (lampreys); 2, tcleostomi, with or
ders malacopteri (soft-rayed fishes), anacan-
tJiini (cod), acantltoptcri (spiny-rayed fishes),
plcctognatld (ostraccans), loplidbrancTiii (pipe
fish), and ganoidei ; 3, plagiostomi, with or
ders liolocepltali (chima?ra), plagiostomi (sharks
j and rays), and protopttri (lepidosiren). — Prof.
Huxley places fishes in the lowest of his three
great divisions of vertebrates, the iclithyopsi-
da, including also the batrachians, from the
possession of gills, either permanent or tempo
rary ; hence he calls them also branchiate ver
tebrates. He divides the class piscctt into six
orders: 1, pliarynrjolrancliii (amphioxus) ; 2,
; mars'tpoltrancldi (lampreys and hags); 3, tele-
\ ostci, ordinary fishes ; 4, ganoidei ; 5, clasmo-
IrancJiii, sharks and rays; 6, dipnoi (lepido
siren). — A new classification was published
by Prof. Agassiz in his " Essay on Classifica
tion," ]>. 187 (1857), the result of the systems
of Cuvier and Mtiller and of his own scale
method, with additional light from his exten
sive anatomical and embryological researches.
He divides the old class of fishes into four;
his 1st and lowest class is myzonts, with two
orders, myxinoids and cyclostomes; 2d, fishes
proper, with two orders, ctenoids and cycloids ;
3d, ganoids, with three orders, coelacanths,
acipenseroids, and sauroids, and doubtful, the
siluroids, plectognaths, and lophobranchs ; he
was then doubtful whether this class should he
separated from ordinary fishes ; and 4th, sela
chians, with three orders, chimcerce^ galtodes,
and latidcs. These classes he regards as equiv
alent to amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mam-

1G2

ICHTHYOLOGY

ICHTHYOSAURUS

mals. — The following have been the principal
cultivators of this science in America: Dr.
Samuel L. Mitchill published in vol. i. of the
u Transactions of the Literary and Philosophi
cal Society of New York" (1815) a history of
149 species of New York fishes, with many il
lustrations ; he adopts the Lirmaean system ;
other descriptions of his species are in the
''Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy"
and in the "Annals of the Lyceum of Natu
ral History of New York." Lesueur has de
scribed and exactly figured many species in
the Philadelphia academy's " Proceedings."
Rafinesque published in the same work, and
in his Ichthyologia Ohiemis (1820), descrip
tions of many species which had escaped his
predecessors. Dr. Kirtland (1838) described
the fishes of the Ohio river, and Dr. Holbrook
several years later those of South Carolina.
Dr. De Kay in 1842, in his "Zoology of New
York," divides fishes into bony and cartilagi
nous, the former having the sections: 1, pec-
tinibranchii, with spiny-rayed and soft-rayed
abdominal, subbrachial, and apodal orders ; 2,
lophobrancliii, and 3, plectognathi ; the latter
include the sections eleutlieropomi, plagiosto-
mi, and cyclostomi. Dr. D. H. Storer, in his
"Report on the Fishes of Massachusetts"
(1839), and in the illustrated edition of the
same in the " Memoirs of the American Acad
emy " (1855-'60), and also in his " Synopsis of
the Fishes of North America" ("Memoirs of
the American Academy," vol. ii., 1846), fol
lows the arrangement of Cuvier. These works
are of great value to the student of North
American ichthyology. The Wilkes, North
Pacific, and Japan expeditions sent out by the
United States government, and the various ex
plorations by land for the survey of the Mex
ican boundary, the Pacific railroad route, and
military and civil roads, have added largely to
the materials, both foreign and native, at the
disposition of American ichthyologists; these
have been worked up principally by Messrs.
Baird and Girard of the Smithsonian institu
tion, where the collections are deposited. The
results are published in the government re
ports on the naval expeditions, in vol. x. of
the "Pacific Railroad Reports," in vol. ii. of
the "Mexican Boundary Survey," and in the
publications of the Philadelphia academy. —
The disposition to make new genera and subdi
vide old ones is carried to a puzzling extreme
in ichthyology as well as in other departments
of zoology ; and the prevalent system of placing
the name of the genus maker after the species,
by whomsoever and whenever described, offers
a premium for naturalists to make the greatest
number possible of new genera. In getting
rid of the too great condensation of Linnaeus,
naturalists have fallen into the worse extreme
of too extensive subdivision. For details on
the structure and physiology of fishes, see
FISHES. — FOSSIL ICHTHYOLOGY. Fishes are by
far the most numerous of the vertebrates
found in the strata of the earth, extending

from the Silurian epoch to the tertiary ; their
number, excellent state of preservation, and
remarkable forms, render fossil fishes of great
interest in explaining the changes of our plan
et's surface, and in completing the chain of
ichthyic relations. The classic work on fossil
fishes is the Recherches sur les poissom fossiles,
by Prof. Agassiz (1833-'43); in this magnifi
cent work about 1,000 species are described,
with accurate and elegant illustrations, the re
sult of his examinations of more than 20,000
specimens in the cabinets of Europe. He di
vides fossil fishes into the four orders of ga
noids, placoids, ctenoids, and cycloids, accord
ing to the structure and form of the scales,
these portions of the external skeleton being
generally well preserved ; the orders he divides
into families according to the structure and po
sition of the fins, the form of the bones of the
head and of the teeth, and the structure of the
gill covers and of the spinous fin rays. His
classification is as follows : order L, ganoidei,
characterized by osseous plates covered with
enamel (see GANOIDS) ; order II., placoidei,
with tabular scales, like sharks and rays ; or
der III., ctenoidei, having many living repre
sentatives, with s.cales serrated on their poste
rior margins ; order IV., cycloidei, with ellip
tical or circular scales without serrations. The
first order is most abundant from the old red
sandstone to the chalk formation ; the second
extends from the Silurian through the tertiary
epochs ; the last two are not found anterior to
the chalk, from which they extend through the
tertiary strata. For details on fossil fishes, see
the geological works of Hugh Miller.

ICHTHYOSAURUS (Gr. ix6i>g, fish, and cavpog,
lizard), a gigantic fossil marine reptile, belong
ing to the order enaliosaurians of Conybeare.
The body was fish-like in form, with a large
head, neck of equal width with occiput and
thorax; the vertebra} had biconcave articular
surfaces, as in fishes and the perennibranchiate
reptiles; the paddles, four in number, were
comparatively small, resembling in form those
of cetaceans, but in the number of digits and
of their constituent bones and appended bifur
cated rays they came near the structure of the
fins of fishes ; the tail was long, the vertebrae
gradually becoming smaller and flatter toward
the end, and probably margined with a tegu-
mentary fin expanded or in a vertical direc
tion ; the tail was doubtless the principal organ
of locomotion, and presented the saurian char
acter of length and gradual diminution, being
cetacean in its partially tegumentary nature,
and fish-like in its vertical position. Accord
ing to Dr. Buckland, the skin was scaleless and
finely wrinkled, as in cetaceans. The skull is
like that of the dolphin, with a smaller cere
bral cavity and an unanchylosed condition of
the cranial bones ; the intermaxillaries are
greatly developed, and the orbits immense, sur
rounded by numerous large sclerotic plates ; in
the convex articulating surface of the occiput,
the solid structure of the back part of the skull,

ICHTHYOSAURUS

ICONOCLASTS

163

and the massive proportions of the jaws and
the bones with which they are articulated, we
see crocodilian affinities. The nostrils are a
short distance in front of the orbits ; the teeth
are situated in an alveolar groove with their
bases free, and separated by partial ridges, the
roots being implanted much as in the croco
dile; hence this reptile is placed by Prof.
Agassiz in the order of rhizodonts. The struc
ture of the hyoid apparatus indicates that it
was an air breather, with a slightly developed
tongue, and that it obtained its food in the
water, having an apparatus, as in the crocodile,
to shut off the cavity of the mouth from the
larynx. The ribs are well developed, extend
ing from near the head to the tail, and attached
to a large sternum ; the clavicles and shoulder
blades are strong; the resulting pectoral arch
resembles much that of the mammalian orni-
thorhynchus, and is very different from that of
the cetaceans, indicating that the anterior limbs
were used not only in swimming but in crawl
ing up the shores of the ocean for the purpose
of depositing their eggs, &c. The arm and
forearm are very short and broad ; after these
come the bones of the wrist and fingers, ar
ranged as flattened ossicles in series of from
three to six, so dovetailed together at the sides

Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus.

as to form one powerful framework. The
pelvic arch is not articulated to the spine, but
was merely suspended in the muscles, as in
fishes ; the posterior limbs or paddles are gen
erally considerably smaller than the anterior,
and would seem to have been more serviceable
in terrestrial progression than in swimming.
The best known species, /. communis (Cony-
beare), grew to a length of 20 ft. ; the large
conical, longitudinally furrowed teeth are from
40 to 50 above on each side, and 25 to 30 be
low ; the jaws are prolonged and compressed,
the vertebrae about 140, with the anterior pad
dles three times as large as the posterior ; like
all the species, this is found in the secondary
formations, principally in the lias and oolite of
England. The /. in termedius (Conyb.), the most
common and generally distributed of the spe
cies, does not much exceed 7 ft. in length ; the
teeth are more acutely conical, and about |jl|§ ;
the vertebras are about 130, and the fore pad
dles are much the larger. The /. platyodon
(Conyb.), so called from the greater smooth
ness and flatness of the crowns of the teeth,
must have attained a length of more than
30 ft. ; the head is longer than in the prece
ding species, and the jaws broader and more
powerful; the teeth are about £-$-!& and are
frequently found broken as if from its own

violence; the vertebrae are about 120; the
most remarkable character is the equality in
size of the fore and hind paddles, and the com
parative simplicity of their structure. The /.
tenuirostris (Conyb.) is characterized by the
length and slenderness of the jaws, as in the
gavial ; this, with the flat head and large orbits,
gives to the skull, as Owen says, the appear
ance of that of a gigantic snipe with its bill
armed with teeth ; the teeth are slender and
very numerous, about !,$lg#, and directed ob
liquely backward ; it attained a length of about
15 ft., and was rather slender in its propor
tions. Six other species, and details on all,
will be found in Prof. Owen's " Report on
British Fossil Reptiles to the British Associa
tion," in 1839. Their remains extend through
the whole of the oolitic period, including the
lias and oolite proper to the Wealden and chalk
formations, in Great Britain and central Eu
rope. For fuller details the reader is referred
to the writings of Conybeare, Cuvier, and
Buckland. These reptiles, of gigantic size and
marine habits, must have been very active and
destructive ; their food, as indicated by the
bones and scales found with their remains, con
sisted principally of fishes. From the great
size of the eyes, they could probably see well
by night ; being air
breathers, like the
crocodiles, they no
doubt seized their
prey near the sur
face ; the immense
cuttle fishes of the
secondary epoch
probably furnished

a portion of their food. These strange crea
tures formed the connecting link between rep
tiles and fishes, as do the perennibranchiate
amphibia in the actual creation ; and by some
they have been considered, like the latter, as
possessors of both gills and lungs, at least in
some stage of their existence, and therefore to
a certain extent amphibious. This reptile,
with the muzzle of a dolphin, the teeth of a
crocodile, the head of a lizard, the paddles of
a whale, and the vertebras of a fish, buried for
myriads of years, was introduced to the sci
entific world by Sir Everard Home, in the
"Philosophical Transactions" for 1814.
ICOLMKILL. See IONA.
ICOMIM. See KONIEH.
ICONOCLASTS (Gr. kutwoKh&aTW, from ktK&v,
an image, and K/£V, to break), in ecclesiastical
history, the violent opponents of the venera
tion of images in the 8th and 9th centuries.
The use of images which led to the iconoclas
tic troubles dates from very remote antiquity.
The paintings which adorn the Roman cata
combs are now attributed by such archaeolo
gists as Lenormant and Marchi to the first
three centuries of the Christian era ; and those
recently discovered in the cemetery of St. Cal-
listus are thought by De' Rossi to belong to the
1st century. But it is still a matter of dispute

164

ICONOCLASTS

when images were first introduced by Chris
tians into public worship. The prevailing
opinion is that they passed from the family
into the temple at the end of the 3d century,
and that their public use became general at the
close of the 4th. The visible representation of
the cross found its way earlier both into eccle
siastical and domestic life. This custom and
the feeling out of which it grew varied widely
among diil'erent nations. In Egypt and through
out Africa the use of images met with but lit
tle favor. Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria,
and Augustine discountenanced it. Both the
Greeks and Romans favored the fine arts, but
there always existed among Christians an aver
sion toward anything which resembled the old
pagan union of art and religion. The first note
of the iconoclastic warfare came from Mar
seilles, where the bishop, Serenus, caused all
images to be demolished and cast out of church
es. For this he was twice censured by Pope
Gregory the Great, who, while blaming the
superstitious use of images, advised their em
ployment as a means of instruction for the un
lettered who could not read the Holy Scrip
tures. In the East, Constantine had embel
lished the public monuments and churches
erected by himself in his new imperial city
with representations of religious objects taken
from the circle of the Old and New Testa
ments. Very soon this use became interwoven
with the whole domestic and public life of the
Greek and Asiatic Christians. Churches, to
gether with their books, furniture, and vest
ments, private houses and public edifices,
household utensils and wearing apparel, were
profusely ornamented with images of Christ,
the martyrs, and Biblical personages. Statues
of costly materials adorned the public squares
and the approaches to the imperial palaces.
The people were not slow in going to extrava
gant lengths. Reports of miraculous eifects
produced by some images attracted crowds of
pilgrims. In the course of the 6th century it
became a custom in the Greek church to make
prostrations before images as a token of rever
ence to the persons whom they represented.
The Manichreans had already characterized these
practices as idolatry, and the Jews denounced
them as an apostasy from the divine law.
About the year 600 Leontius, a Cyprian bish
op, wrote a treatise against the Jews and in
vindication of the lawfulness of the custom.
In the next century the Mohammedans wher
ever they prevailed forbade the worship of
images. — Moved by these circumstances, the
Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a
first ordinance in 756, directed not against the
images themselves, but against such signs of
an idolatrous homage as prostration and kneel
ing down before them. This measure, coun
selled by Constantine, bishop of Nacolia in
Phrygia, and countenanced by a large number
of other eastern prelates, met with resistance
from Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople,
and from the mass of the people. Besides se

rious disturbances in many places, the inhabi
tants of the Cyclades rebelled against the em
peror and equipped a fieet. This was destroy
ed by means of Greek fire, and a new impe
rial edict was issued in 730, forbidding the
use of all images for religious purposes. Ger
manus now resigned his office and retired into
solitude. Leo caused the statues in churches
to be burned and the paintings on the walls to
be effaced, and fearful riots and massacres oc
curred in consequence. Pope Gregory II. re
monstrated in vain with the emperor, and the
Romans refused to comply with the imperial
edict. In 732 a council assembled in Rome by
Gregory III., condemned Leo and his abettors,
and decreed the validity of the relative honor
paid to images. The emperor pursued his pur
pose with relentless severity until his death in
741, when it was taken up with no less zeal by
his son Constantine Copronymus. lie was op
posed by his brother-in-law Artavasdes, who
possessed himself of the throne and restored
the worship of images. His death in Novem
ber, 743, restored Constantine to power, which
he used to exterminate images and finish the
work begun by his father. lie assembled at
Constantinople in 754 a council of 338 bishops,
who after a deliberation of six months pro
nounced all visible symbols of Christ, except in
the cucharist, to be either blasphemous or he
retical, and the use of images in churches to be
a revival of paganism. This decision was car
ried out by Constantine, one of whose last acts
was to compel every inhabitant of Constanti
nople to take an oath never again to worship
an image. Leo IV., who succeeded him in
775, was no less energetic in putting down im
age worship ; but at his death in 780 the em
press regent Irene concerted measures with
Pope Adrian I. for the restoration of images.
In 787 the second ecumenical council of Nice
decreed that "bowing to an image, which is
simply the token of love and reverence, ought
by no means to be confounded with the adora
tion which is due to God alone." The same
was also true of the cross, the books of the
evangelists, and other sacred objects. The con
test was prolonged in the East under successive
emperors till Theodora assembled a council at
Constantinople (842), which confirmed the de
cisions of the Nicene council, and established
the veneration of images among the Greeks,
though subsequently the Greek church took
the position which it holds to this day that no
carved, sculptured, or molten images of holy
persons or things are allowable, but only pic
tures, which are held to be not images but rep
resentations. Rome and Italy had already ac
cepted the decree of the Nicene council, which
the Latin church accounts the seventh of the
general councils. — The term iconoclasts is also
applied in history to those Protestants of the
Netherlands who at the commencement of the
troubles in the reign of Philip II. tumultuous-
Iv assembled and destroyed the images in many
Roman Catholic churches. These tumults be-

ICONOCLASTS

IDAHO

1G5

gan Aug. 14, 1506, at St. Omer in Flanders,
where several churches were desecrated, the
images overturne.d and broken, and the pictures
ruined. The insurgents next attacked the ca
thedral at Ypres, which they also stripped.
The excitement speedily spread all over Flan
ders, Hainant, and Brabant, and the churches,
chapels, and convents of Valenciennes, Tour-
nay, Menin, Comines, and many other cities
and towns were sacked. At Antwerp shortly
afterward a mob ravaged the cathedral, de
stroyed the statues, cut into pieces the paint
ings, the pride of Flemish art, demolished the
great organ, the most perfect in the world,
overthrew the TO altars, and carried off the
vestments and sacred vessels. The devastation
of the cathedral occupied them till midnight,
when they sallied forth to deal in the same
way with the other churches of the city and its
suburbs. For three days these scenes contin
ued at Antwerp, when they were stopped by a
few knights of the golden fleece, who with
their retainers attacked and dispersed the riot
ers. From Antwerp the excitement against
images spread over the northern provinces,
and throughout Holland, Utrecht, and Fries-
land the churches were ravaged. At Rotter
dam, Dort, Haarlem, and some other places,
the magistrates averted the storm by quietly
removing the images from the buildings. u The
amount of injury inflicted during this dismal
period," says Prescott, "it is not possible to
estimate. Four hundred churches were sacked
by the insurgents in Flanders alone. The dam
age to the cathedral of Antwerp, including its
precious contents, was said to amount to not
less than 400,000 ducats. The loss occasioned
by the plunder of gold and silver plate might
be computed ; the structures so cruelly defaced
might be repaired by the skill of the architect ;
but who can estimate the irreparable loss occa
sioned by the destruction of manuscripts, stat
uary, and paintings?" Motley, in his "His
tory of the Rise of the Dutch Republic," main
tains that the iconoclasts committed no act of
plunder nor of outrage on persons. He says :
u Catholic and Protestant writers agree that no
deeds of violence were committed against man
or woman. It would be also very easy to accu
mulate a vast weight of testimony as to their for
bearance from robbery. They destroyed for de
struction's sake, not for purposes of plunder.
Although belonging to the lowest classes of so
ciety, they left heaps of jewelry, of gold and sil
ver plate, of costly embroidery, lying unheeded
upon the ground. They felt instinctively that
a great passion would be contaminated by ad
mixture with paltry motives. In Flanders a
company of rioters hanged one of their own
number for stealing articles to the value of five
shillings. In Valenciennes the iconoclasts were
offered large sums if they would refrain from
desecrating the churches of that city, but they
rejected the proposal with disdain. The hon
est Catholic burgher who recorded the fact, ob
served that he did so because of the many mis

representations on the subject, not because he
wished to flatter heresy and rebellion." The
whole time occupied by this remarkable out
break was less than a fortnight. It was warm
ly disapproved of at the time by William of
Orange, Egmont, and the other statesmen of
the patriotic party in the Netherlands. Its
immediate effect was to detach the Catholics
from the national cause, and it was probably
the principal means of preventing the southern
provinces of the Netherlands from becoming
independent of Spain in concert with the seven
northern provinces.

IC1IMS, a Greek architect, contemporary
with Pericles. He was chief architect of the
Parthenon, and built the temple of Apollo Epi-
curius near Ptiigalia in Arcadia. The former
was completed in 438 B. C., and the hitter prob
ably about 431. He also built the fane at Eleu-
sis in which the mysteries were celebrated.
All these edifices were in the Doric style. No
details of his life remain.

IDA, a W. county of Iowa, drained by
branches of Little Sioux river ; area, 482 sq.
m. ; pop. in 1870, 226. Grain, potatoes, and
sorghum are the principal crops ; cattle raising
is carried on to a considerable extent. The
productions in 1870 were 9,239 bushels of
wheat, 8,510 of Indian corn, 6,058 of oats, 2,511
of potatoes, and 1,887 tons of hay. The value
of live stock was $34,867. Capital, New Ida.

IDA. I. A mountain range (now Kas Dagh)
of Mysia, forming the S. boundary of the
Trend. Its highest peak was Mt. Gargarus, about
5,750 ft. above the sea. The principal rivers
flowing from Mt. Ida were the Simois, Sca-
immder, and Granicus. From Mt. Ida Gany
mede was stolen ; here Paris pronounced judg
ment on the beauty of the rival goddesses ; and
here the celestials stationed themselves to be
hold the battles for Troy on the plain below.
II. A mountain (now Psiloriti) of Crete, the
loftiest of the range which traverses that isl
and, of which it occupies the centre, termi
nating in three peaks crowned with snow for
eight months of the year. Its highest summit
is said to be about 8,0(JO ft. Of the legends with
which its name is connected, those relating to
the infancy of Zeus are the most celebrated.

IDAHO, a territory of the United States,
situated between lat. 42° and 49° N., and Ion.
111° and 117° 10' AY., bounded N. by British
Columbia, E. by Montana and Wyoming, S. by
Utah and Nevada, and W. by Oregon and Wash
ington. The extreme length N. and S. on the
W. boundary is 485 m. and along the "Wyo
ming border 140 m., and the breadth varies
from less than 50 m. on the north to nearly
300 m. on the south ; area, 86,294 sq. m.
The eastern boundary line is irregular. Com
mencing at the north, it runs S. along the
116th meridian to the crest of the Bitter Root
mountains (about lat. 47° 45') ; thence it fol
lows S. E. and E. the crest of those and of
the Rocky mountains to the lllth meridian
on the Wyoming border, and thence runs S.

166

IDAHO

to the Utah border. The territory is divided
into nine counties : Ada, Alturas, Boise, Idaho,
Lemhi, Nez Perce, Oneida, Owyhee, and Sho-
shone. The principal towns are Bois6 City
(the capital), Idaho City, Malade City, and Sil
ver City in the S. part, each having in 1870
less than 1,000 inhabitants, and Lewiston at
the junction of the Snake and Clearwater rivers.
The population of the territory in 1870, exclu
sive of tribal Indians, was 14,999, including
4,274 Chinese, 60 colored, and 47 Indians ; 12,-
184 were male and 2,815 female; 7,114 native
and 7,885 foreign born; 897 males and 798 fe
males were between 5 and 1 8 years of age, 9,431
males (3,288 native and 6,143 foreign) from 18
to 45, and 10,313 (3,680 native and 6,633 for
eign) 21 years old and upward. * Of the natives,
946 were born in the territory, 804 in New
York, 550 in Ohio, 536 in Missouri, 479 in
Utah, 416 in Pennsylvania, 400 in Illinois,
348 in Oregon, and 312 in Iowa. Of the for
eigners, 1,984 were natives of Great Britain,
of whom 986 were Irish, 599 of Germany, and
334 of British America. There were 553 per
sons born in Idaho living in other parts of the
Union ; 5,557 male citizens of the United States,
21 years old and over, in the territory ; 3,293
persons, 10 years old and upward, unable to
read, and 3,388 unable to write, including 2,872
Chinese; 4,104 families and 4,622 dwellings;
10,879 persons, 10 years old and over, engaged
in occupations, of whom 1,462 were employed
in agriculture, 1,423 in professional and per
sonal services, 721 in trade and transportation,
and 7,273 in manufactures and mechanical and
mining industries. The tribal Indians in 1872
numbered about 5,800. The Nez Perces, 2,807
in number, occupy a reservation of 1,344,000
acres in the N. part of the territory ; they are
well advanced in civilization, extensively en
gaged in agriculture, and had two schools in
operation, attended by 124 pupils. The Boise
and Bruneau Shoshones, numbering 516, and
the Bannacks, 521, have a reservation of 1,568,-
000 acres in the S. E. part of the territory, near
the Snake river. These reservations receive
limited annuities from the United States, and
are in charge of the Presbyterians. The Cceur
d'Alenes, Spokanes, Kootenays, and Pend
d'Oreilles, about 2,000 in the aggregate, oc
cupy a reservation of 256,000 acres, 30 or 40 m.
N. of the Nez Perces. They receive no annui
ties, and are largely under the influence of the
Catholic missionaries of the Coeur d'Alene mis
sion. — The general surface of the territory is
a table land, with an elevation of from 2,000
to 5,000 ft. above the sea, but containing nu
merous depressed valleys, each watered by a
considerable stream, and crossed by mountain
ranges or spurs, with peaks rising above the
line of perpetual snow. These spurs, branch
ing from the Bitter Root and main chain of
the Rocky mountains, and traversing the whole
w^idth of the territory, are mostly named from
the streams that rise in them or flow along the
valleys at their base. In the north, near the

international boundary, are the Kootenay moun
tains ; S. of these is the Coeur d'Alene range,
and further S. and along the Clearwater river
and its tributaries are the Clearwater moun
tains. Along the upper Salmon river and at its
head waters is the lofty and rugged Salmon
River range, and further up the Snake from the
mouth of Salmon river are successively found
the Weiser, Payette, Boise, Owyhee (in the S.
W. portion of the territory), and Saw Tooth
mountains. The Bear River mountains are in
the S. E. corner, and along the N. portion of
the Wyoming border is the Teton range. The
Three Buttes are isolated peaks in the S. part,
N. and W. of the Snake. The Snake river or
Lewis fork of the Columbia and its branches
drain the entire territory, except a portion
about 120 m. long in the extreme north, which
is watered by Clarke's fork, the Spokane, and
the Kootenay, and a small tract in the S. E.
corner, which is intersected by Bear river. The
Snake river, rising in the W. part of Wyoming,
after entering Idaho, flows N. W., then bends
S. W., and again N. W., making an immense
curve through the S. part of the territory,
and strikes the Oregon boundary in about
lat. 43° 40', after which it flows N. forming the
W. boundary of Idaho to about lat. 46° 30',
where it turns W. and enters Washington ter
ritory. Steamers ascend to Lewiston in Nez
Perce co., just above the point -where it as
sumes a W. course. For more than 100 m.
above Lewiston the river is shallow and rapid,
and navigation is difficult and dangerous ; but
above the mouth of Powder river it is again
navigable for 150 or 200 m. The principal
tributaries are the Bruneau from the south, the
Malade from the north, and from the east the
Boise, the Payette, the Weiser, the Salmon, the
Clearwater, and the Palouse. The Boise" enters
the Snake just below the point where it as
sumes a N. course ; the Payette and Weiser lie
between it and the Salmon. The Salmon river
rises in the Salmon River mountains near the
centre of the S. portion of the territory, and
flows N. along the base of the Rocky moun
tains, turns abruptly W., and after traversing
the entire width of the territory joins the Snake
near the middle of the W. boundary. The
Clearwater rises by several forks in the Bitter
Root mountains, and flows W., joining the Snake
at Lewiston. The Palouse rises N. of the
Clearwater, and empties into the Snake in
Washington territory. The Spokane, flowing
W. and joining the Columbia in Washington
territory, forms the outlet of Coeur d'Alene
lake, a navigable body of water of irregular
shape, about 24 m. long by 2 or 3 m. wide,
which receives the Cceur d'Alene and St. Jo
seph's rivers from the Bitter Root mountains.
Further N. Clarke's fork crosses the territory
from E. to W., expanding into a lake about
30 in. long and 5 m. wide near the E. bound
ary, called Pend d'Oreille. The river and lake
are navigable by steamers through Idaho. The
N. E. corner is crossed by the Kootenay, a trib-

IDAHO

16T

ntary of the Columbia. Lake Kaniskn, about
30 m. long and m. wide, which occupies the
N. W. corner of the territory, empties into
Clarke's fork. Bear river enters the S. E. cor
ner from Utah, flows N., and bending sharply
S. reenters Utah, and empties into Great Salt
lake. The S. W. corner is watered by Jordan
creek and other affluents of the Owyhee, an
Oregon tributary of the Snake. Three falls in
the Snake deserve mention. The American
falls are in about Ion. 112° 45', and have a per
pendicular descent of 60 or 70 ft. The Sho-
shone falls further down the stream, and just
below the Malade, are surpassed only by those
of Niagara and the Yosemite. The river, here
200 or 300 yards wide, is divided about 400
yards above the main fall into six nearly equal
parts by five islands, and in the passage be
tween them is precipitated 25 or 30 ft. Uni
ting below the islands, the water passes in an
unbroken sheet over the great fall, a descent
of about 200 ft. The Salmon falls, about 45 m.
below the Shoshone, are 20 ft. high. — Idaho is
rich in the precious metals. The principal
quartz mines are in the S. W. part, in Owyhee,
Idaho, Boise, and Alturas counties. In the
Owyhee mines, which are the richest, situated
S. of the Snake and chiefly on Jordan creek,
silver predominates. The other mines, the
most productive of which are in Boise basin,
an elliptical depression in Bois6 co., 25 m.
long from N. to S. and 18 m. from E. to W.,
produce gold. Placer diggings occur in va
rious parts of the territory ; the most im
portant are those of Boise basin and along
the head waters of the Salmon and Clearwater
rivers. Gold was first discovered in paying
quantities in Idaho on Oro Fino creek, a N.
tributary of the Clearwater, in 18(50. The Boise
basin mines were discovered in 1862, and
the Owyhee mines in 1863. The product of
the territory prior to 1868 is stated in J. Ross
Browne's u Resources of the Pacific Slope " at
$45,000.000. The subsequent yield, according
to R. W. Raymond, United States commis
sioner of mining statistics, has been as fol
lows : 1868, $7,000,000; 1869, $7,000,000;
1870, $6,000,000; 1871, $5,000,000; 1872,
$2,695,870; 1873, $2,500000; making the to
tal product more than $75,000,000. Of the
yield in 1872, $2,272,261 was gold and $423,-
609 silver; in 1873, $1,571,733 gold and $928,-
267 silver. The gold from Idaho deposited at
the United States mint, branches, and assay
offices to June 30, 1873, amounted to $18,389,-
785 84; silver, $300,401 74. The census of
1870 returns 254 mines, having 5 steam engines
of 82 horse power and 2 water wheels of 52
horse power; hands employed, 1,692; capital
invested, $1,088,640; wages paid, $503,266;
value of materials, $231,763 ; of products,
$1,989,341. Of these mines 244 were for the
production of gold, of which 7 were hydraulic,
232 placer, and 5 quartz ; 10 were quartz mines,
producing gold and silver. The returns, how
ever, are admitted to be imperfect. A United

States assay office was established at Boise
City in 1872. There are extensive deposits of
salt, coal, and iron ore. — In spring, summer,
and autumn the climate is delightful ; the days
are never sultry and the nights are cool. The
winters on the high mountains are accompa
nied with extreme cold and heavy snow ; on
the plains and lower mountains they are gen
erally less severe than in N. Iowa, Wisconsin,
or central Minnesota. The valleys are mild,
visited with little snow, and cattle winter in
them without shelter. The average tempera
ture in the W. part of the territory is about
the same as in central Illinois, Indiana, and
Ohio, and S. Pennsylvania, while in the east
it is more nearly that of N. Massachusetts and
S. Vermont and New Hampshire. About the
sources of the rivers in the Bitter Root and
Rocky mountains the fall of rain and snow is
considerable, but in the lower valleys in the
west it is much less, and agriculture is not gen
erally successful without irrigation. In the
extreme north the climate, though less dry, is
colder and not well adapted to agriculture ;
but the temperature does not vary in propor
tion to the difference of latitude. The lower
slopes of the mountains are furrowed with
numerous streams, and alternately covered
with forests (mostly pine, fir, and cedar) and
nutritious grasses. The plains generally pro
duce good pasturage, and the valleys contain
broad stretches of meadow land, extending on
both sides of the streams by which they are
watered to the first rise of table land or moun
tain, and with irrigation producing good crops
of wheat, oats, barley, and the common fruits
and vegetables. The climate is not well adapt
ed to Indian corn. The valleys of the Clear-
water, Salmon, Payette, and Boise rivers are
large, and generally have good facilities for
irrigation; and there are well sheltered and
fertile bottom lands on the Weiser, St. Jo
seph, and Cceur d'Alene, and fertile tracts on
the shores of Lakes Coeur d'Alene and Pend
d'Oreille. Other important valleys are those
of the Bruneau in the southwest, of Wood
river in the south, and of Bear river, which
contains thriving Mormon settlements. The
extreme north is well timbered and has much
fertile land. The basin of the Snake is of
volcanic origin, and through it the river has
cut a vast canon, varying in depth from 100 to
1,000 ft. The streams that empty into the
Snake for some distance below the Shoshone
falls sink, and, passing under the strata of lava,
fall from the sides of the cafion into the main
stream. The greater portion of the basin,
though much of it might be rendered produc
tive by irrigation, is a barren waste, producing
only sage brush, but along the streams are val
leys containing arable land, and the surround
ing foot hills are generally covered with bunch
grass, affording excellent pasturage. Of the
total area of 55,228,160 acres, 16,925,000, ac
cording to the estimate of the commissioner
of the United States general land office, are

168

IDAHO

suited to agriculture; 5,000,000 to grazing;
14,328,160 are sterile, producing only wild sage
and occasional tufts of buffalo grass, but most
ly reclaimuble into pasture and agricultural
land by irrigation ; 18,400,000, mountains, in
cluding 7,500,000 acres of timber land and
8,000,000 of mineral land ; and 575,000 acres
are covered by lakes. In 1870 there were
77,139 acres in farms, of which 26,603 were
improved. The cash value of farms was $492,-
860 ; of farming implements and machinery,
$59,295 ; amount of wages paid during the
year, including the value of board, $153,007 ;
estimated value of all farm productions, in
cluding betterments and additions to stock,
$637,797 ; value of orchard products, $725 ; of
produce of market gardens, $24,577 ; of home
manufactures, $34,730 ; of animals slaughtered
or sold for slaughter, $57,932 ; of live stock,
$520,580. There wero 2, 151 horses, 371 mules
and asses, 4,171 milch cows, 522 working oxen,
5,763 other cattle, 1,021 sheep, and 2, 316 swine,
besides 624 horses and 49,540 cattle not on
farms. The productions were 73,725 bushels
of winter and 1,925 of spring wheat, 1,756 of
rye, 5,750 of Indian corn, 100,119 of oats, 72,-
316 of barley, 64,534 of Irish potatoes, 610 of
peas and beans, 14 of grass seed, 3,415 Ibs. of
wool, 111,480 of butter, 4,464 of cheese, 21 of
hops, 11,250 gallons of milk sold, and 6,985
tons of hay. The number of manufacturing
establishments was 101, having 11 steam en
gines of 311 horse power and 16 water wheels
of 295 horse power ; number of hands em
ployed, 265 ; capital invested, $742,300 ; wages
paid during the year, $112,372; value of ma
terials used, $691,785; of products, $1,047,-
624. The only important establishments were
8 quartz mills (value of products, $523,100), 3
tlouring and grist mills, 10 saw mills, 7 brew-
cries, and 2 distilleries. The United States
commissioner of mining statistics in 1871 states
the number of quartz mills, including those
not in operation, at 30, having 344 stamps and
4 arastras, and mostly run by steam ; 9 were
for the production of gold alone, and 21 for
the production of gold and silver. There is
a national bank at Boise City, with a capital of
$100,000. No railroads are in operation in
the territory, but the Northern Pacific is to
cross the N. part. — The government is similar
to that of other territories. The executive
officers are a governor and a secretary, ap
pointed by the president, with the advice and
consent of the senate, for four years ; also a
treasurer, comptroller, prison commissioner,
and superintendent of public instruction crea
ted by local law. Legislative authority is vest
ed in a council of 13 members and a house of
representatives of 26, elected biennially by the
people. The judicial power is vested in a su
preme court, 'district courts probate courts,
and justices of the peace. The supreme court
consists of three judges appointed by the presi
dent with the consent of the senate for four
years, and has appellate jurisdiction. A dis

trict court, with general original jurisdiction,
is held in each of the three judicial districts
into which the territory is divided, by a judge
of the supreme court. There is a probate
court for each county, with the ordinary pow
ers of such courts. Justices of the peace have
jurisdiction of inferior cases. The assessed
value of real estate in 1870 was §1,926,565 ;
of personal property, $3,365,640; total as
sessed value, $5,292,205 ; true value of real
and personal, $6,552,681 ; taxation not nation
al, $174,711, of which $40,594 was territorial,
$132,171 county, and $1,946 town, city, &c. ;
public debt, $222,621, of which $218,522 ($33,-
739 bonded) was county and $4,099 ($2,542
bonded) town, city, &c. The receipts into the
territorial treasury for the two years ending
Nov. 30, 1872, according to the treasurer's re
port, were $101,102, including $16,607 24 on
hand at the beginning of the period ; expen
ditures, $89,817 18; balance, $11,284 82. The
receipts are derived from taxes on property
and polls and from licenses. The floating debt
at the above date, less cash in the treasury,
was $58,239 73 ; bonded debt in coin, $65,-
058 51, payable Dec. 1, 1875 and 1876, upon
which interest to the amount of $4,471 31 was
unpaid. In 1870 there were 25 schools, of
which 21 were public, with 33 teachers, 1,208
pupils, and an annual income of $19,938. In
1872 the number of school districts was 37;
public schools, 32 ; school houses, 26 ; teachers,
60, of whom 26 were males and 34 females;
children of school age, 1,898 ; number enrolled,
1,416; total expenditures, $17,219 56. The
census of 1870 returns 43 libraries, containing
10,625 volumes, of which 11 with 2,800 volumes
were not private ; 6 newspapers (1 tri-weckly,
1 semi- weekly, and 4 weekly), issuing 200,-
200 copies annually and having an average
circulation of 2,750 ; and 15 church organiza
tions (2 Baptist, 6 Episcopal, 2 Mormon, 1
Presbyterian, and 4 Roman Catholic), having
12 edifices with 2,150 sittings, and property to
the value of $18,200.— Idaho was created a
territory by the act of congress of March 3,
1863, from portions of Dakota, Nebraska, and
Washington territories, comprising an area of
326,373 sq. m., and embracing the present ter
ritory of Montana and nearly all of Wyoming.
The region within its present limits is a portion
of the Louisiana purchase of 1803, and was
included first in Oregon and subsequently in
Washington territory. The Coeur d'Alene mis
sion was established in 1842, and is situated
about 15 in. E. of the lake of the same name.
The permanent settlement of the territory did
not begin until the discovery of gold in 1860.

IDAHO, a W. central county of Idaho territo
ry, bounded N. by Salmon river, W. by Oregon,
and watered by the Little Salmon and other
streams; area, 8,500 sq. in. ; pop. in 1870, 849,
of whom 425 were Chinese. A large portion
of the surface is covered with forests of pine.
There are several fertile valleys containing
good land. On the tributaries of the Salmon

IDELER

IDIOCY

1G9

arc rich placer mines of gold. The produc
tions in 1870 were 1,111 bushels of wheat,
1,580 of Indian corn, 1,075 of oats, 0,310 of
potatoes, and 03 tons of hay. There were 285
horses and 003 cattle. Capital, Washington.

IDELEK, Christian Lndwfg, a German mathe
matician, born at Gross-Brese, in Brandenburg,
Sept. 21, 1700, died Aug. 10, 1840. His earliest
work was the editing in 1794 of an astronomi
cal almanac for the Prussian government. He
taught mathematics and mechanics in the school
of woods and forests, and also in the military
school, and in 1821 became professor in the
university of Berlin. His works include Ilis-
torische Untersuchungcn iiler die astro nomi-
schen Beobachtungen der Alien (Leipsic, 1800) ;
Handbuch der mathematiscJien und technischen
Chronologic (Berlin, 1825-'G); and Die Zeit-
Technung der Chincsen (Berlin, 1830).

IDES, in the Roman calendar, the 15th day
of March, May, July, and October, and the
13th day of the other months. The eight days
preceding the ides were named from it, and
styled the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c., day before the ides.
Under the empire the senate sat regularly on
the ides and on the calends, with the exception
of the ides of March, the anniversary of Caesar's
death, which was regarded as a dies atcr.

IDIOCY, or lilictcy, a term now used to ex
press a condition of mental imbecility, though
this idea was not originally contained in the
root from which it is derived. The idiot
(l<5i(jT7;(f) among the Greeks was primarily the
private individual, in distinction from the man
who participated in public affairs ; next, as the
educated classes, especially in Sparta, where
the word is believed to have originated, alone
took part in pilblio life, IdiA-?;? came to mean
an ignorant or unlettered man ; and finally, as
ignorance tended to mental degradation, it was
applied to one who did not possess the capa
city to learn. Numerous attempts have been
made to define idiocy, but none of them have
been perfectly satisfactory. Dr. II. P. Ay res
defines it as " that state of human existence
which continuously manifests no signs of in
telligence nor instinct," " The type of an
idiot," says Dr. Seguin, "is one who knows
nothing, can do nothing, wishes for nothing;
and each idiot approaches in a greater or less
degree this standard of idiocy." In a later
work he writes more definitely: "Idiocy is a
specific infirmity of the cranio-spinal axis, pro
duced by dclicicncy of nutrition in iitero and
in neo-nati. It incapacitates mostly the func
tions which give rise to the reflex, instinctive,
and conscious phenomena of life ; consequent
ly, the idiot moves, feels, understands, wills,
but imperfectly; does nothing, thinks of noth
ing, cares for nothing (extreme cases)." This
deficiency of nutrition, occurring before birth,
arrests the foetal progress, and gives perma
nence to the transitory type through which
the foetus was passing; a similar arrest of de
velopment takes place after birth. The whole
being may be affected, or more commonly one

set of organs, as those of speech, &c. In this
aspect idiocy may be considered as a prolonged
infancy, in which, the infantile grace and in
telligence having passed away, the feeble mus
cular development and mental weakness of that
earliest stage of growth alone remain. Dr.
Sagert of Berlin, a high authority en the sub
ject, on the other hand, regards it as depend
ing upon a faulty organization of the brain;
and Dr. S. G. Howe considers "the pure type
of idiocy to be a person whose lack of under
standing arises from the smallness of his brain,"
though acknowledging that for one person in
whom idiocy is caused by this circumstance
there arc many in whom it is occasioned by
other causes. It occurs in various degrees,
separated by no definite line of demarkaticn,
from the typical condition to a state scarcely
distinguishable from normal humanity. Idiocy
has been variously classified, according to the
point of view or object aimed at. Dr. Seguin
recognizes, in different aspects, eight classes,
viz. : endemic, when connected with some form
of cretinism .(see CEETINISM) ; hereditary, when
ancestors or collateral relatives have been af
fected by idiocy or insanity ; parental, when
referred to certain conditions of the father or
mother; accidental, when occasioned by va
rious post-natal causes; profound, when tho
ganglia are altered ; superficial, when only the
peripheral termini of contractility and sensa
tion appear to be affected ; organic, when the
organs arc sensibly altered ; and functional,
when no organic lesion is observable. The
terms " profound " and " superficial " are by
others used simply to indicate the degree of
idiocy. No particular physical trait is a crite
rion of this infirmity. It is accompanied by
no special shape of the body, though a certain
want of proportion is generally observable.
The size of the head, except in extreme cases
of hydrocephaly or microcephaly, is commonly
quite normal, though appearing in infancy too
large and later in life too small; nor is its
shape a test, though generally somewhat de
formed. But any deviation in the relative de
velopment of the segments of the brain from
the type of a race, or any imperfection in tho
mod^ of union of the segments of the skull,
indicates a priori some anomaly or imperfec
tion of the faculties. Idiocy in infancy is dif
ficult to detect, and can generally be determined
only by comparison with a healthy child in tho
advance toward certain powers that mark tho
progress of ordinary infancy, as the ability to
hold up the head, to sit erect, to use the hands,
to take notice, &c. ; the lapse of time leaving
tho idiot further and further behind in the
race. In many case,s premature senility is ex
hibited, which is believed to be peculiar to
idiots. The symptoms of this condition are
various. The body is generally feeble, the cir
culation particularly in the extremities imper
fect, the respiration not deep, and the appetite
sometimes abnormal. The gait is accompanied
by a sidewise swinging or by forward plunges,

170

IDIOCY

or there is an inability to walk at all. The
power of prehension is wanting or imperfect,
while spasmodic, mechanical, or automatic mo
tions are common. The touch is dull, less fre
quently over-sensitive. The taste and smell
are oftener indifferent than abnormal. The
hearing is passive and limited, sometimes only
certain sounds or classes of sounds being heed
ed, while at others, though the organs are per
fect, no sounds are attended to, and the patient
becomes practically deaf and consequently
mute, from inattention of the Avill or absence
of any desire to hear. The sight is sometimes
fixed and vacant, sometimes wandering, and
the child may be practically blind from ina
bility of the will to control the vision or from
indifference of the mind to the image on the
retina. Speech is sometimes wholly wanting ;
otherwise, more or less imperfect. Idiocy is
most frequently complicated with epilepsy and
chorea, less frequently with paralysis and
contractures, and less frequently still with
deafness and blindness ; the degree of men
tal infirmity diminishing in the same order.
Perhaps the great feature of idiocy is the in
action or absence of the will, though there is
a vis inertia, by some called a negative will,
which opposes itself to every attempt to draw
the idiot from his indifference and isolation,
or from the external trifles upon which he ex
pends the little energy he has. "When the dis
ease is not complicated with epilepsy, &c., the
idiot is harmless and mild; he has no hallu
cinations or delusions; he does not perceive
wrongly, but only imperfectly or not at all.
In some cases, even when the general condition
is very low, an extraordinary power in a par
ticular direction, as in music or calculation, is
manifested. Idiocy, which is congenital or has
its origin in the earlier years, is to be distin
guished from dementia, or the loss of the men
tal powers resulting from disease or the disor
ganization of the brain in adults. The latter,
though resembling idiocy in its apparent re
sults, is incapable of amelioration. The term
imbecility is commonly employed to denote a
mild form of idiocy, but by Dr. Seguin it is
used to designate an arrest of the mental
development in youth (which may result in
dementia), when vices, habits, and tendencies
have been formed to complicate the disease.
The causes assigned for idiocy are numerous,
and not all of them well ascertained. Inter
marriage of near relatives, intemperance in
eating or drinking, and especially sexual con
gress leading to conception while one or both
parties are intoxicated, excess of sexual in
dulgence or solitary vice, grief, fright, or sud
den and alarming sickness on the part of the
mother during gestation, the habitual use of
water impregnated with magnesian salts, bad
and insufficient food, impure air, hereditary
insanity, and scrofulous or syphilitic taint, are
the most commonly alleged causes of congenital
idiocy. The effect on women of the excite
ments and anxieties of modern life, and of a

false system of education, is stated as the cause
of a progressive increase of idiocy noticed by
most persons engaged in the treatment of idiots.
Convulsions, epileptic fits, hydrocephalus, and
other diseases of the brain, smallpox, scarlatina,
and measles, blows on the head, or the transla
tion of scrofulous or other eruptive diseases to
the brain, are the usual influences which arrest
mental development in children. The condi
tion of the mother during lactation likewise
has an important bearing on this question. —
While among some nations idiots have been
regarded with a certain awe as under the
special protection of the Deity, until a com
paratively recent period they were not deemed
capable of improvement, and their condition
was generally forlorn. They were suffered to
grow up in neglect at home, or were thrown
into the alrnshouses, insane asylums, or houses
of correction, and often treated with cruelty.
No attempt is known to have been made to im
prove their condition till the 17th century.
When St. Vincent de Paul took charge of the
priory of St. Lazarus, he gathered a few idiots,
and, fitting up a room in the priory for their
accommodation, took charge of them in per
son, and attempted to instruct them. His la
bors, though continued for many years, seem
not to have been very successful. The next
effort was made by the eminent philosopher
and surgeon Itard, the friend and disciple of
Condillac. In 1799 a wild boy ("the sav
age of Aveyron "), found in the forests of
Aveyron, was brought to Itard, who hoped to
find in his instruction the means of solving
" the metaphysical problem of determining
what might be the degree of intelligence and
the nature of the ideas in a lad who, deprived
from birth of all education, should have lived
entirely separated from the individuals of his
kind." For more than a year he followed a
psychological method, but subsequently adopted
a system founded on physiology, and labored
to develop the intellectual faculties of his sub
ject by means of sensations. The young savage
proved to be an idiot of low grade, and hence
unfit for the philosophical experiment ; but the
attempt to instruct him had satisfied Itard that
it was possible to elevate the mental condi
tion of idiots. His immense practice, and the
severe suffering induced by the malady which
finally caused his death, prevented him from
devoting much time to the subject ; but he had
gathered many facts, and these he committed
to his pupil, Dr. Seguin, who entered upon the
work as a labor of love, and devoted several
years to a thorough research into the causes
and philosophy of idiocy, and the best methods
of treating it. Meantime others had become
interested in the subject. In 1818, and for
several years subsequently, the effort was made
to instruct idiot children at the American asy
lum for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, Conn. ;
the measure of success was not large, but their
physical condition was improved, and some of
them were taught to converse in the sign Ian-

IDIOCY

171

guage. In 1819 Dr. Richard Pool of Edin
burgh, in an essay on education, advocated the
establishment of an institution for imbeciles.
In 1824 Dr. Belhomme of Paris published an
essay on the possibility of improving the con
dition of idiots; and in 1828 a few were in
structed for a short time at the Bicetre, one of
the large insane hospitals of Paris. In 1831
M. Falret attempted the same work at the
Salpetriere, another hospital for the insane in
the same city. Neither of these efforts met
with sufficient success to be continued. In
1833 Dr. Voisin, a French physiologist and
phrenologist, organized a school for idiots in
Paris, but it was not of long duration. In
1838 Dr. Seguin opened a school in the hospi
tal for incurables of the rue du Faubourg St.
Martin, and was soon so successful that the
idiots in the Bicetre were placed under his
charge; and within three years he received
from the French academy, whose committee
had carefully tested his system of instruction,
a testimonial of their approval. The previous
efforts for the instruction of idiots had been
made upon no definite plan, or with a view of
testing some philosophical theory of the nature
of mind or the original constitution of man.
Dr. Seguin, starting with the postulate that
idiocy is only a prolonged infancy, consulted
nature as to the mode by which the physical
powers are cultivated and the mind educated
in the infant, and ended by adopting the
physiological system of education. This sys
tem, considering all the manifestations of life
as expressions of functions, and all functions
as resultant from a certain organism, assumes
that if we could take hold of an organ we
should be able to make it perform its function ;
and teaches that as the organs of sensation are
within our reach and those of thought beyond
it, the physiological education of the senses
must precede the psychical education of the
mind. Applying this method to the varying
phases of idiocy, eacli function is to be trained
with especial reference to the peculiarities and
deficiencies of the individual, and also in its
relation to all other functions, with a view to
a harmonious whole. Important agencies are
pure air and good food, to strengthen and in
vigorate the system ; gymnastic appliances, to
exercise the various functions and correct ab
normal manifestations ; music, imitation, anal
ogy, contrast; the play ground, the workshop,
and the farm, which furnish a definite object
and lend reality to the exercises, while they
initiate the pupil into the actual operations of
life. The legs, if they do not bend, may be
made to yield by placing the child in a baby-
jumper ; if the feet refuse to step, they may
be taught by making them encounter, with the
regularity of a walk, a spring board which
alternately receives and throws them back;
the gait is regulated by the use of dumb-bells
and by conducting the child between the
rounds of a horizontal ladder or over planes
of various inclinations and conditions of sur

face, representing the principal difficulties
likely to be encountered in nature. The hands
are taught to grasp by clasping them about the
rounds of an inclined ladder and requiring
them to support the weight of the body, or by
the use of the balancing pole, which is thrown
back and forth between the child and the
teacher. The sense of hearing, when wanting,
is aroused by music, by surprise sounds,, or by
sounds connected with some natural desire, as
the dripping of water when the pupil is thirsty ;
the vacant or wandering sight is fixed and
awakened by the steadfast gaze of the teacher,
by the admission of light at intervals into a
dark room, or by the use of the kaleidoscope ;
the touch, the taste, the smell are trained by
appropriate exercises, and the refractory or
gans of speech are moulded and manipulated
until they can utter the desired sounds. The
operations are at first passive and in obedience
to the will of the teacher ; an active perform
ance of the functions is .gained by the presen
tation of motives within the understanding of
the pupil. As each sense or organ is carried
progressively toward the normal performance
of its function, new avenues from without are
opened by which ideas, at first concrete, but
afterward more abstract, are instilled into the
mind. Finding in idiots the infantile fondness
for bright colors, teachers avail themselves of
it to teach them the distinctions of color and
form ; noticing their liking for playthings,
they furnish them with builders' blocks, cups
and balls, and other toys, by which they are
instructed in number, form, and size ; words,
not letters (these, except as a training for the
eye, come later), and the meaning of words are
taught by pictures and objects. Throughout
these processes individual training is alternated
with instruction in groups. Simultaneously
with the physical and mental training, the
idiots are instructed as far as practicable in the
social and moral relations and duties by practice
and example. The system thus briefly sum
marized is the one now followed or aimed at
in the principal institutions both in the United
States and Europe. The enthusiasm of phi
lanthropists has perhaps in some cases led to
the expectation of higher results than have
been or are likely to be realized. A consider
able proportion of those under instruction will
make little or no intellectual progress; the mind
is too thickly shrouded for the light to reach
it. The condition of those suffering from ep
ilepsy is still more hopeless. The training
school may slightly improve their physical con
dition, but that is all. There is however a
large number, and those often apparently the
worst cases when admitted, who will attain to
a considerable degree of intelligence under ju
dicious instruction, and will develop sufficient
ability to be capable, under the direction of
others, of acquiring a livelihood. A consid
erable number learn to add, subtract, multiply,
and divide, in numbers below 100 ; but in
most cases they grasp the idea of numbers

1T2

IDIOCY

\vitli great difficulty. In geography they make
more progress. In penmanship and drawing
many of them are very expert, and most of
the girls and some of the boys exhibit consid
erable skill in needle work. In moral training
they have generally exhibited a remarkable sus
ceptibility for improvement. It is estimated
that of idiots not affected by epilepsy, who
are bvought under instruction in childhood,
from one third to one fourth may be made
capable of performing the ordinary duties of
life with tolerable ability. They may learn to
read and write, to understand the elementary
facts of geography, history, and arithmetic, to
labor in the mechanic arts under proper super
vision, and to attain sufficient knowledge of
government and morals to fulfil many of the
duties of a citizen. A larger class, probably
one half of the whole, will become cleanly,
quiet, able perhaps to read and write imper
fectly, and to perform under the direction of
others many kinds of work requiring little
thought. This class, if neglected after leaving
school, Avill be likely to relapse into many of
their early habits. A small number, perhaps the
most promising at entering, Avill make little or
no progress. Nor can the result in any par
ticular case be predicted beforehand, and no
methods of instruction yet adopted will in
variably develop the slumbering intellect, and
confirm and correct the enfeebled or depraved
will. According to Dr. Seguin, " not one in a
thousand has been entirely refractory to treat
ment ; not one in a hundred who has not been
made more happy and healthy ; more than
30 per cent, have been taught to conform to
social and moral law, and rendered capable of
order, of good feeling, and of working like the
third of a man ; more than 40 per cent, have be
come capable of the ordinary transactions of
life under friendly control, of understanding
moral and social abstractions, of working like
two thirds of a man ; and 25 to 30 per cent,
come nearer and nearer to the standard of
manhood, till some of them will defy the
scrutiny of good judges when compared with
ordinary young women and men." The insti
tutions generally, under the pressure of appli
cations, do not receive those afflicted with epi
lepsy, congenital insanity, paralysis, &c., and
retain only those that promise improvement.
The age of admission in most instances is from
to 11, and the term of instruction from 5 to
7 years. — Dr. Seguin continued the instruction
of idiots in Paris till 1848, a part of the time
in a private establishment. In 1889 he pub
lished with Esquirol his first pamphlet, and in
1840 his treatise on the treatment of idiocy,
which placed him at once in the front rank of
living psychologists. In 1848 he visited the
United States, and assisted in the organization
and improvement of several institutions for
idiot instruction ; and he now resides in New
York. (See SEGFIX.) In 1839 Dr. Gucrgen-
Luhl began the study of cretinism in Switz
erland, and in 1842 opened his school on

the Abendberg. In the latter year Sagert, a
teacher of deaf mutes at Berlin (now im
perial councillor and general inspector of tho
department of instruction of unfortunates in
Prussia), began to receive idiotic pupils, and
devoted himself to the study of medicine in
order the better to understand their physiolo
gical condition. The school of Dr. Guggen-
buhl was discontinued at his death in 1863.
It is generally considered that his system was
a failure. At present (1874) there are three
schools in France : that at the Bicetre, under
the supervision of M. De Laporte, with about
20 inmates; that in the Salpetriere, under Dr.
Delasiauve and Mile. Nichol, with 50 inmates ;
and that in the insane asylum at Clermont
in the department of Oise, superintended by
Dr. Labitte, and having 15 inmates. In Bel
gium there are separate departments for idiots
in the insane asylums at Gheel and" at Ghent ;
the former, under the superintendence of Dr.
Bulckens, having 15 idiotic youth, and the lat
ter, under Dr. Inghels, about 40. In Switzer
land there are two private training schools for
idiots : one in the canton of Bern, under the
superintendence of Dr. Appenzeller, opened in
1868, and having 12 pupils in 1874; the other
near Basel, under the charge of Dr. Iselin,
opened in 1850, and having 15 pupils. In
1863 there were 15 institutions in Germany,
mostly private, viz. : at Bendorf, Berlin (t\vo),
Hasserode, Neinstedt, and Schreiberhau, in
Prussia; Ecksberg and Neudettelsau, in Ba
varia ; Bnschbad, Hubertsburg (two), and
Miickern, in Saxony ; Mariaberg and Winter-
bach, in Wlirtemberg; and Langenlftigen, in
Hanover. At present there are 10 schools
for idiots in Prussia, some of which are main
tained by the state and others by the prov
inces. The only asylum for idiots in the
Netherlands is the medical asylum for idiotic
youth at the Hague, opened in 1858, which
took its origin from the day school for idiots,
opened in 1 855. The number of inmates March
23, 1874, was 48 (25 boys and 23 girls), while
the day school, which is continued in con
nection with the asylum, and only receives
children residing at the Hague, has 25 pu
pils. These institutions are supported by sub
sidies, by contributions, and by fees of pupils.
They are under the charge of A. S. Moesveld
as director or superintendent, who with his
wife has 12 assistants, and of Dr. C. W. Eiken-
dal as physician. The number of teachers is
12, including one instructor in gymnastics and
two in handicraft. In Sweden there are three
schools for idiots in operation, viz. : at Skofde
in the province of West Gothland, under the
superintendence of Miss E. Carlbeck, opened
in 1868, and in 1874 having 32 pupils; at
Stockholm, under the superintendence of Miss
W. Lundell, opened in 1870, and having 20 pu
pils ; at Stromsholm, in the province of West-
manland, under the superintendence of Mr. R.
Bruce, opened in 1871, and having 10 pupils.
These schools .receive only congenital idiots

IDIOCY

173

who give hope of improvement. Two oth
ers are about to be opened, at Strengniis
and Gefle. There is a training school in St.
Petersburg, and also one at Newcastle, New
South Wales, which in 1872 had 132 pupils.
The first schools in England were small, and
were sustained by some benevolent ladies, in
the towns of Lancaster, Bath, Ipswich, and
Brighton. In 1847 an effort was made to es
tablish an institution in some degree commen
surate with the wants of the class for whom it
was intended. In this movement Dr. John
Con oily, the Rev. Dr. Andrew Reed, the Rev.
Edwin Sidney, and Sir S. Morton Peto distin
guished themselves by their zeal and liberality.
They first rented a nobleman's residence, called
Park house, at Ilighgate, near London, in 1848,
and two years subsequently Essex hall at Col
chester. In 1853 the foundation stone of the
present capacious and admirably appointed in
stitution at Earlswood, near Redhill, Surrey,
was laid, and it was opened in 1855. It now
has about 700 inmates, and is under the super
intendence of Dr. G. W. Grabham. With it is
connected a farm of about 100 acres, and many
of the pupils are instructed in farming and
gardening, while others are taught mat making,
basket making, tailoring, carpentering, and sim
ilar emplovments. Upon its opening the in
mates of Park house were removed to it, and
ultimately those of Essex hall, which was
closed in 1858. The latter was reopened in
1859 as the eastern counties asylum for idiots
and imbeciles, and now has about 70 inmates.
The western counties asylum was established
in 18(54 at Starcross, near Exeter; and the
Dorridge Grove idiot asylum at Knowle, now
known as the midland counties asylum, was
opened in 1866. More recently the Royal Al
bert asylum (northern counties) has been es
tablished near Lancaster, occupying a fine build
ing surrounded with ample grounds, and capa
ble of accommodating 500 inmates ; it is un
der the superintendence of Dr. Shuttleworth.
These institutions are supported chiefly by sub
scriptions and donations; pupils are admitted
upon payment, and may enjoy the benefits of
instruction gratuitously by the nomination of
the boards of directors or the election of the
subscribers. The private institution of Dr.
Langdon Down, formerly superintendent of
Earlswood, at Nonnansfield, near London, has
about 50 inmates, and is designed only for the
wealthy. Besides these training schools, there
are two large asylums near London maintained
by the poor-law boards for keeping and feed
ing idiots and dements. In Scotland, besides
the institution established in ISo'l-on the estate
of Sir John and Lady Ogilvic atBaldovan, near
Dundee, there is the u Scottish national insti
tution for the education of imbecile children,"
founded by a society organized for that pur
pose, and opened in 1862 at Larbert, Stirling
shire, under the superintendence of Dr. David
Brodie, who for several years previously had
been in charge of a school for idiots in Edin

burgh. The present superintendent is Dr. W.
W. Ireland, arid the number of pupils is about
90. In Ireland an establishment lias recently
been endowed by Dr. Stewart, to which it was
intended to remove the inmates of the asylum
for lunatics and idiots at Lucan, near Dublin.
The only idiot asylum in Canada was opened
in July, 1872, at London, Ontario. It occupies
a separate building, accommodating 40 patients,
in the grounds of the asylum for the insane,
and is under the charge of Dr. Henr^ Landon,
the superintendent of that institution. It is as
yet merely a house of refuge, but the present
building is to be enlarged, and another provi
ded elsewhere for a training school. In the
United States, where there are now 10 insti
tutions, the movement for the instruction of
idiots commenced almost simultaneously in
New York and Massachusetts. Efforts had
been made, in isolated cases (apart from the
attempts at the American asylum already re
ferred to), to instruct idiot children in the Per
kins institution for the blind in Boston, and in
the New York deaf and dumb institution, as
early as 1838 or 1839 ; but the feasibility of or
ganizing an institution for their treatment and
training does not seem to have been thought of
till the attention of philanthropists was drawn
to it by the eloquent letters of Mr. George
Sumner, describing his visits to the schools in
Paris. These letters were published in 1845,
and Dr. S. B. Woodward, long known as the
superintendent of the hospital for the insane at
Worcester, Mass., and Dr. Frederick F. Backus
of Rochester, N. Y., soon after corresponded
upon the subject. Dr. Backus was elected a
member of the New York state senate in the au
tumn of 1845, and in January, 1846, read a re
port which he had drawn up on the subject of
idiot instruction, and the necessity. of an insti
tution for the purpose. A few weeks later he
reported a bill for such an institution. During
the same month a bill passed the Massachusetts
legislature, appointing a commission to inves
tigate the condition of the idiots of Massachu
setts, and report on the necessity of measures
for their instruction. The result was the es
tablishment of an experimental school in Octo
ber, 1848, in a wing of the institution for the
blind at South Boston. Dr. Hervey B. Wil
bur, a young physician of Barre, Mass., open
ed a school for idiot children there in July,
1848. The school at South Boston was incor
porated in 1850 as the ''Massachusetts school
for idiotic and feeble-minded youth." and lir.s
remained under the supervision of Dr. S. G.
Howe. The state makes an annual jippropria-
tion of $16,500, and poor children are admitted
without charge upon the recommendation of
the governor, besides which there are some pay
ing pupils and a few supported by the states of
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Jind Rhode
Island. Facilities are afforded here for employ
ing the inmates in the simpler branches of man
ufacture. The number under instruction in 1 873
was 122 ; number remaining at the close of the

IDIOCY

year, 119; expenditures, $17,500 38. In 1851
the institution whose organization Dr. Backus
had sought in 1846 was finally established, first
as an experimental school at Albany, and sub
sequently as a permanent state institution, the
u New York asylum for idiots," at Syracuse.
The state in 1855 erected a fine edifice for it in
the latter city, at a cost of between $80,000 and
890,000, with accommodations for 150 pupils.
It has been from the first under the charge of
Dr. Hervey B. Wilbur, who was called from
Barre to organize the experimental school. It
has an extensive farm, and has been enlarged
to accommodate 225 inmates. The number of
pupils in 1871 was 155, of whom 90 were males
and 65 females. The number under instruc
tion in 1872 was 164, of whom 132 were whol
ly supported by the state, the rest paying whol
ly or in part for their maintenance; number
remaining at the close of the year, 163 ; num
ber of teachers, 5; other officers, &c., 6; ex
penditures, $34,049 59. In 1852 a private
school was established at Gerrnantown, Pa.,
by Mr. J. B. Richards, which resulted in the
incorporation in the following year of the
" Pennsylvania training school for feeble
minded children." In 1857, having received
a grant from the state, and liberal subscrip
tions from individuals, its trustees purchased a
tract of land about a mile from Media, Dela
ware co., and 12 m. from Philadelphia, and
commenced the erection of the building which
is now occupied. This institution has a farm
of more than 100 acres, and was at first under
the supervision of Dr. J. Parish, who was suc
ceeded by Dr. Isaac N. Kerlin, the present su
perintendent. The number under instruction
in 1873 was 249 ; remaining at the close of the
year, 222, of whom 123 were males and 99
females ; 84 were supported wholly and 24
partly by the state, 27 by New Jersey, 3 by
Delaware, 12 by the city of Philadelphia, 58
by parents or guardians, and 14 by the institu
tion ; expenditures, $53,985 40. There are
four departments. The asylum embraces a dis
tinct portion of the building and grounds, ac
commodating about 25 male inmates, who are
only susceptible of habit-training, and only a
small proportion of whom can be advantage
ously employed at work of any kind. A fund
has been started to erect a separate building
for an asylum. The nursery, also distinct from
the other departments, accommodates 32 chil
dren of helpless condition, who are attended
by experienced nurses. The school depart
ment is divided into five classes, and at the
close of 1873 included 117 children, who re
ceive from three to five hours' instruction
daily. The exercises, while having especial
reference to training in articulation, move
ments, and ideas, differ little from those in
schools of the primary and secondary grade
for intelligent children. The industrial depart
ment embraced 29 boys and 20 girls, who j
either were only capable of being taught man- I
ual labor, or had been through the school \

training and could with advantage to them
selves be instructed and kept in usefulness.
Of the whole number (701) admitted to the
close of 1873, there were mutes, 138; semi-
mutes, 176 ; defective in articulation, 204; de
fective in sight, 142 ; defective in hearing,
139; unable to walk, 19; of imperfect gait,
344 ; unable to feed themselves, 74 ; unable to
dress themselves, 158 ; uncleanly in habits,
269 ; of destructive habits, 374 ; epileptic,
157 ; malformed, 90 ; scrofulous, 575. Up to
July 1, 1872, the improvement had been as fol
lows : taught to speak, 53 ; articulation im
proved, 253 ; taught to read, 254 ; to write,
146 ; to feed themselves, 61 ; to dress them
selves, 94 ; to walk, 5 ; gait improved, 286 ;
reformed from bad habits, 164; from destruc
tive habits, 302 ; accustomed to some employ
ment, 241 ; epilepsy cured, 23 ; epilepsy im
proved, 78. From the report for 1870 "it ap
pears that of 500 who had enjoyed the bene
fits of the institution, 81 became capable of
earning their own support in domestic service,
farming, or certain shop employments, under
the guidance of friends ; 140 were able to earn
a half support; 118 could perform small ser
vices of no great value; while 161 were whol
ly dependent, earning nothing, and evincing an
improvement only in their personal habits, in
delicacy, language, or movement; 267 proved
to be adapted to schools, and 233 were not sus
ceptible of scholastic improvement. In 1857
the " Ohio state asylum for the education of
idiotic and imbecile youth " was organized at
Columbus as an experimental school, under the
superintendence of Dr. R. J. Patterson, who
was succeeded in 1860 by Dr. G. A. Doren,
the present superintendent. It was perma
nently established in 1864, when a farm of 130
acres, about 2 in. W. of the city, was pur
chased, and the erection of a building to accom
modate 250 inmates (since somewhat enlarged)
commenced, which was occupied in 1868. The
number under instruction in 1872 was 312;
remaining at the close of the year, 288 ; teach
ers, 11; other officers, &c., 4; expenditures,
$84,425 58. This institution is entirely sup
ported by the state, and all pupils are main
tained and educated free of charge, except for
clothing. The " Connecticut school for im
beciles " was established at Lakeville in 1858,
and incorporated by the legislature in 1861 ;
it is under the supervision of Dr. H. M.
Knight. The number under instruction during
the year ending May 1, 1872, was 55; remain
ing on that date, 48, of whom 20 were bene
ficiaries of the state to the amount of $3 a
week. The state has also appropriated money
for the erection and enlargement of buildings.
The " Kentucky institution for the education
of feeble-minded children and idiots" was es
tablished at Frankfort in 1860, and is under
the superintendence of Dr. E. II. Black. The
number of inmates in 1874 was 104. The
" Illinois institution for the education of fee
ble-minded children " was established at Jack-

IDIOCY

175

sonville in 1865 as an experimental school,
under the charge of the board of directors of
the institution for the deaf and dumb, and was
incorporated under its own board of trustees
in 1871. It has been from the first under
the superintendence of Dr. Charles T. Wilbur,
brother of the superintendent of the New
York institution. The number under instruc
tion in 1873 was 126; remaining at the close
of the year, 100, of whom 66 were males and
34 females ; teachers, 4 ; other officers, &c.,
3 ; expenditures, $25,777 49. The pupils are
divided into seven classes. The expenses of
the institution, except for clothing of pupils,
are defrayed by the state. The idiot asylum
on Randall's island, supported by the city of
New York, is under the charge of Mrs. Her
bert, matron, and in 1874 had 167 inmates, of
whom 91 were males and 76 females ; 44 were
unimprovable cases; the remaining 123 were
receiving instruction in a school opened in Oc
tober, 1867, and conducted by Miss Mary C.
Dunphy (who has been principal from the first),
with three assistants. The private institution
at Barre, Mass., has since 1851 been carried
on by Dr. George Brown. It embraces ample
grounds, handsomely laid out, with several
buildings, in which the patients are classified
according to their condition and the pecunia
ry ability or inclination of the parents. The
number of inmates is about 60, of whom part,
as epileptics, &c., are received for medical
treatment, part for custody, and part for in
struction. A private school was opened in
1871 at Fayville, Worcester co., Mass., by
Mrs. O. H. Knight and Mrs. M. A. F. Green,
formerly teachers at South Boston. The num
ber of pupils is limited to 12. — The num
ber of idiots in the United States, according
to the census of 1870, was 24,527, of whom
14,485 were males and 10,042 females; 3,188
were colored, and 1,645 foreign-born ; 140
were also deaf and dumb, 105 blind, and 11
both deaf and dumb and blind. There were
437 under 5 years of age, 1,616 from 5 to 10,
3,088 from 10 to 15, 3,706 from 15 to 20, 6,476
from 20 to 30, 3,938 from 30 to 40, 2,571 from
40 to 50, 2,676 of 50 and upward, and 19 of
unknown age. The number in each state is
shown in the following table :

Alabama

Arkansas

California

Connecticut

Delaware

Florida 100

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana l,8f>0

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky 1,141

Louisiana 286

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts 778

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi 4S5

Missouri ""

Nebraska

TOL. IX. — 12

721
289
87
841
69
100
871
,244
,860
633
109
,141
286
628
8»>2
778
613
134
485
779
25

New Hampshire
New Jersey

825
4-36
2,486
1*76
2,88*
66
2,2SO
123
465
1,091
451
825
1,130
427
560
50
46
23

New York

North Carolina
Ohio

Orepon.

Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina

Texas

Vermont
Virginia

West Virginia

Wisconsin
District of Columbia...
New Mexico
Utah
Other territories and

The number of idiots and their proportion to
the population cannot, however, be ascertained
with any satisfactory degree of accuracy. The
census statistics are untrustworthy, both from
the different standards adopted by enumera
tors, and from the difficulty of persuading
parents, from whom the returns are usually
obtained, that their children are idiots. Some
of the worst cases in idiot asylums were
brought there by their friends, not as idiots,
but as being a little peculiar in their habits.
The effort has been made in several states to
obtain returns from physicians, clergymen, and
town officers, but with very moderate success.
So far as these returns go, however, they show
a much greater prevalence of idiocy than has
been commonly supposed ; and it is now gen
erally conceded by competent judges that the
number of idiots is greater than that of the
deaf and dumb or of the blind, and as great as
that of the insane, the proportion being not
less than 1 in 1,000 of the population. As
suming this ratio, the number of idiots in the
United States would be more than 38,000. Ac
cording to the census of 1871, the number of
idiots and imbeciles in England and Wales in
that year was 29,452, of whom 14,728 were
males and 14,724 females; but the actual num
ber in those two countries has been estima
ted as high as 50,000. The number in Scot
land is stated at 3,000; in Ireland as high as
7,000. The number of idiots in the Nether
lands, according to Dutch authorities, is be
tween 3,000 and 4,000 ; the census of Norway
in 1865 enumerated 2,039. The number of
idiots and cretins in Switzerland was estimated
in 1868 at 3,800,— Under the common law, " an
idiot or natural fool," according to Blackstone,
" is one that hath had no understanding from
his nativity, and therefore is by law presumed
never likely to attain any." " A man is not
an idiot if he hath any glimmering of reason,
so that he can tell his parents, his age, or the
like common matters." His custody and the
care of his lands were at first vested in the
lord of the fee, but subsequently in the crown,
and exercised through the lord chancellor.
The sovereign took the profits, supplied the
idiot with necessaries, and upon his death re
stored the estate to his heirs. There was a
writ de idiota inquirendo, to inquire whether
a man was an idiot. The jury, however, rare
ly found a person an idiot from nativity, but
in most cases only non compos mentis, in which
case a different rule applied. For the present
legal status of idiots see LUNACY. — See u Essay
on Education," by Dr. Richard Poole (first
published in the ''Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,"
1819, afterward in a separate volume, 1825);
Traitement moral, Jiygiene ct education des
idiots, by Dr. E. Segui'n (Paris, 1846) ; " Re
ports of Commissioners on Idiocy in Massachu
setts " (Boston, 1848-'9) ; " Statistical Studies
on Idiocy," by M. Hubertz (Copenhagen,
1851); "Mental Alienation and Idiocy in
England, Scotland, and Ireland," by Dr. Stark

176

IDOCRASE

IGLESIAS DE LA CASA

(vol. xiv. of statistical society's "Journal,"
1851); Traite du goitre et du cretinisme, by
Dr. Niepce (2 vols., Grenoble, 1852) ; " Essay
on Idiocy," by Dr. Coldstream (Edinburgh,
1852) ; Die Ileilung und Verhatung des Cre
tin ismus und Hire neuestcn FortscJiritte, by
Dr. Guggenbiihl (Bern and St. Gall, 1853);
" Report of Commissioners on Idiocy in Con
necticut " (New Haven, 1856); "Essay on
Idiot Instruction," by Dr. Ferd. Kern (Allge-
meine Zcitschrift far Psychiatric, 1857j; Die
gegenwartige Lage der Cretinen, Blddsinnigen
und Idioten in den cliristlicJien Landern, by
Julius Desselhoff (Bonn, 1857) ; " Report on
the Education of Imbecile and Idiotic Chil
dren," by Dr. II. P. Ayres (vol. xiii. of the
" Transactions" of the American medical asso
ciation, 1862) ; Uebersiclit der offentliclien und
pricaten Irren und Idioten- Anstalten aller
europaischen Staaten, by Dr. Albrecht Erlen-
meyer (Neuwied, 1863) ; " Lunacy and Law,
together with Hints on the Treatment of Idi
ots," by F. E. D. Byrne (London, 1864) ; " The
Training of Idiotic and Feeble-minded Chil
dren," by Dr. Cheyne Brady (Dublin, 1864);
" Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physiological
Method," with bibliography, by Dr. Seguin
(New York, 1866) ; " New Facts and Remarks
concerning Idiocy," by the same (New York,
1870) ; " On Idiocv, especially in its Physical
Aspects," by Dr. W. W. Ireland (Edinburgh,
reprinted from the " Edinburgh Medical Jour
nal " for January and February, 1874) ; and
the annual reports of the various institutions.

IDOCRASE (Gr. ddeiv, to resemble, and Kpdai^
a mixture), a mineral species of the garnet sec
tion of the silicates, resembling other species
in its crystalline forms. It occurs variously
colored, as brown, sulphur yellow, green, and
blue ; and of vitreous, frequently somewhat
resinous lustre. Its hardness is 6'5 ; specific
gravity, 3-35-3-45. It was first observed in
the lavas of Vesuvius, and was called Vesu-
vian. Numerous localities of it are known in
gneiss rocks, serpentine, and granular lime
stone. It is particularly abundant at Parsons-
field and Phippsburg, Me., occurring in mas
sive forms as well as in crystals.

IDRIA, a mining town of Austria, in the
duchy of Carniola, 28 m. N. N. E. of Trieste ;
pop. in 1869, 3,960. The town is in a deep,
narrow Alpine valley, on a small river of the
same name. Its quicksilver mines are the
second in importance in Europe, and in 1871
produced 6,700 cwt., besides about 1,100 cwt.
of artificial cinnabar. The rich hepatic mer
curial ore is found in a formation of clay slate
forming a bed in compact limestone. The ex
cavations are horizontal galleries diverging
from a shaft which has been sunk to a depth
of more than 1,000 ft. The entrance is from
the Schloss, a building within the town. De
scent is accomplished partly by about 800 steps
cut in the rock, and partly by ladders. The
miners are a uniformed corps, 500 in number,
and the service is eagerly sought for, the high

er rate of wages and contingent advantages
being balanced against the unhealthiness of
the occupation. The mines were discovered
in 1497, and are the property of the crown.

I W MA. See EDOM.

IESI. See JESI.

IFFLAND, August Wilhelm, a German drama
tist, born in Hanover, April 19, 1759, died in
Berlin, Sept. 22, 1814. At the age of 18 he
made his debut upon the stage at Gotha, in
one of Engel's comedies, in which he took the
part of an old Jew. In 1779 he joined the
theatrical company at Mannheim, and was the
leading actor there when in the latter part of
1781 Schiller put into his hands the manuscript
of the "Robbers." The play was produced in
the succeeding January, with Iriiand in the
part of Franz Moor, and the success which at
tended the representation at once brought
Schiller into notice, and confirmed the reputa
tion of Iffiand. The latter remained in Mann
heim till 1796, when he assumed the direction
of the national theatre of Berlin. In 1811 he
was appointed general director of all the royal
plays, and about the same time made an ex
tended professional tour through Germany.-
His plays, chiefly of the class known as the do
mestic drama, were very successful in their day,
and are still occasionally performed. Among
the best of his works are Die Jager, Der Spie
ler, and Die Hagestolzcn. A collection of 47
of them was published in 16 vols. in Leipsic in
1798-1802, including a memoir of his theatrical
career. Volumes containing other pieces were
published in 1807-'9 and in 1827; and in 1844
his select works appeared.

IGLAU, a town of Austria, in Moravia, on
the Iglawa, 46 m. W. N. W. of Brunn ; pop. in
1869, 20,112. It consists of the town proper,
which is walled, and three suburbs, and con
tains a military school, a gymnasium, and sev
eral charitable institutions. It has manufac
tories of woollen goods, tobacco, glass, and
paper, and spinning and dyeing works. On
July 5, 1436, the convention was concluded
here, by which the emperor Sigismund was ac
knowledged king of Bohemia.

IGLESIAS, a to\fn of Sardinia, in the prov
ince and 32 m. W. N. "W. of the city of Cagliari ;
pop. about 6,500. It derives its name from its
great number of churches. So many gardens
adjoin it that the Sardinians call it Jiore di
mundu (flower of the world). The finest of
these gardens is at the Dominican convent.
The richest lead mine of the island is on Monte
Pone, 1,100 ft. high, 1 m. S. W. (if the town.

IGLESIAS DE LA CASA, Josef, a Spanish poet,
born in Salamanca in 1753, died in 1791. lie
early published ballads and satirical effusions
which made him famous, but his didactic po
ems subsequent to his joining the priesthood
were less popular. The best editions of his
works are those of Barcelona (1820) and Paris
(1821), and among the later editions there is
one in 4 small vols. (1840), which includes a
number of poems by other authors.

IGNATIUS

IGNIS FATTJUS

ITT

IGXATHS, Saint, of Antioch, surnamed Thco-
phorus, one of the primitive fathers of the
church, died Dec. 20, 107 or 115, at Rome ac
cording to some, but most probably at Antioch,
as others have it. He is reckoned one of the
apostolic fathers. Eusebius says that he was
appointed bishop of Antioch in 69. Baronius
and Natalis Alexander make him bishop of the
gentile Christians residing in that city, Evo-
dius being at the same time bishop of the Jew
ish converts. The Marty riitm Ignatii, which
professes to have been written by an eye-wit
ness of his martyrdom, affirms that he was a
disciple of St. John, and ordained by the apos
tles themselves. After having watched over
the steadfastness of his flock during the per
secution of Domitian, he was condemned by
Trajan to be thrown to the wild beasts in the
Roman amphitheatre, where, according to the
Martyrium, he suffered. The Greeks celebrate
his feast on Dec. 20, and the Latins on Feb. 1.
During his journey to Rome Ignatius wrote
seven epistles enumerated by Eusebius and Je
rome. They are addressed to the Romans, to
Polycarp, and to various Asiatic churches. At
present there are fifteen letters extant ascribed
to Ignatius. The seven mentioned by Eusebius,
according to the shorter Greek recension, are
generally accepted as genuine by Roman Cath
olic theologians ; the others arc considered
spurious. But a warm controversy has long
existed between the learned of various Protes
tant denominations regarding the genuineness
of all or some of the first seven. A Syriac
version of the epistles to the Ephesians, Ro
mans, and Polycarp was brought from a con
vent in the Nitrian desert to the British mu
seum in 1843, and edited in 1845 by Cureton.
It was maintained by the editor that these are
the only genuine epistles of Ignatius ; and this
conclusion was adopted by Dr. R. A. Lipsius,
Bnnsen, and some eminent Presbyterian au
thorities. Episcopal writers for the most part
contend that all of the seven epistles are genu
ine. The best editions of the Ignatian writings
are in Cautelier's Patres sEvi Apostolici (2
vols., Paris, 1672; 2d and more complete ed.,
Amsterdam, 1724), those by Jacobson (Oxford,
1838) andPetermann (Leip^ic, 1849), and Cure-
ton's Corpus Ifjnatiamim (London, 1849).

IGXATHS, Saint, patriarch of Constantinople,
born about 798, died Oct. 23, 878. lie was the
youngest son of the emperor Michael I., and
his original name was Nicetas ; but on the de
position of his father by Leo the Armenian, he
was made a eunuch by Leo and entered a mon
astery, assuming the name of Ignatius. lie
was raised to the patriarchate in 846. lie was
an enemy of the iconoclasts, and would not
suffer Gregorius Asbestus, bishop of Syracuse,
to be present at his consecration, because of
his heterodoxy. In 857 he refused to admit
Bardas, brother of the empress Theodora, as a
communicant, on account of his reported im
morality, whereupon the offender caused him
to be deposed, and Photius to be elected patri

arch in his place. After his deposition he was
treated with the greatest cruelty, and banished
to Mitylene ; but when Basil the Macedonian
ascended the throne in 867, he was recalled.

IGNATRS BEAN. See STKYCIIXIA.

IGNIS FATITS, a flickering light seen at night
over the surface of marshy grounds or grave
yards. Sometimes it moves quietly along, re
sembling the light of a lantern carried in the
hand ; and again it appears not alone, but two
or three together dancing merrily together up
and down. In the night mists it seems like
the light from some neighboring house ; and
many a traveller has been led by it into dan
gerous bogs, from which he found no escape
till the appearance of the morning light. It is
not strange that a character of mystery should
have attached to this luminous appearance, and
that the ignorant should have ascribed it to
some evil spirit. They called it " Will o' the
wisp" and "Jack with a lantern," and this
imaginary person is often alluded to by the old
English poets. It is commonly believed that
the light retires before one who pursues it ;
this notion is confirmed by the statements of
some observers, and disproved by those of
others. In Milner's "Gallery of Nature," p.
544, is recorded a statement of Mr. Blesson,
who carefully investigated the phenomena in
the forest of Gorbitz, in Brandenburg. On a
marshy spot he observed bluish purple flames
at night, where bubbles of air issued during
the day. These flames retired as he approach
ed, in consequence, he supposed, of the air be
ing agitated by his movement. When he stood
perfectly still they soon appeared within reach ;
and then, carefully guarding against disturbing
the air by his breath, he succeeded in singeing
a piece of paper, which became covered with a
viscous moisture. At last a narrow slip of pa
per took fire. By disturbing the air over the
spot he caused the flames to disappear entirely,
but in a few minutes after quiet was restored
they appeared again over the air bubbles, ap
parently without having communication with
any known source of flame. On suddenly in
troducing a torch after extinguishing the flame,
a kind of explosion Avas heard, and a red light
was seen over 8 or 9 sq. ft. of the marsh, which
diminished to a small blue flame from 2£ to 3
ft. high. lie concluded that the cause of the
ignis fatnus was the evolution of inflammable
gas from the marsh, and that the flames existed
by day as well as at night, though not then visi
ble. The lights seen occasionally over church
yards are of similar appearance to those de
scribed. These meteors are supposed to be the
result of the spontaneous combustion of in
flammable gases generated by the decomposi
tion of vegetable or animal bodies. Phosphu-
retted hydrogen, it is well known, bursts into
flame as it is allowed to escape into the air
from the vessels in which it is prepared. It is
produced by the decay of animal matters, and,
if thinly diffused here and there over the sur
face of a marsh, may present the changing,

ITS

IGUALADA

IGUANA

flickering light of the ignis fatuns, as difficult
to locate as the illumination of the fireflies,
for which it has been mistaken by several em
inent naturalists. What is known as marsh
gas is a highly inflammable carburetted hy
drogen, which bubbles up through the water
that covers boggy places, and may be inflamed
on the surface. Tliis may be ignited by phos-
phuretted hydrogen, and add to the extent and
permanence of the flames. The small quantity
of these combustible matters present in the air
will account for the feebleness of the flames,
which have rarely been known to set fire to
other substances ; and the varying quantity and
purity of that exhaled would explain the con
stantly shifting brightness of the light. Ac
cording to the account in the " Gallery of Na
ture" referred to, in the middle of the last
century the snow on the summit of the Apen
nines appeared enveloped in flame ; and in the
winter of 1693 hay ricks in Wales were set on
fire by burning gaseous exhalations.

IGUALADA, a town of Spain, in the province
and 33 m. N. W. of the city of Barcelona ; pop.
about 11,500. It stands on high ground, on
the left bank of the river Noya. The streets
are narrow, and the buildings packed closely
together, with little regard to elegance, com
fort, or cleanliness. Woollen and cotton goods,
paper, and firearms are manufactured, and
there are fairs in January and August.

IGUANA, a lizard constituting the type of the
family iguanidce. The family characters are :
a body covered with horny scales, without
bony plates or tubercles, not disposed in circu
lar imbricated series, and without large square
plates on the abdomen; there is generally
a crest along the back or the tail ; no large
polygonal scutes on the head ; the teeth some
times in a common alveolus, and sometimes
united to the free edge of the jaws ; tongue
thick, free only at the point, and without
sheath ; eyes with movable lids ; toes distinct,
free, and all unguiculated. The very numerous
genera of this family have been conveniently
divided into two subfamilies by Dumeril and
Bibron, according to the manner in which the
teeth are implanted. In the pleurodonts, all
but one American, the teeth are arranged in a
groove of the jaws, are attached to their inner
surface, and are often curiously flattened and
serrated on the free edge ; in the acrodonts, all
of the eastern hemisphere, there is no such
groove, and the teeth grow upon the edge of
the jaws. For the characters of the second
subfamily, having 15 genera and about GO spe
cies, see DIIAGOX, STELLIO, and the genus agama,
below. The pleurodonts comprise 31 genera
and more than 100 species ; anoUs and basiliscus
have been already noticed under those titles,
and the only genus here described will be iguana
(Laurent!). The characters of this genus are :
a very large thin dewlap under the throat ;
cephalic plates flat, unequal, and irregular ; a
double row of small palate teeth ; a crest on
the back and tail ; fingers and toes five, long,

of unequal lengths, the fourth of the hind foot
very long ; a single row of femoral pores ; tail
very long, slender, compressed, and covered
with small, regular, imbricated, ridged scales.
The common iguana (/. tuberculata, Laur.) at
tains a length of 4 or 5 ft., of which the tail is
about two thirds ; it is found in tropical South
America and the West Indies. The nasal open
ings are at the end of the obtuse muzzle ; the
teeth are about 50 in each jaw, with card-like
ones on the palate in two series ; the dewlap
is about as deep as the head, triangular, having
about a dozen serrations on its anterior border ;
along the neck and back is a comb-like crest of
about 55 scales, highest in this species, extend
ing on to the tail, where it becomes a simple
serrated ridge ; the femoral pores are 14 or 15,
widest and opening in a single scale in the
males. The color above is greenish, with blu
ish and slaty tints, and greenish yellow below ;
on the sides are generally brown zigzag bands

Iguana tuberculata.

with a yellow border, with a yellowish band
on the front of the shoulder ; some are dotted
with brown, with yellow spots on the limbs ;
the tail is ringed broadly with alternate brown
and yellowish green. The flesh of the iguana
is considered a great delicacy, though it is not
peculiarly wholesome. It passes most of its
time in trees, in which it is caught by slip
nooses ; it is said to be a good swimmer, and
some of the subfamily, as amblyrliynchus, pass
most of their time in the water, and even in
the sea. — The iguanas of the eastern hemis
phere, of the acrodont subfamily, are often
called agamas, from one of the principal genera.
The genus agama (Daudin) has a flat triangular
head, neck, and sometimes the ears spiny, body
covered with small imbricated scales, no dorsal
crest, tail long, slender, and rounded, anal but
no femoral pores, a longitudinal fold along the
throat, and sometimes a transverse one; the
teeth are united to the edge of the jaw, and
may be distinguished into posterior or molars

IGUANODOX

ILINIZA

179

and anterior or canines and incisors ; no teeth on
the palate. None of this subfamily are found
in America. The common agama (A. colono-
rum, Daudin) is the largest of the genus, being
from 12 to 16 in. long, of which the tail is
more than half ; it is found on the Guinea and

Agama colonorum.

Senegal coasts. The spiny agama (A. spinosa,
Seba) is short and thick, with short tail and
spiny scales ; it is about 7 in. long, and inhabits
the Cape of Good Hope. Some of the acro-
donts in Asia and Australia are of very strange
forms ; the habits and general appearance are
like those of the American iguanas.

IGUANQBON, a gigantic fossil saurian reptile,
discovered by Dr. Mantell in the Wealden for
mation of Great Britain in 1822, and so named
from the teeth resembling in shape those of
the iguana. The teeth of the iguanodon re
semble those of the iguana also in the elonga
tion and contraction of the base, the expansion

Iguanodon.

of the crown, the serration of the edges, and
the thin coating of enamel ; but the crown is
relatively thicker, with a more complicated ex
ternal and internal structure, and the roots are
placed in separate sockets as in the crocodile.
The vertebra) have slightly concave articular

surfaces on the body, with nearly flat sides;
the neural arch of the dorsals is high and ex
panded, as in other dinosaurians ; the antero-
posterior diameter is from 4- to 4£ in.; the
spinal canal is completely enclosed by the neu
ral arches ; the sacral region is of considerable
extent, and widely embraced by the iliac bones;
in the tail the spinous processes increase for
some distance below the sacrum and then di
minish, and this organ was probably relatively
shorter than in the iguana; the ribs are largely
developed in the thoracic and abdominal re
gions, and connected both with the body and
the transverse process of each vertebra, as in
other dinosaurians and in crocodiles, and unlike
the iguana and other lizards ; the scapular arch
is intermediate between the crocodilian and
lizard type, the clavicle being more than 3 ft.
long ; the pelvic arch has rather a lacertian
character ; the thigh bones are stout, and about
3 ft. long, with the head rounded and produced,
as in mammals, over the inner side of the shaft,
and a singularly flattened trochanter, and must
have supported the heavy body in a manner
like that of the large pachyderms ; the bones
of the leg are robust and about 2£ ft. long, and
the whole extremity bears little resemblance to
that of the iguana ; the feet resemble those of
saurians. This reptile has been estimated by
Owen as about 28 ft. in length, of which the
head was 3 and the tail 13 ft. ; it stood higher
on the legs than any existing saurian, and was
terrestrial in its habits ; the worn condition of
the teeth indicates that it was a herbivorous
animal. It belongs to the family of dinosan-
rians with mcgalosaurns, hylceosaurm, and
pelorosaurus, and is found in the Wealden and
cretaceous formations. The /. ManteHi (Cuv.),
from the characters of the worn dental surfaces,
must have performed a true process of masti
cation, and the glenoid cavity must have per
mitted a lateral movement of the lower jaw ;
the large facial foramina indicate more fleshy
cheeks and lips than in any existing saurians.
Dr. Mantell was of opinion that it had a nasal
integumental horn.

IHRE, Johan, a Swedish philologist, born in
Lund, March 3, 1707, died Dec. 1, 1780. His
father, of Scotch descent, was for a time pro
fessor of theology at Upsal. lie graduated at
the university in 1730, and in 1738 became
professor of belles-lettres and political science.
His Glossarium Sueco-Gothicum (2 vols., Upsal,
1769) was prepared under the patronage of the
government, which allowed him in 1756 a grant
of 10,000 Swedish dollars. His dissertations
on the Eddas and on Ultilas are important.

ILI, or Eeleo, a river of central Asia, which
rises on the northern slope of the mountains
of Thian-shan-nan-lu, traverses a part of east
ern Turkistan, and flows into Lake Tengiz or
Balkash, near the borders of Siberia. Its
length is about 450 m.

ILIAD. See HOMER.

ILIMZA, Illntesa, or Illinissa, Pyramids of, cer
tain peaks of the Cordilleras of Quito, in South

ISO

ILION

ILLINOIS

America, about 10 m. S. of Quito. They are
about 17,380 ft. high, and seem originally to
have constituted a single mountain, which has
been rent apart by volcanic forces. They are
visible not only from all parts of the country
intervening between the Cordilleras of Quito
and the Pacific, but from great distances at sea.

ILION, a village in the town of German Flats,
Ilerkimer co., New York, on the right bank of
the Mohawk river, and on the New York Cen
tral railroad and Erie canal, TO m. W. N. W.
of Albany; pop. in 1870, 2,876. It contains
two hotels, a national bank, a brewery, a
weekly newspaper, and several schools and
churches. It is chiefly noted as the seat of E.
Remington and sons' firearms manufactory, of
the Remington empire sewing-machine com
pany, and the Remington agricultural works,
which employ a large number of men. It was
incorporated in 1865.

ILISSIS, a river of Attica, rising near the
N. extremity of Mt. Hymettus, and flowing
through the S. part of Athens toward the
Phaleric bay, which it rarely reaches even in
the rainy season, while in summer it always
dries up in the vicinity of the city. The
spreading plane trees and verdant banks of
the Ilissus, which Plato immortalized in his
''Phcedrus," have given place to pigmy bushes
and sunburnt rocks.

ILIOI. See TEOT.

ILIYATS, or Eeliauts, a nomadic tribe of Per
sia, Kkiva, and Turkistan. The name Iliyat is
the plural of id (eel), a tribe, equivalent to the
Arabic kabilah. The Iliyats are mostly of
Turkish, Arabic, and Kurdish descent, and
form an important portion of the population
of Persia and adjacent countries ; their actual
numbers are not known, but it is said that the
Iliyat tribes tributary to Khiva numbered 195,-
000. They live in tents and have no settled
habitations, changing their places of encamp
ment with the season or climate. Some tribes
live solely by rapine and plunder ; others re
sort only occasionally to such means. They
have large flocks and herds, which they often
augment by taking those of their neighbors;
they are therefore much dreaded by the settled
and civilized population. The distances that
some of the Iliyat tribes travel in their annual
migrations are wonderful. From the southern
shores of Fars, the Kashkai tribe of Iliyats ar
rive in spring on the grazing grounds of Ispa
han, where they are met by the Bakhtiars
from the northern shores of the Persian gulf.
At the approach of winter both tribes return.
The Iliyats are Mohammedans of the Sunni
sect, but are not very strict in their religious
observances, and are not ruled like the towns
men by the mollah. In each province of Per
sia there are two chiefs acknowledged by all
the tribes. The chief of the Kashkai tribe,
which numbers more than 25,000 tents, is
obliged by the government to reside at Shiraz,
as a hostage for the good behavior of his clan,
though otherwise free to live as he pleases.

The Iliyat women are said to be chaste, and
many of the best families in Persia are of Iliyat
origin. The present royal family is of the Ka-
jar tribe, a Turkish iel, which came into Per
sia with Tamerlane. — See Mounsey's "Journey
through the Caucasus and the Interior of Per
sia" (London, 1872), and Markham's "History
of Persia" (London, 1874).

ILKESTON, a town of Derbyshire, England, 9
m. N. E. of Derby, on the Erwash Valley rail
way; pop. in 1871, 9,662. It is rapidly in
creasing in population, and contains a fine old
parish church and a mechanics' institute and
library. Hosiery and silk fabrics are manu
factured, and coal is mined.

ILLE-ET-VILAINE, a N. W. department of
France, in Brittany, bounded N. by the Eng
lish channel, and bordering on the departments
of Manche, Mayenne, Loire-Inferieure, Morbi-
han, and Cotes-du-Nord ; area, 2,596 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1872, 589,532. It is named after its
principal rivers, the Ille and Vilaine, the latter
flowing W. and S. W. through this department
and Morbihan to the Atlantic, and partly navi
gable, and the former joining it from the north
at Rennes. It is traversed from W. to E. by
the Armoric hills or Menez mountains. The
surface is irregular, and the soil generally poor.
Flax and hemp are extensively cultivated ; to
bacco is grown to some extent, as are grapes
and other fruit. The fisheries are important,
and excellent oysters are found in the bay of
Cancale. Several iron mines are worked ;
slate, quartz, limestone, and granite are quar
ried ; lead and copper ore are found ; mineral
springs are numerous. The manufactures con
sist chiefly of coarse linen and sail cloth. The
coasting trade is active. It is one of the poor
est French departments. It is divided into the
arrondissements of Rennes, Fougeres, Mon1>
fort, St. Malo, Vitre, and Redon. The princi
pal seaport is St. Malo. Capital, Rennes.

ILLINOIS, a tribe of North American Indians,
of the Algonquin family, comprising the Peo-
rias, Moingwenas, Kaskaskias, Tamaroas, and
Cahokias. At an early period, aided perhaps
by the Delawares on the east, they drove the
Quapaws, a Dakota tribe whom they styled
Arkansas, from the Ohio to the southern Mis
sissippi. About It340 they nearly exterminated
the Winnebagoes. They were at war with the
Iroquois from about 1656, and with the Sioux
soon after. The French, by their missionaries,
first met the Illinois af Chegoimegon on Lake
Superior in 1667; in 1672 Marquette found
the Peorias and Moingwenas in three towns
west of the Mississippi, near the Des Moines,
as well as Peorias and Kaskaskias on the Illi
nois. The Tamaroas were on the Mississippi,
and a tribe called the Michigameas, who seem
to have been really Quapaws, also belonged to
the confederacy. The Illinois at this time
were numerous and brave, expert bowmen,
but not canoe men. They moved off to the
plains beyond the Mississippi in villages for a
short summer hunt, and for a winter hunt of

ILLINOIS

181

four or five months. Then they would gather
in a large town, of arbor-like cabins covered
with double water-proof mats, with generally
four fires to a cabin, and two families to a fire.
Allouez, Membre, and other missionaries found
the chief Illinois town consisting of 300 to 400
cabins and 8,000 people. They were badly
defeated by the Iroquois in 1679, shortly after
La Salle reached there, and in the war lost 300
or 400 killed and 900 prisoners ; but they re
covered and aided the French in their opera
tions against the Iroquois, sending their con
tingent to the expeditions of De la Barre and
Denonville. Although constantly at war and
greatly addicted to vices, they listened to the
French missionaries Marquette, Allouez, Gra-
vicr, and others, who finally converted them
all, and greatly improved their condition. In
1700 Chicago, their great chief, visited France,
and was highly esteemed. His son of the
same name retained the great influence of his
father till his death in 1754. In 1700 the
Kaskaskias removed from the upper waters of
the Illinois to the spot that bears their name, led
by their chief Roinsac, who wished to emi
grate to Louisiana. In 1712 they marched to
Detroit to relieve that post, then besieged by
the Foxes. In the war with that tribe they
suffered severely, and the Illinois of the Rock
and of Pimiteouy were driven from their vil
lages. In 1719 the whole nation was reduced
to^3,000 souls. They remained faithful to the
French in the Natchez troubles, and sent a
force on D'Artaguette's fatal expedition against
the Chickasaws. Although they lost constant
ly in their war with the Foxes, their head chief
Papape Changouhias led a force with Villiers
against some of the frontier posts in Virginia
in April, 1756, and captured a small fort.
They took no part in Pontiac's war ; but when
that chieftain was killed in one of their towns,
the Foxes renewed the war. They joined the
Miamis in their war against the United States,
but made peace at Greenville, Aug. 3, 1795.
By act of March 3, 1791, 350 acres were se
cured to the Kaskaskias, and the right of loca
ting 1,280 acres in addition. Gen. Harrison in
1803 negotiated a treaty at Vincennes, in which
their decline was recited, an annuity of $1,000
given, and provision made for building a house
for the chief and a Catholic church, as well as
for the maintenance of a priest. The Peorias,
who were not parties to this treaty, joined in
that of Edwardsville, Sept. 25, 1818, by which
the Illinois ceded all their lands in the state
for $2,000 in goods and a 12 years' annuity
of $300. The Peorias, to the number of 100,
were on Blackwater river, Missouri, and 36
Kaskaskias remained in Illinois. By the treaty
of October, 1832, they again ceded lands, re
ceiving a large tract further west, with some
cash and an outlay for erecting dwellings and
supplying agricultural implements. They were
placed within the limits of the present state of
Kansas, where they remained till 1867. They
seemed to improve, but lost in numbers, so

that in 1854 they confederated with the Weas
and Piankeshaws. In 1867 they were again
removed, and placed southwest of the Qua-
paws, on a reservation of 72,000 acres. Here
they remain, but the whole Illinois nation had
dwindled in 1872 to some 40 souls; the com
bined tribe of Weas, Piankeshaws, Peorias, and
Kaskaskias numbering only 160 in all. The
United States government in 1873 held stocks
for their benefit amounting to $124,747 94, and
a balance at interest of $64,164 69. The lan
guage of the Illinois was reduced to grammati
cal rules by Pere Gravier, and Pere le Boulanger
drew up a very full grammar and dictionary.

ILLINOIS, one of the interior states of the
American Union, the eighth admitted under
the federal constitution, and now the fourth
in population. It is situated between lat. 36°
59' and 42° 30' K, and Ion. 87° 35' and 91° 40'
W. ; extreme length N". and S. 385 m., extreme
breadth E. and W. 218 m. ; area, 55,410 sq. m.
It is bounded X. by Wisconsin, N. E. by Lake

State Seal of Illinois.

Michigan, E. by Indiana, from which it is sepa
rated in part by the W abash river, S. E. and S.
by Kentucky, from which it is separated by the
Ohio, and S. W. and TV. by Missouri and Iowa,
from which it is separated by the Mississippi.
The state is divided into 102 counties, viz. : Ad
ams, Alexander, Bond, Boone, Brown, Bureau,
Calhoun, Carroll, Cass, Champaign, Christian,
Clark, Clay, Clinton, Coles, Cook, Crawford,
Cumberland, De Kalb, De Witt, Douglas, Du
Page, Edgar, Edwards, Effingliam, Fayette, Ford,
Franklin, Fulton, Gallatin, Greene, Grundy,
Hamilton, Hancock, Ilardin, Henderson, Henry,
Iroquois, Jackson, Jasper, Jefferson, Jersey, Jo
Daviess, Johnson, Kane, Kankakee, Kendall,
Knox, Lake, La Salle, Lawrence, Lee, Living
stone, Logan, McDonough, McIIenry, McLean,
Macon, Macoupin, Madison, Marion, Marshall,
Mason, Massac, Menard, Mercer, Monroe, Mont
gomery, Morgan, Moultrie, Ogle, Peoria, Perry,
Piatt, Pike, Pope, Pulaski, Putnam, Randolph,
Richland, Rock Island, St. Clair, Saline, Sanga-
mon, Schuyler, Scott, Shelby, Stark, Stephen-
son, Tazewell, Union, Vermilion, W abash, War-

182

ILLINOIS

ren, Washington, Wayne, White, Whitesides,
Will, Williamson, Winnebago, and Woodt'ord.
Springfield, near the geographical centre of
the state, lat. 39° 48' N., Ion. 89° 45' W., is the
seat of government ; it is situated in the midst
of a fine agricultural district, and has an active
trade, being well supplied with railroad trans
portation. Chicago is the commercial metropo
lis, and the largest city on the northern lakes.
Kaskaskia and Oahokia are the oldest towns in
Illinois, having been founded by the French
some time between 1680 and 1690. Kaskaskia
was the first capital, and so remained till 1818,
when the government was removed to Vanda-
lia, and thence to Springfield in 1836. Ac
cording to the census of 1870, the cities of Illi
nois were: Alton, pop. 8,665; Amboy, 2,825;
Anna, 1,269; Aurora, 11,162; Belleville, 8,146;
Bloomington, 14,590; Bushnell, 2,003; Cairo,
6,267; Centralia, 3,190; Champaign, 4,625;
Chicago, 298,977; Danville, 4,751; Decatur,
7,161; Dixon, 4,055; Elgin, 5,441 ; El Paso,
1,564; Freeport, 7,889; Galena, 7,019; Gales-
burg, 10,158 ; Jacksonville, 9,203 ; Joliet, 7,263 ;
La Salle, 5,200; Litchfield, 3,852; Macornb,
2,748; Mendota, 3,546; Monmouth, 4,662;
Morris, 3,138; Mount Carmel, 1,640; Olney,
2,860; Ottawa, 7,736; Pekin, 5,696; Peoria,
22,849; Peru, 3,650; Quincy, 24,052; Rock-
ford, 11,049; Rock Island, 7,890; Shelbyville,
2,051; Springfield, 17,364; Sterling, 3,998;
Watseka, 1,551; and Waukegan, 4,507. The
population of Illinois has been as follows :

CENSUS
YEARS.

White.

Free

colored.

Slaves.

Total.

Rank.

1810
IS'20

11.501

53,783

613

457

168
917

12,282
55.211

23
24

1830
1840
1850
1860
1870

155,061
472,2-54
846,034
1,704.291
2,511,096

1,637
8,598
5,436

7,628
28,762

747
331

157.445
476,183
851,470
1,711,951
2.539,891

20
14
11
4
4

Of the total population in 1870, 1,316,537 were
males and 1,223,354 females; 2,024,693 were
of native and 515,198 of foreign birth. Of
the former, 1,189,503 were born in the state;
of the foreigners, 32,550 were born in British
America, 3,711 in Denmark, 10,911 in France,
203,758 in Germany, 53,871 in England, 120,-
162 in Ireland, 15,737 in Scotland, 3,146 in
Wales, 4,180 in Holland, 11,880 in Norway,
29,979 in Sweden, and 8,980 in Switzerland.
The density of population was 45-84 to the
square mile. There were 474,533 families, with
an average of 5 '35 persons to each, and 464,-
155 dwellings, with an average of 5*47 persons
to each. The increase of population from 1860
to 1870 was 48-36 per cent. The number of
male citizens 21 years old and upward was
542,833. There were in the state 818,766 per
sons from 5 to 18 years of age; the number
that attended school was 548,225; 86,368, 10
years of age and over, could not read, and
133,584 could not write. Of the latter, 90,595
were of native and 42,989 of foreign birth;

54,671 were white males, and 69,053 white
females; 4,924 were colored males, and 5,024
colored females; 12,525 were from 10 to 15
years old. 15,340 from 15 to 21, and 105,709
21 and over, of whom 40,081 were white males,
56,857 white females, 3,969 colored males, and
4,082 colored females. The proportion of illit
erates 10 years of age and upward to the total
population of the same age was 7'38 per cent,
being 6 -29 for males and 8*59 for females.
The proportion of illiteracy among adults was
7*16 per cent, for males and 11 '16 for females.
The number of persons supported by public
charity during the year ending June 1, 1870,
was 6,054, at a cost of $556,061 ; there were
receiving support June 1, 1870, 2,363, of whom
1,254 were native and 1,109 foreign born.
The number of persons convicted of crime
during the year was 1,552. Of the total num
ber (1,795) in prison June 1, 1870, 1,372 were
native born and 423 foreigners. There were
1,042 blind, 833 deaf and dumb, 1,625 insane,
and 1,244 idiotic. Of the total population 10
years old and over (1,809,606), there Avere en
gaged in all occupations 742,015 ; in agricul
ture, 376,441, including 133,649 agricultural
laborers, 240,256 farmers and planters, and
2,162 gardeners and nurserymen; in profes
sional and personal services, 151,931, of whom
3,192 were clergymen, 44,903 domestic ser
vants, 431 journalists, 63,130 laborers not spe
cified, 2,683 lawyers, 4,861 physicians and sur
geons, 8,869 teachers not specified ; in trade and
transportation, 80,422 ; and in manufactures
and mechanical and mining industries, 133,221,
of whom 9,412 were blacksmiths, 6,279 boot and
shoe makers, and 23,040 carpenters and joiners.
The total number of deaths from all causes, as
reported by the census of 1870, was 33,672, the
percentage of deaths to the population being
1-33 ; from consumption, 3,641, there being 9-2
deaths from all causes to 1 from consumption.
There were 2,882 deaths from pneumonia, 2,162
from scarlet fever, 888 from intermittent and
remittent fevers, and 2,551 from diarrho?a,
dysentery, and enteritis. — Illinois occupies the
lower part of that inclined plane of which Lake
Michigan and both its shores are the higher sec
tions. Down this plane in a very nearly S. W.
direction the principal rivers have their courses
to the Mississippi. The lowest section of this
plane is also the extreme S. angle of the state,
and is only 340 ft. above the gulf of Mexico.
The greatest elevation of the country is 1,150
ft., and the mean elevation about 550 ft.,
above tide water. Next to Louisiana and Dela
ware, indeed, Illinois is the most level state of
the Union. A small tract in the N. W. corner
of the state around Galena, which includes the
lead mines, is hilly and somewhat broken, and
there are bluffs on the Mississippi and Illinois
rivers ; but by far the greater portion of the
surface consists of vast level or gently undula
ting prairies. A low mountain ridge extends
across the S. end of the state, from Grand
Tower on the Mississippi to Shawneetown

ILLINOIS

183

on the Ohio, constituting the fruit region of
southern Illinois. The chief rivers within the
state are the Rock, Illinois, and Kaskaskia,
affluents of the Mississippi ; the Embarras and
Little Wabash, tributaries of the W abash ;
and the Saline and Cash, which fall into the
Ohio. The Illinois is much the largest of
these ; its constituents are the Kankakee from
Indiana and the Des Plaines from Wiscon
sin, and in its entire course of nearly 500 m.
(245 navigable) to the Mississippi it receives
the Fox and Spoon rivers and Crooked creek
from the right, and the Vermilion, Mack
inaw, Sangamon, &c., from the left. It has a
wide deep bed, and in some parts opens into
broad and lake-like expanses. Rock river
also rises in Wisconsin, and has a course of
300 m. to the Mississippi; it is imperfectly
navigable for 75 m., and its upper course is
impeded by rapids. The Kaskaskia has its
sources in Champaign co. (in which also rise
the Sangamon, Embarras, and the southern
constituents of the Vermilion), and pursues
a direction nearly parallel with the Illinois;
it has a length of 250 m. The Big Muddy,
an affluent of the Mississippi, between the
Ohio and the Kaskaskia, is also a considerable
stream. The rivers flowing into the Ohio and
Wabash are generally of less volume than the
smaller class of streams flowing into the Mis
sissippi, but several are navigable. Chicago
river falls into Lake Michigan; it is formed
by the union of its 1ST. and S. branches about 1
m. from the lake. Both branches are deep
(12 to 15 ft.), and in connection with the main
river form a spacious harbor, which has been
much improved by the extension of piers far
into the lake. The S. branch is connected
with the navigable Illinois at Peru by the Illi
nois and Michigan canal, 96 m. long. — Not
withstanding the general uniformity of the
surface, Illinois is not destitute of interesting
scenery. The river bluffs contrast strikingly
with the smooth prairies. The most remark
able of these elevations are on the Mississippi,
and are from 100 to 400 ft, high. Fountain
bluff in Jackson co. is oval, m. in circuit
and 300 ft. high ; the top is full of sink holes.
Starved Rock and Lover's Leap are eminences
on the Illinois; the first named is a perpendic
ular mass of limestone and sandstone, 8 m. be
low Ottawa, rising 156 ft. above the river, and
the latter a ledge of precipitous rocks some
distance above Starved Rock. Nearly oppo
site Lover's Leap is Buffalo Rock, 60 ft. high,
precipitous toward the river, but sloping in
land. The Cave in the Rock, in Ilardin co.,
on the Ohio, presents on approach a vast mass
of rocks, some resembling castellated ruins,
and others jutting out in a variety of forms.
The entrance to the cave, which is little above
high water, is a semicircular hole 80 ft. wide
and 25 ft. high, and the cave so far as explored
consists of a chamber 80 ft. long, at the end of
which is a small opening which probably leads
into a second chamber. In the earlier days of

settlement it was the abode of bands of rob
bers and river pirates. — The unbroken surface
of Illinois affords a drainage extending from
the borders of Lake Michigan toward the west
and southwest across the entire state. The
post-tertiary clay and sands containing fresh
water shells of living species, found a few feet
above the level of the lake, and forming its
banks, indicate that at no remote geological
period the land was somewhat less elevated
than at present ; and the valley of the Illinois
with its strongly marked terraced walls of
limestone, so disproportioned to the small
river that flows between them, would seem to
owe its origin to mightier currents, and to
point to a time when the great lakes found
an outlet by this way to the Mississippi and
the gulf of Mexico. The state has been de
scribed and mapped as one great coal field ;
but as the arrangement of the strata has been
more carefully studied, this statement is to be
received with some modifications. Still, the
prevailing rocks throughout the state are
those of the coal measures. They occupy
most of the country lying S. of a line traced
from the mouth of Rock river E. to La Salle
co., and thence S. E., crossing the line of In
diana. The formation covers a large portion
of the W. part of Indiana, and stretches S. into
Kentucky. Its W. margin is near the Missis
sippi river, along which a belt of the under
lying carboniferous limestone comes up, and
cuts off the coal formation on that side. The
included area, reckoned as one coal field, covers
about 40,400 sq. m., of which 30,000 are in Illi
nois. The most important veins are from 6 to
8 ft. thick. (See COAL, vol. iv., p. 738.) The
importance of the coal beds in Illinois is greatly
enhanced by their position, conveniently near
the Mississippi or the Ohio, and to the railroads,
which traverse the state from N. to S. and from
E. to W. ; and more than 2,000,000 tons per an
num are now mined in the state. The iron
ores found in the coal measures are of little
value. The N. W. corner of Illinois includes a
I portion of the great western lead-hearing belt,
1 Though in Illinois but a small district, compri
sing part of Jo Davicss co., contains the lower
Silurian limestones in which the lead ores are
found, the mines have proved so productive
that the metal ranks as one of the important
products of the state. Salt is chiefly a product
of the southern section, and is found in springs
about the head waters of Big Muddy river,
Saline creek, and the Little Wabash. Sulphu
rous and chalybeate springs exist in several
localities. — The soils of Illinois nre of diluvial
origin, and it is probable that in the early geo
logical ages the whole state was a portion of
the bed of a great lake. The prnirie soils are
deep, fertile, and rockless, and produce a luxu
riant growth of native grasses nnd vegetation,
which formerly sustained countless herds of
buffaloes. The largest of the prairies is that
between the streams flowing into the Wabash
and those which enter the Mississippi. This

ILLINOIS

is called the Grand Prairie, but is properly a
combination of small prairies partially sepa
rated by tracts or groves of timber. The bar
rens, or oak openings, as they are here called,
have frequently a thin soil. In the bottoms
or alluvial borders of the rivers the soil is
chiefly formed from the deposits of the waters
during floods. In some cases the mould so
formed is more than 25 ft. deep, and of inex
haustible fertility. One fifth of the alluvial
land, however, is unfit for present cultivation,
but is productive of timber. A tract called
the American bottom, extending along the
Mississippi for 90 m., and about 5 m. in aver
age breadth, is of this formation. About the
French towns it has been cultivated and pro
duced Indian corn every year without being
manured for nearly two centuries. In every
part of the state the plough may pass over
thousands of acres without meeting even so
much as a pebble to impede its course. — The
native animals are now almost extinct, but
Illinois still has abundance of game, and its
northern rivers abound in trout and other fish.
The kinds of timber most abundant are oak,
black walnut, ash, elm, sugar maple, locust,
linden, hickory, pecan, and persimmon. In
the south and east yellow poplar and beech are
the peculiar growths, and near the Ohio are
clumps of a yellow pine and cedar. The bot
toms produce cottonwood, sycamore, &c. Il
linois indeed is abundantly supplied with tim
ber, but it is unequally distributed, and im
mense tracts are entirely bare. The fruit trees
embrace the apple, peach, cherry, plum, &c.,
and the grape is largely cultivated. The pre
vailing winds are N. and N. W. and S. and S.
AV., the former in the winter months, and the
latter during the remainder of the year. The
evenness of the surface allows of their free
passage, and the atmosphere is in constant mo
tion. Hence the winters are excessively cold,
and the summers more than usually hot. The
summer heat, however, is greatly modified and
refreshed by the ever present breezes ; and on
the whole the climate is favorable for outdoor
occupations, the proportion of clear and cloudy
days being about 245 of the former to 120 of
the latter. The mean annual temperature on
the 40th parallel is about 54°, that of summer
77° and that of winter 33^° F. These figures,
however, will vary considerably N. and S. of
the parallel indicated ; at Beloit on the X. line
the mean temperature is 47i°, and at Cairo, the
S. angle of the state, 58£°. Vegetation begins
with April, and the first killing frosts occur
near the end of September. The general salu
brity of the climate is well attested; but fe
vers and fluxes are frequently prevalent in the
river bottoms and in the swamps which cover
a large part of the southern section. The up
land prairies are almost free from endemic dis
orders. — Illinois is in the front rank of agri
cultural states. According to the census of
1870, it contained more acres of improved
land, and produced more wheat, Indian corn,

and oats, than any other state. In the pro
duction of barley it ranked next to California
and New York ; of flax, 'next to Ohio and New
York ; of rye, next to Pennsylvania and New
York ; and of wool, next to Ohio, California,
New York, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, In
the value of all live stock on farms it was sur
passed only by New York, and contained more
swine and horses than any other state, more
milch cows than any other except New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and more sheep than
any other except Ohio, California, New York,
Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. The
state contained 10,329,952 acres of improved
land, 5,061,578 of woodland, and 1,491,331 of
other unimproved land. The total number
of farms was 202,803, including 53,240 having
from 20 to 50 acres, 68,130 from 50 to 100,
65,940 from 100 to 500, 1,367 from 500 to
1,000, and 302 containing 1,000 acres and over.
The cash value of farms was $920,506,346 ; of
farming implements and machinery, $35,576,-
587; total amount of wages paid during the
year, including value of board, $22,338,767;
total estimated value of all farm productions,
including betterments and additions to stock,
$210,860,585; orchard products, $3,571,789;
produce of market gardens, $765,992; forest
products, $1,087,144; home manufactures,
$1,408,015 ; animals slaughtered or sold for
slaughter, $56,718,944; value of all live stock,
$149,756,698. There were 853,738 horses, 85,-
075 mules and asses, 640,321 milch cows, 19,-
766 working oxen, 1,055,499 other cattle,
1,568,286 sheep, and 2,703,343 swine. The
chief productions were: 10,133,207 bushels of
spring and 19,995,198 of winter wheat, 2,456,-
578 of rye, 129,921,395 of Indian corn, 42,780,-
851 of oats, 2,480,400 of barley, 168,862 of
buckwheat, 115,854 of peas and beans, 10,944,-
790 of Irish and 322,641 of sweet potatoes,
10,486 Ibs. of clover seed, 153,464 of grass seed,
280,043 of flax seed, 2,747,339 tons of hay,
465 bales of cotton, 5,249,274 Ibs. of tobacco,
5,739,249 of wool, 36,083,405 of butter, 1,161,-
103, of cheese, 104,032 of hops, 2,204,406 of
flax, 136,873 of maple sugar, 1,547,178 of
honey, 146,262 of wax, 1,960,473 gallons of
sorghum molasses, 10,378 of maple molasses,
111.882 of wine, and 9,258,545 of milk sold.
In 1872 there were 2,093,308 acres of wheat
under cultivation; Indian corn, 7,087,040;
oats, 1,817,463; meadows, 2,178,237; other
field products, 886,166; in enclosed pasture,
3,807,082; in orchard, 320,702; and in wood
land, 6,289,236. There were 930,947 horses,
assessed at $48. 790, 933; 2,014,801 cattle, $35,-
742,563; 98,316 mules and asses, $5,809,494;
1,092,080 sheep, $2,140,474; hogs, 3,560,083,
$11,285,464. — In manufacturing industry, Illi
nois is also classed among the first states of the
Union. According to the census of 1870 it
ranked sixth both in the amount of capital in
vested in manufactures and in the value of
products. In the total amount of capital it was
surpassed by Pennsylvania, New York, Massa-

ILLINOIS

185

chusetts, Ohio, and Connecticut; in the value
of products by New York, Pennsylvania, Mas
sachusetts, Ohio, and Missouri. Jn the value
of the products of butchering, distilled liquors,
planed lumber, and pork packed, Illinois ranked
first. The relation of the state to the United
States in these industries is shown in the fol
lowing statement of the total value of products :

March 1, 1874, was 5,383,810, the aggregate
gross weight of which was 1,444,311,304 Ibs. ;
of these, 1,870,855, weighing in the aggregate
511,807,475 Ibs., were packed in Illinois. The
aggregate cost of the hogs was $22,694,399, and
the total product of lard 69,808,163 Ibs. The
chief centres of this industry for two years
are shown in the following statement :

INDUSTRIES.

United States.

Illinois.

Butchering

$13,686.001

$4,251,712

Liquors, distilled
Lumber planed

3(5,191,133
42 179 702

7,888,751
7 290 465

I'ork, packed

50 429,331

19,818,851

In the production of grease and tallow Illi
nois ranks next to New York; in agricultural
implements, next to Ohio and New York ; in
carriages and wagons, next to New York and
Pennsylvania; in oil, next to Missouri and
Ohio ; in saddlery and harness, next to Mis
souri, New York, and Pennsylvania ; in sash,
doors, and blinds, next to New York, Pennsyl
vania, Ohio, and Missouri; in men's clothing,
next to New York, Pennsylvania, Massachu
setts and Ohio. From the above table it ap
pears that more than one third in value of
all the pork packed in the United States in
1870 was contributed by Illinois. Formerly
the supremacy in this respect was held by
Ohio, in consequence of the magnitude of this
industry in Cincinnati ; but since 1862-'3 that
supremacy has been held by Chicago. Accord
ing to a careful report prepared for the Cincin
nati chamber of commerce by Sidney D. Max
well, the number of hogs packed in the south
ern and western states from Nov. 1, 1873, to

PLACES WHERE PACKED.

NUMBER OF IIOG8 PACKED.

1S72- 1 3.

1873-'4.

Barrv

9,607
10,200
1,425.079
29.000
17.01H
4.983
6,000
102.500
51,983

11,000
11,808
1,520.024
20.000
10.327
16,451
12.000
68,150
54,293

Charleston

Chicago

Galena

Lacon .

Mattoon

Pekin

Peoria

Quiucy

Total

1,834,218

1,870,855

The growth of this industry in Illinois has
been very rapid ; thus the number of hogs
packed was 805,843 in 1868-'9, 862,412 in
1869-'70, 1,240,959 in 1870-'71, and 1,631,026
in 1871 -'2. The total number of manufactu
ring establishments reported by the census of
1870 was 12,597, using 2,330 steam engines of
73,091 horse power, and 528 water wheels of
12,593 horse power, and employing 82,979
hands, of whom 73,045 were males above 16,
6,717 females above 15, and 3,217 youth. The
capital invested amounted to $94,368,057;
wages paid during the year, $31,100,244; value
of materials, $127,600,077; of products, $205,-
620,672. The chief industries are exhibited in
the following table :

INDUSTRIES.

No. of
establish
ments.

Steam
engine*,
horse
power.

Water
wheels,
horse
power.

Hands
emiluyed.

Capital
invested.

Wajres

paid.

Value of
materials.

Value of

products.

Agricultural implements

Boots and shoes

294
1,210

2,575

3.035
4.600

$5.850.978
2,190.615

$1,813.835
I,0s4,164

13,598,897
2.079.047

$8,880.390
4.443 794

Butcherin" 1

883

575.800

150.608

8,375.07!)

4 251 712

Carpentering and building

1,089

227

3.555

1,097,035

1.867,752

3.809.002

6,785.264

Carriages and wagons

1,165

606

100

4,847

3.429,426

1.775,946

2,213.297

019 291

Cars, freight and passenger
Clothing, men's
" women's . ...

5
873

205

849
5,939
713

959.000
2.556.810
229,945

501.978
1,706.210
181.845

4H2.285
4.564.196
614.08S

1,010.007
7,429,863

977 042

Flouring and grist mill products
Furniture, not specified

941
850
19

28,877
1,087
126

8,903
76

4.457
2,059

450

14.826,562
1,655,156
4 581 550

1,881.475
851.140
441 737

35.430.716

888,956
596 ^.87

43,876,775
2.614.141
2 C07 1*3

Grease and tallow

130

284,500

42,420

1.270.480

1 412 900

Iron, forged and rolled
" nails and spikes, cut and wrought.
" castings, not specified
Leather tanned

8
4
109
53

8,721
115

1,540
529

'"9
217
5

1,749
192
1,793
418

2,390.000
156,200
2.167.885
89 750

1,068,082
110.785
957.927
203315

1.917.422
554.750
2,0514.020
1 492 078

3,430.746
804.644
8,7x\!'58
2 018 "74

" curried
Liquors, distilled.

2.308

834

958

880.550
2513000

169.129
550,116

1.748.299
4.875011

2.134.389
7 b8* 751

" malt

149

1,261

997

4 884 900

481 0^6

2 0°3 306

4154- W 4

Lumber, planed
sawed
Machinery, not specified
u railroad repairing
" steam engines and boilers.
Meat, packed, pork

511
80
15
86
83

2.069
12,382
735
51!)
78
663

606

"20

1,920
3.100
1,097
2.16!)
837
22H6

2.238,200
2.542,530
2.449.000
2.068.800
'957.800
6 921 000

851.021
817.212
1,062.378
1,228.506
469.S91
448 500

5.412.1U2
2,163.055
1.23Mi*8
921.0^7
6 15.( '51
10836541

7.2510.465
4.546.769
2.MN797
2.183.1113
1.896.SM
19,*1\*51

Oil animal

121

20 ( i 500

1 301 M)0

1 4** 7('0

" linseed
Saddlery and harness

9
687

834

155
1 932

545.500
1 086815

64.050
515400

924.282
1 341 002

1.154.033
2.581.416

Bash doors and blinds

1 902

298

1 407

1 14( 1 350

(566,765

9903115

2 316 020

Soap and candles
Tobacco, chewing, smoking, and snuff.
" cigars

24
87
237

417
240

205
1.650
1 0'?5

740.500
917.550
1 04" 070

83.530
436.475
845 *?09

937.998

1.517.945
5->8 <)77

1.250.D80
8.005,769
1.318.947

"Woollen goods

2.132

475

1680

2>23'.193

581,154

1.610,6J>2

2,725.690

186

ILLINOIS

— Illinois possesses remarkable commercial fa
cilities in the Mississippi and Ohio rivers on its
borders, besides numerous internal streams of
importance. Bordering for about 70 m. on
Lake Michigan, it is favorably situated for the
immense lake commerce which centres at Chi
cago. This comprises not only the vast do
mestic trade for which this city is noted, but
also a considerable foreign trade carried on
with Canada and European ports. Provision
was made for direct commercial relations be
tween Chicago and foreign ports by the act of
July 14, 1870, which authorizes the transship
ment in bond of exports and imports to and
from the ports of first arrival, without ap
praisement and payment of duties at such
ports. The value of foreign imports received
at Chicago under this system during the year
ending June 30, 1873, was $3,160,756. 'The
total value of foreign imports subject to duty
during the year was $3,699,852, on which the
duties collected amounted to $1,535,631. The
value of domestic produce exported from Chi
cago to Canada by lake was $7,107,468; the
most important items were wheat, $5,737,022,
and Indian corn, $1,069,586. The leading
article of import from Canada is lumber, of
which 7,516,000 ft. was imported in 1873.
The total number of vessels belonging to the
customs district of Chicago in 1873 was 743,
having an aggregate tonnage of 148,595 ; of
these, 101 were sailing, 131 steam, and 511 un
rigged vessels. The aggregate number of ves
sels that arrived was 11,858, having a tonnage
of 3,225,911; of these, 22 were American ves
sels from foreign ports, 189 foreign vessels
from foreign ports, and 11,647 were in the
coasting trade. The number of clearances was
11,876, of which 483 were for foreign and 11,-
398 for domestic ports. Illinois has four
ports of delivery, which, with the number and
tonnage of vessels registered, enrolled, and
licensed in 1873, were : Galena, 60 vessels, 7,781
tons ; Quincy, 23 vessels, 2,443 tons ; Alton, 5
vessels, 893 tons; Cairo, 36 vessels, 8,221 tons.

Ship building is carried on at Chicago, Cairo,
and Quincy. In 1873, 21 vessels of 5,499 tons,
including 10 sailing and 8 steam vessels, were
built at Chicago, 4 at Cairo, and 1 at Quincy.
— Illinois contains more miles of railroad than
any other state in the Union. In 1850 the
number of miles was 111. In the following
year the construction of the Illinois Central,
from the southern terminus of the Illinois and
Michigan canal to Cairo, was begun, thus open
ing a channel of communication between Lake
Michigan and the Mississippi river. The sub
sequent growth of the railroad system of the
state was rapid. In 1855 there were 887 m. ;
in 1860, 2,790; in 1865, 3,157; in 1870, 4,823;
in 1871, 5,904; and in 1872, 6,361. In 1873
the total mileage of main track completed and
in operation, exclusive of double, side, and
turnout tracks, was 6,496 ; in addition to which
numerous lines were projected and in progress.
The aggregate cost of the roads and equip
ments was reported by the railroad commis
sioners at $238,584,541 in 1872, and $278,386,-
784 in 1873. In 1872 the capital stock paid
in was $140,126,064; funded debts, $111,456,-
325; floating debts, 330,173; amount of paid-
up stock and debts, $254,912,563. In August,
1873, the length of main track was returned by
the state board of equalization at 5,064 m. ;
assessed at $36,271,184; side, second, or turn
out track, 863 m., valued at $4,008,818; value
of rolling stock, $15,892,015 ; total value of
property denominated railroad track and roll
ing stock, $59,317,409; right of way and im-
prov.ement, 64,733 acres, valued at $3,145,173.
This statement does not include the Illinois
Central railroad, 705 m. The following table
exhibits the names of the lines lying wholly or
partly within the state, together with the ter
mini, the number of miles completed and in
operation within the state limits in 1873, the
capital stock as reported by the commission
ers, and the assessed value of the track and
rolling stock as returned by the state board of
equalization in August, 1873 :

Total

1'iii'th

when

Total assessed

Capital stock

NAME OF CORPORATION.

TERMINI.

pleted

different

value of rail
road track and

paid in,

mil s.

from
pre

rolling stock.

ceding.

Cairo and St. Louis

151

$343 949

$S3 000

Cairo and Vincennes

155

1 134 757

Carbondale and Shawneetown

135 003

355 500

Chester and Tamaroa

2>5 097

1,000,000

Chicago and Alton (main line)

Joliet and Fast St Louis

242

4 0(50 7S4

11 000 000

Branches J

TKvight to Washington and Lacon . . .

Roodhouse to Louisiana, Mo

Leased by Chi- j Joliet and Chicago

Joliet and Chicago

535,452

cago and Alton.] St.Louis,Jacksonville.&Chicago

Bloomington and Godfrey

151

1,560.937

Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy (main line) . -J

Chicago to Burlington, la
; Galesbur" to Quincy

207
99

10,148,147

18,652,910

Galesbur" to Peoria

• Aurora to Galena Junction

, Geneva to Streator

Branches -

i Mendota to Clinton

....

Galva to Keithsburg..

Burlinirton. la., to Quincy. . .

Shabbona to Hock Falls. . .

ILLINOIS

1ST

NAME OF CORPORATION.

TERMINI.

Length
com
pleted
in state,
mllei.

Total
length
when
different
from
pre
ceding.

Total assessed
value of rail
road trick and
rolling stock.

Capital stock
paid in,

1672.

Dalton and Danville

108

$1,045817

Chicago and Iowa

Aurora and Foreston

781.207
5,723,641

$6,103962

242

Wisconsin division <

Eockford and Kenosha, Wis
Chicago and Clinton la

45
137

Chicago and Freeport

121

Madison "
Milwaukee "

Elgin and Geneva Lake, Wis
Bel videre and Elroy, Wis
Chicago and Milwaukee, Wis

43
141

Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific
Peoria branch

Chicago and Council Bluffs, la
Bureau to Peoria

182
46

493

3,145,859

7,877,382

Chicago and Pacific

Chicago to Mississippi river

i35

142.0S8

146,020

128

200

511330

1 350 000

Chicago Pekin and Southwestern

Streator and Pekin

357,350

240 000

Cincinnati, Lafayette, and Chicago
Columbus, Chicago, and Indiana Central

Lafayette, Ind., and Kankakee
Columbus, O., and Chicago
Torre Haute Ind and Danville

33
22
6

75
314
55

359.218
2CO,629
62,572

581,8i6

Oilman, Clinton, and Springfield
Grand Tower and Carbondalo

Oilman and Springfield
Grand Tower and Carbondale

110
24

913.361
269,523

2,000,000

Illinois Central -^

Cairo and Dunleith

455

25,441,140

Illinois and St. Louis
Indianapolis Bloomuvton, and Western

Centralia and Chicago
East St. Louis and Belleville
Indianapolis Ind., and Pekin

249
14
133

202

218.616
1,016,764

618,000

3,052,381

Champaign to Keokuk la

102

185

Branches in progress -j

White Heath to Decatur
Indianapolis Ind. and St Louis Mo

iss

32
261

1,881,947

Indiana and Illinois Central.

Indianapolis, Ind., and Decatur

152

55S.850

976,973

Jacksonville and Mt. Vernon

125

245,3SO

Lake Shore and Michigan Southern

Buffalo. N. Y., and Chicago

539

818.484

473,000

Louisville, New Albany, and St. Louis

New Albany, Ind., and Mt. Vernon. .

150

110,203

Michigan Central . . .

Detroit, Mich., and Chicago

2S4

153,936

Branch. Joliet and Northern Indiana
Ohio and Mississippi
Pans and Danville

Lake Station, Ind., to Joliet
Cincinnati, O., and St. Louis, Mo
Paris and Danville

28
146
34

44
340

163.509
1,802,448
268,575

9,018,89i

Paris and Decatur

746,659

1,600,000

Peoria and Jacksonville

775,338

1,239,700

Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago .

Pittsburgh. Pa., and Chicago

463

259,417

1.015,405

Eockford, Rock Island, and St. Louis

Sterling and East St. Louis

262

281

2,146,932

6,490,579

Branch

Sagetown to Keithsburg

St. Louis Alton and Terre Haute

East St Louis and Du Quoin

823,174

4,76S,400

St. Louis and Southeastern
Branch

East St. Louis and Nashville, Tenn. .
McLeansboro to Shawneetown ....

132
42

316

2,020,533

8,458,500

St. Louis, Vandalia, and Terre Haute

St. Louis, Mo., and Indianapolis, Ind.

159

239

1,916,274

2,377,450

Springfield and Illinois Southeastern

Shawneetown and Beardstown

228

1,350.897

8,776,500

Springfield and Northwestern

Springfield and Rock Island

150

1 SI. 858

Toledo, Peoria, and Warsaw

Warsaw t<> Indiana state line

287

2,629,807

5,700,000

Toledo W abash and W r estern

Toledo O., and Camp Point

209

454

8,703,131

9,840,000

Decatur to East St. Louis

108

, ( Pekin, Lincoln, nnd Decatur

Ceased j ]j ann j{>^i an( \ Niples

Clayton to Hamilton
Pekin and Decatur

42
67

77Y.553
472 404

1/00.666
457 000

lines. | L a f.,yette, Bloomington, & Mississippi.

Bloomington and Lafayette. Ind
Rock Island and Racine Wis

126

118
197

876,1570
1,114.905

1.000,000
4,000,000

The state exercises a general supervision over
the railroad companies within its limits. In
the constitutional convention of 1870 the sub
ject of railroad corporations was thoroughly
considered, and a provision was incorporated
in the new constitution requiring the legisla
ture to pass laws establishing reasonable maxi
mum rates of charges for the transportation of
passengers and freight. In the following year
a general railroad law was passed, which, hav
ing been pronounced in part unconstitutional
by the state supreme court, was repealed, and
a new one was passed in 1873. To secure the
enforcement of such laws the legislature pro
vided for the appointment by the governor of
three railroad and warehouse commissioners,
whose duty it is to examine into and report
annually concerning the railroad and ware

house interests of the state. By the act of
1873 every railivoad company in the state is
prohibited, under penalty of fines reaching as
high as $25,000 for the fourth offence, from
charging more than a reasonable rate for the
transportation of passengers or freight, and
from making unjust discriminations in freight
schedules. The companies are required to re
port in writing and under oath to the commis
sioners, and to comply with the schedules of
reasonable maximum rates for transporting pas
sengers and freight prepared by the commis
sioners. The" latter are required to see that
the law is obeyed, and to bring actions against
the companies in case of violation. The navi
gation of Lake Michigan is connected with that
of the Illinois river by the Illinois and Michi
gan canal, completed in 1848, which extends

188

ILLINOIS

from Chicago to La Salle, 96 m. The immense
commerce which passes through this channel is
indicated by the statement that in 1873 not less
than 8,000,000 bushels of grain and 50,000,000
ft. of lumber, besides 20,000,000 shingles and
laths, passed over the canal. Illinois in 1873
contained 9,545 m. of telegraph lines. The
number of national banks in operation was
137, having a paid-in capital of $20,843,000
and a circulation outstanding of $16,326,059.
The circulation per capita was $7 02 ; ratio of
circulation to wealth, 0*9 per cent. ; to banking
capital, 77 '4 per cent. — By the constitution of

1870, the legislative power is vested in a gen
eral assembly composed of a senate and house
of representatives. The senate consists of 51
members elected for four years, and the house
of representatives of 153 chosen for two years.
A decennial apportionment, beginning with

1871, is held. Senators must have attained
the age of 25 years, and representatives 21
years. Elections for members of the general
assembly are held biennially, in even years, on
the Tuesday next after the first Monday of
November. The sessions are biennial, com
mencing on the Wednesday next after the first
Monday of January next following the elec
tion. Members receive $5 a day and 10 cents
for each mile necessarily travelled in going
to and from the seat of government, and $50
a session for stationery, &c. Special legisla
tion, which was a source of much mischief un
der the old constitution, is prohibited in many
enumerated cases, and " in all other cases where
a general law can be made applicable." The
executive department consists of a governor,
lieutenant governor, secretary of state, auditor
of public accounts, treasurer, superintendent
of public instruction, and attorney general, all
of whom are elected for four years, except the
treasurer, whose term of office is two years,
and who is ineligible to the same office for two
years next after the expiration of his term. A
two-thirds vote of each house is necessary
to pass a bill over the veto of the governor.
The .judicial powers are vested in a supreme,
circuit, and county courts, justices of the peace,
police magistrates, and certain special courts.
The supreme court consists of seven judges,
who are elected by the people for nine years,
and receive a salary of $4,000 a year. The
chief justice is chosen by his associates. There
are three grand divisions of the state, southern,
central, and northern, in each of which one or
more sessions of the supreme court are held
annually. The judges of the circuit courts
are elected by the people for six years, and
receive an annual salary of $3,500. The con
stitution further provides for the establishment
of inferior appellate courts to be held by judges
of the circuit courts. To these courts appeals
and writs of error in certain cases may be
taken from the circuit courts, and from them
to the supreme court. Each county has a coun
ty court, the judge of which is elected for a term
of four years. These courts have original

jurisdiction in all matters of probate, but pro
bate courts may be established in any county
having a population of over 50,000. There
are special courts in Cook county, of which
Chicago is the county seat. Imprisonment for
debt is prohibited except upon the refusal of
the debtor to deliver up his estate for the bene
fit of his creditors, or in cases where there is
strong presumption of fraud. In trials for
libel, the truth may be pleaded as a defence in
justification. The legal rate of interest, in ab
sence of agreement, is 6 per cent., but 10 per
cent, may be agreed upon and collected. The
penalty of usury is forfeiture of all the interest.
Illinois is represented in congress by two sena
tors and 19 representatives, and is entitled to
21 votes in the electoral college. The receipts
into the state treasury for the two years end
ing Dec. 1, 1872, were $9,899,603, and the ex
penditures $12,351,746. The chief purposes
for which the public money was used during
this period were : legislative, $693,062 ; execu
tive, $180,158; judicial, $394,252 ; educational,
$2,208,264; educational and charitable, $205,-
316; charitable, $918,784; penal and reform
atory, $369,338; agriculture, $39,007; com
merce, $238,661; state indebtedness, $4,983,-
379; new state house, $793,641. In 1872 the
general assembly provided that the amount of
revenue to be raised on the assessment of that
and subsequent years should be $1,500,000 for
general purposes, to be designated the revenue
fund, and $200,000 for payment of interest on
the state debt. The governor and auditor are
required annually to compute such rates as will
produce these amounts. The rates computed
on the equalized valuation for 1872 were 3'53
mills for revenue purposes and 0'47 mill for
interest on the state debt. Besides these, pro
vision was made for an annual levy of 2
mills for the support of common schools and
1-5 mill for "canal redemption fund;" making
the total levy for state purposes 7'5 mills on
the assessment of 1872. The total levy for
1873 was 3-6 mills, being 2-7 mills for general
revenue purposes and 0*9 mill for school fund.
The state debt in 1863 was $12,280,000; in
1870, $4,890,937; and in 1874, $1,706,750.
The valuation of property for the purposes of
taxation, for a series of years, has been :

YEARS.

Real estate.

Personal
property.

Railroad
property.

Total
valuation.

1 840 . . .

$58,752,163

1850..

$86,582.237

$33,335,799

119,868.336

I860..

2<;r«,258,155

88.884,115

$12.085.472

367.227.742

1661..

23^.858,839

80.720.918

11,243,722

330,823,479

1862..

228,087,996

73.509,758

11,326.595

312,924.349

1863..

232,913,619

87,560,697

11.525.555

331.999.871

1864..

242,534.332

102,057,865

12.285.640

356.K77.837

1865..

262,114,308

11 6.302.295

13.911,303

392.327.906

1866..

273.122.106

122.966.672

14,707,097

410.795.876

1*67..

351.807,034

136.021.879

16,854.640

504.683.5,58

1868..

337.331.762

122.234.718

14,914.397

474.4^0.877

1^69

346.587,734

126.136.081

16.280.960

4«9,(>04.775

1870..

347.876.690

113.545.227

19.242.141

480.664.058

1871..

366.244.708

113.915.561

25.516.042

505.676.311

1872..

371.619.940

113.607.959

25.658.7P4

510,«6.6>3

1873..

899,434.748

308,119,271

133,807,823

1,341,361,842

ILLINOIS

189

Included in the valuations of personal property
for 1873 is $20,826,462 assessed as valuation
on corporations other than railroads. It will
be noticed that the valuations for 1873 are
largely in excess of any previous year ; these
results, however, do not represent a corre
sponding increase in the value of property, but
are attributed in a large measure to the opera
tions of a new revenue law. The valuations
for 1873 are believed to be about 0'65 per cent,
of the cash value of real and personal property,
and still nearer the entire value of railroad
property. — The charitable and correctional in
stitutions are under the general supervision
of the board of state commissioners of public
charities, consisting of five members appoint
ed by the governor with the consent of the
senate, whose duty it is annually to inspect
the state institutions under their charge, to
gether with the various county jails and alms-
houses, and report upon their condition. The
statistics showing the extent and condition
of the correctional, charitable, and educational
institutions of the state are generally for 1872,
the date of the most recent biennial reports.
The state penitentiary, which has been at Joliet
since 1859, was organized in 1827, and at the
beginning of 1873 contained 1,255 convicts, the
average number for the year being 1,283. It
has recently become self-sustaining under the
system of leasing the labor of the convicts;
the total earnings in 1872 were $214,593, while
the expenses were $36,218 less. Instruction
is afforded to the inmates, and there is a li
brary of about 4,000 volumes. The reform
school at Pontiac, opened in 1871, has accom
modations for about 150 inmates, which are
inadequate to the needs of the state. About
900 pupils have been admitted to the institu
tion for the education of the deaf and dumb
at Jacksonville since its opening in 1845, and
about 300 were receiving instruction from
16 instructors at the beginning of 1874. The
course of instruction occupies eight years.
Pupils within the state are admitted to the
school free of charge, and are supplied with
all necessaries except clothing. A prominent
feature of the institution is its industrial de
partment. The annual ?ost to the state for
each pupil is about $250. Its accommodations
are entirely inadequate. The building used for
the instruction of the blind, also at Jacksonville,
wis destroyed by fire in 1869; new buildings
for purposes of instruction and workshops are
in process of construction, with grounds com
prising 18 acres. In 1874 about 70 pupils
were receiving instruction from four teachers;
the course of instruction is five years. The
charitable eye and ear infirmary, created in
1865, is an efficient institution, affording gra
tuitous medical treatment to all applicants who
are citizens of the state. The foundations for
a neat, substantial edifice for this institution
have been laid in the West Division of Chicago.
Provision is made for the insane by the hos
pital at Jacksonville, the northern asylum at

Elgin opened in 1872, and the southern asylum
at Anna opened in 1873; the two latter are
in process of construction. At the close of
1872 the northern asylum had 183 inmates
and the southern 75. The hospital at Jack
sonville is constructed on the corridor plan, is
five stories high, and comprises a central build
ing with two wings. The accommodations
were intended for about 400 patients, though
the average number for two years has been
450. The grounds comprise 160 acres. The
whole number of patients admitted since the
opening of the hospital in 1851 has been 4,527,
of whom 1,685 were discharged recovered,
606 improved, and 400 unimproved; 328 im
proved and unimproved were discharged by
order of the trustees, and 467 died. The su
perintendent of this institution estimates the
number of insane in the state at 2,529, or 1 in
every 1,000 inhabitants. The hospital accom
modations of the state are greatly inadequate
to this number. Those under treatment cost
the state about $250 a year each. The manner
of committing insane persons to the hospital
is by jury trial in the county courts. Accord
ing to the state board of public charities, the
proportion of idiots in the state is at least as
large as that of the insane. The institution
for the education of feeble-minded children
at Jacksonville was created in 1865, and has
accommodations for about 100. Only those
whose condition can be improved are admitted.
The success of the institution and the impor
tance of providing this kind of instruction
have recently led to efforts which will result
in largely increased facilities for improving
this class of unfortunates. The home for the
children of deceased soldiers, at Normal, opened
in 1867, comprises three main buildings and
80 acres of land. Here support and instruc
tion are afforded to children of this class under
16 years of age. The average attendance du
ring 1873 was 306, while the number of in
mates at the close of the year was 326. The
current expenses for the year amounted to
$58,389. Besides supporting this institution,
the state has aided the soldiers' college at
Fulton and the soldiers' home in Chicago,
both of which are private institutions. — An
efficient system of free schools is provided for
all the children of the state, but the constitu
tion prohibits appropriations of public money
for sectarian schools. The educational inter
ests of the state are under the general supervi
sion of the superintendent of public instruc
tion. The tax that may be levied in any dis
trict for all current school expenses is limited
to 2 per cent, for educational and 3 per cent,
for building purposes upon the assessed value
of the taxable property of the district. Every
district is required to maintain a free school
at least five months in the year as a condition
of receiving a share of the state school funds.
' Examinations of teachers are held and certifi-
\ cates issued by the county superintendents, and
i only teachers 'having such certificates are em-

190

ILLINOIS

ployed in the public schools. A marked fea
ture recently introduced into the educational
system of this state is the requirement making
the elements of natural science a part of the
common-school course. The permanent school
funds of the state comprise : 1, the school fund
proper, being 3 per cent, upon the net proceeds
of the sales of the public lands in the state, one
sixth part excepted ; 2, surplus revenue, de
rived from the distribution in 1836 of the sur
plus revenue of the United States ; 3, the col
lege fund, being one sixth of the 3 per cent,
fund originally required by congress to be de
voted to the establishment and maintenance of
a state college or university ; 4, the seminary
fund, derived from sales of lands granted to the
state by the general government for the estab
lishment of a state seminary ; 5, county funds,
created by the legislature in 1835 ; 6, township
funds, arising from the sales of public lands
granted by congress for common-school pur
poses. The aggregate amount of these funds
on Sept. 30, 1872, was $6,382,248, as follows :
school fund proper, $613,363; surplus revenue,
$335,592; college fund, $156,613; seminary
fund, $59,839 ; county funds, $348,285 ; town
ship funds, $4,868,555. The total income for
school purposes in 1872 from these funds and
the current school funds was $7,500,122; the
chief items of the income from current funds
being $900,000 from the two-mill tax, and
$5,292,942 raised by ad valorem tax in the dis
tricts for general purposes. The condition of
the common schools in 1872, according to the
latest biennial report of the superintendent of
public instruction, was as follows :

Dumber of school districts 11,231

" " " houses 11,289

" " public schools (high 83, graded 611, un
graded 10.697) 11,376

Average duration of schools 6 months, 27 days.

Persons between 6 and 21 years of age.
Number enrolled in schools.

882, 6U8
662,049
329,799
20,924
$50 00
$39 00
$5 61
$7 48

Average daily attendance

Number of teachers (male 9,094. female 11,830).. . .

Average monthly salaries of male teachers

" female teachers

Total annual cost per pupil on school census

" enrollment

" average daily atten
dance $15 02

Total income for school purposes $7,500,122

Total expenditures $7,480,889

Total approximate value of school property, inclu
ding houses, land, furniture, libraries, &c $19,876,708

Number of private schools 436

pupils in private schools 34.784

volumes in district libraries 54,286

persons between 12 and 21 years of ago
unable to read and write 6,753

The state normal university, for the training
of teachers, at Normal, was organized in 1857,
and comprises, besides the usual departments,
a model school. The course of instruction is
three years, upon the completion of which a
diploma is conferred. In 1873 there were 13
instructors, besides a large number of pupils
acting as teachers, and 730 pupils, of whom 437
were in the normal and 293 in the model school.
The southern Illinois normal university, at Car-
bondale, was completed in 1874. In addition

to these state institutions, there are county
normal schools in Cook and Peoria counties, a
German-English normal school at Galena, and
normal departments connected with several
other institutions. For the further instruction
of teachers, numerous county institutes are
held, besides occasional sessions of the state
teachers' institute. The Illinois industrial uni
versity, opened in 1868, is both state and na
tional, having been organized by the legisla
ture, and having received the national grant of
lands intended for the establishment of colleges
of agriculture and the mechanic arts. This in
stitution is situated at Urbana, where it has
one of the finest buildings of the kind in the
country, being four stories high and 214 ft.
long, with a depth on the wings of 122 ft.
The grounds comprise 623 acres, including
stock farm, experimental farm, orchards, gar
dens, nurseries, forest plantations, arboretum,
botanic garden, ornamental grounds, and mili
tary parade ground. The property and funds
of the university amount to nearly $800,000.
Students of both sexes are admitted. The uni
versity embraces a college of agriculture, com
prising a school of agriculture proper and a
school of horticulture and fruit growing ; a
college of engineering, with schools of mechani
cal science, civil and mining engineering, and
architecture ; a college of natural science, with
schools of chemistry and natural history ; and
a college of literature and science, Avith a school
of English and modern languages and one of
ancient languages and literature. There are
also schools of commerce, military science,
and domestic science and arts. Entire free
dom in the choice of studies is allowed to
each student; but the completion of one of
these courses or the prescribed equivalents is
necessary to graduation. The number of pu
pils in 1873 was 402, of whom 74 were fe
males. The Illinois agricultural college, at Ir-
vington, organized in 1866, had 226 students
and 6 instructors in 1873. The course of in
struction is four years. Besides the buildings
in use, the institution has 550 acres of land.
According to the census of 1870, Illinois had
26 colleges, with 223 instructors and 4,657
pupils ; 32 academies, with 201 instructors
and 4,690 pupils ; 2 law schools, with 3 instruc
tors and 61 students; 2 medical schools, with
19 instructors and 358 pupils ; 9 theological
schools, with 28 instructors and 575 pupils;
besides 2 schools of agriculture, 2 of commerce,
and 2 of art and music. Six of these institu
tions were classified as universities. Besides
the above named, there were 531 private day
and boarding schools, with 1,526 teachers,
of whom 1,035 were females, and 41,456 pu
pils, of whom 21,044 were females. The total
number of schools, public and private, was 11,-
835, having 24,056 teachers, of whom 13,645
were females, and 767,775 pupils, including
377,820 females. The total income of all the
educational institutions was $9,970,009, of
which $252,569 was derived from endowments,

ILLINOIS

191

$6,027,510 from taxation and public funds,
and $3,639,930 from other sources, including
tuition. The most important facts concern
ing the colleges and universities of Illinois are
given in the article COLLEGE. The following

statement shows the extent and condition of
the institution for the advanced instruction
of females and professional schools, as report
ed by the United States bureau of education
in 1873 :

NAME OF INSTITUTION.

Where situated.

Denomination.

Date of
organiza
tion.

Number
of
teachers.

Number
of
pupils.

FOE SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF FEMALES:
Seminary of the Sacred Heart

Chicago. .

Roman Catholic

1858

1^0

Woman's college, Northwestern university

Evanston

Methodist Episcopal

1873

119

Ahnira college

Greenville

Bap ist

1800

103

Illinois fVmale college

Jacksonville . . .

Methodist Episcopal

184T

SJ3

Jacksonville female academy

Presbyterian

1&30

144

Lake Forest university

Lake Forest

Presbyterian

1869

Ih57

190

Mount Cirroll seminary

Mount Carroll . .

Non- sectarian

1S53

200

liockford female seminary

Kockford

Cong, and Presb

1850

THEOLOGY :
Theological department of Shurtleff college

Alton

Baptist

1SC3

Theological department of Blackburn university . .
Chicago theological seminary

Carlinville
Chicago

Presb}' terian
Congregational

186T
1855

4
G

13
42

Baptist union theological seminary

Baptist

1867

Theobgical seminary of the northwest

Presbyterian . .

1858

Girrett Biblical institute .

Evanston . .

Methodist Episcopal

1855

Bib'ical deuartment of Eureka college

Eureka

Is64

United Presbyterian

1&89

Au tr ustana seminary

Paxton

Lutheran

I860

1841

LAW:
Law school of university of niiicago

Chicago

1859

Law department of McKendree college

Lebanon

1S59

MEDICINE :
Chicago medical college (Northwestern university).

Chicago . . .

1859

1§0

Rush medical college

l'-43

1 ( )(>

"Woman's hospital medical college

1870

Bennet college of eclectic medicine and surgery. . .

1808

180

Chicago college of pharmacy

1 W 59

Ilahnemann medical college (homoeopathic)

Is59

— According to the census of 1870, the number
of libraries was 13,570, containing 3,323,914
volumes. Of these, 9,865 with 2,399,369 vol
umes were private, and 3,705 with 924,545
volumes other than private, including 79 cir
culating libraries containing 75,352 volumes.
The largest libraries in the state were destroyed
by the great Chicago fire in 1871. The chief
libraries reported by the United States bureau
of education in 1872 were that of the North
western university at Evanston, containing
22,000 volumes ; the state library in Spring
field, 15,000 ; that of the Baptist union theo
logical seminary in Chicago, 15,000 ; the
Hengstenberg library (university of Chicago),
13,000 ; that of the Illinois industrial university
at Champaign, 10,000 ; Illinois college, Jack
sonville, 8,000 ; McKendree college, Lebanon,
8,000 ; Augustana college, Paxton, 7,000 ; and
the mercantile library, Peoria, 7,000. The
state law library in Springfield contains 3,000
volumes, and the Chicago public library (1874)
about 40,000. The total number of newspa
pers and periodicals reported by the census of
1870 was 505, with an aggregate circulation
of 1,722,541, and issuing 113,140,492 copies
annually. There were 39 daily, circulation
166,400*; 10 tri-weekly, 40,570; 4* semi-weekly,
2,950; 364 weekly, 890,913; 11 semi-month
ly, 107,900 ; 72 monthly, 490,808 ; 2 bi-month-

VOL. IX. — 13

ly, 11,000; and 3 quarterly, 12,000. In the
same year the state contained 4,298 religious
organizations, having 3,459 edifices with 1,201,-
403 sittings, and property valued at $22,064,-
283. The leading denominations were :

DENOMINATIONS.

Organi
zations.

Edi
fices.

Sittings.

Property.

Baptist

722

571

181 454

$2 C01 612

Catholic Apostolic
Christian

1
850

251

3™
F5.115

2,000

621,450

Congregational

212

188

66.1S7

1.807.800

Episcopal (Protestant)... .
Evangelical Association.. . .

105

87
55

30.3<I5
20.170

1,420.800
82D.650

Friends

1.000

13.400

Jewish . . .

3.!)50

271.500

Lutheran

230

207

74.301

1.048.476

Methodist

1,426

1,124

357,073

5,--05,620

Moravian (United Breth

ren)

1,600

11.000

Mormon

688

8,500

New Jerusalem (Sweden-

borgian)

1.F55

100.500

Presbyterian, regular

489

880

140.147

3.196.3H1

Presbyterian, other

156

137

44,702

441, '234

Reformed Church in Amer-

icp(lateDutohReform'd).

4,680

150,200

Informed Church in the

United States (late Ger

man Reformed)

7.170

93.000

Roman Catholic

290

249

130.!iO()

4,010.050

Second Advent

1.800

7,100

Spiritualist

500

700

Unitarian

5,<)60

492.<iOO

United Brethren in Christ.

125

1 7.905

1'2G>00

Universalist

15.2:-'5

548.300

Unknown (union)

1,770

8,600

192

ILLINOIS

— Illinois takes its name from its principal
river. According to Albert Gallatin, the term
is derived from the Delaware word leno,
leni, or illini, meaning real or superior men,
the termination being of French origin. The
first settlements were made by the French, and
were the consequence of the enterprises of
Marquette (1673) and La Salle. The latter
traveller set out from Canada in 1679, and
passing across the lakes descended the Illinois
river. After examining the country, with
which he was highly pleased, he returned to
Canada, leaving the chevalier de Tonti in com
mand of a small fort he had built at the foot
of Lake Peoria and named Crevecoeur. In
1682 he returned to Illinois with a colony of
Canadians, and founded Kaskaskia, Cahokia,
and other towns. At the beginning of the 18th
century the settlements in Illinois are repre
sented to have been in a flourishing condition,
and the country was described by French wri
ters as a new paradise. As the colonies of
France and England extended, disputes arose
respecting boundaries, and these ultimately led
to the war which virtually ended with the cap
ture of Quebec, and which in 1763 terminated
the French dominion over any part of the
country E. of the Mississippi. During the con
tinuance of Illinois as a British dependency
nothing of importance appears to have occur
red, nor were the French settlements molest
ed. After the peace of 1783, which closed the
American revolution, the Illinois country was
ceded to the United States ; and by the ordi
nance of July 13, 1787, the whole of the public
domain N. of the Ohio river was erected into
the Northwest territory under a single govern
ment. In 1800 the territory contained a pop
ulation of 50,240, and in the same year Ohio
was erected into a separate territory. A fur
ther severance was made in 1805, when the
territory of Michigan was formed, and again
in 1809 Indiana was divided off. The Illinois
territory at this time included what are now
the states of Illinois and Wisconsin and a part
of Minnesota, and by the census of 1810 was
found to contain 12,282 inhabitants. Hitherto
the settlement of these territories had been
greatly impeded by Indian hostilities, and in
deed the early history of Illinois is one con
tinued narrative of contests with the savages.
Among the prominent events of this period is
the massacre near Fort Chicago, Aug. 15, 1812.
When hostilities finally ceased, population be
gan to flow in from the eastern states. On
Dec. 3, 1818, Illinois with its present limits was
admitted as a state into the Union. The census
of 1820 returned 55,211 inhabitants. During
the succeeding decade immigration increased
rapidly, and in 1830 the population was ascer
tained to be 157,445, or an increase of 185*2
per cent, over that of 1820. In 1831 the Sac
and other Indian tribes began to be trouble
some, and in 1832 the Black Hawk war broke
out. The alarm caused by these hostilities was
great, but the result was ultimately beneficial

to the state ; not only was a permanent peace
conquered, but the officers of the army on their
return reported so favorably of the character
and resources of the country, that general at
tention was directed to the state. Shortly af
terward congress granted an appropriation for
the improvement of Chicago harbor, and about
this time the Illinois and Michigan canal was
projected, and the state bank brought into suc
cessful operation. On July 4, 1836, the con
struction of the canal was commenced. The
succeeding year brought the greatest financial
revulsion in our history, and in this no state
was more seriously involved than Illinois.
Every interest was prostrated, and all works
of internal improvement abandoned. The pro
gress of the state, however, had been rapid, and
by the census of 1840 the population numbered
476,183, being an increase of 203'4 per cent,
over that of 1830. In this year the Mormons
established themselves at Nauvoo, and were
from the first disliked by their neighbors. Mu
tual hatred ended in open hostilities, and at
length the brothers Joseph and Ilyrum Smith
(the first named the founder of Mormonisrn)
were arrested, and while confined in Carthage
jail were murdered by a mob, June 27, 1844.
This was soon followed by a general exodus of
the Mormons, who now numbered about 20,-
000, toward Utah. In 1847 a new constitu
tion was framed, which went into operation in
the following year. The census of 1850 show
ed a population of 851,470, an increase of 80'7
per cent, in the decade. This was a much
lower rate of increase than had hitherto been
maintained, but was still a rapid growth. In
the mean while emigration had been directed
to Iowa and Wisconsin. But a new era of
prosperity was now opening for Illinois. In
the same year congress made a munificent
grant of land in aid of the construction of the
Central railroad, which was completed in 1856.
The country along both sides of its route has
been rapidly settled, cities and towns have
risen with remarkable rapidity, and the pros
perity of the state through the influence of this
and other great works simultaneously comple
ted has become so general that the last acre of
government land in Illinois has been disposed
of. In December, 1869, a constitutional con
vention assembled, and in May following
agreed upon the present constitution, which
was ratified July 2. In this instrument the sys
tem of " minority representation " in the elec
tion of members of the house of representatives
was incorporated, it being provided that "in
all elections of representatives aforesaid, each
qualified voter may cast as many votes for one
candidate as there are representatives to be
elected, or may distribute the same, or equal
parts thereof, among the candidates, as he shall
see fit ; and the candidates highest in votes shall
be declared elected." — A " History of Illinois,
1673-1873," by Alexander Davidson and Ber
nard Stuve, Avas published in 1874, and is au
thority for some of the statements here made.

ILLINOIS

ILLYRIA

193

ILLINOIS, a river of the United States, and
the largest in the state to which it gives its
name. It is formed in Grundy co., in the N.
E. part of the state, about 45 m. S. W. of Lake
Michigan, by the union of Kankakee and Des
Plaines rivers, the former of which rises in the
N. part of Indiana and the latter in the S. E.
part of Wisconsin. The Kankakee receives
the Iroquois, and from that point to its junc
tion with the Des Plaines is sometimes known
as the Iroquois. The Illinois flows nearly W.
to Ilennepin, in Putnam co., and thence S. W.
and finally S. until it unites with the Mississip
pi between Calhoun and Jersey counties, 20 m.
above the mouth of the Missouri. It is about
500 m. long, and is navigable at high water for
245 m. It is deep and broad, in several places
expanding into basins which might almost be
called lakes. Peoria, the most important city
on its banks, is built on the shore of one of
these basins. Its principal affluents are the
Fox, Spoon, Crooked creek, the Mackinaw,
Sangamon, and Vermilion. Above the mouth
of the Vermilion, in La Salle co., it is obstruct
ed by rapids, and a canal has been built from
this point to Chicago, a distance of 96 m.
Uninterrupted water communication is thus se
cured between the lakes and the Mississippi.
The Illinois was ascended by Marquette in
1073, and explored in 1679-'80 by La Salle and
Ilennepin, who entered it by the Kankakee,
which they reached from Lake Michigan by
means of the St. Joseph river and a short por
tage, and sailed in canoes, La Salle as far as the
present site of Peoria, and Hennepin to the
Mississippi. In 1682 La Salle navigated the
whole course of the river.

ILLOIIXATI (Lat., the' enlightened), a name
supposed to have been given to the newly bap
tized in the early Christian church, because a
lighted taper was put into their hands as a
symbol of enlightenment; subsequently annme
assumed at different periods by sects of naystics
or enthusiasts who claimed a greater degree
of illumination or perfection than other men.
The most famous of these sects were the
Alombrados or Alumbrados (the enlightened)
in Spain at the end of the 16th century; the
Gue'rincts, named after their founder Pierre
Guerin, in France in the IVth century ; and an
association of mystics in Belgium in the 18th.
The most celebrated society of the name was
that founded in 1 776 by Adam Wcishaupt, a Ger
man professor of canon law at Ingolstadt, and
a man of great originality and depth of thought,
with the ostensible object of perfecting human
nature, of binding in one brotherhood men of
all countries, ranks, and religions, and of sur
rounding the persons of princes with trustwor
thy advisers. Apostles, styled areopngites,
were sent to various parts of Europe to make
converts, and before the existence of the socie
ty became generally known branches had been
established in various parts of Germany, in
Holland, and in Milan. Young men from 18
to 30 years of age, and Lutherans rather than

Roman Catholics, were preferred as members.
The illuminati gained much influence by the
accession to their ranks of Knigge the author,
and by the sympathy of many freemasons.
At the height of its prosperity the society had
2,000 members. The order was divided into
three classes and several subdivisions. The
flrst, or preparatory class, was divided into
novices, minervals, and illuminati minores.
The second class was that of the freemasons,
who were ranked as apprentices, assistants,
and masters; it included two higher grades,
that of the illuminatus major, or of the Scottish
novice, and that of the illuminatus dirigcns,
also called the Scottish knight. The class of
mysteries was divided into major and minor
mysteries, of which the latter included the two
grades of priests and regents. The major mys
teries comprised the grades of magus and rex.
The mysteries related to religion, which was
transformed into naturalism and free thought,
and to politics, which inclined to socialism and
republicanism. The order corresponded in
cipher, and used a peculiar phraseology ; Jan
uary was called Dimeh ; February, Beumeh ;
Germany, the Orient ; Bavaria, Achaya ; and
Munich, Athens. Every illuminatus received
a new name ; Weishaupt was Spartacus, and
Knigge was Philo. But Knigge and Weishaupt
could not agree, and this, as well as the oppo
sition of the Roman Catholic clergy, proved
fatal. The society was prohibited by the Ba
varian government in 1784, and its papers
were seized and published under the title Ei-
nige Originalschriften den IHuminatenordcns,
avflukJisten Befekl gedruclct (Munich, 1767).
Works on the subject were published by Weis
haupt, Knigge, Nicolai, and Voss (1786-'99).

ILLYUIA (anc. lUyricum and ILlyris ; Ger.
Illyrien), a name anciently applied to all the
countries on the east coast of the Adriatic, the
adjacent islands, and western Macedonia, inhab
ited by the Illyrians, a tribe believed to have had
a common origin with the Thracians. Philip
of Macedon subdued the Illyrians east of the
river Drilo (now Drin), 359 B. C. Illyricum
was subsequently divided into Illyris Grseca
and Illyris Barbara. The latter soon became a
Roman province, designated as Illyris Romana,
and included a part of the modern Croatia, the
whole of Dalmatia, almost the whole of Bosnia,
and a part of Albania. The principal tribes
after whom the districts were called were the
Japydes, Liburni, and Dalmatians. TheLiburni
w r ere the first subdued by the Romans; and
after the conquest of the Dalmatians, in the
reign of Augustus, the entire country became
a Roman province. After that time the Illyr
ians, and particularly the Dalmatians, formed
an important part of the Roman legions, and
were esteemed the most warlike of the empire.
Illyris Grtcca, or Illyria proper, embraced the
greater part of the modern Albania. The ter
ritory of this division consisted principally of
mountain pastures, with some fertile valleys.
The various tribes of the Grecian Illyrians

194

ILLYRIA

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

were generally poor, rapacious, and fierce ; in
earlier times the tribe of the Autariatse held
the first rank as warriors. They had the cus
toms of tattooing and of offering human sacri
fices, and were always ready to sell their mili
tary services to the highest bidder, like the
modern Albanian Shkipetars, in whom probably
their blood yet flows. The Illyrians supplied
the Greeks with cattle and slaves, often in ex
change for salt. Grecian exiles found their
way into Illyria, and Grecian myths became
localized there. After the death of Alexander
the Great most of the tribes recovered their
independence., but their piracies gave umbrage
to the Romans. The Roman ambassadors who
protested against their depredations were mur
dered by the Illyrian queen Teuta, The first
Illyrian war was commenced in 230 B. C., and
the queen was obliged in 229 to make peace by
the surrender of part of her dominions. The
second war, commenced by Demetrius of Pha
ros, the guardian of the Illyrian prince Pineus,
was successfully terminated by the consul L.
./Emilius Paulus in 219. Pleuratus, the succes
sor of Pineus, cultivated the friendship of the
Romans, but his son Gentius formed an alli
ance with Perseus, king of Macedon. lie was
conquered in the same year as Perseus, and Il
lyria as well as Macedon became subject to
Rome (168). In the new organization under
Constantine, Illyricum was one of the great
divisions of the empire, and was divided into
Occidentale, including Illyricum proper, Pan-
nonia, and Noricum, and Orientale, comprising
Dacia, Mcesia, Macedonia, and Thrace. On the
fall of the western empire (A. D. 476) it re
mained a part of the eastern. About two cen
turies later the Slavic settlers from northern
Europe separated themselves from the Byzan
tine government, and laid the foundation of
the governments of Croatia and Dalmatia. At
the end of the llth century some portions of
the Illyrian territory were taken by Venice
and Hungary. About a century later the king
dom of Rascia was created, out of which Servia
and Bosnia were subsequently formed. Dal
matia passed successively through the hands of
the Venetians, Hungarians, and Turks. Venice
retained only a small portion of Dalmatia,
while Hungary kept-Slavonia and part of Croa
tia. Austria obtained Dalmatia and adjacent
islands by the treaty of Campo Formio in
1797. — The name Illyria, which had gradually
disappeared, was revived in 1809 by the or
ganization of the Illyrian provinces by Napo
leon, comprising the territories of Carniola,
Carinthia, Istria, part of Croatia, Dalmatia,
Ragusa, and a military district, with a popula
tion of 1,275,000. After the fall of Napoleon
they were reunited to the Austrian government,
which in 1816 raised Illyria to the nominal dig
nity of a kingdom. It embraced the duchies
of Carniola, Carinthia, Friuli, and Istria, the
Hungarian Coastland, part of Croatia, and the
islands in the gulf of Quarnero, having an area
of about 11,000 sq. in. The Coastland and

Croatia were separated from it in 1822, and
reunited with Hungary, where they have
formed since 1849 part of Croatia and Slavonia.
The kingdom was dissolved in the same year
into the crownlands of Carinthia, Carniola,
and the Littorale. The Illyrian language is one
of the southern branches of the Slavic family
of languages. (See SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.)

ILOPANGO, a lake of Central America, in the
republic and 6 m. S. E. of the city of San Sal
vador. It is about 14 m. long by 6 broad, and
is clearly of volcanic origin. On all sides it is
surrounded by high, abrupt hills, composed of
scoriae and volcanic stones. It receives no
tributary streams, although it has a small out
let, flowing through a dark narrow ravine into
the Rio Jiboa, near the base of ths volcano of
San Vicente. The surface of the water is not
less than 1,200 ft. below the level of the sur
rounding country. When the surface is ruffled
by a breeze, it takes a brilliant green color, and
exhales a disagreeable sulphurous odor.

IMAGE WORSHIP. See ICONOCLASTS.

1MBERT, Barthelemi, a French poet, born in
Nimes in 1747, died in Paris, Aug. 23, 1790.
His poem entitled Jugemcnt de Paris (1772)
passed through many editions, and he also
published fables, plays, arid novels, the best of
the latter being Les egarements de Vamour